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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #54537 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/54537)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook, Musical Instruments, by Carl Engel
-
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions 
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
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-
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-Title: Musical Instruments
-
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-Author: Carl Engel
-
-
-
-Release Date: April 11, 2017  [eBook #54537]
-
-Language: English
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-***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS***
-
-
-E-text prepared by Anita Hammond, Wayne Hammond, and the Online
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-      https://archive.org/details/musicalinstrumen00engeiala
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-
-
-MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
-
-
-      *      *      *      *      *      *
-
-  SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM ART HANDBOOKS.
-
-  EDITED BY WILLIAM MASKELL.
-
-  NO. 5.--MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
-
-_These Handbooks are reprints of the dissertations prefixed to the
-large catalogues of the chief divisions of works of art in the Museum
-at South Kensington; arranged and so far abridged as to bring each into
-a portable shape. The Lords of the Committee of Council on Education
-having determined on the publication of them, the editor trusts that
-they will meet the purpose intended; namely, to be useful, not alone
-for the collections at South Kensington but for other collections, by
-enabling the public at a trifling cost to understand something of the
-history and character of the subjects treated of._
-
-_The authorities referred to in each book are given in the large
-catalogues; where will also be found detailed descriptions of the very
-numerous examples in the South Kensington Museum._
-
-  W. M.
-
-_August, 1875._
-
-      *      *      *      *      *      *
-
-
-MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
-
-by
-
-CARL ENGEL
-
-With Numerous Woodcuts
-
-
-
-
-
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Published for the Committee of Council on Education
-by
-Chapman and Hall, Ltd., London.
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF WOODCUTS.
-
-
-                                                                    PAGE
-
-  Prehistoric whistle                                                  9
-
-  Ancient Egyptian flute concert                                      13
-
-  The supposed Hebrew lyre at Beni Hassan                             22
-
-  Ancient bagpipe from Tarsus                                         24
-
-  Hebrew trumpets, from the arch of Titus                             25
-
-  Grecian harp and lyre                                               28
-
-  Greek lyres                                                         29
-
-  Greek flutes                                                        31
-
-  The _diaulos_                                                       32
-
-  Etruscan _cornu_                                                    33
-
-  Hydraulic organ                                                     34
-
-  Roman girl and _tibia_                                              36
-
-  Roman trumpets                                                      36
-
-  Chinese king                                                        39
-
-     "   pien-tchung                                                  41
-
-     "   hiuen-tchung                                                 42
-
-     "   ou                                                           43
-
-     "   tchou                                                        43
-
-     "   kin-kou                                                      44
-
-     "   hiuen                                                        45
-
-     "   cheng                                                        46
-
-  Hindustan, vina                                                     49
-
-  Persian, chang                                                      51
-
-     "     bagpipe                                                    52
-
-  Turkish harp                                                        53
-
-  Persian dulcimer                                                    55
-
-  The _rebab_                                                         56
-
-  Aztec whistles                                                      60
-
-  Antique pipe from central America                                   61
-
-  Pipes of the Aztecs                                                 62
-
-  Peruvian bone pipe                                                  64
-
-      "    huayra-puhura                                              65
-
-      "          "                                                    66
-
-  Orinoco Indian trumpet                                              67
-
-  South American Juruparis                                            68
-
-  Indian trumpets                                                     70
-
-  Aztec drums                                                         72
-
-  San Domingo drum                                                    73
-
-  Peruvian bell                                                       75
-
-  Aztec cluster of bells                                              76
-
-  Cithara, ninth century                                              86
-
-  Psalterium                                                          87
-
-  Nablum                                                              87
-
-  Citole                                                              88
-
-  Anglo-saxon harp                                                    89
-
-  Harp, ninth century                                                 90
-
-  Ancient Irish harp                                                  91
-
-  German rotte                                                        91
-
-  Rotta                                                               92
-
-  Irish rotta                                                         93
-
-  The crwth                                                           94
-
-  The old English "crowd"                                             95
-
-  The French crout                                                    96
-
-  Anglo-saxon fiddle                                                  97
-
-  German fiddle, ninth century                                        97
-
-  Organistrum                                                         99
-
-  Monochord                                                          100
-
-  Single chorus                                                      101
-
-  Double chorus                                                      101
-
-  Sackbut                                                            101
-
-  Syrinx                                                             102
-
-  Pneumatic organ, fourth century                                    103
-
-  Organ, twelfth century                                             104
-
-  Regal                                                              104
-
-  Cymbalum, ninth century                                            105
-
-  Bunibulum                                                          106
-
-  Orchestra on bas-relief                                            108
-
-  Vielle                                                             109
-
-  Orchestra, twelfth century, at Santiago                            110
-
-  The minstrels’ gallery, at Exeter cathedral                        112
-
-  Virginal                                                           114
-
-  Lute, Elizabethan                                                  116
-
-  Viola da gamba                                                     118
-
-  Recorder                                                           119
-
-  Scotch bagpipe, eighteenth century                                 120
-
-  Irish bagpipe, sixteenth century                                   121
-
-  Carillon, Netherlands                                              122
-
-
-
-
-MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER I.
-
-
-Music, in however primitive a stage of development it may be with some
-nations, is universally appreciated as one of the Fine Arts. The origin
-of vocal music may have been coeval with that of language; and the
-construction of musical instruments evidently dates with the earliest
-inventions which suggested themselves to human ingenuity. There exist
-even at the present day some savage tribes in Australia and South
-America who, although they have no more than the five first numerals
-in their language and are thereby unable to count the fingers of both
-hands together, nevertheless possess musical instruments of their own
-contrivance, with which they accompany their songs and dances.
-
-Wood, metal, and the hide of animals, are the most common substances
-used in the construction of musical instruments. In tropical countries
-bamboo or some similar kind of cane and gourds are especially made
-use of for this purpose. The ingenuity of man has contrived to
-employ in producing music, horn, bone, glass, pottery, slabs of
-sonorous stone,--in fact, almost all vibrating matter. The strings of
-instruments have been made of the hair of animals, of silk, the runners
-of creeping plants, the fibrous roots of certain trees, of cane, catgut
-(which absurdly referred to the cat, is from the sheep, goat, lamb,
-camel, and some other animals), metal, &c.
-
-The mode in which individual nations or tribes are in the habit of
-embellishing their musical instruments is sometimes as characteristic
-as it is singular. The negroes in several districts of western Africa
-affix to their drums human skulls. A war-trumpet of the king of
-Ashantee which was brought to England is surrounded by human jawbones.
-The Maories in New Zealand carve around the mouth-hole of their
-trumpets a figure intended, it is said, to represent female lips. The
-materials for ornamentation chiefly employed by savages are bright
-colours, beads, shells, grasses, the bark of trees, feathers, stones,
-gilding, pieces of looking-glass inlaid like mosaic, &c. Uncivilized
-nations are sure to consider anything which is bright and glittering
-ornamental, especially if it is also scarce. Captain Tuckey saw in
-Congo a negro instrument which was ornamented with part of the broken
-frame of a looking-glass, to which were affixed in a semicircle a
-number of brass buttons with the head of Louis XVI. on them,--perhaps a
-relic of some French sailor drowned near the coast years ago.
-
-Again, musical instruments are not unfrequently formed in the shape of
-certain animals. Thus, a kind of harmonicon of the Chinese represents
-the figure of a crouching tiger. The Burmese possess a stringed
-instrument in the shape of an alligator. Even more grotesque are the
-imitations of various beasts adopted by the Javanese. The natives of
-New Guinea have a singularly shaped drum, terminating in the head of a
-reptile. A wooden rattle like a bird is a favourite instrument of the
-Indians of Nootka Sound. In short, not only the inner construction of
-the instruments and their peculiar quality of sound exhibit in most
-nations certain distinctive characteristics, but it is also in great
-measure true as to their outward appearance.
-
-An arrangement of the various kinds of musical instruments in a regular
-order, beginning with that kind which is the most universally known
-and progressing gradually to the least usual, gives the following
-results. Instruments of percussion of indefinite sonorousness or, in
-other words, pulsatile instruments which have not a sound of a fixed
-pitch, as the drum, rattle, castanets, &c., are most universal. Wind
-instruments of the flute kind,--including pipes, whistles, flutes,
-Pandean pipes, &c.--are also to be found almost everywhere.
-
-Much the same is the case with wind instruments of the trumpet kind.
-These are often made of the horns, bones, and tusks of animals;
-frequently of vegetable substances and of metal. Instruments of
-percussion of definite sonorousness are chiefly met with in China,
-Japan, Burmah, Siam, and Java. They not unfrequently contain a series
-of tones produced by slabs of wood or metal, which are beaten with a
-sort of hammer, as our harmonicon is played.
-
-Stringed instruments without a finger board, or any similar contrivance
-which enables the performer to produce a number of different tones
-on one string, are generally found among nations whose musical
-accomplishments have emerged from the earliest state of infancy. The
-strings are twanged with the fingers or with a piece of wood, horn,
-metal, or any other suitable substance serving as a _plectrum_; or
-are made to vibrate by being beaten with a hammer, as our dulcimer.
-Stringed instruments provided with a finger-board on which different
-tones are producible on one string by the performer shortening it more
-or less,--as on the guitar and violin,--are met with almost exclusively
-among nations in a somewhat advanced stage of musical progress. Such
-as are played with a bow are the least common; they are, however,
-known to the Chinese, Japanese, Hindus, Persians, Arabs, and a few
-other nations, besides those of Europe and their descendants in other
-countries.
-
-Wind instruments of the organ kind,--_i.e._, such as are constructed of
-a number of tubes which can be sounded together by means of a common
-mouthpiece or some similar contrivance, and upon which therefore
-chords and combinations of chords, or harmony, can be produced,--are
-comparatively of rare occurrence. Some interesting specimens of them
-exist in China, Japan, Laos, and Siam.
-
-Besides these various kinds of sound-producing means employed in
-musical performances, a few others less widely diffused could be
-pointed out, which are of a construction not represented in any of
-our well-known European specimens. For instance, some nations have
-peculiar instruments of friction, which can hardly be classed with our
-instruments of percussion. Again, there are contrivances in which a
-number of strings are caused to vibrate by a current of air, much as
-is the case with the Æolian harp; which might with equal propriety be
-considered either as stringed instruments or as wind instruments. In
-short, our usual classification of all the various species into three
-distinct divisions, viz. _Stringed Instruments_, _Wind Instruments_,
-and _Instruments of Percussion_, is not tenable if we extend our
-researches over the whole globe.
-
-The collection at South Kensington contains several foreign instruments
-which cannot fail to prove interesting to the musician. Recent
-investigations have more and more elicited the fact that the music
-of every nation exhibits some distinctive characteristics which may
-afford valuable hints to a composer or performer. A familiarity with
-the popular songs of different countries is advisable on account of
-the remarkable originality of the airs: these mostly spring from the
-heart. Hence the natural and true expression, the delightful health and
-vigour by which they are generally distinguished. Our more artificial
-compositions are, on the other hand, not unfrequently deficient in
-these charms, because they often emanate from the fingers or the pen
-rather than from the heart. Howbeit, the predominance of expressive
-melody and effective rhythm over harmonious combinations, so usual in
-the popular compositions of various nations, would alone suffice to
-recommend them to the careful attention of our modern musicians. The
-same may be said with regard to the surprising variety in construction
-and in manner of expression prevailing in the popular songs and
-dance-tunes of different countries. Indeed, every nation’s musical
-effusions exhibit a character peculiarly their own, with which the
-musician would find it advantageous to familiarize himself.
-
-Now, it will easily be understood that an acquaintance with the
-musical instruments of a nation conveys a more correct idea than could
-otherwise be obtained of the characteristic features of the nation’s
-musical compositions. Furthermore, in many instances the construction
-of the instruments reveals to us the nature of the musical intervals,
-scales, modulations, and suchlike noteworthy facts. True, inquiries
-like these have hitherto not received from musicians the attention
-which they deserve. The adepts in most other arts are in this respect
-in advance. They are convinced that useful information may be gathered
-by investigating the productions even of uncivilized nations, and by
-thus tracing the gradual progress of an art from its primitive infancy
-to its highest degree of development.
-
-Again, from an examination of the musical instruments of foreign
-nations we may derive valuable hints for the improvement of our own;
-or even for the invention of new. Several principles of construction
-have thus been adopted by us from eastern nations. For instance, the
-_free reed_ used in the harmonium is an importation from China. The
-organ builder Kratzenstein, who lived in St. Petersburg during the
-reign of Catharine II., happened to see the Chinese instrument _cheng_,
-which is of this construction, and it suggested to him, about the end
-of the last century, to apply the _free reed_ to certain organ stops.
-At the present day instruments of the harmonium class have become such
-universal favourites in western Europe as almost to compete with the
-pianoforte.
-
-Several other well-authenticated instances could be cited in which one
-instrument has suggested the construction of another of a superior
-kind. The prototype of our pianoforte was evidently the dulcimer,
-known at an early time to the Arabs and Persians who call it _santir_.
-One of the old names given to the dulcimer by European nations is
-_cimbal_. The Poles at the present day call it _cymbaly_, and the
-Magyars in Hungary _cimbalom_. The _clavicembalo_, the predecessor of
-the pianoforte, was in fact nothing but a _cembalo_ with a key-board
-attached to it; and some of the old _clavicembali_, still preserved,
-exhibit the trapezium shape, the round hole in the middle of the
-sound-board, and other peculiarities of the first dulcimer. Again, the
-gradual development of the dulcimer from a rude contrivance, consisting
-merely of a wooden board across which a few strings are stretched,
-is distinctly traceable by a reference to the musical instruments of
-nations in different stages of civilization. The same is the case with
-our highly perfected harp, of which curious specimens, representing the
-instrument in its most primitive condition, are still to be found among
-several barbarous tribes. We might perhaps infer from its shape that it
-originally consisted of nothing more than an elastic stick bent by a
-string. The Damaras, a native tribe of South-western Africa, actually
-use their bow occasionally as a musical instrument, when they are not
-engaged in war or in the chase. They tighten the string nearly in the
-middle by means of a leathern thong, whereby they obtain two distinct
-sounds, which, for want of a sound-board, are of course very weak and
-scarcely audible to anyone but the performer. Some neighbouring tribes,
-however, possess a musical instrument very similar in appearance to the
-bow, to which they attach a gourd, hollowed and open at the top, which
-serves as a sound-board. Again, other African tribes have a similar
-instrument, superior in construction only inasmuch as it contains more
-than one string, and is provided with a sound-board consisting of a
-suitable piece of sonorous wood. In short, the more improved we find
-these contrivances the closer they approach our harp. And it could be
-shown if this were requisite for our present purpose that much the same
-gradual progress towards perfection, which we observe in the African
-harp, is traceable in the harps of several nations in different parts
-of the world.
-
-Moreover, a collection of musical instruments deserves the attention
-of the ethnologist as much as of the musician. Indeed, this may be
-asserted of national music in general; for it gives us an insight
-into the heart of man, reveals to us the feelings and predilections
-of different races on the globe, and affords us a clue to the natural
-affinity which exists between different families of men. Again, a
-collection must prove interesting in a historical point of view.
-Scholars will find among old instruments specimens which were in
-common use in England at the time of queen Elizabeth, and which are
-not unfrequently mentioned in the literature of that period. In many
-instances the passages in which allusion is made to them can hardly be
-understood, if we are unacquainted with the shape and construction of
-the instruments. Furthermore, these relics of bygone times bring before
-our eyes the manners and customs of our forefathers, and assist us in
-understanding them correctly.
-
-It will be seen that the modification which our orchestra has
-undergone, in the course of scarcely more than a century, is great
-indeed. Most of the instruments which were highly popular about a
-hundred years ago have either fallen into disuse or are now so much
-altered that they may almost be considered as new inventions. Among
-Asiatic nations, on the other hand, we meet with several instruments
-which have retained unchanged through many centuries their old
-construction and outward appearance. At South Kensington may be seen
-instruments still in use in Egypt and western Asia, precisely like
-specimens represented on monuments dating from a period of three
-thousand years ago. By a reference to the eastern instruments of the
-present time we obtain therefore a key for investigating the earlier
-Egyptian and Assyrian representations of musical performances; and,
-likewise, for appreciating more exactly the biblical records respecting
-the music of the Hebrews. Perhaps these evidences will convey to some
-inquirers a less high opinion than they have hitherto entertained,
-regarding the musical accomplishments of the Hebrew bands in the solemn
-processions of king David or in Solomon’s temple; but the opinion will
-be all the nearer to the truth.
-
-There is another point of interest about such collections, and
-especially that at South Kensington, which must not be left unnoticed.
-Several instruments are remarkable on account of their elegant shape
-and tasteful ornamentation. This is particularly the case with some
-specimens from Asiatic countries. The beautiful designs with which they
-are embellished may afford valuable patterns for study and for adoption
-in works of art.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER II.
-
-
-A really complete account of all the musical instruments from the
-earliest time known to us would require much more space than can here
-be afforded. We can attempt only a concise historical survey. We
-venture to hope that the illustrations interspersed throughout the text
-will to the intelligent reader elucidate many facts which, for the
-reason stated, are touched upon but cursorily.
-
-
-PRE-HISTORIC RELICS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A musical relic has recently been exhumed in the department of Dordogne
-in France, which was constructed in an age when the fauna of France
-included the reindeer, the rhinoceros, and the mammoth, the hyæna, the
-bear, and the cave-lion. It is a small bone somewhat less than two
-inches in length, in which is a hole, evidently bored by means of one
-of the little flint knives which men used before acquaintance with the
-employment of metal for tools and weapons. Many of these flints were
-found in the same place with the bones. Only about half a dozen of the
-bones, of which a considerable number have been exhumed, possess the
-artificial hole. We give a woodcut of one of them.
-
-M. Lartet surmises the perforated bone to have been used as a whistle
-in hunting animals. It is the first digital phalanx of a ruminant,
-drilled to a certain depth by a smooth cylindrical bore on its lower
-surface near the expanded upper articulation. On applying it to the
-lower lip and blowing into it a shrill sound is yielded. Three of
-these phalanges are of reindeer, one is of Chamois. Again, among the
-relics which have been brought to light from the cave of Lombrive, in
-the department of Ariège, occur several eye-teeth of the dog which
-have a hole drilled into them near the root. Probably they also yield
-sounds like those reindeer bones, or like the tube of a key. Another
-whistle--or rather a pipe, for it has three finger-holes by means of
-which different tones could be produced--was found in a burying-place,
-dating from the stone period, in the vicinity of Poitiers in France:
-it is rudely constructed from a fragment of stag’s-horn. It is blown
-at the end, like a _flûte à bec_ and the three finger-holes are placed
-equidistantly. Four distinct tones must have been easily obtainable
-on it: the lowest, when all the finger-holes were covered; the other
-three, by opening the finger-holes successively. From the character
-of the stone utensils and weapons discovered with this pipe it is
-conjectured that the burying-place from which it was exhumed dates from
-the latest time of the stone age. Therefore, however old it may be, it
-is a more recent contrivance than the reindeer-bone whistle from the
-cavern of the Dordogne.
-
-
-THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS.
-
-The most ancient nations historically known possessed musical
-instruments which, though in acoustic construction greatly inferior to
-our own, exhibit a degree of perfection which could have been attained
-only after a long period of cultivation. Many tribes of the present day
-have not yet reached this stage of musical progress.
-
-As regards the instruments of the ancient Egyptians we now possess
-perhaps more detailed information than of those appertaining to any
-other nation of antiquity. This information we owe especially to the
-exactness with which the instruments are depicted in sculptures and
-paintings. Whoever has examined these interesting monuments with even
-ordinary care cannot but be convinced that the representations which
-they exhibit are faithful transcripts from life. Moreover, if there
-remained any doubt respecting the accuracy of the representations of
-the musical instruments it might be dispelled by existing evidence.
-Several specimens have been discovered in tombs preserved in a more or
-less perfect condition.
-
-The Egyptians possessed various kinds of harps, some of which were
-elegantly shaped and tastefully ornamented. The largest were about six
-and a half feet high; and the small ones frequently had some sort of
-stand which enabled the performer to play upon the instrument while
-standing. The name of the harp was _buni_. Its frame had no front
-pillar; the tension of the strings therefore cannot have been anything
-like so strong as on our present harp.
-
-The Egyptian harps most remarkable for elegance of form and elaborate
-decoration are the two which were first noticed by Bruce, who found
-them painted in fresco on the wall of a sepulchre at Thebes, supposed
-to be the tomb of Rameses III. who reigned about 1250 B.C. Bruce’s
-discovery created sensation among the musicians. The fact that at so
-remote an age the Egyptians should have possessed harps which vie with
-our own in elegance and beauty of form appeared to some so incredible
-that the correctness of Bruce’s representations, as engraved in his
-“Travels,” was greatly doubted. Sketches of the same harps, taken
-subsequently and at different times from the frescoes, have since
-been published, but they differ more or less from each other in
-appearance and in the number of strings. A kind of triangular harp of
-the Egyptians was discovered in a well-preserved condition and is now
-deposited in the Louvre. It has twenty-one strings; a greater number
-than is generally represented on the monuments. All these instruments,
-however much they differed from each other in form, had one peculiarity
-in common, namely the absence of the fore pillar.
-
-The _nofre_, a kind of guitar, was almost identical in construction
-with the Tamboura at the present day in use among several eastern
-nations. It was evidently a great favourite with the ancient
-Egyptians. A figure of it is found among their hieroglyphs, signifying
-“good.” It occurs in representations of concerts dating earlier than
-from B.C. 1500. The _nofre_ affords the best proof that the Egyptians
-had made considerable progress in music at a very early age; since it
-shows that they understood how to produce on a few strings, by means of
-the finger-board, a greater number of notes than were obtainable even
-on their harps. The instrument had two or four strings, was played with
-a plectrum and appears to have been sometimes, if not always, provided
-with frets. In the British museum is a fragment of a fresco obtained
-from a tomb at Thebes, on which two female performers on the _nofre_
-are represented. The painter has distinctly indicated the frets.
-
-Small pipes of the Egyptians have been discovered, made of reed, with
-three, four, five, or more finger-holes. There are some interesting
-examples in the British museum; one of which has seven holes burnt in
-at the side. Two straws were found with it of nearly the same length
-as the pipe, which is about one foot long. In some other pipes pieces
-of a kind of thick straw have also been found inserted into the tube,
-obviously serving for a similar purpose as the _reed_ in our oboe or
-clarionet.
-
-The _sêbi_, a single flute, was of considerable length, and the
-performer appears to have been obliged to extend his arms almost at
-full length in order to reach the furthest finger-hole. As _sêbi_
-is also the name of the leg-bone (like the Latin _tibia_) it may be
-supposed that the Egyptian flute was originally made of bone. Those,
-however, which have been found are of wood or reed.
-
-A flute-concert is painted on one of the tombs in the pyramids of Gizeh
-and dates, according to Lepsius, from an age earlier than B.C. 2000.
-Eight musicians (as seen in the woodcut) are performing on flutes.
-Three of them, one behind the other, are kneeling and holding their
-flutes in exactly the same manner. Facing these are three others, in a
-precisely similar position. A seventh is sitting on the ground to the
-left of the six, with his back turned towards them, but also in the
-act of blowing his flute, like the others. An eighth is standing at the
-right side of the group with his face turned towards them, holding his
-flute before him with both hands, as if he were going to put it to his
-mouth, or had just left off playing. He is clothed, while the others
-have only a narrow girdle round their loins. Perhaps he is the director
-of this singular band, or the _solo_ performer who is waiting for the
-termination of the _tutti_ before renewing his part of the performance.
-The division of the players into two sets, facing each other, suggests
-the possibility that the instruments were classed somewhat like the
-first and second violins, or the _flauto primo_ and _flauto secondo_ of
-our orchestras. The occasional employment of the interval of the third,
-or the fifth, as accompaniment to the melody, is not unusual even with
-nations less advanced in music than were the ancient Egyptians.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The Double-Pipe, called _mam_, appears to have been a very popular
-instrument, if we judge from the frequency of its occurrence in
-the representations of musical performances. Furthermore, the
-Egyptians had, as far as is known to us, two kinds of trumpets;
-three kinds of tambourines, or little hand drums; three kinds of
-drums, chiefly barrel-shaped; and various kinds of gongs, bells,
-cymbals, and castanets. The trumpet appears to have been usually of
-brass. A peculiar wind-instrument, somewhat the shape of a champagne
-bottle and perhaps made of pottery or wood, occurs only once in the
-representations transmitted to us.
-
-The Egyptian drum was from two to three feet in length, covered with
-parchment at both ends and braced by cords. The performer carried it
-before him, generally by means of a band over his shoulder, while he
-was beating it with his hands on both ends. Of another kind of drum an
-actual specimen has been found in the excavations made in the year 1823
-at Thebes. It was 1½ feet high and 2 feet broad, and had cords for
-bracing it. A piece of catgut encircled each end of the drum, being
-wound round each cord, by means of which the cords could be tightened
-or slackened at pleasure by pushing the two bands of catgut towards or
-from each other. It was beaten with two drumsticks slightly bent. The
-Egyptians had also straight drumsticks with a handle, and a knob at
-the end. The Berlin museum possesses some of these. The third kind of
-drum was almost identical with the _darabouka_ (or _darabukkeh_) of the
-modern Egyptians. The Tambourine was either round, like that which is
-at the present time in use in Europe as well as in the east; or it was
-of an oblong square shape, slightly incurved on the four sides.
-
-The Sistrum consisted of a frame of bronze or brass into which three
-or four metal bars were loosely inserted, so as to produce a jingling
-noise when the instrument was shaken. The bars were often made in
-the form of snakes, or they terminated in the head of a goose. Not
-unfrequently a few metal rings were strung on the bars, to increase
-the noise. The frame was sometimes ornamented with the figure of a cat.
-The largest sistra which have been found are about eighteen inches in
-length, and the smallest about nine inches. The sistrum was principally
-used by females in religious performances. Its Egyptian name was
-_seshesh_.
-
-The Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own in shape. There are two
-pairs of them in the British museum. One pair was found in a coffin
-enclosing the mummy of a sacred musician, and is deposited in the same
-case with the mummy and coffin. Among the Egyptian antiquities in the
-British museum are also several small bells of bronze. The largest is
-2¼ inches in height, and the smallest three-quarters of an inch.
-Some of them have a hole at the side near the top wherein the clapper
-was fastened.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER III.
-
-
-THE ASSYRIANS.
-
-Our acquaintance with the Assyrian instruments has been derived almost
-entirely from the famous bas-reliefs which have been excavated from the
-mounds of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and Kouyunjik, situated near the river
-Tigris in the vicinity of the town of Mosul in Asiatic Turkey.
-
-The Assyrian harp was about four feet high, and appears of larger size
-than it actually was on account of the ornamental appendages which were
-affixed to the lower part of its frame. It must have been but light in
-weight, since we find it not unfrequently represented in the hands of
-persons who are playing upon it while they are dancing. Like all the
-Oriental harps, modern as well as ancient, it was not provided with a
-front pillar. The upper portion of the frame contained the sound-holes,
-somewhat in the shape of an hour-glass. Below them were the screws, or
-tuning-pegs, arranged in regular order. The strings were perhaps made
-of silk, like those which the Burmese use at the present time on their
-harps; or they may have been of catgut, which was used by the ancient
-Egyptians.
-
-The largest assemblage of Assyrian musicians which has been discovered
-on any monument consists of eleven performers upon instruments, besides
-a chorus of singers. The first musician--probably the leader of the
-band, as he marches alone at the head of the procession--is playing
-upon a harp. Behind him are two men; one with a dulcimer and the
-other with a double-pipe: then follow two men with harps. Next come
-six female musicians, four of whom are playing upon harps, while one
-is blowing a double-pipe and another is beating a small hand-drum
-covered only at the top. Close behind the instrumental performers are
-the singers, consisting of a chorus of females and children. They are
-clapping their hands in time with the music, and some of the musicians
-are dancing to the measure. One of the female singers is holding her
-hand to her throat in the same manner as the women in Syria, Arabia,
-and Persia are in the habit of doing at the present day when producing,
-on festive occasions, those peculiarly shrill sounds of rejoicing which
-have been repeatedly noticed by travellers.
-
-The dulcimer is in too imperfect a state on the bas-relief to
-familiarize us with its construction. The slab representing the
-procession in which it occurs has been injured; the defect which
-extended over a portion of the dulcimer has been repaired, and it
-cannot be said that in repairing it much musical knowledge has been
-evinced.
-
-The instrument of the Trigonon species was held horizontally, and was
-twanged with a rather long plectrum slightly bent at the end at which
-it was held by the performer. It is of frequent occurrence on the
-bas-reliefs. A number of them appear to have been generally played
-together. At any rate, we find almost invariably on the monuments two
-together, evidently implying “more than one,” “a number.” The left hand
-of the performer seems to have been occupied in checking the vibration
-of the strings when its discontinuance was required. From the position
-of the strings the performer could not have struck them as those of
-the dulcimer are struck. If he did not twang them, he may have drawn
-the plectrum across them. Indeed, for twanging, a short plectrum would
-have been more practical, considering that the strings are placed
-horizontally one above the other at regular distances. It is therefore
-by no means improbable that we have here a rude prototype of the violin
-bow.
-
-The Lyre occurs in three different forms, and is held horizontally
-in playing, or at least nearly so. Its front bar was generally either
-oblique or slightly curved. The strings were tied round the bar so as
-to allow of their being pushed upwards or downwards. In the former case
-the tension of the strings increases, and the notes become therefore
-higher; on the other hand, if the strings are pushed lower down the
-pitch of the notes must become deeper. The lyre was played with a small
-plectrum as well as with the fingers.
-
-The Assyrian trumpet was very similar to the Egyptian. Furthermore, we
-meet with three kinds of drums, of which one is especially noteworthy
-on account of its odd shape, somewhat resembling a sugar-loaf; with
-the tambourine; with two kinds of cymbals; and with bells, of which
-a considerable number have been found in the mound of Nimroud. These
-bells, which have greatly withstood the devastation of time, are but
-small in size, the largest of them being only 3¼ inches in height
-and 2½ inches in diameter. Most of them have a hole at the top, in
-which probably the clapper was fastened. They are made of copper mixed
-with 14 per cent. of tin.
-
-Instrumental music was used by the Assyrians and Babylonians in their
-religious observances. This is obvious from the sculptures, and is to
-some extent confirmed by the mode of worship paid by command of king
-Nebuchadnezzar to the golden image: “Then an herald cried aloud, To
-you it is commanded, O people, nations, and languages, that at what
-time ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery,
-dulcimer, and all kinds of musick, ye fall down and worship the golden
-image that Nebuchadnezzar the king hath set up.” The kings appear
-to have maintained at their courts musical bands, whose office it
-was to perform secular music at certain times of the day or on fixed
-occasions. Of king Darius we are told that, when he had cast Daniel
-into the den of lions, he “went to his palace, and passed the night
-fasting, neither were instruments of musick brought before him;” from
-which we may conclude that his band was in the habit of playing before
-him in the evening. A similar custom prevailed also at the court of
-Jerusalem, at least in the time of David and Solomon; both of whom
-appear to have had their royal private bands, besides a large number of
-singers and instrumental performers of sacred music who were engaged in
-the Temple.
-
-
-THE HEBREWS.
-
-As regards the musical instruments of the Hebrews, we are from biblical
-records acquainted with the names of many of them; but representations
-to be trusted are still wanting, and it is chiefly from an examination
-of the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian instruments that we can conjecture
-almost to a certainty their construction and capabilities. From various
-indications, which it would be too circumstantial here to point out, we
-believe the Hebrews to have possessed the following instruments:
-
-THE HARP. There cannot be a doubt that the Hebrews possessed the
-harp, seeing that it was a common instrument among the Egyptians
-and Assyrians. But it is uncertain which of the Hebrew names of the
-stringed instruments occurring in the Bible really designates the harp.
-
-THE DULCIMER. Some writers on Hebrew music consider the _nebel_ to have
-been a kind of dulcimer; others conjecture the same of the _psanterin_
-mentioned in the book of Daniel,--a name which appears to be synonymous
-with the _psalterion_ of the Greeks, and from which also the present
-oriental dulcimer, _santir_, may have been derived. Some of the
-instruments mentioned in the book of Daniel may have been synonymous
-with some which occur in other parts of the Bible under Hebrew names;
-the names given in Daniel being Chaldæan. The _asor_ was a ten-stringed
-instrument played with a plectrum, and is supposed to have borne some
-resemblance to the _nebel_.
-
-THE LYRE. This instrument is represented on some Hebrew coins generally
-ascribed to Judas Maccabæus, who lived in the second century before the
-Christian era. There are several of them in the British museum; some
-are of silver, and the others of copper. On three of them are lyres
-with three strings, another has one with five, and another one with six
-strings. The two sides of the frame appear to have been made of the
-horns of animals, or they may have been of wood formed in imitation of
-two horns which originally were used. Lyres thus constructed are still
-found in Abyssinia. The Hebrew square-shaped lyre of the time of Simon
-Maccabæus is probably identical with the _psalterion_. The _kinnor_,
-the favourite instrument of king David, was most likely a lyre if not a
-small triangular harp. The lyre was evidently an universally known and
-favoured instrument among ancient eastern nations. Being more simple
-in construction than most other stringed instruments it undoubtedly
-preceded them in antiquity. The _kinnor_ is mentioned in the Bible as
-the oldest stringed instrument, and as the invention of Jubal. Even
-if the name of one particular stringed instrument is here used for
-stringed instruments in general, which may possibly be the case, it
-is only reasonable to suppose that the oldest and most universally
-known stringed instrument would be mentioned as a representative of
-the whole class rather than any other. Besides, the _kinnor_ was a
-light and easily portable instrument; king David, according to the
-Rabbinic records, used to suspend it during the night over his pillow.
-All its uses mentioned in the Bible are especially applicable to the
-lyre. And the resemblance of the word _kinnor_ to _kithara_, _kissar_,
-and similar names known to denote the lyre, also tends to confirm
-the supposition that it refers to this instrument. It is, however,
-not likely that the instruments of the Hebrews--indeed their music
-altogether--should have remained entirely unchanged during a period
-of many centuries. Some modifications were likely to occur even from
-accidental causes; such, for instance, as the influence of neighbouring
-nations when the Hebrews came into closer contact with them. Thus
-may be explained why the accounts of the Hebrew instruments given by
-Josephus, who lived in the first century of the Christian era, are not
-in exact accordance with those in the Bible. The lyres at the time of
-Simon Maccabæus may probably be different from those which were in use
-about a thousand years earlier, or at the time of David and Solomon
-when the art of music with the Hebrews was at its zenith.
-
-There appears to be a probability that a Hebrew lyre of the time of
-Joseph (about 1700 B.C.) is represented on an ancient Egyptian painting
-discovered in a tomb at Beni Hassan,--which is the name of certain
-grottoes on the eastern bank of the Nile. Sir Gardner Wilkinson, in his
-“Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,” observes: “If, when we
-become better acquainted with the interpretation of hieroglyphics, the
-‘Strangers’ at Beni Hassan should prove to be the arrival of Jacob’s
-family in Egypt, we may examine the Jewish lyre drawn by an Egyptian
-artist. That this event took place about the period when the inmate
-of the tomb lived is highly probable--at least, if I am correct in
-considering Osirtasen I. to be the Pharaoh the patron of Joseph; and
-it remains for us to decide whether the disagreement in the number
-of persons here introduced--thirty-seven being written over them in
-hieroglyphics--is a sufficient objection to their identity. It will
-not be foreign to the present subject to introduce those figures which
-are curious, if only considered as illustrative of ancient customs
-at that early period, and which will be looked upon with unbounded
-interest should they ever be found to refer to the Jews. The first
-figure is an Egyptian scribe, who presents an account of their arrival
-to a person seated, the owner of the tomb, and one of the principal
-officers of the reigning Pharaoh. The next, also an Egyptian, ushers
-them into his presence; and two advance bringing presents, the wild
-goat or ibex and the gazelle, the productions of their country. Four
-men, carrying bows and clubs, follow, leading an ass on which two
-children are placed in panniers, accompanied by a boy and four women;
-and, last of all, another ass laden, and two men--one holding a bow and
-club, the other a lyre, which he plays with a plectrum. All the men
-have beards, contrary to the custom of the Egyptians, but very general
-in the East at that period, and noticed as a peculiarity of foreign
-uncivilized nations throughout their sculptures. The men have sandals,
-the women a sort of boot reaching to the ankle--both which were worn by
-many Asiatic people. The lyre is rude, and differs in form from those
-generally used in Egypt.” In the engraving the lyre-player, another
-man, and some strange animals from this group, are represented.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-THE TAMBOURA. _Minnim_, _machalath_, and _nebel_ are usually supposed
-to be the names of instruments of the lute or guitar kind. _Minnim_,
-however, appears more likely to imply stringed instruments in general
-than any particular instrument.
-
-THE SINGLE PIPE. _Chalil_ and _nekeb_ were the names of the Hebrew
-pipes or flutes.
-
-THE DOUBLE PIPE. Probably the _mishrokitha_ mentioned in Daniel. The
-_mishrokitha_ is represented in the drawings of our histories of music
-as a small organ, consisting of seven pipes placed in a box with a
-mouthpiece for blowing. But the shape of the pipes and of the box as
-well as the row of keys for the fingers exhibited in the representation
-of the _mishrokitha_ have too much of the European type not to suggest
-that they are probably a product of the imagination. Respecting the
-illustrations of Hebrew instruments which usually accompany historical
-treatises on music and commentaries on the Bible, it ought to be borne
-in mind that most of them are merely the offspring of conjectures
-founded on some obscure hints in the Bible, or vague accounts by the
-Rabbins.
-
-THE SYRINX OR PANDEAN PIPE. Probably the _ugab_, which in the English
-authorized version of the Bible is rendered “organ.”
-
-THE BAGPIPE. The word _sumphonia_, which occurs in the book of
-Daniel, is, by Forkel and others, supposed to denote a bagpipe. It
-is remarkable that at the present day the bagpipe is called by the
-Italian peasantry Zampogna. Another Hebrew instrument, the _magrepha_,
-generally described as an organ, was more likely only a kind of
-bagpipe. The _magrepha_ is not mentioned in the Bible but is described
-in the Talmud. In tract Erachin it is recorded to have been a powerful
-organ which stood in the temple at Jerusalem, and consisted of a case
-or wind-chest, with ten holes, containing ten pipes. Each pipe was
-capable of emitting ten different sounds, by means of finger-holes or
-some similar contrivance: thus one hundred different sounds could be
-produced on this instrument. Further, the _magrepha_ is said to have
-been provided with two pairs of bellows and with ten keys, by means of
-which it was played with the fingers. Its tone was, according to the
-Rabbinic accounts, so loud that it could be heard at an incredibly long
-distance from the temple. Authorities so widely differ that we must
-leave it uncertain whether the much-lauded _magrepha_ was a bagpipe,
-an organ, or a kettle-drum. Of the real nature of the Hebrew bagpipe
-perhaps some idea may be formed from a syrinx with bellows, which has
-been found represented on one of the ancient terra-cottas excavated in
-Tarsus, Asia-minor, some years since, and here engraved. These remains
-are believed to be about 2000 years old, judging from the figures upon
-them, and from some coins struck about 200 years B.C. having been found
-embedded with them. We have therefore before us, probably, the oldest
-representation of a bagpipe hitherto discovered.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-THE TRUMPET. Three kinds are mentioned in the Bible, viz. the _keren_,
-the _shophar_, and the _chatzozerah_. The first two were more or less
-curved and might properly be considered as horns. Most commentators are
-of opinion that the _keren_--made of ram’s horn--was almost identical
-with the _shophar_, the only difference being that the latter was more
-curved than the former. The _shophar_ is especially remarkable as being
-the only Hebrew musical instrument which has been preserved to the
-present day in the religious services of the Jews. It is still blown in
-the synagogue, as in time of old, at the Jewish new-year’s festival,
-according to the command of Moses (Numb. XXIX. I). The _chatzozerah_
-was a straight trumpet, about two feet in length, and was sometimes
-made of silver. Two of these straight trumpets are shown in the famous
-triumphal procession after the fall of Jerusalem on the arch of Titus,
-engraved on the next page.
-
-THE DRUM. There can be no doubt that the Hebrews had several kinds of
-drums. We know, however, only of the _toph_, which appears to have
-been a tambourine or a small hand-drum like the Egyptian darabouka.
-In the English version of the Bible the word is rendered _timbrel_
-or _tabret_. This instrument was especially used in processions on
-occasions of rejoicing, and also frequently by females. We find it
-in the hands of Miriam, when she was celebrating with the Israelitish
-women in songs of joy the destruction of Pharaoh’s host; and in the
-hands of Jephtha’s daughter, when she went out to welcome her father.
-There exists at the present day in the East a small hand-drum called
-_doff_, _diff_, or _adufe_--a name which appears to be synonymous with
-the Hebrew _toph_.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-THE SISTRUM. Winer, Saalfchütz, and several other commentators are of
-opinion that the _menaaneim_, mentioned in 2 Sam. vi. 5, denotes the
-sistrum. In the English Bible the original is translated _cymbals_.
-
-CYMBALS. The _tzeltzclim_, _metzilloth_, and _metzilthaim_, appear
-to have been cymbals or similar metallic instruments of percussion,
-differing in shape and sound.
-
-BELLS. The little bells on the vestments of the high-priest were called
-_phaamon_. Small golden bells were attached to the lower part of the
-robes of the high-priest in his sacred ministrations. The Jews have, at
-the present day, in their synagogues small bells fastened to the rolls
-of the Law containing the Pentateuch: a kind of ornamentation which is
-supposed to have been in use from time immemorial.
-
-Besides the names of Hebrew instruments already given there occur
-several others in the Old Testament, upon the real meaning of which
-much diversity of opinion prevails. _Jobel_ is by some commentators
-classed with the trumpets, but it is by others believed to designate a
-loud and cheerful blast of the trumpet, used on particular occasions.
-If _Jobel_ (from which _jubilare_ is supposed to be derived) is
-identical with the name _Jubal_, the inventor of musical instruments,
-it would appear that the Hebrews appreciated pre-eminently the
-exhilarating power of music. _Shalisbim_ is supposed to denote a
-triangle. _Nechiloth_, _gittith_, and _machalath_, which occur in
-the headings of some psalms, are also by commentators supposed to
-be musical instruments. _Nechiloth_ is said to have been a flute,
-and _gittith_ and _machalath_ to have been stringed instruments, and
-_machol_ a kind of flute. Again, others maintain that the words denote
-peculiar modes of performance or certain favourite melodies to which
-the psalms were directed to be sung, or chanted. According to the
-records of the Rabbins, the Hebrews in the time of David and Solomon
-possessed thirty-six different musical instruments. In the Bible only
-about half that number are mentioned.
-
-Most nations of antiquity ascribed the invention of their musical
-instruments to their gods, or to certain superhuman beings. The Hebrews
-attributed it to man; Jubal is mentioned in Genesis as “the father of
-all such as handle the harp and organ” (_i.e._, performers on stringed
-instruments and wind instruments). As instruments of percussion are
-almost invariably in use long before people are led to construct
-stringed and wind instruments it might perhaps be surmised that Jubal
-was not regarded as the inventor of all the Hebrew instruments, but
-rather as the first professional cultivator of instrumental music.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IV.
-
-
-THE GREEKS.
-
-Many musical instruments of the ancient Greeks are known to us by name;
-but respecting their exact construction and capabilities there still
-prevails almost as much diversity of opinion as is the case with those
-of the Hebrews.
-
-It is generally believed that the Greeks derived their musical system
-from the Egyptians. Pythagoras and other philosophers are said to have
-studied music in Egypt. It would, however, appear that the Egyptian
-influence upon Greece, as far as regards this art, has been overrated.
-Not only have the more perfect Egyptian instruments--such as the
-larger harps, the tamboura--never been much in favour with the Greeks,
-but almost all the stringed instruments which the Greeks possessed
-are stated to have been originally derived from Asia. Strabo says:
-“Those who regard the whole of Asia, as far as India, as consecrated
-to Bacchus, point to that country as the origin of a great portion of
-the present music. One author speaks of ‘striking forcibly the Asiatic
-kithara,’ another calls the pipes Berecynthian and Phrygian. Some of
-the instruments also have foreign names, as Nabla, Sambuka, Barbiton,
-Magadis, and many others.”
-
-We know at present little more of these instruments than that they
-were in use in Greece. Of the Magadis it is even not satisfactorily
-ascertained whether it was a stringed or a wind instrument. The other
-three are known to have been stringed instruments. But they cannot have
-been anything like such universal favourites as the lyre, because this
-instrument and perhaps the _trigonon_ are almost the only stringed
-instruments represented in the Greek paintings on pottery and other
-monumental records. If, as might perhaps be suggested, their taste for
-beauty of form induced the Greeks to represent the elegant lyre in
-preference to other stringed instruments, we might at least expect to
-meet with the harp; an instrument which equals if it does not surpass
-the lyre in elegance of form.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The representation of Polyhymnia with a harp, depicted on a splendid
-Greek vase now in the Munich museum, may be noted as an exceptional
-instance. This valuable relic dates from the time of Alexander the
-great. The instrument resembles in construction as well as in shape
-the Assyrian harp, and has thirteen strings. Polyhymnia is touching
-them with both hands, using the right hand for the treble and the left
-for the bass. She is seated, holding the instrument in her lap. Even
-the little tuning-pegs, which in number are not in accordance with
-the strings, are placed on the sound-board at the upper part of the
-frame, exactly as on the Assyrian harp. If then we have here the Greek
-harp, it was more likely an importation from Asia than from Egypt. In
-short, as far as can be ascertained, the most complete of the Greek
-instruments appear to be of Asiatic origin. Especially from the nations
-who inhabited Asia-minor the Greeks are stated to have adopted several
-of the most popular. Thus we may read of the short and shrill-sounding
-pipes of the Carians; of the Phrygian pastoral flute, consisting of
-several tubes united; of the three-stringed _kithara_ of the Lydians;
-and so on.
-
-The Greeks called the harp _kinyra_, and this may be the reason why in
-the English translation of the Bible the _kinnor_ of the Hebrews, the
-favourite instrument of king David, is rendered _harp_.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The Greeks had lyres of various kinds, shown in the accompanying
-woodcuts, more or less differing in construction, form, and size, and
-distinguished by different names; such as _lyra, ithara_, _chelys_,
-_phorminx_, etc. _Lyra_ appears to have implied instruments of this
-class in general, and also the lyre with a body oval at the base and
-held upon the lap or in the arms of the performer; while the _kithara_
-had a square base and was held against the breast. These distinctions
-have, however, not been satisfactorily ascertained. The _chelys_ was a
-small lyre with the body made of the shell of a tortoise, or of wood in
-imitation of the tortoise. The _phorminx_ was a large lyre; and, like
-the _kithara_, was used at an early period singly, for accompanying
-recitations. It is recorded that the _kithara_ was employed for solo
-performances as early as B.C. 700.
-
-The design on the Grecian vase at Munich (already alluded to)
-represents the nine muses, of whom three are given in the engraving,
-viz., Polyhymnia with the harp, and Kalliope and Erato with lyres. It
-will be observed that some of the lyres engraved in the woodcuts on
-page 29 are provided with a bridge, while others are without it. The
-largest were held probably on or between the knees, or were attached
-to the left arm by means of a band, to enable the performer to use his
-hands without impediment. The strings, made of catgut or sinew, were
-more usually twanged with a _plektron_ than merely with the fingers.
-The _plektron_ was a short stem of ivory or metal pointed at both ends.
-
-A fragment of a Greek lyre which was found in a tomb near Athens is
-deposited in the British museum. The two pieces constituting its frame
-are of wood. Their length is about eighteen inches, and the length
-of the cross-bar at the top is about nine inches. The instrument is
-unhappily in a condition too dilapidated and imperfect to be of any
-essential use to the musical inquirer.
-
-The _trigonon_ consisted originally of an angular frame, to which the
-strings were affixed. In the course of time a third bar was added to
-resist the tension of the strings, and its triangular frame resembled
-in shape the Greek delta. Subsequently it was still further improved,
-the upper bar of the frame being made slightly curved, whereby the
-instrument obtained greater strength and more elegance of form.
-
-The _magadis_, also called _pektis_, had twenty strings which were
-tuned in octaves, and therefore produced only ten tones. It appears
-to have been some sort of dulcimer, but information respecting its
-construction is still wanting. There appears to have been also a
-kind of bagpipe in use called _magadis_, of which nothing certain is
-known. Possibly, the same name may have been applied to two different
-instruments.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _barbiton_ was likewise a stringed instrument of this kind. The
-_sambyke_ is traditionally said to have been invented by Ibykos, B.C.
-540. The _simmikon_ had thirty-five strings, and derived its name from
-its inventor, Simos, who lived about B.C. 600. It was perhaps a kind of
-dulcimer. The _nabla_ had only two strings, and probably resembled the
-_nebel_ of the Hebrews, of which but little is known with certainty.
-The _pandoura_ is supposed to have been a kind of lute with three
-strings. Several of the instruments just noticed were used in Greece,
-chiefly by musicians who had immigrated from Asia; they can therefore
-hardly be considered as national musical instruments of the Greeks. The
-_monochord_ had (as its name implies) only a single string, and was
-used in teaching singing and the laws of acoustics.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The flute, _aulos_, of which there were many varieties, as shown in
-the woodcut p. 31, was a highly popular instrument, and differed in
-construction from the flutes and pipes of the ancient Egyptians.
-Instead of being blown through a hole at the side near the top it was
-held like a flageolet, and a vibrating reed was inserted into the
-mouth-piece, so that it might be more properly described as a kind
-of oboe or clarionet. The Greeks were accustomed to designate by the
-name of _aulos_ all wind instruments of the flute and oboe kind, some
-of which were constructed like the flageolet or like our antiquated
-_flûte à bec_. The single flute was called _monaulos_, and the double
-one _diaulos_. A _diaulos_, which was found in a tomb at Athens, is in
-the British museum. The wood of which it is made seems to be cedar,
-and the tubes are fifteen inches in length. Each tube has a separate
-mouth-piece and six finger-holes, five of which are at the upper side
-and one is underneath.
-
-The _syrinx_, or Pandean pipe, had from three to nine tubes, but seven
-was the usual number. The straight trumpet, _salpinx_, and the curved
-horn, _keras_, made of brass, were used exclusively in war. The small
-hand-drum, called _tympanon_, resembled in shape our tambourine, but
-was covered with parchment at the back as well as at the front. The
-_kymbala_ were made of metal, and resembled our small cymbals. The
-_krotala_ were almost identical with our castanets, and were made of
-wood or metal.
-
-
-THE ETRUSCANS AND ROMANS.
-
-The Romans are recorded to have derived some of their most popular
-instruments originally from the Etruscans; a people which at an early
-period excelled all other Italian nations in the cultivation of the
-arts as well as in social refinement, and which possessed musical
-instruments similar to those of the Greeks. It must, however, be
-remembered that many of the vases and other specimens of art which
-have been found in Etruscan tombs, and on which delineations of lyres
-and other instruments occur, are supposed to be productions of Greek
-artists whose works were obtained from Greece by the Etruscans, or who
-were induced to settle in Etruria.
-
-The flutes of the Etruscans were not unfrequently made of ivory;
-those used in religious sacrifices were of box-wood, of a species of
-the lotus, of ass’ bone, bronze and silver. A bronze flute, somewhat
-resembling our flageolet, has been found in a tomb; likewise a huge
-trumpet of bronze. An Etruscan _cornu_ (engraved) is deposited in the
-British museum, and measures about four feet in length.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-To the Etruscans is also attributed by some the invention of the
-hydraulic organ. The Greeks possessed a somewhat similar contrivance
-which they called _hydraulos_, _i.e._ water-flute, and which probably
-was identical with the _organum hydraulicum_ of the Romans. The
-instrument ought more properly to be regarded as a pneumatic organ,
-for the sound was produced by the current of air through the pipes;
-the water applied serving merely to give the necessary pressure to the
-bellows and to regulate their action. The pipes were probably caused
-to sound by means of stops, perhaps resembling those on our organ,
-which were drawn out or pushed in. The construction was evidently but
-a primitive contrivance, contained in a case which could be carried by
-one or two persons and which was placed on a table. The highest degree
-of perfection which the hydraulic organ obtained with the ancients is
-perhaps shown in a representation on a coin of the emperor Nero, in
-the British museum. Only ten pipes are given to it and there is no
-indication of any key board, which would probably have been shown had
-it existed. The man standing at the side and holding a laurel leaf in
-his hand is surmised to represent a victor in the exhibitions of the
-circus or the amphitheatre. The hydraulic organ probably was played on
-such occasions; and the medal containing an impression of it may have
-been bestowed upon the victor.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-During the time of the republic, and especially subsequently under
-the reign of the emperors, the Romans adopted many new instruments
-from Greece, Egypt, and even from western Asia; without essentially
-improving any of their importations.
-
-Their most favourite stringed instrument was the lyre, of which they
-had various kinds, called, according to their form and arrangement
-of strings, _lyra_, _cithara_, _chelys_, _testudo_, _fidis_ (or
-_fides_), and _cornu_. The name _cornu_ was given to the lyre when the
-sides of the frame terminated at the top in the shape of two horns.
-The _barbitos_ was a kind of lyre with a large body, which gave the
-instrument somewhat the shape of the Welsh _crwth_. The _psalterium_
-was a kind of lyre of an oblong square shape. Like most of the Roman
-lyres, it was played with a rather large plectrum. The _trigonum_ was
-the same as the Greek _trigonon_, and was probably originally derived
-from Egypt. It is recorded that a certain musician of the name of
-Alexander Alexandrinus was so admirable a performer upon it that when
-exhibiting his skill in Rome he created the greatest _furore_. Less
-common, and derived from Asia, were the _sambuca_ and _nablia_, the
-exact construction of which is unknown.
-
-The flute, _tibia_, was originally made of the shin bone, and had a
-mouth-hole and four finger-holes. Its shape was retained even when,
-at a later period, it was constructed of other substances than bone.
-The _tibia gingrina_ consisted of a long and thin tube of reed with
-a mouth-hole at the side of one end. The _tibia obliqua_ and _tibia
-vasca_ were provided with mouth-pieces affixed at a right angle to the
-tube; a contrivance somewhat similar to that on our bassoon. The _tibia
-longa_ was especially used in religious worship. The _tibia curva_
-was curved at its broadest end. The _tibia ligula_ appears to have
-resembled our flageolet. The _calamus_ was nothing more than a simple
-pipe cut off the kind of reed which the ancients used as a pen for
-writing.
-
-The Romans had double flutes as well as single flutes. The double flute
-consisted of two tubes united, either so as to have a mouth-piece
-in common or to have each a separate mouth-piece. If the tubes were
-exactly alike the double flute was called _Tibiæ pares_; if they were
-different from each other, _Tibiæ impares_. Little plugs, or stoppers,
-were inserted into the finger-holes to regulate the order of intervals.
-The _tibia_ was made in various shapes. The _tibia dextra_ was usually
-constructed of the upper and thinner part of a reed; and the _tibia
-sinistra_, of the lower and broader part. The performers used also the
-_capistrum_,--a bandage round the cheeks identical with the _phorbeia_
-of the Greeks.
-
-The British museum contains a mosaic figure of a Roman girl playing
-the _tibia_, which is stated to have been disinterred in the year 1823
-on the Via Appia. Here the _holmos_ or mouth-piece, somewhat resembling
-the reed of our oboe, is distinctly shown. The finger-holes, probably
-four, are not indicated, although they undoubtedly existed on the
-instrument.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Furthermore, the Romans had two kinds of Pandean pipes, viz. the
-_syrinx_ and the _fistula_. The bagpipe, _tibia utricularis_, is said
-to have been a favourite instrument of the emperor Nero.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _cornu_ was a large horn of bronze, curved. The performer held
-it under his arm with the broad end upwards over his shoulder. It is
-represented in the engraving, with the _tuba_ and the _lituus_.
-
-The _tuba_ was a straight trumpet. Both the _cornu_ and the _tuba_
-were employed in war to convey signals. The same was the case with the
-_buccina_,--originally perhaps a conch shell, and afterwards a simple
-horn of an animal,--and the _lituus_, which was bent at the broad end
-but otherwise straight. The _tympanum_ resembled the tambourine and was
-beaten like the latter with the hands. Among the Roman instruments
-of percussion the _scabillum_, which consisted of two plates combined
-by means of a sort of hinge, deserves to be noticed; it was fastened
-under the foot and trodden in time, to produce certain rhythmical
-effects in musical performances. The _cymbalum_ consisted of two metal
-plates similar to our cymbals. The _crotala_ and the _crusmata_ were
-kinds of castanets, the former being oblong and of a larger size than
-the latter. The Romans had also a _triangulum_, which resembled the
-triangle occasionally used in our orchestra. The _sistrum_ they derived
-from Egypt with the introduction of the worship of Isis. Metal bells,
-arranged according to a regular order of intervals and placed in a
-frame, were called _tintinnabula_. The _crepitaculum_ appears to have
-been a somewhat similar contrivance on a hoop with a handle.
-
-Through the Greeks and Romans we have the first well-authenticated
-proof of musical instruments having been introduced into Europe from
-Asia. The Romans in their conquests undoubtedly made their musical
-instruments known, to some extent, also in western Europe. But the
-Greeks and Romans are not the only nations which introduced eastern
-instruments into Europe. The Phœnicians at an early period colonized
-Sardinia, and traces of them are still to be found on that island.
-Among these is a peculiarly constructed double-pipe, called _lionedda_
-or _launedda_. Again, at a much later period the Arabs introduced
-several of their instruments into Spain, from which country they became
-known in France, Germany, and England. Also the crusaders, during the
-eleventh and twelfth centuries, may have helped to familiarize the
-western European nations with instruments of the east.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER V.
-
-
-THE CHINESE.
-
-Allowing for any exaggeration as to chronology, natural to the lively
-imagination of Asiatics, there is no reason to doubt that the Chinese
-possessed long before our Christian era musical instruments to which
-they attribute a fabulously high antiquity. There is an ancient
-tradition, according to which they obtained their musical scale from
-a miraculous bird, called foung-hoang, which appears to have been a
-sort of phœnix. When Confucius, who lived about B.C. 500, happened to
-hear on a certain occasion some Chinese music, he became so greatly
-enraptured that he could not take any food for three months afterwards.
-The sounds which produced this effect were those of Kouei, the Orpheus
-of the Chinese, whose performance on the _king_--a kind of harmonicon
-constructed of slabs of sonorous stone--would draw wild animals around
-him and make them subservient to his will. As regards the invention of
-musical instruments the Chinese have other traditions. In one of these
-we are told that the origin of some of their most popular instruments
-dates from the period when China was under the dominion of heavenly
-spirits, called Ki. Another assigns the invention of several stringed
-instruments to the great Fohi who was the founder of the empire and
-who lived about B.C. 3000, which was long after the dominion of the
-Ki, or spirits. Again, another tradition holds that the most important
-instruments and systematic arrangements of sounds are an invention of
-Niuva, a supernatural female, who lived at the time of Fohi.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-According to their records, the Chinese possessed their much-esteemed
-_king_ 2200 years before our Christian era, and employed it for
-accompanying songs of praise. It was regarded as a sacred instrument.
-During religious observances at the solemn moment when the _king_ was
-sounded sticks of incense were burnt. It was likewise played before
-the emperor early in the morning when he awoke. The Chinese have long
-since constructed various kinds of the _king_, one of which is here
-engraved, by using different species of stones. Their most famous stone
-selected for this purpose is called _yu_. It is not only very sonorous
-but also beautiful in appearance. The _yu_ is found in mountain streams
-and crevices of rocks. The largest specimens found measure from two to
-three feet in diameter, but of this size examples rarely occur. The
-_yu_ is very hard and heavy. Some European mineralogists, to whom the
-missionaries transmitted specimens for examination, pronounce it to be
-a species of agate. It is found of different colours, and the Chinese
-appear to have preferred in different centuries particular colours for
-the _king_.
-
-The Chinese consider the _yu_ especially valuable for musical purposes,
-because it always retains exactly the same pitch. All other musical
-instruments, they say, are in this respect doubtful; but the tone of
-the _yu_ is neither influenced by cold nor heat, nor by humidity, nor
-dryness.
-
-The stones used for the _king_ have been cut from time to time in
-various grotesque shapes. Some represent animals: as, for instance, a
-bat with outstretched wings; or two fishes placed side by side: others
-are in the shape of an ancient Chinese bell. The angular shape shown
-in the engraving appears to be the oldest and is still retained in the
-ornamented stones of the _pien-king_, which is a more modern instrument
-than the _king_. The tones of the _pien-king_ are attuned according
-to the Chinese intervals called _lu_, of which there are twelve in
-the compass of an octave. The same is the case with the other Chinese
-instruments of this class. They vary, however, in pitch. The pitch of
-the _soung-king_, for instance, is four intervals lower than that of
-the _pien-king_.
-
-Sonorous stones have always been used by the Chinese also singly, as
-rhythmical instruments. Such a single stone is called _tse-king_.
-Probably certain curious relics belonging to a temple in Peking,
-erected for the worship of Confucius, serve a similar purpose. In one
-of the outbuildings or the temple are ten sonorous stones, shaped like
-drums, which are asserted to have been cut about three thousand years
-ago. The primitive Chinese characters engraven upon them are nearly
-obliterated.
-
-The ancient Chinese had several kinds of bells, frequently arranged in
-sets so as to constitute a musical scale. The Chinese name for the bell
-is _tchung_. At an early period they had a somewhat square-shaped bell
-called _té-tchung_. Like other ancient Chinese bells it was made of
-copper alloyed with tin, the proportion being one pound of tin to six
-of copper. The _té-tchung_, which is also known by the name of _piao_,
-was principally used to indicate the time and divisions in musical
-performances. It had a fixed pitch of sound, and several of these bells
-attuned to a certain order of intervals were not unfrequently ranged
-in a regular succession, thus forming a musical instrument which was
-called _pien-tchung_. The musical scale of the sixteen bells which
-the _pien-tchung_ contained was the same as that of the _king_ before
-mentioned.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _hiuen-tchung_ was, according to popular tradition, included with
-the antique instruments at the time of Confucius, and came into popular
-use during the Han dynasty (from B.C. 200 until A.D. 200). It was of
-a peculiar oval shape and had nearly the same quaint ornamentation
-as the _té-tchung_; this consisted of symbolical figures, in four
-divisions, each containing nine mammals. The mouth was crescent-shaped.
-Every figure had a deep meaning referring to the seasons and to the
-mysteries of the Buddhist religion. The largest _hiuen-tchung_ was
-about twenty inches in length; and, like the _té-tchung_, was sounded
-by means of a small wooden mallet with an oval knob. None of the bells
-of this description had a clapper. It would, however, appear that the
-Chinese had at an early period some kind of bell provided with a wooden
-tongue: this was used for military purposes as well as for calling the
-people together when an imperial messenger promulgated his sovereign’s
-commands. An expression of Confucius is recorded to the effect that
-he wished to be “A wooden-tongued bell of Heaven,” _i.e._ a herald of
-heaven to proclaim the divine purposes to the multitude.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _fang-hiang_ was a kind of wood-harmonicon. It contained sixteen
-wooden slabs of an oblong square shape, suspended in a wooden frame
-elegantly decorated. The slabs were arranged in two tiers, one above
-the other, and were all of equal length and breadth but differed in
-thickness. The _tchoung-tou_ consisted of twelve slips of bamboo, and
-was used for beating time and for rhythmical purposes. The slips being
-banded together at one end could be expanded somewhat like a fan. The
-Chinese state that they used the _tchoung-tou_ for writing upon before
-they invented paper.
-
-The _ou_, of which we give a woodcut, likewise an ancient Chinese
-instrument of percussion and still in use, is made of wood in the shape
-of a crouching tiger. It is hollow, and along its back are about twenty
-small pieces of metal, pointed, and in appearance not unlike the teeth
-of a saw. The performer strikes them with a sort of plectrum resembling
-a brush, or with a small stick called _tchen_. Occasionally the _ou_ is
-made with pieces of metal shaped like reeds.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The ancient _ou_ was constructed with only six tones which were
-attuned thus--_f_, _g_, _a_, _c_, _d_, _f_. The instrument appears
-to have become deteriorated in the course of time; for, although
-it has gradually acquired as many as twenty-seven pieces of metal,
-it evidently serves at the present day more for the production of
-rhythmical noise than for the execution of any melody. The modern _ou_
-is made of a species of wood called _kieou_ or _tsieou_: and the tiger
-rests generally on a hollow wooden pedestal about three feet six inches
-long, which serves as a sound-board.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _tchou_, likewise an instrument of percussion, was made of the
-wood of a tree called _kieou-mou_, the stem of which resembles that of
-the pine and whose foliage is much like that of the cypress. It was
-constructed of boards about three-quarters of an inch in thickness. In
-the middle of one of the sides was an aperture into which the hand was
-passed for the purpose of holding the handle of a wooden hammer, the
-end of which entered into a hole situated in the bottom of the _tchou_.
-The handle was kept in its place by means of a wooden pin, on which it
-moved right and left when the instrument was struck with a hammer. The
-Chinese ascribe to the _tchou_ a very high antiquity, as they almost
-invariably do with any of their inventions when the date of its origin
-is unknown to them.
-
-The _po-fou_ was a drum, about one foot four inches in length, and
-seven inches in diameter. It had a parchment at each end, which was
-prepared in a peculiar way by being boiled in water. The _po-fou_ used
-to be partly filled with a preparation made from the husk of rice, in
-order to mellow the sound. The Chinese name for the drum is _kou_.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _kin-kou_ (engraved), a large drum fixed on a pedestal which raises
-it above six feet from the ground, is embellished with symbolical
-designs. A similar drum on which natural phenomena are depicted is
-called _lei-kou_; and another of the kind, with figures of certain
-birds and beasts which are regarded as symbols of long life, is called
-_ling-kou_, and also _lou-kou_.
-
-The flutes, _ty_, _yo_, and _tché_ were generally made of bamboo. The
-_koan-tsee_ was a Pandean pipe containing twelve tubes of bamboo.
-The _siao_, likewise a Pandean pipe, contained sixteen tubes. The
-_pai-siao_ differed from the _siao_ inasmuch as the tubes were inserted
-into an oddly-shaped case highly ornamented with grotesque designs and
-silken appendages.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The Chinese are known to have constructed at an early period a curious
-wind-instrument, called _hiuen_. It was made of baked clay and had five
-finger-holes, three of which were placed on one side and two on the
-opposite side, as in the cut. Its tones were in conformity with the
-pentatonic scale. The reader unacquainted with the pentatonic scale may
-ascertain its character by playing on the pianoforte the scale of C
-major with the omission of _f_ and _b_ (the _fourth_ and _seventh_); or
-by striking the black keys in regular succession from _f_-sharp to the
-next _f_-sharp above or below.
-
-Another curious wind-instrument of high antiquity, the _cheng_,
-(engraved, p. 46) is still in use. Formerly it had either 13, 19, or
-24 tubes, placed in a calabash; and a long curved tube served as a
-mouth-piece. In olden time it was called _yu_.
-
-The ancient stringed instruments, the _kin_ and _chê_, were of the
-dulcimer kind: they are still in use, and specimens of them are in the
-South Kensington museum.
-
-The Buddhists introduced from Thibet into China their god of music,
-who is represented as a rather jovial-looking man with a moustache
-and an imperial, playing the _pepa_, a kind of lute with four silken
-strings. Perhaps some interesting information respecting the ancient
-Chinese musical instruments may be gathered from the famous ruins of
-the Buddhist temples _Ongcor-Wat_ and _Ongcor-Thôm_, in Cambodia.
-These splendid ruins are supposed to be above two thousand years old:
-and, at any rate, the circumstance of their age not being known to the
-Cambodians suggests a high antiquity. On the bas-reliefs with which the
-temples were enriched are figured musical instruments, which European
-travellers describe as “flutes, organs, trumpets, and drums, resembling
-those of the Chinese.” Faithful sketches of these representations
-might, very likely, afford valuable hints to the student of musical
-history.
-
-
-THE HINDUS.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In the Brahmin mythology of the Hindus the god Nareda is the inventor
-of the _vina_, the principal national instrument of Hindustan.
-Saraswati, the consort of Brahma, may be regarded as the Minerva of
-the Hindus. She is the goddess of music as well as of speech; to her
-is attributed the invention of the systematic arrangement of the
-sounds into a musical scale. She is represented seated on a peacock
-and playing on a stringed instrument of the lute kind. Brahma himself
-we find depicted as a vigorous man with four handsome heads, beating
-with his hands upon a small drum; and Vishnu, in his incarnation as
-Krishna, is represented as a beautiful youth playing upon a flute. The
-Hindus construct a peculiar kind of flute, which they consider as the
-favourite instrument of Krishna. They have also the divinity Ganesa,
-the god of Wisdom, who is represented as a man with the head of an
-elephant, holding a _tamboura_ in his hands.
-
-It is a suggestive fact that we find among several nations in different
-parts of the world an ancient tradition, according to which their most
-popular stringed instrument was originally derived from the water.
-
-In Hindu mythology the god Nareda invented the _vina_--the principal
-national instrument of Hindustan--which has also the name _cach’-hapi_,
-signifying a tortoise (_testudo_). Moreover, _nara_ denotes in Sanskrit
-water, and _narada_, or _nareda_, the giver of water. Like Nareda,
-Nereus and his fifty daughters, the Nereides, were much renowned for
-their musical accomplishments; and Hermes (it will be remembered) made
-his lyre, the _chelys_, of a tortoise-shell. The Scandinavian god Odin,
-the originator of magic songs, is mentioned as the ruler of the sea,
-and as such he had the name of _Nikarr_. In the depth of the sea he
-played the harp with his subordinate spirits, who occasionally came up
-to the surface of the water to teach some favoured human being their
-wonderful instrument. Wäinämöinen, the divine player on the Finnish
-_kantele_ (according to the Kalewala, the old national epic of the
-Finns) constructed his instrument of fish-bones. The frame he made out
-of the bones of the pike; and the teeth of the pike he used for the
-tuning-pegs.
-
-Jacob Grimm in his work on German mythology points out an old
-tradition, preserved in Swedish and Scotch national ballads, of a
-skilful harper who constructs his instrument out of the bones of a
-young girl drowned by a wicked woman. Her fingers he uses for the
-tuning screws, and her golden hair for the strings. The harper plays,
-and his music kills the murderess. A similar story is told in the old
-Icelandic national songs; and the same tradition has been preserved in
-the Faroe islands, as well as in Norway and Denmark.
-
-May not the agreeable impression produced by the rhythmical flow of
-the waves and the soothing murmur of running water have led various
-nations, independently of each other, to the widespread conception that
-they obtained their favourite instrument of music from the water? Or is
-the notion traceable to a common source dating from a pre-historic age,
-perhaps from the early period when the Aryan race is surmised to have
-diffused its lore through various countries? Or did it originate in the
-old belief that the world, with all its charms and delights, arose from
-a chaos in which water constituted the predominant element?
-
-Howbeit, Nareda, the giver of water, was evidently also the ruler of
-the clouds; and Odin had his throne in the skies. Indeed, many of the
-musical water-spirits appear to have been originally considered as rain
-deities. Their music may therefore be regarded as derived from the
-clouds rather than from the sea. In short, the traditions respecting
-spirits and water are not in contradiction to the opinion of the
-ancient Hindus that music is of heavenly origin, but rather tend to
-support it.
-
-The earliest musical instruments of the Hindus on record have, almost
-all of them, remained in popular use until the present day scarcely
-altered. Besides these, the Hindus possess several Arabic and Persian
-instruments which are of comparatively modern date in Hindustan:
-evidently having been introduced into that country scarcely a thousand
-years ago, at the time of the Mahomedan irruption. There is a treatise
-on music extant, written in Sanskrit, which contains a description of
-the ancient instruments. Its title is _Sângita râthnakara_. If, as
-may be hoped, it be translated by a Sanskrit scholar who is at the
-same time a good musician, we shall probably be enabled to ascertain
-more exactly which of the Hindu instruments of the present day are of
-comparatively modern origin.
-
-The _vina_ is undoubtedly of high antiquity. It has seven wire strings,
-and movable frets which are generally fastened with wax. Two hollowed
-gourds, often tastefully ornamented, are affixed to it for the purpose
-of increasing the sonorousness. There are several kinds of the _vina_
-in different districts; but that represented in the illustration
-is regarded as the oldest. The performer shown is Jeewan Shah, a
-celebrated virtuoso on the _vina_, who lived about a hundred years ago.
-The Hindus divided their musical scale into several intervals smaller
-than our modern semitones. They adopted twenty-two intervals called
-_sruti_ in the compass of an octave, which may therefore be compared
-to our chromatic intervals. As the frets of the _vina_ are movable the
-performer can easily regulate them according to the scale, or mode,
-which he requires for his music.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The harp, _chang_, has become almost obsolete. If some Hindu drawings
-of it can be relied upon, it had at an early time a triangular frame
-and was in construction as well as in shape and size almost identical
-with the Assyrian harp.
-
-The Hindus claim to have invented the violin bow. They maintain that
-the _ravanastron_, one of their old instruments played with the bow,
-was invented about five thousand years ago by Ravanon, a mighty king
-of Ceylon. However this may be there is a great probability that the
-fiddle-bow originated in Hindustan; because Sanskrit scholars inform
-us that there are names for it in works which cannot be less than
-from 1500 to 2000 years old. The non-occurrence of any instrument
-played with a bow on the monuments of the nations of antiquity is
-by no means so sure a proof as has generally been supposed, that the
-bow was unknown. The fiddle in its primitive condition must have been
-a poor contrivance. It probably was despised by players who could
-produce better tones with greater facility by twanging the strings
-with their fingers, or with a plectrum. Thus it may have remained
-through many centuries without experiencing any material improvement.
-It must also be borne in mind that the monuments transmitted to us
-chiefly represent historical events, religious ceremonies, and royal
-entertainments. On such occasions instruments of a certain kind only
-were used, and these we find represented; while others, which may
-have been even more common, never occur. In two thousand years’ time
-people will possibly maintain that some highly perfected instrument
-popular with them was entirely unknown to us, because it is at present
-in so primitive a condition that no one hardly notices it. If the
-_ravanastron_ was an importation of the Mahomedans it would most likely
-bear some resemblance to the Arabian and Persian instruments, and it
-would be found rather in the hands of the higher classes in the towns;
-whereas it is principally met with among the lower order of people, in
-isolated and mountainous districts. It is further remarkable that the
-most simple kind of _ravanastron_ is almost identical with the Chinese
-fiddle called _ur-heen_. This species has only two strings, and its
-body consists of a small block of wood, hollowed out and covered with
-the skin of a serpent. The _ur-heen_ has not been mentioned among the
-most ancient instruments of the Chinese, since there is no evidence of
-its having been known in China before the introduction of the Buddhist
-religion into that country. From indications, which to point out would
-lead too far here, it would appear that several instruments found
-in China originated in Hindustan. They seem to have been gradually
-diffused from Hindustan and Thibet, more or less altered in the course
-of time, through the east as far as Japan.
-
-Another curious Hindu instrument, probably of very high antiquity,
-is the _poongi_, also called _toumrie_ and _magoudi_. It consists
-of a gourd or of the Cuddos nut, hollowed, into which two pipes are
-inserted. The _poongi_ therefore somewhat resembles in appearance a
-bagpipe. It is generally used by the _Sampuris_ or snake charmers,
-who play upon it when they exhibit the antics of the cobra. The name
-_magoudi_, given in certain districts to this instrument, rather
-tends to corroborate the opinion of some musical historians that the
-_magadis_ of the ancient Greeks was a sort of double-pipe, or bagpipe.
-
-Many instruments of Hindustan are known by different names in different
-districts; and, besides, there are varieties of them. On the whole, the
-Hindus possess about fifty instruments. To describe them properly would
-fill a volume. Some, which are in the Kensington museum, will be found
-noticed in the large catalogue of that collection.
-
-
-THE PERSIANS AND ARABS.
-
-Of the musical instruments of the ancient Persians, before the
-Christian era, scarcely anything is known. It may be surmised that they
-closely resembled those of the Assyrians, and probably also those of
-the Hebrews.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The harp, _chang_, in olden time a favourite instrument of the
-Persians, has gradually fallen into desuetude. The illustration of a
-small harp given in the woodcut has been sketched from the celebrated
-sculptures, perhaps of the sixth century, which exist on a stupendous
-rock, called Tackt-i-Bostan, in the vicinity of the town of Kermanshah.
-These sculptures are said to have been executed during the lifetime
-of the Persian monarch Khosroo Purviz. They form the ornaments of
-two lofty arches, and consist of representations of field sports
-and aquatic amusements. In one of the boats is seated a man in an
-ornamental dress, with a halo round his head, who is receiving an
-arrow from one of his attendants; while a female, who is sitting
-near him, plays on a Trigonon. Towards the top of the bas-relief
-is represented a stage, on which are performers on small straight
-trumpets and little hand drums; six harpers; and four other musicians,
-apparently females,--the first of whom plays a flute; the second,
-a sort of pandean pipe; the third, an instrument which is too much
-defaced to be recognizable; and the fourth, a bagpipe. Two harps of a
-peculiar shape were copied by Sir Gore Ousely from Persian manuscripts
-about four hundred years old resembling, in the principle on which they
-are constructed, all other oriental harps. There existed evidently
-various kinds of the _chang_. It may be remarked here that the
-instrument _tschenk_ (or _chang_) in use at the present day in Persia,
-is more like a dulcimer than a harp. The Arabs adopted the harp from
-the Persians, and called it _junk_. An interesting representation of a
-Turkish woman playing the harp (p. 53) sketched from life by Melchior
-Lorich in the seventeenth century, probably exhibits an old Persian
-_chang_; for the Turks derived their music principally from Persia.
-Here we have an introduction into Europe of the oriental frame without
-a front pillar.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The Persians appear to have adopted, at an early period, smaller
-musical intervals than semitones. When the Arabs conquered Persia (A.D.
-641) the Persians had already attained a higher degree of civilisation
-than their conquerors. The latter found in Persia the cultivation of
-music considerably in advance of their own, and the musical instruments
-superior also. They soon adopted the Persian instruments, and there
-can be no doubt that the musical system exhibited by the earliest
-Arab writers whose works on the theory of music have been preserved
-was based upon an older system of the Persians. In these works the
-octave is divided in seventeen _one-third-tones_--intervals which are
-still made use of in the east. Some of the Arabian instruments are
-constructed so as to enable the performer to produce the intervals
-with exactness. The frets on the lute and tamboura, for instance, are
-regulated with a view to this object.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The Arabs had to some extent become acquainted with many of the
-Persian instruments before the time of their conquest of Persia. An
-Arab musician of the name of Nadr Ben el-Hares Ben Kelde is recorded
-as having been sent to the Persian king Khosroo Purviz, in the sixth
-century, for the purpose of learning Persian singing and performing
-on the lute. Through him, it is said, the lute was brought to Mekka.
-Saib Chatir, the son of a Persian, is spoken of as the first performer
-on the lute in Medina, A.D. 682; and of an Arab lutist, Ebn Soreidsch
-from Mekka, A.D. 683, it is especially mentioned that he played in the
-Persian style; evidently the superior one. The lute, _el-oud_, had
-before the tenth century only four strings, or four pairs producing
-four tones, each tone having two strings tuned in unison. About the
-tenth century a string for a fifth tone was added. The strings were
-made of silk neatly twisted. The neck of the instrument was provided
-with frets of string, which were carefully regulated according to
-the system of seventeen intervals in the compass of an octave before
-mentioned. Other favourite stringed instruments were the _tamboura_,
-a kind of lute with a long neck, and the _kanoon_, a kind of dulcimer
-strung with lamb’s gut strings (generally three in unison for each
-tone) and played upon with two little plectra which the performer had
-fastened to his fingers. The _kanoon_ is likewise still in use in
-countries inhabited by Mahomedans. The engraving, taken from a Persian
-painting at Teheran, represents an old Persian _santir_, the prototype
-of our dulcimer, mounted with wire strings and played upon with two
-slightly curved sticks.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Al-Farabi, one of the earliest Arabian musical theorists known, who
-lived in the beginning of the tenth century, does not allude to the
-fiddle-bow. This is noteworthy inasmuch as it seems in some measure
-to support the opinion maintained by some historians that the bow
-originated in England or Wales. Unfortunately we possess no exact
-descriptions of the Persian and Arabian instruments between the tenth
-and fourteenth centuries, otherwise we should probably have earlier
-accounts of some instrument of the violin kind in Persia. Ash-shakandi,
-who lived in Spain about A.D. 1200, mentions the _rebab_, which may
-have been in use for centuries without having been thought worthy of
-notice on account of its rudeness. Persian writers of the fourteenth
-century speak of two instruments of the violin class, viz., the _rebab_
-and the _kemangeh_. As regards the _kemangeh_, the Arabs themselves
-assert that they obtained it from Persia, and their statement appears
-all the more worthy of belief from the fact that both names, _rebab_
-and _kemangeh_, are originally Persian. We engrave the _rebab_ from an
-example at South Kensington.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _nay_, a flute, and the _surnay_, a species of oboe, are still
-popular in the east.
-
-The Arabs must have been indefatigable constructors of musical
-instruments. Kiesewetter gives a list of above two hundred names of
-Arabian instruments, and this does not include many known to us through
-Spanish historians. A careful investigation of the musical instruments
-of the Arabs during their sojourn in Spain is particularly interesting
-to the student of mediæval music, inasmuch as it reveals the eastern
-origin of many instruments which are generally regarded as European
-inventions. Introduced into Spain by the Saracens and the Moors they
-were gradually diffused towards northern Europe. The English, for
-instance, adopted not only the Moorish dance (morrice dance) but also
-the _kuitra_ (gittern), the _el-oud_ (lute), the _rebab_ (rebec), the
-_nakkarah_ (naker), and several others. In an old Cornish sacred drama,
-supposed to date from the fourteenth century, we have in an enumeration
-of musical instruments the _nakrys_, designating “kettle-drums.” It
-must be remembered that the Cornish language, which has now become
-obsolete, was nearly akin to the Welsh. Indeed, names of musical
-instruments derived from the Moors in Spain occur in almost every
-European language.
-
-Not a few fanciful stories are traditionally preserved among the Arabs
-testifying to the wonderful effects they ascribed to the power of their
-instrumental performances. One example will suffice. Al-Farabi had
-acquired his proficiency in Spain, in one of the schools at Cordova
-which flourished as early as towards the end of the ninth century: and
-his reputation became so great that ultimately it extended to Asia.
-The mighty caliph of Bagdad himself desired to hear the celebrated
-musician, and sent messengers to Spain with instructions to offer rich
-presents to him and to convey him to the court. But Al-Farabi feared
-that if he went he should be retained in Asia, and should never again
-see the home to which he felt deeply attached. At last he resolved
-to disguise himself, and ventured to undertake the journey which
-promised him a rich harvest. Dressed in a mean costume, he made his
-appearance at the court just at the time when the caliph was being
-entertained with his daily concert. Al-Farabi, unknown to everyone, was
-permitted to exhibit his skill on the lute. Scarcer had he commenced
-his performance in a certain musical mode when he set all his audience
-laughing aloud, notwithstanding the efforts of the courtiers to
-suppress so unbecoming an exhibition of mirth in the royal presence. In
-truth, even the caliph himself was compelled to burst out into a fit
-of laughter. Presently the performer changed to another mode, and the
-effect was that immediately all his hearers began to sigh, and soon
-tears of sadness replaced the previous tears of mirth. Again he played
-in another mode, which excited his audience to such a rage that they
-would have fought each other if he, seeing the danger, had not directly
-gone over to an appeasing mode. After this wonderful exhibition of his
-skill Al-Farabi concluded in a mode which had the effect of making
-his listeners fall into a profound sleep, during which he took his
-departure.
-
-It will be seen that this incident is almost identical with one
-recorded as having happened about twelve hundred years earlier at the
-court of Alexander the great, and which forms the subject of Dryden’s
-“Alexander’s Feast.” The distinguished flutist Timotheus successively
-aroused and subdued different passions by changing the musical modes
-during his performance, exactly in the same way as did Al-Farabi.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VI.
-
-
-THE AMERICAN INDIANS.
-
-If the preserved antiquities of the American Indians, dating from a
-period anterior to our discovery of the western hemisphere, possess
-an extraordinary interest because they afford trustworthy evidence
-of the degree of progress which the aborigines had attained in the
-cultivation of the arts and in their social condition before they came
-in contact with Europeans, it must be admitted that the ancient musical
-instruments of the American Indians are also worthy of examination.
-Several of them are constructed in a manner which, in some degree,
-reveals the characteristics of the musical system prevalent among the
-people who used the instruments. And although most of these interesting
-relics, which have been obtained from tombs and other hiding-places,
-may not be of great antiquity, it has been satisfactorily ascertained
-that they are genuine contrivances of the Indians before they were
-influenced by European civilization.
-
-Some account of these relics is therefore likely to prove of interest
-also to the ethnologist, especially as several facts may perhaps be
-found of assistance in elucidating the still unsolved problem as to the
-probable original connection of the American with Asiatic races.
-
-Among the instruments of the Aztecs in Mexico and of the Peruvians
-none have been found so frequently, and have been preserved in their
-former condition so unaltered, as pipes and flutes. They are generally
-made of pottery or of bone, substances which are unsuitable for the
-construction of most other instruments, but which are remarkably
-well qualified to withstand the decaying influence of time. There
-is, therefore, no reason to conclude from the frequent occurrence of
-such instruments that they were more common than other kinds of which
-specimens have rarely been discovered.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The Mexicans possessed a small whistle formed of baked clay, a
-considerable number of which have been found. Some specimens (of which
-we give engravings) are singularly grotesque in shape, representing
-caricatures of the human face and figure, birds, beasts, and flowers.
-Some were provided at the top with a finger-hole which, when closed,
-altered the pitch of the sound, so that two different tones were
-producible on the instrument. Others had a little ball of baked clay
-lying loose inside the air-chamber. When the instrument was blown the
-current of air set the ball in a vibrating motion, thereby causing a
-shrill and whirring sound. A similar contrivance is sometimes made
-use of by Englishmen for conveying signals. The Mexican whistle most
-likely served principally the same purpose, but it may possibly have
-been used also in musical entertainments. In the Russian horn band
-each musician is restricted to a single tone; and similar combinations
-of performers--only, of course, much more rude--have been witnessed by
-travellers among some tribes in Africa and America.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Rather more complete than the above specimens are some of the whistles
-and small pipes which have been found in graves of the Indians of
-Chiriqui in central America. The pipe or whistle which is represented
-in the accompanying engraving appears, to judge from the somewhat
-obscure description transmitted to us, to possess about half a dozen
-tones. It is of pottery, painted in red and black on a cream-coloured
-ground, and in length about five inches. Among the instruments of this
-kind from central America the most complete have four finger-holes.
-By means of three the following four sounds (including the sound
-which is produced when none of the holes are closed) can be emitted:
-[Illustration] the fourth finger-hole, when closed, has the effect of
-lowering the pitch a semitone. By a particular process two or three
-lower notes are obtainable.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The pipe of the Aztecs, which is called by the Mexican Spaniards
-_pito_, somewhat resembled our flageolet: the material was a reddish
-pottery, and it was provided with four finger-holes. Although among
-about half a dozen specimens which the writer has examined some are
-considerably larger than others they all have, singularly enough, the
-same pitch of sound. The smallest is about six inches in length, and
-the largest about nine inches. Several _pitos_ have been found in a
-remarkably well-preserved condition. They are easy to blow, and their
-order of intervals is in conformity with the pentatonic scale, thus:
-[Illustration] The usual shape of the _pito_ is that here represented;
-showing the upper side of one pipe, and a side view of another. A
-specimen of a less common shape, also engraved, is in the British
-museum. Indications suggestive of the popular estimation in which the
-flute (or perhaps, more strictly speaking, the pipe) was held by the
-Aztecs are not wanting. It was played in religious observances and
-we find it referred to allegorically in orations delivered on solemn
-occasions. For instance, at the religious festival which was held in
-honour of Tezcatlepoca--a divinity depicted as a handsome youth, and
-considered second only to the supreme being--a young man was sacrificed
-who, in preparation for the ceremony, had been instructed in the art of
-playing the flute. Twenty days before his death four young girls, named
-after the principal goddesses, were given to him as companions; and
-when the hour arrived in which he was to be sacrificed he observed the
-established symbolical rite of breaking a flute on each of the steps,
-as he ascended the temple.
-
-Again, at the public ceremonies which took place on the accession of
-a prince to the throne the new monarch addressed a prayer to the god,
-in which occurred the following allegorical expression:--“I am thy
-flute; reveal to me thy will; breathe into me thy breath like into a
-flute, as thou hast done to my predecessors on the throne. As thou
-hast opened their eyes, their ears, and their mouth to utter what is
-good, so likewise do to me. I resign myself entirely to thy guidance.”
-Similar sentences occur in the orations addressed to the monarch. In
-reading them one can hardly fail to be reminded of Hamlet’s reflections
-addressed to Guildenstern, when the servile courtier expresses his
-inability to “govern the ventages” of the pipe and to make the
-instrument “discourse most eloquent music,” which the prince bids him
-to do.
-
-M. de Castelnau in his “Expédition dans l’Amérique” gives among the
-illustrations of objects discovered in ancient Peruvian tombs a flute
-made of a human bone. It has four finger-holes at its upper surface
-and appears to have been blown into at one end. Two bone-flutes, in
-appearance similar to the engraving given by M. de Castelnau, which
-have been disinterred at Truxillo are deposited in the British museum.
-They are about six inches in length, and each is provided with five
-finger-holes. One of these has all the holes at its upper side, and one
-of the holes is considerably smaller than the rest. The specimen which
-we engrave (p. 64) is ornamented with some simple designs in black.
-
-The other has four holes at its upper side and one underneath, the
-latter being placed near to the end at which the instrument evidently
-was blown. In the aperture of this end some remains of a hardened
-paste, or resinous substance, are still preserved. This substance
-probably was inserted for the purpose of narrowing the end of the
-tube, in order to facilitate the producing of the sounds. The same
-contrivance is still resorted to in the construction of the bone-flutes
-by some Indian tribes in Guiana. The bones of slain enemies appear
-to have been considered especially appropriate for such flutes. The
-Araucanians, having killed a prisoner, made flutes of his bones, and
-danced and “thundered out their dreadful war-songs, accompanied by the
-mournful sounds of these horrid instruments.” Alonso de Ovalle says
-of the Indians in Chili: “Their flutes, which they play upon in their
-dances, are made of the bones of the Spaniards and other enemies whom
-they have overcome in war. This they do by way of triumph and glory for
-their victory. They make them likewise of bones of animals; but the
-warriors dance only to the flutes made of their enemies.” The Mexicans
-and Peruvians obviously possessed a great variety of pipes and flutes,
-some of which are still in use among certain Indian tribes. Those which
-were found in the famous ruins at Palenque are deposited in the museum
-in Mexico. They are:--The _cuyvi_, a pipe on which only five tones
-were producible; the _huayllaca_, a sort of flageolet; the _pincullu_,
-a flute; and the _chayna_, which is described as “a flute whose
-lugubrious and melancholy tones filled the heart with indescribable
-sadness, and brought involuntary tears into the eyes.” It was perhaps a
-kind of oboe.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The Peruvians had the syrinx, which they called _huayra-puhura_. Some
-clue to the proper meaning of this name may perhaps be gathered from
-the word _huayra_, which signifies “air.” The _huayra-puhura_ was made
-of cane, and also of stone. Sometimes an embroidery of needle-work was
-attached to it as an ornament. One specimen which has been disinterred
-is adorned with twelve figures precisely resembling Maltese crosses.
-The cross is a figure which may readily be supposed to suggest itself
-very naturally; and it is therefore not so surprising, as it may appear
-at a first glance, that the American Indians used it not unfrequently
-in designs and sculptures before they came in contact with Christians.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The British museum possesses a _huayra-puhura_ consisting of fourteen
-reed pipes of a brownish colour, tied together in two rows by means
-of thread, so as to form a double set of seven reeds. Both sets are
-almost exactly of the same dimensions and are placed side by side. The
-shortest of these reeds measure three inches, and the longest six and
-a half. In one set they are open at the bottom, and in the other they
-are closed. Consequently, octaves are produced. The reader is probably
-aware that the closing of a pipe at the end raises its pitch an octave.
-Thus, in our organ, the so-called stopped diapason, a set of closed
-pipes, requires tubes of only half the length of those which constitute
-the open diapason, although both these stops produce tones in the same
-pitch; the only difference between them being the quality of sound,
-which in the former is less bright than in the latter.
-
-The tones yielded by the _huayra-puhura_ in question are as follows:
-[Illustration] The highest octave is indistinct, owing to some injury
-done to the shortest tubes; but sufficient evidence remains to show
-that the intervals were purposely arranged according to the pentatonic
-scale. This interesting relic was brought to light from a tomb at Arica.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Another _huayra-puhura_, likewise still yielding sounds, was discovered
-placed over a corpse in a Peruvian tomb, and was procured by the French
-general, Paroissien. This instrument is made of a greenish stone which
-is a species of talc, and contains eight pipes. In the Berlin museum
-may be seen a good plaster cast taken from this curious relic. The
-height is 5⅜ inches, and its width 6¼ inches. Four of the tubes
-have small lateral finger-holes which, when closed, lower the pitch a
-semitone. These holes are on the second, fourth, sixth, and seventh
-pipe, as shown in the engraving. When the holes are open, the tones
-are: [Illustration] and when they are closed: [Illustration] The other
-tubes have unalterable tones. The following notation exhibits all the
-tones producible on the instrument:
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The musician is likely to speculate what could have induced the
-Peruvians to adopt so strange a series of intervals: it seems rather
-arbitrary than premeditated.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-If (and this seems not to be improbable) the Peruvians considered those
-tones which are produced by closing the lateral holes as additional
-intervals only, a variety of scales or kinds of _modes_ may have been
-contrived by the admission of one or other of these tones among the
-essential ones. If we may conjecture from some remarks of Garcilasso
-de la Vega, and other historians, the Peruvians appear to have used
-different orders of intervals for different kinds of tunes, in a way
-similar to what we find to be the case with certain Asiatic nations. We
-are told for instance “Each poem, or song, had its appropriate tune,
-and they could not put two different songs to one tune; and this was
-why the enamoured gallant, making music at night on his flute, with the
-tune which belonged to it, told the lady and all the world the joy or
-sorrow of his soul, the favour or ill-will which he possessed; so that
-it might be said that he spoke by the flute.” Thus also the Hindus have
-certain tunes for certain seasons and fixed occasions, and likewise a
-number of different modes or scales used for particular kinds of songs.
-
-Trumpets are often mentioned by writers who have recorded the manners
-and customs of the Indians at the time of the discovery of America.
-There are, however, scarcely any illustrations to be relied on of these
-instruments transmitted to us. The Conch was frequently used as a
-trumpet for conveying signals in war.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The engraving represents a kind of trumpet made of wood, and nearly
-seven feet in length, which Gumilla found among the Indians in the
-vicinity of the Orinoco. It somewhat resembles the _juruparis_, a
-mysterious instrument of the Indians on the Rio Haupés, a tributary
-of the Rio Negro, south America. The _juruparis_ is regarded as an
-object of great veneration. Women are never permitted to see it. So
-stringent is this law that any woman obtaining a sight of it is put to
-death--usually by poison. No youths are allowed to see it until they
-have been subjected to a series of initiatory fastings and scourgings.
-The _juruparis_ is usually kept hidden in the bed of some stream, deep
-in the forest; and no one dares to drink out of that sanctified stream,
-or to bathe in its water. At feasts the _juruparis_ is brought out
-during the night, and is blown outside the houses of entertainment.
-The inner portion of the instrument consists of a tube made of slips
-of the Paxiaba palm (_Triartea exorrhiza_). When the Indians are about
-to use the instrument they nearly close the upper end of the tube
-with clay, and also tie above the oblong square hole (shown in the
-engraving) a portion of the leaf of the Uaruma, one of the arrow-root
-family. Round the tube are wrapped long strips of the tough bark of the
-Jébaru (_Parivoa grandiflora_). This covering descends in folds below
-the tube. The length of the instrument is from four to five feet. The
-illustration, which exhibits the _juruparis_ with its cover and without
-it, has been taken from a specimen in the museum at Kew gardens. The
-mysteries connected with this trumpet are evidently founded on an old
-tradition from prehistoric Indian ancestors. _Jurupari_ means “demon”;
-and with several Indian tribes on the Amazon customs and ceremonies
-still prevail in honour of Jurupari.
-
-The Caroados, an Indian tribe in Brazil, have a war trumpet which
-closely resembles the _juruparis_. With this people it is the custom
-for the chief to give on his war trumpet the signal for battle, and to
-continue blowing as long as he wishes the battle to last. The trumpet
-is made of wood, and its sound is described by travellers as very deep
-but rather pleasant. The sound is easily produced, and its continuance
-does not require much exertion; but a peculiar vibration of the lips
-is necessary which requires practice. Another trumpet, the _turé_, is
-common with many Indian tribes on the Amazon who use it chiefly in war.
-It is made of a long and thick bamboo, and there is a split reed in the
-mouthpiece. It therefore partakes rather of the character of an oboe
-or clarinet. Its tone is described as loud and harsh. The _turé_ is
-especially used by the sentinels of predatory hordes, who, mounted on a
-lofty tree, give the signal of attack to their comrades.
-
-Again, the aborigines in Mexico had a curious contrivance of this kind,
-the _acocotl_, now more usually called _clarin_. The former word is
-its old Indian name, and the latter appears to have been first given
-to the instrument by the Spaniards. The _acocotl_ consists of a very
-thin tube from eight to ten feet in length, and generally not quite
-straight but with some irregular curves. This tube, which is often not
-thicker than a couple of inches in diameter, terminates at one end in
-a sort of bell, and has at the other end a small mouthpiece resembling
-in shape that of a clarinet. The tube is made of the dry stalk of a
-plant which is common in Mexico, and which likewise the Indians call
-_acocotl_. The most singular characteristic of the instrument is that
-the performer does not blow into it, but inhales the air through it; or
-rather, he produces the sound by sucking the mouthpiece. It is said to
-require strong lungs to perform on the _acocotl_ effectively according
-to Indian notions of taste.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _botuto_, which Gumilla saw used by some tribes near the river
-Orinoco (of which we engrave two examples), was evidently an ancient
-Indian contrivance, but appears to have fallen almost into oblivion
-during the last two centuries. It was made of baked clay and was
-commonly from three to four feet long: but some trumpets of this kind
-were of enormous size. The _botuto_ with two bellies was usually made
-thicker than that with three bellies and emitted a deeper sound, which
-is described as having been really terrific. These trumpets were used
-on occasions of mourning and funeral dances. Alexander von Humboldt saw
-the _botuto_ among some Indian tribes near the river Orinoco.
-
-Besides those which have been noticed, other antique wind instruments
-of the Indians are mentioned by historians; but the descriptions given
-of them are too superficial to convey a distinct notion as to their
-form and purport. Several of these barbarous contrivances scarcely
-deserve to be classed with musical instruments. This may, for instance,
-be said of certain musical jars or earthen vessels producing sounds,
-which the Peruvians constructed for their amusement. These vessels
-were made double; and the sounds imitated the cries of animals or
-birds. A similar contrivance of the Indians in Chili, preserved in
-the museum at Santiago, is described by the traveller S. S. Hill as
-follows:--“It consists of two earthen vessels in the form of our
-india-rubber bottles, but somewhat larger, with a flat tube from four
-to six inches in length, uniting their necks near the top and slightly
-curved upwards, and with a small hole on the upper side one third of
-the length of the tube from one side of the necks. To produce the
-sounds the bottles were filled with water and suspended to the bough
-of a tree, or to a beam, by a string attached to the middle of the
-curved tube, and then swung backwards and forwards in such a manner as
-to cause each end to be alternately the highest and lowest, so that
-the water might pass backwards and forwards from one bottle to the
-other through the tube between them. By this means soothing sounds were
-produced which, it is said, were employed to lull to repose the drowsy
-chiefs who usually slept away the hottest hours of the day. In the
-meantime, as the bottles were porous, the water within them diminished
-by evaporation, and the sound died gradually away.”
-
-[Illustration]
-
-As regards instruments of percussion, a kind of drum deserves special
-notice on account of the ingenuity evinced in its construction. The
-Mexicans called it _teponaztli_. They generally made it of a single
-block of very hard wood, somewhat oblong square in shape, which they
-hollowed, leaving at each end a solid piece about three or four inches
-in thickness, and at its upper side a kind of sound-board about a
-quarter of an inch in thickness. In this sound-board, if it may be
-called so, they made three incisions; namely, two running parallel some
-distance lengthwise of the drum, and a third running across from one
-of these to the other just in the centre. By this means they obtained
-two vibrating tongues of wood which, when beaten with a stick, produced
-sounds as clearly defined as are those of our kettle drums. By making
-one of the tongues thinner than the other they ensured two different
-sounds, the pitch of which they were enabled to regulate by shaving
-off more or less of the wood. The bottom of the drum they cut almost
-entirely open. The traveller, M. Nebel, was told by archæologists in
-Mexico that these instruments always contained the interval of a third,
-but on examining several specimens which he saw in museums he found
-some in which the two sounds stood towards each other in the relation
-of a fourth; while in others they constituted a fifth, in others a
-sixth, and in some even an octave. This is noteworthy in so far as it
-points to a conformity with our diatonic series of intervals, excepting
-the seventh.
-
-The _teponaztli_ (engraved above) was generally carved with various
-fanciful and ingenious designs. It was beaten with two drumsticks
-covered at the end with an elastic gum, called _ule_, which was
-obtained from the milky juice extracted from the ule-tree. Some of
-these drums were small enough to be carried on a string or strap
-suspended round the neck of the player; others, again, measured
-upwards of five feet in length, and their sound was so powerful that
-it could be heard at a distance of three miles. In some rare instances
-a specimen of the _teponaztli_ is still preserved by the Indians in
-Mexico, especially among tribes who have been comparatively but little
-affected by intercourse with their European aggressors. Herr Heller saw
-such an instrument in the hands of the Indians of Huatusco--a village
-near Mirador in the Tierra templada, or temperate region, occupying
-the slopes of the Cordilleras. Its sound is described as so very loud
-as to be distinctly audible at an incredibly great distance. This
-circumstance, which has been noticed by several travellers, may perhaps
-be owing in some measure to the condition of the atmosphere in Mexico.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Instruments of percussion constructed on a principle more or less
-similar to the _teponaztli_ were in use in several other parts of
-America, as well as in Mexico. Oviedo gives a drawing of a drum from
-San Domingo which, as it shows distinctly both the upper and under
-side of the instrument, is here inserted.
-
-The largest kind of Mexican _teponaztli_ appears to have been
-generally of a cylindrical shape. Clavigero gives a drawing of
-such an instrument. Drums, also, constructed of skin or parchment
-in combination with wood were not unknown to the Indians. Of this
-description was, for instance, the _huehuetl_ of the Aztecs in Mexico,
-which consisted, according to Clavigero, of a wooden cylinder somewhat
-above three feet in height, curiously carved and painted and covered
-at the top with carefully prepared deer-skin. And, what appears the
-most remarkable, the parchment (we are told) could be tightened or
-slackened by means of cords in nearly the same way as with our own
-drum. The _huehuetl_ was not beaten with drumsticks but merely struck
-with the fingers, and much dexterity was required to strike it in the
-proper manner. Oviedo states that the Indians in Cuba had drums which
-were stretched with human skin. And Bernal Diaz relates that when he
-was with Cortés in Mexico they ascended together the _Teocalli_ (“House
-of God”), a large temple in which human sacrifices were offered by
-the aborigines; and there the Spanish visitors saw a large drum which
-was made, Diaz tells us, with skins of great serpents. This “hellish
-instrument,” as he calls it, produced, when struck, a doleful sound
-which was so loud that it could be heard at a distance of two leagues.
-
-The name of the Peruvian drum was _huanca_: they had also an instrument
-of percussion, called _chhilchiles_, which appears to have been a sort
-of tambourine.
-
-The rattle was likewise popular with the Indians before the discovery
-of America. The Mexicans called it _ajacaxtli_. In construction it was
-similar to the rattle at the present day commonly used by the Indians.
-It was oval or round in shape, and appears to have been usually made
-of a gourd into which holes were pierced, and to which a wooden handle
-was affixed. A number of little pebbles were enclosed in the hollowed
-gourd. They were also made of pottery. The little balls in the
-_ajacaxtli_ of pottery, enclosed as they are, may at a first glance
-appear a puzzle. Probably, when the rattle was being formed they were
-attached to the inside as slightly as possible; and after the clay had
-been baked they were detached by means of an implement passed through
-the holes.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The Tezcucans (or Acolhuans) belonged to the same race as the Aztecs,
-whom they greatly surpassed in knowledge and social refinement.
-Nezahualcoyotl, a wise monarch of the Tezcucans, abhorred human
-sacrifices, and erected a large temple which he dedicated to “The
-unknown god, the cause of causes.” This edifice had a tower nine
-stories high, on the top of which were placed a number of musical
-instruments of various kinds which were used to summon the worshippers
-to prayer. Respecting these instruments especial mention is made
-of a sonorous metal which was struck with a mallet. This is stated
-in a historical essay written by Ixtlilxochitl, a native of Mexico
-and of royal descent, who lived in the beginning of the seventeenth
-century, and who may be supposed to have been familiar with the musical
-practices of his countrymen. But whether the sonorous metal alluded to
-was a gong or a bell is not clear from the vague record transmitted to
-us. That the bell was known to the Peruvians appears to be no longer
-doubtful, since a small copper specimen has been found in one of the
-old Peruvian tombs. This interesting relic is now deposited in the
-museum at Lima. M. de Castelnau has published a drawing of it, which
-is here reproduced. The Peruvians called their bells _chanrares_; it
-remains questionable whether this name did not designate rather the
-so-called horse bells, which were certainly known to the Mexicans
-who called them _yotl_. It is noteworthy that these _yotl_ are found
-figured in the picture-writings representing the various objects which
-the Aztecs used to pay as tribute to their sovereigns. The collection
-of Mexican antiquities in the British museum contains a cluster of
-yotl-bells. Being nearly round, they closely resemble the _Schellen_
-which the Germans are in the habit of affixing to their horses,
-particularly in the winter when they are driving their noiseless
-sledges.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Again, in south America sonorous stones are not unknown, and were used
-in olden time for musical purposes. The traveller G. T. Vigne saw
-among the Indian antiquities preserved in the town of Cuzco, in Peru,
-“a musical instrument of green sonorous stone, about a foot long, and
-an inch and a half wide, flat-sided, pointed at both ends, and arched
-at the back, where it was about a quarter of an inch thick, whence it
-diminished to an edge, like the blade of a knife.... In the middle of
-the back was a small hole, through which a piece of string was passed;
-and when suspended and struck by any hard substance a singularly
-musical note was produced.” Humboldt mentions the Amazon-stone, which
-on being struck by any hard substance yields a metallic sound. It was
-formerly cut by the American Indians into very thin plates, perforated
-in the centre and suspended by a string. These plates were remarkably
-sonorous. This kind of stone is not, as might be conjectured from its
-name, found exclusively near the Amazon. The name was given to it as
-well as to the river by the first European visitors to America, in
-allusion to the female warriors respecting whom strange stories are
-told. The natives pretending, according to an ancient tradition, that
-the stone came from the country of “Women without husbands,” or “Women
-living alone.”
-
-As regards the ancient stringed instruments of the American Indians
-our information is indeed but scanty. Clavigero says that the Mexicans
-were entirely unacquainted with stringed instruments: a statement
-the correctness of which is questionable, considering the stage of
-civilization to which these people had attained. At any rate, we
-generally find one or other kind of such instruments with nations
-whose intellectual progress and social condition are decidedly
-inferior. The Aztecs had many claims to the character of a civilized
-community and (as before said) the Tezcucans were even more advanced
-in the cultivation of the arts and sciences than the Aztecs. “The
-best histories,” Prescott observes, “the best poems, the best code
-of laws, the purest dialect, were all allowed to be Tezcucan. The
-Aztecs rivalled their neighbours in splendour of living, and even
-in the magnificence of their structures. They displayed a pomp and
-ostentatious pageantry, truly Asiatic.” Unfortunately historians
-are sometimes not sufficiently discerning in their communications
-respecting musical questions. J. Ranking, in describing the grandeur
-of the establishment maintained by Montezuma, says that during the
-repasts of this monarch “there was music of fiddle, flute, snail-shell,
-a kettle-drum, and other strange instruments.” But as this writer does
-not indicate the source whence he drew his information respecting
-Montezuma’s orchestra including the fiddle, the assertion deserves
-scarcely a passing notice.
-
-The Peruvians possessed a stringed instrument, called _tinya_, which
-was provided with five or seven strings. To conjecture from the
-unsatisfactory account of it transmitted to us, the _tinya_ appears to
-have been a kind of guitar. Considering the fragility of the materials
-of which such instruments are generally constructed, it is perhaps
-not surprising that we do not meet with any specimens of them in the
-museums of American antiquities.
-
-A few remarks will not be out of place here referring to the musical
-performances of the ancient Indians; since an acquaintance with the
-nature of the performances is likely to afford additional assistance
-in appreciating the characteristics of the instruments. In Peru, where
-the military system was carefully organised, each division of the army
-had its trumpeters, called _cqueppacamayo_, and its drummers, called
-_huancarcamayo_. When the Inca returned with his troops victorious from
-battle his first act was to repair to the temple of the Sun in order
-to offer up thanksgiving; and after the conclusion of this ceremony
-the people celebrated the event with festivities, of which music and
-dancing constituted a principal part. Musical performances appear to
-have been considered indispensable on occasions of public celebrations;
-and frequent mention is made of them by historians who have described
-the festivals annually observed by the Peruvians.
-
-About the month of October the Peruvians celebrated a solemn feast in
-honour of the dead, at which ceremony they executed lugubrious songs
-and plaintive instrumental music. Compositions of a similar character
-were performed on occasion of the decease of a monarch. As soon as it
-was made known to the people that their Inca had been “called home to
-the mansions of his father the sun” they prepared to celebrate his
-obsequies with becoming solemnity. Prescott, in his graphic description
-of these observances, says: “At stated intervals, for a year, the
-people assembled to renew the expressions of their sorrow; processions
-were made displaying the banner of the departed monarch; bards and
-minstrels were appointed to chronicle his achievements, and their songs
-continued to be rehearsed at high festivals in the presence of the
-reigning monarch,--thus stimulating the living by the glorious example
-of the dead.” The Peruvians had also particular agricultural songs,
-which they were in the habit of singing while engaged in tilling the
-lands of the Inca; a duty which devolved upon the whole nation. The
-subject of these songs, or rather hymns, referred especially to the
-noble deeds and glorious achievements of the Inca and his dynasty.
-While thus singing, the labourers regulated their work to the rhythm
-of the music, thereby ensuring a pleasant excitement and a stimulant in
-their occupation, like soldiers regulating their steps to the music of
-the military band. These hymns pleased the Spanish invaders so greatly
-that they not only adopted several of them but also composed some in a
-similar form and style. This appears, however, to have been the case
-rather with the poetry than with the music.
-
-The name of the Peruvian elegiac songs was _haravi_. Some tunes of
-these songs, pronounced to be genuine specimens, have been published
-in recent works; but their genuineness is questionable. At all events
-they must have been much tampered with, as they exhibit exactly the
-form of the Spanish _bolero_. Even allowing that the melodies of
-these compositions have been derived from Peruvian _harivaris_, it is
-impossible to determine with any degree of certainty how much in them
-has been retained of the original tunes, and how much has been supplied
-besides the harmony, which is entirely an addition of the European
-arranger. The Peruvians had minstrels, called _haravecs_ (_i.e._,
-“inventors”), whose occupation it was to compose and to recite the
-_haravis_.
-
-The Mexicans possessed a class of songs which served as a record
-of historical events. Furthermore they had war-songs, love-songs,
-and other secular vocal compositions, as well as sacred chants, in
-the practice of which boys were instructed by the priests in order
-that they might assist in the musical performances of the temple.
-It appertained to the office of the priests to burn incense, and
-to perform music in the temple at stated times of the day. The
-commencement of the religious observances which took place regularly
-at sunrise, at mid-day, at sunset, and at midnight, was announced by
-signals blown on trumpets and pipes. Persons of high position retained
-in their service professional musicians whose duty it was to compose
-ballads, and to perform vocal music with instrumental accompaniment.
-The nobles themselves, and occasionally even the monarch, not
-unfrequently delighted in composing ballads and odes.
-
-Especially to be noticed is the institution termed “Council of music,”
-which the wise monarch Nezahualcoyotl founded in Tezcuco. This
-institution was not intended exclusively for promoting the cultivation
-of music; its aim comprised the advancement of various arts, and of
-sciences such as history, astronomy, &c. In fact, it was an academy
-for general education. Probably no better evidence could be cited
-testifying to the remarkable intellectual attainments of the Mexican
-Indians before the discovery of America than this council of music.
-Although in some respects it appears to have resembled the board of
-music of the Chinese, it was planned on a more enlightened and more
-comprehensive principle. The Chinese “board of music,” called _Yo
-Poo_, is an office connected with the _Lé Poo_ or “board of rites,”
-established by the imperial government at Peking. The principal object
-of the board of rites is to regulate the ceremonies on occasions
-of sacrifices offered to the gods; of festivals and certain court
-solemnities; of military reviews; of presentations, congratulations,
-marriages, deaths, burials,--in short, concerning almost every possible
-event in social and public life.
-
-The reader is probably aware that in one of the various hypotheses
-which have been advanced respecting the Asiatic origin of the American
-Indians China is assigned to them as their ancient home. Some
-historians suppose them to be emigrants from Mongolia, Thibet, or
-Hindustan; others maintain that they are the offspring of Phœnician
-colonists who settled in central America. Even more curious are the
-arguments of certain inquirers who have no doubt whatever that the
-ancestors of the American Indians were the lost ten tribes of Israel,
-of whom since about the time of the Babylonian captivity history is
-silent. Whatever may be thought as to which particular one of these
-speculations hits the truth, they certainly have all proved useful
-in so far as they have made ethnologists more exactly acquainted with
-the habits and predilections of the American aborigines than would
-otherwise have been the case. For, as the advocates of each hypothesis
-have carefully collected and adduced every evidence they were able
-to obtain tending to support their views, the result is that (so to
-say) no stone has been left unturned. Nevertheless, any such hints as
-suggest themselves from an examination of musical instruments have
-hitherto remained unheeded. It may therefore perhaps interest the
-reader to have his attention drawn to a few suggestive similarities
-occurring between instruments of the American Indians and of certain
-nations inhabiting the eastern hemisphere.
-
-We have seen that the Mexican pipe and the Peruvian syrinx were
-purposely constructed so as to produce the intervals of the pentatonic
-scale only. There are some additional indications of this scale having
-been at one time in use with the American Indians. For instance, the
-music of the Peruvian dance _cachua_ is described as having been very
-similar to some Scotch national dances; and the most conspicuous
-characteristics of the Scotch tunes are occasioned by the frequently
-exclusive employment of intervals appertaining to the pentatonic scale.
-We find precisely the same series of intervals adopted on certain
-Chinese instruments, and evidences are not wanting of the pentatonic
-scale having been popular among various races in Asia at a remote
-period. The series of intervals appertaining to the Chiriqui pipe,
-mentioned page 61, consisted of a semitone and two whole tones, like
-the _tetrachord_ of the ancient Greeks.
-
-In the Peruvian _huayra-puhura_ made of talc some of the pipes possess
-lateral holes. This contrivance, which is rather unusual, occurs on the
-Chinese _cheng_. The _chayna_, mentioned page 64, seems to have been
-provided with a reed, like the oboe: and in Hindustan we find a species
-of oboe called _shehna_. The _turé_ of the Indian tribes on the Amazon,
-mentioned page 69, reminds us of the trumpets _tooree_, or _tootooree_,
-of the Hindus. The name appears to have been known also to the Arabs;
-but there is no indication whatever of its having been transmitted to
-the peninsula by the Moors, and afterwards to south America by the
-Portuguese and Spaniards.
-
-The wooden tongues in the drum _teponaztli_ may be considered as a
-contrivance exclusively of the ancient American Indians. Nevertheless
-a construction nearly akin to it may be observed in certain drums of
-the Tonga and Feejee islanders, and of the natives of some islands
-in Torres strait. Likewise some negro tribes in western and central
-Africa have certain instruments of percussion which are constructed on
-a principle somewhat reminding us of the _teponaztli_. The method of
-bracing the drum by means of cords, as exhibited in the _huehueil_ of
-the Mexican Indians, is evidently of very high antiquity in the east.
-It was known to the ancient Egyptians.
-
-Rattles, pandean pipes made of reed, and conch trumpets, are found
-almost all over the world, wherever the materials of which they are
-constructed are easily obtainable. Still, it may be noteworthy that
-the Mexicans employed the conch trumpet in their religious observances
-apparently in much the same way as it is used in the Buddhist worship
-of the Thibetans and Kalmuks.
-
-As regards the sonorous metal in the great temple at Tezcuco some
-inquirers are sure that it was a gong: but it must be borne in mind
-that these inquirers detect everywhere traces proving an invasion of
-the Mongols, which they maintain to have happened about six hundred
-years ago. Had they been acquainted with the little Peruvian bell
-(engraved on page 75) they would have had more tangible musical
-evidence in support of their theory than the supposed gong; for this
-bell certainly bears a suggestive resemblance to the little hand-bell
-which the Buddhists use in their religious ceremonies.
-
-The Peruvians interpolated certain songs, especially those which they
-were in the habit of singing while cultivating the fields, with the
-word _hailli_ which signified “Triumph.” As the subject of these
-compositions was principally the glorification of the Inca, the burden
-_hailli_ is perhaps all the more likely to remind Europeans of the
-Hebrew _hallelujah_. Moreover, Adair, who lived among the Indians of
-north America during a period of about forty years, speaks of some
-other words which he found used as burdens in hymns sung on solemn
-occasions, and which appeared to him to correspond with certain Hebrew
-words of a sacred import.
-
-As regards the musical accomplishments of the Indian tribes at the
-present day they are far below the standard which we have found among
-their ancestors. A period of three hundred years of oppression has
-evidently had the effect of subduing the melodious expressions of
-happiness and contentedness which in former times appear to have
-been quite as prevalent with the Indians as they generally are with
-independent and flourishing nations. The innate talent for music
-evinced by those of the North American Indians who were converted to
-Christianity soon after the emigration of the puritans to New England
-is very favourably commented on by some old writers. In the year 1661
-John Elliot published a translation of the psalms into Indian verse.
-The singing of these metrical psalms by the Indian converts in their
-places of worship appears to have been actually superior to the sacred
-vocal performances of their Christian brethren from Europe; for we find
-it described by several witnesses as “excellent” and “most ravishing.”
-
-In other parts of America the catholic priests from Spain did not
-neglect to turn to account the susceptibility of the Indians for
-music. Thus, in central America the Dominicans composed as early as in
-the middle of the sixteenth century a sacred poem in the Guatemalian
-dialect containing a narrative of the most important events recorded
-in the Bible. This production they sang to the natives, and to enhance
-the effect they accompanied the singing with musical instruments. The
-alluring music soon captivated the heart of a powerful cazique, who
-was thus induced to adopt the doctrines embodied in the composition,
-and to diffuse them among his subjects who likewise delighted in the
-performances. In Peru a similar experiment, resorted to by the priests
-who accompanied Pizarro’s expedition, proved equally successful. They
-dramatized certain scenes in the life of Christ and represented them
-with music, which so greatly fascinated the Indians that many of them
-readily embraced the new faith. Nor are these entertainments dispensed
-with even at the present day by the Indian Christians, especially
-in the village churches of the Sierra in Peru; and as several
-religious ceremonies have been retained by these people from their
-heathen forefathers, it may be conjectured that their sacred musical
-performances also retain much of their ancient heathen character.
-
-Most of the musical instruments found among the American Indians at
-the present day are evidently genuine old Indian contrivances as they
-existed long before the discovery of America. Take, for example, the
-peculiarly shaped rattles, drums, flutes, and whistles of the North
-American Indians, of which some specimens in the Kensington museum are
-described in the large catalogue. A few African instruments, introduced
-by the negro slaves, are now occasionally found in the hands of the
-Indians, and have been by some travellers erroneously described as
-genuine Indian inventions. This is the case with the African _marimba_,
-which has become rather popular with the natives of Guatemala in
-central America: but such adaptations are very easily discernible.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VII.
-
-
-EUROPEAN NATIONS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES.
-
-Many representations of musical instruments of the middle ages have
-been preserved in manuscripts, as well as in sculptures and paintings
-forming ornamental portions of churches and other buildings. Valuable
-facts and hints are obtainable from these evidences, provided they
-are judiciously selected and carefully examined. The subject is,
-however, so large that only a few observations on the most interesting
-instruments can be offered here. Unfortunately there still prevails
-much uncertainty respecting several of the earliest representations
-as to the precise century from which they date, and there is reason
-to believe that in some instances the archæological zeal of musical
-investigators has assigned a higher antiquity to such discoveries than
-can be satisfactorily proved.
-
-It appears certain that the most ancient European instruments known to
-us were in form and construction more like the Asiatic than was the
-case with later ones. Before a nation has attained to a rather high
-degree of civilisation its progress in the cultivation of music, as an
-art, is very slow indeed. The instruments found at the present day in
-Asia are scarcely superior to those which were in use among oriental
-nations about three thousand years ago. It is, therefore, perhaps
-not surprising that no material improvement is perceptible in the
-construction of the instruments of European countries during the lapse
-of nearly a thousand years. True, evidences to be relied on referring
-to the first five or six centuries of the Christian era are but scanty;
-although indications are not wanting which may help the reflecting
-musician.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-There are some early monuments of Christian art dating from the fourth
-century in which the lyre is represented. In one of them Christ is
-depicted as Apollo touching the lyre. This instrument occurs at an
-early period in western Europe as used in popular pastimes. In an
-Anglo-saxon manuscript of the ninth century in the British museum
-(Cleopatra C. VIII.) are the figures of two gleemen, one playing the
-lyre and the other a double-pipe. M. de Coussemaker has published in
-the “Annales Archéologiques” the figure of a crowned personage playing
-the lyre, which he found in a manuscript of the ninth or tenth century
-in the library at Angers. The player twangs the strings with his
-fingers, while the Anglo-saxon gleeman before mentioned uses a plectrum.
-
-_Cithara_ was a name applied to several stringed instruments greatly
-varying in form, power of sound, and compass. The illustration
-represents a cithara from a manuscript of the ninth century, formerly
-in the library of the great monastery of St. Blasius in the Black
-Forest. When in the year 1768 the monastery was destroyed by fire, this
-valuable book perished in the flames; fortunately the celebrated abbot
-Gerbert possessed tracings of the illustrations, which were saved from
-destruction. He published them, in the year 1774, in his work “De cantu
-et musica sacra.” Several illustrations in the following pages, it
-will be seen, have been derived from this interesting source. As the
-older works on music were generally written in Latin we do not learn
-from them the popular names of the instruments; the writers merely
-adopted such Latin names as they thought the most appropriate. Thus,
-for instance, a very simple stringed instrument of a triangular shape,
-and a somewhat similar one of a square shape were designated by the
-name of _psalterium_; and we further give a woodcut of the square kind
-(p. 86), and of a _cithara_ (above) from the same manuscript.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-This last instrument is evidently an improvement upon the triangular
-psalterium, because it has a sort of small sound-board at the top.
-Scarcely better, with regard to acoustics, appears to have been the
-instrument designated as _nablum_, which we engrave (p. 87) from a
-manuscript of the ninth century at Angers.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A small psalterium with strings placed over a sound-board was
-apparently the prototype of the _citole_; a kind of dulcimer which was
-played with the fingers. The names were not only often vaguely applied
-by the mediæval writers but they changed also in almost every century.
-The psalterium, or psalterion (Italian _salterio_, English _psaltery_),
-of the fourteenth century and later had the trapezium shape of the
-dulcimer.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The Anglo-saxons frequently accompanied their vocal effusions with a
-harp, more or less triangular in shape,--an instrument which may be
-considered rather as constituting the transition of the lyre into the
-harp. The representation of king David playing the harp is from an
-Anglo-saxon manuscript of the beginning of the eleventh century, in
-the British museum. The harp was especially popular in central and
-northern Europe, and was the favourite instrument of the German and
-Celtic bards and of the Scandinavian skalds. In the next illustration
-from the manuscript of the monastery of St. Blasius twelve strings
-and two sound holes are given to it. A harp similar in form and size,
-but without the front pillar, was known to the ancient Egyptians.
-Perhaps the addition was also non-existent in the earliest specimens
-appertaining to European nations; and a sculptured figure of a small
-harp constructed like the ancient eastern harp has been discovered in
-the old church of Ullard in the county of Kilkenny. Of this curious
-relic, which is said to date from a period anterior to the year 800, a
-fac-simile taken from Bunting’s “Ancient Music of Ireland” is given (p.
-91). As Bunting was the first who drew attention to this sculpture his
-account of it may interest the reader. “The drawing” he says “is taken
-from one of the ornamental compartments of a sculptured cross, at the
-old church of Ullard. From the style of the workmanship, as well as
-from the worn condition of the cross, it seems older than the similar
-monument at Monasterboice which is known to have been set up before the
-year 830. The sculpture is rude; the circular rim which binds the arms
-of the cross together is not pierced in the quadrants, and many of the
-figures originally in relievo are now wholly abraded. It is difficult
-to determine whether the number of strings represented is six or seven;
-but, as has been already remarked, accuracy in this respect cannot be
-expected either in sculptures or in many picturesque drawings.” The
-Finns had a harp (_harpu_, _kantele_) with a similar frame, devoid of
-a front pillar, still in use until the commencement of the present
-century.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-One of the most interesting stringed instruments of the middle ages
-is the _rotta_ (German, _rotte_; English, _rote_). It was sounded by
-twanging the strings, and also by the application of the bow. The first
-method was, of course, the elder one. There can hardly be a doubt
-that when the bow came into use it was applied to certain popular
-instruments which previously had been treated like the _cithara_ or
-the _psalterium_. The Hindus at the present day use their _suroda_
-sometimes as a lute and sometimes as a fiddle. In some measure we
-do the same with the violin by playing occasionally _pizzicato_. The
-_rotta_ (shown p. 91) from the manuscript of St. Blasius is called in
-Gerbert’s work _cithara teutonica_, while the harp is called _cithara
-anglica_; from which it would appear that the former was regarded as
-pre-eminently a German instrument. Possibly its name may have been
-originally _chrotta_ and the continental nations may have adopted it
-from the Celtic races of the British isles, dropping the guttural
-sound. This hypothesis is, however, one of those which have been
-advanced by some musical historians without any satisfactory evidence.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-We engrave also another representation of David playing on the
-_rotta_, from a psalter of the seventh century in the British museum
-(Cott. Vesp. A. I). According to tradition, this psalter is one of
-the manuscripts which were sent by pope Gregory to St. Augustine.
-The instrument much resembles the lyre in the hand of the musician
-(see p. 22) who is supposed to be a Hebrew of the time of Joseph. In
-the _rotta_ the ancient Asiatic lyre is easily to be recognized. An
-illumination of king David playing the _rotta_ forms the frontispiece
-of a manuscript of the eighth century preserved in the cathedral
-library of Durham; and which is musically interesting inasmuch as
-it represents a _rotta_ of an oblong square shape like that just
-noticed and resembling the Welsh _crwth_. It has only five strings
-which the performer twangs with his fingers. Again, a very interesting
-representation (which we engrave) of the Psalmist with a kind of
-_rotta_ occurs in a manuscript of the tenth century, in the British
-museum (Vitellius F. XI.). The manuscript has been much injured by
-a fire in the year 1731, but Professor Westwood has succeeded, with
-great care, and with the aid of a magnifying glass, in making out
-the lines of the figure. As it has been ascertained that the psalter
-is written in the Irish semi-uncial character it is highly probable
-that the kind of _rotta_ represents the Irish _cionar cruit_, which
-was played by twanging the strings and also by the application of a
-bow. Unfortunately we possess no well-authenticated representation
-of the Welsh _crwth_ of an early period; otherwise we should in all
-probability find it played with the fingers, or with a plectrum.
-Venantius Fortunatus, an Italian who lived in the second half of the
-sixth century, mentions in a poem the “Chrotta Britanna.” He does
-not, however, allude to the bow, and there is no reason to suppose
-that it existed in England. Howbeit, the Welsh _crwth_ (Anglo-saxon,
-_crudh_; English, _crowd_) is only known as a species of fiddle closely
-resembling the _rotta_, but having a finger-board in the middle of the
-open frame and being strung with only a few strings; while the _rotta_
-had sometimes above twenty strings. As it may interest the reader to
-examine the form of the modern _crwth_ we give a woodcut of it. Edward
-Jones, in his “Musical and poetical relicks of the Welsh bards,”
-records that the Welsh had before this kind of _crwth_ a three-stringed
-one called “Crwth Trithant,” which was, he says, “a sort of violin, or
-more properly a rebeck.” The three-stringed _crwth_ was chiefly used by
-the inferior class of bards; and was probably the Moorish fiddle which
-is still the favourite instrument of the itinerant bards of the Bretons
-in France, who call it _rébek_. The Bretons, it will be remembered, are
-close kinsmen of the Welsh.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-A player on the _crwth_ or _crowd_ (a crowder) from a bas-relief on the
-under part of the seats of the choir in Worcester cathedral (engraved
-p. 95) dates from the twelfth or thirteenth century; and we give (p.
-96) a copy of an illumination from a manuscript in the Bibliothèque
-royale at Paris of the eleventh century. The player wears a crown on
-his head; and in the original some musicians placed at his side are
-performing on the psalterium and other instruments. These last are
-figured with uncovered heads; whence M. de Coussemaker concludes that
-the _crout_ was considered by the artist who drew the figures as the
-noblest instrument. It was probably identical with the _rotta_ of the
-same century on the continent.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-An interesting drawing of an Anglo-saxon fiddle--or _fithele_, as it
-was called--is given in a manuscript of the eleventh century in the
-British museum (Cotton, Tiberius, c. 6). The instrument is of a pear
-shape, with four strings, and the bridge is not indicated. A German
-fiddle of the ninth century, called _lyra_, copied by Gerbert from the
-manuscript of St. Blasius, has only one string. These are shown in the
-woodcuts (p. 97). Other records of the employment of the fiddle-bow
-in Germany in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are not wanting.
-For instance, in the famous ‘Nibelungenlied’ Volker is described as
-wielding the fiddle-bow not less dexterously than the sword. And in
-‘Chronicon picturatum Brunswicense’ of the year 1203, the following
-miraculous sign is recorded as having occurred in the village of
-Ossemer: “On Wednesday in Whitsun-week, while the parson was fiddling
-to his peasants who were dancing, there came a flash of lightning
-and struck the parson’s arm which held the fiddle-bow, and killed
-twenty-four people on the spot.”
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Among the oldest representations of performers on instruments of the
-violin kind found in England those deserve to be noticed which are
-painted on the interior of the roof of Peterborough cathedral. They
-are said to date from the twelfth century. One of these figures is
-particularly interesting on account of the surprising resemblance which
-his instrument bears to our present violin. Not only the incurvations
-on the sides of the body but also the two sound-holes are nearly
-identical in shape with those made at the present day. Respecting the
-reliance to be placed on such evidence, it is necessary to state that
-the roof, originally constructed between the years 1177 and 1194, was
-thoroughly repaired in the year 1835. Although we find it asserted that
-“the greatest care was taken to retain every part, or to restore it
-to its original state, so that the figures, even where retouched, are
-in effect the same as when first painted,” it nevertheless remains a
-debatable question whether the restorers have not admitted some slight
-alterations, and have thereby somewhat modernised the appearance of
-the instruments. A slight touch with the brush at the sound-holes, the
-screws, or the curvatures, would suffice to produce modifications which
-might to the artist appear as being only a renovation of the original
-representation, but which to the musical investigator greatly impair
-the value of the evidence. Sculptures are, therefore, more to be
-relied upon in evidence than frescoes.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VIII.
-
-
-The construction of the _organistrum_ requires but little explanation.
-A glance at the finger-board reveals at once that the different
-tones were obtained by raising the keys placed on the neck under the
-strings, and that the keys were raised by means of the handles at
-the side of the neck. Of the two bridges shown on the body, the one
-situated nearest the middle was formed by a wheel in the inside, which
-projected through the sound-board. The wheel which slightly touched
-the strings vibrated them by friction when turned by the handle at
-the end. The order of intervals was _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_, _a_,
-_b-flat_, _b-natural_, _c_, and were obtainable on the highest string.
-There is reason to suppose that the other two strings were generally
-tuned a fifth and an octave below the highest. The _organistrum_ may
-be regarded as the predecessor of the hurdy-gurdy, and was a rather
-cumbrous contrivance. Two persons seem to have been required to sound
-it, one to turn the handle and the other to manage the keys. Thus it is
-generally represented in mediæval concerts.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _monochord_ (p. 100) was mounted with a single string stretched
-over two bridges which were fixed on an oblong box. The string could be
-tightened or slackened by means of a turning screw inserted into one
-end of the box. The intervals of the scale were marked on the side, and
-were regulated by a sort of movable bridge placed beneath the string
-when required. As might be expected, the _monochord_ was chiefly used
-by theorists; for any musical performance it was but little suitable.
-About a thousand years ago when this monochord was in use the musical
-scale was diatonic, with the exception of the interval of the seventh,
-which was chromatic inasmuch as both _b-flat_ and _b-natural_ formed
-part of the scale. The notation on the preceding page exhibits the
-compass as well as the order of intervals adhered to about the tenth
-century.
-
-This ought to be borne in mind in examining the representations of
-musical instruments transmitted to us from that period.
-
-As regards the wind instruments popular during the middle ages, some
-were of quaint form as well as of rude construction.
-
-The _chorus_, or _choron_, had either one or two tubes, as in the
-woodcut page 101. There were several varieties of this instrument;
-sometimes it was constructed with a bladder into which the tube is
-inserted; this kind of _chorus_ resembled the bagpipe; another kind
-resembled the _poongi_ of the Hindus, mentioned page 51. The name
-_chorus_ was also applied to certain stringed instruments. One of
-these had much the form of the _cithara_, page 86. It appears however,
-probable that _chorus_ or _choron_ originally designated a horn
-(Hebrew, _Keren_; Greek, _Keras_; Latin, _cornu_).
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The flutes of the middle ages were blown at the end, like the
-flageolet. Of the _syrinx_ there are extant some illustrations of the
-ninth and tenth centuries, which exhibit the instrument with a number
-of tubes tied together, just like the Pandean pipe still in use. In one
-specimen engraved (page 102) from a manuscript of the eleventh century
-the tubes were inserted into a bowl-shaped box. This is probably the
-_frestele_, _fretel_, or _fretiau_, which in the twelfth and thirteenth
-centuries was in favour with the French ménétriers.
-
-Some large Anglo-saxon trumpets may be seen in a manuscript of the
-eighth century in the British museum. The largest kind of trumpet was
-placed on a stand when blown. Of the _oliphant_, or hunting horn, some
-fine specimens are in the South Kensington collection. The _sackbut_
-(of which we give a woodcut) probably made of metal, could be drawn
-out to alter the pitch of sound. The sackbut of the ninth century had,
-however, a very different shape to that in use about three centuries
-ago, and much more resembled the present _trombone_. The name _sackbut_
-is supposed to be a corruption of _sambuca_. The French, about the
-fifteenth century, called it _sacqueboute_ and _saquebutte_.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The most important wind instrument--in fact, the king of all the
-musical instruments--is the organ.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _pneumatic organ_ is sculptured on an obelisk which was erected
-in Constantinople under Theodosius the great, towards the end of the
-fourth century. The bellows were pressed by men standing on them:
-see page 103. This interesting monument also exhibits performers on
-the double flute. The _hydraulic organ_, which is recorded to have
-been already known about two hundred years before the Christian era,
-was according to some statements occasionally employed in churches
-during the earlier centuries of the middle ages. Probably it was more
-frequently heard in secular entertainments for which it was more
-suitable; and at the beginning of the fourteenth century appears to
-have been entirely supplanted by the pneumatic organ. The earliest
-organs had only about a dozen pipes. The largest, which were made
-about nine hundred years ago, had only three octaves, in which the
-chromatic intervals did not occur. Some progress in the construction
-of the organ is exhibited in an illustration (engraved p. 104) dating
-from the twelfth century, in a psalter of Eadwine, in the library of
-Trinity college, Cambridge. The instrument has ten pipes, or perhaps
-fourteen, as four of them appear to be double pipes. It required four
-men exerting all their power to produce the necessary wind, and two men
-to play the instrument. Moreover, both players seem also to be busily
-engaged in directing the blowers about the proper supply of wind. Six
-men and only fourteen pipes! It must be admitted that since the twelfth
-century some progress has been made, at all events, in the construction
-of the organ.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The pedal is generally believed to have been invented by Bernhard, a
-German, who lived in Venice about the year 1470. There are, however,
-indications extant pointing to an earlier date of its invention.
-Perhaps Bernhard was the first who, by adopting a more practicable
-construction, made the pedal more generally known. On the earliest
-organs the keys of the finger-board were of enormous size, compared
-with those of the present day; so that a finger-board with only nine
-keys had a breadth of from four to five feet. The organist struck the
-keys down with his fist, as is done in playing the _carillon_ still in
-use on the continent, of which presently some account will be given.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Of the little portable organ, known as the _regal_ or _regals_,
-often tastefully shaped and embellished, some interesting sculptured
-representations are still extant in the old ecclesiastical edifices
-of England and Scotland. There is, for instance, in Beverley minster
-a figure of a man playing on a single regal, or a regal provided
-with only one set of pipes; and in Melrose abbey the figure of an
-angel holding in his arms a double regal, the pipes of which are in
-two sets. The regal generally had keys like those of the organ but
-smaller. A painting in the national Gallery, by Melozzo da Forli
-who lived in the fifteenth century, contains a regal which has keys
-of a peculiar shape, rather resembling the pistons of certain brass
-instruments. The illustration has been drawn from that painting.
-To avoid misapprehension, it is necessary to mention that the name
-_regal_ (or _regals_, _rigols_) was also applied to an instrument
-of percussion with sonorous slabs of wood. This contrivance was, in
-short, a kind of harmonica, resembling in shape as well as in the
-principle of its construction the little glass harmonica, a mere toy,
-in which slips of glass are arranged according to our musical scale.
-In England it appears to have been still known in the beginning of the
-eighteenth century. Grassineau describes the “Rigols” as “a kind of
-musical instrument consisting of several sticks bound together, only
-separated by beads. It makes a tolerable harmony, being well struck
-with a ball at the end of a stick.” In the earlier centuries of the
-middle ages there appear to have been some instruments of percussion in
-favour, to which Grassineau’s expression “a tolerable harmony” would
-scarcely have been applicable. Drums, of course, were known; and their
-rhythmical noise must have been soft music, compared with the shrill
-sounds of the _cymbalum_; a contrivance consisting of a number of metal
-plates suspended on cords, so that they could be clashed together
-simultaneously; or with the clangour of the _cymbalum_ constructed
-with bells instead of plates; or with the piercing noise of the
-_bunibulum_, or _bombulom_; an instrument which consisted of an angular
-frame to which were loosely attached metal plates of various shapes
-and sizes. The lower part of the frame constituted the handle: and to
-produce the noise it evidently was shaken somewhat like the sistrum of
-the ancient Egyptians. We give woodcuts of the three instruments.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _triangle_ nearly resembled the instrument of this name in use
-at the present day; it was more elegant in shape and had some metal
-ornamentation in the middle.
-
-The _tintinnabulum_ consisted of a number of bells arranged in regular
-order and suspended in a frame.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IX.
-
-
-Respecting the orchestras, or musical bands, represented on monuments
-of the middle ages, there can hardly be a doubt that the artists who
-sculptured them were not unfrequently led by their imagination rather
-than by an adherence to actual fact. It is, however, not likely that
-they introduced into such representations instruments that were never
-admitted in the orchestras, and which would have appeared inappropriate
-to the contemporaries of the artists. An examination of one or two
-of the orchestras may therefore find a place here, especially as
-they throw some additional light upon the characteristics of the
-instrumental music of mediæval time.
-
-A very interesting group of music performers dating, it is said, from
-the end of the eleventh century is preserved in a bas-relief which
-formerly ornamented the abbey of St. Georges de Boscherville and which
-is now removed to the museum of Rouen. The orchestra comprises twelve
-performers, most of whom wear a crown. The first of them plays upon
-a viol, which he holds between his knees as the violoncello is held.
-His instrument is scarcely as large as the smallest viola da gamba. By
-his side are a royal lady and her attendant, the former playing on an
-_organistrum_ of which the latter is turning the wheel. Next to these
-is represented a performer on a _syrinx_ of the kind shown in the
-engraving p. 112; and next to him a performer on a stringed instrument
-resembling a lute, which, however, is too much dilapidated to be
-recognisable. Then we have a musician with a small stringed instrument
-resembling the _nablum_, p. 87. The next musician, also represented as
-a royal personage, plays on a small species of harp. Then follows a
-crowned musician playing the viol which he holds in almost precisely
-the same manner as the violin is held. Again, another, likewise
-crowned, plays upon a harp, using with the right hand a plectrum
-and with the left hand merely his fingers. The last two performers,
-apparently a gentleman and a gentlewoman, are engaged in striking the
-_tintinnabulum_,--a set of bells in a frame.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-In this group of crowned minstrels the sculptor has introduced a
-tumbler standing on his head, perhaps the vocalist of the company, as
-he has no instrument to play upon. Possibly the sculptor desired to
-symbolise the hilarious effects which music is capable of producing, as
-well as its elevating influence upon the devotional feelings.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The two positions in which we find the viol held is worthy of notice,
-inasmuch as it refers the inquirer further back than might be expected
-for the origin of our peculiar method of holding the violin, and the
-violoncello, in playing. There were several kinds of the viol in use
-differing in size and in compass of sound. The most common number of
-strings was five, and it was tuned in various ways. One kind had a
-string tuned to the note [Illustration] running at the side of the
-finger-board instead of over it; this string was, therefore, only
-capable of producing a single tone. The four other strings were tuned
-thus: [Illustration] Two other species, on which all the strings
-were placed over the finger-board, were tuned: [Illustration] and:
-[Illustration] The woodcut above represents a very beautiful _vielle_;
-French, of about 1550, with monograms of Henry II. This is at South
-Kensington.
-
-The contrivance of placing a string or two at the side of the
-finger-board is evidently very old, and was also gradually adopted on
-other instruments of the violin class of a somewhat later period than
-that of the _vielle_; for instance, on the _lira di braccio_ of the
-Italians. It was likewise adopted on the lute, to obtain a fuller power
-in the bass; and hence arose the _theorbo_, the _archlute_, and other
-varieties of the old lute.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-  A. REID. DEL.
-
-ORCHESTRA, TWELFTH CENTURY, AT SANTIAGO.]
-
-A grand assemblage of musical performers is represented on the
-Portico della gloria of the famous pilgrimage church of Santiago da
-Compostella, in Spain. This triple portal, which is stated by an
-inscription on the lintel to have been executed in the year 1188,
-consists of a large semicircular arch with a smaller arch on either
-side. The central arch is filled by a tympanum, round which are
-twenty-four life-sized seated figures, in high relief, representing the
-twenty-four elders seen by St. John in the Apocalypse, each with an
-instrument of music. These instruments are carefully represented and
-are of great interest as showing those in use in Spain at about the
-twelfth century. A cast of this sculpture is in the Kensington museum.
-
-In examining the group of musicians on this sculpture the reader will
-probably recognise several instruments in their hands, which are
-identical with those already described in the preceding pages. The
-_organistrum_, played by two persons, is placed in the centre of the
-group, perhaps owing to its being the largest of the instruments rather
-than that it was distinguished by any superiority in sound or musical
-effect. Besides the small harp seen in the hands of the eighth and
-nineteenth musicians (in form nearly identical with the Anglo-saxon
-harp) we find a small triangular harp, without a front-pillar, held on
-the lap by the fifth and eighteenth musicians. The _salterio_ on the
-lap of the tenth and seventeenth musicians resembles the dulcimer, but
-seems to be played with the fingers instead of with hammers. The most
-interesting instrument in this orchestra is the _vihuela_, or Spanish
-viol, of the twelfth century. The first, second, third, sixth, seventh,
-ninth, twentieth, twenty-second, twenty-third, and twenty-fourth
-musicians are depicted with a _vihuela_ which bears a close resemblance
-to the _rebec_. The instrument is represented with three strings,
-although in one or two instances five tuning-pegs are indicated. A
-large species of _vihuela_ is given to the eleventh, fourteenth,
-fifteenth, and sixteenth musicians. This instrument differs from the
-_rebec_ in as far as its body is broader and has incurvations at the
-sides. Also the sound-holes are different in form and position. The bow
-does not occur with any of these viols. But, as will be observed, the
-musicians are not represented in the act of playing; they are tuning
-and preparing for the performance, and the second of them is adjusting
-the bridge of his instrument.
-
-[Illustration: FRONT OF THE MINSTRELS’ GALLERY, EXETER CATHEDRAL. XIVth
-century.]
-
-The minstrels’ gallery of Exeter cathedral dates from the fourteenth
-century. The front is divided into twelve niches, each of which
-contains a winged figure or an angel playing on an instrument of music.
-There is a cast also of this famous sculpture at South Kensington. The
-instruments are so much dilapidated that some of them cannot be clearly
-recognized; but, as far as may be ascertained, they appear to be as
-follows:--1. The _cittern_. 2. The _bagpipe_. 3. The _clarion_, a small
-trumpet having a shrill sound. 4. The _rebec_. 5. The _psaltery_. 6.
-The _syrinx_. 7. The _sackbut_. 8. The _regals_. 9. The _gittern_, a
-small guitar strung with catgut. 10. The _shalm_. 11. The _timbrel_;
-resembling our present tambourine, with a double row of gingles. 12.
-_Cymbals._ Most of these instruments have been already noticed in the
-preceding pages. The _shalm_, or _shawm_, was a pipe with a reed in
-the mouth-hole. The _wait_ was an English wind instrument of the same
-construction. If it differed in any respect from the _shalm_, the
-difference consisted probably in the size only. The _wait_ obtained its
-name from being used principally by watchmen, or _waights_, to proclaim
-the time of night. Such were the poor ancestors of our fine oboe and
-clarinet.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER X.
-
-
-POST-MEDIÆVAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
-
-Attention must now be drawn to some instruments which originated during
-the middle ages, but which attained their highest popularity at a
-somewhat later period.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-Among the best known of these was the _virginal_, of which we give an
-engraving from a specimen of the time of Elizabeth at South Kensington.
-Another was the _lute_, which about three hundred years ago was almost
-as popular as is at the present day the pianoforte. Originally it had
-eight thin catgut strings arranged in four pairs, each pair being tuned
-in unison; so that its open strings produced four tones; but in the
-course of time more strings were added. Until the sixteenth century
-twelve was the largest number or, rather, six pairs. Eleven appear
-for some centuries to have been the most usual number of strings:
-these produced six tones, since they were arranged in five pairs and a
-single string. The latter, called the _chanterelle_, was the highest.
-According to Thomas Mace, the English lute in common use during the
-seventeenth century had twenty-four strings, arranged in twelve pairs,
-of which six pairs ran over the finger-board and the other six by
-the side of it. This lute was therefore, more properly speaking, a
-theorbo. The neck of the lute, and also of the theorbo, had frets
-consisting of catgut strings tightly fastened round it at the proper
-distances required for ensuring a chromatic succession of intervals.
-The illustration on the next page represents a lute-player of the
-sixteenth century. The frets are not indicated in the old engraving
-from which the illustration has been taken. The order of tones adopted
-for the open strings varied in different centuries and countries:
-and this was also the case with the notation of lute music. The most
-common practice was to write the music on six lines, the upper line
-representing the first string; the second line, the second string, &c.,
-and to mark with letters on the lines the frets at which the fingers
-ought to be placed--_a_ indicating the open string, _b_ the first fret,
-_c_ the second fret, and so on.
-
-The lute was made of various sizes according to the purpose for
-which it was intended in performance. The treble-lute was of the
-smallest dimensions, and the bass-lute of the largest. The _theorbo_,
-or double-necked lute which appears to have come into use during
-the sixteenth century, had in addition to the strings situated over
-the finger-board a number of others running at the left side of
-the finger-board which could not be shortened by the fingers, and
-which produced the bass tones. The largest kinds of theorbo were the
-_archlute_ and the _chitarrone_.
-
-It is unnecessary to enter here into a detailed description of some
-other instruments which have been popular during the last three
-centuries, for the museum at Kensington contains specimens of many
-of them of which an account is given in the large catalogue of that
-collection. It must suffice to refer the reader to the illustrations
-there of the cither, virginal, spinet, clavichord, harpsichord, and
-other antiquated instruments much esteemed by our forefathers.
-
-Students who examine these old relics will probably wish to know
-something about their quality of tone. “How do they sound? Might
-they still be made effective in our present state of the art?” are
-questions which naturally occur to the musical inquirer having such
-instruments brought before him. A few words bearing on these questions
-may therefore not be out of place here.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-It is generally and justly admitted that in no other branch of the art
-of music has greater progress been made since the last century than
-in the construction of musical instruments. Nevertheless, there are
-people who think that we have also lost something here which might
-with advantage be restored. Our various instruments by being more and
-more perfected are becoming too much alike in quality of sound, or in
-that character of tone which the French call _timbre_, and the Germans
-_Klangfarbe_, and which professor Tyndall in his lectures on sound has
-translated _clang-tint_. Every musical composer knows how much more
-suitable one _clang-tint_ is for the expression of a certain emotion
-than another. Our old instruments, imperfect though they were in many
-respects, possessed this variety of _clang-tint_ to a high degree.
-Neither were they on this account less capable of expression than the
-modern ones. That no improvement has been made during the last two
-centuries in instruments of the violin class is a well-known fact. As
-to lutes and cithers the collection at Kensington contains specimens
-so rich and mellow in tone as to cause musicians to regret that these
-instruments have entirely fallen into oblivion.
-
-As regards beauty of appearance our earlier instruments were certainly
-superior to the modern. Indeed, we have now scarcely a musical
-instrument which can be called beautiful. The old lutes, spinets,
-viols, dulcimers, &c., are not only elegant in shape but are also often
-tastefully ornamented with carvings, designs in marquetry, and painting.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The player on the _viola da gamba_, shown in the next engraving, is
-a reduced copy of an illustration in “The Division Violist,” London,
-1659. It shows exactly how the frets were regulated, and how the bow
-was held. The most popular instruments played with a bow, at that time,
-were the _treble-viol_, the _tenor-viol_, and the _bass-viol_. It was
-usual for viol players to have “a chest of viols,” a case containing
-four or more viols, of different sizes. Thus, Thomas Mace in his
-directions for the use of the viol, “Musick’s Monument” 1676, remarks,
-“Your best provision, and most complete, will be a good chest of viols,
-six in number, viz., two basses, two tenors, and two trebles, all truly
-and proportionably suited.” The violist, to be properly furnished with
-his requirements, had therefore to supply himself with a larger stock
-of instruments than the violinist of the present day.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-That there was, in the time of Shakespeare, a musical instrument
-called _recorder_ is undoubtedly known to most readers from the stage
-direction in Hamlet: _Re-enter players with recorders_. But not many
-are likely to have ever seen a recorder, as it has now become very
-scarce: we therefore give an illustration of this old instrument, which
-is copied from “The Genteel Companion; Being exact Directions for the
-Recorder: etc.” London, 1683.
-
-The _bagpipe_ appears to have been from time immemorial a special
-favourite instrument with the Celtic races; but it was perhaps quite as
-much admired by the Slavonic nations. In Poland, and in the Ukraine,
-it used to be made of the whole skin of the goat in which the shape
-of the animal, whenever the bagpipe was expanded with air, appeared
-fully retained, exhibiting even the head with the horns; hence the
-bagpipe was called _kosa_, which signifies a goat. The woodcut p. 120
-represents a Scotch bagpipe of the last century.
-
-The bagpipe is of high antiquity in Ireland, and is alluded to in Irish
-poetry and prose said to date from the tenth century. A pig gravely
-engaged in playing the bagpipe is represented in an illuminated Irish
-manuscript, of the year 1300: and we give p. 121 a copy of a woodcut
-from “The Image of Ireland,” a book printed in London in 1581.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The _bell_ has always been so much in popular favour in England that
-some account of it must not be omitted. Paul Hentzner a German, who
-visited England in the year 1598, records in his journal: “The people
-are vastly fond of great noises that fill the ear, such as the firing
-of cannon, drums, and the ringing of bells; so that in London it is
-common for a number of them that have got a glass in their heads to go
-up into some belfry, and ring the bells for hours together for the sake
-of exercise.” This may be exaggeration,--not unusual with travellers.
-It is, however, a fact that bell-ringing has been a favourite amusement
-with Englishmen for centuries.
-
-The way in which church bells are suspended and fastened, so as to
-permit of their being made to vibrate in the most effective manner
-without damaging by their vibration the building in which they are
-placed, is in some countries very peculiar. The Italian _campanile_, or
-tower of bells, is not unfrequently separated from the church itself.
-In Servia the church bells are often hung in a frame-work of timber
-built near the west end of the church. In Zante and other islands of
-Greece the belfry is usually separate from the church. The reason
-assigned by the Greeks for having adopted this plan is that in case
-of an earthquake the bells are likely to fall and, were they placed
-in a tower, would destroy the roof of the church and might cause the
-destruction of the whole building. Also in Russia a special edifice
-for the bells is generally separate from the church. In the Russian
-villages the bells are not unfrequently hung in the branches of an
-oak-tree near the church. In Iceland the bell is usually placed in the
-lych-gate leading to the graveyard.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration]
-
-The idea of forming of a number of bells a musical instrument such
-as the _carillon_ is said by some to have suggested itself first to
-the English and Dutch; but what we have seen in Asiatic countries
-sufficiently refutes this. Moreover, not only the Romans employed
-variously arranged and attuned bells, but also among the Etruscan
-antiquities an instrument has been discovered which is constructed of
-a number of bronze vessels placed in a row on a metal rod. Numerous
-bells, varying in size and tone, have also been found in Etruscan
-tombs. Among the later contrivances of this kind in European countries
-the sets of bells suspended in a wooden frame, which we find in
-mediæval illuminations, deserve notice. In the British museum is a
-manuscript of the fourteenth century in which king David is depicted
-holding in each hand a hammer with which he strikes upon bells of
-different dimensions, suspended on a wooden stand.
-
-It may be supposed that the device of playing tunes by means of bells
-merely swung by the hand is also of ancient date. In Lancashire each
-of the ringers manages two bells, holding one in either hand. Thus, an
-assemblage of seven ringers insures fourteen different tones; and as
-each ringer may change his two notes by substituting two other bells if
-required, even compositions with various modulations, and of a somewhat
-intricate character, may be executed,--provided the ringers are good
-timeists; for each has, of course, to take care to fall in with his
-note, just as a member of the Russian horn band contributes his single
-note whenever it occurs.
-
-Peal-ringing is another pastime of the kind which may be regarded as
-pre-eminently national to England. The bells constituting a peal are
-frequently of the number of eight, attuned to the diatonic scale. Also
-peals of ten bells, and even of twelve, are occasionally formed. A
-peculiar feature of peal-ringing is that the bells, which are provided
-with clappers, are generally swung so forcibly as to raise the mouth
-completely upwards. The largest peal, and one of the finest, is at
-Exeter cathedral: another celebrated one is that of St. Margaret’s,
-Leicester, which consists of ten bells. Peal-ringing is of an early
-date in England; Egelric, abbot of Croyland, is recorded to have cast
-about the year 960 a set of six bells.
-
-The _carillon_ (engraved on the opposite page) is especially popular
-in the Netherlands and Belgium, but is also found in Germany, Italy,
-and some other European countries. It is generally placed in the church
-tower and also sometimes in other public edifices. The statement
-repeated by several writers that the first carillon was invented in
-the year 1481 in the town of Alost is not to be trusted, for the town
-of Bruges claims to have possessed similar chimes in the year 1300.
-There are two kinds of carillons in use on the continent, viz.: clock
-chimes, which are moved by machinery, like a self-acting barrel-organ;
-and such as are provided with a set of keys, by means of which the
-tunes are played by a musician. The carillon in the ‘Parochial-Kirche’
-at Berlin, which is one of the finest in Germany, contains thirty-seven
-bells; and is provided with a key-board for the hands and with a pedal,
-which together place at the disposal of the performer a compass of
-rather more than three octaves. The keys of the manual are metal rods
-somewhat above a foot in length; and are pressed down with the palms of
-the hand. The keys of the pedal are of wood; the instrument requires
-not only great dexterity but also a considerable physical power. It
-is astonishing how rapidly passages can be executed upon it by the
-player, who is generally the organist of the church in which he acts as
-_carilloneur_. When engaged in the last-named capacity he usually wears
-leathern gloves to protect his fingers, as they are otherwise apt to
-become ill fit for the more delicate treatment of the organ.
-
-The want of a contrivance in the _carillon_ for stopping the vibration
-has the effect of making rapid passages, if heard near, sound as a
-confused noise; only at some distance are they tolerable. It must be
-remembered that the _carillon_ is intended especially to be heard from
-a distance. Successions of tones which form a consonant chord, and
-which have some duration, are evidently the most suitable for this
-instrument.
-
-Indeed, every musical instrument possesses certain characteristics
-which render it especially suitable for the production of some
-particular effects. The invention of a new instrument of music has,
-therefore, not unfrequently led to the adoption of new effects in
-compositions. Take the pianoforte, which was invented in the beginning
-of the eighteenth century, and which has now obtained so great a
-popularity: its characteristics inspired our great composers to the
-invention of effects, or expressions, which cannot be properly rendered
-on any other instrument, however superior in some respects it may be to
-the pianoforte. Thus also the improvements which have been made during
-the present century in the construction of our brass instruments, and
-the invention of several new brass instruments, have evidently been
-not without influence upon the conceptions displayed in our modern
-orchestral works.
-
-Imperfect though this essay may be it will probably have convinced
-the reader that a reference to the history of the music of different
-nations elucidates many facts illustrative of our own musical
-instruments, which to the unprepared observer must appear misty and
-impenetrable. In truth, it is with this study as with any other
-scientific pursuit. The unassisted eye sees only faint nebulæ where
-with the aid of the telescope bright stars are revealed.
-
-
-
-
-INDEX.
-
-
-  Al-Farabi, a great performer on the lute, 57
-
-  American Indian instruments, 59, 77
-
-    "      value of inquiry, 59
-
-    "      trumpets, 67
-
-    "      theories as to origin from musical instruments, 80
-
-  Arab instruments very numerous, 56
-
-  Archlute, 109, 115
-
-  Ashantee trumpet, 2
-
-  Asor explained, 19
-
-  Assyrian instruments, 16
-
-  “Aulos,” 32
-
-
-  Bagpipe, Hebrew, 23
-
-    "      Greek, 31
-
-    "      Celtic, 119
-
-  Barbiton, 31, 34
-
-  Bells, Hebrew, 25
-
-    "    Peruvian, 75
-
-    "    and ringing, 121-123
-
-  Blasius, Saint, the manuscript, 86
-
-  Bones, traditions about them, 47
-
-    "    made into flutes, 64
-
-  Bottles, as musical instruments, 71
-
-  Bow, see Violin
-
-  Bruce, his discovery of harps on frescoes, 11
-
-
-  Capistrum, 35
-
-  Carillon, 121, 124
-
-  Catgut, how made, 1
-
-  Chanterelle, 114
-
-  Chelys, 30
-
-  Chinese instruments, 38
-
-    "     bells, 40
-
-    "     drum, 44
-
-    "     flutes, 45
-
-    "     board of music, 80
-
-  Chorus, 99
-
-  Cimbal, or dulcimer, 5
-
-  Cithara, 86
-
-    "   Anglican, 92
-
-  Cittern, 113
-
-  Clarion, 113
-
-  Cornu, 36
-
-  Crowd, 94
-
-  Crwth, 34, 93
-
-  Cymbals, Hebrew, 25
-
-    "   or cymbalum, 105
-
-    "   113
-
-
-  David’s (King) private band, 19
-
-    "   his favourite instrument, 20
-
-  Diaulos, 32
-
-  Drum, Hebrew, 24
-
-    "   Greek, 32
-
-    "   Chinese, 44
-
-    "   Mexican, 71, 73
-
-  Dulcimer, 5
-
-    "   Assyrian, 17
-
-    "   Hebrew, 19
-
-    "   Persian prototype, 54
-
-
-  Egyptian (ancient) musical instruments, 10
-
-  Egyptian harps, 11
-
-    "   flutes, 12
-
-  Etruscan instruments, 33
-
-    "   flutes, 33
-
-    "   trumpet, 33
-
-  Fiddle, originally a poor contrivance, 50
-
-  Fiddle, Anglo-saxon, 95
-
-    "   early German, 95
-
-  Fistula, 36
-
-  Flute, Greek, 32
-
-    "   Persian, 56
-
-    "   Mexican, 63
-
-    "   Peruvian, 63
-
-    "   mediæval, 100
-
-  “Free reed,” whence imported, 5
-
-
-  Gerbert, abbot, 86
-
-  Greek instruments, 27
-
-    "   music, whence derived, 27
-
-
-  Hallelujah, compared with Peruvian song, 82
-
-  Harmonicon, Chinese, 42
-
-  Harp, Egyptian, 11
-
-    "   Assyrian, 16
-
-    "   Hebrew, 19
-
-    "   Greek, 28
-
-    "   Anglo-saxon, 89
-
-    "   Irish, 90
-
-  Hebrew instruments, 19, 26
-
-    "   pipe, 22
-
-    "   drum, 24
-
-    "   cymbals, 25
-
-    "   words among Indians, 83
-
-  Hindu instruments, 46-48
-
-  Hurdy-gurdy, 107
-
-  Hydraulos, hydraulic organ, 33
-
-
-  Instruments, curious shapes, 2
-
-    "   value and use of collections, 4, 5, 7
-
-  Instruments, Assyrian and Babylonian, 18
-
-
-  Jubal, 26
-
-  Juruparis, its sacred character, 68
-
-
-  Kinnor, 20
-
-  King, Chinese, 39
-
-    "   various shapes, 40
-
-
-  Lute, Chinese, 46
-
-    "   Persian, 54
-
-    "   Moorish, 57
-
-    "   Elizabethan, 114
-
-  Lyre, Assyrian, 17
-
-    "   Hebrew, 19
-
-    "      "   of the time of Joseph, 21
-
-  Lyre, Greek, 29, 30
-
-    "   Roman, 34
-
-    "     "   various kinds, 34
-
-    "   early Christian, 86
-
-    "   early German “_lyra_,” 95
-
-
-  Magadis, 27, 31
-
-  Magrepha, 23
-
-  Maori trumpet, 2
-
-  Materials, commonly, of instruments, 1
-
-  Mediæval musical instruments, 85
-
-    "         "        "   derived from Asia, 85
-
-  Mexican instruments, 60
-
-    "   whistle, 60
-
-    "   pipe, 61, 81
-
-    "   flute, 63
-
-    "   trumpet, 69, 82
-
-    "   drum, 71
-
-    "   songs, 79
-
-    "   council of music, 80
-
-  Minnim, 22
-
-  Monochord, 98
-
-  Moorish instruments adopted in England, 56
-
-  Muses on a vase at Munich, 30
-
-  Music one of the fine arts, 1
-
-
-  Nablia, 35, 88
-
-  Nadr ben el-Hares, 54
-
-  Nareda, inventor of Hindu instruments, 46
-
-  Nero coin with an organ, 34
-
-  Nofre, a guitar, 11
-
-
-  Oboe, Persian, 56
-
-  Oliphant, 101
-
-  Orchestra, 107
-
-    "   modifications, 7
-
-  Organistrum, 98, 111
-
-  Organ, 101
-
-    "   pneumatic and hydraulic, 101
-
-    "   in MS. of Eadwine, 103
-
-
-  Pandoura, 31
-
-  Pedal, invented, 103
-
-  Persian instruments, 51
-
-    "    harp, 51
-
-  Peruvian pipes, 65
-
-    "   drum, 74
-
-    "   bells, 75
-
-    "   stringed instruments, 77
-
-    "   songs, 78, 79
-
-  Peterborough paintings of violins, 95
-
-  Pipe, single and double, 22
-
-    "   Mexican, 61
-
-    "   Peruvian, 65
-
-  Plektron, 30
-
-  Poongi, Hindu, 51
-
-  Pre-historic instruments, 9
-
-  Psalterium, 35, 87, 89, 111, 113
-
-
-  Rattle of Nootka Sound, 2
-
-    "   American Indian, 74
-
-  Rebeck, 94, 113
-
-  Recorder, 119
-
-  Regal, 103
-
-  Roman musical instruments, 34
-
-    "   lyre, 34
-
-  Rotta, or rote, 91, 92
-
-
-  Sackbut, 101, 113
-
-  Sambuca, 35
-
-  Santir, 5, 54
-
-  Sêbi, the, 12
-
-  Shalm, 113
-
-  Shophar, still used by the Jews, 24
-
-  Sistrum, Hebrew, 25
-
-    "   Roman, 37
-
-  Songs, Peruvian and Mexican, 79
-
-  Stringed instruments, 3
-
-  Syrinx, 23, 113
-
-    "   Greek, 32
-
-    "   Roman, 36
-
-    "   Peruvian, 64, 81
-
-
-  Tamboura, 22, 47
-
-  Temples in China, 46
-
-  Theorbo, 109, 115
-
-  Tibia, 35
-
-  Timbrel, 113
-
-  Tintinnabulum, 106
-
-  Triangle, 106
-
-  Trigonon, 27, 30, 35
-
-  Trumpet, Assyrian, 18
-
-    "   Hebrew, 24
-
-    "   Greek, 32
-
-    "   Roman, 36
-
-    "   American Indian, 67
-
-    "   of the Caroados, 69
-
-    "   Mexican, 69, 82
-
-  Tympanon, 32
-
-
-  Universality of musical instruments, 1
-
-
-  Vielle, 107, 108
-
-  Vihuela, 111
-
-  Vina, Hindu, 47
-
-    "   performer, 48
-
-  Viol, Spanish, 111, 117
-
-    "   da gamba, 117
-
-  Violin bow invented by Hindus? 49
-
-     "   Persian, 50
-
-     "   mediæval, 95
-
-  Virginal, 114
-
-
-  Wait, the instrument, 113
-
-  Water, supposed origin of musical instruments, 47
-
-  Whistle, prehistoric, 9
-
-     "     Mexican, 60
-
-  Wind instruments, 3
-
-
-  Yu, Chinese stone, 39
-
-    "     "   wind instrument, 45
-
-
-DALZIEL AND CO., CAMDEN PRESS, N.W.
-
-
-
-
-      *      *      *      *      *      *
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber's note:
-
-Inconsistent punctuation and capitalization are as in the original.
-
-Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.
-
-
-
-***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS***
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-<body>
-<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, Musical Instruments, by Carl Engel</h1>
-<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
-and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
-restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
-under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
-eBook or online at <a
-href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>.  If you are not
-located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this ebook.</p>
-<p>Title: Musical Instruments</p>
-<p>Author: Carl Engel</p>
-<p>Release Date: April 11, 2017  [eBook #54537]</p>
-<p>Language: English</p>
-<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p>
-<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS***</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<h4 class="pg">E-text prepared by Anita Hammond, Wayne Hammond,<br />
-    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
-    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
-    from page images generously made available by<br />
-    Internet Archive<br />
-    (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10">
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top">
-      Note:
-    </td>
-    <td>
-      Images of the original pages are available through
-      Internet Archive. See
-      <a href="https://archive.org/details/musicalinstrumen00engeiala">
-      https://archive.org/details/musicalinstrumen00engeiala</a>
-    </td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<hr class="full" />
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">i</span></p>
-
-<h1>
-SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM ART HANDBOOKS.<br />
-
-<small><span class="smcap">Edited by</span> WILLIAM MASKELL.</small><br />
-
-NO. 5.&mdash;MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.<br />
-</h1>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">ii</span></p>
-
-<p><i>These Handbooks are reprints of the dissertations prefixed to
-the large catalogues of the chief divisions of works of art in the
-Museum at South Kensington; arranged and so far abridged as
-to bring each into a portable shape. The Lords of the Committee
-of Council on Education having determined on the publication of
-them, the editor trusts that they will meet the purpose intended;
-namely, to be useful, not alone for the collections at South Kensington
-but for other collections, by enabling the public at a
-trifling cost to understand something of the history and character
-of the subjects treated of.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>The authorities referred to in each book are given in the large
-catalogues; where will also be found detailed descriptions of the
-very numerous examples in the South Kensington Museum.</i></p>
-
-<p class="author">W. M.</p>
-
-<p><i>August, 1875.</i>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">iii</span></p>
-
-<p class="ph1">
-MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<br />
-
-<small>BY</small><br />
-
-<span class="large">CARL ENGEL</span><br />
-
-<span class="medium">WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS</span><br /><br />
-
-<img src="images/colophon.jpg" alt="" /><br /><br />
-
-<span class="medium table"><i>Published for the Committee of Council on Education</i><br />
-
-<small>BY</small><br />
-
-CHAPMAN AND HALL, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span>, LONDON.</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">iv</span><br />
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p>
-
-<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
-
-<table>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">9</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">16</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">27</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">38</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">59</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">85</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">98</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">107</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">114</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#INDEX">INDEX.</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">126</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<h2 id="LIST_OF_WOODCUTS">LIST OF WOODCUTS.</h2>
-
-<table>
-  <tr>
-    <td />
-    <td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i009">Prehistoric whistle</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">9</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i013">Ancient Egyptian flute concert</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">13</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i022">The supposed Hebrew lyre at Beni Hassan</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">22</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i024">Ancient bagpipe from Tarsus</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">24</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i025">Hebrew trumpets, from the arch of Titus</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">25</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i028">Grecian harp and lyre</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">28</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i029">Greek lyres</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">29</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i031">Greek flutes</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">31</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i032">The <i>diaulos</i></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">32</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i033">Etruscan <i>cornu</i></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">33</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i034">Hydraulic organ</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">34</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i036a">Roman girl and <i>tibia</i></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">36</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i036b">Roman trumpets</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">36</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i039">Chinese king</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">39</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i041">Chinese pien-tchung</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">41</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i042">Chinese hiuen-tchung</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">42</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i043a">Chinese ou</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">43</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i043b">Chinese tchou</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">43</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i044">Chinese kin-kou</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">44</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i045">Chinese hiuen</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">45</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i046">Chinese cheng</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">46<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i049">Hindustan, vina</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">49</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i051">Persian, chang</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">51</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i052">Persian, bagpipe</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">52</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i053">Turkish harp</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">53</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i055">Persian dulcimer</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">55</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i056">The <i>rebab</i></a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">56</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i060">Aztec whistles</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">60</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i061a">Antique pipe from central America</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">61</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i062b">Pipes of the Aztecs</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">62</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i064">Peruvian bone pipe</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">64</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i065a">Peruvian huayra-puhura</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">65</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i066a">Peruvian huayra-puhura</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">66</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i067">Orinoco Indian trumpet</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">67</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i068">South American Juruparis</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">68</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i070">Indian trumpets</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">70</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i072">Aztec drums</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">72</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i073">San Domingo drum</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">73</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i075">Peruvian bell</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">75</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i076">Aztec cluster of bells</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">76</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i086a">Cithara, ninth century</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">86</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i087a">Psalterium</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">87</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i087b">Nablum</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">87</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i088">Citole</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">88</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i089">Anglo-saxon harp</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">89</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i090">Harp, ninth century</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">90</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i091a">Ancient Irish harp</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">91</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i091b">German rotte</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">91</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i092">Rotta</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">92</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i093">Irish rotta</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">93</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i094">The crwth</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">94</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i095">The old English “crowd”</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">95<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i096">The French crout</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">96</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i097a">Anglo-saxon fiddle</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">97</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i097b">German fiddle, ninth century</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">97</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i099">Organistrum</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">99</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i100">Monochord</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">100</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i101a">Single chorus</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">101</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i101b">Double chorus</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">101</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i101c">Sackbut</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">101</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i102">Syrinx</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">102</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i103">Pneumatic organ, fourth century</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">103</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i104a">Organ, twelfth century</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">104</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i104b">Regal</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">104</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i105">Cymbalum, ninth century</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">105</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i106">Bunibulum</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">106</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i108">Orchestra on bas-relief</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">108</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i109a">Vielle</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">109</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i110">Orchestra, twelfth century, at Santiago</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">110</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i112">The minstrels’ gallery, at Exeter cathedral</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">112</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i114">Virginal</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">114</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i116">Lute, Elizabethan</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">116</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i118">Viola da gamba</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">118</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i119">Recorder</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">119</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i120">Scotch bagpipe, eighteenth century</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">120</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i121">Irish bagpipe, sixteenth century</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">121</td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><a href="#i122">Carillon, Netherlands</a></td>
-    <td class="tdr">122</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span><br />
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p>
-
-<p class="ph1">MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.</p>
-
-<h2 id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</h2>
-
-<p>Music, in however primitive a stage of development it may be
-with some nations, is universally appreciated as one of the Fine
-Arts. The origin of vocal music may have been coeval with that
-of language; and the construction of musical instruments evidently
-dates with the earliest inventions which suggested themselves to
-human ingenuity. There exist even at the present day some savage
-tribes in Australia and South America who, although they have
-no more than the five first numerals in their language and are
-thereby unable to count the fingers of both hands together, nevertheless
-possess musical instruments of their own contrivance, with
-which they accompany their songs and dances.</p>
-
-<p>Wood, metal, and the hide of animals, are the most common
-substances used in the construction of musical instruments. In
-tropical countries bamboo or some similar kind of cane and gourds
-are especially made use of for this purpose. The ingenuity of man
-has contrived to employ in producing music, horn, bone, glass,
-pottery, slabs of sonorous stone,&mdash;in fact, almost all vibrating
-matter. The strings of instruments have been made of the
-hair of animals, of silk, the runners of creeping plants, the fibrous
-roots of certain trees, of cane, catgut (which absurdly referred
-to the cat, is from the sheep, goat, lamb, camel, and some other
-animals), metal, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p>The mode in which individual nations or tribes are in the habit
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span>
-of embellishing their musical instruments is sometimes as characteristic
-as it is singular. The negroes in several districts of western
-Africa affix to their drums human skulls. A war-trumpet of the
-king of Ashantee which was brought to England is surrounded
-by human jawbones. The Maories in New Zealand carve around
-the mouth-hole of their trumpets a figure intended, it is said, to
-represent female lips. The materials for ornamentation chiefly
-employed by savages are bright colours, beads, shells, grasses, the
-bark of trees, feathers, stones, gilding, pieces of looking-glass
-inlaid like mosaic, &amp;c. Uncivilized nations are sure to consider
-anything which is bright and glittering ornamental, especially if it
-is also scarce. Captain Tuckey saw in Congo a negro instrument
-which was ornamented with part of the broken frame of a looking-glass,
-to which were affixed in a semicircle a number of brass
-buttons with the head of Louis XVI. on them,&mdash;perhaps a relic of
-some French sailor drowned near the coast years ago.</p>
-
-<p>Again, musical instruments are not unfrequently formed in the
-shape of certain animals. Thus, a kind of harmonicon of the
-Chinese represents the figure of a crouching tiger. The Burmese
-possess a stringed instrument in the shape of an alligator. Even
-more grotesque are the imitations of various beasts adopted by the
-Javanese. The natives of New Guinea have a singularly shaped
-drum, terminating in the head of a reptile. A wooden rattle like
-a bird is a favourite instrument of the Indians of Nootka Sound.
-In short, not only the inner construction of the instruments and
-their peculiar quality of sound exhibit in most nations certain
-distinctive characteristics, but it is also in great measure true as
-to their outward appearance.</p>
-
-<p>An arrangement of the various kinds of musical instruments in
-a regular order, beginning with that kind which is the most universally
-known and progressing gradually to the least usual, gives
-the following results. Instruments of percussion of indefinite
-sonorousness or, in other words, pulsatile instruments which have
-not a sound of a fixed pitch, as the drum, rattle, castanets, &amp;c.,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span>
-are most universal. Wind instruments of the flute kind,&mdash;including
-pipes, whistles, flutes, Pandean pipes, &amp;c.&mdash;are also to be found
-almost everywhere.</p>
-
-<p>Much the same is the case with wind instruments of the trumpet
-kind. These are often made of the horns, bones, and tusks of
-animals; frequently of vegetable substances and of metal. Instruments
-of percussion of definite sonorousness are chiefly met with
-in China, Japan, Burmah, Siam, and Java. They not unfrequently
-contain a series of tones produced by slabs of wood or metal,
-which are beaten with a sort of hammer, as our harmonicon is
-played.</p>
-
-<p>Stringed instruments without a finger board, or any similar contrivance
-which enables the performer to produce a number of
-different tones on one string, are generally found among nations
-whose musical accomplishments have emerged from the earliest
-state of infancy. The strings are twanged with the fingers or with
-a piece of wood, horn, metal, or any other suitable substance
-serving as a <i>plectrum</i>; or are made to vibrate by being beaten
-with a hammer, as our dulcimer. Stringed instruments provided
-with a finger-board on which different tones are producible on one
-string by the performer shortening it more or less,&mdash;as on the
-guitar and violin,&mdash;are met with almost exclusively among nations
-in a somewhat advanced stage of musical progress. Such as are
-played with a bow are the least common; they are, however,
-known to the Chinese, Japanese, Hindus, Persians, Arabs, and a
-few other nations, besides those of Europe and their descendants
-in other countries.</p>
-
-<p>Wind instruments of the organ kind,&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, such as are constructed
-of a number of tubes which can be sounded together by
-means of a common mouthpiece or some similar contrivance, and
-upon which therefore chords and combinations of chords, or
-harmony, can be produced,&mdash;are comparatively of rare occurrence.
-Some interesting specimens of them exist in China, Japan, Laos,
-and Siam.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span></p>
-
-<p>Besides these various kinds of sound-producing means employed
-in musical performances, a few others less widely diffused could
-be pointed out, which are of a construction not represented in any
-of our well-known European specimens. For instance, some
-nations have peculiar instruments of friction, which can hardly be
-classed with our instruments of percussion. Again, there are contrivances
-in which a number of strings are caused to vibrate by a
-current of air, much as is the case with the &AElig;olian harp; which
-might with equal propriety be considered either as stringed instruments
-or as wind instruments. In short, our usual classification of
-all the various species into three distinct divisions, viz. <i>Stringed
-Instruments</i>, <i>Wind Instruments</i>, and <i>Instruments of Percussion</i>, is
-not tenable if we extend our researches over the whole globe.</p>
-
-<p>The collection at South Kensington contains several foreign
-instruments which cannot fail to prove interesting to the musician.
-Recent investigations have more and more elicited the fact that
-the music of every nation exhibits some distinctive characteristics
-which may afford valuable hints to a composer or performer. A
-familiarity with the popular songs of different countries is advisable
-on account of the remarkable originality of the airs: these mostly
-spring from the heart. Hence the natural and true expression, the
-delightful health and vigour by which they are generally distinguished.
-Our more artificial compositions are, on the other hand,
-not unfrequently deficient in these charms, because they often
-emanate from the fingers or the pen rather than from the heart.
-Howbeit, the predominance of expressive melody and effective
-rhythm over harmonious combinations, so usual in the popular
-compositions of various nations, would alone suffice to recommend
-them to the careful attention of our modern musicians. The same
-may be said with regard to the surprising variety in construction
-and in manner of expression prevailing in the popular songs
-and dance-tunes of different countries. Indeed, every nation’s
-musical effusions exhibit a character peculiarly their own, with which
-the musician would find it advantageous to familiarize himself.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span></p>
-
-<p>Now, it will easily be understood that an acquaintance with the
-musical instruments of a nation conveys a more correct idea than
-could otherwise be obtained of the characteristic features of the
-nation’s musical compositions. Furthermore, in many instances
-the construction of the instruments reveals to us the nature of the
-musical intervals, scales, modulations, and suchlike noteworthy
-facts. True, inquiries like these have hitherto not received from
-musicians the attention which they deserve. The adepts in most
-other arts are in this respect in advance. They are convinced that
-useful information may be gathered by investigating the productions
-even of uncivilized nations, and by thus tracing the gradual
-progress of an art from its primitive infancy to its highest degree
-of development.</p>
-
-<p>Again, from an examination of the musical instruments of
-foreign nations we may derive valuable hints for the improvement
-of our own; or even for the invention of new. Several
-principles of construction have thus been adopted by us from
-eastern nations. For instance, the <i>free reed</i> used in the harmonium
-is an importation from China. The organ builder Kratzenstein,
-who lived in St. Petersburg during the reign of Catharine II.,
-happened to see the Chinese instrument <i>cheng</i>, which is of this
-construction, and it suggested to him, about the end of the last
-century, to apply the <i>free reed</i> to certain organ stops. At the present
-day instruments of the harmonium class have become such
-universal favourites in western Europe as almost to compete with
-the pianoforte.</p>
-
-<p>Several other well-authenticated instances could be cited in
-which one instrument has suggested the construction of another
-of a superior kind. The prototype of our pianoforte was evidently
-the dulcimer, known at an early time to the Arabs and Persians
-who call it <i>santir</i>. One of the old names given to the dulcimer
-by European nations is <i>cimbal</i>. The Poles at the present day
-call it <i>cymbaly</i>, and the Magyars in Hungary <i>cimbalom</i>. The
-<i>clavicembalo</i>, the predecessor of the pianoforte, was in fact nothing
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span>
-but a <i>cembalo</i> with a key-board attached to it; and some of the
-old <i>clavicembali</i>, still preserved, exhibit the trapezium shape, the
-round hole in the middle of the sound-board, and other peculiarities
-of the first dulcimer. Again, the gradual development of
-the dulcimer from a rude contrivance, consisting merely of a
-wooden board across which a few strings are stretched, is distinctly
-traceable by a reference to the musical instruments of
-nations in different stages of civilization. The same is the case
-with our highly perfected harp, of which curious specimens, representing
-the instrument in its most primitive condition, are still to
-be found among several barbarous tribes. We might perhaps
-infer from its shape that it originally consisted of nothing more
-than an elastic stick bent by a string. The Damaras, a native
-tribe of South-western Africa, actually use their bow occasionally
-as a musical instrument, when they are not engaged in war or in
-the chase. They tighten the string nearly in the middle by means
-of a leathern thong, whereby they obtain two distinct sounds,
-which, for want of a sound-board, are of course very weak and
-scarcely audible to anyone but the performer. Some neighbouring
-tribes, however, possess a musical instrument very similar in
-appearance to the bow, to which they attach a gourd, hollowed
-and open at the top, which serves as a sound-board. Again, other
-African tribes have a similar instrument, superior in construction
-only inasmuch as it contains more than one string, and is provided
-with a sound-board consisting of a suitable piece of
-sonorous wood. In short, the more improved we find these
-contrivances the closer they approach our harp. And it could be
-shown if this were requisite for our present purpose that much
-the same gradual progress towards perfection, which we observe
-in the African harp, is traceable in the harps of several nations in
-different parts of the world.</p>
-
-<p>Moreover, a collection of musical instruments deserves the
-attention of the ethnologist as much as of the musician. Indeed,
-this may be asserted of national music in general; for it gives us
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span>
-an insight into the heart of man, reveals to us the feelings and
-predilections of different races on the globe, and affords us a clue
-to the natural affinity which exists between different families of
-men. Again, a collection must prove interesting in a historical
-point of view. Scholars will find among old instruments specimens
-which were in common use in England at the time of queen Elizabeth,
-and which are not unfrequently mentioned in the literature
-of that period. In many instances the passages in which allusion
-is made to them can hardly be understood, if we are unacquainted
-with the shape and construction of the instruments. Furthermore,
-these relics of bygone times bring before our eyes the manners
-and customs of our forefathers, and assist us in understanding
-them correctly.</p>
-
-<p>It will be seen that the modification which our orchestra has
-undergone, in the course of scarcely more than a century, is great
-indeed. Most of the instruments which were highly popular about
-a hundred years ago have either fallen into disuse or are now so
-much altered that they may almost be considered as new inventions.
-Among Asiatic nations, on the other hand, we meet with
-several instruments which have retained unchanged through many
-centuries their old construction and outward appearance. At
-South Kensington may be seen instruments still in use in Egypt
-and western Asia, precisely like specimens represented on monuments
-dating from a period of three thousand years ago. By a
-reference to the eastern instruments of the present time we obtain
-therefore a key for investigating the earlier Egyptian and Assyrian
-representations of musical performances; and, likewise, for appreciating
-more exactly the biblical records respecting the music of
-the Hebrews. Perhaps these evidences will convey to some
-inquirers a less high opinion than they have hitherto entertained,
-regarding the musical accomplishments of the Hebrew bands in
-the solemn processions of king David or in Solomon’s temple;
-but the opinion will be all the nearer to the truth.</p>
-
-<p>There is another point of interest about such collections, and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span>
-especially that at South Kensington, which must not be left
-unnoticed. Several instruments are remarkable on account of
-their elegant shape and tasteful ornamentation. This is particularly
-the case with some specimens from Asiatic countries.
-The beautiful designs with which they are embellished may afford
-valuable patterns for study and for adoption in works of art.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</h2>
-
-<p>A really complete account of all the musical instruments from
-the earliest time known to us would require much more space than
-can here be afforded. We can attempt only a concise historical
-survey. We venture to hope that the illustrations interspersed
-throughout the text will to the intelligent reader elucidate many
-facts which, for the reason stated, are touched upon but cursorily.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Pre-historic Relics.</span></h3>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i009" src="images/i009.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>A musical relic has recently been exhumed in the department
-of Dordogne in France, which was constructed in an age when
-the fauna of France included the reindeer, the rhinoceros, and the
-mammoth, the hy&aelig;na, the bear, and the cave-lion. It is a small
-bone somewhat less than two inches in length, in which is a hole,
-evidently bored by means
-of one of the little flint
-knives which men used
-before acquaintance with
-the employment of metal
-for tools and weapons.
-Many of these flints were found in the same place with the bones.
-Only about half a dozen of the bones, of which a considerable
-number have been exhumed, possess the artificial hole. We
-give a woodcut of one of them.</p>
-
-<p>M. Lartet surmises the perforated bone to have been used as a
-whistle in hunting animals. It is the first digital phalanx of a
-ruminant, drilled to a certain depth by a smooth cylindrical bore
-on its lower surface near the expanded upper articulation. On
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span>
-applying it to the lower lip and blowing into it a shrill sound is
-yielded. Three of these phalanges are of reindeer, one is of
-Chamois. Again, among the relics which have been brought to
-light from the cave of Lombrive, in the department of Ari&egrave;ge,
-occur several eye-teeth of the dog which have a hole drilled into
-them near the root. Probably they also yield sounds like those
-reindeer bones, or like the tube of a key. Another whistle&mdash;or
-rather a pipe, for it has three finger-holes by means of which
-different tones could be produced&mdash;was found in a burying-place,
-dating from the stone period, in the vicinity of Poitiers in France:
-it is rudely constructed from a fragment of stag’s-horn. It is
-blown at the end, like a <i>fl&ucirc;te &agrave; bec</i> and the three finger-holes are
-placed equidistantly. Four distinct tones must have been easily
-obtainable on it: the lowest, when all the finger-holes were
-covered; the other three, by opening the finger-holes successively.
-From the character of the stone utensils and weapons discovered
-with this pipe it is conjectured that the burying-place from which
-it was exhumed dates from the latest time of the stone age.
-Therefore, however old it may be, it is a more recent contrivance
-than the reindeer-bone whistle from the cavern of the Dordogne.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Ancient Egyptians.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The most ancient nations historically known possessed musical
-instruments which, though in acoustic construction greatly inferior
-to our own, exhibit a degree of perfection which could have been
-attained only after a long period of cultivation. Many tribes of
-the present day have not yet reached this stage of musical progress.</p>
-
-<p>As regards the instruments of the ancient Egyptians we now
-possess perhaps more detailed information than of those appertaining
-to any other nation of antiquity. This information we
-owe especially to the exactness with which the instruments are
-depicted in sculptures and paintings. Whoever has examined
-these interesting monuments with even ordinary care cannot but
-be convinced that the representations which they exhibit are
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span>
-faithful transcripts from life. Moreover, if there remained any
-doubt respecting the accuracy of the representations of the musical
-instruments it might be dispelled by existing evidence. Several
-specimens have been discovered in tombs preserved in a more
-or less perfect condition.</p>
-
-<p>The Egyptians possessed various kinds of harps, some of which
-were elegantly shaped and tastefully ornamented. The largest
-were about six and a half feet high; and the small ones frequently
-had some sort of stand which enabled the performer to play upon
-the instrument while standing. The name of the harp was <i>buni</i>.
-Its frame had no front pillar; the tension of the strings therefore
-cannot have been anything like so strong as on our present harp.</p>
-
-<p>The Egyptian harps most remarkable for elegance of form and
-elaborate decoration are the two which were first noticed by
-Bruce, who found them painted in fresco on the wall of a sepulchre
-at Thebes, supposed to be the tomb of Rameses III. who reigned
-about 1250 <small>B.C.</small> Bruce’s discovery created sensation among the
-musicians. The fact that at so remote an age the Egyptians
-should have possessed harps which vie with our own in elegance
-and beauty of form appeared to some so incredible that the
-correctness of Bruce’s representations, as engraved in his “Travels,”
-was greatly doubted. Sketches of the same harps, taken subsequently
-and at different times from the frescoes, have since been
-published, but they differ more or less from each other in appearance
-and in the number of strings. A kind of triangular harp of
-the Egyptians was discovered in a well-preserved condition and
-is now deposited in the Louvre. It has twenty-one strings; a
-greater number than is generally represented on the monuments.
-All these instruments, however much they differed from each
-other in form, had one peculiarity in common, namely the
-absence of the fore pillar.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>nofre</i>, a kind of guitar, was almost identical in construction
-with the Tamboura at the present day in use among several
-eastern nations. It was evidently a great favourite with the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span>
-ancient Egyptians. A figure of it is found among their hieroglyphs,
-signifying “good.” It occurs in representations of concerts
-dating earlier than from <small>B.C.</small> 1500. The <i>nofre</i> affords the
-best proof that the Egyptians had made considerable progress in
-music at a very early age; since it shows that they understood
-how to produce on a few strings, by means of the finger-board,
-a greater number of notes than were obtainable even on their
-harps. The instrument had two or four strings, was played with
-a plectrum and appears to have been sometimes, if not always,
-provided with frets. In the British museum is a fragment of a
-fresco obtained from a tomb at Thebes, on which two female
-performers on the <i>nofre</i> are represented. The painter has distinctly
-indicated the frets.</p>
-
-<p>Small pipes of the Egyptians have been discovered, made of
-reed, with three, four, five, or more finger-holes. There are some
-interesting examples in the British museum; one of which has
-seven holes burnt in at the side. Two straws were found with it
-of nearly the same length as the pipe, which is about one foot
-long. In some other pipes pieces of a kind of thick straw have
-also been found inserted into the tube, obviously serving for a
-similar purpose as the <i>reed</i> in our oboe or clarionet.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>s&ecirc;bi</i>, a single flute, was of considerable length, and the
-performer appears to have been obliged to extend his arms almost
-at full length in order to reach the furthest finger-hole. As <i>s&ecirc;bi</i>
-is also the name of the leg-bone (like the Latin <i>tibia</i>) it may be
-supposed that the Egyptian flute was originally made of bone.
-Those, however, which have been found are of wood or reed.</p>
-
-<p>A flute-concert is painted on one of the tombs in the pyramids
-of Gizeh and dates, according to Lepsius, from an age earlier
-than <small>B.C.</small> 2000. Eight musicians (as seen in the woodcut) are
-performing on flutes. Three of them, one behind the other, are
-kneeling and holding their flutes in exactly the same manner.
-Facing these are three others, in a precisely similar position.
-A seventh is sitting on the ground to the left of the six,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span>
-with his back turned towards
-them, but also in the act of
-blowing his flute, like the
-others. An eighth is standing
-at the right side of the group
-with his face turned towards
-them, holding his flute before
-him with both hands, as if he
-were going to put it to his
-mouth, or had just left off
-playing. He is clothed, while
-the others have only a narrow
-girdle round their loins. Perhaps
-he is the director of this
-singular band, or the <i>solo</i> performer
-who is waiting for the
-termination of the <i>tutti</i> before
-renewing his part of the performance.
-The division of
-the players into two sets,
-facing each other, suggests
-the possibility that the instruments
-were classed somewhat
-like the first and second violins,
-or the <i>flauto primo</i> and
-<i>flauto secondo</i> of our orchestras.
-The occasional employment
-of the interval of the
-third, or the fifth, as accompaniment
-to the melody, is
-not unusual even with nations
-less advanced in music
-than were the ancient Egyptians.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i013" src="images/i013.jpg" alt="" />
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span></div>
-
-<p>The Double-Pipe, called <i>mam</i>, appears to have been a very
-popular instrument, if we judge from the frequency of its occurrence
-in the representations of musical performances. Furthermore,
-the Egyptians had, as far as is known to us, two kinds of
-trumpets; three kinds of tambourines, or little hand drums;
-three kinds of drums, chiefly barrel-shaped; and various kinds of
-gongs, bells, cymbals, and castanets. The trumpet appears to
-have been usually of brass. A peculiar wind-instrument, somewhat
-the shape of a champagne bottle and perhaps made of
-pottery or wood, occurs only once in the representations transmitted
-to us.</p>
-
-<p>The Egyptian drum was from two to three feet in length,
-covered with parchment at both ends and braced by cords. The
-performer carried it before him, generally by means of a band
-over his shoulder, while he was beating it with his hands on both
-ends. Of another kind of drum an actual specimen has been
-found in the excavations made in the year 1823 at Thebes. It
-was 1&frac12; feet high and 2 feet broad, and had cords for bracing it.
-A piece of catgut encircled each end of the drum, being wound
-round each cord, by means of which the cords could be tightened
-or slackened at pleasure by pushing the two bands of catgut
-towards or from each other. It was beaten with two drumsticks
-slightly bent. The Egyptians had also straight drumsticks with
-a handle, and a knob at the end. The Berlin museum possesses
-some of these. The third kind of drum was almost identical
-with the <i>darabouka</i> (or <i>darabukkeh</i>) of the modern Egyptians.
-The Tambourine was either round, like that which is at the
-present time in use in Europe as well as in the east; or it was
-of an oblong square shape, slightly incurved on the four sides.</p>
-
-<p>The Sistrum consisted of a frame of bronze or brass into which
-three or four metal bars were loosely inserted, so as to produce a
-jingling noise when the instrument was shaken. The bars were
-often made in the form of snakes, or they terminated in the head
-of a goose. Not unfrequently a few metal rings were strung on
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span>
-the bars, to increase the noise. The frame was sometimes ornamented
-with the figure of a cat. The largest sistra which have
-been found are about eighteen inches in length, and the smallest
-about nine inches. The sistrum was principally used by females
-in religious performances. Its Egyptian name was <i>seshesh</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own in shape.
-There are two pairs of them in the British museum. One pair
-was found in a coffin enclosing the mummy of a sacred musician,
-and is deposited in the same case with the mummy and coffin.
-Among the Egyptian antiquities in the British museum are also
-several small bells of bronze. The largest is 2&frac14; inches in height,
-and the smallest three-quarters of an inch. Some of them have
-a hole at the side near the top wherein the clapper was fastened.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</h2>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Assyrians.</span></h3>
-
-<p>Our acquaintance with the Assyrian instruments has been
-derived almost entirely from the famous bas-reliefs which have
-been excavated from the mounds of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and
-Kouyunjik, situated near the river Tigris in the vicinity of the
-town of Mosul in Asiatic Turkey.</p>
-
-<p>The Assyrian harp was about four feet high, and appears of
-larger size than it actually was on account of the ornamental
-appendages which were affixed to the lower part of its frame. It
-must have been but light in weight, since we find it not unfrequently
-represented in the hands of persons who are playing upon
-it while they are dancing. Like all the Oriental harps, modern
-as well as ancient, it was not provided with a front pillar. The
-upper portion of the frame contained the sound-holes, somewhat
-in the shape of an hour-glass. Below them were the screws, or
-tuning-pegs, arranged in regular order. The strings were perhaps
-made of silk, like those which the Burmese use at the present
-time on their harps; or they may have been of catgut, which was
-used by the ancient Egyptians.</p>
-
-<p>The largest assemblage of Assyrian musicians which has been
-discovered on any monument consists of eleven performers upon
-instruments, besides a chorus of singers. The first musician&mdash;probably
-the leader of the band, as he marches alone at the head
-of the procession&mdash;is playing upon a harp. Behind him are two
-men; one with a dulcimer and the other with a double-pipe:
-then follow two men with harps. Next come six female musicians,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span>
-four of whom are playing upon harps, while one is blowing a
-double-pipe and another is beating a small hand-drum covered
-only at the top. Close behind the instrumental performers are
-the singers, consisting of a chorus of females and children. They
-are clapping their hands in time with the music, and some of the
-musicians are dancing to the measure. One of the female singers
-is holding her hand to her throat in the same manner as the
-women in Syria, Arabia, and Persia are in the habit of doing at
-the present day when producing, on festive occasions, those peculiarly
-shrill sounds of rejoicing which have been repeatedly noticed
-by travellers.</p>
-
-<p>The dulcimer is in too imperfect a state on the bas-relief to
-familiarize us with its construction. The slab representing the
-procession in which it occurs has been injured; the defect which
-extended over a portion of the dulcimer has been repaired, and
-it cannot be said that in repairing it much musical knowledge has
-been evinced.</p>
-
-<p>The instrument of the Trigonon species was held horizontally,
-and was twanged with a rather long plectrum slightly bent at the
-end at which it was held by the performer. It is of frequent
-occurrence on the bas-reliefs. A number of them appear to have
-been generally played together. At any rate, we find almost
-invariably on the monuments two together, evidently implying
-“more than one,” “a number.” The left hand of the performer
-seems to have been occupied in checking the vibration of the
-strings when its discontinuance was required. From the position
-of the strings the performer could not have struck them as those
-of the dulcimer are struck. If he did not twang them, he may
-have drawn the plectrum across them. Indeed, for twanging, a
-short plectrum would have been more practical, considering that
-the strings are placed horizontally one above the other at regular
-distances. It is therefore by no means improbable that we have
-here a rude prototype of the violin bow.</p>
-
-<p>The Lyre occurs in three different forms, and is held horizontally
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span>
-in playing, or at least nearly so. Its front bar was generally
-either oblique or slightly curved. The strings were tied round the
-bar so as to allow of their being pushed upwards or downwards.
-In the former case the tension of the strings increases, and the
-notes become therefore higher; on the other hand, if the strings
-are pushed lower down the pitch of the notes must become
-deeper. The lyre was played with a small plectrum as well as
-with the fingers.</p>
-
-<p>The Assyrian trumpet was very similar to the Egyptian.
-Furthermore, we meet with three kinds of drums, of which one is
-especially noteworthy on account of its odd shape, somewhat
-resembling a sugar-loaf; with the tambourine; with two kinds of
-cymbals; and with bells, of which a considerable number have
-been found in the mound of Nimroud. These bells, which have
-greatly withstood the devastation of time, are but small in size,
-the largest of them being only 3&frac14; inches in height and 2&frac12; inches
-in diameter. Most of them have a hole at the top, in which
-probably the clapper was fastened. They are made of copper
-mixed with 14 per cent. of tin.</p>
-
-<p>Instrumental music was used by the Assyrians and Babylonians
-in their religious observances. This is obvious from the sculptures,
-and is to some extent confirmed by the mode of worship
-paid by command of king Nebuchadnezzar to the golden image:
-“Then an herald cried aloud, To you it is commanded, O people,
-nations, and languages, that at what time ye hear the sound of
-the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds
-of musick, ye fall down and worship the golden image that
-Nebuchadnezzar the king hath set up.” The kings appear to
-have maintained at their courts musical bands, whose office it was
-to perform secular music at certain times of the day or on fixed
-occasions. Of king Darius we are told that, when he had cast
-Daniel into the den of lions, he “went to his palace, and passed
-the night fasting, neither were instruments of musick brought
-before him;” from which we may conclude that his band was in
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span>
-the habit of playing before him in the evening. A similar custom
-prevailed also at the court of Jerusalem, at least in the time of
-David and Solomon; both of whom appear to have had their
-royal private bands, besides a large number of singers and instrumental
-performers of sacred music who were engaged in the
-Temple.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Hebrews.</span></h3>
-
-<p>As regards the musical instruments of the Hebrews, we are from
-biblical records acquainted with the names of many of them; but
-representations to be trusted are still wanting, and it is chiefly from
-an examination of the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian instruments
-that we can conjecture almost to a certainty their construction
-and capabilities. From various indications, which it would be
-too circumstantial here to point out, we believe the Hebrews to
-have possessed the following instruments:</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Harp.</span> There cannot be a doubt that the Hebrews possessed
-the harp, seeing that it was a common instrument among
-the Egyptians and Assyrians. But it is uncertain which of the
-Hebrew names of the stringed instruments occurring in the Bible
-really designates the harp.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Dulcimer.</span> Some writers on Hebrew music consider the
-<i>nebel</i> to have been a kind of dulcimer; others conjecture the same
-of the <i>psanterin</i> mentioned in the book of Daniel,&mdash;a name which
-appears to be synonymous with the <i>psalterion</i> of the Greeks, and
-from which also the present oriental dulcimer, <i>santir</i>, may have
-been derived. Some of the instruments mentioned in the book of
-Daniel may have been synonymous with some which occur in
-other parts of the Bible under Hebrew names; the names given
-in Daniel being Chald&aelig;an. The <i>asor</i> was a ten-stringed instrument
-played with a plectrum, and is supposed to have borne some
-resemblance to the <i>nebel</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Lyre.</span> This instrument is represented on some Hebrew
-coins generally ascribed to Judas Maccab&aelig;us, who lived in the
-second century before the Christian era. There are several of them
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span>
-in the British museum; some are of silver, and the others of
-copper. On three of them are lyres with three strings, another
-has one with five, and another one with six strings. The two
-sides of the frame appear to have been made of the horns of
-animals, or they may have been of wood formed in imitation of
-two horns which originally were used. Lyres thus constructed
-are still found in Abyssinia. The Hebrew square-shaped lyre of
-the time of Simon Maccab&aelig;us is probably identical with the
-<i>psalterion</i>. The <i>kinnor</i>, the favourite instrument of king David,
-was most likely a lyre if not a small triangular harp. The lyre
-was evidently an universally known and favoured instrument
-among ancient eastern nations. Being more simple in construction
-than most other stringed instruments it undoubtedly preceded
-them in antiquity. The <i>kinnor</i> is mentioned in the Bible
-as the oldest stringed instrument, and as the invention of Jubal.
-Even if the name of one particular stringed instrument is here
-used for stringed instruments in general, which may possibly be
-the case, it is only reasonable to suppose that the oldest and most
-universally known stringed instrument would be mentioned as a
-representative of the whole class rather than any other. Besides,
-the <i>kinnor</i> was a light and easily portable instrument; king David,
-according to the Rabbinic records, used to suspend it during the
-night over his pillow. All its uses mentioned in the Bible are
-especially applicable to the lyre. And the resemblance of the
-word <i>kinnor</i> to <i>kithara</i>, <i>kissar</i>, and similar names known to denote
-the lyre, also tends to confirm the supposition that it refers to
-this instrument. It is, however, not likely that the instruments
-of the Hebrews&mdash;indeed their music altogether&mdash;should have
-remained entirely unchanged during a period of many centuries.
-Some modifications were likely to occur even from accidental
-causes; such, for instance, as the influence of neighbouring
-nations when the Hebrews came into closer contact with them.
-Thus may be explained why the accounts of the Hebrew instruments
-given by Josephus, who lived in the first century of the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span>
-Christian era, are not in exact accordance with those in the Bible.
-The lyres at the time of Simon Maccab&aelig;us may probably be
-different from those which were in use about a thousand years
-earlier, or at the time of David and Solomon when the art of
-music with the Hebrews was at its zenith.</p>
-
-<p>There appears to be a probability that a Hebrew lyre of the
-time of Joseph (about 1700 <small>B.C.</small>) is represented on an ancient
-Egyptian painting discovered in a tomb at Beni Hassan,&mdash;which
-is the name of certain grottoes on the eastern bank of the Nile.
-Sir Gardner Wilkinson, in his “Manners and Customs of the
-Ancient Egyptians,” observes: “If, when we become better
-acquainted with the interpretation of hieroglyphics, the ‘Strangers’
-at Beni Hassan should prove to be the arrival of Jacob’s family in
-Egypt, we may examine the Jewish lyre drawn by an Egyptian
-artist. That this event took place about the period when the
-inmate of the tomb lived is highly probable&mdash;at least, if I am
-correct in considering Osirtasen I. to be the Pharaoh the patron
-of Joseph; and it remains for us to decide whether the disagreement
-in the number of persons here introduced&mdash;thirty-seven
-being written over them in hieroglyphics&mdash;is a sufficient objection
-to their identity. It will not be foreign to the present subject
-to introduce those figures which are curious, if only considered as
-illustrative of ancient customs at that early period, and which will
-be looked upon with unbounded interest should they ever be
-found to refer to the Jews. The first figure is an Egyptian scribe,
-who presents an account of their arrival to a person seated, the
-owner of the tomb, and one of the principal officers of the
-reigning Pharaoh. The next, also an Egyptian, ushers them into
-his presence; and two advance bringing presents, the wild goat
-or ibex and the gazelle, the productions of their country. Four
-men, carrying bows and clubs, follow, leading an ass on which
-two children are placed in panniers, accompanied by a boy and
-four women; and, last of all, another ass laden, and two men&mdash;one
-holding a bow and club, the other a lyre, which he plays with
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span>
-a plectrum. All the men have beards, contrary to the custom of
-the Egyptians, but very general in the East at that period, and
-noticed as a peculiarity of foreign uncivilized nations throughout
-their sculptures. The men have sandals, the women a sort of
-boot reaching to the ankle&mdash;both which were worn by many
-Asiatic people. The lyre is rude, and differs in form from those
-generally used in Egypt.” In the engraving the lyre-player,
-another man, and some strange animals from this group, are
-represented.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i022" src="images/i022.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Tamboura.</span> <i>Minnim</i>, <i>machalath</i>, and <i>nebel</i> are usually
-supposed to be the names of instruments of the lute or guitar
-kind. <i>Minnim</i>, however, appears more likely to imply stringed
-instruments in general than any particular instrument.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Single Pipe.</span> <i>Chalil</i> and <i>nekeb</i> were the names of the
-Hebrew pipes or flutes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Double Pipe.</span> Probably the <i>mishrokitha</i> mentioned in
-Daniel. The <i>mishrokitha</i> is represented in the drawings of our
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span>
-histories of music as a small organ, consisting of seven pipes
-placed in a box with a mouthpiece for blowing. But the shape
-of the pipes and of the box as well as the row of keys for the
-fingers exhibited in the representation of the <i>mishrokitha</i> have too
-much of the European type not to suggest that they are probably
-a product of the imagination. Respecting the illustrations of
-Hebrew instruments which usually accompany historical treatises
-on music and commentaries on the Bible, it ought to be borne in
-mind that most of them are merely the offspring of conjectures
-founded on some obscure hints in the Bible, or vague accounts by
-the Rabbins.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Syrinx or Pandean Pipe.</span> Probably the <i>ugab</i>, which in
-the English authorized version of the Bible is rendered “organ.”</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Bagpipe.</span> The word <i>sumphonia</i>, which occurs in the book
-of Daniel, is, by Forkel and others, supposed to denote a bagpipe.
-It is remarkable that at the present day the bagpipe is called by
-the Italian peasantry Zampogna. Another Hebrew instrument,
-the <i>magrepha</i>, generally described as an organ, was more likely
-only a kind of bagpipe. The <i>magrepha</i> is not mentioned in the
-Bible but is described in the Talmud. In tract Erachin it is
-recorded to have been a powerful organ which stood in the temple
-at Jerusalem, and consisted of a case or wind-chest, with ten
-holes, containing ten pipes. Each pipe was capable of emitting
-ten different sounds, by means of finger-holes or some similar
-contrivance: thus one hundred different sounds could be produced
-on this instrument. Further, the <i>magrepha</i> is said to have
-been provided with two pairs of bellows and with ten keys, by
-means of which it was played with the fingers. Its tone was,
-according to the Rabbinic accounts, so loud that it could be
-heard at an incredibly long distance from the temple. Authorities
-so widely differ that we must leave it uncertain whether the much-lauded
-<i>magrepha</i> was a bagpipe, an organ, or a kettle-drum. Of
-the real nature of the Hebrew bagpipe perhaps some idea may be
-formed from a syrinx with bellows, which has been found represented
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span>
-on one of the ancient terra-cottas excavated in Tarsus,
-Asia-minor, some years since, and here engraved. These
-remains are believed to be
-about 2000 years old, judging
-from the figures upon
-them, and from some coins
-struck about 200 years <small>B.C.</small>
-having been found embedded
-with them. We have
-therefore before us, probably,
-the oldest representation
-of a bagpipe
-hitherto discovered.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i024" src="images/i024.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Trumpet.</span> Three kinds are mentioned in the Bible, viz.
-the <i>keren</i>, the <i>shophar</i>, and the <i>chatzozerah</i>. The first two were
-more or less curved and might properly be considered as horns.
-Most commentators are of opinion that the <i>keren</i>&mdash;made of ram’s
-horn&mdash;was almost identical with the <i>shophar</i>, the only difference
-being that the latter was more curved than the former. The
-<i>shophar</i> is especially remarkable as being the only Hebrew
-musical instrument which has been preserved to the present day
-in the religious services of the Jews. It is still blown in the
-synagogue, as in time of old, at the Jewish new-year’s festival,
-according to the command of Moses (Numb. <span class="smcap">xxix. I</span>). The
-<i>chatzozerah</i> was a straight trumpet, about two feet in length, and
-was sometimes made of silver. Two of these straight trumpets are
-shown in the famous triumphal procession after the fall of
-Jerusalem on the arch of Titus, engraved on the next page.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Drum.</span> There can be no doubt that the Hebrews had
-several kinds of drums. We know, however, only of the <i>toph</i>,
-which appears to have been a tambourine or a small hand-drum
-like the Egyptian darabouka. In the English version of the
-Bible the word is rendered <i>timbrel</i> or <i>tabret</i>. This instrument was
-especially used in processions on occasions of rejoicing, and also
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span>
-frequently by females. We find it in the hands of Miriam, when
-she was celebrating with the Israelitish women in songs of joy the
-destruction of Pharaoh’s host; and in the hands of Jephtha’s
-daughter, when she went out to welcome her father. There
-exists at the present day in the East a small hand-drum called
-<i>doff</i>, <i>diff</i>, or <i>adufe</i>&mdash;a name which appears to be synonymous with
-the Hebrew <i>toph</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i025" src="images/i025.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Sistrum.</span> Winer, Saalfch&uuml;tz, and several other commentators
-are of opinion that the <i>menaaneim</i>, mentioned in 2 Sam. vi.
-5, denotes the sistrum. In the English Bible the original is translated
-<i>cymbals</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Cymbals.</span> The <i>tzeltzclim</i>, <i>metzilloth</i>, and <i>metzilthaim</i>, appear
-to have been cymbals or similar metallic instruments of percussion,
-differing in shape and sound.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bells.</span> The little bells on the vestments of the high-priest were
-called <i>phaamon</i>. Small golden bells were attached to the lower
-part of the robes of the high-priest in his sacred ministrations.
-The Jews have, at the present day, in their synagogues small bells
-fastened to the rolls of the Law containing the Pentateuch: a
-kind of ornamentation which is supposed to have been in use
-from time immemorial.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span></p>
-
-<p>Besides the names of Hebrew instruments already given there
-occur several others in the Old Testament, upon the real meaning
-of which much diversity of opinion prevails. <i>Jobel</i> is by some
-commentators classed with the trumpets, but it is by others
-believed to designate a loud and cheerful blast of the trumpet,
-used on particular occasions. If <i>Jobel</i> (from which <i>jubilare</i> is
-supposed to be derived) is identical with the name <i>Jubal</i>, the
-inventor of musical instruments, it would appear that the Hebrews
-appreciated pre-eminently the exhilarating power of music. <i>Shalisbim</i>
-is supposed to denote a triangle. <i>Nechiloth</i>, <i>gittith</i>, and
-<i>machalath</i>, which occur in the headings of some psalms, are also
-by commentators supposed to be musical instruments. <i>Nechiloth</i>
-is said to have been a flute, and <i>gittith</i> and <i>machalath</i> to have
-been stringed instruments, and <i>machol</i> a kind of flute. Again,
-others maintain that the words denote peculiar modes of performance
-or certain favourite melodies to which the psalms were
-directed to be sung, or chanted. According to the records of the
-Rabbins, the Hebrews in the time of David and Solomon possessed
-thirty-six different musical instruments. In the Bible only
-about half that number are mentioned.</p>
-
-<p>Most nations of antiquity ascribed the invention of their musical
-instruments to their gods, or to certain superhuman beings. The
-Hebrews attributed it to man; Jubal is mentioned in Genesis as
-“the father of all such as handle the harp and organ” (<i>i.e.</i>, performers
-on stringed instruments and wind instruments). As instruments
-of percussion are almost invariably in use long before people
-are led to construct stringed and wind instruments it might perhaps
-be surmised that Jubal was not regarded as the inventor of
-all the Hebrew instruments, but rather as the first professional
-cultivator of instrumental music.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</h2>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Greeks.</span></h3>
-
-<p>Many musical instruments of the ancient Greeks are known to us
-by name; but respecting their exact construction and capabilities
-there still prevails almost as much diversity of opinion as is the
-case with those of the Hebrews.</p>
-
-<p>It is generally believed that the Greeks derived their musical
-system from the Egyptians. Pythagoras and other philosophers
-are said to have studied music in Egypt. It would, however,
-appear that the Egyptian influence upon Greece, as far as regards
-this art, has been overrated. Not only have the more perfect
-Egyptian instruments&mdash;such as the larger harps, the tamboura&mdash;never
-been much in favour with the Greeks, but almost all the
-stringed instruments which the Greeks possessed are stated to
-have been originally derived from Asia. Strabo says: “Those
-who regard the whole of Asia, as far as India, as consecrated to
-Bacchus, point to that country as the origin of a great portion of
-the present music. One author speaks of ‘striking forcibly the
-Asiatic kithara,’ another calls the pipes Berecynthian and Phrygian.
-Some of the instruments also have foreign names, as Nabla, Sambuka,
-Barbiton, Magadis, and many others.”</p>
-
-<p>We know at present little more of these instruments than that
-they were in use in Greece. Of the Magadis it is even not satisfactorily
-ascertained whether it was a stringed or a wind instrument.
-The other three are known to have been stringed instruments.
-But they cannot have been anything like such universal favourites
-as the lyre, because this instrument and perhaps the <i>trigonon</i> are
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span>
-almost the only stringed instruments represented in the Greek
-paintings on pottery and other monumental records. If, as might
-perhaps be suggested, their taste for beauty of form induced the
-Greeks to represent the elegant lyre in preference to other stringed
-instruments, we might at least expect to meet with the harp; an
-instrument which equals if it does not surpass the lyre in elegance
-of form.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i028" src="images/i028.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The representation of Polyhymnia with a harp, depicted on a
-splendid Greek vase now in the Munich museum, may be noted
-as an exceptional instance. This valuable relic dates from the
-time of Alexander the great. The instrument resembles in construction
-as well as in shape the Assyrian harp, and has thirteen
-strings. Polyhymnia is touching them with both hands, using the
-right hand for the treble and the left for the bass. She is seated,
-holding the instrument in her lap. Even the little tuning-pegs,
-which in number are not in accordance with the strings, are placed
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span>
-on the sound-board at the upper part of the frame, exactly as on
-the Assyrian harp. If then we have here the Greek harp, it was
-more likely an importation from Asia than from Egypt. In short,
-as far as can be ascertained, the most complete of the Greek
-instruments appear to be of Asiatic origin. Especially from the
-nations who inhabited Asia-minor the Greeks are stated to have
-adopted several of the most popular. Thus we may read of the
-short and shrill-sounding pipes of the Carians; of the Phrygian
-pastoral flute, consisting of several tubes united; of the three-stringed
-<i>kithara</i> of the Lydians; and so on.</p>
-
-<p>The Greeks called the harp <i>kinyra</i>, and this may be the reason
-why in the English translation of the Bible the <i>kinnor</i> of the
-Hebrews, the favourite instrument of king David, is rendered <i>harp</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i029" src="images/i029.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The Greeks had lyres of various kinds, shown in the accompanying
-woodcuts, more or less differing in construction, form,
-and size, and distinguished by different names; such as <i>lyra</i>,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span>
-<i>kithara</i>, <i>chelys</i>, <i>phorminx</i>, etc. <i>Lyra</i> appears to have implied
-instruments of this class in general, and also the lyre with a body
-oval at the base and held upon the lap or in the arms of the
-performer; while the <i>kithara</i> had a square base and was held
-against the breast. These distinctions have, however, not been
-satisfactorily ascertained. The <i>chelys</i> was a small lyre with the
-body made of the shell of a tortoise, or of wood in imitation
-of the tortoise. The <i>phorminx</i> was a large lyre; and, like the
-<i>kithara</i>, was used at an early period singly, for accompanying
-recitations. It is recorded that the <i>kithara</i> was employed for solo
-performances as early as <small>B.C.</small> 700.</p>
-
-<p>The design on the Grecian vase at Munich (already alluded
-to) represents the nine muses, of whom three are given in the
-engraving, viz., Polyhymnia with the harp, and Kalliope and
-Erato with lyres. It will be observed that some of the lyres
-engraved in the woodcuts on page 29 are provided with a bridge,
-while others are without it. The largest were held probably on
-or between the knees, or were attached to the left arm by means
-of a band, to enable the performer to use his hands without
-impediment. The strings, made of catgut or sinew, were more
-usually twanged with a <i>plektron</i> than merely with the fingers.
-The <i>plektron</i> was a short stem of ivory or metal pointed at both
-ends.</p>
-
-<p>A fragment of a Greek lyre which was found in a tomb near
-Athens is deposited in the British museum. The two pieces constituting
-its frame are of wood. Their length is about eighteen
-inches, and the length of the cross-bar at the top is about nine
-inches. The instrument is unhappily in a condition too dilapidated
-and imperfect to be of any essential use to the musical inquirer.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>trigonon</i> consisted originally of an angular frame, to which
-the strings were affixed. In the course of time a third bar was
-added to resist the tension of the strings, and its triangular frame
-resembled in shape the Greek delta. Subsequently it was still
-further improved, the upper bar of the frame being made slightly
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span>
-curved, whereby the instrument obtained greater strength and
-more elegance of form.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>magadis</i>, also called <i>pektis</i>, had twenty strings which were
-tuned in octaves, and therefore produced only ten tones. It
-appears to have been some sort of dulcimer, but information
-respecting its construction is still wanting. There appears to
-have been also a kind of bagpipe in use called <i>magadis</i>, of which
-nothing certain is known. Possibly, the same name may have
-been applied to two different instruments.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i031" src="images/i031.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>barbiton</i> was likewise a stringed instrument of this kind.
-The <i>sambyke</i> is traditionally said to have been invented by
-Ibykos, <small>B.C.</small> 540. The <i>simmikon</i> had thirty-five strings, and
-derived its name from its inventor, Simos, who lived about <small>B.C.</small>
-600. It was perhaps a kind of dulcimer. The <i>nabla</i> had only
-two strings, and probably resembled the <i>nebel</i> of the Hebrews, of
-which but little is known with certainty. The <i>pandoura</i> is supposed
-to have been a kind of lute with three strings. Several of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span>
-the instruments just noticed were used in Greece, chiefly by
-musicians who had immigrated from Asia; they can therefore
-hardly be considered as national musical instruments of the
-Greeks. The <i>monochord</i> had (as its name implies) only a single
-string, and was used in teaching singing and the laws of acoustics.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i032" src="images/i032.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The flute, <i>aulos</i>, of which there were many varieties, as shown
-in the woodcut p. 31, was a highly popular instrument, and differed
-in construction from the flutes and pipes of the ancient Egyptians.
-Instead of being blown through a hole at the side near the top it
-was held like a flageolet, and a
-vibrating reed was inserted into
-the mouth-piece, so that it might
-be more properly described as a
-kind of oboe or clarionet. The
-Greeks were accustomed to designate
-by the name of <i>aulos</i> all wind
-instruments of the flute and oboe
-kind, some of which were constructed
-like the flageolet or like
-our antiquated <i>fl&ucirc;te &agrave; bec</i>. The
-single flute was called <i>monaulos</i>,
-and the double one <i>diaulos</i>. A
-<i>diaulos</i>, which was found in a
-tomb at Athens, is in the British
-museum. The wood of which it
-is made seems to be cedar, and
-the tubes are fifteen inches in
-length. Each tube has a separate mouth-piece and six finger-holes,
-five of which are at the upper side and one is underneath.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>syrinx</i>, or Pandean pipe, had from three to nine tubes, but
-seven was the usual number. The straight trumpet, <i>salpinx</i>, and
-the curved horn, <i>keras</i>, made of brass, were used exclusively in
-war. The small hand-drum, called <i>tympanon</i>, resembled in shape
-our tambourine, but was covered with parchment at the back as
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span>
-well as at the front. The <i>kymbala</i> were made of metal, and
-resembled our small cymbals. The <i>krotala</i> were almost identical
-with our castanets, and were made of wood or metal.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Etruscans and Romans.</span></h3>
-
-<p>The Romans are recorded to have derived some of their most
-popular instruments originally from the Etruscans; a people
-which at an early period excelled all other Italian nations in the
-cultivation of the arts as well as in social refinement, and which
-possessed musical instruments similar to those of the Greeks.
-It must, however, be remembered that many of the vases and
-other specimens of art which have been found in Etruscan tombs,
-and on which delineations of lyres and other instruments occur,
-are supposed to be productions of Greek artists whose works
-were obtained from Greece by the Etruscans, or who were
-induced to settle in Etruria.</p>
-
-<p>The flutes of the Etruscans were not unfrequently made of
-ivory; those used in religious sacrifices were of box-wood, of a
-species of the lotus, of ass’ bone, bronze and silver. A bronze
-flute, somewhat resembling our flageolet, has been found in a
-tomb; likewise a huge trumpet of bronze. An Etruscan <i>cornu</i>
-(engraved) is deposited in the British museum, and measures
-about four feet in length.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i033" src="images/i033.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>To the Etruscans is also attributed by some the invention of the
-hydraulic organ.
-The Greeks possessed
-a somewhat
-similar contrivance
-which they called <i>hydraulos</i>,
-<i>i.e.</i> water-flute,
-and which
-probably was
-identical with the
-<i>organum hydraulicum</i> of the Romans. The instrument ought more
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span>
-properly to be regarded as a pneumatic organ, for the sound was
-produced by the current of air through the pipes; the water
-applied serving merely to give the necessary pressure to the
-bellows and to regulate their action. The pipes were probably
-caused to sound by means of stops, perhaps resembling those
-on our organ, which were drawn out or pushed in. The construction
-was evidently but a primitive contrivance, contained
-in a case which could be carried by one or two persons and
-which was placed on a table. The highest degree of perfection
-which the hydraulic organ obtained with the ancients is perhaps
-shown in a representation on a coin
-of the emperor Nero, in the British
-museum. Only ten pipes are given
-to it and there is no indication of
-any key board, which would probably
-have been shown had it existed. The
-man standing at the side and holding
-a laurel leaf in his hand is
-surmised to represent a victor in the
-exhibitions of the circus or the amphitheatre.
-The hydraulic organ probably
-was played on such occasions; and the medal containing
-an impression of it may have been bestowed upon the victor.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i034" src="images/i034.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>During the time of the republic, and especially subsequently
-under the reign of the emperors, the Romans adopted many new
-instruments from Greece, Egypt, and even from western Asia;
-without essentially improving any of their importations.</p>
-
-<p>Their most favourite stringed instrument was the lyre, of which
-they had various kinds, called, according to their form and
-arrangement of strings, <i>lyra</i>, <i>cithara</i>, <i>chelys</i>, <i>testudo</i>, <i>fidis</i> (or <i>fides</i>),
-and <i>cornu</i>. The name <i>cornu</i> was given to the lyre when the
-sides of the frame terminated at the top in the shape of two horns.
-The <i>barbitos</i> was a kind of lyre with a large body, which gave
-the instrument somewhat the shape of the Welsh <i>crwth</i>. The
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span>
-<i>psalterium</i> was a kind of lyre of an oblong square shape. Like
-most of the Roman lyres, it was played with a rather large
-plectrum. The <i>trigonum</i> was the same as the Greek <i>trigonon</i>,
-and was probably originally derived from Egypt. It is recorded
-that a certain musician of the name of Alexander Alexandrinus
-was so admirable a performer upon it that when exhibiting his
-skill in Rome he created the greatest <i>furore</i>. Less common, and
-derived from Asia, were the <i>sambuca</i> and <i>nablia</i>, the exact construction
-of which is unknown.</p>
-
-<p>The flute, <i>tibia</i>, was originally made of the shin bone, and had
-a mouth-hole and four finger-holes. Its shape was retained
-even when, at a later period, it was constructed of other substances
-than bone. The <i>tibia gingrina</i> consisted of a long and
-thin tube of reed with a mouth-hole at the side of one end. The
-<i>tibia obliqua</i> and <i>tibia vasca</i> were provided with mouth-pieces
-affixed at a right angle to the tube; a contrivance somewhat
-similar to that on our bassoon. The <i>tibia longa</i> was especially
-used in religious worship. The <i>tibia curva</i> was curved at its
-broadest end. The <i>tibia ligula</i> appears to have resembled our
-flageolet. The <i>calamus</i> was nothing more than a simple pipe cut
-off the kind of reed which the ancients used as a pen for writing.</p>
-
-<p>The Romans had double flutes as well as single flutes. The
-double flute consisted of two tubes united, either so as to have a
-mouth-piece in common or to have each a separate mouth-piece.
-If the tubes were exactly alike the double flute was called <i>Tibi&aelig;
-pares</i>; if they were different from each other, <i>Tibi&aelig; impares</i>.
-Little plugs, or stoppers, were inserted into the finger-holes to
-regulate the order of intervals. The <i>tibia</i> was made in various
-shapes. The <i>tibia dextra</i> was usually constructed of the upper
-and thinner part of a reed; and the <i>tibia sinistra</i>, of the lower
-and broader part. The performers used also the <i>capistrum</i>,&mdash;a
-bandage round the cheeks identical with the <i>phorbeia</i> of the
-Greeks.</p>
-
-<p>The British museum contains a mosaic figure of a Roman girl
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span>
-playing the <i>tibia</i>, which is stated to have been disinterred in the
-year 1823 on the Via Appia. Here the <i>holmos</i> or mouth-piece,
-somewhat resembling the reed of
-our oboe, is distinctly shown.
-The finger-holes, probably four,
-are not indicated, although they
-undoubtedly existed on the instrument.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i036a" src="images/i036a.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Furthermore, the Romans had
-two kinds of Pandean pipes, viz.
-the <i>syrinx</i> and the <i>fistula</i>. The
-bagpipe, <i>tibia utricularis</i>, is said to
-have been a favourite instrument
-of the emperor Nero.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i036b" src="images/i036b.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>cornu</i> was a large horn of
-bronze, curved. The performer
-held it under his arm with the broad end upwards over his
-shoulder. It is represented
-in the engraving,
-with the <i>tuba</i> and
-the <i>lituus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>tuba</i> was a
-straight trumpet. Both
-the <i>cornu</i> and the <i>tuba</i>
-were employed in war
-to convey signals. The
-same was the case with
-the <i>buccina</i>,&mdash;originally
-perhaps a conch
-shell, and afterwards a
-simple horn of an animal,&mdash;and
-the <i>lituus</i>, which was bent at the broad end but
-otherwise straight. The <i>tympanum</i> resembled the tambourine
-and was beaten like the latter with the hands. Among the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span>
-Roman instruments of percussion the <i>scabillum</i>, which consisted
-of two plates combined by means of a sort of hinge, deserves
-to be noticed; it was fastened under the foot and trodden in
-time, to produce certain rhythmical effects in musical performances.
-The <i>cymbalum</i> consisted of two metal plates similar
-to our cymbals. The <i>crotala</i> and the <i>crusmata</i> were kinds of
-castanets, the former being oblong and of a larger size than the
-latter. The Romans had also a <i>triangulum</i>, which resembled
-the triangle occasionally used in our orchestra. The <i>sistrum</i>
-they derived from Egypt with the introduction of the worship of
-Isis. Metal bells, arranged according to a regular order of intervals
-and placed in a frame, were called <i>tintinnabula</i>. The
-<i>crepitaculum</i> appears to have been a somewhat similar contrivance
-on a hoop with a handle.</p>
-
-<p>Through the Greeks and Romans we have the first well-authenticated
-proof of musical instruments having been introduced into
-Europe from Asia. The Romans in their conquests undoubtedly
-made their musical instruments known, to some extent, also in
-western Europe. But the Greeks and Romans are not the only
-nations which introduced eastern instruments into Europe. The
-Phœnicians at an early period colonized Sardinia, and traces of
-them are still to be found on that island. Among these is a
-peculiarly constructed double-pipe, called <i>lionedda</i> or <i>launedda</i>.
-Again, at a much later period the Arabs introduced several of
-their instruments into Spain, from which country they became
-known in France, Germany, and England. Also the crusaders,
-during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, may have helped to
-familiarize the western European nations with instruments of
-the east.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</h2>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Chinese.</span></h3>
-
-<p>Allowing for any exaggeration as to chronology, natural to the
-lively imagination of Asiatics, there is no reason to doubt that
-the Chinese possessed long before our Christian era musical
-instruments to which they attribute a fabulously high antiquity.
-There is an ancient tradition, according to which they obtained
-their musical scale from a miraculous bird, called foung-hoang,
-which appears to have been a sort of phœnix. When Confucius,
-who lived about <small>B.C.</small> 500, happened to hear on a certain occasion
-some Chinese music, he became so greatly enraptured that he
-could not take any food for three months afterwards. The
-sounds which produced this effect were those of Kouei, the
-Orpheus of the Chinese, whose performance on the <i>king</i>&mdash;a kind
-of harmonicon constructed of slabs of sonorous stone&mdash;would
-draw wild animals around him and make them subservient to
-his will. As regards the invention of musical instruments the
-Chinese have other traditions. In one of these we are told that
-the origin of some of their most popular instruments dates from
-the period when China was under the dominion of heavenly
-spirits, called Ki. Another assigns the invention of several
-stringed instruments to the great Fohi who was the founder of
-the empire and who lived about <small>B.C.</small> 3000, which was long after
-the dominion of the Ki, or spirits. Again, another tradition holds
-that the most important instruments and systematic arrangements
-of sounds are an invention of Niuva, a supernatural female,
-who lived at the time of Fohi.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i039" src="images/i039.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>According to their records, the Chinese possessed their much-esteemed
-<i>king</i> 2200 years before our Christian era, and employed
-it for accompanying songs of praise. It was regarded as a sacred
-instrument. During religious observances at the solemn moment
-when the <i>king</i> was sounded sticks of incense were burnt. It
-was likewise played before the emperor early in the morning
-when he awoke. The Chinese have long since constructed
-various kinds of the <i>king</i>, one of which is here engraved, by
-using different species of stones. Their most famous stone
-selected for this purpose is called <i>yu</i>. It is not only very
-sonorous but also beautiful in appearance. The <i>yu</i> is found
-in mountain streams and crevices of rocks. The largest specimens
-found measure from two to three feet in diameter, but of
-this size examples rarely occur. The <i>yu</i> is very hard and heavy.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span>
-Some European mineralogists, to whom the missionaries transmitted
-specimens for examination, pronounce it to be a species
-of agate. It is found of different colours, and the Chinese
-appear to have preferred in different centuries particular colours
-for the <i>king</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The Chinese consider the <i>yu</i> especially valuable for musical
-purposes, because it always retains exactly the same pitch. All
-other musical instruments, they say, are in this respect doubtful;
-but the tone of the <i>yu</i> is neither influenced by cold nor heat, nor
-by humidity, nor dryness.</p>
-
-<p>The stones used for the <i>king</i> have been cut from time to time
-in various grotesque shapes. Some represent animals: as, for
-instance, a bat with outstretched wings; or two fishes placed
-side by side: others are in the shape of an ancient Chinese bell.
-The angular shape shown in the engraving appears to be the
-oldest and is still retained in the ornamented stones of the <i>pien-king</i>,
-which is a more modern instrument than the <i>king</i>. The
-tones of the <i>pien-king</i> are attuned according to the Chinese
-intervals called <i>lu</i>, of which there are twelve in the compass
-of an octave. The same is the case with the other Chinese
-instruments of this class. They vary, however, in pitch. The
-pitch of the <i>soung-king</i>, for instance, is four intervals lower than
-that of the <i>pien-king</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Sonorous stones have always been used by the Chinese also
-singly, as rhythmical instruments. Such a single stone is called
-<i>tse-king</i>. Probably certain curious relics belonging to a temple in
-Peking, erected for the worship of Confucius, serve a similar purpose.
-In one of the outbuildings or the temple are ten sonorous
-stones, shaped like drums, which are asserted to have been cut
-about three thousand years ago. The primitive Chinese characters
-engraven upon them are nearly obliterated.</p>
-
-<p>The ancient Chinese had several kinds of bells, frequently
-arranged in sets so as to constitute a musical scale. The Chinese
-name for the bell is <i>tchung</i>. At an early period they had a somewhat
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span>
-square-shaped bell called <i>t&eacute;-tchung</i>. Like other ancient
-Chinese bells it was made of copper alloyed with tin, the
-proportion being one pound of tin to six of copper. The <i>t&eacute;-tchung</i>,
-which is also known by the name of <i>piao</i>, was principally
-used to indicate the time and divisions in musical performances.
-It had a fixed pitch of sound, and several of these bells
-attuned to a certain order of intervals were not unfrequently
-ranged in a regular succession, thus forming a musical instrument
-which was called <i>pien-tchung</i>. The musical scale of the sixteen
-bells which the <i>pien-tchung</i> contained was the same as that of the
-<i>king</i> before mentioned.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i041" src="images/i041.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>hiuen-tchung</i> was, according to popular tradition, included
-with the antique instruments at the time of Confucius, and came
-into popular use during the Han dynasty (from <small>B.C.</small> 200 until
-<small>A.D.</small> 200). It was of a peculiar oval shape and had nearly the
-same quaint ornamentation as the <i>t&eacute;-tchung</i>; this consisted of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span>
-symbolical figures, in four divisions, each containing nine mammals.
-The mouth was crescent-shaped. Every figure had a deep
-meaning referring to the seasons and
-to the mysteries of the Buddhist
-religion. The largest <i>hiuen-tchung</i>
-was about twenty inches in length;
-and, like the <i>t&eacute;-tchung</i>, was sounded
-by means of a small wooden mallet
-with an oval knob. None of the bells
-of this description had a clapper. It
-would, however, appear that the
-Chinese had at an early period some
-kind of bell provided with a wooden
-tongue: this was used for military
-purposes as well as for calling the
-people together when an imperial
-messenger promulgated his sovereign’s commands. An expression
-of Confucius is recorded to the effect that he wished to be “A
-wooden-tongued bell of Heaven,” <i>i.e.</i> a herald of heaven to proclaim
-the divine purposes to the multitude.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i042" src="images/i042.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>fang-hiang</i> was a kind of wood-harmonicon. It contained
-sixteen wooden slabs of an oblong square shape, suspended in a
-wooden frame elegantly decorated. The slabs were arranged in
-two tiers, one above the other, and were all of equal length and
-breadth but differed in thickness. The <i>tchoung-tou</i> consisted of
-twelve slips of bamboo, and was used for beating time and for
-rhythmical purposes. The slips being banded together at one
-end could be expanded somewhat like a fan. The Chinese state
-that they used the <i>tchoung-tou</i> for writing upon before they
-invented paper.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>ou</i>, of which we give a woodcut, likewise an ancient Chinese
-instrument of percussion and still in use, is made of wood in
-the shape of a crouching tiger. It is hollow, and along its back
-are about twenty small pieces of metal, pointed, and in appearance
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span>
-not unlike the teeth of a saw. The performer strikes them
-with a sort of plectrum resembling a brush, or with a small stick
-called <i>tchen</i>.
-Occasionally
-the <i>ou</i> is made
-with pieces of
-metal shaped
-like reeds.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i043a" src="images/i043a.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The ancient
-<i>ou</i> was constructed
-with
-only six tones
-which were attuned
-thus&mdash;<i>f</i>,
-<i>g</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>f</i>. The instrument appears to have become deteriorated
-in the course of time; for, although it has gradually
-acquired as many as twenty-seven pieces of metal, it evidently
-serves at the present day more for the production of rhythmical
-noise than for the execution of any melody. The modern <i>ou</i>
-is made of a species of wood called <i>kieou</i> or <i>tsieou</i>: and the
-tiger rests generally on a hollow wooden pedestal about three
-feet six inches long, which serves as a sound-board.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i043b" src="images/i043b.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>tchou</i>, likewise an instrument of percussion, was made of
-the wood of a tree called <i>kieou-mou</i>, the stem of which resembles
-that of the pine and whose foliage is
-much like that of the cypress. It was
-constructed of boards about three-quarters
-of an inch in thickness. In the
-middle of one of the sides was an aperture
-into which the hand was passed for
-the purpose of holding the handle of a
-wooden hammer, the end of which
-entered into a hole situated in the bottom of the <i>tchou</i>. The
-handle was kept in its place by means of a wooden pin, on which
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span>
-it moved right and left when the instrument was struck with a
-hammer. The Chinese ascribe to the <i>tchou</i> a very high antiquity,
-as they almost invariably do with any of their inventions when
-the date of its origin is unknown to them.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>po-fou</i> was a drum, about one foot four inches in length,
-and seven inches in diameter. It had a parchment at each end,
-which was prepared in a peculiar way by being boiled in water.
-The <i>po-fou</i> used to be partly filled with a preparation made from
-the husk of rice, in order to mellow the sound. The Chinese
-name for the drum is <i>kou</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i044" src="images/i044.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>kin-kou</i> (engraved), a large drum fixed on a pedestal which
-raises it above six feet from the ground, is embellished with symbolical
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span>
-designs. A similar drum on which natural phenomena
-are depicted is called <i>lei-kou</i>; and another of the kind, with
-figures of certain birds and beasts which are regarded as symbols
-of long life, is called <i>ling-kou</i>, and also <i>lou-kou</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The flutes, <i>ty</i>, <i>yo</i>, and <i>tch&eacute;</i> were generally made of bamboo.
-The <i>koan-tsee</i> was a Pandean pipe containing twelve tubes of
-bamboo. The <i>siao</i>, likewise a Pandean pipe, contained sixteen
-tubes. The <i>pai-siao</i> differed from the <i>siao</i> inasmuch as the tubes
-were inserted into an oddly-shaped case highly ornamented with
-grotesque designs and silken appendages.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i045" src="images/i045.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The Chinese are known to have constructed at an early period
-a curious wind-instrument, called <i>hiuen</i>. It was made of baked
-clay and had five finger-holes, three of which were placed on one
-side and two on the opposite side, as in the cut. Its tones were
-in conformity with the pentatonic scale. The reader unacquainted
-with the pentatonic scale
-may ascertain its character
-by playing on the pianoforte
-the scale of C major
-with the omission of <i>f</i> and
-<i>b</i> (the <i>fourth</i> and <i>seventh</i>);
-or by striking the black
-keys in regular succession
-from <i>f</i>-sharp to the next
-<i>f</i>-sharp above or below.</p>
-
-<p>Another curious wind-instrument of high antiquity, the <i>cheng</i>,
-(engraved, p. 46) is still in use. Formerly it had either 13, 19, or
-24 tubes, placed in a calabash; and a long curved tube served as
-a mouth-piece. In olden time it was called <i>yu</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The ancient stringed instruments, the <i>kin</i> and <i>ch&ecirc;</i>, were of the
-dulcimer kind: they are still in use, and specimens of them are in
-the South Kensington museum.</p>
-
-<p>The Buddhists introduced from Thibet into China their god
-of music, who is represented as a rather jovial-looking man with
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span>
-a moustache and an imperial, playing the <i>pepa</i>, a kind of lute
-with four silken strings. Perhaps some interesting information
-respecting the ancient Chinese musical
-instruments may be gathered from the
-famous ruins of the Buddhist temples
-<i>Ongcor-Wat</i> and <i>Ongcor-Th&ocirc;m</i>, in Cambodia.
-These splendid ruins are supposed
-to be above two thousand years old: and,
-at any rate, the circumstance of their age
-not being known to the Cambodians suggests
-a high antiquity. On the bas-reliefs
-with which the temples were enriched
-are figured musical instruments, which
-European travellers describe as “flutes,
-organs, trumpets, and drums, resembling
-those of the Chinese.” Faithful sketches
-of these representations might, very likely,
-afford valuable hints to the student of
-musical history.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Hindus.</span></h3>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i046" src="images/i046.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>In the Brahmin mythology of the
-Hindus the god Nareda is the inventor
-of the <i>vina</i>, the principal national instrument
-of Hindustan. Saraswati, the
-consort of Brahma, may be regarded as
-the Minerva of the Hindus. She is the
-goddess of music as well as of speech; to her is attributed the
-invention of the systematic arrangement of the sounds into a
-musical scale. She is represented seated on a peacock and playing
-on a stringed instrument of the lute kind. Brahma himself we
-find depicted as a vigorous man with four handsome heads,
-beating with his hands upon a small drum; and Vishnu, in his
-incarnation as Krishna, is represented as a beautiful youth playing
-upon a flute. The Hindus construct a peculiar kind of flute,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span>
-which they consider as the favourite instrument of Krishna.
-They have also the divinity Ganesa, the god of Wisdom, who is
-represented as a man with the head of an elephant, holding
-a <i>tamboura</i> in his hands.</p>
-
-<p>It is a suggestive fact that we find among several nations in
-different parts of the world an ancient tradition, according to
-which their most popular stringed instrument was originally
-derived from the water.</p>
-
-<p>In Hindu mythology the god Nareda invented the <i>vina</i>&mdash;the
-principal national instrument of Hindustan&mdash;which has also the
-name <i>cach’-hapi</i>, signifying a tortoise (<i>testudo</i>). Moreover, <i>nara</i>
-denotes in Sanskrit water, and <i>narada</i>, or <i>nareda</i>, the giver of
-water. Like Nareda, Nereus and his fifty daughters, the Nereides,
-were much renowned for their musical accomplishments; and
-Hermes (it will be remembered) made his lyre, the <i>chelys</i>, of
-a tortoise-shell. The Scandinavian god Odin, the originator of
-magic songs, is mentioned as the ruler of the sea, and as such
-he had the name of <i>Nikarr</i>. In the depth of the sea he played
-the harp with his subordinate spirits, who occasionally came up
-to the surface of the water to teach some favoured human being
-their wonderful instrument. W&auml;in&auml;m&ouml;inen, the divine player on
-the Finnish <i>kantele</i> (according to the Kalewala, the old national
-epic of the Finns) constructed his instrument of fish-bones. The
-frame he made out of the bones of the pike; and the teeth of
-the pike he used for the tuning-pegs.</p>
-
-<p>Jacob Grimm in his work on German mythology points out
-an old tradition, preserved in Swedish and Scotch national
-ballads, of a skilful harper who constructs his instrument out of
-the bones of a young girl drowned by a wicked woman. Her
-fingers he uses for the tuning screws, and her golden hair for the
-strings. The harper plays, and his music kills the murderess. A
-similar story is told in the old Icelandic national songs; and the
-same tradition has been preserved in the Faroe islands, as well as
-in Norway and Denmark.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span></p>
-
-<p>May not the agreeable impression produced by the rhythmical
-flow of the waves and the soothing murmur of running water
-have led various nations, independently of each other, to the
-widespread conception that they obtained their favourite instrument
-of music from the water? Or is the notion traceable to a
-common source dating from a pre-historic age, perhaps from the
-early period when the Aryan race is surmised to have diffused its
-lore through various countries? Or did it originate in the old
-belief that the world, with all its charms and delights, arose from
-a chaos in which water constituted the predominant element?</p>
-
-<p>Howbeit, Nareda, the giver of water, was evidently also the
-ruler of the clouds; and Odin had his throne in the skies.
-Indeed, many of the musical water-spirits appear to have been
-originally considered as rain deities. Their music may therefore
-be regarded as derived from the clouds rather than from the sea.
-In short, the traditions respecting spirits and water are not in
-contradiction to the opinion of the ancient Hindus that music is
-of heavenly origin, but rather tend to support it.</p>
-
-<p>The earliest musical instruments of the Hindus on record have,
-almost all of them, remained in popular use until the present day
-scarcely altered. Besides these, the Hindus possess several
-Arabic and Persian instruments which are of comparatively
-modern date in Hindustan: evidently having been introduced
-into that country scarcely a thousand years ago, at the time of
-the Mahomedan irruption. There is a treatise on music extant,
-written in Sanskrit, which contains a description of the ancient
-instruments. Its title is <i>S&acirc;ngita r&acirc;thnakara</i>. If, as may be
-hoped, it be translated by a Sanskrit scholar who is at the same
-time a good musician, we shall probably be enabled to ascertain
-more exactly which of the Hindu instruments of the present day
-are of comparatively modern origin.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>vina</i> is undoubtedly of high antiquity. It has seven wire
-strings, and movable frets which are generally fastened with wax.
-Two hollowed gourds, often tastefully ornamented, are affixed to
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span>
-it for the purpose of increasing the sonorousness. There are
-several kinds of the <i>vina</i> in different districts; but that represented
-in the illustration is
-regarded as the oldest.
-The performer
-shown is Jeewan Shah,
-a celebrated virtuoso
-on the <i>vina</i>, who lived
-about a hundred years
-ago. The Hindus divided
-their musical
-scale into several intervals
-smaller than
-our modern semitones.
-They adopted
-twenty-two intervals
-called <i>sruti</i> in the
-compass of an octave,
-which may therefore
-be compared to our chromatic intervals. As the frets of the <i>vina</i>
-are movable the performer can easily regulate them according to
-the scale, or mode, which he requires for his music.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i049" src="images/i049.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The harp, <i>chang</i>, has become almost obsolete. If some Hindu
-drawings of it can be relied upon, it had at an early time a
-triangular frame and was in construction as well as in shape and
-size almost identical with the Assyrian harp.</p>
-
-<p>The Hindus claim to have invented the violin bow. They
-maintain that the <i>ravanastron</i>, one of their old instruments
-played with the bow, was invented about five thousand years ago
-by Ravanon, a mighty king of Ceylon. However this may be
-there is a great probability that the fiddle-bow originated in Hindustan;
-because Sanskrit scholars inform us that there are names
-for it in works which cannot be less than from 1500 to 2000 years
-old. The non-occurrence of any instrument played with a bow
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span>
-on the monuments of the nations of antiquity is by no means so
-sure a proof as has generally been supposed, that the bow was
-unknown. The fiddle in its primitive condition must have been
-a poor contrivance. It probably was despised by players who
-could produce better tones with greater facility by twanging the
-strings with their fingers, or with a plectrum. Thus it may have
-remained through many centuries without experiencing any
-material improvement. It must also be borne in mind that the
-monuments transmitted to us chiefly represent historical events,
-religious ceremonies, and royal entertainments. On such occasions
-instruments of a certain kind only were used, and these we
-find represented; while others, which may have been even more
-common, never occur. In two thousand years’ time people will
-possibly maintain that some highly perfected instrument popular
-with them was entirely unknown to us, because it is at present in
-so primitive a condition that no one hardly notices it. If the
-<i>ravanastron</i> was an importation of the Mahomedans it would
-most likely bear some resemblance to the Arabian and Persian
-instruments, and it would be found rather in the hands of the
-higher classes in the towns; whereas it is principally met with
-among the lower order of people, in isolated and mountainous
-districts. It is further remarkable that the most simple kind
-of <i>ravanastron</i> is almost identical with the Chinese fiddle called
-<i>ur-heen</i>. This species has only two strings, and its body consists of
-a small block of wood, hollowed out and covered with the skin
-of a serpent. The <i>ur-heen</i> has not been mentioned among the most
-ancient instruments of the Chinese, since there is no evidence of
-its having been known in China before the introduction of the
-Buddhist religion into that country. From indications, which to
-point out would lead too far here, it would appear that several
-instruments found in China originated in Hindustan. They seem
-to have been gradually diffused from Hindustan and Thibet, more
-or less altered in the course of time, through the east as far as Japan.</p>
-
-<p>Another curious Hindu instrument, probably of very high antiquity,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span>
-is the <i>poongi</i>, also called <i>toumrie</i> and <i>magoudi</i>. It consists
-of a gourd or of the Cuddos nut, hollowed, into which two pipes
-are inserted. The <i>poongi</i> therefore somewhat resembles in appearance
-a bagpipe. It is generally used by the <i>Sampuris</i> or snake
-charmers, who play upon it when they exhibit the antics of the
-cobra. The name <i>magoudi</i>, given in certain districts to this instrument,
-rather tends to corroborate the opinion of some musical
-historians that the <i>magadis</i> of the ancient Greeks was a sort of
-double-pipe, or bagpipe.</p>
-
-<p>Many instruments of Hindustan are known by different names
-in different districts; and, besides, there are varieties of them.
-On the whole, the Hindus possess about fifty instruments. To
-describe them properly would fill a volume. Some, which are in
-the Kensington museum, will be found noticed in the large catalogue
-of that collection.</p>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Persians and Arabs.</span></h3>
-
-<p>Of the musical instruments of the ancient Persians, before the
-Christian era, scarcely anything is known. It may be surmised
-that they closely resembled those of the Assyrians, and probably
-also those of the Hebrews.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i051" src="images/i051.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The harp, <i>chang</i>, in olden time a favourite instrument of the
-Persians, has gradually fallen into desuetude. The illustration of
-a small harp given in the woodcut
-has been sketched from the celebrated
-sculptures, perhaps of the sixth
-century, which exist on a stupendous
-rock, called Tackt-i-Bostan, in the
-vicinity of the town of Kermanshah.
-These sculptures are said to have
-been executed during the lifetime of
-the Persian monarch Khosroo Purviz.
-They form the ornaments of two lofty arches, and consist of
-representations of field sports and aquatic amusements. In one
-of the boats is seated a man in an ornamental dress, with a halo
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span>
-round his head, who is receiving an arrow from one of his
-attendants; while a female, who is sitting near him, plays on a
-Trigonon. Towards the top of the bas-relief is represented a
-stage, on which are performers on small straight trumpets and
-little hand drums; six harpers; and four other musicians, apparently
-females,&mdash;the first of whom plays a flute; the second, a
-sort of pandean pipe; the third, an instrument which is too much
-defaced to be recognizable; and the fourth, a bagpipe. Two
-harps of a peculiar shape were copied by Sir
-Gore Ousely from Persian manuscripts about four
-hundred years old resembling, in the principle on
-which they are constructed, all other oriental
-harps. There existed evidently various kinds of
-the <i>chang</i>. It may be remarked here that the
-instrument <i>tschenk</i> (or <i>chang</i>) in use at the present
-day in Persia, is more like a dulcimer than a
-harp. The Arabs adopted the harp from the Persians,
-and called it <i>junk</i>. An interesting representation
-of a Turkish woman playing the harp
-(p. 53) sketched from life by Melchior Lorich in the
-seventeenth century, probably exhibits an old Persian <i>chang</i>; for
-the Turks derived their music principally from Persia. Here we
-have an introduction into Europe of the oriental frame without a
-front pillar.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i052" src="images/i052.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The Persians appear to have adopted, at an early period,
-smaller musical intervals than semitones. When the Arabs conquered
-Persia (<small>A.D.</small> 641) the Persians had already attained a
-higher degree of civilisation than their conquerors. The latter
-found in Persia the cultivation of music considerably in advance
-of their own, and the musical instruments superior also. They
-soon adopted the Persian instruments, and there can be no doubt
-that the musical system exhibited by the earliest Arab writers
-whose works on the theory of music have been preserved was
-based upon an older system of the Persians. In these works the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span>
-octave is divided in seventeen <i>one-third-tones</i>&mdash;intervals which are
-still made use of in the east. Some of the Arabian instruments
-are constructed so as to enable the performer to produce
-the intervals with exactness. The frets on the lute and
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span>
-tamboura, for instance, are regulated with a view to this
-object.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i053" src="images/i053.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The Arabs had to some extent become acquainted with many
-of the Persian instruments before the time of their conquest of
-Persia. An Arab musician of the name of Nadr Ben el-Hares
-Ben Kelde is recorded as having been sent to the Persian king
-Khosroo Purviz, in the sixth century, for the purpose of learning
-Persian singing and performing on the lute. Through him, it is
-said, the lute was brought to Mekka. Saib Chatir, the son of
-a Persian, is spoken of as the first performer on the lute in
-Medina, <small>A.D.</small> 682; and of an Arab lutist, Ebn Soreidsch from
-Mekka, <small>A.D.</small> 683, it is especially mentioned that he played in the
-Persian style; evidently the superior one. The lute, <i>el-oud</i>, had
-before the tenth century only four strings, or four pairs producing
-four tones, each tone having two strings tuned in unison. About
-the tenth century a string for a fifth tone was added. The strings
-were made of silk neatly twisted. The neck of the instrument
-was provided with frets of string, which were carefully regulated
-according to the system of seventeen intervals in the compass of
-an octave before mentioned. Other favourite stringed instruments
-were the <i>tamboura</i>, a kind of lute with a long neck, and the
-<i>kanoon</i>, a kind of dulcimer strung with lamb’s gut strings (generally
-three in unison for each tone) and played upon with two
-little plectra which the performer had fastened to his fingers. The
-<i>kanoon</i> is likewise still in use in countries inhabited by Mahomedans.
-The engraving, taken from a Persian painting at
-Teheran, represents an old Persian <i>santir</i>, the prototype of our
-dulcimer, mounted with wire strings and played upon with two
-slightly curved sticks.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i055" src="images/i055.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Al-Farabi, one of the earliest Arabian musical theorists known,
-who lived in the beginning of the tenth century, does not allude
-to the fiddle-bow. This is noteworthy inasmuch as it seems in
-some measure to support the opinion maintained by some historians
-that the bow originated in England or Wales. Unfortunately
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span>
-we possess no exact descriptions of the Persian and
-Arabian instruments between the tenth and fourteenth centuries,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span>
-otherwise we should probably have earlier accounts of
-some instrument of the violin kind in Persia. Ash-shakandi,
-who lived in Spain about <small>A.D.</small> 1200, mentions the <i>rebab</i>, which
-may have been in use for centuries without having been thought
-worthy of notice on account of its rudeness. Persian writers of
-the fourteenth century speak of two instruments of the violin
-class, viz., the <i>rebab</i> and the <i>kemangeh</i>. As
-regards the <i>kemangeh</i>, the Arabs themselves
-assert that they obtained it from Persia, and
-their statement appears all the more worthy
-of belief from the fact that both names,
-<i>rebab</i> and <i>kemangeh</i>, are originally Persian.
-We engrave the <i>rebab</i> from an example at
-South Kensington.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i056" src="images/i056.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>nay</i>, a flute, and the <i>surnay</i>, a
-species of oboe, are still popular in the east.</p>
-
-<p>The Arabs must have been indefatigable
-constructors of musical instruments. Kiesewetter
-gives a list of above two hundred
-names of Arabian instruments, and this does
-not include many known to us through
-Spanish historians. A careful investigation of the musical
-instruments of the Arabs during their sojourn in Spain is
-particularly interesting to the student of medi&aelig;val music, inasmuch
-as it reveals the eastern origin of many instruments which
-are generally regarded as European inventions. Introduced into
-Spain by the Saracens and the Moors they were gradually diffused
-towards northern Europe. The English, for instance, adopted
-not only the Moorish dance (morrice dance) but also the <i>kuitra</i>
-(gittern), the <i>el-oud</i> (lute), the <i>rebab</i> (rebec), the <i>nakkarah</i> (naker),
-and several others. In an old Cornish sacred drama, supposed
-to date from the fourteenth century, we have in an enumeration
-of musical instruments the <i>nakrys</i>, designating “kettle-drums.” It
-must be remembered that the Cornish language, which has now
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span>
-become obsolete, was nearly akin to the Welsh. Indeed, names
-of musical instruments derived from the Moors in Spain occur in
-almost every European language.</p>
-
-<p>Not a few fanciful stories are traditionally preserved among
-the Arabs testifying to the wonderful effects they ascribed to the
-power of their instrumental performances. One example will
-suffice. Al-Farabi had acquired his proficiency in Spain, in one
-of the schools at Cordova which flourished as early as towards
-the end of the ninth century: and his reputation became so great
-that ultimately it extended to Asia. The mighty caliph of Bagdad
-himself desired to hear the celebrated musician, and sent messengers
-to Spain with instructions to offer rich presents to him and
-to convey him to the court. But Al-Farabi feared that if he went
-he should be retained in Asia, and should never again see the
-home to which he felt deeply attached. At last he resolved
-to disguise himself, and ventured to undertake the journey which
-promised him a rich harvest. Dressed in a mean costume, he
-made his appearance at the court just at the time when the caliph
-was being entertained with his daily concert. Al-Farabi, unknown
-to everyone, was permitted to exhibit his skill on the lute.
-Scarcer had he commenced his performance in a certain musical
-mode when he set all his audience laughing aloud, notwithstanding
-the efforts of the courtiers to suppress so unbecoming an
-exhibition of mirth in the royal presence. In truth, even the
-caliph himself was compelled to burst out into a fit of laughter.
-Presently the performer changed to another mode, and the effect
-was that immediately all his hearers began to sigh, and soon tears
-of sadness replaced the previous tears of mirth. Again he played
-in another mode, which excited his audience to such a rage that
-they would have fought each other if he, seeing the danger, had
-not directly gone over to an appeasing mode. After this wonderful
-exhibition of his skill Al-Farabi concluded in a mode which
-had the effect of making his listeners fall into a profound sleep,
-during which he took his departure.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span></p>
-
-<p>It will be seen that this incident is almost identical with one
-recorded as having happened about twelve hundred years earlier
-at the court of Alexander the great, and which forms the subject of
-Dryden’s “Alexander’s Feast.” The distinguished flutist Timotheus
-successively aroused and subdued different passions by
-changing the musical modes during his performance, exactly in
-the same way as did Al-Farabi.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p>
-
-<h3 id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</h3>
-
-<h4><span class="smcap">The American Indians.</span></h4>
-
-<p>If the preserved antiquities of the American Indians, dating from
-a period anterior to our discovery of the western hemisphere,
-possess an extraordinary interest because they afford trustworthy
-evidence of the degree of progress which the aborigines had
-attained in the cultivation of the arts and in their social condition
-before they came in contact with Europeans, it must be admitted
-that the ancient musical instruments of the American Indians are
-also worthy of examination. Several of them are constructed in a
-manner which, in some degree, reveals the characteristics of the
-musical system prevalent among the people who used the instruments.
-And although most of these interesting relics, which have
-been obtained from tombs and other hiding-places, may not be of
-great antiquity, it has been satisfactorily ascertained that they are
-genuine contrivances of the Indians before they were influenced
-by European civilization.</p>
-
-<p>Some account of these relics is therefore likely to prove of
-interest also to the ethnologist, especially as several facts may
-perhaps be found of assistance in elucidating the still unsolved
-problem as to the probable original connection of the American
-with Asiatic races.</p>
-
-<p>Among the instruments of the Aztecs in Mexico and of the
-Peruvians none have been found so frequently, and have been
-preserved in their former condition so unaltered, as pipes and
-flutes. They are generally made of pottery or of bone, substances
-which are unsuitable for the construction of most other instruments,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span>
-but which are remarkably well qualified to withstand the
-decaying influence of time. There is, therefore, no reason to
-conclude from the frequent occurrence of such instruments that
-they were more common than other kinds of which specimens
-have rarely been discovered.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i060" src="images/i060.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The Mexicans possessed a small whistle formed of baked clay,
-a considerable number of which have been found. Some specimens
-(of which we give engravings) are singularly grotesque in
-shape, representing caricatures of the human face and figure,
-birds, beasts, and flowers. Some were provided at the top with a
-finger-hole which, when closed, altered the pitch of the sound, so
-that two different tones were producible on the instrument.
-Others had a little ball of baked clay lying loose inside the air-chamber.
-When the instrument was blown the current of air set
-the ball in a vibrating motion, thereby causing a shrill and whirring
-sound. A similar contrivance is sometimes made use of by
-Englishmen for conveying signals. The Mexican whistle most
-likely served principally the same purpose, but it may possibly
-have been used also in musical entertainments. In the Russian
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span>
-horn band each musician is restricted to a single tone; and
-similar combinations of performers&mdash;only, of course, much more
-rude&mdash;have been witnessed by travellers among some tribes in
-Africa and America.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i061a" src="images/i061a.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Rather more complete than the above specimens are some of
-the whistles and small pipes which have been found in graves of
-the Indians
-of Chiriqui
-in central
-America.
-The pipe or
-whistle which
-is represented
-in the accompanying
-engraving appears,
-to judge from the somewhat obscure description transmitted
-to us, to possess about half a dozen tones. It is of pottery, painted
-in red and black on a cream-coloured ground, and in length about
-five inches. Among the instruments of this kind from central
-America the most complete have four finger-holes. By means
-of three the following four sounds (including the sound which
-is produced when none of the holes are closed) can be
-emitted: <img src="images/i061b.jpg" alt="" /> the fourth finger-hole, when
-closed, has the effect of lowering the pitch a semitone. By a
-particular process two or three lower notes are obtainable.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i062b" src="images/i062b.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i062c" src="images/i062c.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The pipe of the Aztecs, which is called by the Mexican
-Spaniards <i>pito</i>, somewhat resembled our flageolet: the material
-was a reddish pottery, and it was provided with four finger-holes.
-Although among about half a dozen specimens which
-the writer has examined some are considerably larger than
-others they all have, singularly enough, the same pitch of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span>
-sound. The smallest is about six inches in length, and the
-largest about nine inches. Several <i>pitos</i> have been found in a
-remarkably well-preserved condition. They are easy to blow,
-and their order of intervals is in conformity with the pentatonic
-scale, thus: <img src="images/i062a.jpg" alt="" /> The usual shape of
-the <i>pito</i> is that here represented; showing the upper side of one
-pipe, and a side view of another. A specimen of a less common
-shape, also engraved, is in the British museum. Indications
-suggestive of the popular estimation in which the flute (or
-perhaps, more strictly speaking, the pipe) was held by the Aztecs
-are not wanting. It was played in religious observances and
-we find it referred to allegorically in orations delivered on solemn
-occasions. For instance, at the religious festival which was held
-in honour of Tezcatlepoca&mdash;a divinity depicted as a handsome
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span>
-youth, and considered second only to the supreme being&mdash;a
-young man was sacrificed who, in preparation for the ceremony,
-had been instructed in the art of playing the flute. Twenty days
-before his death four young girls, named after the principal
-goddesses, were given to him as companions; and when the
-hour arrived in which he was to be sacrificed he observed the
-established symbolical rite of breaking a flute on each of the
-steps, as he ascended the temple.</p>
-
-<p>Again, at the public ceremonies which took place on the
-accession of a prince to the throne the new monarch addressed a
-prayer to the god, in which occurred the following allegorical
-expression:&mdash;“I am thy flute; reveal to me thy will; breathe into
-me thy breath like into a flute, as thou hast done to my predecessors
-on the throne. As thou hast opened their eyes, their ears,
-and their mouth to utter what is good, so likewise do to me. I
-resign myself entirely to thy guidance.” Similar sentences occur
-in the orations addressed to the monarch. In reading them one
-can hardly fail to be reminded of Hamlet’s reflections addressed
-to Guildenstern, when the servile courtier expresses his inability
-to “govern the ventages” of the pipe and to make the instrument
-“discourse most eloquent music,” which the prince bids him
-to do.</p>
-
-<p>M. de Castelnau in his “Exp&eacute;dition dans l’Am&eacute;rique” gives
-among the illustrations of objects discovered in ancient Peruvian
-tombs a flute made of a human bone. It has four finger-holes at
-its upper surface and appears to have been blown into at one
-end. Two bone-flutes, in appearance similar to the engraving
-given by M. de Castelnau, which have been disinterred at Truxillo
-are deposited in the British museum. They are about six inches
-in length, and each is provided with five finger-holes. One of
-these has all the holes at its upper side, and one of the holes is
-considerably smaller than the rest. The specimen which we
-engrave (p. 64) is ornamented with some simple designs in black.</p>
-
-<p>The other has four holes at its upper side and one underneath,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span>
-the latter being placed near to the end at which the instrument
-evidently was blown. In the aperture of this end some remains
-of a hardened paste, or resinous substance, are still preserved.
-This substance probably was inserted for the purpose of narrowing
-the end of the tube, in order to facilitate the producing of
-the sounds. The same contrivance is still resorted to in the construction
-of the bone-flutes by some Indian tribes in Guiana. The
-bones of slain enemies appear to have been considered especially
-appropriate for such flutes. The Araucanians, having killed a
-prisoner, made flutes of his bones, and danced and “thundered
-out their dreadful war-songs, accompanied by the mournful sounds
-of these horrid instruments.” Alonso de Ovalle says of the
-Indians in Chili: “Their flutes, which they play upon in their
-dances, are made of the bones of the Spaniards and other
-enemies whom they have overcome in war. This they do by
-way of triumph and glory for their victory. They make them
-likewise of bones of animals; but the warriors dance only to the
-flutes made of their enemies.” The Mexicans and Peruvians obviously
-possessed a great variety of pipes and flutes, some of which
-are still in use among certain Indian tribes. Those which were
-found in the famous ruins at Palenque are deposited in the
-museum in Mexico. They are:&mdash;The <i>cuyvi</i>, a pipe on which
-only five tones were producible; the <i>huayllaca</i>, a sort of flageolet;
-the <i>pincullu</i>, a flute; and the <i>chayna</i>, which is described as “a
-flute whose lugubrious and melancholy tones filled the heart with
-indescribable sadness, and brought involuntary tears into the
-eyes.” It was perhaps a kind of oboe.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i064" src="images/i064.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The Peruvians had the syrinx, which they called <i>huayra-puhura</i>.
-Some clue to the proper meaning of this name may perhaps be
-gathered from the word <i>huayra</i>, which signifies “air.” The
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span>
-<i>huayra-puhura</i> was made of cane, and also of stone. Sometimes
-an embroidery of needle-work was attached to it as an ornament.
-One specimen which has been disinterred is adorned with twelve
-figures precisely resembling Maltese crosses. The cross is a figure
-which may readily be supposed to suggest itself very naturally;
-and it is therefore not so surprising, as it may appear at a first
-glance, that the American Indians used it not unfrequently in
-designs and sculptures before they came in contact with
-Christians.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i065a" src="images/i065a.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The British museum possesses a <i>huayra-puhura</i> consisting of
-fourteen reed pipes of a brownish colour, tied
-together in two rows by means of thread, so as
-to form a double set of seven reeds. Both sets
-are almost exactly of the same dimensions and
-are placed side by side. The shortest of these
-reeds measure three inches, and the longest six
-and a half. In one set they are open at the
-bottom, and in the other they are closed. Consequently,
-octaves are produced. The reader is
-probably aware that the closing of a pipe at the
-end raises its pitch an octave. Thus, in our organ,
-the so-called stopped diapason, a set of closed
-pipes, requires tubes of only half the length of
-those which constitute the open diapason, although
-both these stops produce tones in the same
-pitch; the only difference between them being
-the quality of sound, which in the former is less bright than in
-the latter.</p>
-
-<p>The tones yielded by the <i>huayra-puhura</i> in question are as
-follows: <img src="images/i065b.jpg" alt="" /> The highest octave is
-indistinct, owing to some injury done to the shortest tubes; but
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span>
-sufficient evidence remains to show that the intervals were purposely
-arranged according to the pentatonic scale. This interesting
-relic was brought to light from a tomb at Arica.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i066a" src="images/i066a.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Another <i>huayra-puhura</i>, likewise still yielding sounds, was
-discovered placed over a corpse in a Peruvian tomb, and was
-procured by the French general, Paroissien. This instrument is
-made of a greenish stone which is a species of talc, and contains
-eight pipes. In the Berlin
-museum may be seen a
-good plaster cast taken
-from this curious relic. The
-height is 5⅜ inches, and
-its width 6&frac14; inches. Four
-of the tubes have small
-lateral finger-holes which,
-when closed, lower the
-pitch a semitone. These
-holes are on the second,
-fourth, sixth, and seventh
-pipe, as shown in the engraving. When the holes are open, the
-tones are: <img src="images/i066b.jpg" alt="" /> and when they are closed:
-<img src="images/i066c.jpg" alt="" /> The other tubes have unalterable tones.
-The following notation exhibits all the tones producible on the
-instrument:</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/i066d.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The musician is likely to speculate what could have induced the
-Peruvians to adopt so strange a series of intervals: it seems
-rather arbitrary than premeditated.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span></p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i067" src="images/i067.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>If (and this seems not to be improbable) the Peruvians considered
-those tones which are produced by closing the lateral
-holes as additional intervals only, a variety of
-scales or kinds of <i>modes</i> may have been contrived
-by the admission of one or other of
-these tones among the essential ones. If we
-may conjecture from some remarks of Garcilasso
-de la Vega, and other historians, the
-Peruvians appear to have used different
-orders of intervals for different kinds of tunes,
-in a way similar to what we find to be the
-case with certain Asiatic nations. We are
-told for instance “Each poem, or song, had
-its appropriate tune, and they could not put
-two different songs to one tune; and this
-was why the enamoured gallant, making
-music at night on his flute, with the tune
-which belonged to it, told the lady and all
-the world the joy or sorrow of his soul, the
-favour or ill-will which he possessed; so that
-it might be said that he spoke by the flute.”
-Thus also the Hindus have certain tunes for
-certain seasons and fixed occasions, and likewise
-a number of different modes or scales
-used for particular kinds of songs.</p>
-
-<p>Trumpets are often mentioned by writers
-who have recorded the manners and customs
-of the Indians at the time of the discovery
-of America. There are, however, scarcely
-any illustrations to be relied on of these instruments transmitted
-to us. The Conch was frequently used as a trumpet for conveying
-signals in war.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i068" src="images/i068.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The engraving represents a kind of trumpet made of wood, and
-nearly seven feet in length, which Gumilla found among the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span>
-Indians in the vicinity of the Orinoco. It somewhat resembles
-the <i>juruparis</i>, a mysterious instrument of the Indians on the Rio
-Haup&eacute;s, a tributary of the Rio Negro, south America. The
-<i>juruparis</i> is regarded as an object of great veneration. Women
-are never permitted to see it. So stringent is this law that any
-woman obtaining a sight of it is put to death&mdash;usually by poison.
-No youths are allowed to see it until they have been subjected to
-a series of initiatory fastings and scourgings. The <i>juruparis</i> is
-usually kept hidden in the bed of some stream, deep in the forest;
-and no one dares to drink out of that sanctified stream, or to
-bathe in its water. At feasts the <i>juruparis</i> is brought out during
-the night, and is blown outside the houses of entertainment. The
-inner portion of the instrument consists of a tube made of slips of
-the Paxiaba palm (<i>Triartea exorrhiza</i>). When the Indians are
-about to use the instrument they nearly close the upper end of
-the tube with clay, and also tie above the oblong square hole
-(shown in the engraving) a portion of the leaf of the Uaruma, one of
-the arrow-root family. Round the tube are wrapped long strips
-of the tough bark of the J&eacute;baru (<i>Parivoa grandiflora</i>). This
-covering descends in folds below the tube. The length of
-the instrument is from four to five feet. The illustration, which
-exhibits the <i>juruparis</i> with its cover and without it, has been
-taken from a specimen in the museum at Kew gardens. The
-mysteries connected with this trumpet are evidently founded
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span>
-on an old tradition from prehistoric Indian ancestors. <i>Jurupari</i>
-means “demon”; and with several Indian tribes on the Amazon
-customs and ceremonies still prevail in honour of Jurupari.</p>
-
-<p>The Caroados, an Indian tribe in Brazil, have a war trumpet
-which closely resembles the <i>juruparis</i>. With this people it is the
-custom for the chief to give on his war trumpet the signal for
-battle, and to continue blowing as long as he wishes the battle to
-last. The trumpet is made of wood, and its sound is described
-by travellers as very deep but rather pleasant. The sound is
-easily produced, and its continuance does not require much
-exertion; but a peculiar vibration of the lips is necessary which
-requires practice. Another trumpet, the <i>tur&eacute;</i>, is common with
-many Indian tribes on the Amazon who use it chiefly in war.
-It is made of a long and thick bamboo, and there is a split reed
-in the mouthpiece. It therefore partakes rather of the character
-of an oboe or clarinet. Its tone is described as loud and harsh.
-The <i>tur&eacute;</i> is especially used by the sentinels of predatory hordes, who,
-mounted on a lofty tree, give the signal of attack to their comrades.</p>
-
-<p>Again, the aborigines in Mexico had a curious contrivance of
-this kind, the <i>acocotl</i>, now more usually called <i>clarin</i>. The
-former word is its old Indian name, and the latter appears to
-have been first given to the instrument by the Spaniards. The
-<i>acocotl</i> consists of a very thin tube from eight to ten feet in
-length, and generally not quite straight but with some irregular
-curves. This tube, which is often not thicker than a couple of
-inches in diameter, terminates at one end in a sort of bell, and
-has at the other end a small mouthpiece resembling in shape that
-of a clarinet. The tube is made of the dry stalk of a plant which
-is common in Mexico, and which likewise the Indians call <i>acocotl</i>.
-The most singular characteristic of the instrument is that the performer
-does not blow into it, but inhales the air through it; or
-rather, he produces the sound by sucking the mouthpiece. It is
-said to require strong lungs to perform on the <i>acocotl</i> effectively
-according to Indian notions of taste.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i070" src="images/i070.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>botuto</i>, which Gumilla saw used by some tribes near the
-river Orinoco (of which we engrave two examples), was evidently
-an ancient Indian contrivance, but appears to have fallen almost
-into oblivion during the last two centuries. It was made of baked
-clay and was commonly from three to four feet long: but some
-trumpets of this kind were of enormous size. The <i>botuto</i> with
-two bellies was usually made thicker than that with three bellies
-and emitted a deeper sound, which is described as having been
-really terrific. These trumpets were used on occasions of mourning
-and funeral dances. Alexander von Humboldt saw the <i>botuto</i>
-among some Indian tribes near the river Orinoco.</p>
-
-<p>Besides those which have been noticed, other antique wind
-instruments of the Indians are mentioned by historians; but
-the descriptions given of them are too superficial to convey a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span>
-distinct notion as to their form and purport. Several of these
-barbarous contrivances scarcely deserve to be classed with musical
-instruments. This may, for instance, be said of certain musical
-jars or earthen vessels producing sounds, which the Peruvians
-constructed for their amusement. These vessels were made
-double; and the sounds imitated the cries of animals or birds.
-A similar contrivance of the Indians in Chili, preserved in the
-museum at Santiago, is described by the traveller S. S. Hill as
-follows:&mdash;“It consists of two earthen vessels in the form of our
-india-rubber bottles, but somewhat larger, with a flat tube from
-four to six inches in length, uniting their necks near the top and
-slightly curved upwards, and with a small hole on the upper side
-one third of the length of the tube from one side of the necks.
-To produce the sounds the bottles were filled with water and
-suspended to the bough of a tree, or to a beam, by a string
-attached to the middle of the curved tube, and then swung
-backwards and forwards in such a manner as to cause each end
-to be alternately the highest and lowest, so that the water might
-pass backwards and forwards from one bottle to the other through
-the tube between them. By this means soothing sounds were
-produced which, it is said, were employed to lull to repose the
-drowsy chiefs who usually slept away the hottest hours of the day.
-In the meantime, as the bottles were porous, the water within
-them diminished by evaporation, and the sound died gradually
-away.”</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i072" src="images/i072.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>As regards instruments of percussion, a kind of drum deserves
-special notice on account of the ingenuity evinced in its construction.
-The Mexicans called it <i>teponaztli</i>. They generally made it
-of a single block of very hard wood, somewhat oblong square in
-shape, which they hollowed, leaving at each end a solid piece
-about three or four inches in thickness, and at its upper side a
-kind of sound-board about a quarter of an inch in thickness. In
-this sound-board, if it may be called so, they made three incisions;
-namely, two running parallel some distance lengthwise of the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span>
-drum, and a third running across from one of these to the other
-just in the centre. By this means they obtained two vibrating
-tongues of wood which, when beaten with a stick, produced
-sounds as clearly defined as are those of our kettle drums. By
-making one of the tongues thinner than the other they ensured
-two different sounds, the pitch of which they were enabled to
-regulate by shaving off more or less of the wood. The bottom of
-the drum they cut almost entirely open. The traveller, M. Nebel,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span>
-was told by arch&aelig;ologists in Mexico that these instruments always
-contained the interval of a third, but on examining several specimens
-which he saw in museums he found some in which the two
-sounds stood towards each other in the relation of a fourth; while
-in others they constituted a fifth, in others a sixth, and in some
-even an octave. This is noteworthy in so far as it points to a
-conformity with our diatonic series of intervals, excepting the
-seventh.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>teponaztli</i> (engraved above) was generally carved with
-various fanciful and ingenious designs. It was beaten with two
-drumsticks covered at the end with an elastic gum, called <i>ule</i>,
-which was obtained from the milky juice extracted from the ule-tree.
-Some of these drums were small enough to be carried on a
-string or strap suspended round the neck of the player; others,
-again, measured upwards of five feet in length, and their sound
-was so powerful that it could be heard at a distance of three
-miles. In some rare instances a specimen of the <i>teponaztli</i> is still
-preserved by the Indians in Mexico, especially among tribes who
-have been comparatively but little affected by intercourse with
-their European aggressors. Herr Heller saw such an instrument
-in the hands of the Indians of Huatusco&mdash;a village near Mirador
-in the Tierra templada, or temperate region, occupying the slopes
-of the Cordilleras. Its sound is described as so very loud as to
-be distinctly audible at an incredibly great distance. This circumstance,
-which has been noticed by several travellers, may perhaps
-be owing in some measure
-to the condition of the atmosphere
-in Mexico.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i073" src="images/i073.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Instruments of percussion constructed
-on a principle more or
-less similar to the <i>teponaztli</i> were
-in use in several other parts of
-America, as well as in Mexico.
-Oviedo gives a drawing of a drum from San Domingo which, as
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span>
-it shows distinctly both the upper and under side of the instrument,
-is here inserted.</p>
-
-<p>The largest kind of Mexican <i>teponaztli</i> appears to have been
-generally of a cylindrical shape. Clavigero gives a drawing of
-such an instrument. Drums, also, constructed of skin or parchment
-in combination with wood were not unknown to the
-Indians. Of this description was, for instance, the <i>huehuetl</i> of the
-Aztecs in Mexico, which consisted, according to Clavigero, of a
-wooden cylinder somewhat above three feet in height, curiously
-carved and painted and covered at the top with carefully prepared
-deer-skin. And, what appears the most remarkable, the parchment
-(we are told) could be tightened or slackened by means of
-cords in nearly the same way as with our own drum. The <i>huehuetl</i>
-was not beaten with drumsticks but merely struck with the fingers,
-and much dexterity was required to strike it in the proper manner.
-Oviedo states that the Indians in Cuba had drums which were
-stretched with human skin. And Bernal Diaz relates that when
-he was with Cort&eacute;s in Mexico they ascended together the <i>Teocalli</i>
-(“House of God”), a large temple in which human sacrifices were
-offered by the aborigines; and there the Spanish visitors saw a
-large drum which was made, Diaz tells us, with skins of great
-serpents. This “hellish instrument,” as he calls it, produced, when
-struck, a doleful sound which was so loud that it could be heard
-at a distance of two leagues.</p>
-
-<p>The name of the Peruvian drum was <i>huanca</i>: they had also
-an instrument of percussion, called <i>chhilchiles</i>, which appears to
-have been a sort of tambourine.</p>
-
-<p>The rattle was likewise popular with the Indians before the
-discovery of America. The Mexicans called it <i>ajacaxtli</i>. In
-construction it was similar to the rattle at the present day commonly
-used by the Indians. It was oval or round in shape, and
-appears to have been usually made of a gourd into which holes
-were pierced, and to which a wooden handle was affixed. A
-number of little pebbles were enclosed in the hollowed gourd.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span>
-They were also made of pottery. The little balls in the <i>ajacaxtli</i>
-of pottery, enclosed as they are, may at a first glance appear a
-puzzle. Probably, when the rattle was being formed they were
-attached to the inside as slightly as possible; and after the clay
-had been baked they were detached by means of an implement
-passed through the holes.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i075" src="images/i075.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The Tezcucans (or Acolhuans) belonged to the same race as
-the Aztecs, whom they greatly surpassed in knowledge and
-social refinement. Nezahualcoyotl, a wise monarch of the Tezcucans,
-abhorred human sacrifices, and erected a large temple which
-he dedicated to “The unknown god, the cause of causes.” This
-edifice had a tower nine stories high, on the top of which were
-placed a number of musical instruments of various kinds which
-were used to summon the worshippers to prayer. Respecting
-these instruments especial mention is made of a sonorous metal
-which was struck with a mallet. This is stated in a historical
-essay written by Ixtlilxochitl, a native of Mexico and of royal
-descent, who lived in the beginning of the seventeenth century,
-and who may be supposed to have been familiar with the musical
-practices of his countrymen. But whether the sonorous metal
-alluded to was a gong or a bell is
-not clear from the vague record
-transmitted to us. That the bell
-was known to the Peruvians appears
-to be no longer doubtful,
-since a small copper specimen
-has been found in one of the old
-Peruvian tombs. This interesting
-relic is now deposited in the
-museum at Lima. M. de Castelnau
-has published a drawing of
-it, which is here reproduced. The
-Peruvians called their bells <i>chanrares</i>; it remains questionable
-whether this name did not designate rather the so-called horse
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span>
-bells, which were certainly known to the Mexicans who called
-them <i>yotl</i>. It is noteworthy that these <i>yotl</i> are found figured in
-the picture-writings representing the various
-objects which the Aztecs used to pay as
-tribute to their sovereigns. The collection
-of Mexican antiquities in the British museum
-contains a cluster of yotl-bells. Being nearly
-round, they closely resemble the <i>Schellen</i>
-which the Germans are in the habit of
-affixing to their horses, particularly in the
-winter when they are driving their noiseless
-sledges.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i076" src="images/i076.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Again, in south America sonorous stones
-are not unknown, and were used in olden
-time for musical purposes. The traveller
-G. T. Vigne saw among the Indian antiquities
-preserved in the town of Cuzco, in
-Peru, “a musical instrument of green sonorous
-stone, about a foot long, and an inch
-and a half wide, flat-sided, pointed at both
-ends, and arched at the back, where it was about a quarter
-of an inch thick, whence it diminished to an edge, like the
-blade of a knife.... In the middle of the back was a
-small hole, through which a piece of string was passed; and when
-suspended and struck by any hard substance a singularly musical
-note was produced.” Humboldt mentions the Amazon-stone,
-which on being struck by any hard substance yields a metallic sound.
-It was formerly cut by the American Indians into very thin plates,
-perforated in the centre and suspended by a string. These plates
-were remarkably sonorous. This kind of stone is not, as might
-be conjectured from its name, found exclusively near the Amazon.
-The name was given to it as well as to the river by the first
-European visitors to America, in allusion to the female warriors
-respecting whom strange stories are told. The natives pretending,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span>
-according to an ancient tradition, that the stone came from the
-country of “Women without husbands,” or “Women living alone.”</p>
-
-<p>As regards the ancient stringed instruments of the American
-Indians our information is indeed but scanty. Clavigero says
-that the Mexicans were entirely unacquainted with stringed
-instruments: a statement the correctness of which is questionable,
-considering the stage of civilization to which these people
-had attained. At any rate, we generally find one or other kind of
-such instruments with nations whose intellectual progress and
-social condition are decidedly inferior. The Aztecs had many
-claims to the character of a civilized community and (as before said)
-the Tezcucans were even more advanced in the cultivation of the
-arts and sciences than the Aztecs. “The best histories,” Prescott
-observes, “the best poems, the best code of laws, the purest
-dialect, were all allowed to be Tezcucan. The Aztecs rivalled
-their neighbours in splendour of living, and even in the magnificence
-of their structures. They displayed a pomp and ostentatious
-pageantry, truly Asiatic.” Unfortunately historians are sometimes
-not sufficiently discerning in their communications respecting
-musical questions. J. Ranking, in describing the grandeur of the
-establishment maintained by Montezuma, says that during the
-repasts of this monarch “there was music of fiddle, flute, snail-shell,
-a kettle-drum, and other strange instruments.” But as this
-writer does not indicate the source whence he drew his information
-respecting Montezuma’s orchestra including the fiddle, the
-assertion deserves scarcely a passing notice.</p>
-
-<p>The Peruvians possessed a stringed instrument, called <i>tinya</i>,
-which was provided with five or seven strings. To conjecture
-from the unsatisfactory account of it transmitted to us, the <i>tinya</i>
-appears to have been a kind of guitar. Considering the fragility
-of the materials of which such instruments are generally constructed,
-it is perhaps not surprising that we do not meet with
-any specimens of them in the museums of American antiquities.</p>
-
-<p>A few remarks will not be out of place here referring to the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span>
-musical performances of the ancient Indians; since an acquaintance
-with the nature of the performances is likely to afford additional
-assistance in appreciating the characteristics of the instruments.
-In Peru, where the military system was carefully organised,
-each division of the army had its trumpeters, called <i>cqueppacamayo</i>,
-and its drummers, called <i>huancarcamayo</i>. When the Inca returned
-with his troops victorious from battle his first act was to repair to
-the temple of the Sun in order to offer up thanksgiving; and
-after the conclusion of this ceremony the people celebrated the
-event with festivities, of which music and dancing constituted
-a principal part. Musical performances appear to have
-been considered indispensable on occasions of public celebrations;
-and frequent mention is made of them by historians who
-have described the festivals annually observed by the Peruvians.</p>
-
-<p>About the month of October the Peruvians celebrated a solemn
-feast in honour of the dead, at which ceremony they executed
-lugubrious songs and plaintive instrumental music. Compositions
-of a similar character were performed on occasion of the decease
-of a monarch. As soon as it was made known to the people that
-their Inca had been “called home to the mansions of his father
-the sun” they prepared to celebrate his obsequies with becoming
-solemnity. Prescott, in his graphic description of these observances,
-says: “At stated intervals, for a year, the people assembled
-to renew the expressions of their sorrow; processions were
-made displaying the banner of the departed monarch; bards and
-minstrels were appointed to chronicle his achievements, and their
-songs continued to be rehearsed at high festivals in the presence
-of the reigning monarch,&mdash;thus stimulating the living by
-the glorious example of the dead.” The Peruvians had also particular
-agricultural songs, which they were in the habit of singing
-while engaged in tilling the lands of the Inca; a duty which
-devolved upon the whole nation. The subject of these songs, or
-rather hymns, referred especially to the noble deeds and glorious
-achievements of the Inca and his dynasty. While thus singing,
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span>
-the labourers regulated their work to the rhythm of the music,
-thereby ensuring a pleasant excitement and a stimulant in their
-occupation, like soldiers regulating their steps to the music of the
-military band. These hymns pleased the Spanish invaders so
-greatly that they not only adopted several of them but also composed
-some in a similar form and style. This appears, however,
-to have been the case rather with the poetry than with the
-music.</p>
-
-<p>The name of the Peruvian elegiac songs was <i>haravi</i>. Some
-tunes of these songs, pronounced to be genuine specimens, have
-been published in recent works; but their genuineness is questionable.
-At all events they must have been much tampered
-with, as they exhibit exactly the form of the Spanish <i>bolero</i>. Even
-allowing that the melodies of these compositions have been
-derived from Peruvian <i>harivaris</i>, it is impossible to determine
-with any degree of certainty how much in them has been retained
-of the original tunes, and how much has been supplied besides
-the harmony, which is entirely an addition of the European
-arranger. The Peruvians had minstrels, called <i>haravecs</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, “inventors”),
-whose occupation it was to compose and to recite the
-<i>haravis</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The Mexicans possessed a class of songs which served as a
-record of historical events. Furthermore they had war-songs,
-love-songs, and other secular vocal compositions, as well as
-sacred chants, in the practice of which boys were instructed by
-the priests in order that they might assist in the musical performances
-of the temple. It appertained to the office of the
-priests to burn incense, and to perform music in the temple at
-stated times of the day. The commencement of the religious
-observances which took place regularly at sunrise, at mid-day,
-at sunset, and at midnight, was announced by signals blown on
-trumpets and pipes. Persons of high position retained in their
-service professional musicians whose duty it was to compose
-ballads, and to perform vocal music with instrumental accompaniment.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span>
-The nobles themselves, and occasionally even the
-monarch, not unfrequently delighted in composing ballads and
-odes.</p>
-
-<p>Especially to be noticed is the institution termed “Council of
-music,” which the wise monarch Nezahualcoyotl founded in
-Tezcuco. This institution was not intended exclusively for promoting
-the cultivation of music; its aim comprised the advancement
-of various arts, and of sciences such as history, astronomy,
-&amp;c. In fact, it was an academy for general education.
-Probably no better evidence could be cited testifying to the
-remarkable intellectual attainments of the Mexican Indians before
-the discovery of America than this council of music. Although
-in some respects it appears to have resembled the board of music
-of the Chinese, it was planned on a more enlightened and more
-comprehensive principle. The Chinese “board of music,” called
-<i>Yo Poo</i>, is an office connected with the <i>L&eacute; Poo</i> or “board of
-rites,” established by the imperial government at Peking. The
-principal object of the board of rites is to regulate the ceremonies
-on occasions of sacrifices offered to the gods; of festivals and
-certain court solemnities; of military reviews; of presentations,
-congratulations, marriages, deaths, burials,&mdash;in short, concerning
-almost every possible event in social and public life.</p>
-
-<p>The reader is probably aware that in one of the various hypotheses
-which have been advanced respecting the Asiatic origin
-of the American Indians China is assigned to them as their
-ancient home. Some historians suppose them to be emigrants
-from Mongolia, Thibet, or Hindustan; others maintain that they
-are the offspring of Phœnician colonists who settled in central
-America. Even more curious are the arguments of certain
-inquirers who have no doubt whatever that the ancestors of the
-American Indians were the lost ten tribes of Israel, of whom
-since about the time of the Babylonian captivity history is silent.
-Whatever may be thought as to which particular one of these
-speculations hits the truth, they certainly have all proved useful
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span>
-in so far as they have made ethnologists more exactly acquainted
-with the habits and predilections of the American aborigines than
-would otherwise have been the case. For, as the advocates of
-each hypothesis have carefully collected and adduced every
-evidence they were able to obtain tending to support their
-views, the result is that (so to say) no stone has been left unturned.
-Nevertheless, any such hints as suggest themselves
-from an examination of musical instruments have hitherto remained
-unheeded. It may therefore perhaps interest the reader
-to have his attention drawn to a few suggestive similarities occurring
-between instruments of the American Indians and of certain
-nations inhabiting the eastern hemisphere.</p>
-
-<p>We have seen that the Mexican pipe and the Peruvian syrinx
-were purposely constructed so as to produce the intervals of the
-pentatonic scale only. There are some additional indications of
-this scale having been at one time in use with the American
-Indians. For instance, the music of the Peruvian dance <i>cachua</i>
-is described as having been very similar to some Scotch national
-dances; and the most conspicuous characteristics of the Scotch
-tunes are occasioned by the frequently exclusive employment of
-intervals appertaining to the pentatonic scale. We find precisely
-the same series of intervals adopted on certain Chinese instruments,
-and evidences are not wanting of the pentatonic scale having
-been popular among various races in Asia at a remote period.
-The series of intervals appertaining to the Chiriqui pipe, mentioned
-page 61, consisted of a semitone and two whole tones, like the
-<i>tetrachord</i> of the ancient Greeks.</p>
-
-<p>In the Peruvian <i>huayra-puhura</i> made of talc some of the pipes
-possess lateral holes. This contrivance, which is rather unusual,
-occurs on the Chinese <i>cheng</i>. The <i>chayna</i>, mentioned page 64,
-seems to have been provided with a reed, like the oboe: and in
-Hindustan we find a species of oboe called <i>shehna</i>. The <i>tur&eacute;</i> of
-the Indian tribes on the Amazon, mentioned page 69, reminds us
-of the trumpets <i>tooree</i>, or <i>tootooree</i>, of the Hindus. The name
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span>
-appears to have been known also to the Arabs; but there is no
-indication whatever of its having been transmitted to the peninsula
-by the Moors, and afterwards to south America by the
-Portuguese and Spaniards.</p>
-
-<p>The wooden tongues in the drum <i>teponaztli</i> may be considered
-as a contrivance exclusively of the ancient American Indians.
-Nevertheless a construction nearly akin to it may be observed in
-certain drums of the Tonga and Feejee islanders, and of the
-natives of some islands in Torres strait. Likewise some negro
-tribes in western and central Africa have certain instruments
-of percussion which are constructed on a principle somewhat
-reminding us of the <i>teponaztli</i>. The method of bracing the drum
-by means of cords, as exhibited in the <i>huehueil</i> of the Mexican
-Indians, is evidently of very high antiquity in the east. It was
-known to the ancient Egyptians.</p>
-
-<p>Rattles, pandean pipes made of reed, and conch trumpets, are
-found almost all over the world, wherever the materials of which
-they are constructed are easily obtainable. Still, it may be
-noteworthy that the Mexicans employed the conch trumpet in
-their religious observances apparently in much the same way as it
-is used in the Buddhist worship of the Thibetans and Kalmuks.</p>
-
-<p>As regards the sonorous metal in the great temple at Tezcuco
-some inquirers are sure that it was a gong: but it must be borne
-in mind that these inquirers detect everywhere traces proving an
-invasion of the Mongols, which they maintain to have happened
-about six hundred years ago. Had they been acquainted with the
-little Peruvian bell (engraved on page 75) they would have had
-more tangible musical evidence in support of their theory than
-the supposed gong; for this bell certainly bears a suggestive
-resemblance to the little hand-bell which the Buddhists use in
-their religious ceremonies.</p>
-
-<p>The Peruvians interpolated certain songs, especially those
-which they were in the habit of singing while cultivating the
-fields, with the word <i>hailli</i> which signified “Triumph.” As the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span>
-subject of these compositions was principally the glorification of
-the Inca, the burden <i>hailli</i> is perhaps all the more likely to
-remind Europeans of the Hebrew <i>hallelujah</i>. Moreover, Adair,
-who lived among the Indians of north America during a period of
-about forty years, speaks of some other words which he found
-used as burdens in hymns sung on solemn occasions, and which
-appeared to him to correspond with certain Hebrew words of a
-sacred import.</p>
-
-<p>As regards the musical accomplishments of the Indian tribes at
-the present day they are far below the standard which we have
-found among their ancestors. A period of three hundred years of
-oppression has evidently had the effect of subduing the melodious
-expressions of happiness and contentedness which in former times
-appear to have been quite as prevalent with the Indians as they
-generally are with independent and flourishing nations. The
-innate talent for music evinced by those of the North American
-Indians who were converted to Christianity soon after the emigration
-of the puritans to New England is very favourably
-commented on by some old writers. In the year 1661 John Elliot
-published a translation of the psalms into Indian verse. The
-singing of these metrical psalms by the Indian converts in their
-places of worship appears to have been actually superior to the
-sacred vocal performances of their Christian brethren from
-Europe; for we find it described by several witnesses as
-“excellent” and “most ravishing.”</p>
-
-<p>In other parts of America the catholic priests from Spain did
-not neglect to turn to account the susceptibility of the Indians for
-music. Thus, in central America the Dominicans composed as
-early as in the middle of the sixteenth century a sacred poem in
-the Guatemalian dialect containing a narrative of the most
-important events recorded in the Bible. This production they
-sang to the natives, and to enhance the effect they accompanied
-the singing with musical instruments. The alluring music soon
-captivated the heart of a powerful cazique, who was thus induced
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span>
-to adopt the doctrines embodied in the composition, and to
-diffuse them among his subjects who likewise delighted in the
-performances. In Peru a similar experiment, resorted to by the
-priests who accompanied Pizarro’s expedition, proved equally
-successful. They dramatized certain scenes in the life of Christ
-and represented them with music, which so greatly fascinated the
-Indians that many of them readily embraced the new faith. Nor
-are these entertainments dispensed with even at the present day
-by the Indian Christians, especially in the village churches of the
-Sierra in Peru; and as several religious ceremonies have been
-retained by these people from their heathen forefathers, it may be
-conjectured that their sacred musical performances also retain
-much of their ancient heathen character.</p>
-
-<p>Most of the musical instruments found among the American
-Indians at the present day are evidently genuine old Indian
-contrivances as they existed long before the discovery of America.
-Take, for example, the peculiarly shaped rattles, drums, flutes,
-and whistles of the North American Indians, of which some
-specimens in the Kensington museum are described in the large
-catalogue. A few African instruments, introduced by the negro
-slaves, are now occasionally found in the hands of the Indians,
-and have been by some travellers erroneously described as
-genuine Indian inventions. This is the case with the African
-<i>marimba</i>, which has become rather popular with the natives of
-Guatemala in central America: but such adaptations are very
-easily discernible.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</h2>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">European Nations during the Middle Ages.</span></h3>
-
-<p>Many representations of musical instruments of the middle ages
-have been preserved in manuscripts, as well as in sculptures and
-paintings forming ornamental portions of churches and other
-buildings. Valuable facts and hints are obtainable from these
-evidences, provided they are judiciously selected and carefully
-examined. The subject is, however, so large that only a few
-observations on the most interesting instruments can be offered
-here. Unfortunately there still prevails much uncertainty respecting
-several of the earliest representations as to the precise century
-from which they date, and there is reason to believe that in some
-instances the arch&aelig;ological zeal of musical investigators has
-assigned a higher antiquity to such discoveries than can be
-satisfactorily proved.</p>
-
-<p>It appears certain that the most ancient European instruments
-known to us were in form and construction more like the Asiatic
-than was the case with later ones. Before a nation has attained to a
-rather high degree of civilisation its progress in the cultivation of
-music, as an art, is very slow indeed. The instruments found at
-the present day in Asia are scarcely superior to those which were
-in use among oriental nations about three thousand years ago. It
-is, therefore, perhaps not surprising that no material improvement
-is perceptible in the construction of the instruments of European
-countries during the lapse of nearly a thousand years. True,
-evidences to be relied on referring to the first five or six centuries
-of the Christian era are but scanty; although indications are not
-wanting which may help the reflecting musician.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span></p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i086a" src="images/i086a.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i086b" src="images/i086b.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>There are some early monuments of Christian art dating from
-the fourth century in which the lyre is represented. In one of
-them Christ is depicted as Apollo touching the lyre. This
-instrument occurs at an early period in western Europe as used in
-popular pastimes. In an Anglo-saxon manuscript of the ninth
-century in the British museum (Cleopatra C. VIII.) are the
-figures of two gleemen, one playing the lyre and the other a
-double-pipe. M. de Coussemaker has published in the “Annales
-Arch&eacute;ologiques” the figure of a crowned personage playing the
-lyre, which he found in a manuscript of the ninth or tenth
-century in the library at Angers. The player twangs the strings
-with his fingers, while the Anglo-saxon gleeman before mentioned
-uses a plectrum.</p>
-
-<p><i>Cithara</i> was a name
-applied to several stringed
-instruments greatly varying
-in form, power of
-sound, and compass. The illustration represents a cithara from
-a manuscript of the
-ninth century, formerly
-in the library of the
-great monastery of St.
-Blasius in the Black
-Forest. When in the
-year 1768 the monastery
-was destroyed by
-fire, this valuable book
-perished in the flames;
-fortunately the celebrated
-abbot Gerbert
-possessed tracings of
-the illustrations, which
-were saved from destruction. He published them, in the
-year 1774, in his work “De cantu et musica sacra.” Several
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span>
-illustrations in the following pages, it will be seen, have been
-derived from this interesting source. As the older works
-on music were generally written in Latin we do not learn
-from them the popular names of the instruments; the writers
-merely adopted such Latin names as they thought the most
-appropriate. Thus, for instance, a very simple stringed instrument
-of a triangular
-shape, and a somewhat
-similar one of
-a square shape were
-designated by the
-name of <i>psalterium</i>;
-and we further give a
-woodcut of the square
-kind (p. 86), and of a <i>cithara</i> (above) from the same manuscript.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i087a" src="images/i087a.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i087b" src="images/i087b.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>This last instrument is evidently an improvement upon the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span>
-triangular psalterium, because it has a sort of small sound-board at
-the top. Scarcely better, with regard to acoustics, appears to have
-been the instrument designated as <i>nablum</i>, which we engrave
-(p. 87) from a manuscript of the ninth century at Angers.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i088" src="images/i088.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>A small psalterium with strings placed over a sound-board was
-apparently the prototype of the <i>citole</i>; a kind of dulcimer which
-was played with the fingers. The names were not only often
-vaguely applied by the medi&aelig;val writers but they changed also
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span>
-in almost every century. The psalterium, or psalterion (Italian
-<i>salterio</i>, English <i>psaltery</i>), of the fourteenth century and later had
-the trapezium shape of the dulcimer.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i089" src="images/i089.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The Anglo-saxons frequently accompanied their vocal effusions
-with a harp, more or less triangular in shape,&mdash;an instrument
-which may be considered
-rather as constituting the
-transition of the lyre into
-the harp. The representation
-of king David playing
-the harp is from an
-Anglo-saxon manuscript
-of the beginning of the
-eleventh century, in the
-British museum. The
-harp was especially popular
-in central and northern
-Europe, and was the
-favourite instrument of
-the German and Celtic
-bards and of the Scandinavian
-skalds. In the
-next illustration from the
-manuscript of the monastery
-of St. Blasius twelve
-strings and two sound holes are given to it. A harp similar in
-form and size, but without the front pillar, was known to the
-ancient Egyptians. Perhaps the addition was also non-existent
-in the earliest specimens appertaining to European nations; and
-a sculptured figure of a small harp constructed like the ancient
-eastern harp has been discovered in the old church of Ullard in the
-county of Kilkenny. Of this curious relic, which is said to date
-from a period anterior to the year 800, a fac-simile taken from
-Bunting’s “Ancient Music of Ireland” is given (p. 91). As Bunting
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span>
-was the first who drew attention to this sculpture his account of it
-may interest the reader. “The drawing” he says “is taken from
-one of the ornamental compartments of a sculptured cross, at the old
-church of Ullard. From the style of the workmanship, as well as
-from the worn condition of the cross, it seems older than the similar
-monument at Monasterboice which is known to have been set up
-before the year 830. The sculpture is rude; the circular rim
-which binds the arms of the cross together is not pierced in the
-quadrants, and many of the figures originally in relievo are now
-wholly abraded. It is difficult to determine whether the number
-of strings represented is six or seven; but, as has been already
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span>
-remarked, accuracy in this respect cannot be expected either in
-sculptures or in many picturesque drawings.” The Finns
-had a harp (<i>harpu</i>, <i>kantele</i>) with a
-similar frame, devoid of a front pillar,
-still in use until the commencement of
-the present century.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i090" src="images/i090.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i091a" src="images/i091a.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i091b" src="images/i091b.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>One of the most interesting stringed
-instruments of the middle ages is the
-<i>rotta</i> (German, <i>rotte</i>; English, <i>rote</i>). It
-was sounded by twanging the strings,
-and also by the application of the bow.
-The first method was, of course, the
-elder one. There can hardly be a doubt
-that when the bow came into use it was
-applied to certain popular instruments
-which previously had been treated like
-the <i>cithara</i> or the <i>psalterium</i>. The
-Hindus at the present day use their <i>suroda</i> sometimes as a
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span>
-lute and sometimes as a fiddle. In some measure we do the
-same with the violin by playing occasionally <i>pizzicato</i>. The <i>rotta</i>
-(shown p. 91) from the manuscript of St. Blasius is called
-in Gerbert’s work <i>cithara teutonica</i>, while the harp is called
-<i>cithara anglica</i>; from which
-it would appear that the
-former was regarded as pre-eminently
-a German instrument.
-Possibly its name
-may have been originally
-<i>chrotta</i> and the continental
-nations may have adopted it
-from the Celtic races of the
-British isles, dropping the
-guttural sound. This hypothesis
-is, however, one of
-those which have been advanced
-by some musical historians
-without any satisfactory
-evidence.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i092" src="images/i092.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i093" src="images/i093.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>We engrave also another
-representation of David playing
-on the <i>rotta</i>, from a
-psalter of the seventh century
-in the British museum (Cott.
-Vesp. A. I). According to
-tradition, this psalter is one
-of the manuscripts which were sent by pope Gregory to St.
-Augustine. The instrument much resembles the lyre in the hand
-of the musician (see p. 22) who is supposed to be a Hebrew of the
-time of Joseph. In the <i>rotta</i> the ancient Asiatic lyre is easily to
-be recognized. An illumination of king David playing the <i>rotta</i>
-forms the frontispiece of a manuscript of the eighth century preserved
-in the cathedral library of Durham; and which is musically
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span>
-interesting inasmuch as it represents a <i>rotta</i> of an oblong
-square shape like that just noticed and resembling the Welsh
-<i>crwth</i>. It has only five strings which the performer twangs with
-his fingers. Again, a very interesting representation (which we
-engrave) of the Psalmist with a kind of <i>rotta</i> occurs in a manuscript
-of the tenth century,
-in the British museum (Vitellius
-F. XI.). The manuscript
-has been much injured
-by a fire in the year
-1731, but Professor Westwood
-has succeeded, with
-great care, and with the aid
-of a magnifying glass, in
-making out the lines of the
-figure. As it has been ascertained
-that the psalter is
-written in the Irish semi-uncial
-character it is highly
-probable that the kind of
-<i>rotta</i> represents the Irish
-<i>cionar cruit</i>, which was
-played by twanging the
-strings and also by the application
-of a bow. Unfortunately
-we possess no
-well-authenticated representation
-of the Welsh
-<i>crwth</i> of an early period;
-otherwise we should in all
-probability find it played with the fingers, or with a plectrum.
-Venantius Fortunatus, an Italian who lived in the second
-half of the sixth century, mentions in a poem the “Chrotta
-Britanna.” He does not, however, allude to the bow, and there
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span>
-is no reason to suppose that it existed in England. Howbeit,
-the Welsh <i>crwth</i> (Anglo-saxon, <i>crudh</i>; English, <i>crowd</i>) is only
-known as a species of fiddle closely resembling the <i>rotta</i>, but
-having a finger-board in the middle of the open frame and being
-strung with only a few strings; while the <i>rotta</i> had sometimes
-above twenty strings. As it may interest the reader to examine
-the form of the modern <i>crwth</i> we
-give a woodcut of it. Edward
-Jones, in his “Musical and poetical
-relicks of the Welsh bards,” records
-that the Welsh had before this kind
-of <i>crwth</i> a three-stringed one called
-“Crwth Trithant,” which was, he
-says, “a sort of violin, or more properly
-a rebeck.” The three-stringed
-<i>crwth</i> was chiefly used by the inferior
-class of bards; and was probably
-the Moorish fiddle which is
-still the favourite instrument of the
-itinerant bards of the Bretons in
-France, who call it <i>r&eacute;bek</i>. The Bretons,
-it will be remembered, are
-close kinsmen of the Welsh.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i094" src="images/i094.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>A player on the <i>crwth</i> or <i>crowd</i>
-(a crowder) from a bas-relief on the
-under part of the seats of the choir in Worcester cathedral
-(engraved p. 95) dates from the twelfth or thirteenth century; and
-we give (p. 96) a copy of an illumination from a manuscript in the
-Biblioth&egrave;que royale at Paris of the eleventh century. The player
-wears a crown on his head; and in the original some musicians
-placed at his side are performing on the psalterium and other
-instruments. These last are figured with uncovered heads;
-whence M. de Coussemaker concludes that the <i>crout</i> was considered
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span>
-by the artist who drew the figures as the noblest instrument.
-It was probably identical with the <i>rotta</i> of the same century on
-the continent.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i095" src="images/i095.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>An interesting drawing of an Anglo-saxon fiddle&mdash;or <i>fithele</i>, as
-it was called&mdash;is given in a
-manuscript of the eleventh
-century in the British museum
-(Cotton, Tiberius, c. 6). The
-instrument is of a pear shape,
-with four strings, and the
-bridge is not indicated. A
-German fiddle of the ninth
-century, called <i>lyra</i>, copied
-by Gerbert from the manuscript
-of St. Blasius, has only
-one string. These are shown in
-the woodcuts (p. 97). Other
-records of the employment of
-the fiddle-bow in Germany in
-the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are not wanting. For instance,
-in the famous ‘Nibelungenlied’ Volker is described as wielding
-the fiddle-bow not less dexterously than the sword. And in
-‘Chronicon picturatum Brunswicense’ of the year 1203, the following
-miraculous sign is recorded as having occurred in the
-village of Ossemer: “On Wednesday in Whitsun-week, while the
-parson was fiddling to his peasants who were dancing, there
-came a flash of lightning and struck the parson’s arm which
-held the fiddle-bow, and killed twenty-four people on the
-spot.”</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i096" src="images/i096.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Among the oldest representations of performers on instruments
-of the violin kind found in England those deserve to be noticed
-which are painted on the interior of the roof of Peterborough
-cathedral. They are said to date from the twelfth century. One
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span>
-of these figures is particularly interesting on account of the surprising
-resemblance which his instrument bears to our present
-violin. Not only the incurvations on the sides of the body but
-also the two sound-holes are nearly identical in shape with those
-made at the present day. Respecting the reliance to be placed
-on such evidence, it is
-necessary to state that
-the roof, originally constructed
-between the
-years 1177 and 1194,
-was thoroughly repaired
-in the year 1835. Although
-we find it asserted
-that “the greatest
-care was taken to retain
-every part, or to restore
-it to its original state,
-so that the figures, even
-where retouched, are in
-effect the same as when
-first painted,” it nevertheless
-remains a debatable
-question whether
-the restorers have not
-admitted some slight
-alterations, and have
-thereby somewhat modernised
-the appearance
-of the instruments. A
-slight touch with the
-brush at the sound-holes, the screws, or the curvatures, would
-suffice to produce modifications which might to the artist appear
-as being only a renovation of the original representation, but
-which to the musical investigator greatly impair the value of the
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span>
-evidence. Sculptures are, therefore, more to be relied upon in
-evidence than frescoes.</p>
-
-<p class="table">
-<span class="trow">
-<span class="tcell"><img id="i097a" src="images/i097a.jpg" alt="" /></span>
-<span class="tcell"><img id="i097b" src="images/i097b.jpg" alt="" /></span>
-</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
-
-<p>The construction of the <i>organistrum</i> requires but little explanation.
-A glance at the finger-board reveals at once that the
-different tones were obtained by raising the keys placed on the
-neck under the strings, and that the keys were raised by means of
-the handles at the side of the neck. Of the two bridges shown on
-the body, the one situated nearest the middle was formed by a
-wheel in the inside, which projected through the sound-board.
-The wheel which slightly touched the strings vibrated them by
-friction when turned by the handle at the end. The order of
-intervals was <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>b-flat</i>, <i>b-natural</i>, <i>c</i>, and were obtainable
-on the highest string. There is reason to suppose that the other
-two strings were generally tuned a fifth and an octave below the
-highest. The <i>organistrum</i> may be regarded as the predecessor of
-the hurdy-gurdy, and was a rather cumbrous contrivance. Two
-persons seem to have been required to sound it, one to turn the
-handle and the other to manage the keys. Thus it is generally
-represented in medi&aelig;val concerts.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i098" src="images/i098.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i099" src="images/i099.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>monochord</i> (p. 100) was mounted with a single string stretched
-over two bridges which were fixed on an oblong box. The string
-could be tightened or slackened by means of a turning screw
-inserted into one end of the box. The intervals of the scale were
-marked on the side, and were regulated by a sort of movable bridge
-placed beneath the string when required. As might be expected, the
-<i>monochord</i> was chiefly used by theorists; for any musical performance
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span>
-it was but little suitable. About
-a thousand years ago when this
-monochord was in use the musical
-scale was diatonic, with the exception
-of the interval of the seventh,
-which was chromatic inasmuch as
-both <i>b-flat</i> and <i>b-natural</i> formed part
-of the scale. The notation on the
-preceding page exhibits the compass
-as well as the order of intervals
-adhered to about the tenth
-century.</p>
-
-<p>This ought to be borne in mind
-in examining the representations of
-musical instruments transmitted to
-us from that period.</p>
-
-<p>As regards the wind instruments
-popular during the middle ages,
-some were of quaint form as well as
-of rude construction.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>chorus</i>, or <i>choron</i>, had either
-one or two tubes, as in the woodcut
-page 101. There were several varieties
-of this instrument; sometimes it
-was constructed with a bladder into
-which the tube is inserted; this kind
-of <i>chorus</i> resembled the bagpipe;
-another kind resembled the <i>poongi</i>
-of the Hindus, mentioned page 51.
-The name <i>chorus</i> was also applied
-to certain stringed instruments.
-One of these had much the form of
-the <i>cithara</i>, page 86. It appears
-however, probable that <i>chorus</i> or
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span>
-<i>choron</i> originally designated a horn (Hebrew, <i>Keren</i>; Greek,
-<i>Keras</i>; Latin, <i>cornu</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i100" src="images/i100.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The flutes of the middle ages were blown at the end, like the
-flageolet. Of the <i>syrinx</i> there are extant some illustrations of the
-ninth and tenth centuries, which exhibit the instrument with a
-number of tubes tied together, just like the Pandean pipe still in
-use. In one specimen engraved (page 102) from a manuscript of the
-eleventh century the tubes were inserted into a bowl-shaped box.
-This is probably the <i>frestele</i>, <i>fretel</i>, or <i>fretiau</i>, which in the twelfth
-and thirteenth centuries was in favour with the French m&eacute;n&eacute;triers.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span></p>
-
-<p>Some large Anglo-saxon trumpets may be seen in a manuscript
-of the eighth century in the British museum. The largest kind
-of trumpet was placed on a stand when blown. Of the <i>oliphant</i>,
-or hunting horn, some fine specimens are in the South Kensington
-collection. The <i>sackbut</i> (of which we give a woodcut) probably
-made of metal, could be
-drawn out to alter the
-pitch of sound. The
-sackbut of the ninth
-century had, however, a
-very different shape to
-that in use about three
-centuries ago, and much more resembled the present <i>trombone</i>.
-The name <i>sackbut</i> is supposed to be a corruption of <i>sambuca</i>.
-The French, about the fifteenth century, called it <i>sacqueboute</i> and
-<i>saquebutte</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="table">
-<span class="trow">
-<span class="tcell"><img id="i101a" src="images/i101a.jpg" alt="" /></span>
-<span class="tcell"><img id="i101b" src="images/i101b.jpg" alt="" /></span>
-</span>
-</p>
-
-<p>The most important wind instrument&mdash;in fact, the king of all
-the musical instruments&mdash;is the organ.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i101c" src="images/i101c.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i102" src="images/i102.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>pneumatic organ</i> is sculptured on an obelisk which was
-erected in Constantinople under Theodosius the great, towards
-the end of the fourth century. The bellows were pressed by men
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span>
-standing on them: see page 103. This interesting monument also
-exhibits performers on the double flute. The <i>hydraulic organ</i>, which
-is recorded to have been already known about two hundred years
-before the Christian era, was according to some statements occasionally
-employed in churches during the earlier centuries of the
-middle ages. Probably it was more frequently heard in secular
-entertainments for which it was more suitable; and at the beginning
-of the fourteenth century appears to have been entirely
-supplanted by the pneumatic organ. The earliest organs had only
-about a dozen pipes. The largest, which were made about nine
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span>
-hundred years ago, had only three octaves, in which the chromatic
-intervals did not occur. Some progress in the construction of the
-organ is exhibited in an illustration (engraved
-p. 104) dating from the twelfth century, in a
-psalter of Eadwine, in the library of Trinity
-college, Cambridge. The instrument has
-ten pipes, or perhaps fourteen, as four of
-them appear to be double pipes. It required
-four men exerting all their power to
-produce the necessary wind, and two men to
-play the instrument. Moreover, both players
-seem also to be busily engaged in directing
-the blowers about the proper supply of
-wind. Six men and only fourteen pipes!
-It must be admitted that since the twelfth
-century some progress has been made, at
-all events, in the construction of the organ.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i103" src="images/i103.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The pedal is generally believed to have
-been invented by Bernhard, a German, who
-lived in Venice about the year 1470. There
-are, however, indications extant pointing to
-an earlier date of its invention. Perhaps
-Bernhard was the first who, by adopting a
-more practicable construction, made the
-pedal more generally known. On the earliest
-organs the keys of the finger-board
-were of enormous size, compared with those
-of the present day; so that a finger-board
-with only nine keys had a breadth of from
-four to five feet. The organist struck the
-keys down with his fist, as is done in playing
-the <i>carillon</i> still in use on the continent, of
-which presently some account will be given.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i104a" src="images/i104a.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i104b" src="images/i104b.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Of the little portable organ, known as the <i>regal</i> or <i>regals</i>, often
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span>
-tastefully shaped and embellished, some interesting sculptured representations
-are still extant in the old ecclesiastical edifices of
-England and Scotland. There is, for instance, in Beverley minster
-a figure of a man playing on a
-single regal, or a regal provided
-with only one set of pipes; and
-in Melrose abbey the figure of
-an angel holding in his arms a
-double regal, the pipes of which
-are in two sets. The regal
-generally had keys like those of
-the organ but smaller. A
-painting in the national Gallery,
-by Melozzo da Forli who lived
-in the fifteenth century, contains
-a regal which has keys of a
-peculiar shape, rather resembling
-the pistons of certain brass instruments.
-The illustration has been drawn from that painting.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span>
-To avoid misapprehension, it is necessary to mention that the
-name <i>regal</i> (or <i>regals</i>, <i>rigols</i>) was also applied to an instrument
-of percussion with sonorous slabs of wood. This contrivance
-was, in short, a kind of harmonica, resembling in shape
-as well as in the principle of its construction the little glass
-harmonica, a mere toy, in which slips of glass are arranged
-according to our musical scale. In England it appears to have
-been still known in the beginning of the eighteenth century.
-Grassineau describes the “Rigols” as “a kind of musical instrument
-consisting of several sticks bound together, only separated
-by beads. It makes a tolerable harmony, being well struck with
-a ball at the end of a stick.” In the earlier centuries of the
-middle ages there appear to have been some instruments of
-percussion in favour, to which Grassineau’s expression “a tolerable
-harmony” would scarcely have been applicable. Drums, of
-course, were known; and their rhythmical noise must have been
-soft music, compared with the shrill sounds of the <i>cymbalum</i>;
-a contrivance consisting of a number of metal plates suspended
-on cords, so that they could be clashed together simultaneously;
-or with the clangour of the <i>cymbalum</i> constructed with bells
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span>
-instead of plates; or with the piercing noise of the <i>bunibulum</i>, or
-<i>bombulom</i>; an instrument which consisted of an angular frame to
-which were loosely attached metal plates of various shapes and
-sizes. The lower part of the frame constituted the handle: and
-to produce the noise it evidently was shaken somewhat like the
-sistrum of the ancient Egyptians. We give woodcuts of the
-three instruments.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i105" src="images/i105.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>triangle</i> nearly resembled the instrument of this name in
-use at the present day; it was more elegant in shape and had
-some metal ornamentation in the middle.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>tintinnabulum</i> consisted of a number of bells arranged in
-regular order and suspended in a frame.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i106" src="images/i106.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</h2>
-
-<p>Respecting the orchestras, or musical bands, represented on
-monuments of the middle ages, there can hardly be a doubt that
-the artists who sculptured them were not unfrequently led by their
-imagination rather than by an adherence to actual fact. It is,
-however, not likely that they introduced into such representations
-instruments that were never admitted in the orchestras, and which
-would have appeared inappropriate to the contemporaries of the
-artists. An examination of one or two of the orchestras may
-therefore find a place here, especially as they throw some additional
-light upon the characteristics of the instrumental music of
-medi&aelig;val time.</p>
-
-<p>A very interesting group of music performers dating, it is said,
-from the end of the eleventh century is preserved in a bas-relief
-which formerly ornamented the abbey of St. Georges de Boscherville
-and which is now removed to the museum of Rouen. The
-orchestra comprises twelve performers, most of whom wear a
-crown. The first of them plays upon a viol, which he holds
-between his knees as the violoncello is held. His instrument
-is scarcely as large as the smallest viola da gamba. By
-his side are a royal lady and her attendant, the former playing
-on an <i>organistrum</i> of which the latter is turning the
-wheel. Next to these is represented a performer on a <i>syrinx</i>
-of the kind shown in the engraving p. 112; and next to him a
-performer on a stringed instrument resembling a lute, which,
-however, is too much dilapidated to be recognisable. Then we
-have a musician with a small stringed instrument resembling the
-<i>nablum</i>, p. 87. The next musician, also represented as a royal
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span>
-personage, plays on a small species
-of harp. Then follows a crowned
-musician playing the viol which he
-holds in almost precisely the same
-manner as the violin is held. Again,
-another, likewise crowned, plays
-upon a harp, using with the right
-hand a plectrum and with the left
-hand merely his fingers. The last
-two performers, apparently a gentleman
-and a gentlewoman, are engaged
-in striking the <i>tintinnabulum</i>,&mdash;a
-set of bells in a frame.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i108" src="images/i108.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>In this group of crowned minstrels
-the sculptor has introduced a tumbler
-standing on his head, perhaps
-the vocalist of the company, as he
-has no instrument to play upon.
-Possibly the sculptor desired to symbolise
-the hilarious effects which
-music is capable of producing, as
-well as its elevating influence upon
-the devotional feelings.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i109a" src="images/i109a.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The two positions in which we
-find the viol held is worthy of
-notice, inasmuch as it refers the
-inquirer further back than might be
-expected for the origin of our
-peculiar method of holding the
-violin, and the violoncello, in
-playing. There were several kinds
-of the viol in use differing in size
-and in compass of sound. The
-most common number of strings was
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span>
-five, and it was tuned in various ways. One kind had a string
-tuned to the note <img src="images/i109b.jpg" alt="" /> running at the side of the
-finger-board instead of over it; this string was, therefore, only
-capable of producing a single tone. The four other strings
-were tuned thus: <img src="images/i109c.jpg" alt="" /> Two other species,
-on which all the strings were placed over the finger-board,
-were tuned: <img src="images/i109d.jpg" alt="" /> and:
-<img src="images/i109e.jpg" alt="" /> The woodcut above represents a
-very beautiful <i>vielle</i>; French, of about 1550, with monograms of
-Henry II. This is at South Kensington.</p>
-
-<p>The contrivance of placing a string or two at the side of the
-finger-board is evidently very old, and was also gradually adopted
-on other instruments of the violin class of a somewhat later
-period than that of the <i>vielle</i>; for instance, on the <i>lira di braccio</i>
-of the Italians. It was likewise adopted on the lute, to obtain a
-fuller power in the bass; and hence arose the <i>theorbo</i>, the
-<i>archlute</i>, and other varieties of the old lute.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i110" src="images/i110.jpg" alt="" />
-
-<p class="xx-small">A. REID. DEL.</p>
-
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Orchestra, twelfth century, at Santiago.</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span></p></div>
-
-<p>A grand assemblage of musical performers is represented on
-the Portico della gloria of the famous pilgrimage church of Santiago
-da Compostella, in Spain. This triple portal, which is
-stated by an inscription on the lintel to have been executed in
-the year 1188, consists of a large semicircular arch with a smaller
-arch on either side. The central arch is filled by a tympanum,
-round which are twenty-four life-sized seated figures, in high relief,
-representing the twenty-four elders seen by St. John in the Apocalypse,
-each with an instrument of music. These instruments
-are carefully represented and are of great interest as showing
-those in use in Spain at about the twelfth century. A cast of this
-sculpture is in the Kensington museum.</p>
-
-<p>In examining the group of musicians on this sculpture the
-reader will probably recognise several instruments in their hands,
-which are identical with those already described in the preceding
-pages. The <i>organistrum</i>, played by two persons, is placed in the
-centre of the group, perhaps owing to its being the largest of the
-instruments rather than that it was distinguished by any superiority
-in sound or musical effect. Besides the small harp seen
-in the hands of the eighth and nineteenth musicians (in form
-nearly identical with the Anglo-saxon harp) we find a small triangular
-harp, without a front-pillar, held on the lap by the fifth
-and eighteenth musicians. The <i>salterio</i> on the lap of the tenth
-and seventeenth musicians resembles the dulcimer, but seems
-to be played with the fingers instead of with hammers. The
-most interesting instrument in this orchestra is the <i>vihuela</i>, or
-Spanish viol, of the twelfth century. The first, second, third, sixth,
-seventh, ninth, twentieth, twenty-second, twenty-third, and twenty-fourth
-musicians are depicted with a <i>vihuela</i> which bears a close
-resemblance to the <i>rebec</i>. The instrument is represented with
-three strings, although in one or two instances five tuning-pegs
-are indicated. A large species of <i>vihuela</i> is given to the
-eleventh, fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth musicians. This
-instrument differs from the <i>rebec</i> in as far as its body is broader
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span>
-and has incurvations at the sides. Also the sound-holes are
-different in form and position. The bow does not occur with
-any of these viols. But, as will be observed, the musicians are
-not represented in the act of playing; they are tuning and preparing
-for the performance, and the second of them is adjusting
-the bridge of his instrument.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i112" src="images/i112.jpg" alt="" />
-<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Front of the minstrels’ gallery, Exeter cathedral.</span> XIVth century.</p></div>
-
-<p>The minstrels’ gallery of Exeter cathedral dates from the fourteenth
-century. The front is divided into twelve niches, each of
-which contains a winged figure or an angel playing on an instrument
-of music. There is a cast also of this famous sculpture at South
-Kensington. The instruments are so much dilapidated that some
-of them cannot be clearly recognized; but, as far as may be ascertained,
-they appear to be as follows:&mdash;1. The <i>cittern</i>. 2. The
-<i>bagpipe</i>. 3. The <i>clarion</i>, a small trumpet having a shrill sound.
-4. The <i>rebec</i>. 5. The <i>psaltery</i>. 6. The <i>syrinx</i>. 7. The <i>sackbut</i>.
-8. The <i>regals</i>. 9. The <i>gittern</i>, a small guitar strung with catgut.
-10. The <i>shalm</i>. 11. The <i>timbrel</i>; resembling our present tambourine,
-with a double row of gingles. 12. <i>Cymbals.</i> Most of these
-instruments have been already noticed in the preceding pages.
-The <i>shalm</i>, or <i>shawm</i>, was a pipe with a reed in the mouth-hole.
-The <i>wait</i> was an English wind instrument of the same construction.
-If it differed in any respect from the <i>shalm</i>, the difference
-consisted probably in the size only. The <i>wait</i> obtained its name
-from being used principally by watchmen, or <i>waights</i>, to proclaim
-the time of night. Such were the poor ancestors of our fine oboe
-and clarinet.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</h2>
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">Post-medi&aelig;val Musical Instruments.</span></h3>
-
-<p>Attention must now be drawn to some instruments which
-originated during the middle ages, but which attained their highest
-popularity at a somewhat later period.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i114" src="images/i114.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>Among the best known of these was the <i>virginal</i>, of
-which we give an engraving from a specimen of the time of
-Elizabeth at South Kensington. Another was the <i>lute</i>, which
-about three hundred years
-ago was almost as popular as
-is at the present day the
-pianoforte. Originally it
-had eight thin catgut strings
-arranged in four pairs, each
-pair being tuned in unison;
-so that its open strings produced
-four tones; but in
-the course of time more
-strings were added. Until
-the sixteenth century twelve was the largest number or, rather, six
-pairs. Eleven appear for some centuries to have been the most
-usual number of strings: these produced six tones, since they
-were arranged in five pairs and a single string. The latter, called
-the <i>chanterelle</i>, was the highest. According to Thomas Mace,
-the English lute in common use during the seventeenth century
-had twenty-four strings, arranged in twelve pairs, of which six
-pairs ran over the finger-board and the other six by the side of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span>
-it. This lute was therefore, more properly speaking, a theorbo.
-The neck of the lute, and also of the theorbo, had frets consisting
-of catgut strings tightly fastened round it at the proper distances
-required for ensuring a chromatic succession of intervals. The
-illustration on the next page represents a lute-player of the sixteenth
-century. The frets are not indicated in the old engraving from which
-the illustration has been taken. The order of tones adopted for the
-open strings varied in different centuries and countries: and this
-was also the case with the notation of lute music. The most
-common practice was to write the music on six lines, the upper
-line representing the first string; the second line, the second
-string, &amp;c., and to mark with letters on the lines the frets at
-which the fingers ought to be placed&mdash;<i>a</i> indicating the open
-string, <i>b</i> the first fret, <i>c</i> the second fret, and so on.</p>
-
-<p>The lute was made of various sizes according to the purpose
-for which it was intended in performance. The treble-lute was of
-the smallest dimensions, and the bass-lute of the largest. The
-<i>theorbo</i>, or double-necked lute which appears to have come into
-use during the sixteenth century, had in addition to the strings
-situated over the finger-board a number of others running at the
-left side of the finger-board which could not be shortened by the
-fingers, and which produced the bass tones. The largest kinds of
-theorbo were the <i>archlute</i> and the <i>chitarrone</i>.</p>
-
-<p>It is unnecessary to enter here into a detailed description of
-some other instruments which have been popular during the last
-three centuries, for the museum at Kensington contains specimens
-of many of them of which an account is given in the large catalogue
-of that collection. It must suffice to refer the reader to
-the illustrations there of the cither, virginal, spinet, clavichord,
-harpsichord, and other antiquated instruments much esteemed by
-our forefathers.</p>
-
-<p>Students who examine these old relics will probably wish to
-know something about their quality of tone. “How do they
-sound? Might they still be made effective in our present state of
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span>
-the art?” are questions which naturally occur to the musical inquirer
-having such instruments brought before him. A few words
-bearing on these questions may therefore not be out of place here.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i116" src="images/i116.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>It is generally and justly admitted that in no other branch of
-the art of music has greater progress been made since the last
-century than in the construction of musical instruments. Nevertheless,
-there are people who think that we have also lost something
-here which might with advantage be restored. Our various instruments
-by being more and more perfected are becoming too much
-alike in quality of sound, or in that character of tone which the
-French call <i>timbre</i>, and the Germans <i>Klangfarbe</i>, and which professor
-Tyndall in his lectures on sound has translated <i>clang-tint</i>.
-Every musical composer knows how much more suitable one <i>clang-tint</i>
-is for the expression of a certain emotion than another. Our
-old instruments, imperfect though they were in many respects,
-possessed this variety of <i>clang-tint</i> to a high degree. Neither were
-they on this account less capable of expression than the modern
-ones. That no improvement has been made during the last two
-centuries in instruments of the violin class is a well-known fact. As
-to lutes and cithers the collection at Kensington contains specimens
-so rich and mellow in tone as to cause musicians to regret
-that these instruments have entirely fallen into oblivion.</p>
-
-<p>As regards beauty of appearance our earlier instruments were
-certainly superior to the modern. Indeed, we have now scarcely
-a musical instrument which can be called beautiful. The
-old lutes, spinets, viols, dulcimers, &amp;c., are not only elegant in
-shape but are also often tastefully ornamented with carvings,
-designs in marquetry, and painting.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i118" src="images/i118.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The player on the <i>viola da gamba</i>, shown in the next engraving, is a
-reduced copy of an illustration in “The Division Violist,” London,
-1659. It shows exactly how the frets were regulated, and how the
-bow was held. The most popular instruments played with a bow,
-at that time, were the <i>treble-viol</i>, the <i>tenor-viol</i>, and the <i>bass-viol</i>.
-It was usual for viol players to have “a chest of viols,” a case
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span>
-containing four or more viols, of different sizes. Thus, Thomas
-Mace in his directions for the use of the viol, “Musick’s Monument”
-1676, remarks, “Your best provision, and most complete,
-will be a good chest of viols, six in number, viz., two basses, two
-tenors, and two trebles, all truly and proportionably suited.” The
-violist, to be properly furnished with his requirements, had therefore
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span>
-to supply himself with a larger stock of instruments than the
-violinist of the present day.</p>
-
-<div class="figright">
-<img id="i119" src="images/i119.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>That there was, in the time of Shakespeare, a musical instrument
-called <i>recorder</i> is undoubtedly known to most readers from
-the stage direction in Hamlet: <i>Re-enter players with recorders</i>.
-But not many are likely to have ever seen a recorder, as it has
-now become very
-scarce: we therefore
-give an illustration
-of this
-old instrument,
-which is copied
-from “The Genteel
-Companion;
-Being exact Directions
-for the
-Recorder: etc.”
-London, 1683.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>bagpipe</i>
-appears to have
-been from time
-immemorial a
-special favourite
-instrument with
-the Celtic races;
-but it was perhaps
-quite as
-much admired
-by the Slavonic nations. In Poland, and in the Ukraine, it
-used to be made of the whole skin of the goat in which the shape
-of the animal, whenever the bagpipe was expanded with air,
-appeared fully retained, exhibiting even the head with the horns;
-hence the bagpipe was called <i>kosa</i>, which signifies a goat. The
-woodcut p. 120 represents a Scotch bagpipe of the last century.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p>
-
-<p>The bagpipe is of high antiquity in Ireland, and is alluded to
-in Irish poetry and prose said to date from the tenth century. A
-pig gravely engaged in playing the bagpipe is represented in an
-illuminated Irish manuscript, of the year 1300: and we give p. 121
-a copy of a woodcut from “The Image
-of Ireland,” a book printed in London
-in 1581.</p>
-
-<div class="figleft">
-<img id="i120" src="images/i120.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>bell</i> has always been so much in
-popular favour in England that some
-account of it must not be omitted.
-Paul Hentzner a German, who visited
-England in the year 1598, records
-in his journal: “The people are vastly
-fond of great noises that fill the ear,
-such as the firing of cannon, drums,
-and the ringing of bells; so that in
-London it is common for a number
-of them that have got a glass in their
-heads to go up into some belfry, and
-ring the bells for hours together for
-the sake of exercise.” This may be
-exaggeration,&mdash;not unusual with travellers.
-It is, however, a fact that bell-ringing
-has been a favourite amusement
-with Englishmen for centuries.</p>
-
-<p>The way in which church bells are
-suspended and fastened, so as to permit
-of their being made to vibrate in the most effective manner
-without damaging by their vibration the building in
-which they are placed, is in some countries very peculiar. The
-Italian <i>campanile</i>, or tower of bells, is not unfrequently separated
-from the church itself. In Servia the church bells are often hung
-in a frame-work of timber built near the west end of the church.
-In Zante and other islands of Greece the belfry is usually separate
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span>
-from the church. The reason assigned by the Greeks for having
-adopted this plan is that in case of an earthquake the bells are
-likely to fall and, were they placed in a tower, would destroy the
-roof of the church and might cause the destruction of the whole
-building. Also in Russia a special edifice for the bells is generally
-separate from the church. In the Russian villages the
-bells are not unfrequently hung in the branches of an oak-tree
-near the church. In Iceland the bell is usually placed in the
-lych-gate leading to the graveyard.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i121" src="images/i121.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img id="i122" src="images/i122.jpg" alt="" />
-</div>
-
-<p>The idea of forming of a number of bells a musical instrument
-such as the <i>carillon</i> is said by some to have suggested itself first
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span>
-to the English and Dutch; but what we have seen in Asiatic
-countries sufficiently refutes this. Moreover, not only the Romans
-employed variously arranged and attuned bells, but also among
-the Etruscan antiquities an instrument has been discovered which
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span>
-is constructed of a number of bronze vessels placed in a row on a
-metal rod. Numerous bells, varying in size and tone, have also
-been found in Etruscan tombs. Among the later contrivances
-of this kind in European countries the sets of bells suspended in
-a wooden frame, which we find in medi&aelig;val illuminations, deserve
-notice. In the British museum is a manuscript of the fourteenth
-century in which king David is depicted holding in each hand a
-hammer with which he strikes upon bells of different dimensions,
-suspended on a wooden stand.</p>
-
-<p>It may be supposed that the device of playing tunes by means
-of bells merely swung by the hand is also of ancient date. In
-Lancashire each of the ringers manages two bells, holding one
-in either hand. Thus, an assemblage of seven ringers insures
-fourteen different tones; and as each ringer may change his two
-notes by substituting two other bells if required, even compositions
-with various modulations, and of a somewhat intricate
-character, may be executed,&mdash;provided the ringers are good
-timeists; for each has, of course, to take care to fall in with his
-note, just as a member of the Russian horn band contributes his
-single note whenever it occurs.</p>
-
-<p>Peal-ringing is another pastime of the kind which may be
-regarded as pre-eminently national to England. The bells constituting
-a peal are frequently of the number of eight, attuned to
-the diatonic scale. Also peals of ten bells, and even of twelve,
-are occasionally formed. A peculiar feature of peal-ringing is
-that the bells, which are provided with clappers, are generally
-swung so forcibly as to raise the mouth completely upwards.
-The largest peal, and one of the finest, is at Exeter cathedral:
-another celebrated one is that of St. Margaret’s, Leicester, which
-consists of ten bells. Peal-ringing is of an early date in England;
-Egelric, abbot of Croyland, is recorded to have cast about the
-year 960 a set of six bells.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>carillon</i> (engraved on the opposite page) is especially
-popular in the Netherlands and Belgium, but is also found in
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span>
-Germany, Italy, and some other European countries. It is generally
-placed in the church tower and also sometimes in other
-public edifices. The statement repeated by several writers that the
-first carillon was invented in the year 1481 in the town of Alost is
-not to be trusted, for the town of Bruges claims to have possessed
-similar chimes in the year 1300. There are two kinds of carillons
-in use on the continent, viz.: clock chimes, which are moved by
-machinery, like a self-acting barrel-organ; and such as are provided
-with a set of keys, by means of which the tunes are played by a
-musician. The carillon in the ‘Parochial-Kirche’ at Berlin, which
-is one of the finest in Germany, contains thirty-seven bells; and is
-provided with a key-board for the hands and with a pedal, which
-together place at the disposal of the performer a compass of rather
-more than three octaves. The keys of the manual are metal rods
-somewhat above a foot in length; and are pressed down with the
-palms of the hand. The keys of the pedal are of wood; the
-instrument requires not only great dexterity but also a considerable
-physical power. It is astonishing how rapidly passages can
-be executed upon it by the player, who is generally the organist
-of the church in which he acts as <i>carilloneur</i>. When engaged in
-the last-named capacity he usually wears leathern gloves to protect
-his fingers, as they are otherwise apt to become ill fit for
-the more delicate treatment of the organ.</p>
-
-<p>The want of a contrivance in the <i>carillon</i> for stopping the
-vibration has the effect of making rapid passages, if heard near,
-sound as a confused noise; only at some distance are they
-tolerable. It must be remembered that the <i>carillon</i> is intended
-especially to be heard from a distance. Successions of tones
-which form a consonant chord, and which have some duration,
-are evidently the most suitable for this instrument.</p>
-
-<p>Indeed, every musical instrument possesses certain characteristics
-which render it especially suitable for the production of
-some particular effects. The invention of a new instrument of
-music has, therefore, not unfrequently led to the adoption of new
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span>
-effects in compositions. Take the pianoforte, which was invented
-in the beginning of the eighteenth century, and which has now
-obtained so great a popularity: its characteristics inspired our
-great composers to the invention of effects, or expressions,
-which cannot be properly rendered on any other instrument,
-however superior in some respects it may be to the pianoforte.
-Thus also the improvements which have been made during the
-present century in the construction of our brass instruments, and
-the invention of several new brass instruments, have evidently
-been not without influence upon the conceptions displayed in
-our modern orchestral works.</p>
-
-<p>Imperfect though this essay may be it will probably have convinced
-the reader that a reference to the history of the music of
-different nations elucidates many facts illustrative of our own
-musical instruments, which to the unprepared observer must
-appear misty and impenetrable. In truth, it is with this study as
-with any other scientific pursuit. The unassisted eye sees only
-faint nebul&aelig; where with the aid of the telescope bright stars are
-revealed.
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span></p>
-
-<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2>
-
-<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">Al-Farabi, a great performer on the lute, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">American Indian instruments, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">American value of inquiry, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">American trumpets, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">American theories as to origin from musical instruments, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arab instruments very numerous, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Archlute, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ashantee trumpet, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Asor explained, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Assyrian instruments, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Aulos,” <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Bagpipe, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bagpipe, Greek, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bagpipe, Celtic, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Barbiton, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bells, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bells, Peruvian, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bells, and ringing, <a href="#Page_121">121-123</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blasius, Saint, the manuscript, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bones, traditions about them, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bones, made into flutes, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bottles, as musical instruments, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bow, see Violin</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bruce, his discovery of harps on frescoes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Capistrum, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carillon, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Catgut, how made, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chanterelle, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chelys, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chinese instruments, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chinese bells, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chinese drum, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chinese flutes, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chinese board of music, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chorus, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cimbal, or dulcimer, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cithara, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cithara, Anglican, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cittern, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Clarion, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cornu, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crowd, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crwth, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cymbals, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cymbals, or cymbalum, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cymbals, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">David’s (King) private band, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">David’s his favourite instrument, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Diaulos, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Drum, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Drum, Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Drum, Chinese, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Drum, Mexican, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dulcimer, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dulcimer, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dulcimer, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dulcimer, Persian prototype, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Egyptian (ancient) musical instruments, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Egyptian harps, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Egyptian flutes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Etruscan instruments, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Etruscan flutes, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Etruscan trumpet, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fiddle, originally a poor contrivance, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fiddle, Anglo-saxon, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fiddle, early German, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fistula, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Flute, Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Flute, Persian, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Flute, Mexican, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Flute, Peruvian, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Flute, mediæval, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Free reed,” whence imported, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Gerbert, abbot, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Greek instruments, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Greek music, whence derived, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Hallelujah, compared with Peruvian song, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harmonicon, Chinese, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harp, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harp, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harp, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harp, Greek, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harp, Anglo-saxon, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harp, Irish, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hebrew instruments, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hebrew pipe, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hebrew drum, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hebrew cymbals, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hebrew words among Indians, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hindu instruments, <a href="#Page_46">46-48</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hurdy-gurdy, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hydraulos, hydraulic organ, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Instruments, curious shapes, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Instruments, value and use of collections, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Instruments, Assyrian and Babylonian, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Jubal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Juruparis, its sacred character, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Kinnor, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">King, Chinese, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">King, various shapes, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Lute, Chinese, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lute, Persian, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lute, Moorish, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lute, Elizabethan, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lyre, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lyre, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lyre, Hebrew, of the time of Joseph, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lyre, Greek, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lyre, Roman, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lyre, Roman, various kinds, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lyre, early Christian, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lyre, early German “<i>lyra</i>,” <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Magadis, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Magrepha, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Maori trumpet, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Materials, commonly, of instruments, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mediæval musical instruments, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mediæval musical instruments, derived from Asia, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mexican instruments, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mexican whistle, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mexican pipe, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mexican flute, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mexican trumpet, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mexican drum, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mexican songs, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mexican council of music, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Minnim, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Monochord, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moorish instruments adopted in England, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Muses on a vase at Munich, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Music one of the fine arts, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Nablia, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nadr ben el-Hares, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nareda, inventor of Hindu instruments, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nero coin with an organ, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nofre, a guitar, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Oboe, Persian, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oliphant, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Orchestra, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Orchestra, modifications, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Organistrum, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Organ, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Organ, pneumatic and hydraulic, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Organ, in MS. of Eadwine, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Pandoura, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pedal, invented, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Persian instruments, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Persian harp, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Peruvian pipes, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Peruvian drum, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Peruvian bells, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Peruvian stringed instruments, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Peruvian songs, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Peterborough paintings of violins, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pipe, single and double, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pipe, Mexican, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pipe, Peruvian, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Plektron, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Poongi, Hindu, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pre-historic instruments, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Psalterium, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Rattle of Nootka Sound, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rattle American Indian, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rebeck, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Recorder, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Regal, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roman musical instruments, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roman lyre, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rotta, or rote, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Sackbut, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sambuca, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Santir, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sêbi, the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shalm, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Shophar, still used by the Jews, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sistrum, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sistrum, Roman, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Songs, Peruvian and Mexican, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stringed instruments, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Syrinx, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Syrinx, Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Syrinx, Roman, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Syrinx, Peruvian, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Tamboura, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Temples in China, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Theorbo, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tibia, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Timbrel, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tintinnabulum, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Triangle, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trigonon, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trumpet, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trumpet, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trumpet, Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trumpet, Roman, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trumpet, American Indian, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trumpet, of the Caroados, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trumpet, Mexican, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tympanon, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Universality of musical instruments, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Vielle, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vihuela, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vina, Hindu, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vina, performer, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Viol, Spanish, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Viol, da gamba, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Violin bow invented by Hindus? <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Violin Persian, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Violin mediæval, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Virginal, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Wait, the instrument, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Water, supposed origin of musical instruments, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Whistle, prehistoric, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Whistle, Mexican, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wind instruments, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Yu, Chinese stone, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Yu, Chinese wind instrument, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
-</ul>
-
-<p class="copy">DALZIEL AND CO., CAMDEN PRESS, N.W.</p>
-
-<p>&nbsp;</p>
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