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diff --git a/old/54537-h/54537-h.htm b/old/54537-h/54537-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 18b428e..0000000 --- a/old/54537-h/54537-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5450 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.1//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> -<head> -<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> -<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Musical Instruments, by Carl Engel</title> - <style type="text/css"> - -a { - text-decoration: none} - -body { - padding: 4px; - margin: auto 10%} - -p { - text-align: justify} - -.xx-small { - font-size: xx-small} - -.medium { - font-size: medium} - -.large { - font-size: large} - -h1, h2 { - page-break-before: always} - -h1, h2, h3, h4 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - font-weight: normal; - clear: both; - margin: 2em auto 1em auto} - -.ph1 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - font-weight: normal; - font-size: xx-large; - clear: both; - margin: 2em auto 1em auto} - -.author { - display: block; - text-align: right; - margin: auto 10px} - -.index { - list-style: none} - -.ifrst { - font-weight: bold; - margin: 2em auto auto auto} - -.indx { - font-weight: bold; - margin-left: 0em; - padding-left: 3em; - text-indent: -3em} - -/* Tables */ -.table { - display: table; - margin: auto} - -.tcell { - padding: 5px; - display: table-cell} - -.tcell p { - margin: auto 0.5em} - -.trow { - display: table-row} - -table { - margin: 2em auto} - -th { - padding: 5px} - -td { - text-indent: -1em; - padding-left: 1em} - -.tdr { - text-align: right} - -/* End Tables */ - -.copy { - font-size: small; - text-align: center} - -.smcap { - font-style: normal; - font-variant: small-caps} - -.caption { - text-align: center} - -/* Images */ -img { - vertical-align: middle; - border: none; - max-width: 100%} - -.figcenter { - clear: both; - display: table; - margin: 2em auto; - text-align: center} - -.figleft { - float: left; - clear: left; - max-width: 50%; - margin: 1em 1em 1em 0} - -.figright { - float: right; - clear: right; - max-width: 50%; - margin: 1em 0 1em 1em} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - color: #004200; - position: absolute; - right: 5px; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-size: small; - text-align: right; -} /* page numbers */ - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote { - background-color: #E6E6FA; - border: #004200 double 4px; - color: black; - margin: 2em auto; - padding: 1em} - - h1.pg,h2.pg,h3.pg,h4.pg { font-weight: bold; } - h1.pg { margin-top: 0em; } - hr.full { width: 100%; - margin-top: 3em; - margin-bottom: 0em; - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; - height: 4px; - border-width: 4px 0 0 0; /* remove all borders except the top one */ - border-style: solid; - border-color: #000000; - clear: both; } - </style> -</head> -<body> -<h1 class="pg">The Project Gutenberg eBook, Musical Instruments, by Carl Engel</h1> -<p>This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States -and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no -restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it -under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this -eBook or online at <a -href="http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you are not -located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this ebook.</p> -<p>Title: Musical Instruments</p> -<p>Author: Carl Engel</p> -<p>Release Date: April 11, 2017 [eBook #54537]</p> -<p>Language: English</p> -<p>Character set encoding: UTF-8</p> -<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS***</p> -<p> </p> -<h4 class="pg">E-text prepared by Anita Hammond, Wayne Hammond,<br /> - and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br /> - (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br /> - from page images generously made available by<br /> - Internet Archive<br /> - (<a href="https://archive.org">https://archive.org</a>)</h4> -<p> </p> -<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;margin: 0 auto;" cellpadding="10"> - <tr> - <td valign="top"> - Note: - </td> - <td> - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - <a href="https://archive.org/details/musicalinstrumen00engeiala"> - https://archive.org/details/musicalinstrumen00engeiala</a> - </td> - </tr> -</table> -<p> </p> -<hr class="full" /> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> -<p> </p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_i">i</span></p> - -<h1> -SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM ART HANDBOOKS.<br /> - -<small><span class="smcap">Edited by</span> WILLIAM MASKELL.</small><br /> - -NO. 5.—MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.<br /> -</h1> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ii">ii</span></p> - -<p><i>These Handbooks are reprints of the dissertations prefixed to -the large catalogues of the chief divisions of works of art in the -Museum at South Kensington; arranged and so far abridged as -to bring each into a portable shape. The Lords of the Committee -of Council on Education having determined on the publication of -them, the editor trusts that they will meet the purpose intended; -namely, to be useful, not alone for the collections at South Kensington -but for other collections, by enabling the public at a -trifling cost to understand something of the history and character -of the subjects treated of.</i></p> - -<p><i>The authorities referred to in each book are given in the large -catalogues; where will also be found detailed descriptions of the -very numerous examples in the South Kensington Museum.</i></p> - -<p class="author">W. M.</p> - -<p><i>August, 1875.</i> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">iii</span></p> - -<p class="ph1"> -MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS<br /> - -<small>BY</small><br /> - -<span class="large">CARL ENGEL</span><br /> - -<span class="medium">WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS</span><br /><br /> - -<img src="images/colophon.jpg" alt="" /><br /><br /> - -<span class="medium table"><i>Published for the Committee of Council on Education</i><br /> - -<small>BY</small><br /> - -CHAPMAN AND HALL, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span>, LONDON.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">iv</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">v</span></p> - -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> - -<table> - <tr> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td> - <td class="tdr">1</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td> - <td class="tdr">16</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td> - <td class="tdr">27</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td> - <td class="tdr">38</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td> - <td class="tdr">59</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td> - <td class="tdr">85</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td> - <td class="tdr">98</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td> - <td class="tdr">107</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></td> - <td class="tdr">114</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#INDEX">INDEX.</a></td> - <td class="tdr">126</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<h2 id="LIST_OF_WOODCUTS">LIST OF WOODCUTS.</h2> - -<table> - <tr> - <td /> - <td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i009">Prehistoric whistle</a></td> - <td class="tdr">9</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i013">Ancient Egyptian flute concert</a></td> - <td class="tdr">13</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i022">The supposed Hebrew lyre at Beni Hassan</a></td> - <td class="tdr">22</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i024">Ancient bagpipe from Tarsus</a></td> - <td class="tdr">24</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i025">Hebrew trumpets, from the arch of Titus</a></td> - <td class="tdr">25</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i028">Grecian harp and lyre</a></td> - <td class="tdr">28</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i029">Greek lyres</a></td> - <td class="tdr">29</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i031">Greek flutes</a></td> - <td class="tdr">31</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i032">The <i>diaulos</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">32</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i033">Etruscan <i>cornu</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">33</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i034">Hydraulic organ</a></td> - <td class="tdr">34</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i036a">Roman girl and <i>tibia</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">36</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i036b">Roman trumpets</a></td> - <td class="tdr">36</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i039">Chinese king</a></td> - <td class="tdr">39</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i041">Chinese pien-tchung</a></td> - <td class="tdr">41</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i042">Chinese hiuen-tchung</a></td> - <td class="tdr">42</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i043a">Chinese ou</a></td> - <td class="tdr">43</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i043b">Chinese tchou</a></td> - <td class="tdr">43</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i044">Chinese kin-kou</a></td> - <td class="tdr">44</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i045">Chinese hiuen</a></td> - <td class="tdr">45</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i046">Chinese cheng</a></td> - <td class="tdr">46<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">vi</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i049">Hindustan, vina</a></td> - <td class="tdr">49</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i051">Persian, chang</a></td> - <td class="tdr">51</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i052">Persian, bagpipe</a></td> - <td class="tdr">52</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i053">Turkish harp</a></td> - <td class="tdr">53</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i055">Persian dulcimer</a></td> - <td class="tdr">55</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i056">The <i>rebab</i></a></td> - <td class="tdr">56</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i060">Aztec whistles</a></td> - <td class="tdr">60</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i061a">Antique pipe from central America</a></td> - <td class="tdr">61</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i062b">Pipes of the Aztecs</a></td> - <td class="tdr">62</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i064">Peruvian bone pipe</a></td> - <td class="tdr">64</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i065a">Peruvian huayra-puhura</a></td> - <td class="tdr">65</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i066a">Peruvian huayra-puhura</a></td> - <td class="tdr">66</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i067">Orinoco Indian trumpet</a></td> - <td class="tdr">67</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i068">South American Juruparis</a></td> - <td class="tdr">68</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i070">Indian trumpets</a></td> - <td class="tdr">70</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i072">Aztec drums</a></td> - <td class="tdr">72</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i073">San Domingo drum</a></td> - <td class="tdr">73</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i075">Peruvian bell</a></td> - <td class="tdr">75</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i076">Aztec cluster of bells</a></td> - <td class="tdr">76</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i086a">Cithara, ninth century</a></td> - <td class="tdr">86</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i087a">Psalterium</a></td> - <td class="tdr">87</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i087b">Nablum</a></td> - <td class="tdr">87</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i088">Citole</a></td> - <td class="tdr">88</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i089">Anglo-saxon harp</a></td> - <td class="tdr">89</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i090">Harp, ninth century</a></td> - <td class="tdr">90</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i091a">Ancient Irish harp</a></td> - <td class="tdr">91</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i091b">German rotte</a></td> - <td class="tdr">91</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i092">Rotta</a></td> - <td class="tdr">92</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i093">Irish rotta</a></td> - <td class="tdr">93</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i094">The crwth</a></td> - <td class="tdr">94</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i095">The old English “crowd”</a></td> - <td class="tdr">95<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">vii</span></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i096">The French crout</a></td> - <td class="tdr">96</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i097a">Anglo-saxon fiddle</a></td> - <td class="tdr">97</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i097b">German fiddle, ninth century</a></td> - <td class="tdr">97</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i099">Organistrum</a></td> - <td class="tdr">99</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i100">Monochord</a></td> - <td class="tdr">100</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i101a">Single chorus</a></td> - <td class="tdr">101</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i101b">Double chorus</a></td> - <td class="tdr">101</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i101c">Sackbut</a></td> - <td class="tdr">101</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i102">Syrinx</a></td> - <td class="tdr">102</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i103">Pneumatic organ, fourth century</a></td> - <td class="tdr">103</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i104a">Organ, twelfth century</a></td> - <td class="tdr">104</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i104b">Regal</a></td> - <td class="tdr">104</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i105">Cymbalum, ninth century</a></td> - <td class="tdr">105</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i106">Bunibulum</a></td> - <td class="tdr">106</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i108">Orchestra on bas-relief</a></td> - <td class="tdr">108</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i109a">Vielle</a></td> - <td class="tdr">109</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i110">Orchestra, twelfth century, at Santiago</a></td> - <td class="tdr">110</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i112">The minstrels’ gallery, at Exeter cathedral</a></td> - <td class="tdr">112</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i114">Virginal</a></td> - <td class="tdr">114</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i116">Lute, Elizabethan</a></td> - <td class="tdr">116</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i118">Viola da gamba</a></td> - <td class="tdr">118</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i119">Recorder</a></td> - <td class="tdr">119</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i120">Scotch bagpipe, eighteenth century</a></td> - <td class="tdr">120</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i121">Irish bagpipe, sixteenth century</a></td> - <td class="tdr">121</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td><a href="#i122">Carillon, Netherlands</a></td> - <td class="tdr">122</td> - </tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">viii</span><br /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">1</span></p> - -<p class="ph1">MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.</p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</h2> - -<p>Music, in however primitive a stage of development it may be -with some nations, is universally appreciated as one of the Fine -Arts. The origin of vocal music may have been coeval with that -of language; and the construction of musical instruments evidently -dates with the earliest inventions which suggested themselves to -human ingenuity. There exist even at the present day some savage -tribes in Australia and South America who, although they have -no more than the five first numerals in their language and are -thereby unable to count the fingers of both hands together, nevertheless -possess musical instruments of their own contrivance, with -which they accompany their songs and dances.</p> - -<p>Wood, metal, and the hide of animals, are the most common -substances used in the construction of musical instruments. In -tropical countries bamboo or some similar kind of cane and gourds -are especially made use of for this purpose. The ingenuity of man -has contrived to employ in producing music, horn, bone, glass, -pottery, slabs of sonorous stone,—in fact, almost all vibrating -matter. The strings of instruments have been made of the -hair of animals, of silk, the runners of creeping plants, the fibrous -roots of certain trees, of cane, catgut (which absurdly referred -to the cat, is from the sheep, goat, lamb, camel, and some other -animals), metal, &c.</p> - -<p>The mode in which individual nations or tribes are in the habit -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">2</span> -of embellishing their musical instruments is sometimes as characteristic -as it is singular. The negroes in several districts of western -Africa affix to their drums human skulls. A war-trumpet of the -king of Ashantee which was brought to England is surrounded -by human jawbones. The Maories in New Zealand carve around -the mouth-hole of their trumpets a figure intended, it is said, to -represent female lips. The materials for ornamentation chiefly -employed by savages are bright colours, beads, shells, grasses, the -bark of trees, feathers, stones, gilding, pieces of looking-glass -inlaid like mosaic, &c. Uncivilized nations are sure to consider -anything which is bright and glittering ornamental, especially if it -is also scarce. Captain Tuckey saw in Congo a negro instrument -which was ornamented with part of the broken frame of a looking-glass, -to which were affixed in a semicircle a number of brass -buttons with the head of Louis XVI. on them,—perhaps a relic of -some French sailor drowned near the coast years ago.</p> - -<p>Again, musical instruments are not unfrequently formed in the -shape of certain animals. Thus, a kind of harmonicon of the -Chinese represents the figure of a crouching tiger. The Burmese -possess a stringed instrument in the shape of an alligator. Even -more grotesque are the imitations of various beasts adopted by the -Javanese. The natives of New Guinea have a singularly shaped -drum, terminating in the head of a reptile. A wooden rattle like -a bird is a favourite instrument of the Indians of Nootka Sound. -In short, not only the inner construction of the instruments and -their peculiar quality of sound exhibit in most nations certain -distinctive characteristics, but it is also in great measure true as -to their outward appearance.</p> - -<p>An arrangement of the various kinds of musical instruments in -a regular order, beginning with that kind which is the most universally -known and progressing gradually to the least usual, gives -the following results. Instruments of percussion of indefinite -sonorousness or, in other words, pulsatile instruments which have -not a sound of a fixed pitch, as the drum, rattle, castanets, &c., -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">3</span> -are most universal. Wind instruments of the flute kind,—including -pipes, whistles, flutes, Pandean pipes, &c.—are also to be found -almost everywhere.</p> - -<p>Much the same is the case with wind instruments of the trumpet -kind. These are often made of the horns, bones, and tusks of -animals; frequently of vegetable substances and of metal. Instruments -of percussion of definite sonorousness are chiefly met with -in China, Japan, Burmah, Siam, and Java. They not unfrequently -contain a series of tones produced by slabs of wood or metal, -which are beaten with a sort of hammer, as our harmonicon is -played.</p> - -<p>Stringed instruments without a finger board, or any similar contrivance -which enables the performer to produce a number of -different tones on one string, are generally found among nations -whose musical accomplishments have emerged from the earliest -state of infancy. The strings are twanged with the fingers or with -a piece of wood, horn, metal, or any other suitable substance -serving as a <i>plectrum</i>; or are made to vibrate by being beaten -with a hammer, as our dulcimer. Stringed instruments provided -with a finger-board on which different tones are producible on one -string by the performer shortening it more or less,—as on the -guitar and violin,—are met with almost exclusively among nations -in a somewhat advanced stage of musical progress. Such as are -played with a bow are the least common; they are, however, -known to the Chinese, Japanese, Hindus, Persians, Arabs, and a -few other nations, besides those of Europe and their descendants -in other countries.</p> - -<p>Wind instruments of the organ kind,—<i>i.e.</i>, such as are constructed -of a number of tubes which can be sounded together by -means of a common mouthpiece or some similar contrivance, and -upon which therefore chords and combinations of chords, or -harmony, can be produced,—are comparatively of rare occurrence. -Some interesting specimens of them exist in China, Japan, Laos, -and Siam. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">4</span></p> - -<p>Besides these various kinds of sound-producing means employed -in musical performances, a few others less widely diffused could -be pointed out, which are of a construction not represented in any -of our well-known European specimens. For instance, some -nations have peculiar instruments of friction, which can hardly be -classed with our instruments of percussion. Again, there are contrivances -in which a number of strings are caused to vibrate by a -current of air, much as is the case with the Æolian harp; which -might with equal propriety be considered either as stringed instruments -or as wind instruments. In short, our usual classification of -all the various species into three distinct divisions, viz. <i>Stringed -Instruments</i>, <i>Wind Instruments</i>, and <i>Instruments of Percussion</i>, is -not tenable if we extend our researches over the whole globe.</p> - -<p>The collection at South Kensington contains several foreign -instruments which cannot fail to prove interesting to the musician. -Recent investigations have more and more elicited the fact that -the music of every nation exhibits some distinctive characteristics -which may afford valuable hints to a composer or performer. A -familiarity with the popular songs of different countries is advisable -on account of the remarkable originality of the airs: these mostly -spring from the heart. Hence the natural and true expression, the -delightful health and vigour by which they are generally distinguished. -Our more artificial compositions are, on the other hand, -not unfrequently deficient in these charms, because they often -emanate from the fingers or the pen rather than from the heart. -Howbeit, the predominance of expressive melody and effective -rhythm over harmonious combinations, so usual in the popular -compositions of various nations, would alone suffice to recommend -them to the careful attention of our modern musicians. The same -may be said with regard to the surprising variety in construction -and in manner of expression prevailing in the popular songs -and dance-tunes of different countries. Indeed, every nation’s -musical effusions exhibit a character peculiarly their own, with which -the musician would find it advantageous to familiarize himself. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">5</span></p> - -<p>Now, it will easily be understood that an acquaintance with the -musical instruments of a nation conveys a more correct idea than -could otherwise be obtained of the characteristic features of the -nation’s musical compositions. Furthermore, in many instances -the construction of the instruments reveals to us the nature of the -musical intervals, scales, modulations, and suchlike noteworthy -facts. True, inquiries like these have hitherto not received from -musicians the attention which they deserve. The adepts in most -other arts are in this respect in advance. They are convinced that -useful information may be gathered by investigating the productions -even of uncivilized nations, and by thus tracing the gradual -progress of an art from its primitive infancy to its highest degree -of development.</p> - -<p>Again, from an examination of the musical instruments of -foreign nations we may derive valuable hints for the improvement -of our own; or even for the invention of new. Several -principles of construction have thus been adopted by us from -eastern nations. For instance, the <i>free reed</i> used in the harmonium -is an importation from China. The organ builder Kratzenstein, -who lived in St. Petersburg during the reign of Catharine II., -happened to see the Chinese instrument <i>cheng</i>, which is of this -construction, and it suggested to him, about the end of the last -century, to apply the <i>free reed</i> to certain organ stops. At the present -day instruments of the harmonium class have become such -universal favourites in western Europe as almost to compete with -the pianoforte.</p> - -<p>Several other well-authenticated instances could be cited in -which one instrument has suggested the construction of another -of a superior kind. The prototype of our pianoforte was evidently -the dulcimer, known at an early time to the Arabs and Persians -who call it <i>santir</i>. One of the old names given to the dulcimer -by European nations is <i>cimbal</i>. The Poles at the present day -call it <i>cymbaly</i>, and the Magyars in Hungary <i>cimbalom</i>. The -<i>clavicembalo</i>, the predecessor of the pianoforte, was in fact nothing -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">6</span> -but a <i>cembalo</i> with a key-board attached to it; and some of the -old <i>clavicembali</i>, still preserved, exhibit the trapezium shape, the -round hole in the middle of the sound-board, and other peculiarities -of the first dulcimer. Again, the gradual development of -the dulcimer from a rude contrivance, consisting merely of a -wooden board across which a few strings are stretched, is distinctly -traceable by a reference to the musical instruments of -nations in different stages of civilization. The same is the case -with our highly perfected harp, of which curious specimens, representing -the instrument in its most primitive condition, are still to -be found among several barbarous tribes. We might perhaps -infer from its shape that it originally consisted of nothing more -than an elastic stick bent by a string. The Damaras, a native -tribe of South-western Africa, actually use their bow occasionally -as a musical instrument, when they are not engaged in war or in -the chase. They tighten the string nearly in the middle by means -of a leathern thong, whereby they obtain two distinct sounds, -which, for want of a sound-board, are of course very weak and -scarcely audible to anyone but the performer. Some neighbouring -tribes, however, possess a musical instrument very similar in -appearance to the bow, to which they attach a gourd, hollowed -and open at the top, which serves as a sound-board. Again, other -African tribes have a similar instrument, superior in construction -only inasmuch as it contains more than one string, and is provided -with a sound-board consisting of a suitable piece of -sonorous wood. In short, the more improved we find these -contrivances the closer they approach our harp. And it could be -shown if this were requisite for our present purpose that much -the same gradual progress towards perfection, which we observe -in the African harp, is traceable in the harps of several nations in -different parts of the world.</p> - -<p>Moreover, a collection of musical instruments deserves the -attention of the ethnologist as much as of the musician. Indeed, -this may be asserted of national music in general; for it gives us -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">7</span> -an insight into the heart of man, reveals to us the feelings and -predilections of different races on the globe, and affords us a clue -to the natural affinity which exists between different families of -men. Again, a collection must prove interesting in a historical -point of view. Scholars will find among old instruments specimens -which were in common use in England at the time of queen Elizabeth, -and which are not unfrequently mentioned in the literature -of that period. In many instances the passages in which allusion -is made to them can hardly be understood, if we are unacquainted -with the shape and construction of the instruments. Furthermore, -these relics of bygone times bring before our eyes the manners -and customs of our forefathers, and assist us in understanding -them correctly.</p> - -<p>It will be seen that the modification which our orchestra has -undergone, in the course of scarcely more than a century, is great -indeed. Most of the instruments which were highly popular about -a hundred years ago have either fallen into disuse or are now so -much altered that they may almost be considered as new inventions. -Among Asiatic nations, on the other hand, we meet with -several instruments which have retained unchanged through many -centuries their old construction and outward appearance. At -South Kensington may be seen instruments still in use in Egypt -and western Asia, precisely like specimens represented on monuments -dating from a period of three thousand years ago. By a -reference to the eastern instruments of the present time we obtain -therefore a key for investigating the earlier Egyptian and Assyrian -representations of musical performances; and, likewise, for appreciating -more exactly the biblical records respecting the music of -the Hebrews. Perhaps these evidences will convey to some -inquirers a less high opinion than they have hitherto entertained, -regarding the musical accomplishments of the Hebrew bands in -the solemn processions of king David or in Solomon’s temple; -but the opinion will be all the nearer to the truth.</p> - -<p>There is another point of interest about such collections, and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">8</span> -especially that at South Kensington, which must not be left -unnoticed. Several instruments are remarkable on account of -their elegant shape and tasteful ornamentation. This is particularly -the case with some specimens from Asiatic countries. -The beautiful designs with which they are embellished may afford -valuable patterns for study and for adoption in works of art. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">9</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</h2> - -<p>A really complete account of all the musical instruments from -the earliest time known to us would require much more space than -can here be afforded. We can attempt only a concise historical -survey. We venture to hope that the illustrations interspersed -throughout the text will to the intelligent reader elucidate many -facts which, for the reason stated, are touched upon but cursorily.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Pre-historic Relics.</span></h3> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i009" src="images/i009.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>A musical relic has recently been exhumed in the department -of Dordogne in France, which was constructed in an age when -the fauna of France included the reindeer, the rhinoceros, and the -mammoth, the hyæna, the bear, and the cave-lion. It is a small -bone somewhat less than two inches in length, in which is a hole, -evidently bored by means -of one of the little flint -knives which men used -before acquaintance with -the employment of metal -for tools and weapons. -Many of these flints were found in the same place with the bones. -Only about half a dozen of the bones, of which a considerable -number have been exhumed, possess the artificial hole. We -give a woodcut of one of them.</p> - -<p>M. Lartet surmises the perforated bone to have been used as a -whistle in hunting animals. It is the first digital phalanx of a -ruminant, drilled to a certain depth by a smooth cylindrical bore -on its lower surface near the expanded upper articulation. On -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">10</span> -applying it to the lower lip and blowing into it a shrill sound is -yielded. Three of these phalanges are of reindeer, one is of -Chamois. Again, among the relics which have been brought to -light from the cave of Lombrive, in the department of Ariège, -occur several eye-teeth of the dog which have a hole drilled into -them near the root. Probably they also yield sounds like those -reindeer bones, or like the tube of a key. Another whistle—or -rather a pipe, for it has three finger-holes by means of which -different tones could be produced—was found in a burying-place, -dating from the stone period, in the vicinity of Poitiers in France: -it is rudely constructed from a fragment of stag’s-horn. It is -blown at the end, like a <i>flûte à bec</i> and the three finger-holes are -placed equidistantly. Four distinct tones must have been easily -obtainable on it: the lowest, when all the finger-holes were -covered; the other three, by opening the finger-holes successively. -From the character of the stone utensils and weapons discovered -with this pipe it is conjectured that the burying-place from which -it was exhumed dates from the latest time of the stone age. -Therefore, however old it may be, it is a more recent contrivance -than the reindeer-bone whistle from the cavern of the Dordogne.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Ancient Egyptians.</span></h3> - -<p>The most ancient nations historically known possessed musical -instruments which, though in acoustic construction greatly inferior -to our own, exhibit a degree of perfection which could have been -attained only after a long period of cultivation. Many tribes of -the present day have not yet reached this stage of musical progress.</p> - -<p>As regards the instruments of the ancient Egyptians we now -possess perhaps more detailed information than of those appertaining -to any other nation of antiquity. This information we -owe especially to the exactness with which the instruments are -depicted in sculptures and paintings. Whoever has examined -these interesting monuments with even ordinary care cannot but -be convinced that the representations which they exhibit are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">11</span> -faithful transcripts from life. Moreover, if there remained any -doubt respecting the accuracy of the representations of the musical -instruments it might be dispelled by existing evidence. Several -specimens have been discovered in tombs preserved in a more -or less perfect condition.</p> - -<p>The Egyptians possessed various kinds of harps, some of which -were elegantly shaped and tastefully ornamented. The largest -were about six and a half feet high; and the small ones frequently -had some sort of stand which enabled the performer to play upon -the instrument while standing. The name of the harp was <i>buni</i>. -Its frame had no front pillar; the tension of the strings therefore -cannot have been anything like so strong as on our present harp.</p> - -<p>The Egyptian harps most remarkable for elegance of form and -elaborate decoration are the two which were first noticed by -Bruce, who found them painted in fresco on the wall of a sepulchre -at Thebes, supposed to be the tomb of Rameses III. who reigned -about 1250 <small>B.C.</small> Bruce’s discovery created sensation among the -musicians. The fact that at so remote an age the Egyptians -should have possessed harps which vie with our own in elegance -and beauty of form appeared to some so incredible that the -correctness of Bruce’s representations, as engraved in his “Travels,” -was greatly doubted. Sketches of the same harps, taken subsequently -and at different times from the frescoes, have since been -published, but they differ more or less from each other in appearance -and in the number of strings. A kind of triangular harp of -the Egyptians was discovered in a well-preserved condition and -is now deposited in the Louvre. It has twenty-one strings; a -greater number than is generally represented on the monuments. -All these instruments, however much they differed from each -other in form, had one peculiarity in common, namely the -absence of the fore pillar.</p> - -<p>The <i>nofre</i>, a kind of guitar, was almost identical in construction -with the Tamboura at the present day in use among several -eastern nations. It was evidently a great favourite with the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">12</span> -ancient Egyptians. A figure of it is found among their hieroglyphs, -signifying “good.” It occurs in representations of concerts -dating earlier than from <small>B.C.</small> 1500. The <i>nofre</i> affords the -best proof that the Egyptians had made considerable progress in -music at a very early age; since it shows that they understood -how to produce on a few strings, by means of the finger-board, -a greater number of notes than were obtainable even on their -harps. The instrument had two or four strings, was played with -a plectrum and appears to have been sometimes, if not always, -provided with frets. In the British museum is a fragment of a -fresco obtained from a tomb at Thebes, on which two female -performers on the <i>nofre</i> are represented. The painter has distinctly -indicated the frets.</p> - -<p>Small pipes of the Egyptians have been discovered, made of -reed, with three, four, five, or more finger-holes. There are some -interesting examples in the British museum; one of which has -seven holes burnt in at the side. Two straws were found with it -of nearly the same length as the pipe, which is about one foot -long. In some other pipes pieces of a kind of thick straw have -also been found inserted into the tube, obviously serving for a -similar purpose as the <i>reed</i> in our oboe or clarionet.</p> - -<p>The <i>sêbi</i>, a single flute, was of considerable length, and the -performer appears to have been obliged to extend his arms almost -at full length in order to reach the furthest finger-hole. As <i>sêbi</i> -is also the name of the leg-bone (like the Latin <i>tibia</i>) it may be -supposed that the Egyptian flute was originally made of bone. -Those, however, which have been found are of wood or reed.</p> - -<p>A flute-concert is painted on one of the tombs in the pyramids -of Gizeh and dates, according to Lepsius, from an age earlier -than <small>B.C.</small> 2000. Eight musicians (as seen in the woodcut) are -performing on flutes. Three of them, one behind the other, are -kneeling and holding their flutes in exactly the same manner. -Facing these are three others, in a precisely similar position. -A seventh is sitting on the ground to the left of the six, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">13</span> -with his back turned towards -them, but also in the act of -blowing his flute, like the -others. An eighth is standing -at the right side of the group -with his face turned towards -them, holding his flute before -him with both hands, as if he -were going to put it to his -mouth, or had just left off -playing. He is clothed, while -the others have only a narrow -girdle round their loins. Perhaps -he is the director of this -singular band, or the <i>solo</i> performer -who is waiting for the -termination of the <i>tutti</i> before -renewing his part of the performance. -The division of -the players into two sets, -facing each other, suggests -the possibility that the instruments -were classed somewhat -like the first and second violins, -or the <i>flauto primo</i> and -<i>flauto secondo</i> of our orchestras. -The occasional employment -of the interval of the -third, or the fifth, as accompaniment -to the melody, is -not unusual even with nations -less advanced in music -than were the ancient Egyptians.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i013" src="images/i013.jpg" alt="" /> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">14</span></div> - -<p>The Double-Pipe, called <i>mam</i>, appears to have been a very -popular instrument, if we judge from the frequency of its occurrence -in the representations of musical performances. Furthermore, -the Egyptians had, as far as is known to us, two kinds of -trumpets; three kinds of tambourines, or little hand drums; -three kinds of drums, chiefly barrel-shaped; and various kinds of -gongs, bells, cymbals, and castanets. The trumpet appears to -have been usually of brass. A peculiar wind-instrument, somewhat -the shape of a champagne bottle and perhaps made of -pottery or wood, occurs only once in the representations transmitted -to us.</p> - -<p>The Egyptian drum was from two to three feet in length, -covered with parchment at both ends and braced by cords. The -performer carried it before him, generally by means of a band -over his shoulder, while he was beating it with his hands on both -ends. Of another kind of drum an actual specimen has been -found in the excavations made in the year 1823 at Thebes. It -was 1½ feet high and 2 feet broad, and had cords for bracing it. -A piece of catgut encircled each end of the drum, being wound -round each cord, by means of which the cords could be tightened -or slackened at pleasure by pushing the two bands of catgut -towards or from each other. It was beaten with two drumsticks -slightly bent. The Egyptians had also straight drumsticks with -a handle, and a knob at the end. The Berlin museum possesses -some of these. The third kind of drum was almost identical -with the <i>darabouka</i> (or <i>darabukkeh</i>) of the modern Egyptians. -The Tambourine was either round, like that which is at the -present time in use in Europe as well as in the east; or it was -of an oblong square shape, slightly incurved on the four sides.</p> - -<p>The Sistrum consisted of a frame of bronze or brass into which -three or four metal bars were loosely inserted, so as to produce a -jingling noise when the instrument was shaken. The bars were -often made in the form of snakes, or they terminated in the head -of a goose. Not unfrequently a few metal rings were strung on -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">15</span> -the bars, to increase the noise. The frame was sometimes ornamented -with the figure of a cat. The largest sistra which have -been found are about eighteen inches in length, and the smallest -about nine inches. The sistrum was principally used by females -in religious performances. Its Egyptian name was <i>seshesh</i>.</p> - -<p>The Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own in shape. -There are two pairs of them in the British museum. One pair -was found in a coffin enclosing the mummy of a sacred musician, -and is deposited in the same case with the mummy and coffin. -Among the Egyptian antiquities in the British museum are also -several small bells of bronze. The largest is 2¼ inches in height, -and the smallest three-quarters of an inch. Some of them have -a hole at the side near the top wherein the clapper was fastened. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">16</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</h2> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Assyrians.</span></h3> - -<p>Our acquaintance with the Assyrian instruments has been -derived almost entirely from the famous bas-reliefs which have -been excavated from the mounds of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and -Kouyunjik, situated near the river Tigris in the vicinity of the -town of Mosul in Asiatic Turkey.</p> - -<p>The Assyrian harp was about four feet high, and appears of -larger size than it actually was on account of the ornamental -appendages which were affixed to the lower part of its frame. It -must have been but light in weight, since we find it not unfrequently -represented in the hands of persons who are playing upon -it while they are dancing. Like all the Oriental harps, modern -as well as ancient, it was not provided with a front pillar. The -upper portion of the frame contained the sound-holes, somewhat -in the shape of an hour-glass. Below them were the screws, or -tuning-pegs, arranged in regular order. The strings were perhaps -made of silk, like those which the Burmese use at the present -time on their harps; or they may have been of catgut, which was -used by the ancient Egyptians.</p> - -<p>The largest assemblage of Assyrian musicians which has been -discovered on any monument consists of eleven performers upon -instruments, besides a chorus of singers. The first musician—probably -the leader of the band, as he marches alone at the head -of the procession—is playing upon a harp. Behind him are two -men; one with a dulcimer and the other with a double-pipe: -then follow two men with harps. Next come six female musicians, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">17</span> -four of whom are playing upon harps, while one is blowing a -double-pipe and another is beating a small hand-drum covered -only at the top. Close behind the instrumental performers are -the singers, consisting of a chorus of females and children. They -are clapping their hands in time with the music, and some of the -musicians are dancing to the measure. One of the female singers -is holding her hand to her throat in the same manner as the -women in Syria, Arabia, and Persia are in the habit of doing at -the present day when producing, on festive occasions, those peculiarly -shrill sounds of rejoicing which have been repeatedly noticed -by travellers.</p> - -<p>The dulcimer is in too imperfect a state on the bas-relief to -familiarize us with its construction. The slab representing the -procession in which it occurs has been injured; the defect which -extended over a portion of the dulcimer has been repaired, and -it cannot be said that in repairing it much musical knowledge has -been evinced.</p> - -<p>The instrument of the Trigonon species was held horizontally, -and was twanged with a rather long plectrum slightly bent at the -end at which it was held by the performer. It is of frequent -occurrence on the bas-reliefs. A number of them appear to have -been generally played together. At any rate, we find almost -invariably on the monuments two together, evidently implying -“more than one,” “a number.” The left hand of the performer -seems to have been occupied in checking the vibration of the -strings when its discontinuance was required. From the position -of the strings the performer could not have struck them as those -of the dulcimer are struck. If he did not twang them, he may -have drawn the plectrum across them. Indeed, for twanging, a -short plectrum would have been more practical, considering that -the strings are placed horizontally one above the other at regular -distances. It is therefore by no means improbable that we have -here a rude prototype of the violin bow.</p> - -<p>The Lyre occurs in three different forms, and is held horizontally -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">18</span> -in playing, or at least nearly so. Its front bar was generally -either oblique or slightly curved. The strings were tied round the -bar so as to allow of their being pushed upwards or downwards. -In the former case the tension of the strings increases, and the -notes become therefore higher; on the other hand, if the strings -are pushed lower down the pitch of the notes must become -deeper. The lyre was played with a small plectrum as well as -with the fingers.</p> - -<p>The Assyrian trumpet was very similar to the Egyptian. -Furthermore, we meet with three kinds of drums, of which one is -especially noteworthy on account of its odd shape, somewhat -resembling a sugar-loaf; with the tambourine; with two kinds of -cymbals; and with bells, of which a considerable number have -been found in the mound of Nimroud. These bells, which have -greatly withstood the devastation of time, are but small in size, -the largest of them being only 3¼ inches in height and 2½ inches -in diameter. Most of them have a hole at the top, in which -probably the clapper was fastened. They are made of copper -mixed with 14 per cent. of tin.</p> - -<p>Instrumental music was used by the Assyrians and Babylonians -in their religious observances. This is obvious from the sculptures, -and is to some extent confirmed by the mode of worship -paid by command of king Nebuchadnezzar to the golden image: -“Then an herald cried aloud, To you it is commanded, O people, -nations, and languages, that at what time ye hear the sound of -the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds -of musick, ye fall down and worship the golden image that -Nebuchadnezzar the king hath set up.” The kings appear to -have maintained at their courts musical bands, whose office it was -to perform secular music at certain times of the day or on fixed -occasions. Of king Darius we are told that, when he had cast -Daniel into the den of lions, he “went to his palace, and passed -the night fasting, neither were instruments of musick brought -before him;” from which we may conclude that his band was in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">19</span> -the habit of playing before him in the evening. A similar custom -prevailed also at the court of Jerusalem, at least in the time of -David and Solomon; both of whom appear to have had their -royal private bands, besides a large number of singers and instrumental -performers of sacred music who were engaged in the -Temple.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Hebrews.</span></h3> - -<p>As regards the musical instruments of the Hebrews, we are from -biblical records acquainted with the names of many of them; but -representations to be trusted are still wanting, and it is chiefly from -an examination of the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian instruments -that we can conjecture almost to a certainty their construction -and capabilities. From various indications, which it would be -too circumstantial here to point out, we believe the Hebrews to -have possessed the following instruments:</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Harp.</span> There cannot be a doubt that the Hebrews possessed -the harp, seeing that it was a common instrument among -the Egyptians and Assyrians. But it is uncertain which of the -Hebrew names of the stringed instruments occurring in the Bible -really designates the harp.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Dulcimer.</span> Some writers on Hebrew music consider the -<i>nebel</i> to have been a kind of dulcimer; others conjecture the same -of the <i>psanterin</i> mentioned in the book of Daniel,—a name which -appears to be synonymous with the <i>psalterion</i> of the Greeks, and -from which also the present oriental dulcimer, <i>santir</i>, may have -been derived. Some of the instruments mentioned in the book of -Daniel may have been synonymous with some which occur in -other parts of the Bible under Hebrew names; the names given -in Daniel being Chaldæan. The <i>asor</i> was a ten-stringed instrument -played with a plectrum, and is supposed to have borne some -resemblance to the <i>nebel</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Lyre.</span> This instrument is represented on some Hebrew -coins generally ascribed to Judas Maccabæus, who lived in the -second century before the Christian era. There are several of them -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">20</span> -in the British museum; some are of silver, and the others of -copper. On three of them are lyres with three strings, another -has one with five, and another one with six strings. The two -sides of the frame appear to have been made of the horns of -animals, or they may have been of wood formed in imitation of -two horns which originally were used. Lyres thus constructed -are still found in Abyssinia. The Hebrew square-shaped lyre of -the time of Simon Maccabæus is probably identical with the -<i>psalterion</i>. The <i>kinnor</i>, the favourite instrument of king David, -was most likely a lyre if not a small triangular harp. The lyre -was evidently an universally known and favoured instrument -among ancient eastern nations. Being more simple in construction -than most other stringed instruments it undoubtedly preceded -them in antiquity. The <i>kinnor</i> is mentioned in the Bible -as the oldest stringed instrument, and as the invention of Jubal. -Even if the name of one particular stringed instrument is here -used for stringed instruments in general, which may possibly be -the case, it is only reasonable to suppose that the oldest and most -universally known stringed instrument would be mentioned as a -representative of the whole class rather than any other. Besides, -the <i>kinnor</i> was a light and easily portable instrument; king David, -according to the Rabbinic records, used to suspend it during the -night over his pillow. All its uses mentioned in the Bible are -especially applicable to the lyre. And the resemblance of the -word <i>kinnor</i> to <i>kithara</i>, <i>kissar</i>, and similar names known to denote -the lyre, also tends to confirm the supposition that it refers to -this instrument. It is, however, not likely that the instruments -of the Hebrews—indeed their music altogether—should have -remained entirely unchanged during a period of many centuries. -Some modifications were likely to occur even from accidental -causes; such, for instance, as the influence of neighbouring -nations when the Hebrews came into closer contact with them. -Thus may be explained why the accounts of the Hebrew instruments -given by Josephus, who lived in the first century of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">21</span> -Christian era, are not in exact accordance with those in the Bible. -The lyres at the time of Simon Maccabæus may probably be -different from those which were in use about a thousand years -earlier, or at the time of David and Solomon when the art of -music with the Hebrews was at its zenith.</p> - -<p>There appears to be a probability that a Hebrew lyre of the -time of Joseph (about 1700 <small>B.C.</small>) is represented on an ancient -Egyptian painting discovered in a tomb at Beni Hassan,—which -is the name of certain grottoes on the eastern bank of the Nile. -Sir Gardner Wilkinson, in his “Manners and Customs of the -Ancient Egyptians,” observes: “If, when we become better -acquainted with the interpretation of hieroglyphics, the ‘Strangers’ -at Beni Hassan should prove to be the arrival of Jacob’s family in -Egypt, we may examine the Jewish lyre drawn by an Egyptian -artist. That this event took place about the period when the -inmate of the tomb lived is highly probable—at least, if I am -correct in considering Osirtasen I. to be the Pharaoh the patron -of Joseph; and it remains for us to decide whether the disagreement -in the number of persons here introduced—thirty-seven -being written over them in hieroglyphics—is a sufficient objection -to their identity. It will not be foreign to the present subject -to introduce those figures which are curious, if only considered as -illustrative of ancient customs at that early period, and which will -be looked upon with unbounded interest should they ever be -found to refer to the Jews. The first figure is an Egyptian scribe, -who presents an account of their arrival to a person seated, the -owner of the tomb, and one of the principal officers of the -reigning Pharaoh. The next, also an Egyptian, ushers them into -his presence; and two advance bringing presents, the wild goat -or ibex and the gazelle, the productions of their country. Four -men, carrying bows and clubs, follow, leading an ass on which -two children are placed in panniers, accompanied by a boy and -four women; and, last of all, another ass laden, and two men—one -holding a bow and club, the other a lyre, which he plays with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">22</span> -a plectrum. All the men have beards, contrary to the custom of -the Egyptians, but very general in the East at that period, and -noticed as a peculiarity of foreign uncivilized nations throughout -their sculptures. The men have sandals, the women a sort of -boot reaching to the ankle—both which were worn by many -Asiatic people. The lyre is rude, and differs in form from those -generally used in Egypt.” In the engraving the lyre-player, -another man, and some strange animals from this group, are -represented.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i022" src="images/i022.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Tamboura.</span> <i>Minnim</i>, <i>machalath</i>, and <i>nebel</i> are usually -supposed to be the names of instruments of the lute or guitar -kind. <i>Minnim</i>, however, appears more likely to imply stringed -instruments in general than any particular instrument.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Single Pipe.</span> <i>Chalil</i> and <i>nekeb</i> were the names of the -Hebrew pipes or flutes.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Double Pipe.</span> Probably the <i>mishrokitha</i> mentioned in -Daniel. The <i>mishrokitha</i> is represented in the drawings of our -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">23</span> -histories of music as a small organ, consisting of seven pipes -placed in a box with a mouthpiece for blowing. But the shape -of the pipes and of the box as well as the row of keys for the -fingers exhibited in the representation of the <i>mishrokitha</i> have too -much of the European type not to suggest that they are probably -a product of the imagination. Respecting the illustrations of -Hebrew instruments which usually accompany historical treatises -on music and commentaries on the Bible, it ought to be borne in -mind that most of them are merely the offspring of conjectures -founded on some obscure hints in the Bible, or vague accounts by -the Rabbins.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Syrinx or Pandean Pipe.</span> Probably the <i>ugab</i>, which in -the English authorized version of the Bible is rendered “organ.”</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Bagpipe.</span> The word <i>sumphonia</i>, which occurs in the book -of Daniel, is, by Forkel and others, supposed to denote a bagpipe. -It is remarkable that at the present day the bagpipe is called by -the Italian peasantry Zampogna. Another Hebrew instrument, -the <i>magrepha</i>, generally described as an organ, was more likely -only a kind of bagpipe. The <i>magrepha</i> is not mentioned in the -Bible but is described in the Talmud. In tract Erachin it is -recorded to have been a powerful organ which stood in the temple -at Jerusalem, and consisted of a case or wind-chest, with ten -holes, containing ten pipes. Each pipe was capable of emitting -ten different sounds, by means of finger-holes or some similar -contrivance: thus one hundred different sounds could be produced -on this instrument. Further, the <i>magrepha</i> is said to have -been provided with two pairs of bellows and with ten keys, by -means of which it was played with the fingers. Its tone was, -according to the Rabbinic accounts, so loud that it could be -heard at an incredibly long distance from the temple. Authorities -so widely differ that we must leave it uncertain whether the much-lauded -<i>magrepha</i> was a bagpipe, an organ, or a kettle-drum. Of -the real nature of the Hebrew bagpipe perhaps some idea may be -formed from a syrinx with bellows, which has been found represented -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">24</span> -on one of the ancient terra-cottas excavated in Tarsus, -Asia-minor, some years since, and here engraved. These -remains are believed to be -about 2000 years old, judging -from the figures upon -them, and from some coins -struck about 200 years <small>B.C.</small> -having been found embedded -with them. We have -therefore before us, probably, -the oldest representation -of a bagpipe -hitherto discovered.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i024" src="images/i024.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Trumpet.</span> Three kinds are mentioned in the Bible, viz. -the <i>keren</i>, the <i>shophar</i>, and the <i>chatzozerah</i>. The first two were -more or less curved and might properly be considered as horns. -Most commentators are of opinion that the <i>keren</i>—made of ram’s -horn—was almost identical with the <i>shophar</i>, the only difference -being that the latter was more curved than the former. The -<i>shophar</i> is especially remarkable as being the only Hebrew -musical instrument which has been preserved to the present day -in the religious services of the Jews. It is still blown in the -synagogue, as in time of old, at the Jewish new-year’s festival, -according to the command of Moses (Numb. <span class="smcap">xxix. I</span>). The -<i>chatzozerah</i> was a straight trumpet, about two feet in length, and -was sometimes made of silver. Two of these straight trumpets are -shown in the famous triumphal procession after the fall of -Jerusalem on the arch of Titus, engraved on the next page.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Drum.</span> There can be no doubt that the Hebrews had -several kinds of drums. We know, however, only of the <i>toph</i>, -which appears to have been a tambourine or a small hand-drum -like the Egyptian darabouka. In the English version of the -Bible the word is rendered <i>timbrel</i> or <i>tabret</i>. This instrument was -especially used in processions on occasions of rejoicing, and also -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">25</span> -frequently by females. We find it in the hands of Miriam, when -she was celebrating with the Israelitish women in songs of joy the -destruction of Pharaoh’s host; and in the hands of Jephtha’s -daughter, when she went out to welcome her father. There -exists at the present day in the East a small hand-drum called -<i>doff</i>, <i>diff</i>, or <i>adufe</i>—a name which appears to be synonymous with -the Hebrew <i>toph</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i025" src="images/i025.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p><span class="smcap">The Sistrum.</span> Winer, Saalfchütz, and several other commentators -are of opinion that the <i>menaaneim</i>, mentioned in 2 Sam. vi. -5, denotes the sistrum. In the English Bible the original is translated -<i>cymbals</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Cymbals.</span> The <i>tzeltzclim</i>, <i>metzilloth</i>, and <i>metzilthaim</i>, appear -to have been cymbals or similar metallic instruments of percussion, -differing in shape and sound.</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Bells.</span> The little bells on the vestments of the high-priest were -called <i>phaamon</i>. Small golden bells were attached to the lower -part of the robes of the high-priest in his sacred ministrations. -The Jews have, at the present day, in their synagogues small bells -fastened to the rolls of the Law containing the Pentateuch: a -kind of ornamentation which is supposed to have been in use -from time immemorial. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">26</span></p> - -<p>Besides the names of Hebrew instruments already given there -occur several others in the Old Testament, upon the real meaning -of which much diversity of opinion prevails. <i>Jobel</i> is by some -commentators classed with the trumpets, but it is by others -believed to designate a loud and cheerful blast of the trumpet, -used on particular occasions. If <i>Jobel</i> (from which <i>jubilare</i> is -supposed to be derived) is identical with the name <i>Jubal</i>, the -inventor of musical instruments, it would appear that the Hebrews -appreciated pre-eminently the exhilarating power of music. <i>Shalisbim</i> -is supposed to denote a triangle. <i>Nechiloth</i>, <i>gittith</i>, and -<i>machalath</i>, which occur in the headings of some psalms, are also -by commentators supposed to be musical instruments. <i>Nechiloth</i> -is said to have been a flute, and <i>gittith</i> and <i>machalath</i> to have -been stringed instruments, and <i>machol</i> a kind of flute. Again, -others maintain that the words denote peculiar modes of performance -or certain favourite melodies to which the psalms were -directed to be sung, or chanted. According to the records of the -Rabbins, the Hebrews in the time of David and Solomon possessed -thirty-six different musical instruments. In the Bible only -about half that number are mentioned.</p> - -<p>Most nations of antiquity ascribed the invention of their musical -instruments to their gods, or to certain superhuman beings. The -Hebrews attributed it to man; Jubal is mentioned in Genesis as -“the father of all such as handle the harp and organ” (<i>i.e.</i>, performers -on stringed instruments and wind instruments). As instruments -of percussion are almost invariably in use long before people -are led to construct stringed and wind instruments it might perhaps -be surmised that Jubal was not regarded as the inventor of -all the Hebrew instruments, but rather as the first professional -cultivator of instrumental music. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">27</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</h2> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Greeks.</span></h3> - -<p>Many musical instruments of the ancient Greeks are known to us -by name; but respecting their exact construction and capabilities -there still prevails almost as much diversity of opinion as is the -case with those of the Hebrews.</p> - -<p>It is generally believed that the Greeks derived their musical -system from the Egyptians. Pythagoras and other philosophers -are said to have studied music in Egypt. It would, however, -appear that the Egyptian influence upon Greece, as far as regards -this art, has been overrated. Not only have the more perfect -Egyptian instruments—such as the larger harps, the tamboura—never -been much in favour with the Greeks, but almost all the -stringed instruments which the Greeks possessed are stated to -have been originally derived from Asia. Strabo says: “Those -who regard the whole of Asia, as far as India, as consecrated to -Bacchus, point to that country as the origin of a great portion of -the present music. One author speaks of ‘striking forcibly the -Asiatic kithara,’ another calls the pipes Berecynthian and Phrygian. -Some of the instruments also have foreign names, as Nabla, Sambuka, -Barbiton, Magadis, and many others.”</p> - -<p>We know at present little more of these instruments than that -they were in use in Greece. Of the Magadis it is even not satisfactorily -ascertained whether it was a stringed or a wind instrument. -The other three are known to have been stringed instruments. -But they cannot have been anything like such universal favourites -as the lyre, because this instrument and perhaps the <i>trigonon</i> are -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">28</span> -almost the only stringed instruments represented in the Greek -paintings on pottery and other monumental records. If, as might -perhaps be suggested, their taste for beauty of form induced the -Greeks to represent the elegant lyre in preference to other stringed -instruments, we might at least expect to meet with the harp; an -instrument which equals if it does not surpass the lyre in elegance -of form.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i028" src="images/i028.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The representation of Polyhymnia with a harp, depicted on a -splendid Greek vase now in the Munich museum, may be noted -as an exceptional instance. This valuable relic dates from the -time of Alexander the great. The instrument resembles in construction -as well as in shape the Assyrian harp, and has thirteen -strings. Polyhymnia is touching them with both hands, using the -right hand for the treble and the left for the bass. She is seated, -holding the instrument in her lap. Even the little tuning-pegs, -which in number are not in accordance with the strings, are placed -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">29</span> -on the sound-board at the upper part of the frame, exactly as on -the Assyrian harp. If then we have here the Greek harp, it was -more likely an importation from Asia than from Egypt. In short, -as far as can be ascertained, the most complete of the Greek -instruments appear to be of Asiatic origin. Especially from the -nations who inhabited Asia-minor the Greeks are stated to have -adopted several of the most popular. Thus we may read of the -short and shrill-sounding pipes of the Carians; of the Phrygian -pastoral flute, consisting of several tubes united; of the three-stringed -<i>kithara</i> of the Lydians; and so on.</p> - -<p>The Greeks called the harp <i>kinyra</i>, and this may be the reason -why in the English translation of the Bible the <i>kinnor</i> of the -Hebrews, the favourite instrument of king David, is rendered <i>harp</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i029" src="images/i029.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The Greeks had lyres of various kinds, shown in the accompanying -woodcuts, more or less differing in construction, form, -and size, and distinguished by different names; such as <i>lyra</i>, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">30</span> -<i>kithara</i>, <i>chelys</i>, <i>phorminx</i>, etc. <i>Lyra</i> appears to have implied -instruments of this class in general, and also the lyre with a body -oval at the base and held upon the lap or in the arms of the -performer; while the <i>kithara</i> had a square base and was held -against the breast. These distinctions have, however, not been -satisfactorily ascertained. The <i>chelys</i> was a small lyre with the -body made of the shell of a tortoise, or of wood in imitation -of the tortoise. The <i>phorminx</i> was a large lyre; and, like the -<i>kithara</i>, was used at an early period singly, for accompanying -recitations. It is recorded that the <i>kithara</i> was employed for solo -performances as early as <small>B.C.</small> 700.</p> - -<p>The design on the Grecian vase at Munich (already alluded -to) represents the nine muses, of whom three are given in the -engraving, viz., Polyhymnia with the harp, and Kalliope and -Erato with lyres. It will be observed that some of the lyres -engraved in the woodcuts on page 29 are provided with a bridge, -while others are without it. The largest were held probably on -or between the knees, or were attached to the left arm by means -of a band, to enable the performer to use his hands without -impediment. The strings, made of catgut or sinew, were more -usually twanged with a <i>plektron</i> than merely with the fingers. -The <i>plektron</i> was a short stem of ivory or metal pointed at both -ends.</p> - -<p>A fragment of a Greek lyre which was found in a tomb near -Athens is deposited in the British museum. The two pieces constituting -its frame are of wood. Their length is about eighteen -inches, and the length of the cross-bar at the top is about nine -inches. The instrument is unhappily in a condition too dilapidated -and imperfect to be of any essential use to the musical inquirer.</p> - -<p>The <i>trigonon</i> consisted originally of an angular frame, to which -the strings were affixed. In the course of time a third bar was -added to resist the tension of the strings, and its triangular frame -resembled in shape the Greek delta. Subsequently it was still -further improved, the upper bar of the frame being made slightly -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">31</span> -curved, whereby the instrument obtained greater strength and -more elegance of form.</p> - -<p>The <i>magadis</i>, also called <i>pektis</i>, had twenty strings which were -tuned in octaves, and therefore produced only ten tones. It -appears to have been some sort of dulcimer, but information -respecting its construction is still wanting. There appears to -have been also a kind of bagpipe in use called <i>magadis</i>, of which -nothing certain is known. Possibly, the same name may have -been applied to two different instruments.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i031" src="images/i031.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The <i>barbiton</i> was likewise a stringed instrument of this kind. -The <i>sambyke</i> is traditionally said to have been invented by -Ibykos, <small>B.C.</small> 540. The <i>simmikon</i> had thirty-five strings, and -derived its name from its inventor, Simos, who lived about <small>B.C.</small> -600. It was perhaps a kind of dulcimer. The <i>nabla</i> had only -two strings, and probably resembled the <i>nebel</i> of the Hebrews, of -which but little is known with certainty. The <i>pandoura</i> is supposed -to have been a kind of lute with three strings. Several of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">32</span> -the instruments just noticed were used in Greece, chiefly by -musicians who had immigrated from Asia; they can therefore -hardly be considered as national musical instruments of the -Greeks. The <i>monochord</i> had (as its name implies) only a single -string, and was used in teaching singing and the laws of acoustics.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i032" src="images/i032.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The flute, <i>aulos</i>, of which there were many varieties, as shown -in the woodcut p. 31, was a highly popular instrument, and differed -in construction from the flutes and pipes of the ancient Egyptians. -Instead of being blown through a hole at the side near the top it -was held like a flageolet, and a -vibrating reed was inserted into -the mouth-piece, so that it might -be more properly described as a -kind of oboe or clarionet. The -Greeks were accustomed to designate -by the name of <i>aulos</i> all wind -instruments of the flute and oboe -kind, some of which were constructed -like the flageolet or like -our antiquated <i>flûte à bec</i>. The -single flute was called <i>monaulos</i>, -and the double one <i>diaulos</i>. A -<i>diaulos</i>, which was found in a -tomb at Athens, is in the British -museum. The wood of which it -is made seems to be cedar, and -the tubes are fifteen inches in -length. Each tube has a separate mouth-piece and six finger-holes, -five of which are at the upper side and one is underneath.</p> - -<p>The <i>syrinx</i>, or Pandean pipe, had from three to nine tubes, but -seven was the usual number. The straight trumpet, <i>salpinx</i>, and -the curved horn, <i>keras</i>, made of brass, were used exclusively in -war. The small hand-drum, called <i>tympanon</i>, resembled in shape -our tambourine, but was covered with parchment at the back as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">33</span> -well as at the front. The <i>kymbala</i> were made of metal, and -resembled our small cymbals. The <i>krotala</i> were almost identical -with our castanets, and were made of wood or metal.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Etruscans and Romans.</span></h3> - -<p>The Romans are recorded to have derived some of their most -popular instruments originally from the Etruscans; a people -which at an early period excelled all other Italian nations in the -cultivation of the arts as well as in social refinement, and which -possessed musical instruments similar to those of the Greeks. -It must, however, be remembered that many of the vases and -other specimens of art which have been found in Etruscan tombs, -and on which delineations of lyres and other instruments occur, -are supposed to be productions of Greek artists whose works -were obtained from Greece by the Etruscans, or who were -induced to settle in Etruria.</p> - -<p>The flutes of the Etruscans were not unfrequently made of -ivory; those used in religious sacrifices were of box-wood, of a -species of the lotus, of ass’ bone, bronze and silver. A bronze -flute, somewhat resembling our flageolet, has been found in a -tomb; likewise a huge trumpet of bronze. An Etruscan <i>cornu</i> -(engraved) is deposited in the British museum, and measures -about four feet in length.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i033" src="images/i033.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>To the Etruscans is also attributed by some the invention of the -hydraulic organ. -The Greeks possessed -a somewhat -similar contrivance -which they called <i>hydraulos</i>, -<i>i.e.</i> water-flute, -and which -probably was -identical with the -<i>organum hydraulicum</i> of the Romans. The instrument ought more -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">34</span> -properly to be regarded as a pneumatic organ, for the sound was -produced by the current of air through the pipes; the water -applied serving merely to give the necessary pressure to the -bellows and to regulate their action. The pipes were probably -caused to sound by means of stops, perhaps resembling those -on our organ, which were drawn out or pushed in. The construction -was evidently but a primitive contrivance, contained -in a case which could be carried by one or two persons and -which was placed on a table. The highest degree of perfection -which the hydraulic organ obtained with the ancients is perhaps -shown in a representation on a coin -of the emperor Nero, in the British -museum. Only ten pipes are given -to it and there is no indication of -any key board, which would probably -have been shown had it existed. The -man standing at the side and holding -a laurel leaf in his hand is -surmised to represent a victor in the -exhibitions of the circus or the amphitheatre. -The hydraulic organ probably -was played on such occasions; and the medal containing -an impression of it may have been bestowed upon the victor.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i034" src="images/i034.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>During the time of the republic, and especially subsequently -under the reign of the emperors, the Romans adopted many new -instruments from Greece, Egypt, and even from western Asia; -without essentially improving any of their importations.</p> - -<p>Their most favourite stringed instrument was the lyre, of which -they had various kinds, called, according to their form and -arrangement of strings, <i>lyra</i>, <i>cithara</i>, <i>chelys</i>, <i>testudo</i>, <i>fidis</i> (or <i>fides</i>), -and <i>cornu</i>. The name <i>cornu</i> was given to the lyre when the -sides of the frame terminated at the top in the shape of two horns. -The <i>barbitos</i> was a kind of lyre with a large body, which gave -the instrument somewhat the shape of the Welsh <i>crwth</i>. The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">35</span> -<i>psalterium</i> was a kind of lyre of an oblong square shape. Like -most of the Roman lyres, it was played with a rather large -plectrum. The <i>trigonum</i> was the same as the Greek <i>trigonon</i>, -and was probably originally derived from Egypt. It is recorded -that a certain musician of the name of Alexander Alexandrinus -was so admirable a performer upon it that when exhibiting his -skill in Rome he created the greatest <i>furore</i>. Less common, and -derived from Asia, were the <i>sambuca</i> and <i>nablia</i>, the exact construction -of which is unknown.</p> - -<p>The flute, <i>tibia</i>, was originally made of the shin bone, and had -a mouth-hole and four finger-holes. Its shape was retained -even when, at a later period, it was constructed of other substances -than bone. The <i>tibia gingrina</i> consisted of a long and -thin tube of reed with a mouth-hole at the side of one end. The -<i>tibia obliqua</i> and <i>tibia vasca</i> were provided with mouth-pieces -affixed at a right angle to the tube; a contrivance somewhat -similar to that on our bassoon. The <i>tibia longa</i> was especially -used in religious worship. The <i>tibia curva</i> was curved at its -broadest end. The <i>tibia ligula</i> appears to have resembled our -flageolet. The <i>calamus</i> was nothing more than a simple pipe cut -off the kind of reed which the ancients used as a pen for writing.</p> - -<p>The Romans had double flutes as well as single flutes. The -double flute consisted of two tubes united, either so as to have a -mouth-piece in common or to have each a separate mouth-piece. -If the tubes were exactly alike the double flute was called <i>Tibiæ -pares</i>; if they were different from each other, <i>Tibiæ impares</i>. -Little plugs, or stoppers, were inserted into the finger-holes to -regulate the order of intervals. The <i>tibia</i> was made in various -shapes. The <i>tibia dextra</i> was usually constructed of the upper -and thinner part of a reed; and the <i>tibia sinistra</i>, of the lower -and broader part. The performers used also the <i>capistrum</i>,—a -bandage round the cheeks identical with the <i>phorbeia</i> of the -Greeks.</p> - -<p>The British museum contains a mosaic figure of a Roman girl -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">36</span> -playing the <i>tibia</i>, which is stated to have been disinterred in the -year 1823 on the Via Appia. Here the <i>holmos</i> or mouth-piece, -somewhat resembling the reed of -our oboe, is distinctly shown. -The finger-holes, probably four, -are not indicated, although they -undoubtedly existed on the instrument.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i036a" src="images/i036a.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Furthermore, the Romans had -two kinds of Pandean pipes, viz. -the <i>syrinx</i> and the <i>fistula</i>. The -bagpipe, <i>tibia utricularis</i>, is said to -have been a favourite instrument -of the emperor Nero.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i036b" src="images/i036b.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The <i>cornu</i> was a large horn of -bronze, curved. The performer -held it under his arm with the broad end upwards over his -shoulder. It is represented -in the engraving, -with the <i>tuba</i> and -the <i>lituus</i>.</p> - -<p>The <i>tuba</i> was a -straight trumpet. Both -the <i>cornu</i> and the <i>tuba</i> -were employed in war -to convey signals. The -same was the case with -the <i>buccina</i>,—originally -perhaps a conch -shell, and afterwards a -simple horn of an animal,—and -the <i>lituus</i>, which was bent at the broad end but -otherwise straight. The <i>tympanum</i> resembled the tambourine -and was beaten like the latter with the hands. Among the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">37</span> -Roman instruments of percussion the <i>scabillum</i>, which consisted -of two plates combined by means of a sort of hinge, deserves -to be noticed; it was fastened under the foot and trodden in -time, to produce certain rhythmical effects in musical performances. -The <i>cymbalum</i> consisted of two metal plates similar -to our cymbals. The <i>crotala</i> and the <i>crusmata</i> were kinds of -castanets, the former being oblong and of a larger size than the -latter. The Romans had also a <i>triangulum</i>, which resembled -the triangle occasionally used in our orchestra. The <i>sistrum</i> -they derived from Egypt with the introduction of the worship of -Isis. Metal bells, arranged according to a regular order of intervals -and placed in a frame, were called <i>tintinnabula</i>. The -<i>crepitaculum</i> appears to have been a somewhat similar contrivance -on a hoop with a handle.</p> - -<p>Through the Greeks and Romans we have the first well-authenticated -proof of musical instruments having been introduced into -Europe from Asia. The Romans in their conquests undoubtedly -made their musical instruments known, to some extent, also in -western Europe. But the Greeks and Romans are not the only -nations which introduced eastern instruments into Europe. The -Phœnicians at an early period colonized Sardinia, and traces of -them are still to be found on that island. Among these is a -peculiarly constructed double-pipe, called <i>lionedda</i> or <i>launedda</i>. -Again, at a much later period the Arabs introduced several of -their instruments into Spain, from which country they became -known in France, Germany, and England. Also the crusaders, -during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, may have helped to -familiarize the western European nations with instruments of -the east. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">38</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</h2> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Chinese.</span></h3> - -<p>Allowing for any exaggeration as to chronology, natural to the -lively imagination of Asiatics, there is no reason to doubt that -the Chinese possessed long before our Christian era musical -instruments to which they attribute a fabulously high antiquity. -There is an ancient tradition, according to which they obtained -their musical scale from a miraculous bird, called foung-hoang, -which appears to have been a sort of phœnix. When Confucius, -who lived about <small>B.C.</small> 500, happened to hear on a certain occasion -some Chinese music, he became so greatly enraptured that he -could not take any food for three months afterwards. The -sounds which produced this effect were those of Kouei, the -Orpheus of the Chinese, whose performance on the <i>king</i>—a kind -of harmonicon constructed of slabs of sonorous stone—would -draw wild animals around him and make them subservient to -his will. As regards the invention of musical instruments the -Chinese have other traditions. In one of these we are told that -the origin of some of their most popular instruments dates from -the period when China was under the dominion of heavenly -spirits, called Ki. Another assigns the invention of several -stringed instruments to the great Fohi who was the founder of -the empire and who lived about <small>B.C.</small> 3000, which was long after -the dominion of the Ki, or spirits. Again, another tradition holds -that the most important instruments and systematic arrangements -of sounds are an invention of Niuva, a supernatural female, -who lived at the time of Fohi. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">39</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i039" src="images/i039.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>According to their records, the Chinese possessed their much-esteemed -<i>king</i> 2200 years before our Christian era, and employed -it for accompanying songs of praise. It was regarded as a sacred -instrument. During religious observances at the solemn moment -when the <i>king</i> was sounded sticks of incense were burnt. It -was likewise played before the emperor early in the morning -when he awoke. The Chinese have long since constructed -various kinds of the <i>king</i>, one of which is here engraved, by -using different species of stones. Their most famous stone -selected for this purpose is called <i>yu</i>. It is not only very -sonorous but also beautiful in appearance. The <i>yu</i> is found -in mountain streams and crevices of rocks. The largest specimens -found measure from two to three feet in diameter, but of -this size examples rarely occur. The <i>yu</i> is very hard and heavy. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">40</span> -Some European mineralogists, to whom the missionaries transmitted -specimens for examination, pronounce it to be a species -of agate. It is found of different colours, and the Chinese -appear to have preferred in different centuries particular colours -for the <i>king</i>.</p> - -<p>The Chinese consider the <i>yu</i> especially valuable for musical -purposes, because it always retains exactly the same pitch. All -other musical instruments, they say, are in this respect doubtful; -but the tone of the <i>yu</i> is neither influenced by cold nor heat, nor -by humidity, nor dryness.</p> - -<p>The stones used for the <i>king</i> have been cut from time to time -in various grotesque shapes. Some represent animals: as, for -instance, a bat with outstretched wings; or two fishes placed -side by side: others are in the shape of an ancient Chinese bell. -The angular shape shown in the engraving appears to be the -oldest and is still retained in the ornamented stones of the <i>pien-king</i>, -which is a more modern instrument than the <i>king</i>. The -tones of the <i>pien-king</i> are attuned according to the Chinese -intervals called <i>lu</i>, of which there are twelve in the compass -of an octave. The same is the case with the other Chinese -instruments of this class. They vary, however, in pitch. The -pitch of the <i>soung-king</i>, for instance, is four intervals lower than -that of the <i>pien-king</i>.</p> - -<p>Sonorous stones have always been used by the Chinese also -singly, as rhythmical instruments. Such a single stone is called -<i>tse-king</i>. Probably certain curious relics belonging to a temple in -Peking, erected for the worship of Confucius, serve a similar purpose. -In one of the outbuildings or the temple are ten sonorous -stones, shaped like drums, which are asserted to have been cut -about three thousand years ago. The primitive Chinese characters -engraven upon them are nearly obliterated.</p> - -<p>The ancient Chinese had several kinds of bells, frequently -arranged in sets so as to constitute a musical scale. The Chinese -name for the bell is <i>tchung</i>. At an early period they had a somewhat -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">41</span> -square-shaped bell called <i>té-tchung</i>. Like other ancient -Chinese bells it was made of copper alloyed with tin, the -proportion being one pound of tin to six of copper. The <i>té-tchung</i>, -which is also known by the name of <i>piao</i>, was principally -used to indicate the time and divisions in musical performances. -It had a fixed pitch of sound, and several of these bells -attuned to a certain order of intervals were not unfrequently -ranged in a regular succession, thus forming a musical instrument -which was called <i>pien-tchung</i>. The musical scale of the sixteen -bells which the <i>pien-tchung</i> contained was the same as that of the -<i>king</i> before mentioned.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i041" src="images/i041.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The <i>hiuen-tchung</i> was, according to popular tradition, included -with the antique instruments at the time of Confucius, and came -into popular use during the Han dynasty (from <small>B.C.</small> 200 until -<small>A.D.</small> 200). It was of a peculiar oval shape and had nearly the -same quaint ornamentation as the <i>té-tchung</i>; this consisted of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">42</span> -symbolical figures, in four divisions, each containing nine mammals. -The mouth was crescent-shaped. Every figure had a deep -meaning referring to the seasons and -to the mysteries of the Buddhist -religion. The largest <i>hiuen-tchung</i> -was about twenty inches in length; -and, like the <i>té-tchung</i>, was sounded -by means of a small wooden mallet -with an oval knob. None of the bells -of this description had a clapper. It -would, however, appear that the -Chinese had at an early period some -kind of bell provided with a wooden -tongue: this was used for military -purposes as well as for calling the -people together when an imperial -messenger promulgated his sovereign’s commands. An expression -of Confucius is recorded to the effect that he wished to be “A -wooden-tongued bell of Heaven,” <i>i.e.</i> a herald of heaven to proclaim -the divine purposes to the multitude.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i042" src="images/i042.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The <i>fang-hiang</i> was a kind of wood-harmonicon. It contained -sixteen wooden slabs of an oblong square shape, suspended in a -wooden frame elegantly decorated. The slabs were arranged in -two tiers, one above the other, and were all of equal length and -breadth but differed in thickness. The <i>tchoung-tou</i> consisted of -twelve slips of bamboo, and was used for beating time and for -rhythmical purposes. The slips being banded together at one -end could be expanded somewhat like a fan. The Chinese state -that they used the <i>tchoung-tou</i> for writing upon before they -invented paper.</p> - -<p>The <i>ou</i>, of which we give a woodcut, likewise an ancient Chinese -instrument of percussion and still in use, is made of wood in -the shape of a crouching tiger. It is hollow, and along its back -are about twenty small pieces of metal, pointed, and in appearance -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">43</span> -not unlike the teeth of a saw. The performer strikes them -with a sort of plectrum resembling a brush, or with a small stick -called <i>tchen</i>. -Occasionally -the <i>ou</i> is made -with pieces of -metal shaped -like reeds.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i043a" src="images/i043a.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The ancient -<i>ou</i> was constructed -with -only six tones -which were attuned -thus—<i>f</i>, -<i>g</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>f</i>. The instrument appears to have become deteriorated -in the course of time; for, although it has gradually -acquired as many as twenty-seven pieces of metal, it evidently -serves at the present day more for the production of rhythmical -noise than for the execution of any melody. The modern <i>ou</i> -is made of a species of wood called <i>kieou</i> or <i>tsieou</i>: and the -tiger rests generally on a hollow wooden pedestal about three -feet six inches long, which serves as a sound-board.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i043b" src="images/i043b.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The <i>tchou</i>, likewise an instrument of percussion, was made of -the wood of a tree called <i>kieou-mou</i>, the stem of which resembles -that of the pine and whose foliage is -much like that of the cypress. It was -constructed of boards about three-quarters -of an inch in thickness. In the -middle of one of the sides was an aperture -into which the hand was passed for -the purpose of holding the handle of a -wooden hammer, the end of which -entered into a hole situated in the bottom of the <i>tchou</i>. The -handle was kept in its place by means of a wooden pin, on which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">44</span> -it moved right and left when the instrument was struck with a -hammer. The Chinese ascribe to the <i>tchou</i> a very high antiquity, -as they almost invariably do with any of their inventions when -the date of its origin is unknown to them.</p> - -<p>The <i>po-fou</i> was a drum, about one foot four inches in length, -and seven inches in diameter. It had a parchment at each end, -which was prepared in a peculiar way by being boiled in water. -The <i>po-fou</i> used to be partly filled with a preparation made from -the husk of rice, in order to mellow the sound. The Chinese -name for the drum is <i>kou</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i044" src="images/i044.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The <i>kin-kou</i> (engraved), a large drum fixed on a pedestal which -raises it above six feet from the ground, is embellished with symbolical -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">45</span> -designs. A similar drum on which natural phenomena -are depicted is called <i>lei-kou</i>; and another of the kind, with -figures of certain birds and beasts which are regarded as symbols -of long life, is called <i>ling-kou</i>, and also <i>lou-kou</i>.</p> - -<p>The flutes, <i>ty</i>, <i>yo</i>, and <i>tché</i> were generally made of bamboo. -The <i>koan-tsee</i> was a Pandean pipe containing twelve tubes of -bamboo. The <i>siao</i>, likewise a Pandean pipe, contained sixteen -tubes. The <i>pai-siao</i> differed from the <i>siao</i> inasmuch as the tubes -were inserted into an oddly-shaped case highly ornamented with -grotesque designs and silken appendages.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i045" src="images/i045.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The Chinese are known to have constructed at an early period -a curious wind-instrument, called <i>hiuen</i>. It was made of baked -clay and had five finger-holes, three of which were placed on one -side and two on the opposite side, as in the cut. Its tones were -in conformity with the pentatonic scale. The reader unacquainted -with the pentatonic scale -may ascertain its character -by playing on the pianoforte -the scale of C major -with the omission of <i>f</i> and -<i>b</i> (the <i>fourth</i> and <i>seventh</i>); -or by striking the black -keys in regular succession -from <i>f</i>-sharp to the next -<i>f</i>-sharp above or below.</p> - -<p>Another curious wind-instrument of high antiquity, the <i>cheng</i>, -(engraved, p. 46) is still in use. Formerly it had either 13, 19, or -24 tubes, placed in a calabash; and a long curved tube served as -a mouth-piece. In olden time it was called <i>yu</i>.</p> - -<p>The ancient stringed instruments, the <i>kin</i> and <i>chê</i>, were of the -dulcimer kind: they are still in use, and specimens of them are in -the South Kensington museum.</p> - -<p>The Buddhists introduced from Thibet into China their god -of music, who is represented as a rather jovial-looking man with -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">46</span> -a moustache and an imperial, playing the <i>pepa</i>, a kind of lute -with four silken strings. Perhaps some interesting information -respecting the ancient Chinese musical -instruments may be gathered from the -famous ruins of the Buddhist temples -<i>Ongcor-Wat</i> and <i>Ongcor-Thôm</i>, in Cambodia. -These splendid ruins are supposed -to be above two thousand years old: and, -at any rate, the circumstance of their age -not being known to the Cambodians suggests -a high antiquity. On the bas-reliefs -with which the temples were enriched -are figured musical instruments, which -European travellers describe as “flutes, -organs, trumpets, and drums, resembling -those of the Chinese.” Faithful sketches -of these representations might, very likely, -afford valuable hints to the student of -musical history.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Hindus.</span></h3> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i046" src="images/i046.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>In the Brahmin mythology of the -Hindus the god Nareda is the inventor -of the <i>vina</i>, the principal national instrument -of Hindustan. Saraswati, the -consort of Brahma, may be regarded as -the Minerva of the Hindus. She is the -goddess of music as well as of speech; to her is attributed the -invention of the systematic arrangement of the sounds into a -musical scale. She is represented seated on a peacock and playing -on a stringed instrument of the lute kind. Brahma himself we -find depicted as a vigorous man with four handsome heads, -beating with his hands upon a small drum; and Vishnu, in his -incarnation as Krishna, is represented as a beautiful youth playing -upon a flute. The Hindus construct a peculiar kind of flute, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">47</span> -which they consider as the favourite instrument of Krishna. -They have also the divinity Ganesa, the god of Wisdom, who is -represented as a man with the head of an elephant, holding -a <i>tamboura</i> in his hands.</p> - -<p>It is a suggestive fact that we find among several nations in -different parts of the world an ancient tradition, according to -which their most popular stringed instrument was originally -derived from the water.</p> - -<p>In Hindu mythology the god Nareda invented the <i>vina</i>—the -principal national instrument of Hindustan—which has also the -name <i>cach’-hapi</i>, signifying a tortoise (<i>testudo</i>). Moreover, <i>nara</i> -denotes in Sanskrit water, and <i>narada</i>, or <i>nareda</i>, the giver of -water. Like Nareda, Nereus and his fifty daughters, the Nereides, -were much renowned for their musical accomplishments; and -Hermes (it will be remembered) made his lyre, the <i>chelys</i>, of -a tortoise-shell. The Scandinavian god Odin, the originator of -magic songs, is mentioned as the ruler of the sea, and as such -he had the name of <i>Nikarr</i>. In the depth of the sea he played -the harp with his subordinate spirits, who occasionally came up -to the surface of the water to teach some favoured human being -their wonderful instrument. Wäinämöinen, the divine player on -the Finnish <i>kantele</i> (according to the Kalewala, the old national -epic of the Finns) constructed his instrument of fish-bones. The -frame he made out of the bones of the pike; and the teeth of -the pike he used for the tuning-pegs.</p> - -<p>Jacob Grimm in his work on German mythology points out -an old tradition, preserved in Swedish and Scotch national -ballads, of a skilful harper who constructs his instrument out of -the bones of a young girl drowned by a wicked woman. Her -fingers he uses for the tuning screws, and her golden hair for the -strings. The harper plays, and his music kills the murderess. A -similar story is told in the old Icelandic national songs; and the -same tradition has been preserved in the Faroe islands, as well as -in Norway and Denmark. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">48</span></p> - -<p>May not the agreeable impression produced by the rhythmical -flow of the waves and the soothing murmur of running water -have led various nations, independently of each other, to the -widespread conception that they obtained their favourite instrument -of music from the water? Or is the notion traceable to a -common source dating from a pre-historic age, perhaps from the -early period when the Aryan race is surmised to have diffused its -lore through various countries? Or did it originate in the old -belief that the world, with all its charms and delights, arose from -a chaos in which water constituted the predominant element?</p> - -<p>Howbeit, Nareda, the giver of water, was evidently also the -ruler of the clouds; and Odin had his throne in the skies. -Indeed, many of the musical water-spirits appear to have been -originally considered as rain deities. Their music may therefore -be regarded as derived from the clouds rather than from the sea. -In short, the traditions respecting spirits and water are not in -contradiction to the opinion of the ancient Hindus that music is -of heavenly origin, but rather tend to support it.</p> - -<p>The earliest musical instruments of the Hindus on record have, -almost all of them, remained in popular use until the present day -scarcely altered. Besides these, the Hindus possess several -Arabic and Persian instruments which are of comparatively -modern date in Hindustan: evidently having been introduced -into that country scarcely a thousand years ago, at the time of -the Mahomedan irruption. There is a treatise on music extant, -written in Sanskrit, which contains a description of the ancient -instruments. Its title is <i>Sângita râthnakara</i>. If, as may be -hoped, it be translated by a Sanskrit scholar who is at the same -time a good musician, we shall probably be enabled to ascertain -more exactly which of the Hindu instruments of the present day -are of comparatively modern origin.</p> - -<p>The <i>vina</i> is undoubtedly of high antiquity. It has seven wire -strings, and movable frets which are generally fastened with wax. -Two hollowed gourds, often tastefully ornamented, are affixed to -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">49</span> -it for the purpose of increasing the sonorousness. There are -several kinds of the <i>vina</i> in different districts; but that represented -in the illustration is -regarded as the oldest. -The performer -shown is Jeewan Shah, -a celebrated virtuoso -on the <i>vina</i>, who lived -about a hundred years -ago. The Hindus divided -their musical -scale into several intervals -smaller than -our modern semitones. -They adopted -twenty-two intervals -called <i>sruti</i> in the -compass of an octave, -which may therefore -be compared to our chromatic intervals. As the frets of the <i>vina</i> -are movable the performer can easily regulate them according to -the scale, or mode, which he requires for his music.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i049" src="images/i049.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The harp, <i>chang</i>, has become almost obsolete. If some Hindu -drawings of it can be relied upon, it had at an early time a -triangular frame and was in construction as well as in shape and -size almost identical with the Assyrian harp.</p> - -<p>The Hindus claim to have invented the violin bow. They -maintain that the <i>ravanastron</i>, one of their old instruments -played with the bow, was invented about five thousand years ago -by Ravanon, a mighty king of Ceylon. However this may be -there is a great probability that the fiddle-bow originated in Hindustan; -because Sanskrit scholars inform us that there are names -for it in works which cannot be less than from 1500 to 2000 years -old. The non-occurrence of any instrument played with a bow -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">50</span> -on the monuments of the nations of antiquity is by no means so -sure a proof as has generally been supposed, that the bow was -unknown. The fiddle in its primitive condition must have been -a poor contrivance. It probably was despised by players who -could produce better tones with greater facility by twanging the -strings with their fingers, or with a plectrum. Thus it may have -remained through many centuries without experiencing any -material improvement. It must also be borne in mind that the -monuments transmitted to us chiefly represent historical events, -religious ceremonies, and royal entertainments. On such occasions -instruments of a certain kind only were used, and these we -find represented; while others, which may have been even more -common, never occur. In two thousand years’ time people will -possibly maintain that some highly perfected instrument popular -with them was entirely unknown to us, because it is at present in -so primitive a condition that no one hardly notices it. If the -<i>ravanastron</i> was an importation of the Mahomedans it would -most likely bear some resemblance to the Arabian and Persian -instruments, and it would be found rather in the hands of the -higher classes in the towns; whereas it is principally met with -among the lower order of people, in isolated and mountainous -districts. It is further remarkable that the most simple kind -of <i>ravanastron</i> is almost identical with the Chinese fiddle called -<i>ur-heen</i>. This species has only two strings, and its body consists of -a small block of wood, hollowed out and covered with the skin -of a serpent. The <i>ur-heen</i> has not been mentioned among the most -ancient instruments of the Chinese, since there is no evidence of -its having been known in China before the introduction of the -Buddhist religion into that country. From indications, which to -point out would lead too far here, it would appear that several -instruments found in China originated in Hindustan. They seem -to have been gradually diffused from Hindustan and Thibet, more -or less altered in the course of time, through the east as far as Japan.</p> - -<p>Another curious Hindu instrument, probably of very high antiquity, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">51</span> -is the <i>poongi</i>, also called <i>toumrie</i> and <i>magoudi</i>. It consists -of a gourd or of the Cuddos nut, hollowed, into which two pipes -are inserted. The <i>poongi</i> therefore somewhat resembles in appearance -a bagpipe. It is generally used by the <i>Sampuris</i> or snake -charmers, who play upon it when they exhibit the antics of the -cobra. The name <i>magoudi</i>, given in certain districts to this instrument, -rather tends to corroborate the opinion of some musical -historians that the <i>magadis</i> of the ancient Greeks was a sort of -double-pipe, or bagpipe.</p> - -<p>Many instruments of Hindustan are known by different names -in different districts; and, besides, there are varieties of them. -On the whole, the Hindus possess about fifty instruments. To -describe them properly would fill a volume. Some, which are in -the Kensington museum, will be found noticed in the large catalogue -of that collection.</p> - -<h3><span class="smcap">The Persians and Arabs.</span></h3> - -<p>Of the musical instruments of the ancient Persians, before the -Christian era, scarcely anything is known. It may be surmised -that they closely resembled those of the Assyrians, and probably -also those of the Hebrews.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i051" src="images/i051.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The harp, <i>chang</i>, in olden time a favourite instrument of the -Persians, has gradually fallen into desuetude. The illustration of -a small harp given in the woodcut -has been sketched from the celebrated -sculptures, perhaps of the sixth -century, which exist on a stupendous -rock, called Tackt-i-Bostan, in the -vicinity of the town of Kermanshah. -These sculptures are said to have -been executed during the lifetime of -the Persian monarch Khosroo Purviz. -They form the ornaments of two lofty arches, and consist of -representations of field sports and aquatic amusements. In one -of the boats is seated a man in an ornamental dress, with a halo -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">52</span> -round his head, who is receiving an arrow from one of his -attendants; while a female, who is sitting near him, plays on a -Trigonon. Towards the top of the bas-relief is represented a -stage, on which are performers on small straight trumpets and -little hand drums; six harpers; and four other musicians, apparently -females,—the first of whom plays a flute; the second, a -sort of pandean pipe; the third, an instrument which is too much -defaced to be recognizable; and the fourth, a bagpipe. Two -harps of a peculiar shape were copied by Sir -Gore Ousely from Persian manuscripts about four -hundred years old resembling, in the principle on -which they are constructed, all other oriental -harps. There existed evidently various kinds of -the <i>chang</i>. It may be remarked here that the -instrument <i>tschenk</i> (or <i>chang</i>) in use at the present -day in Persia, is more like a dulcimer than a -harp. The Arabs adopted the harp from the Persians, -and called it <i>junk</i>. An interesting representation -of a Turkish woman playing the harp -(p. 53) sketched from life by Melchior Lorich in the -seventeenth century, probably exhibits an old Persian <i>chang</i>; for -the Turks derived their music principally from Persia. Here we -have an introduction into Europe of the oriental frame without a -front pillar.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i052" src="images/i052.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The Persians appear to have adopted, at an early period, -smaller musical intervals than semitones. When the Arabs conquered -Persia (<small>A.D.</small> 641) the Persians had already attained a -higher degree of civilisation than their conquerors. The latter -found in Persia the cultivation of music considerably in advance -of their own, and the musical instruments superior also. They -soon adopted the Persian instruments, and there can be no doubt -that the musical system exhibited by the earliest Arab writers -whose works on the theory of music have been preserved was -based upon an older system of the Persians. In these works the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">53</span> -octave is divided in seventeen <i>one-third-tones</i>—intervals which are -still made use of in the east. Some of the Arabian instruments -are constructed so as to enable the performer to produce -the intervals with exactness. The frets on the lute and -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">54</span> -tamboura, for instance, are regulated with a view to this -object.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i053" src="images/i053.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The Arabs had to some extent become acquainted with many -of the Persian instruments before the time of their conquest of -Persia. An Arab musician of the name of Nadr Ben el-Hares -Ben Kelde is recorded as having been sent to the Persian king -Khosroo Purviz, in the sixth century, for the purpose of learning -Persian singing and performing on the lute. Through him, it is -said, the lute was brought to Mekka. Saib Chatir, the son of -a Persian, is spoken of as the first performer on the lute in -Medina, <small>A.D.</small> 682; and of an Arab lutist, Ebn Soreidsch from -Mekka, <small>A.D.</small> 683, it is especially mentioned that he played in the -Persian style; evidently the superior one. The lute, <i>el-oud</i>, had -before the tenth century only four strings, or four pairs producing -four tones, each tone having two strings tuned in unison. About -the tenth century a string for a fifth tone was added. The strings -were made of silk neatly twisted. The neck of the instrument -was provided with frets of string, which were carefully regulated -according to the system of seventeen intervals in the compass of -an octave before mentioned. Other favourite stringed instruments -were the <i>tamboura</i>, a kind of lute with a long neck, and the -<i>kanoon</i>, a kind of dulcimer strung with lamb’s gut strings (generally -three in unison for each tone) and played upon with two -little plectra which the performer had fastened to his fingers. The -<i>kanoon</i> is likewise still in use in countries inhabited by Mahomedans. -The engraving, taken from a Persian painting at -Teheran, represents an old Persian <i>santir</i>, the prototype of our -dulcimer, mounted with wire strings and played upon with two -slightly curved sticks.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i055" src="images/i055.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Al-Farabi, one of the earliest Arabian musical theorists known, -who lived in the beginning of the tenth century, does not allude -to the fiddle-bow. This is noteworthy inasmuch as it seems in -some measure to support the opinion maintained by some historians -that the bow originated in England or Wales. Unfortunately -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">55</span> -we possess no exact descriptions of the Persian and -Arabian instruments between the tenth and fourteenth centuries, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">56</span> -otherwise we should probably have earlier accounts of -some instrument of the violin kind in Persia. Ash-shakandi, -who lived in Spain about <small>A.D.</small> 1200, mentions the <i>rebab</i>, which -may have been in use for centuries without having been thought -worthy of notice on account of its rudeness. Persian writers of -the fourteenth century speak of two instruments of the violin -class, viz., the <i>rebab</i> and the <i>kemangeh</i>. As -regards the <i>kemangeh</i>, the Arabs themselves -assert that they obtained it from Persia, and -their statement appears all the more worthy -of belief from the fact that both names, -<i>rebab</i> and <i>kemangeh</i>, are originally Persian. -We engrave the <i>rebab</i> from an example at -South Kensington.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i056" src="images/i056.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The <i>nay</i>, a flute, and the <i>surnay</i>, a -species of oboe, are still popular in the east.</p> - -<p>The Arabs must have been indefatigable -constructors of musical instruments. Kiesewetter -gives a list of above two hundred -names of Arabian instruments, and this does -not include many known to us through -Spanish historians. A careful investigation of the musical -instruments of the Arabs during their sojourn in Spain is -particularly interesting to the student of mediæval music, inasmuch -as it reveals the eastern origin of many instruments which -are generally regarded as European inventions. Introduced into -Spain by the Saracens and the Moors they were gradually diffused -towards northern Europe. The English, for instance, adopted -not only the Moorish dance (morrice dance) but also the <i>kuitra</i> -(gittern), the <i>el-oud</i> (lute), the <i>rebab</i> (rebec), the <i>nakkarah</i> (naker), -and several others. In an old Cornish sacred drama, supposed -to date from the fourteenth century, we have in an enumeration -of musical instruments the <i>nakrys</i>, designating “kettle-drums.” It -must be remembered that the Cornish language, which has now -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">57</span> -become obsolete, was nearly akin to the Welsh. Indeed, names -of musical instruments derived from the Moors in Spain occur in -almost every European language.</p> - -<p>Not a few fanciful stories are traditionally preserved among -the Arabs testifying to the wonderful effects they ascribed to the -power of their instrumental performances. One example will -suffice. Al-Farabi had acquired his proficiency in Spain, in one -of the schools at Cordova which flourished as early as towards -the end of the ninth century: and his reputation became so great -that ultimately it extended to Asia. The mighty caliph of Bagdad -himself desired to hear the celebrated musician, and sent messengers -to Spain with instructions to offer rich presents to him and -to convey him to the court. But Al-Farabi feared that if he went -he should be retained in Asia, and should never again see the -home to which he felt deeply attached. At last he resolved -to disguise himself, and ventured to undertake the journey which -promised him a rich harvest. Dressed in a mean costume, he -made his appearance at the court just at the time when the caliph -was being entertained with his daily concert. Al-Farabi, unknown -to everyone, was permitted to exhibit his skill on the lute. -Scarcer had he commenced his performance in a certain musical -mode when he set all his audience laughing aloud, notwithstanding -the efforts of the courtiers to suppress so unbecoming an -exhibition of mirth in the royal presence. In truth, even the -caliph himself was compelled to burst out into a fit of laughter. -Presently the performer changed to another mode, and the effect -was that immediately all his hearers began to sigh, and soon tears -of sadness replaced the previous tears of mirth. Again he played -in another mode, which excited his audience to such a rage that -they would have fought each other if he, seeing the danger, had -not directly gone over to an appeasing mode. After this wonderful -exhibition of his skill Al-Farabi concluded in a mode which -had the effect of making his listeners fall into a profound sleep, -during which he took his departure. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">58</span></p> - -<p>It will be seen that this incident is almost identical with one -recorded as having happened about twelve hundred years earlier -at the court of Alexander the great, and which forms the subject of -Dryden’s “Alexander’s Feast.” The distinguished flutist Timotheus -successively aroused and subdued different passions by -changing the musical modes during his performance, exactly in -the same way as did Al-Farabi. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">59</span></p> - -<h3 id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</h3> - -<h4><span class="smcap">The American Indians.</span></h4> - -<p>If the preserved antiquities of the American Indians, dating from -a period anterior to our discovery of the western hemisphere, -possess an extraordinary interest because they afford trustworthy -evidence of the degree of progress which the aborigines had -attained in the cultivation of the arts and in their social condition -before they came in contact with Europeans, it must be admitted -that the ancient musical instruments of the American Indians are -also worthy of examination. Several of them are constructed in a -manner which, in some degree, reveals the characteristics of the -musical system prevalent among the people who used the instruments. -And although most of these interesting relics, which have -been obtained from tombs and other hiding-places, may not be of -great antiquity, it has been satisfactorily ascertained that they are -genuine contrivances of the Indians before they were influenced -by European civilization.</p> - -<p>Some account of these relics is therefore likely to prove of -interest also to the ethnologist, especially as several facts may -perhaps be found of assistance in elucidating the still unsolved -problem as to the probable original connection of the American -with Asiatic races.</p> - -<p>Among the instruments of the Aztecs in Mexico and of the -Peruvians none have been found so frequently, and have been -preserved in their former condition so unaltered, as pipes and -flutes. They are generally made of pottery or of bone, substances -which are unsuitable for the construction of most other instruments, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">60</span> -but which are remarkably well qualified to withstand the -decaying influence of time. There is, therefore, no reason to -conclude from the frequent occurrence of such instruments that -they were more common than other kinds of which specimens -have rarely been discovered.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i060" src="images/i060.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The Mexicans possessed a small whistle formed of baked clay, -a considerable number of which have been found. Some specimens -(of which we give engravings) are singularly grotesque in -shape, representing caricatures of the human face and figure, -birds, beasts, and flowers. Some were provided at the top with a -finger-hole which, when closed, altered the pitch of the sound, so -that two different tones were producible on the instrument. -Others had a little ball of baked clay lying loose inside the air-chamber. -When the instrument was blown the current of air set -the ball in a vibrating motion, thereby causing a shrill and whirring -sound. A similar contrivance is sometimes made use of by -Englishmen for conveying signals. The Mexican whistle most -likely served principally the same purpose, but it may possibly -have been used also in musical entertainments. In the Russian -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">61</span> -horn band each musician is restricted to a single tone; and -similar combinations of performers—only, of course, much more -rude—have been witnessed by travellers among some tribes in -Africa and America.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i061a" src="images/i061a.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Rather more complete than the above specimens are some of -the whistles and small pipes which have been found in graves of -the Indians -of Chiriqui -in central -America. -The pipe or -whistle which -is represented -in the accompanying -engraving appears, -to judge from the somewhat obscure description transmitted -to us, to possess about half a dozen tones. It is of pottery, painted -in red and black on a cream-coloured ground, and in length about -five inches. Among the instruments of this kind from central -America the most complete have four finger-holes. By means -of three the following four sounds (including the sound which -is produced when none of the holes are closed) can be -emitted: <img src="images/i061b.jpg" alt="" /> the fourth finger-hole, when -closed, has the effect of lowering the pitch a semitone. By a -particular process two or three lower notes are obtainable.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i062b" src="images/i062b.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i062c" src="images/i062c.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The pipe of the Aztecs, which is called by the Mexican -Spaniards <i>pito</i>, somewhat resembled our flageolet: the material -was a reddish pottery, and it was provided with four finger-holes. -Although among about half a dozen specimens which -the writer has examined some are considerably larger than -others they all have, singularly enough, the same pitch of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">62</span> -sound. The smallest is about six inches in length, and the -largest about nine inches. Several <i>pitos</i> have been found in a -remarkably well-preserved condition. They are easy to blow, -and their order of intervals is in conformity with the pentatonic -scale, thus: <img src="images/i062a.jpg" alt="" /> The usual shape of -the <i>pito</i> is that here represented; showing the upper side of one -pipe, and a side view of another. A specimen of a less common -shape, also engraved, is in the British museum. Indications -suggestive of the popular estimation in which the flute (or -perhaps, more strictly speaking, the pipe) was held by the Aztecs -are not wanting. It was played in religious observances and -we find it referred to allegorically in orations delivered on solemn -occasions. For instance, at the religious festival which was held -in honour of Tezcatlepoca—a divinity depicted as a handsome -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">63</span> -youth, and considered second only to the supreme being—a -young man was sacrificed who, in preparation for the ceremony, -had been instructed in the art of playing the flute. Twenty days -before his death four young girls, named after the principal -goddesses, were given to him as companions; and when the -hour arrived in which he was to be sacrificed he observed the -established symbolical rite of breaking a flute on each of the -steps, as he ascended the temple.</p> - -<p>Again, at the public ceremonies which took place on the -accession of a prince to the throne the new monarch addressed a -prayer to the god, in which occurred the following allegorical -expression:—“I am thy flute; reveal to me thy will; breathe into -me thy breath like into a flute, as thou hast done to my predecessors -on the throne. As thou hast opened their eyes, their ears, -and their mouth to utter what is good, so likewise do to me. I -resign myself entirely to thy guidance.” Similar sentences occur -in the orations addressed to the monarch. In reading them one -can hardly fail to be reminded of Hamlet’s reflections addressed -to Guildenstern, when the servile courtier expresses his inability -to “govern the ventages” of the pipe and to make the instrument -“discourse most eloquent music,” which the prince bids him -to do.</p> - -<p>M. de Castelnau in his “Expédition dans l’Amérique” gives -among the illustrations of objects discovered in ancient Peruvian -tombs a flute made of a human bone. It has four finger-holes at -its upper surface and appears to have been blown into at one -end. Two bone-flutes, in appearance similar to the engraving -given by M. de Castelnau, which have been disinterred at Truxillo -are deposited in the British museum. They are about six inches -in length, and each is provided with five finger-holes. One of -these has all the holes at its upper side, and one of the holes is -considerably smaller than the rest. The specimen which we -engrave (p. 64) is ornamented with some simple designs in black.</p> - -<p>The other has four holes at its upper side and one underneath, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">64</span> -the latter being placed near to the end at which the instrument -evidently was blown. In the aperture of this end some remains -of a hardened paste, or resinous substance, are still preserved. -This substance probably was inserted for the purpose of narrowing -the end of the tube, in order to facilitate the producing of -the sounds. The same contrivance is still resorted to in the construction -of the bone-flutes by some Indian tribes in Guiana. The -bones of slain enemies appear to have been considered especially -appropriate for such flutes. The Araucanians, having killed a -prisoner, made flutes of his bones, and danced and “thundered -out their dreadful war-songs, accompanied by the mournful sounds -of these horrid instruments.” Alonso de Ovalle says of the -Indians in Chili: “Their flutes, which they play upon in their -dances, are made of the bones of the Spaniards and other -enemies whom they have overcome in war. This they do by -way of triumph and glory for their victory. They make them -likewise of bones of animals; but the warriors dance only to the -flutes made of their enemies.” The Mexicans and Peruvians obviously -possessed a great variety of pipes and flutes, some of which -are still in use among certain Indian tribes. Those which were -found in the famous ruins at Palenque are deposited in the -museum in Mexico. They are:—The <i>cuyvi</i>, a pipe on which -only five tones were producible; the <i>huayllaca</i>, a sort of flageolet; -the <i>pincullu</i>, a flute; and the <i>chayna</i>, which is described as “a -flute whose lugubrious and melancholy tones filled the heart with -indescribable sadness, and brought involuntary tears into the -eyes.” It was perhaps a kind of oboe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i064" src="images/i064.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The Peruvians had the syrinx, which they called <i>huayra-puhura</i>. -Some clue to the proper meaning of this name may perhaps be -gathered from the word <i>huayra</i>, which signifies “air.” The -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">65</span> -<i>huayra-puhura</i> was made of cane, and also of stone. Sometimes -an embroidery of needle-work was attached to it as an ornament. -One specimen which has been disinterred is adorned with twelve -figures precisely resembling Maltese crosses. The cross is a figure -which may readily be supposed to suggest itself very naturally; -and it is therefore not so surprising, as it may appear at a first -glance, that the American Indians used it not unfrequently in -designs and sculptures before they came in contact with -Christians.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i065a" src="images/i065a.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The British museum possesses a <i>huayra-puhura</i> consisting of -fourteen reed pipes of a brownish colour, tied -together in two rows by means of thread, so as -to form a double set of seven reeds. Both sets -are almost exactly of the same dimensions and -are placed side by side. The shortest of these -reeds measure three inches, and the longest six -and a half. In one set they are open at the -bottom, and in the other they are closed. Consequently, -octaves are produced. The reader is -probably aware that the closing of a pipe at the -end raises its pitch an octave. Thus, in our organ, -the so-called stopped diapason, a set of closed -pipes, requires tubes of only half the length of -those which constitute the open diapason, although -both these stops produce tones in the same -pitch; the only difference between them being -the quality of sound, which in the former is less bright than in -the latter.</p> - -<p>The tones yielded by the <i>huayra-puhura</i> in question are as -follows: <img src="images/i065b.jpg" alt="" /> The highest octave is -indistinct, owing to some injury done to the shortest tubes; but -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">66</span> -sufficient evidence remains to show that the intervals were purposely -arranged according to the pentatonic scale. This interesting -relic was brought to light from a tomb at Arica.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i066a" src="images/i066a.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Another <i>huayra-puhura</i>, likewise still yielding sounds, was -discovered placed over a corpse in a Peruvian tomb, and was -procured by the French general, Paroissien. This instrument is -made of a greenish stone which is a species of talc, and contains -eight pipes. In the Berlin -museum may be seen a -good plaster cast taken -from this curious relic. The -height is 5⅜ inches, and -its width 6¼ inches. Four -of the tubes have small -lateral finger-holes which, -when closed, lower the -pitch a semitone. These -holes are on the second, -fourth, sixth, and seventh -pipe, as shown in the engraving. When the holes are open, the -tones are: <img src="images/i066b.jpg" alt="" /> and when they are closed: -<img src="images/i066c.jpg" alt="" /> The other tubes have unalterable tones. -The following notation exhibits all the tones producible on the -instrument:</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img src="images/i066d.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The musician is likely to speculate what could have induced the -Peruvians to adopt so strange a series of intervals: it seems -rather arbitrary than premeditated. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">67</span></p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i067" src="images/i067.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>If (and this seems not to be improbable) the Peruvians considered -those tones which are produced by closing the lateral -holes as additional intervals only, a variety of -scales or kinds of <i>modes</i> may have been contrived -by the admission of one or other of -these tones among the essential ones. If we -may conjecture from some remarks of Garcilasso -de la Vega, and other historians, the -Peruvians appear to have used different -orders of intervals for different kinds of tunes, -in a way similar to what we find to be the -case with certain Asiatic nations. We are -told for instance “Each poem, or song, had -its appropriate tune, and they could not put -two different songs to one tune; and this -was why the enamoured gallant, making -music at night on his flute, with the tune -which belonged to it, told the lady and all -the world the joy or sorrow of his soul, the -favour or ill-will which he possessed; so that -it might be said that he spoke by the flute.” -Thus also the Hindus have certain tunes for -certain seasons and fixed occasions, and likewise -a number of different modes or scales -used for particular kinds of songs.</p> - -<p>Trumpets are often mentioned by writers -who have recorded the manners and customs -of the Indians at the time of the discovery -of America. There are, however, scarcely -any illustrations to be relied on of these instruments transmitted -to us. The Conch was frequently used as a trumpet for conveying -signals in war.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i068" src="images/i068.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The engraving represents a kind of trumpet made of wood, and -nearly seven feet in length, which Gumilla found among the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">68</span> -Indians in the vicinity of the Orinoco. It somewhat resembles -the <i>juruparis</i>, a mysterious instrument of the Indians on the Rio -Haupés, a tributary of the Rio Negro, south America. The -<i>juruparis</i> is regarded as an object of great veneration. Women -are never permitted to see it. So stringent is this law that any -woman obtaining a sight of it is put to death—usually by poison. -No youths are allowed to see it until they have been subjected to -a series of initiatory fastings and scourgings. The <i>juruparis</i> is -usually kept hidden in the bed of some stream, deep in the forest; -and no one dares to drink out of that sanctified stream, or to -bathe in its water. At feasts the <i>juruparis</i> is brought out during -the night, and is blown outside the houses of entertainment. The -inner portion of the instrument consists of a tube made of slips of -the Paxiaba palm (<i>Triartea exorrhiza</i>). When the Indians are -about to use the instrument they nearly close the upper end of -the tube with clay, and also tie above the oblong square hole -(shown in the engraving) a portion of the leaf of the Uaruma, one of -the arrow-root family. Round the tube are wrapped long strips -of the tough bark of the Jébaru (<i>Parivoa grandiflora</i>). This -covering descends in folds below the tube. The length of -the instrument is from four to five feet. The illustration, which -exhibits the <i>juruparis</i> with its cover and without it, has been -taken from a specimen in the museum at Kew gardens. The -mysteries connected with this trumpet are evidently founded -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">69</span> -on an old tradition from prehistoric Indian ancestors. <i>Jurupari</i> -means “demon”; and with several Indian tribes on the Amazon -customs and ceremonies still prevail in honour of Jurupari.</p> - -<p>The Caroados, an Indian tribe in Brazil, have a war trumpet -which closely resembles the <i>juruparis</i>. With this people it is the -custom for the chief to give on his war trumpet the signal for -battle, and to continue blowing as long as he wishes the battle to -last. The trumpet is made of wood, and its sound is described -by travellers as very deep but rather pleasant. The sound is -easily produced, and its continuance does not require much -exertion; but a peculiar vibration of the lips is necessary which -requires practice. Another trumpet, the <i>turé</i>, is common with -many Indian tribes on the Amazon who use it chiefly in war. -It is made of a long and thick bamboo, and there is a split reed -in the mouthpiece. It therefore partakes rather of the character -of an oboe or clarinet. Its tone is described as loud and harsh. -The <i>turé</i> is especially used by the sentinels of predatory hordes, who, -mounted on a lofty tree, give the signal of attack to their comrades.</p> - -<p>Again, the aborigines in Mexico had a curious contrivance of -this kind, the <i>acocotl</i>, now more usually called <i>clarin</i>. The -former word is its old Indian name, and the latter appears to -have been first given to the instrument by the Spaniards. The -<i>acocotl</i> consists of a very thin tube from eight to ten feet in -length, and generally not quite straight but with some irregular -curves. This tube, which is often not thicker than a couple of -inches in diameter, terminates at one end in a sort of bell, and -has at the other end a small mouthpiece resembling in shape that -of a clarinet. The tube is made of the dry stalk of a plant which -is common in Mexico, and which likewise the Indians call <i>acocotl</i>. -The most singular characteristic of the instrument is that the performer -does not blow into it, but inhales the air through it; or -rather, he produces the sound by sucking the mouthpiece. It is -said to require strong lungs to perform on the <i>acocotl</i> effectively -according to Indian notions of taste. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">70</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i070" src="images/i070.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The <i>botuto</i>, which Gumilla saw used by some tribes near the -river Orinoco (of which we engrave two examples), was evidently -an ancient Indian contrivance, but appears to have fallen almost -into oblivion during the last two centuries. It was made of baked -clay and was commonly from three to four feet long: but some -trumpets of this kind were of enormous size. The <i>botuto</i> with -two bellies was usually made thicker than that with three bellies -and emitted a deeper sound, which is described as having been -really terrific. These trumpets were used on occasions of mourning -and funeral dances. Alexander von Humboldt saw the <i>botuto</i> -among some Indian tribes near the river Orinoco.</p> - -<p>Besides those which have been noticed, other antique wind -instruments of the Indians are mentioned by historians; but -the descriptions given of them are too superficial to convey a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">71</span> -distinct notion as to their form and purport. Several of these -barbarous contrivances scarcely deserve to be classed with musical -instruments. This may, for instance, be said of certain musical -jars or earthen vessels producing sounds, which the Peruvians -constructed for their amusement. These vessels were made -double; and the sounds imitated the cries of animals or birds. -A similar contrivance of the Indians in Chili, preserved in the -museum at Santiago, is described by the traveller S. S. Hill as -follows:—“It consists of two earthen vessels in the form of our -india-rubber bottles, but somewhat larger, with a flat tube from -four to six inches in length, uniting their necks near the top and -slightly curved upwards, and with a small hole on the upper side -one third of the length of the tube from one side of the necks. -To produce the sounds the bottles were filled with water and -suspended to the bough of a tree, or to a beam, by a string -attached to the middle of the curved tube, and then swung -backwards and forwards in such a manner as to cause each end -to be alternately the highest and lowest, so that the water might -pass backwards and forwards from one bottle to the other through -the tube between them. By this means soothing sounds were -produced which, it is said, were employed to lull to repose the -drowsy chiefs who usually slept away the hottest hours of the day. -In the meantime, as the bottles were porous, the water within -them diminished by evaporation, and the sound died gradually -away.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i072" src="images/i072.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>As regards instruments of percussion, a kind of drum deserves -special notice on account of the ingenuity evinced in its construction. -The Mexicans called it <i>teponaztli</i>. They generally made it -of a single block of very hard wood, somewhat oblong square in -shape, which they hollowed, leaving at each end a solid piece -about three or four inches in thickness, and at its upper side a -kind of sound-board about a quarter of an inch in thickness. In -this sound-board, if it may be called so, they made three incisions; -namely, two running parallel some distance lengthwise of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">72</span> -drum, and a third running across from one of these to the other -just in the centre. By this means they obtained two vibrating -tongues of wood which, when beaten with a stick, produced -sounds as clearly defined as are those of our kettle drums. By -making one of the tongues thinner than the other they ensured -two different sounds, the pitch of which they were enabled to -regulate by shaving off more or less of the wood. The bottom of -the drum they cut almost entirely open. The traveller, M. Nebel, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">73</span> -was told by archæologists in Mexico that these instruments always -contained the interval of a third, but on examining several specimens -which he saw in museums he found some in which the two -sounds stood towards each other in the relation of a fourth; while -in others they constituted a fifth, in others a sixth, and in some -even an octave. This is noteworthy in so far as it points to a -conformity with our diatonic series of intervals, excepting the -seventh.</p> - -<p>The <i>teponaztli</i> (engraved above) was generally carved with -various fanciful and ingenious designs. It was beaten with two -drumsticks covered at the end with an elastic gum, called <i>ule</i>, -which was obtained from the milky juice extracted from the ule-tree. -Some of these drums were small enough to be carried on a -string or strap suspended round the neck of the player; others, -again, measured upwards of five feet in length, and their sound -was so powerful that it could be heard at a distance of three -miles. In some rare instances a specimen of the <i>teponaztli</i> is still -preserved by the Indians in Mexico, especially among tribes who -have been comparatively but little affected by intercourse with -their European aggressors. Herr Heller saw such an instrument -in the hands of the Indians of Huatusco—a village near Mirador -in the Tierra templada, or temperate region, occupying the slopes -of the Cordilleras. Its sound is described as so very loud as to -be distinctly audible at an incredibly great distance. This circumstance, -which has been noticed by several travellers, may perhaps -be owing in some measure -to the condition of the atmosphere -in Mexico.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i073" src="images/i073.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Instruments of percussion constructed -on a principle more or -less similar to the <i>teponaztli</i> were -in use in several other parts of -America, as well as in Mexico. -Oviedo gives a drawing of a drum from San Domingo which, as -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">74</span> -it shows distinctly both the upper and under side of the instrument, -is here inserted.</p> - -<p>The largest kind of Mexican <i>teponaztli</i> appears to have been -generally of a cylindrical shape. Clavigero gives a drawing of -such an instrument. Drums, also, constructed of skin or parchment -in combination with wood were not unknown to the -Indians. Of this description was, for instance, the <i>huehuetl</i> of the -Aztecs in Mexico, which consisted, according to Clavigero, of a -wooden cylinder somewhat above three feet in height, curiously -carved and painted and covered at the top with carefully prepared -deer-skin. And, what appears the most remarkable, the parchment -(we are told) could be tightened or slackened by means of -cords in nearly the same way as with our own drum. The <i>huehuetl</i> -was not beaten with drumsticks but merely struck with the fingers, -and much dexterity was required to strike it in the proper manner. -Oviedo states that the Indians in Cuba had drums which were -stretched with human skin. And Bernal Diaz relates that when -he was with Cortés in Mexico they ascended together the <i>Teocalli</i> -(“House of God”), a large temple in which human sacrifices were -offered by the aborigines; and there the Spanish visitors saw a -large drum which was made, Diaz tells us, with skins of great -serpents. This “hellish instrument,” as he calls it, produced, when -struck, a doleful sound which was so loud that it could be heard -at a distance of two leagues.</p> - -<p>The name of the Peruvian drum was <i>huanca</i>: they had also -an instrument of percussion, called <i>chhilchiles</i>, which appears to -have been a sort of tambourine.</p> - -<p>The rattle was likewise popular with the Indians before the -discovery of America. The Mexicans called it <i>ajacaxtli</i>. In -construction it was similar to the rattle at the present day commonly -used by the Indians. It was oval or round in shape, and -appears to have been usually made of a gourd into which holes -were pierced, and to which a wooden handle was affixed. A -number of little pebbles were enclosed in the hollowed gourd. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">75</span> -They were also made of pottery. The little balls in the <i>ajacaxtli</i> -of pottery, enclosed as they are, may at a first glance appear a -puzzle. Probably, when the rattle was being formed they were -attached to the inside as slightly as possible; and after the clay -had been baked they were detached by means of an implement -passed through the holes.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i075" src="images/i075.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The Tezcucans (or Acolhuans) belonged to the same race as -the Aztecs, whom they greatly surpassed in knowledge and -social refinement. Nezahualcoyotl, a wise monarch of the Tezcucans, -abhorred human sacrifices, and erected a large temple which -he dedicated to “The unknown god, the cause of causes.” This -edifice had a tower nine stories high, on the top of which were -placed a number of musical instruments of various kinds which -were used to summon the worshippers to prayer. Respecting -these instruments especial mention is made of a sonorous metal -which was struck with a mallet. This is stated in a historical -essay written by Ixtlilxochitl, a native of Mexico and of royal -descent, who lived in the beginning of the seventeenth century, -and who may be supposed to have been familiar with the musical -practices of his countrymen. But whether the sonorous metal -alluded to was a gong or a bell is -not clear from the vague record -transmitted to us. That the bell -was known to the Peruvians appears -to be no longer doubtful, -since a small copper specimen -has been found in one of the old -Peruvian tombs. This interesting -relic is now deposited in the -museum at Lima. M. de Castelnau -has published a drawing of -it, which is here reproduced. The -Peruvians called their bells <i>chanrares</i>; it remains questionable -whether this name did not designate rather the so-called horse -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">76</span> -bells, which were certainly known to the Mexicans who called -them <i>yotl</i>. It is noteworthy that these <i>yotl</i> are found figured in -the picture-writings representing the various -objects which the Aztecs used to pay as -tribute to their sovereigns. The collection -of Mexican antiquities in the British museum -contains a cluster of yotl-bells. Being nearly -round, they closely resemble the <i>Schellen</i> -which the Germans are in the habit of -affixing to their horses, particularly in the -winter when they are driving their noiseless -sledges.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i076" src="images/i076.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Again, in south America sonorous stones -are not unknown, and were used in olden -time for musical purposes. The traveller -G. T. Vigne saw among the Indian antiquities -preserved in the town of Cuzco, in -Peru, “a musical instrument of green sonorous -stone, about a foot long, and an inch -and a half wide, flat-sided, pointed at both -ends, and arched at the back, where it was about a quarter -of an inch thick, whence it diminished to an edge, like the -blade of a knife.... In the middle of the back was a -small hole, through which a piece of string was passed; and when -suspended and struck by any hard substance a singularly musical -note was produced.” Humboldt mentions the Amazon-stone, -which on being struck by any hard substance yields a metallic sound. -It was formerly cut by the American Indians into very thin plates, -perforated in the centre and suspended by a string. These plates -were remarkably sonorous. This kind of stone is not, as might -be conjectured from its name, found exclusively near the Amazon. -The name was given to it as well as to the river by the first -European visitors to America, in allusion to the female warriors -respecting whom strange stories are told. The natives pretending, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">77</span> -according to an ancient tradition, that the stone came from the -country of “Women without husbands,” or “Women living alone.”</p> - -<p>As regards the ancient stringed instruments of the American -Indians our information is indeed but scanty. Clavigero says -that the Mexicans were entirely unacquainted with stringed -instruments: a statement the correctness of which is questionable, -considering the stage of civilization to which these people -had attained. At any rate, we generally find one or other kind of -such instruments with nations whose intellectual progress and -social condition are decidedly inferior. The Aztecs had many -claims to the character of a civilized community and (as before said) -the Tezcucans were even more advanced in the cultivation of the -arts and sciences than the Aztecs. “The best histories,” Prescott -observes, “the best poems, the best code of laws, the purest -dialect, were all allowed to be Tezcucan. The Aztecs rivalled -their neighbours in splendour of living, and even in the magnificence -of their structures. They displayed a pomp and ostentatious -pageantry, truly Asiatic.” Unfortunately historians are sometimes -not sufficiently discerning in their communications respecting -musical questions. J. Ranking, in describing the grandeur of the -establishment maintained by Montezuma, says that during the -repasts of this monarch “there was music of fiddle, flute, snail-shell, -a kettle-drum, and other strange instruments.” But as this -writer does not indicate the source whence he drew his information -respecting Montezuma’s orchestra including the fiddle, the -assertion deserves scarcely a passing notice.</p> - -<p>The Peruvians possessed a stringed instrument, called <i>tinya</i>, -which was provided with five or seven strings. To conjecture -from the unsatisfactory account of it transmitted to us, the <i>tinya</i> -appears to have been a kind of guitar. Considering the fragility -of the materials of which such instruments are generally constructed, -it is perhaps not surprising that we do not meet with -any specimens of them in the museums of American antiquities.</p> - -<p>A few remarks will not be out of place here referring to the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">78</span> -musical performances of the ancient Indians; since an acquaintance -with the nature of the performances is likely to afford additional -assistance in appreciating the characteristics of the instruments. -In Peru, where the military system was carefully organised, -each division of the army had its trumpeters, called <i>cqueppacamayo</i>, -and its drummers, called <i>huancarcamayo</i>. When the Inca returned -with his troops victorious from battle his first act was to repair to -the temple of the Sun in order to offer up thanksgiving; and -after the conclusion of this ceremony the people celebrated the -event with festivities, of which music and dancing constituted -a principal part. Musical performances appear to have -been considered indispensable on occasions of public celebrations; -and frequent mention is made of them by historians who -have described the festivals annually observed by the Peruvians.</p> - -<p>About the month of October the Peruvians celebrated a solemn -feast in honour of the dead, at which ceremony they executed -lugubrious songs and plaintive instrumental music. Compositions -of a similar character were performed on occasion of the decease -of a monarch. As soon as it was made known to the people that -their Inca had been “called home to the mansions of his father -the sun” they prepared to celebrate his obsequies with becoming -solemnity. Prescott, in his graphic description of these observances, -says: “At stated intervals, for a year, the people assembled -to renew the expressions of their sorrow; processions were -made displaying the banner of the departed monarch; bards and -minstrels were appointed to chronicle his achievements, and their -songs continued to be rehearsed at high festivals in the presence -of the reigning monarch,—thus stimulating the living by -the glorious example of the dead.” The Peruvians had also particular -agricultural songs, which they were in the habit of singing -while engaged in tilling the lands of the Inca; a duty which -devolved upon the whole nation. The subject of these songs, or -rather hymns, referred especially to the noble deeds and glorious -achievements of the Inca and his dynasty. While thus singing, -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">79</span> -the labourers regulated their work to the rhythm of the music, -thereby ensuring a pleasant excitement and a stimulant in their -occupation, like soldiers regulating their steps to the music of the -military band. These hymns pleased the Spanish invaders so -greatly that they not only adopted several of them but also composed -some in a similar form and style. This appears, however, -to have been the case rather with the poetry than with the -music.</p> - -<p>The name of the Peruvian elegiac songs was <i>haravi</i>. Some -tunes of these songs, pronounced to be genuine specimens, have -been published in recent works; but their genuineness is questionable. -At all events they must have been much tampered -with, as they exhibit exactly the form of the Spanish <i>bolero</i>. Even -allowing that the melodies of these compositions have been -derived from Peruvian <i>harivaris</i>, it is impossible to determine -with any degree of certainty how much in them has been retained -of the original tunes, and how much has been supplied besides -the harmony, which is entirely an addition of the European -arranger. The Peruvians had minstrels, called <i>haravecs</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, “inventors”), -whose occupation it was to compose and to recite the -<i>haravis</i>.</p> - -<p>The Mexicans possessed a class of songs which served as a -record of historical events. Furthermore they had war-songs, -love-songs, and other secular vocal compositions, as well as -sacred chants, in the practice of which boys were instructed by -the priests in order that they might assist in the musical performances -of the temple. It appertained to the office of the -priests to burn incense, and to perform music in the temple at -stated times of the day. The commencement of the religious -observances which took place regularly at sunrise, at mid-day, -at sunset, and at midnight, was announced by signals blown on -trumpets and pipes. Persons of high position retained in their -service professional musicians whose duty it was to compose -ballads, and to perform vocal music with instrumental accompaniment. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">80</span> -The nobles themselves, and occasionally even the -monarch, not unfrequently delighted in composing ballads and -odes.</p> - -<p>Especially to be noticed is the institution termed “Council of -music,” which the wise monarch Nezahualcoyotl founded in -Tezcuco. This institution was not intended exclusively for promoting -the cultivation of music; its aim comprised the advancement -of various arts, and of sciences such as history, astronomy, -&c. In fact, it was an academy for general education. -Probably no better evidence could be cited testifying to the -remarkable intellectual attainments of the Mexican Indians before -the discovery of America than this council of music. Although -in some respects it appears to have resembled the board of music -of the Chinese, it was planned on a more enlightened and more -comprehensive principle. The Chinese “board of music,” called -<i>Yo Poo</i>, is an office connected with the <i>Lé Poo</i> or “board of -rites,” established by the imperial government at Peking. The -principal object of the board of rites is to regulate the ceremonies -on occasions of sacrifices offered to the gods; of festivals and -certain court solemnities; of military reviews; of presentations, -congratulations, marriages, deaths, burials,—in short, concerning -almost every possible event in social and public life.</p> - -<p>The reader is probably aware that in one of the various hypotheses -which have been advanced respecting the Asiatic origin -of the American Indians China is assigned to them as their -ancient home. Some historians suppose them to be emigrants -from Mongolia, Thibet, or Hindustan; others maintain that they -are the offspring of Phœnician colonists who settled in central -America. Even more curious are the arguments of certain -inquirers who have no doubt whatever that the ancestors of the -American Indians were the lost ten tribes of Israel, of whom -since about the time of the Babylonian captivity history is silent. -Whatever may be thought as to which particular one of these -speculations hits the truth, they certainly have all proved useful -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">81</span> -in so far as they have made ethnologists more exactly acquainted -with the habits and predilections of the American aborigines than -would otherwise have been the case. For, as the advocates of -each hypothesis have carefully collected and adduced every -evidence they were able to obtain tending to support their -views, the result is that (so to say) no stone has been left unturned. -Nevertheless, any such hints as suggest themselves -from an examination of musical instruments have hitherto remained -unheeded. It may therefore perhaps interest the reader -to have his attention drawn to a few suggestive similarities occurring -between instruments of the American Indians and of certain -nations inhabiting the eastern hemisphere.</p> - -<p>We have seen that the Mexican pipe and the Peruvian syrinx -were purposely constructed so as to produce the intervals of the -pentatonic scale only. There are some additional indications of -this scale having been at one time in use with the American -Indians. For instance, the music of the Peruvian dance <i>cachua</i> -is described as having been very similar to some Scotch national -dances; and the most conspicuous characteristics of the Scotch -tunes are occasioned by the frequently exclusive employment of -intervals appertaining to the pentatonic scale. We find precisely -the same series of intervals adopted on certain Chinese instruments, -and evidences are not wanting of the pentatonic scale having -been popular among various races in Asia at a remote period. -The series of intervals appertaining to the Chiriqui pipe, mentioned -page 61, consisted of a semitone and two whole tones, like the -<i>tetrachord</i> of the ancient Greeks.</p> - -<p>In the Peruvian <i>huayra-puhura</i> made of talc some of the pipes -possess lateral holes. This contrivance, which is rather unusual, -occurs on the Chinese <i>cheng</i>. The <i>chayna</i>, mentioned page 64, -seems to have been provided with a reed, like the oboe: and in -Hindustan we find a species of oboe called <i>shehna</i>. The <i>turé</i> of -the Indian tribes on the Amazon, mentioned page 69, reminds us -of the trumpets <i>tooree</i>, or <i>tootooree</i>, of the Hindus. The name -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">82</span> -appears to have been known also to the Arabs; but there is no -indication whatever of its having been transmitted to the peninsula -by the Moors, and afterwards to south America by the -Portuguese and Spaniards.</p> - -<p>The wooden tongues in the drum <i>teponaztli</i> may be considered -as a contrivance exclusively of the ancient American Indians. -Nevertheless a construction nearly akin to it may be observed in -certain drums of the Tonga and Feejee islanders, and of the -natives of some islands in Torres strait. Likewise some negro -tribes in western and central Africa have certain instruments -of percussion which are constructed on a principle somewhat -reminding us of the <i>teponaztli</i>. The method of bracing the drum -by means of cords, as exhibited in the <i>huehueil</i> of the Mexican -Indians, is evidently of very high antiquity in the east. It was -known to the ancient Egyptians.</p> - -<p>Rattles, pandean pipes made of reed, and conch trumpets, are -found almost all over the world, wherever the materials of which -they are constructed are easily obtainable. Still, it may be -noteworthy that the Mexicans employed the conch trumpet in -their religious observances apparently in much the same way as it -is used in the Buddhist worship of the Thibetans and Kalmuks.</p> - -<p>As regards the sonorous metal in the great temple at Tezcuco -some inquirers are sure that it was a gong: but it must be borne -in mind that these inquirers detect everywhere traces proving an -invasion of the Mongols, which they maintain to have happened -about six hundred years ago. Had they been acquainted with the -little Peruvian bell (engraved on page 75) they would have had -more tangible musical evidence in support of their theory than -the supposed gong; for this bell certainly bears a suggestive -resemblance to the little hand-bell which the Buddhists use in -their religious ceremonies.</p> - -<p>The Peruvians interpolated certain songs, especially those -which they were in the habit of singing while cultivating the -fields, with the word <i>hailli</i> which signified “Triumph.” As the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">83</span> -subject of these compositions was principally the glorification of -the Inca, the burden <i>hailli</i> is perhaps all the more likely to -remind Europeans of the Hebrew <i>hallelujah</i>. Moreover, Adair, -who lived among the Indians of north America during a period of -about forty years, speaks of some other words which he found -used as burdens in hymns sung on solemn occasions, and which -appeared to him to correspond with certain Hebrew words of a -sacred import.</p> - -<p>As regards the musical accomplishments of the Indian tribes at -the present day they are far below the standard which we have -found among their ancestors. A period of three hundred years of -oppression has evidently had the effect of subduing the melodious -expressions of happiness and contentedness which in former times -appear to have been quite as prevalent with the Indians as they -generally are with independent and flourishing nations. The -innate talent for music evinced by those of the North American -Indians who were converted to Christianity soon after the emigration -of the puritans to New England is very favourably -commented on by some old writers. In the year 1661 John Elliot -published a translation of the psalms into Indian verse. The -singing of these metrical psalms by the Indian converts in their -places of worship appears to have been actually superior to the -sacred vocal performances of their Christian brethren from -Europe; for we find it described by several witnesses as -“excellent” and “most ravishing.”</p> - -<p>In other parts of America the catholic priests from Spain did -not neglect to turn to account the susceptibility of the Indians for -music. Thus, in central America the Dominicans composed as -early as in the middle of the sixteenth century a sacred poem in -the Guatemalian dialect containing a narrative of the most -important events recorded in the Bible. This production they -sang to the natives, and to enhance the effect they accompanied -the singing with musical instruments. The alluring music soon -captivated the heart of a powerful cazique, who was thus induced -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">84</span> -to adopt the doctrines embodied in the composition, and to -diffuse them among his subjects who likewise delighted in the -performances. In Peru a similar experiment, resorted to by the -priests who accompanied Pizarro’s expedition, proved equally -successful. They dramatized certain scenes in the life of Christ -and represented them with music, which so greatly fascinated the -Indians that many of them readily embraced the new faith. Nor -are these entertainments dispensed with even at the present day -by the Indian Christians, especially in the village churches of the -Sierra in Peru; and as several religious ceremonies have been -retained by these people from their heathen forefathers, it may be -conjectured that their sacred musical performances also retain -much of their ancient heathen character.</p> - -<p>Most of the musical instruments found among the American -Indians at the present day are evidently genuine old Indian -contrivances as they existed long before the discovery of America. -Take, for example, the peculiarly shaped rattles, drums, flutes, -and whistles of the North American Indians, of which some -specimens in the Kensington museum are described in the large -catalogue. A few African instruments, introduced by the negro -slaves, are now occasionally found in the hands of the Indians, -and have been by some travellers erroneously described as -genuine Indian inventions. This is the case with the African -<i>marimba</i>, which has become rather popular with the natives of -Guatemala in central America: but such adaptations are very -easily discernible. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">85</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</h2> - -<h3><span class="smcap">European Nations during the Middle Ages.</span></h3> - -<p>Many representations of musical instruments of the middle ages -have been preserved in manuscripts, as well as in sculptures and -paintings forming ornamental portions of churches and other -buildings. Valuable facts and hints are obtainable from these -evidences, provided they are judiciously selected and carefully -examined. The subject is, however, so large that only a few -observations on the most interesting instruments can be offered -here. Unfortunately there still prevails much uncertainty respecting -several of the earliest representations as to the precise century -from which they date, and there is reason to believe that in some -instances the archæological zeal of musical investigators has -assigned a higher antiquity to such discoveries than can be -satisfactorily proved.</p> - -<p>It appears certain that the most ancient European instruments -known to us were in form and construction more like the Asiatic -than was the case with later ones. Before a nation has attained to a -rather high degree of civilisation its progress in the cultivation of -music, as an art, is very slow indeed. The instruments found at -the present day in Asia are scarcely superior to those which were -in use among oriental nations about three thousand years ago. It -is, therefore, perhaps not surprising that no material improvement -is perceptible in the construction of the instruments of European -countries during the lapse of nearly a thousand years. True, -evidences to be relied on referring to the first five or six centuries -of the Christian era are but scanty; although indications are not -wanting which may help the reflecting musician. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">86</span></p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i086a" src="images/i086a.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i086b" src="images/i086b.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>There are some early monuments of Christian art dating from -the fourth century in which the lyre is represented. In one of -them Christ is depicted as Apollo touching the lyre. This -instrument occurs at an early period in western Europe as used in -popular pastimes. In an Anglo-saxon manuscript of the ninth -century in the British museum (Cleopatra C. VIII.) are the -figures of two gleemen, one playing the lyre and the other a -double-pipe. M. de Coussemaker has published in the “Annales -Archéologiques” the figure of a crowned personage playing the -lyre, which he found in a manuscript of the ninth or tenth -century in the library at Angers. The player twangs the strings -with his fingers, while the Anglo-saxon gleeman before mentioned -uses a plectrum.</p> - -<p><i>Cithara</i> was a name -applied to several stringed -instruments greatly varying -in form, power of -sound, and compass. The illustration represents a cithara from -a manuscript of the -ninth century, formerly -in the library of the -great monastery of St. -Blasius in the Black -Forest. When in the -year 1768 the monastery -was destroyed by -fire, this valuable book -perished in the flames; -fortunately the celebrated -abbot Gerbert -possessed tracings of -the illustrations, which -were saved from destruction. He published them, in the -year 1774, in his work “De cantu et musica sacra.” Several -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">87</span> -illustrations in the following pages, it will be seen, have been -derived from this interesting source. As the older works -on music were generally written in Latin we do not learn -from them the popular names of the instruments; the writers -merely adopted such Latin names as they thought the most -appropriate. Thus, for instance, a very simple stringed instrument -of a triangular -shape, and a somewhat -similar one of -a square shape were -designated by the -name of <i>psalterium</i>; -and we further give a -woodcut of the square -kind (p. 86), and of a <i>cithara</i> (above) from the same manuscript.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i087a" src="images/i087a.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i087b" src="images/i087b.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>This last instrument is evidently an improvement upon the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">88</span> -triangular psalterium, because it has a sort of small sound-board at -the top. Scarcely better, with regard to acoustics, appears to have -been the instrument designated as <i>nablum</i>, which we engrave -(p. 87) from a manuscript of the ninth century at Angers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i088" src="images/i088.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>A small psalterium with strings placed over a sound-board was -apparently the prototype of the <i>citole</i>; a kind of dulcimer which -was played with the fingers. The names were not only often -vaguely applied by the mediæval writers but they changed also -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">89</span> -in almost every century. The psalterium, or psalterion (Italian -<i>salterio</i>, English <i>psaltery</i>), of the fourteenth century and later had -the trapezium shape of the dulcimer.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i089" src="images/i089.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The Anglo-saxons frequently accompanied their vocal effusions -with a harp, more or less triangular in shape,—an instrument -which may be considered -rather as constituting the -transition of the lyre into -the harp. The representation -of king David playing -the harp is from an -Anglo-saxon manuscript -of the beginning of the -eleventh century, in the -British museum. The -harp was especially popular -in central and northern -Europe, and was the -favourite instrument of -the German and Celtic -bards and of the Scandinavian -skalds. In the -next illustration from the -manuscript of the monastery -of St. Blasius twelve -strings and two sound holes are given to it. A harp similar in -form and size, but without the front pillar, was known to the -ancient Egyptians. Perhaps the addition was also non-existent -in the earliest specimens appertaining to European nations; and -a sculptured figure of a small harp constructed like the ancient -eastern harp has been discovered in the old church of Ullard in the -county of Kilkenny. Of this curious relic, which is said to date -from a period anterior to the year 800, a fac-simile taken from -Bunting’s “Ancient Music of Ireland” is given (p. 91). As Bunting -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">90</span> -was the first who drew attention to this sculpture his account of it -may interest the reader. “The drawing” he says “is taken from -one of the ornamental compartments of a sculptured cross, at the old -church of Ullard. From the style of the workmanship, as well as -from the worn condition of the cross, it seems older than the similar -monument at Monasterboice which is known to have been set up -before the year 830. The sculpture is rude; the circular rim -which binds the arms of the cross together is not pierced in the -quadrants, and many of the figures originally in relievo are now -wholly abraded. It is difficult to determine whether the number -of strings represented is six or seven; but, as has been already -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">91</span> -remarked, accuracy in this respect cannot be expected either in -sculptures or in many picturesque drawings.” The Finns -had a harp (<i>harpu</i>, <i>kantele</i>) with a -similar frame, devoid of a front pillar, -still in use until the commencement of -the present century.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i090" src="images/i090.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i091a" src="images/i091a.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i091b" src="images/i091b.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>One of the most interesting stringed -instruments of the middle ages is the -<i>rotta</i> (German, <i>rotte</i>; English, <i>rote</i>). It -was sounded by twanging the strings, -and also by the application of the bow. -The first method was, of course, the -elder one. There can hardly be a doubt -that when the bow came into use it was -applied to certain popular instruments -which previously had been treated like -the <i>cithara</i> or the <i>psalterium</i>. The -Hindus at the present day use their <i>suroda</i> sometimes as a -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">92</span> -lute and sometimes as a fiddle. In some measure we do the -same with the violin by playing occasionally <i>pizzicato</i>. The <i>rotta</i> -(shown p. 91) from the manuscript of St. Blasius is called -in Gerbert’s work <i>cithara teutonica</i>, while the harp is called -<i>cithara anglica</i>; from which -it would appear that the -former was regarded as pre-eminently -a German instrument. -Possibly its name -may have been originally -<i>chrotta</i> and the continental -nations may have adopted it -from the Celtic races of the -British isles, dropping the -guttural sound. This hypothesis -is, however, one of -those which have been advanced -by some musical historians -without any satisfactory -evidence.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i092" src="images/i092.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i093" src="images/i093.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>We engrave also another -representation of David playing -on the <i>rotta</i>, from a -psalter of the seventh century -in the British museum (Cott. -Vesp. A. I). According to -tradition, this psalter is one -of the manuscripts which were sent by pope Gregory to St. -Augustine. The instrument much resembles the lyre in the hand -of the musician (see p. 22) who is supposed to be a Hebrew of the -time of Joseph. In the <i>rotta</i> the ancient Asiatic lyre is easily to -be recognized. An illumination of king David playing the <i>rotta</i> -forms the frontispiece of a manuscript of the eighth century preserved -in the cathedral library of Durham; and which is musically -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">93</span> -interesting inasmuch as it represents a <i>rotta</i> of an oblong -square shape like that just noticed and resembling the Welsh -<i>crwth</i>. It has only five strings which the performer twangs with -his fingers. Again, a very interesting representation (which we -engrave) of the Psalmist with a kind of <i>rotta</i> occurs in a manuscript -of the tenth century, -in the British museum (Vitellius -F. XI.). The manuscript -has been much injured -by a fire in the year -1731, but Professor Westwood -has succeeded, with -great care, and with the aid -of a magnifying glass, in -making out the lines of the -figure. As it has been ascertained -that the psalter is -written in the Irish semi-uncial -character it is highly -probable that the kind of -<i>rotta</i> represents the Irish -<i>cionar cruit</i>, which was -played by twanging the -strings and also by the application -of a bow. Unfortunately -we possess no -well-authenticated representation -of the Welsh -<i>crwth</i> of an early period; -otherwise we should in all -probability find it played with the fingers, or with a plectrum. -Venantius Fortunatus, an Italian who lived in the second -half of the sixth century, mentions in a poem the “Chrotta -Britanna.” He does not, however, allude to the bow, and there -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">94</span> -is no reason to suppose that it existed in England. Howbeit, -the Welsh <i>crwth</i> (Anglo-saxon, <i>crudh</i>; English, <i>crowd</i>) is only -known as a species of fiddle closely resembling the <i>rotta</i>, but -having a finger-board in the middle of the open frame and being -strung with only a few strings; while the <i>rotta</i> had sometimes -above twenty strings. As it may interest the reader to examine -the form of the modern <i>crwth</i> we -give a woodcut of it. Edward -Jones, in his “Musical and poetical -relicks of the Welsh bards,” records -that the Welsh had before this kind -of <i>crwth</i> a three-stringed one called -“Crwth Trithant,” which was, he -says, “a sort of violin, or more properly -a rebeck.” The three-stringed -<i>crwth</i> was chiefly used by the inferior -class of bards; and was probably -the Moorish fiddle which is -still the favourite instrument of the -itinerant bards of the Bretons in -France, who call it <i>rébek</i>. The Bretons, -it will be remembered, are -close kinsmen of the Welsh.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i094" src="images/i094.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>A player on the <i>crwth</i> or <i>crowd</i> -(a crowder) from a bas-relief on the -under part of the seats of the choir in Worcester cathedral -(engraved p. 95) dates from the twelfth or thirteenth century; and -we give (p. 96) a copy of an illumination from a manuscript in the -Bibliothèque royale at Paris of the eleventh century. The player -wears a crown on his head; and in the original some musicians -placed at his side are performing on the psalterium and other -instruments. These last are figured with uncovered heads; -whence M. de Coussemaker concludes that the <i>crout</i> was considered -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">95</span> -by the artist who drew the figures as the noblest instrument. -It was probably identical with the <i>rotta</i> of the same century on -the continent.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i095" src="images/i095.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>An interesting drawing of an Anglo-saxon fiddle—or <i>fithele</i>, as -it was called—is given in a -manuscript of the eleventh -century in the British museum -(Cotton, Tiberius, c. 6). The -instrument is of a pear shape, -with four strings, and the -bridge is not indicated. A -German fiddle of the ninth -century, called <i>lyra</i>, copied -by Gerbert from the manuscript -of St. Blasius, has only -one string. These are shown in -the woodcuts (p. 97). Other -records of the employment of -the fiddle-bow in Germany in -the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are not wanting. For instance, -in the famous ‘Nibelungenlied’ Volker is described as wielding -the fiddle-bow not less dexterously than the sword. And in -‘Chronicon picturatum Brunswicense’ of the year 1203, the following -miraculous sign is recorded as having occurred in the -village of Ossemer: “On Wednesday in Whitsun-week, while the -parson was fiddling to his peasants who were dancing, there -came a flash of lightning and struck the parson’s arm which -held the fiddle-bow, and killed twenty-four people on the -spot.”</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i096" src="images/i096.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Among the oldest representations of performers on instruments -of the violin kind found in England those deserve to be noticed -which are painted on the interior of the roof of Peterborough -cathedral. They are said to date from the twelfth century. One -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">96</span> -of these figures is particularly interesting on account of the surprising -resemblance which his instrument bears to our present -violin. Not only the incurvations on the sides of the body but -also the two sound-holes are nearly identical in shape with those -made at the present day. Respecting the reliance to be placed -on such evidence, it is -necessary to state that -the roof, originally constructed -between the -years 1177 and 1194, -was thoroughly repaired -in the year 1835. Although -we find it asserted -that “the greatest -care was taken to retain -every part, or to restore -it to its original state, -so that the figures, even -where retouched, are in -effect the same as when -first painted,” it nevertheless -remains a debatable -question whether -the restorers have not -admitted some slight -alterations, and have -thereby somewhat modernised -the appearance -of the instruments. A -slight touch with the -brush at the sound-holes, the screws, or the curvatures, would -suffice to produce modifications which might to the artist appear -as being only a renovation of the original representation, but -which to the musical investigator greatly impair the value of the -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">97</span> -evidence. Sculptures are, therefore, more to be relied upon in -evidence than frescoes.</p> - -<p class="table"> -<span class="trow"> -<span class="tcell"><img id="i097a" src="images/i097a.jpg" alt="" /></span> -<span class="tcell"><img id="i097b" src="images/i097b.jpg" alt="" /></span> -</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">98</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</h2> - -<p>The construction of the <i>organistrum</i> requires but little explanation. -A glance at the finger-board reveals at once that the -different tones were obtained by raising the keys placed on the -neck under the strings, and that the keys were raised by means of -the handles at the side of the neck. Of the two bridges shown on -the body, the one situated nearest the middle was formed by a -wheel in the inside, which projected through the sound-board. -The wheel which slightly touched the strings vibrated them by -friction when turned by the handle at the end. The order of -intervals was <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>b-flat</i>, <i>b-natural</i>, <i>c</i>, and were obtainable -on the highest string. There is reason to suppose that the other -two strings were generally tuned a fifth and an octave below the -highest. The <i>organistrum</i> may be regarded as the predecessor of -the hurdy-gurdy, and was a rather cumbrous contrivance. Two -persons seem to have been required to sound it, one to turn the -handle and the other to manage the keys. Thus it is generally -represented in mediæval concerts.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i098" src="images/i098.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i099" src="images/i099.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The <i>monochord</i> (p. 100) was mounted with a single string stretched -over two bridges which were fixed on an oblong box. The string -could be tightened or slackened by means of a turning screw -inserted into one end of the box. The intervals of the scale were -marked on the side, and were regulated by a sort of movable bridge -placed beneath the string when required. As might be expected, the -<i>monochord</i> was chiefly used by theorists; for any musical performance -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">99</span> -it was but little suitable. About -a thousand years ago when this -monochord was in use the musical -scale was diatonic, with the exception -of the interval of the seventh, -which was chromatic inasmuch as -both <i>b-flat</i> and <i>b-natural</i> formed part -of the scale. The notation on the -preceding page exhibits the compass -as well as the order of intervals -adhered to about the tenth -century.</p> - -<p>This ought to be borne in mind -in examining the representations of -musical instruments transmitted to -us from that period.</p> - -<p>As regards the wind instruments -popular during the middle ages, -some were of quaint form as well as -of rude construction.</p> - -<p>The <i>chorus</i>, or <i>choron</i>, had either -one or two tubes, as in the woodcut -page 101. There were several varieties -of this instrument; sometimes it -was constructed with a bladder into -which the tube is inserted; this kind -of <i>chorus</i> resembled the bagpipe; -another kind resembled the <i>poongi</i> -of the Hindus, mentioned page 51. -The name <i>chorus</i> was also applied -to certain stringed instruments. -One of these had much the form of -the <i>cithara</i>, page 86. It appears -however, probable that <i>chorus</i> or -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">100</span> -<i>choron</i> originally designated a horn (Hebrew, <i>Keren</i>; Greek, -<i>Keras</i>; Latin, <i>cornu</i>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i100" src="images/i100.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The flutes of the middle ages were blown at the end, like the -flageolet. Of the <i>syrinx</i> there are extant some illustrations of the -ninth and tenth centuries, which exhibit the instrument with a -number of tubes tied together, just like the Pandean pipe still in -use. In one specimen engraved (page 102) from a manuscript of the -eleventh century the tubes were inserted into a bowl-shaped box. -This is probably the <i>frestele</i>, <i>fretel</i>, or <i>fretiau</i>, which in the twelfth -and thirteenth centuries was in favour with the French ménétriers. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">101</span></p> - -<p>Some large Anglo-saxon trumpets may be seen in a manuscript -of the eighth century in the British museum. The largest kind -of trumpet was placed on a stand when blown. Of the <i>oliphant</i>, -or hunting horn, some fine specimens are in the South Kensington -collection. The <i>sackbut</i> (of which we give a woodcut) probably -made of metal, could be -drawn out to alter the -pitch of sound. The -sackbut of the ninth -century had, however, a -very different shape to -that in use about three -centuries ago, and much more resembled the present <i>trombone</i>. -The name <i>sackbut</i> is supposed to be a corruption of <i>sambuca</i>. -The French, about the fifteenth century, called it <i>sacqueboute</i> and -<i>saquebutte</i>.</p> - -<p class="table"> -<span class="trow"> -<span class="tcell"><img id="i101a" src="images/i101a.jpg" alt="" /></span> -<span class="tcell"><img id="i101b" src="images/i101b.jpg" alt="" /></span> -</span> -</p> - -<p>The most important wind instrument—in fact, the king of all -the musical instruments—is the organ.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i101c" src="images/i101c.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i102" src="images/i102.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The <i>pneumatic organ</i> is sculptured on an obelisk which was -erected in Constantinople under Theodosius the great, towards -the end of the fourth century. The bellows were pressed by men -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">102</span> -standing on them: see page 103. This interesting monument also -exhibits performers on the double flute. The <i>hydraulic organ</i>, which -is recorded to have been already known about two hundred years -before the Christian era, was according to some statements occasionally -employed in churches during the earlier centuries of the -middle ages. Probably it was more frequently heard in secular -entertainments for which it was more suitable; and at the beginning -of the fourteenth century appears to have been entirely -supplanted by the pneumatic organ. The earliest organs had only -about a dozen pipes. The largest, which were made about nine -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">103</span> -hundred years ago, had only three octaves, in which the chromatic -intervals did not occur. Some progress in the construction of the -organ is exhibited in an illustration (engraved -p. 104) dating from the twelfth century, in a -psalter of Eadwine, in the library of Trinity -college, Cambridge. The instrument has -ten pipes, or perhaps fourteen, as four of -them appear to be double pipes. It required -four men exerting all their power to -produce the necessary wind, and two men to -play the instrument. Moreover, both players -seem also to be busily engaged in directing -the blowers about the proper supply of -wind. Six men and only fourteen pipes! -It must be admitted that since the twelfth -century some progress has been made, at -all events, in the construction of the organ.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i103" src="images/i103.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The pedal is generally believed to have -been invented by Bernhard, a German, who -lived in Venice about the year 1470. There -are, however, indications extant pointing to -an earlier date of its invention. Perhaps -Bernhard was the first who, by adopting a -more practicable construction, made the -pedal more generally known. On the earliest -organs the keys of the finger-board -were of enormous size, compared with those -of the present day; so that a finger-board -with only nine keys had a breadth of from -four to five feet. The organist struck the -keys down with his fist, as is done in playing -the <i>carillon</i> still in use on the continent, of -which presently some account will be given.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i104a" src="images/i104a.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i104b" src="images/i104b.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Of the little portable organ, known as the <i>regal</i> or <i>regals</i>, often -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">104</span> -tastefully shaped and embellished, some interesting sculptured representations -are still extant in the old ecclesiastical edifices of -England and Scotland. There is, for instance, in Beverley minster -a figure of a man playing on a -single regal, or a regal provided -with only one set of pipes; and -in Melrose abbey the figure of -an angel holding in his arms a -double regal, the pipes of which -are in two sets. The regal -generally had keys like those of -the organ but smaller. A -painting in the national Gallery, -by Melozzo da Forli who lived -in the fifteenth century, contains -a regal which has keys of a -peculiar shape, rather resembling -the pistons of certain brass instruments. -The illustration has been drawn from that painting. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">105</span> -To avoid misapprehension, it is necessary to mention that the -name <i>regal</i> (or <i>regals</i>, <i>rigols</i>) was also applied to an instrument -of percussion with sonorous slabs of wood. This contrivance -was, in short, a kind of harmonica, resembling in shape -as well as in the principle of its construction the little glass -harmonica, a mere toy, in which slips of glass are arranged -according to our musical scale. In England it appears to have -been still known in the beginning of the eighteenth century. -Grassineau describes the “Rigols” as “a kind of musical instrument -consisting of several sticks bound together, only separated -by beads. It makes a tolerable harmony, being well struck with -a ball at the end of a stick.” In the earlier centuries of the -middle ages there appear to have been some instruments of -percussion in favour, to which Grassineau’s expression “a tolerable -harmony” would scarcely have been applicable. Drums, of -course, were known; and their rhythmical noise must have been -soft music, compared with the shrill sounds of the <i>cymbalum</i>; -a contrivance consisting of a number of metal plates suspended -on cords, so that they could be clashed together simultaneously; -or with the clangour of the <i>cymbalum</i> constructed with bells -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">106</span> -instead of plates; or with the piercing noise of the <i>bunibulum</i>, or -<i>bombulom</i>; an instrument which consisted of an angular frame to -which were loosely attached metal plates of various shapes and -sizes. The lower part of the frame constituted the handle: and -to produce the noise it evidently was shaken somewhat like the -sistrum of the ancient Egyptians. We give woodcuts of the -three instruments.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i105" src="images/i105.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The <i>triangle</i> nearly resembled the instrument of this name in -use at the present day; it was more elegant in shape and had -some metal ornamentation in the middle.</p> - -<p>The <i>tintinnabulum</i> consisted of a number of bells arranged in -regular order and suspended in a frame.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i106" src="images/i106.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">107</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</h2> - -<p>Respecting the orchestras, or musical bands, represented on -monuments of the middle ages, there can hardly be a doubt that -the artists who sculptured them were not unfrequently led by their -imagination rather than by an adherence to actual fact. It is, -however, not likely that they introduced into such representations -instruments that were never admitted in the orchestras, and which -would have appeared inappropriate to the contemporaries of the -artists. An examination of one or two of the orchestras may -therefore find a place here, especially as they throw some additional -light upon the characteristics of the instrumental music of -mediæval time.</p> - -<p>A very interesting group of music performers dating, it is said, -from the end of the eleventh century is preserved in a bas-relief -which formerly ornamented the abbey of St. Georges de Boscherville -and which is now removed to the museum of Rouen. The -orchestra comprises twelve performers, most of whom wear a -crown. The first of them plays upon a viol, which he holds -between his knees as the violoncello is held. His instrument -is scarcely as large as the smallest viola da gamba. By -his side are a royal lady and her attendant, the former playing -on an <i>organistrum</i> of which the latter is turning the -wheel. Next to these is represented a performer on a <i>syrinx</i> -of the kind shown in the engraving p. 112; and next to him a -performer on a stringed instrument resembling a lute, which, -however, is too much dilapidated to be recognisable. Then we -have a musician with a small stringed instrument resembling the -<i>nablum</i>, p. 87. The next musician, also represented as a royal -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">108</span> -personage, plays on a small species -of harp. Then follows a crowned -musician playing the viol which he -holds in almost precisely the same -manner as the violin is held. Again, -another, likewise crowned, plays -upon a harp, using with the right -hand a plectrum and with the left -hand merely his fingers. The last -two performers, apparently a gentleman -and a gentlewoman, are engaged -in striking the <i>tintinnabulum</i>,—a -set of bells in a frame.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i108" src="images/i108.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>In this group of crowned minstrels -the sculptor has introduced a tumbler -standing on his head, perhaps -the vocalist of the company, as he -has no instrument to play upon. -Possibly the sculptor desired to symbolise -the hilarious effects which -music is capable of producing, as -well as its elevating influence upon -the devotional feelings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i109a" src="images/i109a.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The two positions in which we -find the viol held is worthy of -notice, inasmuch as it refers the -inquirer further back than might be -expected for the origin of our -peculiar method of holding the -violin, and the violoncello, in -playing. There were several kinds -of the viol in use differing in size -and in compass of sound. The -most common number of strings was -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">109</span> -five, and it was tuned in various ways. One kind had a string -tuned to the note <img src="images/i109b.jpg" alt="" /> running at the side of the -finger-board instead of over it; this string was, therefore, only -capable of producing a single tone. The four other strings -were tuned thus: <img src="images/i109c.jpg" alt="" /> Two other species, -on which all the strings were placed over the finger-board, -were tuned: <img src="images/i109d.jpg" alt="" /> and: -<img src="images/i109e.jpg" alt="" /> The woodcut above represents a -very beautiful <i>vielle</i>; French, of about 1550, with monograms of -Henry II. This is at South Kensington.</p> - -<p>The contrivance of placing a string or two at the side of the -finger-board is evidently very old, and was also gradually adopted -on other instruments of the violin class of a somewhat later -period than that of the <i>vielle</i>; for instance, on the <i>lira di braccio</i> -of the Italians. It was likewise adopted on the lute, to obtain a -fuller power in the bass; and hence arose the <i>theorbo</i>, the -<i>archlute</i>, and other varieties of the old lute. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">110</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i110" src="images/i110.jpg" alt="" /> - -<p class="xx-small">A. REID. DEL.</p> - -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Orchestra, twelfth century, at Santiago.</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">111</span></p></div> - -<p>A grand assemblage of musical performers is represented on -the Portico della gloria of the famous pilgrimage church of Santiago -da Compostella, in Spain. This triple portal, which is -stated by an inscription on the lintel to have been executed in -the year 1188, consists of a large semicircular arch with a smaller -arch on either side. The central arch is filled by a tympanum, -round which are twenty-four life-sized seated figures, in high relief, -representing the twenty-four elders seen by St. John in the Apocalypse, -each with an instrument of music. These instruments -are carefully represented and are of great interest as showing -those in use in Spain at about the twelfth century. A cast of this -sculpture is in the Kensington museum.</p> - -<p>In examining the group of musicians on this sculpture the -reader will probably recognise several instruments in their hands, -which are identical with those already described in the preceding -pages. The <i>organistrum</i>, played by two persons, is placed in the -centre of the group, perhaps owing to its being the largest of the -instruments rather than that it was distinguished by any superiority -in sound or musical effect. Besides the small harp seen -in the hands of the eighth and nineteenth musicians (in form -nearly identical with the Anglo-saxon harp) we find a small triangular -harp, without a front-pillar, held on the lap by the fifth -and eighteenth musicians. The <i>salterio</i> on the lap of the tenth -and seventeenth musicians resembles the dulcimer, but seems -to be played with the fingers instead of with hammers. The -most interesting instrument in this orchestra is the <i>vihuela</i>, or -Spanish viol, of the twelfth century. The first, second, third, sixth, -seventh, ninth, twentieth, twenty-second, twenty-third, and twenty-fourth -musicians are depicted with a <i>vihuela</i> which bears a close -resemblance to the <i>rebec</i>. The instrument is represented with -three strings, although in one or two instances five tuning-pegs -are indicated. A large species of <i>vihuela</i> is given to the -eleventh, fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth musicians. This -instrument differs from the <i>rebec</i> in as far as its body is broader -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">112</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">113</span> -and has incurvations at the sides. Also the sound-holes are -different in form and position. The bow does not occur with -any of these viols. But, as will be observed, the musicians are -not represented in the act of playing; they are tuning and preparing -for the performance, and the second of them is adjusting -the bridge of his instrument.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i112" src="images/i112.jpg" alt="" /> -<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Front of the minstrels’ gallery, Exeter cathedral.</span> XIVth century.</p></div> - -<p>The minstrels’ gallery of Exeter cathedral dates from the fourteenth -century. The front is divided into twelve niches, each of -which contains a winged figure or an angel playing on an instrument -of music. There is a cast also of this famous sculpture at South -Kensington. The instruments are so much dilapidated that some -of them cannot be clearly recognized; but, as far as may be ascertained, -they appear to be as follows:—1. The <i>cittern</i>. 2. The -<i>bagpipe</i>. 3. The <i>clarion</i>, a small trumpet having a shrill sound. -4. The <i>rebec</i>. 5. The <i>psaltery</i>. 6. The <i>syrinx</i>. 7. The <i>sackbut</i>. -8. The <i>regals</i>. 9. The <i>gittern</i>, a small guitar strung with catgut. -10. The <i>shalm</i>. 11. The <i>timbrel</i>; resembling our present tambourine, -with a double row of gingles. 12. <i>Cymbals.</i> Most of these -instruments have been already noticed in the preceding pages. -The <i>shalm</i>, or <i>shawm</i>, was a pipe with a reed in the mouth-hole. -The <i>wait</i> was an English wind instrument of the same construction. -If it differed in any respect from the <i>shalm</i>, the difference -consisted probably in the size only. The <i>wait</i> obtained its name -from being used principally by watchmen, or <i>waights</i>, to proclaim -the time of night. Such were the poor ancestors of our fine oboe -and clarinet. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">114</span></p> - -<h2 id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</h2> - -<h3><span class="smcap">Post-mediæval Musical Instruments.</span></h3> - -<p>Attention must now be drawn to some instruments which -originated during the middle ages, but which attained their highest -popularity at a somewhat later period.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i114" src="images/i114.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>Among the best known of these was the <i>virginal</i>, of -which we give an engraving from a specimen of the time of -Elizabeth at South Kensington. Another was the <i>lute</i>, which -about three hundred years -ago was almost as popular as -is at the present day the -pianoforte. Originally it -had eight thin catgut strings -arranged in four pairs, each -pair being tuned in unison; -so that its open strings produced -four tones; but in -the course of time more -strings were added. Until -the sixteenth century twelve was the largest number or, rather, six -pairs. Eleven appear for some centuries to have been the most -usual number of strings: these produced six tones, since they -were arranged in five pairs and a single string. The latter, called -the <i>chanterelle</i>, was the highest. According to Thomas Mace, -the English lute in common use during the seventeenth century -had twenty-four strings, arranged in twelve pairs, of which six -pairs ran over the finger-board and the other six by the side of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">115</span> -it. This lute was therefore, more properly speaking, a theorbo. -The neck of the lute, and also of the theorbo, had frets consisting -of catgut strings tightly fastened round it at the proper distances -required for ensuring a chromatic succession of intervals. The -illustration on the next page represents a lute-player of the sixteenth -century. The frets are not indicated in the old engraving from which -the illustration has been taken. The order of tones adopted for the -open strings varied in different centuries and countries: and this -was also the case with the notation of lute music. The most -common practice was to write the music on six lines, the upper -line representing the first string; the second line, the second -string, &c., and to mark with letters on the lines the frets at -which the fingers ought to be placed—<i>a</i> indicating the open -string, <i>b</i> the first fret, <i>c</i> the second fret, and so on.</p> - -<p>The lute was made of various sizes according to the purpose -for which it was intended in performance. The treble-lute was of -the smallest dimensions, and the bass-lute of the largest. The -<i>theorbo</i>, or double-necked lute which appears to have come into -use during the sixteenth century, had in addition to the strings -situated over the finger-board a number of others running at the -left side of the finger-board which could not be shortened by the -fingers, and which produced the bass tones. The largest kinds of -theorbo were the <i>archlute</i> and the <i>chitarrone</i>.</p> - -<p>It is unnecessary to enter here into a detailed description of -some other instruments which have been popular during the last -three centuries, for the museum at Kensington contains specimens -of many of them of which an account is given in the large catalogue -of that collection. It must suffice to refer the reader to -the illustrations there of the cither, virginal, spinet, clavichord, -harpsichord, and other antiquated instruments much esteemed by -our forefathers.</p> - -<p>Students who examine these old relics will probably wish to -know something about their quality of tone. “How do they -sound? Might they still be made effective in our present state of -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">116</span> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">117</span> -the art?” are questions which naturally occur to the musical inquirer -having such instruments brought before him. A few words -bearing on these questions may therefore not be out of place here.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i116" src="images/i116.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>It is generally and justly admitted that in no other branch of -the art of music has greater progress been made since the last -century than in the construction of musical instruments. Nevertheless, -there are people who think that we have also lost something -here which might with advantage be restored. Our various instruments -by being more and more perfected are becoming too much -alike in quality of sound, or in that character of tone which the -French call <i>timbre</i>, and the Germans <i>Klangfarbe</i>, and which professor -Tyndall in his lectures on sound has translated <i>clang-tint</i>. -Every musical composer knows how much more suitable one <i>clang-tint</i> -is for the expression of a certain emotion than another. Our -old instruments, imperfect though they were in many respects, -possessed this variety of <i>clang-tint</i> to a high degree. Neither were -they on this account less capable of expression than the modern -ones. That no improvement has been made during the last two -centuries in instruments of the violin class is a well-known fact. As -to lutes and cithers the collection at Kensington contains specimens -so rich and mellow in tone as to cause musicians to regret -that these instruments have entirely fallen into oblivion.</p> - -<p>As regards beauty of appearance our earlier instruments were -certainly superior to the modern. Indeed, we have now scarcely -a musical instrument which can be called beautiful. The -old lutes, spinets, viols, dulcimers, &c., are not only elegant in -shape but are also often tastefully ornamented with carvings, -designs in marquetry, and painting.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i118" src="images/i118.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The player on the <i>viola da gamba</i>, shown in the next engraving, is a -reduced copy of an illustration in “The Division Violist,” London, -1659. It shows exactly how the frets were regulated, and how the -bow was held. The most popular instruments played with a bow, -at that time, were the <i>treble-viol</i>, the <i>tenor-viol</i>, and the <i>bass-viol</i>. -It was usual for viol players to have “a chest of viols,” a case -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">118</span> -containing four or more viols, of different sizes. Thus, Thomas -Mace in his directions for the use of the viol, “Musick’s Monument” -1676, remarks, “Your best provision, and most complete, -will be a good chest of viols, six in number, viz., two basses, two -tenors, and two trebles, all truly and proportionably suited.” The -violist, to be properly furnished with his requirements, had therefore -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">119</span> -to supply himself with a larger stock of instruments than the -violinist of the present day.</p> - -<div class="figright"> -<img id="i119" src="images/i119.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>That there was, in the time of Shakespeare, a musical instrument -called <i>recorder</i> is undoubtedly known to most readers from -the stage direction in Hamlet: <i>Re-enter players with recorders</i>. -But not many are likely to have ever seen a recorder, as it has -now become very -scarce: we therefore -give an illustration -of this -old instrument, -which is copied -from “The Genteel -Companion; -Being exact Directions -for the -Recorder: etc.” -London, 1683.</p> - -<p>The <i>bagpipe</i> -appears to have -been from time -immemorial a -special favourite -instrument with -the Celtic races; -but it was perhaps -quite as -much admired -by the Slavonic nations. In Poland, and in the Ukraine, it -used to be made of the whole skin of the goat in which the shape -of the animal, whenever the bagpipe was expanded with air, -appeared fully retained, exhibiting even the head with the horns; -hence the bagpipe was called <i>kosa</i>, which signifies a goat. The -woodcut p. 120 represents a Scotch bagpipe of the last century. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">120</span></p> - -<p>The bagpipe is of high antiquity in Ireland, and is alluded to -in Irish poetry and prose said to date from the tenth century. A -pig gravely engaged in playing the bagpipe is represented in an -illuminated Irish manuscript, of the year 1300: and we give p. 121 -a copy of a woodcut from “The Image -of Ireland,” a book printed in London -in 1581.</p> - -<div class="figleft"> -<img id="i120" src="images/i120.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The <i>bell</i> has always been so much in -popular favour in England that some -account of it must not be omitted. -Paul Hentzner a German, who visited -England in the year 1598, records -in his journal: “The people are vastly -fond of great noises that fill the ear, -such as the firing of cannon, drums, -and the ringing of bells; so that in -London it is common for a number -of them that have got a glass in their -heads to go up into some belfry, and -ring the bells for hours together for -the sake of exercise.” This may be -exaggeration,—not unusual with travellers. -It is, however, a fact that bell-ringing -has been a favourite amusement -with Englishmen for centuries.</p> - -<p>The way in which church bells are -suspended and fastened, so as to permit -of their being made to vibrate in the most effective manner -without damaging by their vibration the building in -which they are placed, is in some countries very peculiar. The -Italian <i>campanile</i>, or tower of bells, is not unfrequently separated -from the church itself. In Servia the church bells are often hung -in a frame-work of timber built near the west end of the church. -In Zante and other islands of Greece the belfry is usually separate -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">121</span> -from the church. The reason assigned by the Greeks for having -adopted this plan is that in case of an earthquake the bells are -likely to fall and, were they placed in a tower, would destroy the -roof of the church and might cause the destruction of the whole -building. Also in Russia a special edifice for the bells is generally -separate from the church. In the Russian villages the -bells are not unfrequently hung in the branches of an oak-tree -near the church. In Iceland the bell is usually placed in the -lych-gate leading to the graveyard.</p> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i121" src="images/i121.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter"> -<img id="i122" src="images/i122.jpg" alt="" /> -</div> - -<p>The idea of forming of a number of bells a musical instrument -such as the <i>carillon</i> is said by some to have suggested itself first -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">122</span> -to the English and Dutch; but what we have seen in Asiatic -countries sufficiently refutes this. Moreover, not only the Romans -employed variously arranged and attuned bells, but also among -the Etruscan antiquities an instrument has been discovered which -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">123</span> -is constructed of a number of bronze vessels placed in a row on a -metal rod. Numerous bells, varying in size and tone, have also -been found in Etruscan tombs. Among the later contrivances -of this kind in European countries the sets of bells suspended in -a wooden frame, which we find in mediæval illuminations, deserve -notice. In the British museum is a manuscript of the fourteenth -century in which king David is depicted holding in each hand a -hammer with which he strikes upon bells of different dimensions, -suspended on a wooden stand.</p> - -<p>It may be supposed that the device of playing tunes by means -of bells merely swung by the hand is also of ancient date. In -Lancashire each of the ringers manages two bells, holding one -in either hand. Thus, an assemblage of seven ringers insures -fourteen different tones; and as each ringer may change his two -notes by substituting two other bells if required, even compositions -with various modulations, and of a somewhat intricate -character, may be executed,—provided the ringers are good -timeists; for each has, of course, to take care to fall in with his -note, just as a member of the Russian horn band contributes his -single note whenever it occurs.</p> - -<p>Peal-ringing is another pastime of the kind which may be -regarded as pre-eminently national to England. The bells constituting -a peal are frequently of the number of eight, attuned to -the diatonic scale. Also peals of ten bells, and even of twelve, -are occasionally formed. A peculiar feature of peal-ringing is -that the bells, which are provided with clappers, are generally -swung so forcibly as to raise the mouth completely upwards. -The largest peal, and one of the finest, is at Exeter cathedral: -another celebrated one is that of St. Margaret’s, Leicester, which -consists of ten bells. Peal-ringing is of an early date in England; -Egelric, abbot of Croyland, is recorded to have cast about the -year 960 a set of six bells.</p> - -<p>The <i>carillon</i> (engraved on the opposite page) is especially -popular in the Netherlands and Belgium, but is also found in -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">124</span> -Germany, Italy, and some other European countries. It is generally -placed in the church tower and also sometimes in other -public edifices. The statement repeated by several writers that the -first carillon was invented in the year 1481 in the town of Alost is -not to be trusted, for the town of Bruges claims to have possessed -similar chimes in the year 1300. There are two kinds of carillons -in use on the continent, viz.: clock chimes, which are moved by -machinery, like a self-acting barrel-organ; and such as are provided -with a set of keys, by means of which the tunes are played by a -musician. The carillon in the ‘Parochial-Kirche’ at Berlin, which -is one of the finest in Germany, contains thirty-seven bells; and is -provided with a key-board for the hands and with a pedal, which -together place at the disposal of the performer a compass of rather -more than three octaves. The keys of the manual are metal rods -somewhat above a foot in length; and are pressed down with the -palms of the hand. The keys of the pedal are of wood; the -instrument requires not only great dexterity but also a considerable -physical power. It is astonishing how rapidly passages can -be executed upon it by the player, who is generally the organist -of the church in which he acts as <i>carilloneur</i>. When engaged in -the last-named capacity he usually wears leathern gloves to protect -his fingers, as they are otherwise apt to become ill fit for -the more delicate treatment of the organ.</p> - -<p>The want of a contrivance in the <i>carillon</i> for stopping the -vibration has the effect of making rapid passages, if heard near, -sound as a confused noise; only at some distance are they -tolerable. It must be remembered that the <i>carillon</i> is intended -especially to be heard from a distance. Successions of tones -which form a consonant chord, and which have some duration, -are evidently the most suitable for this instrument.</p> - -<p>Indeed, every musical instrument possesses certain characteristics -which render it especially suitable for the production of -some particular effects. The invention of a new instrument of -music has, therefore, not unfrequently led to the adoption of new -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">125</span> -effects in compositions. Take the pianoforte, which was invented -in the beginning of the eighteenth century, and which has now -obtained so great a popularity: its characteristics inspired our -great composers to the invention of effects, or expressions, -which cannot be properly rendered on any other instrument, -however superior in some respects it may be to the pianoforte. -Thus also the improvements which have been made during the -present century in the construction of our brass instruments, and -the invention of several new brass instruments, have evidently -been not without influence upon the conceptions displayed in -our modern orchestral works.</p> - -<p>Imperfect though this essay may be it will probably have convinced -the reader that a reference to the history of the music of -different nations elucidates many facts illustrative of our own -musical instruments, which to the unprepared observer must -appear misty and impenetrable. In truth, it is with this study as -with any other scientific pursuit. The unassisted eye sees only -faint nebulæ where with the aid of the telescope bright stars are -revealed. -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">126</span></p> - -<h2 id="INDEX">INDEX.</h2> - -<ul class="index"><li class="ifrst">Al-Farabi, a great performer on the lute, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">American Indian instruments, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">American value of inquiry, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">American trumpets, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">American theories as to origin from musical instruments, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Arab instruments very numerous, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Archlute, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ashantee trumpet, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Asor explained, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Assyrian instruments, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Aulos,” <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Bagpipe, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bagpipe, Greek, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bagpipe, Celtic, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Barbiton, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bells, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bells, Peruvian, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bells, and ringing, <a href="#Page_121">121-123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Blasius, Saint, the manuscript, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bones, traditions about them, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bones, made into flutes, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bottles, as musical instruments, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bow, see Violin</li> - -<li class="indx">Bruce, his discovery of harps on frescoes, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Capistrum, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Carillon, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Catgut, how made, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chanterelle, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chelys, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chinese instruments, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chinese bells, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chinese drum, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chinese flutes, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chinese board of music, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chorus, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cimbal, or dulcimer, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cithara, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cithara, Anglican, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cittern, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clarion, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cornu, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crowd, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Crwth, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cymbals, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cymbals, or cymbalum, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cymbals, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">David’s (King) private band, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">David’s his favourite instrument, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Diaulos, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drum, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drum, Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drum, Chinese, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drum, Mexican, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dulcimer, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dulcimer, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dulcimer, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Dulcimer, Persian prototype, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Egyptian (ancient) musical instruments, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Egyptian harps, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Egyptian flutes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Etruscan instruments, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Etruscan flutes, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Etruscan trumpet, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fiddle, originally a poor contrivance, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fiddle, Anglo-saxon, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fiddle, early German, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fistula, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flute, Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flute, Persian, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flute, Mexican, <a href="#Page_63">63</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">127</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Flute, Peruvian, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Flute, mediæval, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx">“Free reed,” whence imported, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gerbert, abbot, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greek instruments, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Greek music, whence derived, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hallelujah, compared with Peruvian song, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harmonicon, Chinese, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harp, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harp, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harp, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harp, Greek, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harp, Anglo-saxon, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Harp, Irish, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hebrew instruments, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hebrew pipe, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hebrew drum, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hebrew cymbals, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hebrew words among Indians, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hindu instruments, <a href="#Page_46">46-48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hurdy-gurdy, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hydraulos, hydraulic organ, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Instruments, curious shapes, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Instruments, value and use of collections, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Instruments, Assyrian and Babylonian, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Jubal, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Juruparis, its sacred character, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Kinnor, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - -<li class="indx">King, Chinese, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">King, various shapes, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Lute, Chinese, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lute, Persian, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lute, Moorish, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lute, Elizabethan, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lyre, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lyre, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lyre, Hebrew, of the time of Joseph, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lyre, Greek, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lyre, Roman, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lyre, Roman, various kinds, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lyre, early Christian, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lyre, early German “<i>lyra</i>,” <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Magadis, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Magrepha, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maori trumpet, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Materials, commonly, of instruments, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mediæval musical instruments, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mediæval musical instruments, derived from Asia, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican instruments, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican whistle, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican pipe, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican flute, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican trumpet, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican drum, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican songs, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mexican council of music, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Minnim, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Monochord, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Moorish instruments adopted in England, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Muses on a vase at Munich, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Music one of the fine arts, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nablia, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nadr ben el-Hares, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nareda, inventor of Hindu instruments, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nero coin with an organ, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nofre, a guitar, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Oboe, Persian, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oliphant, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Orchestra, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Orchestra, modifications, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Organistrum, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Organ, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Organ, pneumatic and hydraulic, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Organ, in MS. of Eadwine, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pandoura, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pedal, invented, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Persian instruments, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Persian harp, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peruvian pipes, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peruvian drum, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peruvian bells, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peruvian stringed instruments, <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peruvian songs, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Peterborough paintings of violins, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pipe, single and double, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pipe, Mexican, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pipe, Peruvian, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plektron, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poongi, Hindu, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pre-historic instruments, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Psalterium, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Rattle of Nootka Sound, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rattle American Indian, <a href="#Page_74">74</a> -<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">128</span></li> - -<li class="indx">Rebeck, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Recorder, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Regal, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roman musical instruments, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Roman lyre, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rotta, or rote, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sackbut, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sambuca, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Santir, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sêbi, the, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shalm, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shophar, still used by the Jews, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sistrum, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sistrum, Roman, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Songs, Peruvian and Mexican, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stringed instruments, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Syrinx, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Syrinx, Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Syrinx, Roman, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Syrinx, Peruvian, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Tamboura, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Temples in China, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Theorbo, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tibia, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Timbrel, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tintinnabulum, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Triangle, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trigonon, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trumpet, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trumpet, Hebrew, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trumpet, Greek, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trumpet, Roman, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trumpet, American Indian, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trumpet, of the Caroados, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trumpet, Mexican, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tympanon, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Universality of musical instruments, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Vielle, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vihuela, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vina, Hindu, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Vina, performer, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Viol, Spanish, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Viol, da gamba, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Violin bow invented by Hindus? <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Violin Persian, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Violin mediæval, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Virginal, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Wait, the instrument, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Water, supposed origin of musical instruments, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whistle, prehistoric, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Whistle, Mexican, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Wind instruments, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Yu, Chinese stone, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Yu, Chinese wind instrument, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="copy">DALZIEL AND CO., CAMDEN PRESS, N.W.</p> - -<p> </p> -<div class="transnote"> - -<h3>Transcriber's Note:</h3> - -<p>Inconsistent punctuation and capitalization are as in the original.</p> - -<p>Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.</p> - -</div> - -<p> </p> -<p> </p> -<hr class="full" /> -<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS***</p> -<p>******* This file should be named 54537-h.htm or 54537-h.zip *******</p> -<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br /> -<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/4/5/3/54537">http://www.gutenberg.org/5/4/5/3/54537</a></p> -<p> -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed.</p> - -<p>Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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