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diff --git a/old/54537-0.txt b/old/54537-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 191be6c..0000000 --- a/old/54537-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4311 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, Musical Instruments, by Carl Engel - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: Musical Instruments - - -Author: Carl Engel - - - -Release Date: April 11, 2017 [eBook #54537] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS*** - - -E-text prepared by Anita Hammond, Wayne Hammond, and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images -generously made available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 54537-h.htm or 54537-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/54537/54537-h/54537-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/54537/54537-h.zip) - - - Images of the original pages are available through - Internet Archive. See - https://archive.org/details/musicalinstrumen00engeiala - - - - - -MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS - - - * * * * * * - - SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM ART HANDBOOKS. - - EDITED BY WILLIAM MASKELL. - - NO. 5.--MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. - -_These Handbooks are reprints of the dissertations prefixed to the -large catalogues of the chief divisions of works of art in the Museum -at South Kensington; arranged and so far abridged as to bring each into -a portable shape. The Lords of the Committee of Council on Education -having determined on the publication of them, the editor trusts that -they will meet the purpose intended; namely, to be useful, not alone -for the collections at South Kensington but for other collections, by -enabling the public at a trifling cost to understand something of the -history and character of the subjects treated of._ - -_The authorities referred to in each book are given in the large -catalogues; where will also be found detailed descriptions of the very -numerous examples in the South Kensington Museum._ - - W. M. - -_August, 1875._ - - * * * * * * - - -MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS - -by - -CARL ENGEL - -With Numerous Woodcuts - - - - - - -[Illustration] - -Published for the Committee of Council on Education -by -Chapman and Hall, Ltd., London. - - - - -LIST OF WOODCUTS. - - - PAGE - - Prehistoric whistle 9 - - Ancient Egyptian flute concert 13 - - The supposed Hebrew lyre at Beni Hassan 22 - - Ancient bagpipe from Tarsus 24 - - Hebrew trumpets, from the arch of Titus 25 - - Grecian harp and lyre 28 - - Greek lyres 29 - - Greek flutes 31 - - The _diaulos_ 32 - - Etruscan _cornu_ 33 - - Hydraulic organ 34 - - Roman girl and _tibia_ 36 - - Roman trumpets 36 - - Chinese king 39 - - " pien-tchung 41 - - " hiuen-tchung 42 - - " ou 43 - - " tchou 43 - - " kin-kou 44 - - " hiuen 45 - - " cheng 46 - - Hindustan, vina 49 - - Persian, chang 51 - - " bagpipe 52 - - Turkish harp 53 - - Persian dulcimer 55 - - The _rebab_ 56 - - Aztec whistles 60 - - Antique pipe from central America 61 - - Pipes of the Aztecs 62 - - Peruvian bone pipe 64 - - " huayra-puhura 65 - - " " 66 - - Orinoco Indian trumpet 67 - - South American Juruparis 68 - - Indian trumpets 70 - - Aztec drums 72 - - San Domingo drum 73 - - Peruvian bell 75 - - Aztec cluster of bells 76 - - Cithara, ninth century 86 - - Psalterium 87 - - Nablum 87 - - Citole 88 - - Anglo-saxon harp 89 - - Harp, ninth century 90 - - Ancient Irish harp 91 - - German rotte 91 - - Rotta 92 - - Irish rotta 93 - - The crwth 94 - - The old English "crowd" 95 - - The French crout 96 - - Anglo-saxon fiddle 97 - - German fiddle, ninth century 97 - - Organistrum 99 - - Monochord 100 - - Single chorus 101 - - Double chorus 101 - - Sackbut 101 - - Syrinx 102 - - Pneumatic organ, fourth century 103 - - Organ, twelfth century 104 - - Regal 104 - - Cymbalum, ninth century 105 - - Bunibulum 106 - - Orchestra on bas-relief 108 - - Vielle 109 - - Orchestra, twelfth century, at Santiago 110 - - The minstrels’ gallery, at Exeter cathedral 112 - - Virginal 114 - - Lute, Elizabethan 116 - - Viola da gamba 118 - - Recorder 119 - - Scotch bagpipe, eighteenth century 120 - - Irish bagpipe, sixteenth century 121 - - Carillon, Netherlands 122 - - - - -MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - - -Music, in however primitive a stage of development it may be with some -nations, is universally appreciated as one of the Fine Arts. The origin -of vocal music may have been coeval with that of language; and the -construction of musical instruments evidently dates with the earliest -inventions which suggested themselves to human ingenuity. There exist -even at the present day some savage tribes in Australia and South -America who, although they have no more than the five first numerals -in their language and are thereby unable to count the fingers of both -hands together, nevertheless possess musical instruments of their own -contrivance, with which they accompany their songs and dances. - -Wood, metal, and the hide of animals, are the most common substances -used in the construction of musical instruments. In tropical countries -bamboo or some similar kind of cane and gourds are especially made -use of for this purpose. The ingenuity of man has contrived to -employ in producing music, horn, bone, glass, pottery, slabs of -sonorous stone,--in fact, almost all vibrating matter. The strings of -instruments have been made of the hair of animals, of silk, the runners -of creeping plants, the fibrous roots of certain trees, of cane, catgut -(which absurdly referred to the cat, is from the sheep, goat, lamb, -camel, and some other animals), metal, &c. - -The mode in which individual nations or tribes are in the habit of -embellishing their musical instruments is sometimes as characteristic -as it is singular. The negroes in several districts of western Africa -affix to their drums human skulls. A war-trumpet of the king of -Ashantee which was brought to England is surrounded by human jawbones. -The Maories in New Zealand carve around the mouth-hole of their -trumpets a figure intended, it is said, to represent female lips. The -materials for ornamentation chiefly employed by savages are bright -colours, beads, shells, grasses, the bark of trees, feathers, stones, -gilding, pieces of looking-glass inlaid like mosaic, &c. Uncivilized -nations are sure to consider anything which is bright and glittering -ornamental, especially if it is also scarce. Captain Tuckey saw in -Congo a negro instrument which was ornamented with part of the broken -frame of a looking-glass, to which were affixed in a semicircle a -number of brass buttons with the head of Louis XVI. on them,--perhaps a -relic of some French sailor drowned near the coast years ago. - -Again, musical instruments are not unfrequently formed in the shape of -certain animals. Thus, a kind of harmonicon of the Chinese represents -the figure of a crouching tiger. The Burmese possess a stringed -instrument in the shape of an alligator. Even more grotesque are the -imitations of various beasts adopted by the Javanese. The natives of -New Guinea have a singularly shaped drum, terminating in the head of a -reptile. A wooden rattle like a bird is a favourite instrument of the -Indians of Nootka Sound. In short, not only the inner construction of -the instruments and their peculiar quality of sound exhibit in most -nations certain distinctive characteristics, but it is also in great -measure true as to their outward appearance. - -An arrangement of the various kinds of musical instruments in a regular -order, beginning with that kind which is the most universally known -and progressing gradually to the least usual, gives the following -results. Instruments of percussion of indefinite sonorousness or, in -other words, pulsatile instruments which have not a sound of a fixed -pitch, as the drum, rattle, castanets, &c., are most universal. Wind -instruments of the flute kind,--including pipes, whistles, flutes, -Pandean pipes, &c.--are also to be found almost everywhere. - -Much the same is the case with wind instruments of the trumpet kind. -These are often made of the horns, bones, and tusks of animals; -frequently of vegetable substances and of metal. Instruments of -percussion of definite sonorousness are chiefly met with in China, -Japan, Burmah, Siam, and Java. They not unfrequently contain a series -of tones produced by slabs of wood or metal, which are beaten with a -sort of hammer, as our harmonicon is played. - -Stringed instruments without a finger board, or any similar contrivance -which enables the performer to produce a number of different tones -on one string, are generally found among nations whose musical -accomplishments have emerged from the earliest state of infancy. The -strings are twanged with the fingers or with a piece of wood, horn, -metal, or any other suitable substance serving as a _plectrum_; or -are made to vibrate by being beaten with a hammer, as our dulcimer. -Stringed instruments provided with a finger-board on which different -tones are producible on one string by the performer shortening it more -or less,--as on the guitar and violin,--are met with almost exclusively -among nations in a somewhat advanced stage of musical progress. Such -as are played with a bow are the least common; they are, however, -known to the Chinese, Japanese, Hindus, Persians, Arabs, and a few -other nations, besides those of Europe and their descendants in other -countries. - -Wind instruments of the organ kind,--_i.e._, such as are constructed of -a number of tubes which can be sounded together by means of a common -mouthpiece or some similar contrivance, and upon which therefore -chords and combinations of chords, or harmony, can be produced,--are -comparatively of rare occurrence. Some interesting specimens of them -exist in China, Japan, Laos, and Siam. - -Besides these various kinds of sound-producing means employed in -musical performances, a few others less widely diffused could be -pointed out, which are of a construction not represented in any of -our well-known European specimens. For instance, some nations have -peculiar instruments of friction, which can hardly be classed with our -instruments of percussion. Again, there are contrivances in which a -number of strings are caused to vibrate by a current of air, much as -is the case with the Æolian harp; which might with equal propriety be -considered either as stringed instruments or as wind instruments. In -short, our usual classification of all the various species into three -distinct divisions, viz. _Stringed Instruments_, _Wind Instruments_, -and _Instruments of Percussion_, is not tenable if we extend our -researches over the whole globe. - -The collection at South Kensington contains several foreign instruments -which cannot fail to prove interesting to the musician. Recent -investigations have more and more elicited the fact that the music -of every nation exhibits some distinctive characteristics which may -afford valuable hints to a composer or performer. A familiarity with -the popular songs of different countries is advisable on account of -the remarkable originality of the airs: these mostly spring from the -heart. Hence the natural and true expression, the delightful health and -vigour by which they are generally distinguished. Our more artificial -compositions are, on the other hand, not unfrequently deficient in -these charms, because they often emanate from the fingers or the pen -rather than from the heart. Howbeit, the predominance of expressive -melody and effective rhythm over harmonious combinations, so usual in -the popular compositions of various nations, would alone suffice to -recommend them to the careful attention of our modern musicians. The -same may be said with regard to the surprising variety in construction -and in manner of expression prevailing in the popular songs and -dance-tunes of different countries. Indeed, every nation’s musical -effusions exhibit a character peculiarly their own, with which the -musician would find it advantageous to familiarize himself. - -Now, it will easily be understood that an acquaintance with the -musical instruments of a nation conveys a more correct idea than could -otherwise be obtained of the characteristic features of the nation’s -musical compositions. Furthermore, in many instances the construction -of the instruments reveals to us the nature of the musical intervals, -scales, modulations, and suchlike noteworthy facts. True, inquiries -like these have hitherto not received from musicians the attention -which they deserve. The adepts in most other arts are in this respect -in advance. They are convinced that useful information may be gathered -by investigating the productions even of uncivilized nations, and by -thus tracing the gradual progress of an art from its primitive infancy -to its highest degree of development. - -Again, from an examination of the musical instruments of foreign -nations we may derive valuable hints for the improvement of our own; -or even for the invention of new. Several principles of construction -have thus been adopted by us from eastern nations. For instance, the -_free reed_ used in the harmonium is an importation from China. The -organ builder Kratzenstein, who lived in St. Petersburg during the -reign of Catharine II., happened to see the Chinese instrument _cheng_, -which is of this construction, and it suggested to him, about the end -of the last century, to apply the _free reed_ to certain organ stops. -At the present day instruments of the harmonium class have become such -universal favourites in western Europe as almost to compete with the -pianoforte. - -Several other well-authenticated instances could be cited in which one -instrument has suggested the construction of another of a superior -kind. The prototype of our pianoforte was evidently the dulcimer, -known at an early time to the Arabs and Persians who call it _santir_. -One of the old names given to the dulcimer by European nations is -_cimbal_. The Poles at the present day call it _cymbaly_, and the -Magyars in Hungary _cimbalom_. The _clavicembalo_, the predecessor of -the pianoforte, was in fact nothing but a _cembalo_ with a key-board -attached to it; and some of the old _clavicembali_, still preserved, -exhibit the trapezium shape, the round hole in the middle of the -sound-board, and other peculiarities of the first dulcimer. Again, the -gradual development of the dulcimer from a rude contrivance, consisting -merely of a wooden board across which a few strings are stretched, -is distinctly traceable by a reference to the musical instruments of -nations in different stages of civilization. The same is the case with -our highly perfected harp, of which curious specimens, representing the -instrument in its most primitive condition, are still to be found among -several barbarous tribes. We might perhaps infer from its shape that it -originally consisted of nothing more than an elastic stick bent by a -string. The Damaras, a native tribe of South-western Africa, actually -use their bow occasionally as a musical instrument, when they are not -engaged in war or in the chase. They tighten the string nearly in the -middle by means of a leathern thong, whereby they obtain two distinct -sounds, which, for want of a sound-board, are of course very weak and -scarcely audible to anyone but the performer. Some neighbouring tribes, -however, possess a musical instrument very similar in appearance to the -bow, to which they attach a gourd, hollowed and open at the top, which -serves as a sound-board. Again, other African tribes have a similar -instrument, superior in construction only inasmuch as it contains more -than one string, and is provided with a sound-board consisting of a -suitable piece of sonorous wood. In short, the more improved we find -these contrivances the closer they approach our harp. And it could be -shown if this were requisite for our present purpose that much the same -gradual progress towards perfection, which we observe in the African -harp, is traceable in the harps of several nations in different parts -of the world. - -Moreover, a collection of musical instruments deserves the attention -of the ethnologist as much as of the musician. Indeed, this may be -asserted of national music in general; for it gives us an insight -into the heart of man, reveals to us the feelings and predilections -of different races on the globe, and affords us a clue to the natural -affinity which exists between different families of men. Again, a -collection must prove interesting in a historical point of view. -Scholars will find among old instruments specimens which were in -common use in England at the time of queen Elizabeth, and which are -not unfrequently mentioned in the literature of that period. In many -instances the passages in which allusion is made to them can hardly be -understood, if we are unacquainted with the shape and construction of -the instruments. Furthermore, these relics of bygone times bring before -our eyes the manners and customs of our forefathers, and assist us in -understanding them correctly. - -It will be seen that the modification which our orchestra has -undergone, in the course of scarcely more than a century, is great -indeed. Most of the instruments which were highly popular about a -hundred years ago have either fallen into disuse or are now so much -altered that they may almost be considered as new inventions. Among -Asiatic nations, on the other hand, we meet with several instruments -which have retained unchanged through many centuries their old -construction and outward appearance. At South Kensington may be seen -instruments still in use in Egypt and western Asia, precisely like -specimens represented on monuments dating from a period of three -thousand years ago. By a reference to the eastern instruments of the -present time we obtain therefore a key for investigating the earlier -Egyptian and Assyrian representations of musical performances; and, -likewise, for appreciating more exactly the biblical records respecting -the music of the Hebrews. Perhaps these evidences will convey to some -inquirers a less high opinion than they have hitherto entertained, -regarding the musical accomplishments of the Hebrew bands in the solemn -processions of king David or in Solomon’s temple; but the opinion will -be all the nearer to the truth. - -There is another point of interest about such collections, and -especially that at South Kensington, which must not be left unnoticed. -Several instruments are remarkable on account of their elegant shape -and tasteful ornamentation. This is particularly the case with some -specimens from Asiatic countries. The beautiful designs with which they -are embellished may afford valuable patterns for study and for adoption -in works of art. - - - - -CHAPTER II. - - -A really complete account of all the musical instruments from the -earliest time known to us would require much more space than can here -be afforded. We can attempt only a concise historical survey. We -venture to hope that the illustrations interspersed throughout the text -will to the intelligent reader elucidate many facts which, for the -reason stated, are touched upon but cursorily. - - -PRE-HISTORIC RELICS. - -[Illustration] - -A musical relic has recently been exhumed in the department of Dordogne -in France, which was constructed in an age when the fauna of France -included the reindeer, the rhinoceros, and the mammoth, the hyæna, the -bear, and the cave-lion. It is a small bone somewhat less than two -inches in length, in which is a hole, evidently bored by means of one -of the little flint knives which men used before acquaintance with the -employment of metal for tools and weapons. Many of these flints were -found in the same place with the bones. Only about half a dozen of the -bones, of which a considerable number have been exhumed, possess the -artificial hole. We give a woodcut of one of them. - -M. Lartet surmises the perforated bone to have been used as a whistle -in hunting animals. It is the first digital phalanx of a ruminant, -drilled to a certain depth by a smooth cylindrical bore on its lower -surface near the expanded upper articulation. On applying it to the -lower lip and blowing into it a shrill sound is yielded. Three of -these phalanges are of reindeer, one is of Chamois. Again, among the -relics which have been brought to light from the cave of Lombrive, in -the department of Ariège, occur several eye-teeth of the dog which -have a hole drilled into them near the root. Probably they also yield -sounds like those reindeer bones, or like the tube of a key. Another -whistle--or rather a pipe, for it has three finger-holes by means of -which different tones could be produced--was found in a burying-place, -dating from the stone period, in the vicinity of Poitiers in France: -it is rudely constructed from a fragment of stag’s-horn. It is blown -at the end, like a _flûte à bec_ and the three finger-holes are placed -equidistantly. Four distinct tones must have been easily obtainable -on it: the lowest, when all the finger-holes were covered; the other -three, by opening the finger-holes successively. From the character -of the stone utensils and weapons discovered with this pipe it is -conjectured that the burying-place from which it was exhumed dates from -the latest time of the stone age. Therefore, however old it may be, it -is a more recent contrivance than the reindeer-bone whistle from the -cavern of the Dordogne. - - -THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. - -The most ancient nations historically known possessed musical -instruments which, though in acoustic construction greatly inferior to -our own, exhibit a degree of perfection which could have been attained -only after a long period of cultivation. Many tribes of the present day -have not yet reached this stage of musical progress. - -As regards the instruments of the ancient Egyptians we now possess -perhaps more detailed information than of those appertaining to any -other nation of antiquity. This information we owe especially to the -exactness with which the instruments are depicted in sculptures and -paintings. Whoever has examined these interesting monuments with even -ordinary care cannot but be convinced that the representations which -they exhibit are faithful transcripts from life. Moreover, if there -remained any doubt respecting the accuracy of the representations of -the musical instruments it might be dispelled by existing evidence. -Several specimens have been discovered in tombs preserved in a more or -less perfect condition. - -The Egyptians possessed various kinds of harps, some of which were -elegantly shaped and tastefully ornamented. The largest were about six -and a half feet high; and the small ones frequently had some sort of -stand which enabled the performer to play upon the instrument while -standing. The name of the harp was _buni_. Its frame had no front -pillar; the tension of the strings therefore cannot have been anything -like so strong as on our present harp. - -The Egyptian harps most remarkable for elegance of form and elaborate -decoration are the two which were first noticed by Bruce, who found -them painted in fresco on the wall of a sepulchre at Thebes, supposed -to be the tomb of Rameses III. who reigned about 1250 B.C. Bruce’s -discovery created sensation among the musicians. The fact that at so -remote an age the Egyptians should have possessed harps which vie with -our own in elegance and beauty of form appeared to some so incredible -that the correctness of Bruce’s representations, as engraved in his -“Travels,” was greatly doubted. Sketches of the same harps, taken -subsequently and at different times from the frescoes, have since -been published, but they differ more or less from each other in -appearance and in the number of strings. A kind of triangular harp of -the Egyptians was discovered in a well-preserved condition and is now -deposited in the Louvre. It has twenty-one strings; a greater number -than is generally represented on the monuments. All these instruments, -however much they differed from each other in form, had one peculiarity -in common, namely the absence of the fore pillar. - -The _nofre_, a kind of guitar, was almost identical in construction -with the Tamboura at the present day in use among several eastern -nations. It was evidently a great favourite with the ancient -Egyptians. A figure of it is found among their hieroglyphs, signifying -“good.” It occurs in representations of concerts dating earlier than -from B.C. 1500. The _nofre_ affords the best proof that the Egyptians -had made considerable progress in music at a very early age; since it -shows that they understood how to produce on a few strings, by means of -the finger-board, a greater number of notes than were obtainable even -on their harps. The instrument had two or four strings, was played with -a plectrum and appears to have been sometimes, if not always, provided -with frets. In the British museum is a fragment of a fresco obtained -from a tomb at Thebes, on which two female performers on the _nofre_ -are represented. The painter has distinctly indicated the frets. - -Small pipes of the Egyptians have been discovered, made of reed, with -three, four, five, or more finger-holes. There are some interesting -examples in the British museum; one of which has seven holes burnt in -at the side. Two straws were found with it of nearly the same length -as the pipe, which is about one foot long. In some other pipes pieces -of a kind of thick straw have also been found inserted into the tube, -obviously serving for a similar purpose as the _reed_ in our oboe or -clarionet. - -The _sêbi_, a single flute, was of considerable length, and the -performer appears to have been obliged to extend his arms almost at -full length in order to reach the furthest finger-hole. As _sêbi_ -is also the name of the leg-bone (like the Latin _tibia_) it may be -supposed that the Egyptian flute was originally made of bone. Those, -however, which have been found are of wood or reed. - -A flute-concert is painted on one of the tombs in the pyramids of Gizeh -and dates, according to Lepsius, from an age earlier than B.C. 2000. -Eight musicians (as seen in the woodcut) are performing on flutes. -Three of them, one behind the other, are kneeling and holding their -flutes in exactly the same manner. Facing these are three others, in a -precisely similar position. A seventh is sitting on the ground to the -left of the six, with his back turned towards them, but also in the -act of blowing his flute, like the others. An eighth is standing at the -right side of the group with his face turned towards them, holding his -flute before him with both hands, as if he were going to put it to his -mouth, or had just left off playing. He is clothed, while the others -have only a narrow girdle round their loins. Perhaps he is the director -of this singular band, or the _solo_ performer who is waiting for the -termination of the _tutti_ before renewing his part of the performance. -The division of the players into two sets, facing each other, suggests -the possibility that the instruments were classed somewhat like the -first and second violins, or the _flauto primo_ and _flauto secondo_ of -our orchestras. The occasional employment of the interval of the third, -or the fifth, as accompaniment to the melody, is not unusual even with -nations less advanced in music than were the ancient Egyptians. - -[Illustration] - -The Double-Pipe, called _mam_, appears to have been a very popular -instrument, if we judge from the frequency of its occurrence in -the representations of musical performances. Furthermore, the -Egyptians had, as far as is known to us, two kinds of trumpets; -three kinds of tambourines, or little hand drums; three kinds of -drums, chiefly barrel-shaped; and various kinds of gongs, bells, -cymbals, and castanets. The trumpet appears to have been usually of -brass. A peculiar wind-instrument, somewhat the shape of a champagne -bottle and perhaps made of pottery or wood, occurs only once in the -representations transmitted to us. - -The Egyptian drum was from two to three feet in length, covered with -parchment at both ends and braced by cords. The performer carried it -before him, generally by means of a band over his shoulder, while he -was beating it with his hands on both ends. Of another kind of drum an -actual specimen has been found in the excavations made in the year 1823 -at Thebes. It was 1½ feet high and 2 feet broad, and had cords for -bracing it. A piece of catgut encircled each end of the drum, being -wound round each cord, by means of which the cords could be tightened -or slackened at pleasure by pushing the two bands of catgut towards or -from each other. It was beaten with two drumsticks slightly bent. The -Egyptians had also straight drumsticks with a handle, and a knob at -the end. The Berlin museum possesses some of these. The third kind of -drum was almost identical with the _darabouka_ (or _darabukkeh_) of the -modern Egyptians. The Tambourine was either round, like that which is -at the present time in use in Europe as well as in the east; or it was -of an oblong square shape, slightly incurved on the four sides. - -The Sistrum consisted of a frame of bronze or brass into which three -or four metal bars were loosely inserted, so as to produce a jingling -noise when the instrument was shaken. The bars were often made in -the form of snakes, or they terminated in the head of a goose. Not -unfrequently a few metal rings were strung on the bars, to increase -the noise. The frame was sometimes ornamented with the figure of a cat. -The largest sistra which have been found are about eighteen inches in -length, and the smallest about nine inches. The sistrum was principally -used by females in religious performances. Its Egyptian name was -_seshesh_. - -The Egyptian cymbals closely resembled our own in shape. There are two -pairs of them in the British museum. One pair was found in a coffin -enclosing the mummy of a sacred musician, and is deposited in the same -case with the mummy and coffin. Among the Egyptian antiquities in the -British museum are also several small bells of bronze. The largest is -2¼ inches in height, and the smallest three-quarters of an inch. -Some of them have a hole at the side near the top wherein the clapper -was fastened. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - - -THE ASSYRIANS. - -Our acquaintance with the Assyrian instruments has been derived almost -entirely from the famous bas-reliefs which have been excavated from the -mounds of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and Kouyunjik, situated near the river -Tigris in the vicinity of the town of Mosul in Asiatic Turkey. - -The Assyrian harp was about four feet high, and appears of larger size -than it actually was on account of the ornamental appendages which were -affixed to the lower part of its frame. It must have been but light in -weight, since we find it not unfrequently represented in the hands of -persons who are playing upon it while they are dancing. Like all the -Oriental harps, modern as well as ancient, it was not provided with a -front pillar. The upper portion of the frame contained the sound-holes, -somewhat in the shape of an hour-glass. Below them were the screws, or -tuning-pegs, arranged in regular order. The strings were perhaps made -of silk, like those which the Burmese use at the present time on their -harps; or they may have been of catgut, which was used by the ancient -Egyptians. - -The largest assemblage of Assyrian musicians which has been discovered -on any monument consists of eleven performers upon instruments, besides -a chorus of singers. The first musician--probably the leader of the -band, as he marches alone at the head of the procession--is playing -upon a harp. Behind him are two men; one with a dulcimer and the -other with a double-pipe: then follow two men with harps. Next come -six female musicians, four of whom are playing upon harps, while one -is blowing a double-pipe and another is beating a small hand-drum -covered only at the top. Close behind the instrumental performers are -the singers, consisting of a chorus of females and children. They are -clapping their hands in time with the music, and some of the musicians -are dancing to the measure. One of the female singers is holding her -hand to her throat in the same manner as the women in Syria, Arabia, -and Persia are in the habit of doing at the present day when producing, -on festive occasions, those peculiarly shrill sounds of rejoicing which -have been repeatedly noticed by travellers. - -The dulcimer is in too imperfect a state on the bas-relief to -familiarize us with its construction. The slab representing the -procession in which it occurs has been injured; the defect which -extended over a portion of the dulcimer has been repaired, and it -cannot be said that in repairing it much musical knowledge has been -evinced. - -The instrument of the Trigonon species was held horizontally, and was -twanged with a rather long plectrum slightly bent at the end at which -it was held by the performer. It is of frequent occurrence on the -bas-reliefs. A number of them appear to have been generally played -together. At any rate, we find almost invariably on the monuments two -together, evidently implying “more than one,” “a number.” The left hand -of the performer seems to have been occupied in checking the vibration -of the strings when its discontinuance was required. From the position -of the strings the performer could not have struck them as those of -the dulcimer are struck. If he did not twang them, he may have drawn -the plectrum across them. Indeed, for twanging, a short plectrum would -have been more practical, considering that the strings are placed -horizontally one above the other at regular distances. It is therefore -by no means improbable that we have here a rude prototype of the violin -bow. - -The Lyre occurs in three different forms, and is held horizontally -in playing, or at least nearly so. Its front bar was generally either -oblique or slightly curved. The strings were tied round the bar so as -to allow of their being pushed upwards or downwards. In the former case -the tension of the strings increases, and the notes become therefore -higher; on the other hand, if the strings are pushed lower down the -pitch of the notes must become deeper. The lyre was played with a small -plectrum as well as with the fingers. - -The Assyrian trumpet was very similar to the Egyptian. Furthermore, we -meet with three kinds of drums, of which one is especially noteworthy -on account of its odd shape, somewhat resembling a sugar-loaf; with -the tambourine; with two kinds of cymbals; and with bells, of which -a considerable number have been found in the mound of Nimroud. These -bells, which have greatly withstood the devastation of time, are but -small in size, the largest of them being only 3¼ inches in height -and 2½ inches in diameter. Most of them have a hole at the top, in -which probably the clapper was fastened. They are made of copper mixed -with 14 per cent. of tin. - -Instrumental music was used by the Assyrians and Babylonians in their -religious observances. This is obvious from the sculptures, and is to -some extent confirmed by the mode of worship paid by command of king -Nebuchadnezzar to the golden image: “Then an herald cried aloud, To -you it is commanded, O people, nations, and languages, that at what -time ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery, -dulcimer, and all kinds of musick, ye fall down and worship the golden -image that Nebuchadnezzar the king hath set up.” The kings appear -to have maintained at their courts musical bands, whose office it -was to perform secular music at certain times of the day or on fixed -occasions. Of king Darius we are told that, when he had cast Daniel -into the den of lions, he “went to his palace, and passed the night -fasting, neither were instruments of musick brought before him;” from -which we may conclude that his band was in the habit of playing before -him in the evening. A similar custom prevailed also at the court of -Jerusalem, at least in the time of David and Solomon; both of whom -appear to have had their royal private bands, besides a large number of -singers and instrumental performers of sacred music who were engaged in -the Temple. - - -THE HEBREWS. - -As regards the musical instruments of the Hebrews, we are from biblical -records acquainted with the names of many of them; but representations -to be trusted are still wanting, and it is chiefly from an examination -of the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian instruments that we can conjecture -almost to a certainty their construction and capabilities. From various -indications, which it would be too circumstantial here to point out, we -believe the Hebrews to have possessed the following instruments: - -THE HARP. There cannot be a doubt that the Hebrews possessed the -harp, seeing that it was a common instrument among the Egyptians -and Assyrians. But it is uncertain which of the Hebrew names of the -stringed instruments occurring in the Bible really designates the harp. - -THE DULCIMER. Some writers on Hebrew music consider the _nebel_ to have -been a kind of dulcimer; others conjecture the same of the _psanterin_ -mentioned in the book of Daniel,--a name which appears to be synonymous -with the _psalterion_ of the Greeks, and from which also the present -oriental dulcimer, _santir_, may have been derived. Some of the -instruments mentioned in the book of Daniel may have been synonymous -with some which occur in other parts of the Bible under Hebrew names; -the names given in Daniel being Chaldæan. The _asor_ was a ten-stringed -instrument played with a plectrum, and is supposed to have borne some -resemblance to the _nebel_. - -THE LYRE. This instrument is represented on some Hebrew coins generally -ascribed to Judas Maccabæus, who lived in the second century before the -Christian era. There are several of them in the British museum; some -are of silver, and the others of copper. On three of them are lyres -with three strings, another has one with five, and another one with six -strings. The two sides of the frame appear to have been made of the -horns of animals, or they may have been of wood formed in imitation of -two horns which originally were used. Lyres thus constructed are still -found in Abyssinia. The Hebrew square-shaped lyre of the time of Simon -Maccabæus is probably identical with the _psalterion_. The _kinnor_, -the favourite instrument of king David, was most likely a lyre if not a -small triangular harp. The lyre was evidently an universally known and -favoured instrument among ancient eastern nations. Being more simple -in construction than most other stringed instruments it undoubtedly -preceded them in antiquity. The _kinnor_ is mentioned in the Bible as -the oldest stringed instrument, and as the invention of Jubal. Even -if the name of one particular stringed instrument is here used for -stringed instruments in general, which may possibly be the case, it -is only reasonable to suppose that the oldest and most universally -known stringed instrument would be mentioned as a representative of -the whole class rather than any other. Besides, the _kinnor_ was a -light and easily portable instrument; king David, according to the -Rabbinic records, used to suspend it during the night over his pillow. -All its uses mentioned in the Bible are especially applicable to the -lyre. And the resemblance of the word _kinnor_ to _kithara_, _kissar_, -and similar names known to denote the lyre, also tends to confirm -the supposition that it refers to this instrument. It is, however, -not likely that the instruments of the Hebrews--indeed their music -altogether--should have remained entirely unchanged during a period -of many centuries. Some modifications were likely to occur even from -accidental causes; such, for instance, as the influence of neighbouring -nations when the Hebrews came into closer contact with them. Thus -may be explained why the accounts of the Hebrew instruments given by -Josephus, who lived in the first century of the Christian era, are not -in exact accordance with those in the Bible. The lyres at the time of -Simon Maccabæus may probably be different from those which were in use -about a thousand years earlier, or at the time of David and Solomon -when the art of music with the Hebrews was at its zenith. - -There appears to be a probability that a Hebrew lyre of the time of -Joseph (about 1700 B.C.) is represented on an ancient Egyptian painting -discovered in a tomb at Beni Hassan,--which is the name of certain -grottoes on the eastern bank of the Nile. Sir Gardner Wilkinson, in his -“Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,” observes: “If, when we -become better acquainted with the interpretation of hieroglyphics, the -‘Strangers’ at Beni Hassan should prove to be the arrival of Jacob’s -family in Egypt, we may examine the Jewish lyre drawn by an Egyptian -artist. That this event took place about the period when the inmate -of the tomb lived is highly probable--at least, if I am correct in -considering Osirtasen I. to be the Pharaoh the patron of Joseph; and -it remains for us to decide whether the disagreement in the number -of persons here introduced--thirty-seven being written over them in -hieroglyphics--is a sufficient objection to their identity. It will -not be foreign to the present subject to introduce those figures which -are curious, if only considered as illustrative of ancient customs -at that early period, and which will be looked upon with unbounded -interest should they ever be found to refer to the Jews. The first -figure is an Egyptian scribe, who presents an account of their arrival -to a person seated, the owner of the tomb, and one of the principal -officers of the reigning Pharaoh. The next, also an Egyptian, ushers -them into his presence; and two advance bringing presents, the wild -goat or ibex and the gazelle, the productions of their country. Four -men, carrying bows and clubs, follow, leading an ass on which two -children are placed in panniers, accompanied by a boy and four women; -and, last of all, another ass laden, and two men--one holding a bow and -club, the other a lyre, which he plays with a plectrum. All the men -have beards, contrary to the custom of the Egyptians, but very general -in the East at that period, and noticed as a peculiarity of foreign -uncivilized nations throughout their sculptures. The men have sandals, -the women a sort of boot reaching to the ankle--both which were worn by -many Asiatic people. The lyre is rude, and differs in form from those -generally used in Egypt.” In the engraving the lyre-player, another -man, and some strange animals from this group, are represented. - -[Illustration] - -THE TAMBOURA. _Minnim_, _machalath_, and _nebel_ are usually supposed -to be the names of instruments of the lute or guitar kind. _Minnim_, -however, appears more likely to imply stringed instruments in general -than any particular instrument. - -THE SINGLE PIPE. _Chalil_ and _nekeb_ were the names of the Hebrew -pipes or flutes. - -THE DOUBLE PIPE. Probably the _mishrokitha_ mentioned in Daniel. The -_mishrokitha_ is represented in the drawings of our histories of music -as a small organ, consisting of seven pipes placed in a box with a -mouthpiece for blowing. But the shape of the pipes and of the box as -well as the row of keys for the fingers exhibited in the representation -of the _mishrokitha_ have too much of the European type not to suggest -that they are probably a product of the imagination. Respecting the -illustrations of Hebrew instruments which usually accompany historical -treatises on music and commentaries on the Bible, it ought to be borne -in mind that most of them are merely the offspring of conjectures -founded on some obscure hints in the Bible, or vague accounts by the -Rabbins. - -THE SYRINX OR PANDEAN PIPE. Probably the _ugab_, which in the English -authorized version of the Bible is rendered “organ.” - -THE BAGPIPE. The word _sumphonia_, which occurs in the book of -Daniel, is, by Forkel and others, supposed to denote a bagpipe. It -is remarkable that at the present day the bagpipe is called by the -Italian peasantry Zampogna. Another Hebrew instrument, the _magrepha_, -generally described as an organ, was more likely only a kind of -bagpipe. The _magrepha_ is not mentioned in the Bible but is described -in the Talmud. In tract Erachin it is recorded to have been a powerful -organ which stood in the temple at Jerusalem, and consisted of a case -or wind-chest, with ten holes, containing ten pipes. Each pipe was -capable of emitting ten different sounds, by means of finger-holes or -some similar contrivance: thus one hundred different sounds could be -produced on this instrument. Further, the _magrepha_ is said to have -been provided with two pairs of bellows and with ten keys, by means of -which it was played with the fingers. Its tone was, according to the -Rabbinic accounts, so loud that it could be heard at an incredibly long -distance from the temple. Authorities so widely differ that we must -leave it uncertain whether the much-lauded _magrepha_ was a bagpipe, -an organ, or a kettle-drum. Of the real nature of the Hebrew bagpipe -perhaps some idea may be formed from a syrinx with bellows, which has -been found represented on one of the ancient terra-cottas excavated in -Tarsus, Asia-minor, some years since, and here engraved. These remains -are believed to be about 2000 years old, judging from the figures upon -them, and from some coins struck about 200 years B.C. having been found -embedded with them. We have therefore before us, probably, the oldest -representation of a bagpipe hitherto discovered. - -[Illustration] - -THE TRUMPET. Three kinds are mentioned in the Bible, viz. the _keren_, -the _shophar_, and the _chatzozerah_. The first two were more or less -curved and might properly be considered as horns. Most commentators are -of opinion that the _keren_--made of ram’s horn--was almost identical -with the _shophar_, the only difference being that the latter was more -curved than the former. The _shophar_ is especially remarkable as being -the only Hebrew musical instrument which has been preserved to the -present day in the religious services of the Jews. It is still blown in -the synagogue, as in time of old, at the Jewish new-year’s festival, -according to the command of Moses (Numb. XXIX. I). The _chatzozerah_ -was a straight trumpet, about two feet in length, and was sometimes -made of silver. Two of these straight trumpets are shown in the famous -triumphal procession after the fall of Jerusalem on the arch of Titus, -engraved on the next page. - -THE DRUM. There can be no doubt that the Hebrews had several kinds of -drums. We know, however, only of the _toph_, which appears to have -been a tambourine or a small hand-drum like the Egyptian darabouka. -In the English version of the Bible the word is rendered _timbrel_ -or _tabret_. This instrument was especially used in processions on -occasions of rejoicing, and also frequently by females. We find it -in the hands of Miriam, when she was celebrating with the Israelitish -women in songs of joy the destruction of Pharaoh’s host; and in the -hands of Jephtha’s daughter, when she went out to welcome her father. -There exists at the present day in the East a small hand-drum called -_doff_, _diff_, or _adufe_--a name which appears to be synonymous with -the Hebrew _toph_. - -[Illustration] - -THE SISTRUM. Winer, Saalfchütz, and several other commentators are of -opinion that the _menaaneim_, mentioned in 2 Sam. vi. 5, denotes the -sistrum. In the English Bible the original is translated _cymbals_. - -CYMBALS. The _tzeltzclim_, _metzilloth_, and _metzilthaim_, appear -to have been cymbals or similar metallic instruments of percussion, -differing in shape and sound. - -BELLS. The little bells on the vestments of the high-priest were called -_phaamon_. Small golden bells were attached to the lower part of the -robes of the high-priest in his sacred ministrations. The Jews have, at -the present day, in their synagogues small bells fastened to the rolls -of the Law containing the Pentateuch: a kind of ornamentation which is -supposed to have been in use from time immemorial. - -Besides the names of Hebrew instruments already given there occur -several others in the Old Testament, upon the real meaning of which -much diversity of opinion prevails. _Jobel_ is by some commentators -classed with the trumpets, but it is by others believed to designate a -loud and cheerful blast of the trumpet, used on particular occasions. -If _Jobel_ (from which _jubilare_ is supposed to be derived) is -identical with the name _Jubal_, the inventor of musical instruments, -it would appear that the Hebrews appreciated pre-eminently the -exhilarating power of music. _Shalisbim_ is supposed to denote a -triangle. _Nechiloth_, _gittith_, and _machalath_, which occur in -the headings of some psalms, are also by commentators supposed to -be musical instruments. _Nechiloth_ is said to have been a flute, -and _gittith_ and _machalath_ to have been stringed instruments, and -_machol_ a kind of flute. Again, others maintain that the words denote -peculiar modes of performance or certain favourite melodies to which -the psalms were directed to be sung, or chanted. According to the -records of the Rabbins, the Hebrews in the time of David and Solomon -possessed thirty-six different musical instruments. In the Bible only -about half that number are mentioned. - -Most nations of antiquity ascribed the invention of their musical -instruments to their gods, or to certain superhuman beings. The Hebrews -attributed it to man; Jubal is mentioned in Genesis as “the father of -all such as handle the harp and organ” (_i.e._, performers on stringed -instruments and wind instruments). As instruments of percussion are -almost invariably in use long before people are led to construct -stringed and wind instruments it might perhaps be surmised that Jubal -was not regarded as the inventor of all the Hebrew instruments, but -rather as the first professional cultivator of instrumental music. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - - -THE GREEKS. - -Many musical instruments of the ancient Greeks are known to us by name; -but respecting their exact construction and capabilities there still -prevails almost as much diversity of opinion as is the case with those -of the Hebrews. - -It is generally believed that the Greeks derived their musical system -from the Egyptians. Pythagoras and other philosophers are said to have -studied music in Egypt. It would, however, appear that the Egyptian -influence upon Greece, as far as regards this art, has been overrated. -Not only have the more perfect Egyptian instruments--such as the -larger harps, the tamboura--never been much in favour with the Greeks, -but almost all the stringed instruments which the Greeks possessed -are stated to have been originally derived from Asia. Strabo says: -“Those who regard the whole of Asia, as far as India, as consecrated -to Bacchus, point to that country as the origin of a great portion of -the present music. One author speaks of ‘striking forcibly the Asiatic -kithara,’ another calls the pipes Berecynthian and Phrygian. Some of -the instruments also have foreign names, as Nabla, Sambuka, Barbiton, -Magadis, and many others.” - -We know at present little more of these instruments than that they -were in use in Greece. Of the Magadis it is even not satisfactorily -ascertained whether it was a stringed or a wind instrument. The other -three are known to have been stringed instruments. But they cannot have -been anything like such universal favourites as the lyre, because this -instrument and perhaps the _trigonon_ are almost the only stringed -instruments represented in the Greek paintings on pottery and other -monumental records. If, as might perhaps be suggested, their taste for -beauty of form induced the Greeks to represent the elegant lyre in -preference to other stringed instruments, we might at least expect to -meet with the harp; an instrument which equals if it does not surpass -the lyre in elegance of form. - -[Illustration] - -The representation of Polyhymnia with a harp, depicted on a splendid -Greek vase now in the Munich museum, may be noted as an exceptional -instance. This valuable relic dates from the time of Alexander the -great. The instrument resembles in construction as well as in shape -the Assyrian harp, and has thirteen strings. Polyhymnia is touching -them with both hands, using the right hand for the treble and the left -for the bass. She is seated, holding the instrument in her lap. Even -the little tuning-pegs, which in number are not in accordance with -the strings, are placed on the sound-board at the upper part of the -frame, exactly as on the Assyrian harp. If then we have here the Greek -harp, it was more likely an importation from Asia than from Egypt. In -short, as far as can be ascertained, the most complete of the Greek -instruments appear to be of Asiatic origin. Especially from the nations -who inhabited Asia-minor the Greeks are stated to have adopted several -of the most popular. Thus we may read of the short and shrill-sounding -pipes of the Carians; of the Phrygian pastoral flute, consisting of -several tubes united; of the three-stringed _kithara_ of the Lydians; -and so on. - -The Greeks called the harp _kinyra_, and this may be the reason why in -the English translation of the Bible the _kinnor_ of the Hebrews, the -favourite instrument of king David, is rendered _harp_. - -[Illustration] - -The Greeks had lyres of various kinds, shown in the accompanying -woodcuts, more or less differing in construction, form, and size, and -distinguished by different names; such as _lyra, ithara_, _chelys_, -_phorminx_, etc. _Lyra_ appears to have implied instruments of this -class in general, and also the lyre with a body oval at the base and -held upon the lap or in the arms of the performer; while the _kithara_ -had a square base and was held against the breast. These distinctions -have, however, not been satisfactorily ascertained. The _chelys_ was a -small lyre with the body made of the shell of a tortoise, or of wood in -imitation of the tortoise. The _phorminx_ was a large lyre; and, like -the _kithara_, was used at an early period singly, for accompanying -recitations. It is recorded that the _kithara_ was employed for solo -performances as early as B.C. 700. - -The design on the Grecian vase at Munich (already alluded to) -represents the nine muses, of whom three are given in the engraving, -viz., Polyhymnia with the harp, and Kalliope and Erato with lyres. It -will be observed that some of the lyres engraved in the woodcuts on -page 29 are provided with a bridge, while others are without it. The -largest were held probably on or between the knees, or were attached -to the left arm by means of a band, to enable the performer to use his -hands without impediment. The strings, made of catgut or sinew, were -more usually twanged with a _plektron_ than merely with the fingers. -The _plektron_ was a short stem of ivory or metal pointed at both ends. - -A fragment of a Greek lyre which was found in a tomb near Athens is -deposited in the British museum. The two pieces constituting its frame -are of wood. Their length is about eighteen inches, and the length -of the cross-bar at the top is about nine inches. The instrument is -unhappily in a condition too dilapidated and imperfect to be of any -essential use to the musical inquirer. - -The _trigonon_ consisted originally of an angular frame, to which the -strings were affixed. In the course of time a third bar was added to -resist the tension of the strings, and its triangular frame resembled -in shape the Greek delta. Subsequently it was still further improved, -the upper bar of the frame being made slightly curved, whereby the -instrument obtained greater strength and more elegance of form. - -The _magadis_, also called _pektis_, had twenty strings which were -tuned in octaves, and therefore produced only ten tones. It appears -to have been some sort of dulcimer, but information respecting its -construction is still wanting. There appears to have been also a -kind of bagpipe in use called _magadis_, of which nothing certain is -known. Possibly, the same name may have been applied to two different -instruments. - -[Illustration] - -The _barbiton_ was likewise a stringed instrument of this kind. The -_sambyke_ is traditionally said to have been invented by Ibykos, B.C. -540. The _simmikon_ had thirty-five strings, and derived its name from -its inventor, Simos, who lived about B.C. 600. It was perhaps a kind of -dulcimer. The _nabla_ had only two strings, and probably resembled the -_nebel_ of the Hebrews, of which but little is known with certainty. -The _pandoura_ is supposed to have been a kind of lute with three -strings. Several of the instruments just noticed were used in Greece, -chiefly by musicians who had immigrated from Asia; they can therefore -hardly be considered as national musical instruments of the Greeks. The -_monochord_ had (as its name implies) only a single string, and was -used in teaching singing and the laws of acoustics. - -[Illustration] - -The flute, _aulos_, of which there were many varieties, as shown in -the woodcut p. 31, was a highly popular instrument, and differed in -construction from the flutes and pipes of the ancient Egyptians. -Instead of being blown through a hole at the side near the top it was -held like a flageolet, and a vibrating reed was inserted into the -mouth-piece, so that it might be more properly described as a kind -of oboe or clarionet. The Greeks were accustomed to designate by the -name of _aulos_ all wind instruments of the flute and oboe kind, some -of which were constructed like the flageolet or like our antiquated -_flûte à bec_. The single flute was called _monaulos_, and the double -one _diaulos_. A _diaulos_, which was found in a tomb at Athens, is in -the British museum. The wood of which it is made seems to be cedar, -and the tubes are fifteen inches in length. Each tube has a separate -mouth-piece and six finger-holes, five of which are at the upper side -and one is underneath. - -The _syrinx_, or Pandean pipe, had from three to nine tubes, but seven -was the usual number. The straight trumpet, _salpinx_, and the curved -horn, _keras_, made of brass, were used exclusively in war. The small -hand-drum, called _tympanon_, resembled in shape our tambourine, but -was covered with parchment at the back as well as at the front. The -_kymbala_ were made of metal, and resembled our small cymbals. The -_krotala_ were almost identical with our castanets, and were made of -wood or metal. - - -THE ETRUSCANS AND ROMANS. - -The Romans are recorded to have derived some of their most popular -instruments originally from the Etruscans; a people which at an early -period excelled all other Italian nations in the cultivation of the -arts as well as in social refinement, and which possessed musical -instruments similar to those of the Greeks. It must, however, be -remembered that many of the vases and other specimens of art which -have been found in Etruscan tombs, and on which delineations of lyres -and other instruments occur, are supposed to be productions of Greek -artists whose works were obtained from Greece by the Etruscans, or who -were induced to settle in Etruria. - -The flutes of the Etruscans were not unfrequently made of ivory; -those used in religious sacrifices were of box-wood, of a species of -the lotus, of ass’ bone, bronze and silver. A bronze flute, somewhat -resembling our flageolet, has been found in a tomb; likewise a huge -trumpet of bronze. An Etruscan _cornu_ (engraved) is deposited in the -British museum, and measures about four feet in length. - -[Illustration] - -To the Etruscans is also attributed by some the invention of the -hydraulic organ. The Greeks possessed a somewhat similar contrivance -which they called _hydraulos_, _i.e._ water-flute, and which probably -was identical with the _organum hydraulicum_ of the Romans. The -instrument ought more properly to be regarded as a pneumatic organ, -for the sound was produced by the current of air through the pipes; -the water applied serving merely to give the necessary pressure to the -bellows and to regulate their action. The pipes were probably caused -to sound by means of stops, perhaps resembling those on our organ, -which were drawn out or pushed in. The construction was evidently but -a primitive contrivance, contained in a case which could be carried by -one or two persons and which was placed on a table. The highest degree -of perfection which the hydraulic organ obtained with the ancients is -perhaps shown in a representation on a coin of the emperor Nero, in -the British museum. Only ten pipes are given to it and there is no -indication of any key board, which would probably have been shown had -it existed. The man standing at the side and holding a laurel leaf in -his hand is surmised to represent a victor in the exhibitions of the -circus or the amphitheatre. The hydraulic organ probably was played on -such occasions; and the medal containing an impression of it may have -been bestowed upon the victor. - -[Illustration] - -During the time of the republic, and especially subsequently under -the reign of the emperors, the Romans adopted many new instruments -from Greece, Egypt, and even from western Asia; without essentially -improving any of their importations. - -Their most favourite stringed instrument was the lyre, of which they -had various kinds, called, according to their form and arrangement -of strings, _lyra_, _cithara_, _chelys_, _testudo_, _fidis_ (or -_fides_), and _cornu_. The name _cornu_ was given to the lyre when the -sides of the frame terminated at the top in the shape of two horns. -The _barbitos_ was a kind of lyre with a large body, which gave the -instrument somewhat the shape of the Welsh _crwth_. The _psalterium_ -was a kind of lyre of an oblong square shape. Like most of the Roman -lyres, it was played with a rather large plectrum. The _trigonum_ was -the same as the Greek _trigonon_, and was probably originally derived -from Egypt. It is recorded that a certain musician of the name of -Alexander Alexandrinus was so admirable a performer upon it that when -exhibiting his skill in Rome he created the greatest _furore_. Less -common, and derived from Asia, were the _sambuca_ and _nablia_, the -exact construction of which is unknown. - -The flute, _tibia_, was originally made of the shin bone, and had a -mouth-hole and four finger-holes. Its shape was retained even when, -at a later period, it was constructed of other substances than bone. -The _tibia gingrina_ consisted of a long and thin tube of reed with -a mouth-hole at the side of one end. The _tibia obliqua_ and _tibia -vasca_ were provided with mouth-pieces affixed at a right angle to the -tube; a contrivance somewhat similar to that on our bassoon. The _tibia -longa_ was especially used in religious worship. The _tibia curva_ -was curved at its broadest end. The _tibia ligula_ appears to have -resembled our flageolet. The _calamus_ was nothing more than a simple -pipe cut off the kind of reed which the ancients used as a pen for -writing. - -The Romans had double flutes as well as single flutes. The double flute -consisted of two tubes united, either so as to have a mouth-piece -in common or to have each a separate mouth-piece. If the tubes were -exactly alike the double flute was called _Tibiæ pares_; if they were -different from each other, _Tibiæ impares_. Little plugs, or stoppers, -were inserted into the finger-holes to regulate the order of intervals. -The _tibia_ was made in various shapes. The _tibia dextra_ was usually -constructed of the upper and thinner part of a reed; and the _tibia -sinistra_, of the lower and broader part. The performers used also the -_capistrum_,--a bandage round the cheeks identical with the _phorbeia_ -of the Greeks. - -The British museum contains a mosaic figure of a Roman girl playing -the _tibia_, which is stated to have been disinterred in the year 1823 -on the Via Appia. Here the _holmos_ or mouth-piece, somewhat resembling -the reed of our oboe, is distinctly shown. The finger-holes, probably -four, are not indicated, although they undoubtedly existed on the -instrument. - -[Illustration] - -Furthermore, the Romans had two kinds of Pandean pipes, viz. the -_syrinx_ and the _fistula_. The bagpipe, _tibia utricularis_, is said -to have been a favourite instrument of the emperor Nero. - -[Illustration] - -The _cornu_ was a large horn of bronze, curved. The performer held -it under his arm with the broad end upwards over his shoulder. It is -represented in the engraving, with the _tuba_ and the _lituus_. - -The _tuba_ was a straight trumpet. Both the _cornu_ and the _tuba_ -were employed in war to convey signals. The same was the case with the -_buccina_,--originally perhaps a conch shell, and afterwards a simple -horn of an animal,--and the _lituus_, which was bent at the broad end -but otherwise straight. The _tympanum_ resembled the tambourine and was -beaten like the latter with the hands. Among the Roman instruments -of percussion the _scabillum_, which consisted of two plates combined -by means of a sort of hinge, deserves to be noticed; it was fastened -under the foot and trodden in time, to produce certain rhythmical -effects in musical performances. The _cymbalum_ consisted of two metal -plates similar to our cymbals. The _crotala_ and the _crusmata_ were -kinds of castanets, the former being oblong and of a larger size than -the latter. The Romans had also a _triangulum_, which resembled the -triangle occasionally used in our orchestra. The _sistrum_ they derived -from Egypt with the introduction of the worship of Isis. Metal bells, -arranged according to a regular order of intervals and placed in a -frame, were called _tintinnabula_. The _crepitaculum_ appears to have -been a somewhat similar contrivance on a hoop with a handle. - -Through the Greeks and Romans we have the first well-authenticated -proof of musical instruments having been introduced into Europe from -Asia. The Romans in their conquests undoubtedly made their musical -instruments known, to some extent, also in western Europe. But the -Greeks and Romans are not the only nations which introduced eastern -instruments into Europe. The Phœnicians at an early period colonized -Sardinia, and traces of them are still to be found on that island. -Among these is a peculiarly constructed double-pipe, called _lionedda_ -or _launedda_. Again, at a much later period the Arabs introduced -several of their instruments into Spain, from which country they became -known in France, Germany, and England. Also the crusaders, during the -eleventh and twelfth centuries, may have helped to familiarize the -western European nations with instruments of the east. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - - -THE CHINESE. - -Allowing for any exaggeration as to chronology, natural to the lively -imagination of Asiatics, there is no reason to doubt that the Chinese -possessed long before our Christian era musical instruments to which -they attribute a fabulously high antiquity. There is an ancient -tradition, according to which they obtained their musical scale from -a miraculous bird, called foung-hoang, which appears to have been a -sort of phœnix. When Confucius, who lived about B.C. 500, happened to -hear on a certain occasion some Chinese music, he became so greatly -enraptured that he could not take any food for three months afterwards. -The sounds which produced this effect were those of Kouei, the Orpheus -of the Chinese, whose performance on the _king_--a kind of harmonicon -constructed of slabs of sonorous stone--would draw wild animals around -him and make them subservient to his will. As regards the invention of -musical instruments the Chinese have other traditions. In one of these -we are told that the origin of some of their most popular instruments -dates from the period when China was under the dominion of heavenly -spirits, called Ki. Another assigns the invention of several stringed -instruments to the great Fohi who was the founder of the empire and -who lived about B.C. 3000, which was long after the dominion of the -Ki, or spirits. Again, another tradition holds that the most important -instruments and systematic arrangements of sounds are an invention of -Niuva, a supernatural female, who lived at the time of Fohi. - -[Illustration] - -According to their records, the Chinese possessed their much-esteemed -_king_ 2200 years before our Christian era, and employed it for -accompanying songs of praise. It was regarded as a sacred instrument. -During religious observances at the solemn moment when the _king_ was -sounded sticks of incense were burnt. It was likewise played before -the emperor early in the morning when he awoke. The Chinese have long -since constructed various kinds of the _king_, one of which is here -engraved, by using different species of stones. Their most famous stone -selected for this purpose is called _yu_. It is not only very sonorous -but also beautiful in appearance. The _yu_ is found in mountain streams -and crevices of rocks. The largest specimens found measure from two to -three feet in diameter, but of this size examples rarely occur. The -_yu_ is very hard and heavy. Some European mineralogists, to whom the -missionaries transmitted specimens for examination, pronounce it to be -a species of agate. It is found of different colours, and the Chinese -appear to have preferred in different centuries particular colours for -the _king_. - -The Chinese consider the _yu_ especially valuable for musical purposes, -because it always retains exactly the same pitch. All other musical -instruments, they say, are in this respect doubtful; but the tone of -the _yu_ is neither influenced by cold nor heat, nor by humidity, nor -dryness. - -The stones used for the _king_ have been cut from time to time in -various grotesque shapes. Some represent animals: as, for instance, a -bat with outstretched wings; or two fishes placed side by side: others -are in the shape of an ancient Chinese bell. The angular shape shown -in the engraving appears to be the oldest and is still retained in the -ornamented stones of the _pien-king_, which is a more modern instrument -than the _king_. The tones of the _pien-king_ are attuned according -to the Chinese intervals called _lu_, of which there are twelve in -the compass of an octave. The same is the case with the other Chinese -instruments of this class. They vary, however, in pitch. The pitch of -the _soung-king_, for instance, is four intervals lower than that of -the _pien-king_. - -Sonorous stones have always been used by the Chinese also singly, as -rhythmical instruments. Such a single stone is called _tse-king_. -Probably certain curious relics belonging to a temple in Peking, -erected for the worship of Confucius, serve a similar purpose. In one -of the outbuildings or the temple are ten sonorous stones, shaped like -drums, which are asserted to have been cut about three thousand years -ago. The primitive Chinese characters engraven upon them are nearly -obliterated. - -The ancient Chinese had several kinds of bells, frequently arranged in -sets so as to constitute a musical scale. The Chinese name for the bell -is _tchung_. At an early period they had a somewhat square-shaped bell -called _té-tchung_. Like other ancient Chinese bells it was made of -copper alloyed with tin, the proportion being one pound of tin to six -of copper. The _té-tchung_, which is also known by the name of _piao_, -was principally used to indicate the time and divisions in musical -performances. It had a fixed pitch of sound, and several of these bells -attuned to a certain order of intervals were not unfrequently ranged -in a regular succession, thus forming a musical instrument which was -called _pien-tchung_. The musical scale of the sixteen bells which -the _pien-tchung_ contained was the same as that of the _king_ before -mentioned. - -[Illustration] - -The _hiuen-tchung_ was, according to popular tradition, included with -the antique instruments at the time of Confucius, and came into popular -use during the Han dynasty (from B.C. 200 until A.D. 200). It was of -a peculiar oval shape and had nearly the same quaint ornamentation -as the _té-tchung_; this consisted of symbolical figures, in four -divisions, each containing nine mammals. The mouth was crescent-shaped. -Every figure had a deep meaning referring to the seasons and to the -mysteries of the Buddhist religion. The largest _hiuen-tchung_ was -about twenty inches in length; and, like the _té-tchung_, was sounded -by means of a small wooden mallet with an oval knob. None of the bells -of this description had a clapper. It would, however, appear that the -Chinese had at an early period some kind of bell provided with a wooden -tongue: this was used for military purposes as well as for calling the -people together when an imperial messenger promulgated his sovereign’s -commands. An expression of Confucius is recorded to the effect that -he wished to be “A wooden-tongued bell of Heaven,” _i.e._ a herald of -heaven to proclaim the divine purposes to the multitude. - -[Illustration] - -The _fang-hiang_ was a kind of wood-harmonicon. It contained sixteen -wooden slabs of an oblong square shape, suspended in a wooden frame -elegantly decorated. The slabs were arranged in two tiers, one above -the other, and were all of equal length and breadth but differed in -thickness. The _tchoung-tou_ consisted of twelve slips of bamboo, and -was used for beating time and for rhythmical purposes. The slips being -banded together at one end could be expanded somewhat like a fan. The -Chinese state that they used the _tchoung-tou_ for writing upon before -they invented paper. - -The _ou_, of which we give a woodcut, likewise an ancient Chinese -instrument of percussion and still in use, is made of wood in the shape -of a crouching tiger. It is hollow, and along its back are about twenty -small pieces of metal, pointed, and in appearance not unlike the teeth -of a saw. The performer strikes them with a sort of plectrum resembling -a brush, or with a small stick called _tchen_. Occasionally the _ou_ is -made with pieces of metal shaped like reeds. - -[Illustration] - -The ancient _ou_ was constructed with only six tones which were -attuned thus--_f_, _g_, _a_, _c_, _d_, _f_. The instrument appears -to have become deteriorated in the course of time; for, although -it has gradually acquired as many as twenty-seven pieces of metal, -it evidently serves at the present day more for the production of -rhythmical noise than for the execution of any melody. The modern _ou_ -is made of a species of wood called _kieou_ or _tsieou_: and the tiger -rests generally on a hollow wooden pedestal about three feet six inches -long, which serves as a sound-board. - -[Illustration] - -The _tchou_, likewise an instrument of percussion, was made of the -wood of a tree called _kieou-mou_, the stem of which resembles that of -the pine and whose foliage is much like that of the cypress. It was -constructed of boards about three-quarters of an inch in thickness. In -the middle of one of the sides was an aperture into which the hand was -passed for the purpose of holding the handle of a wooden hammer, the -end of which entered into a hole situated in the bottom of the _tchou_. -The handle was kept in its place by means of a wooden pin, on which it -moved right and left when the instrument was struck with a hammer. The -Chinese ascribe to the _tchou_ a very high antiquity, as they almost -invariably do with any of their inventions when the date of its origin -is unknown to them. - -The _po-fou_ was a drum, about one foot four inches in length, and -seven inches in diameter. It had a parchment at each end, which was -prepared in a peculiar way by being boiled in water. The _po-fou_ used -to be partly filled with a preparation made from the husk of rice, in -order to mellow the sound. The Chinese name for the drum is _kou_. - -[Illustration] - -The _kin-kou_ (engraved), a large drum fixed on a pedestal which raises -it above six feet from the ground, is embellished with symbolical -designs. A similar drum on which natural phenomena are depicted is -called _lei-kou_; and another of the kind, with figures of certain -birds and beasts which are regarded as symbols of long life, is called -_ling-kou_, and also _lou-kou_. - -The flutes, _ty_, _yo_, and _tché_ were generally made of bamboo. The -_koan-tsee_ was a Pandean pipe containing twelve tubes of bamboo. -The _siao_, likewise a Pandean pipe, contained sixteen tubes. The -_pai-siao_ differed from the _siao_ inasmuch as the tubes were inserted -into an oddly-shaped case highly ornamented with grotesque designs and -silken appendages. - -[Illustration] - -The Chinese are known to have constructed at an early period a curious -wind-instrument, called _hiuen_. It was made of baked clay and had five -finger-holes, three of which were placed on one side and two on the -opposite side, as in the cut. Its tones were in conformity with the -pentatonic scale. The reader unacquainted with the pentatonic scale may -ascertain its character by playing on the pianoforte the scale of C -major with the omission of _f_ and _b_ (the _fourth_ and _seventh_); or -by striking the black keys in regular succession from _f_-sharp to the -next _f_-sharp above or below. - -Another curious wind-instrument of high antiquity, the _cheng_, -(engraved, p. 46) is still in use. Formerly it had either 13, 19, or -24 tubes, placed in a calabash; and a long curved tube served as a -mouth-piece. In olden time it was called _yu_. - -The ancient stringed instruments, the _kin_ and _chê_, were of the -dulcimer kind: they are still in use, and specimens of them are in the -South Kensington museum. - -The Buddhists introduced from Thibet into China their god of music, -who is represented as a rather jovial-looking man with a moustache -and an imperial, playing the _pepa_, a kind of lute with four silken -strings. Perhaps some interesting information respecting the ancient -Chinese musical instruments may be gathered from the famous ruins of -the Buddhist temples _Ongcor-Wat_ and _Ongcor-Thôm_, in Cambodia. -These splendid ruins are supposed to be above two thousand years old: -and, at any rate, the circumstance of their age not being known to the -Cambodians suggests a high antiquity. On the bas-reliefs with which the -temples were enriched are figured musical instruments, which European -travellers describe as “flutes, organs, trumpets, and drums, resembling -those of the Chinese.” Faithful sketches of these representations -might, very likely, afford valuable hints to the student of musical -history. - - -THE HINDUS. - -[Illustration] - -In the Brahmin mythology of the Hindus the god Nareda is the inventor -of the _vina_, the principal national instrument of Hindustan. -Saraswati, the consort of Brahma, may be regarded as the Minerva of -the Hindus. She is the goddess of music as well as of speech; to her -is attributed the invention of the systematic arrangement of the -sounds into a musical scale. She is represented seated on a peacock -and playing on a stringed instrument of the lute kind. Brahma himself -we find depicted as a vigorous man with four handsome heads, beating -with his hands upon a small drum; and Vishnu, in his incarnation as -Krishna, is represented as a beautiful youth playing upon a flute. The -Hindus construct a peculiar kind of flute, which they consider as the -favourite instrument of Krishna. They have also the divinity Ganesa, -the god of Wisdom, who is represented as a man with the head of an -elephant, holding a _tamboura_ in his hands. - -It is a suggestive fact that we find among several nations in different -parts of the world an ancient tradition, according to which their most -popular stringed instrument was originally derived from the water. - -In Hindu mythology the god Nareda invented the _vina_--the principal -national instrument of Hindustan--which has also the name _cach’-hapi_, -signifying a tortoise (_testudo_). Moreover, _nara_ denotes in Sanskrit -water, and _narada_, or _nareda_, the giver of water. Like Nareda, -Nereus and his fifty daughters, the Nereides, were much renowned for -their musical accomplishments; and Hermes (it will be remembered) made -his lyre, the _chelys_, of a tortoise-shell. The Scandinavian god Odin, -the originator of magic songs, is mentioned as the ruler of the sea, -and as such he had the name of _Nikarr_. In the depth of the sea he -played the harp with his subordinate spirits, who occasionally came up -to the surface of the water to teach some favoured human being their -wonderful instrument. Wäinämöinen, the divine player on the Finnish -_kantele_ (according to the Kalewala, the old national epic of the -Finns) constructed his instrument of fish-bones. The frame he made out -of the bones of the pike; and the teeth of the pike he used for the -tuning-pegs. - -Jacob Grimm in his work on German mythology points out an old -tradition, preserved in Swedish and Scotch national ballads, of a -skilful harper who constructs his instrument out of the bones of a -young girl drowned by a wicked woman. Her fingers he uses for the -tuning screws, and her golden hair for the strings. The harper plays, -and his music kills the murderess. A similar story is told in the old -Icelandic national songs; and the same tradition has been preserved in -the Faroe islands, as well as in Norway and Denmark. - -May not the agreeable impression produced by the rhythmical flow of -the waves and the soothing murmur of running water have led various -nations, independently of each other, to the widespread conception that -they obtained their favourite instrument of music from the water? Or is -the notion traceable to a common source dating from a pre-historic age, -perhaps from the early period when the Aryan race is surmised to have -diffused its lore through various countries? Or did it originate in the -old belief that the world, with all its charms and delights, arose from -a chaos in which water constituted the predominant element? - -Howbeit, Nareda, the giver of water, was evidently also the ruler of -the clouds; and Odin had his throne in the skies. Indeed, many of the -musical water-spirits appear to have been originally considered as rain -deities. Their music may therefore be regarded as derived from the -clouds rather than from the sea. In short, the traditions respecting -spirits and water are not in contradiction to the opinion of the -ancient Hindus that music is of heavenly origin, but rather tend to -support it. - -The earliest musical instruments of the Hindus on record have, almost -all of them, remained in popular use until the present day scarcely -altered. Besides these, the Hindus possess several Arabic and Persian -instruments which are of comparatively modern date in Hindustan: -evidently having been introduced into that country scarcely a thousand -years ago, at the time of the Mahomedan irruption. There is a treatise -on music extant, written in Sanskrit, which contains a description of -the ancient instruments. Its title is _Sângita râthnakara_. If, as -may be hoped, it be translated by a Sanskrit scholar who is at the -same time a good musician, we shall probably be enabled to ascertain -more exactly which of the Hindu instruments of the present day are of -comparatively modern origin. - -The _vina_ is undoubtedly of high antiquity. It has seven wire strings, -and movable frets which are generally fastened with wax. Two hollowed -gourds, often tastefully ornamented, are affixed to it for the purpose -of increasing the sonorousness. There are several kinds of the _vina_ -in different districts; but that represented in the illustration -is regarded as the oldest. The performer shown is Jeewan Shah, a -celebrated virtuoso on the _vina_, who lived about a hundred years ago. -The Hindus divided their musical scale into several intervals smaller -than our modern semitones. They adopted twenty-two intervals called -_sruti_ in the compass of an octave, which may therefore be compared -to our chromatic intervals. As the frets of the _vina_ are movable the -performer can easily regulate them according to the scale, or mode, -which he requires for his music. - -[Illustration] - -The harp, _chang_, has become almost obsolete. If some Hindu drawings -of it can be relied upon, it had at an early time a triangular frame -and was in construction as well as in shape and size almost identical -with the Assyrian harp. - -The Hindus claim to have invented the violin bow. They maintain that -the _ravanastron_, one of their old instruments played with the bow, -was invented about five thousand years ago by Ravanon, a mighty king -of Ceylon. However this may be there is a great probability that the -fiddle-bow originated in Hindustan; because Sanskrit scholars inform -us that there are names for it in works which cannot be less than -from 1500 to 2000 years old. The non-occurrence of any instrument -played with a bow on the monuments of the nations of antiquity is -by no means so sure a proof as has generally been supposed, that the -bow was unknown. The fiddle in its primitive condition must have been -a poor contrivance. It probably was despised by players who could -produce better tones with greater facility by twanging the strings -with their fingers, or with a plectrum. Thus it may have remained -through many centuries without experiencing any material improvement. -It must also be borne in mind that the monuments transmitted to us -chiefly represent historical events, religious ceremonies, and royal -entertainments. On such occasions instruments of a certain kind only -were used, and these we find represented; while others, which may -have been even more common, never occur. In two thousand years’ time -people will possibly maintain that some highly perfected instrument -popular with them was entirely unknown to us, because it is at present -in so primitive a condition that no one hardly notices it. If the -_ravanastron_ was an importation of the Mahomedans it would most likely -bear some resemblance to the Arabian and Persian instruments, and it -would be found rather in the hands of the higher classes in the towns; -whereas it is principally met with among the lower order of people, in -isolated and mountainous districts. It is further remarkable that the -most simple kind of _ravanastron_ is almost identical with the Chinese -fiddle called _ur-heen_. This species has only two strings, and its -body consists of a small block of wood, hollowed out and covered with -the skin of a serpent. The _ur-heen_ has not been mentioned among the -most ancient instruments of the Chinese, since there is no evidence of -its having been known in China before the introduction of the Buddhist -religion into that country. From indications, which to point out would -lead too far here, it would appear that several instruments found -in China originated in Hindustan. They seem to have been gradually -diffused from Hindustan and Thibet, more or less altered in the course -of time, through the east as far as Japan. - -Another curious Hindu instrument, probably of very high antiquity, -is the _poongi_, also called _toumrie_ and _magoudi_. It consists -of a gourd or of the Cuddos nut, hollowed, into which two pipes are -inserted. The _poongi_ therefore somewhat resembles in appearance a -bagpipe. It is generally used by the _Sampuris_ or snake charmers, -who play upon it when they exhibit the antics of the cobra. The name -_magoudi_, given in certain districts to this instrument, rather -tends to corroborate the opinion of some musical historians that the -_magadis_ of the ancient Greeks was a sort of double-pipe, or bagpipe. - -Many instruments of Hindustan are known by different names in different -districts; and, besides, there are varieties of them. On the whole, the -Hindus possess about fifty instruments. To describe them properly would -fill a volume. Some, which are in the Kensington museum, will be found -noticed in the large catalogue of that collection. - - -THE PERSIANS AND ARABS. - -Of the musical instruments of the ancient Persians, before the -Christian era, scarcely anything is known. It may be surmised that they -closely resembled those of the Assyrians, and probably also those of -the Hebrews. - -[Illustration] - -The harp, _chang_, in olden time a favourite instrument of the -Persians, has gradually fallen into desuetude. The illustration of a -small harp given in the woodcut has been sketched from the celebrated -sculptures, perhaps of the sixth century, which exist on a stupendous -rock, called Tackt-i-Bostan, in the vicinity of the town of Kermanshah. -These sculptures are said to have been executed during the lifetime -of the Persian monarch Khosroo Purviz. They form the ornaments of -two lofty arches, and consist of representations of field sports -and aquatic amusements. In one of the boats is seated a man in an -ornamental dress, with a halo round his head, who is receiving an -arrow from one of his attendants; while a female, who is sitting -near him, plays on a Trigonon. Towards the top of the bas-relief -is represented a stage, on which are performers on small straight -trumpets and little hand drums; six harpers; and four other musicians, -apparently females,--the first of whom plays a flute; the second, -a sort of pandean pipe; the third, an instrument which is too much -defaced to be recognizable; and the fourth, a bagpipe. Two harps of a -peculiar shape were copied by Sir Gore Ousely from Persian manuscripts -about four hundred years old resembling, in the principle on which they -are constructed, all other oriental harps. There existed evidently -various kinds of the _chang_. It may be remarked here that the -instrument _tschenk_ (or _chang_) in use at the present day in Persia, -is more like a dulcimer than a harp. The Arabs adopted the harp from -the Persians, and called it _junk_. An interesting representation of a -Turkish woman playing the harp (p. 53) sketched from life by Melchior -Lorich in the seventeenth century, probably exhibits an old Persian -_chang_; for the Turks derived their music principally from Persia. -Here we have an introduction into Europe of the oriental frame without -a front pillar. - -[Illustration] - -The Persians appear to have adopted, at an early period, smaller -musical intervals than semitones. When the Arabs conquered Persia (A.D. -641) the Persians had already attained a higher degree of civilisation -than their conquerors. The latter found in Persia the cultivation of -music considerably in advance of their own, and the musical instruments -superior also. They soon adopted the Persian instruments, and there -can be no doubt that the musical system exhibited by the earliest -Arab writers whose works on the theory of music have been preserved -was based upon an older system of the Persians. In these works the -octave is divided in seventeen _one-third-tones_--intervals which are -still made use of in the east. Some of the Arabian instruments are -constructed so as to enable the performer to produce the intervals -with exactness. The frets on the lute and tamboura, for instance, are -regulated with a view to this object. - -[Illustration] - -The Arabs had to some extent become acquainted with many of the -Persian instruments before the time of their conquest of Persia. An -Arab musician of the name of Nadr Ben el-Hares Ben Kelde is recorded -as having been sent to the Persian king Khosroo Purviz, in the sixth -century, for the purpose of learning Persian singing and performing -on the lute. Through him, it is said, the lute was brought to Mekka. -Saib Chatir, the son of a Persian, is spoken of as the first performer -on the lute in Medina, A.D. 682; and of an Arab lutist, Ebn Soreidsch -from Mekka, A.D. 683, it is especially mentioned that he played in the -Persian style; evidently the superior one. The lute, _el-oud_, had -before the tenth century only four strings, or four pairs producing -four tones, each tone having two strings tuned in unison. About the -tenth century a string for a fifth tone was added. The strings were -made of silk neatly twisted. The neck of the instrument was provided -with frets of string, which were carefully regulated according to -the system of seventeen intervals in the compass of an octave before -mentioned. Other favourite stringed instruments were the _tamboura_, -a kind of lute with a long neck, and the _kanoon_, a kind of dulcimer -strung with lamb’s gut strings (generally three in unison for each -tone) and played upon with two little plectra which the performer had -fastened to his fingers. The _kanoon_ is likewise still in use in -countries inhabited by Mahomedans. The engraving, taken from a Persian -painting at Teheran, represents an old Persian _santir_, the prototype -of our dulcimer, mounted with wire strings and played upon with two -slightly curved sticks. - -[Illustration] - -Al-Farabi, one of the earliest Arabian musical theorists known, who -lived in the beginning of the tenth century, does not allude to the -fiddle-bow. This is noteworthy inasmuch as it seems in some measure -to support the opinion maintained by some historians that the bow -originated in England or Wales. Unfortunately we possess no exact -descriptions of the Persian and Arabian instruments between the tenth -and fourteenth centuries, otherwise we should probably have earlier -accounts of some instrument of the violin kind in Persia. Ash-shakandi, -who lived in Spain about A.D. 1200, mentions the _rebab_, which may -have been in use for centuries without having been thought worthy of -notice on account of its rudeness. Persian writers of the fourteenth -century speak of two instruments of the violin class, viz., the _rebab_ -and the _kemangeh_. As regards the _kemangeh_, the Arabs themselves -assert that they obtained it from Persia, and their statement appears -all the more worthy of belief from the fact that both names, _rebab_ -and _kemangeh_, are originally Persian. We engrave the _rebab_ from an -example at South Kensington. - -[Illustration] - -The _nay_, a flute, and the _surnay_, a species of oboe, are still -popular in the east. - -The Arabs must have been indefatigable constructors of musical -instruments. Kiesewetter gives a list of above two hundred names of -Arabian instruments, and this does not include many known to us through -Spanish historians. A careful investigation of the musical instruments -of the Arabs during their sojourn in Spain is particularly interesting -to the student of mediæval music, inasmuch as it reveals the eastern -origin of many instruments which are generally regarded as European -inventions. Introduced into Spain by the Saracens and the Moors they -were gradually diffused towards northern Europe. The English, for -instance, adopted not only the Moorish dance (morrice dance) but also -the _kuitra_ (gittern), the _el-oud_ (lute), the _rebab_ (rebec), the -_nakkarah_ (naker), and several others. In an old Cornish sacred drama, -supposed to date from the fourteenth century, we have in an enumeration -of musical instruments the _nakrys_, designating “kettle-drums.” It -must be remembered that the Cornish language, which has now become -obsolete, was nearly akin to the Welsh. Indeed, names of musical -instruments derived from the Moors in Spain occur in almost every -European language. - -Not a few fanciful stories are traditionally preserved among the Arabs -testifying to the wonderful effects they ascribed to the power of their -instrumental performances. One example will suffice. Al-Farabi had -acquired his proficiency in Spain, in one of the schools at Cordova -which flourished as early as towards the end of the ninth century: and -his reputation became so great that ultimately it extended to Asia. -The mighty caliph of Bagdad himself desired to hear the celebrated -musician, and sent messengers to Spain with instructions to offer rich -presents to him and to convey him to the court. But Al-Farabi feared -that if he went he should be retained in Asia, and should never again -see the home to which he felt deeply attached. At last he resolved -to disguise himself, and ventured to undertake the journey which -promised him a rich harvest. Dressed in a mean costume, he made his -appearance at the court just at the time when the caliph was being -entertained with his daily concert. Al-Farabi, unknown to everyone, was -permitted to exhibit his skill on the lute. Scarcer had he commenced -his performance in a certain musical mode when he set all his audience -laughing aloud, notwithstanding the efforts of the courtiers to -suppress so unbecoming an exhibition of mirth in the royal presence. In -truth, even the caliph himself was compelled to burst out into a fit -of laughter. Presently the performer changed to another mode, and the -effect was that immediately all his hearers began to sigh, and soon -tears of sadness replaced the previous tears of mirth. Again he played -in another mode, which excited his audience to such a rage that they -would have fought each other if he, seeing the danger, had not directly -gone over to an appeasing mode. After this wonderful exhibition of his -skill Al-Farabi concluded in a mode which had the effect of making -his listeners fall into a profound sleep, during which he took his -departure. - -It will be seen that this incident is almost identical with one -recorded as having happened about twelve hundred years earlier at the -court of Alexander the great, and which forms the subject of Dryden’s -“Alexander’s Feast.” The distinguished flutist Timotheus successively -aroused and subdued different passions by changing the musical modes -during his performance, exactly in the same way as did Al-Farabi. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - - -THE AMERICAN INDIANS. - -If the preserved antiquities of the American Indians, dating from a -period anterior to our discovery of the western hemisphere, possess -an extraordinary interest because they afford trustworthy evidence -of the degree of progress which the aborigines had attained in the -cultivation of the arts and in their social condition before they came -in contact with Europeans, it must be admitted that the ancient musical -instruments of the American Indians are also worthy of examination. -Several of them are constructed in a manner which, in some degree, -reveals the characteristics of the musical system prevalent among the -people who used the instruments. And although most of these interesting -relics, which have been obtained from tombs and other hiding-places, -may not be of great antiquity, it has been satisfactorily ascertained -that they are genuine contrivances of the Indians before they were -influenced by European civilization. - -Some account of these relics is therefore likely to prove of interest -also to the ethnologist, especially as several facts may perhaps be -found of assistance in elucidating the still unsolved problem as to the -probable original connection of the American with Asiatic races. - -Among the instruments of the Aztecs in Mexico and of the Peruvians -none have been found so frequently, and have been preserved in their -former condition so unaltered, as pipes and flutes. They are generally -made of pottery or of bone, substances which are unsuitable for the -construction of most other instruments, but which are remarkably -well qualified to withstand the decaying influence of time. There -is, therefore, no reason to conclude from the frequent occurrence of -such instruments that they were more common than other kinds of which -specimens have rarely been discovered. - -[Illustration] - -The Mexicans possessed a small whistle formed of baked clay, a -considerable number of which have been found. Some specimens (of which -we give engravings) are singularly grotesque in shape, representing -caricatures of the human face and figure, birds, beasts, and flowers. -Some were provided at the top with a finger-hole which, when closed, -altered the pitch of the sound, so that two different tones were -producible on the instrument. Others had a little ball of baked clay -lying loose inside the air-chamber. When the instrument was blown the -current of air set the ball in a vibrating motion, thereby causing a -shrill and whirring sound. A similar contrivance is sometimes made -use of by Englishmen for conveying signals. The Mexican whistle most -likely served principally the same purpose, but it may possibly have -been used also in musical entertainments. In the Russian horn band -each musician is restricted to a single tone; and similar combinations -of performers--only, of course, much more rude--have been witnessed by -travellers among some tribes in Africa and America. - -[Illustration] - -Rather more complete than the above specimens are some of the whistles -and small pipes which have been found in graves of the Indians of -Chiriqui in central America. The pipe or whistle which is represented -in the accompanying engraving appears, to judge from the somewhat -obscure description transmitted to us, to possess about half a dozen -tones. It is of pottery, painted in red and black on a cream-coloured -ground, and in length about five inches. Among the instruments of this -kind from central America the most complete have four finger-holes. -By means of three the following four sounds (including the sound -which is produced when none of the holes are closed) can be emitted: -[Illustration] the fourth finger-hole, when closed, has the effect of -lowering the pitch a semitone. By a particular process two or three -lower notes are obtainable. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -The pipe of the Aztecs, which is called by the Mexican Spaniards -_pito_, somewhat resembled our flageolet: the material was a reddish -pottery, and it was provided with four finger-holes. Although among -about half a dozen specimens which the writer has examined some are -considerably larger than others they all have, singularly enough, the -same pitch of sound. The smallest is about six inches in length, and -the largest about nine inches. Several _pitos_ have been found in a -remarkably well-preserved condition. They are easy to blow, and their -order of intervals is in conformity with the pentatonic scale, thus: -[Illustration] The usual shape of the _pito_ is that here represented; -showing the upper side of one pipe, and a side view of another. A -specimen of a less common shape, also engraved, is in the British -museum. Indications suggestive of the popular estimation in which the -flute (or perhaps, more strictly speaking, the pipe) was held by the -Aztecs are not wanting. It was played in religious observances and -we find it referred to allegorically in orations delivered on solemn -occasions. For instance, at the religious festival which was held in -honour of Tezcatlepoca--a divinity depicted as a handsome youth, and -considered second only to the supreme being--a young man was sacrificed -who, in preparation for the ceremony, had been instructed in the art of -playing the flute. Twenty days before his death four young girls, named -after the principal goddesses, were given to him as companions; and -when the hour arrived in which he was to be sacrificed he observed the -established symbolical rite of breaking a flute on each of the steps, -as he ascended the temple. - -Again, at the public ceremonies which took place on the accession of -a prince to the throne the new monarch addressed a prayer to the god, -in which occurred the following allegorical expression:--“I am thy -flute; reveal to me thy will; breathe into me thy breath like into a -flute, as thou hast done to my predecessors on the throne. As thou -hast opened their eyes, their ears, and their mouth to utter what is -good, so likewise do to me. I resign myself entirely to thy guidance.” -Similar sentences occur in the orations addressed to the monarch. In -reading them one can hardly fail to be reminded of Hamlet’s reflections -addressed to Guildenstern, when the servile courtier expresses his -inability to “govern the ventages” of the pipe and to make the -instrument “discourse most eloquent music,” which the prince bids him -to do. - -M. de Castelnau in his “Expédition dans l’Amérique” gives among the -illustrations of objects discovered in ancient Peruvian tombs a flute -made of a human bone. It has four finger-holes at its upper surface -and appears to have been blown into at one end. Two bone-flutes, in -appearance similar to the engraving given by M. de Castelnau, which -have been disinterred at Truxillo are deposited in the British museum. -They are about six inches in length, and each is provided with five -finger-holes. One of these has all the holes at its upper side, and one -of the holes is considerably smaller than the rest. The specimen which -we engrave (p. 64) is ornamented with some simple designs in black. - -The other has four holes at its upper side and one underneath, the -latter being placed near to the end at which the instrument evidently -was blown. In the aperture of this end some remains of a hardened -paste, or resinous substance, are still preserved. This substance -probably was inserted for the purpose of narrowing the end of the -tube, in order to facilitate the producing of the sounds. The same -contrivance is still resorted to in the construction of the bone-flutes -by some Indian tribes in Guiana. The bones of slain enemies appear -to have been considered especially appropriate for such flutes. The -Araucanians, having killed a prisoner, made flutes of his bones, and -danced and “thundered out their dreadful war-songs, accompanied by the -mournful sounds of these horrid instruments.” Alonso de Ovalle says -of the Indians in Chili: “Their flutes, which they play upon in their -dances, are made of the bones of the Spaniards and other enemies whom -they have overcome in war. This they do by way of triumph and glory for -their victory. They make them likewise of bones of animals; but the -warriors dance only to the flutes made of their enemies.” The Mexicans -and Peruvians obviously possessed a great variety of pipes and flutes, -some of which are still in use among certain Indian tribes. Those which -were found in the famous ruins at Palenque are deposited in the museum -in Mexico. They are:--The _cuyvi_, a pipe on which only five tones -were producible; the _huayllaca_, a sort of flageolet; the _pincullu_, -a flute; and the _chayna_, which is described as “a flute whose -lugubrious and melancholy tones filled the heart with indescribable -sadness, and brought involuntary tears into the eyes.” It was perhaps a -kind of oboe. - -[Illustration] - -The Peruvians had the syrinx, which they called _huayra-puhura_. Some -clue to the proper meaning of this name may perhaps be gathered from -the word _huayra_, which signifies “air.” The _huayra-puhura_ was made -of cane, and also of stone. Sometimes an embroidery of needle-work was -attached to it as an ornament. One specimen which has been disinterred -is adorned with twelve figures precisely resembling Maltese crosses. -The cross is a figure which may readily be supposed to suggest itself -very naturally; and it is therefore not so surprising, as it may appear -at a first glance, that the American Indians used it not unfrequently -in designs and sculptures before they came in contact with Christians. - -[Illustration] - -The British museum possesses a _huayra-puhura_ consisting of fourteen -reed pipes of a brownish colour, tied together in two rows by means -of thread, so as to form a double set of seven reeds. Both sets are -almost exactly of the same dimensions and are placed side by side. The -shortest of these reeds measure three inches, and the longest six and -a half. In one set they are open at the bottom, and in the other they -are closed. Consequently, octaves are produced. The reader is probably -aware that the closing of a pipe at the end raises its pitch an octave. -Thus, in our organ, the so-called stopped diapason, a set of closed -pipes, requires tubes of only half the length of those which constitute -the open diapason, although both these stops produce tones in the same -pitch; the only difference between them being the quality of sound, -which in the former is less bright than in the latter. - -The tones yielded by the _huayra-puhura_ in question are as follows: -[Illustration] The highest octave is indistinct, owing to some injury -done to the shortest tubes; but sufficient evidence remains to show -that the intervals were purposely arranged according to the pentatonic -scale. This interesting relic was brought to light from a tomb at Arica. - -[Illustration] - -Another _huayra-puhura_, likewise still yielding sounds, was discovered -placed over a corpse in a Peruvian tomb, and was procured by the French -general, Paroissien. This instrument is made of a greenish stone which -is a species of talc, and contains eight pipes. In the Berlin museum -may be seen a good plaster cast taken from this curious relic. The -height is 5⅜ inches, and its width 6¼ inches. Four of the tubes -have small lateral finger-holes which, when closed, lower the pitch a -semitone. These holes are on the second, fourth, sixth, and seventh -pipe, as shown in the engraving. When the holes are open, the tones -are: [Illustration] and when they are closed: [Illustration] The other -tubes have unalterable tones. The following notation exhibits all the -tones producible on the instrument: - -[Illustration] - -The musician is likely to speculate what could have induced the -Peruvians to adopt so strange a series of intervals: it seems rather -arbitrary than premeditated. - -[Illustration] - -If (and this seems not to be improbable) the Peruvians considered those -tones which are produced by closing the lateral holes as additional -intervals only, a variety of scales or kinds of _modes_ may have been -contrived by the admission of one or other of these tones among the -essential ones. If we may conjecture from some remarks of Garcilasso -de la Vega, and other historians, the Peruvians appear to have used -different orders of intervals for different kinds of tunes, in a way -similar to what we find to be the case with certain Asiatic nations. We -are told for instance “Each poem, or song, had its appropriate tune, -and they could not put two different songs to one tune; and this was -why the enamoured gallant, making music at night on his flute, with the -tune which belonged to it, told the lady and all the world the joy or -sorrow of his soul, the favour or ill-will which he possessed; so that -it might be said that he spoke by the flute.” Thus also the Hindus have -certain tunes for certain seasons and fixed occasions, and likewise a -number of different modes or scales used for particular kinds of songs. - -Trumpets are often mentioned by writers who have recorded the manners -and customs of the Indians at the time of the discovery of America. -There are, however, scarcely any illustrations to be relied on of these -instruments transmitted to us. The Conch was frequently used as a -trumpet for conveying signals in war. - -[Illustration] - -The engraving represents a kind of trumpet made of wood, and nearly -seven feet in length, which Gumilla found among the Indians in the -vicinity of the Orinoco. It somewhat resembles the _juruparis_, a -mysterious instrument of the Indians on the Rio Haupés, a tributary -of the Rio Negro, south America. The _juruparis_ is regarded as an -object of great veneration. Women are never permitted to see it. So -stringent is this law that any woman obtaining a sight of it is put to -death--usually by poison. No youths are allowed to see it until they -have been subjected to a series of initiatory fastings and scourgings. -The _juruparis_ is usually kept hidden in the bed of some stream, deep -in the forest; and no one dares to drink out of that sanctified stream, -or to bathe in its water. At feasts the _juruparis_ is brought out -during the night, and is blown outside the houses of entertainment. -The inner portion of the instrument consists of a tube made of slips -of the Paxiaba palm (_Triartea exorrhiza_). When the Indians are about -to use the instrument they nearly close the upper end of the tube -with clay, and also tie above the oblong square hole (shown in the -engraving) a portion of the leaf of the Uaruma, one of the arrow-root -family. Round the tube are wrapped long strips of the tough bark of the -Jébaru (_Parivoa grandiflora_). This covering descends in folds below -the tube. The length of the instrument is from four to five feet. The -illustration, which exhibits the _juruparis_ with its cover and without -it, has been taken from a specimen in the museum at Kew gardens. The -mysteries connected with this trumpet are evidently founded on an old -tradition from prehistoric Indian ancestors. _Jurupari_ means “demon”; -and with several Indian tribes on the Amazon customs and ceremonies -still prevail in honour of Jurupari. - -The Caroados, an Indian tribe in Brazil, have a war trumpet which -closely resembles the _juruparis_. With this people it is the custom -for the chief to give on his war trumpet the signal for battle, and to -continue blowing as long as he wishes the battle to last. The trumpet -is made of wood, and its sound is described by travellers as very deep -but rather pleasant. The sound is easily produced, and its continuance -does not require much exertion; but a peculiar vibration of the lips -is necessary which requires practice. Another trumpet, the _turé_, is -common with many Indian tribes on the Amazon who use it chiefly in war. -It is made of a long and thick bamboo, and there is a split reed in the -mouthpiece. It therefore partakes rather of the character of an oboe -or clarinet. Its tone is described as loud and harsh. The _turé_ is -especially used by the sentinels of predatory hordes, who, mounted on a -lofty tree, give the signal of attack to their comrades. - -Again, the aborigines in Mexico had a curious contrivance of this kind, -the _acocotl_, now more usually called _clarin_. The former word is -its old Indian name, and the latter appears to have been first given -to the instrument by the Spaniards. The _acocotl_ consists of a very -thin tube from eight to ten feet in length, and generally not quite -straight but with some irregular curves. This tube, which is often not -thicker than a couple of inches in diameter, terminates at one end in -a sort of bell, and has at the other end a small mouthpiece resembling -in shape that of a clarinet. The tube is made of the dry stalk of a -plant which is common in Mexico, and which likewise the Indians call -_acocotl_. The most singular characteristic of the instrument is that -the performer does not blow into it, but inhales the air through it; or -rather, he produces the sound by sucking the mouthpiece. It is said to -require strong lungs to perform on the _acocotl_ effectively according -to Indian notions of taste. - -[Illustration] - -The _botuto_, which Gumilla saw used by some tribes near the river -Orinoco (of which we engrave two examples), was evidently an ancient -Indian contrivance, but appears to have fallen almost into oblivion -during the last two centuries. It was made of baked clay and was -commonly from three to four feet long: but some trumpets of this kind -were of enormous size. The _botuto_ with two bellies was usually made -thicker than that with three bellies and emitted a deeper sound, which -is described as having been really terrific. These trumpets were used -on occasions of mourning and funeral dances. Alexander von Humboldt saw -the _botuto_ among some Indian tribes near the river Orinoco. - -Besides those which have been noticed, other antique wind instruments -of the Indians are mentioned by historians; but the descriptions given -of them are too superficial to convey a distinct notion as to their -form and purport. Several of these barbarous contrivances scarcely -deserve to be classed with musical instruments. This may, for instance, -be said of certain musical jars or earthen vessels producing sounds, -which the Peruvians constructed for their amusement. These vessels -were made double; and the sounds imitated the cries of animals or -birds. A similar contrivance of the Indians in Chili, preserved in -the museum at Santiago, is described by the traveller S. S. Hill as -follows:--“It consists of two earthen vessels in the form of our -india-rubber bottles, but somewhat larger, with a flat tube from four -to six inches in length, uniting their necks near the top and slightly -curved upwards, and with a small hole on the upper side one third of -the length of the tube from one side of the necks. To produce the -sounds the bottles were filled with water and suspended to the bough -of a tree, or to a beam, by a string attached to the middle of the -curved tube, and then swung backwards and forwards in such a manner as -to cause each end to be alternately the highest and lowest, so that -the water might pass backwards and forwards from one bottle to the -other through the tube between them. By this means soothing sounds were -produced which, it is said, were employed to lull to repose the drowsy -chiefs who usually slept away the hottest hours of the day. In the -meantime, as the bottles were porous, the water within them diminished -by evaporation, and the sound died gradually away.” - -[Illustration] - -As regards instruments of percussion, a kind of drum deserves special -notice on account of the ingenuity evinced in its construction. The -Mexicans called it _teponaztli_. They generally made it of a single -block of very hard wood, somewhat oblong square in shape, which they -hollowed, leaving at each end a solid piece about three or four inches -in thickness, and at its upper side a kind of sound-board about a -quarter of an inch in thickness. In this sound-board, if it may be -called so, they made three incisions; namely, two running parallel some -distance lengthwise of the drum, and a third running across from one -of these to the other just in the centre. By this means they obtained -two vibrating tongues of wood which, when beaten with a stick, produced -sounds as clearly defined as are those of our kettle drums. By making -one of the tongues thinner than the other they ensured two different -sounds, the pitch of which they were enabled to regulate by shaving -off more or less of the wood. The bottom of the drum they cut almost -entirely open. The traveller, M. Nebel, was told by archæologists in -Mexico that these instruments always contained the interval of a third, -but on examining several specimens which he saw in museums he found -some in which the two sounds stood towards each other in the relation -of a fourth; while in others they constituted a fifth, in others a -sixth, and in some even an octave. This is noteworthy in so far as it -points to a conformity with our diatonic series of intervals, excepting -the seventh. - -The _teponaztli_ (engraved above) was generally carved with various -fanciful and ingenious designs. It was beaten with two drumsticks -covered at the end with an elastic gum, called _ule_, which was -obtained from the milky juice extracted from the ule-tree. Some of -these drums were small enough to be carried on a string or strap -suspended round the neck of the player; others, again, measured -upwards of five feet in length, and their sound was so powerful that -it could be heard at a distance of three miles. In some rare instances -a specimen of the _teponaztli_ is still preserved by the Indians in -Mexico, especially among tribes who have been comparatively but little -affected by intercourse with their European aggressors. Herr Heller saw -such an instrument in the hands of the Indians of Huatusco--a village -near Mirador in the Tierra templada, or temperate region, occupying -the slopes of the Cordilleras. Its sound is described as so very loud -as to be distinctly audible at an incredibly great distance. This -circumstance, which has been noticed by several travellers, may perhaps -be owing in some measure to the condition of the atmosphere in Mexico. - -[Illustration] - -Instruments of percussion constructed on a principle more or less -similar to the _teponaztli_ were in use in several other parts of -America, as well as in Mexico. Oviedo gives a drawing of a drum from -San Domingo which, as it shows distinctly both the upper and under -side of the instrument, is here inserted. - -The largest kind of Mexican _teponaztli_ appears to have been -generally of a cylindrical shape. Clavigero gives a drawing of -such an instrument. Drums, also, constructed of skin or parchment -in combination with wood were not unknown to the Indians. Of this -description was, for instance, the _huehuetl_ of the Aztecs in Mexico, -which consisted, according to Clavigero, of a wooden cylinder somewhat -above three feet in height, curiously carved and painted and covered -at the top with carefully prepared deer-skin. And, what appears the -most remarkable, the parchment (we are told) could be tightened or -slackened by means of cords in nearly the same way as with our own -drum. The _huehuetl_ was not beaten with drumsticks but merely struck -with the fingers, and much dexterity was required to strike it in the -proper manner. Oviedo states that the Indians in Cuba had drums which -were stretched with human skin. And Bernal Diaz relates that when he -was with Cortés in Mexico they ascended together the _Teocalli_ (“House -of God”), a large temple in which human sacrifices were offered by -the aborigines; and there the Spanish visitors saw a large drum which -was made, Diaz tells us, with skins of great serpents. This “hellish -instrument,” as he calls it, produced, when struck, a doleful sound -which was so loud that it could be heard at a distance of two leagues. - -The name of the Peruvian drum was _huanca_: they had also an instrument -of percussion, called _chhilchiles_, which appears to have been a sort -of tambourine. - -The rattle was likewise popular with the Indians before the discovery -of America. The Mexicans called it _ajacaxtli_. In construction it was -similar to the rattle at the present day commonly used by the Indians. -It was oval or round in shape, and appears to have been usually made -of a gourd into which holes were pierced, and to which a wooden handle -was affixed. A number of little pebbles were enclosed in the hollowed -gourd. They were also made of pottery. The little balls in the -_ajacaxtli_ of pottery, enclosed as they are, may at a first glance -appear a puzzle. Probably, when the rattle was being formed they were -attached to the inside as slightly as possible; and after the clay had -been baked they were detached by means of an implement passed through -the holes. - -[Illustration] - -The Tezcucans (or Acolhuans) belonged to the same race as the Aztecs, -whom they greatly surpassed in knowledge and social refinement. -Nezahualcoyotl, a wise monarch of the Tezcucans, abhorred human -sacrifices, and erected a large temple which he dedicated to “The -unknown god, the cause of causes.” This edifice had a tower nine -stories high, on the top of which were placed a number of musical -instruments of various kinds which were used to summon the worshippers -to prayer. Respecting these instruments especial mention is made -of a sonorous metal which was struck with a mallet. This is stated -in a historical essay written by Ixtlilxochitl, a native of Mexico -and of royal descent, who lived in the beginning of the seventeenth -century, and who may be supposed to have been familiar with the musical -practices of his countrymen. But whether the sonorous metal alluded to -was a gong or a bell is not clear from the vague record transmitted to -us. That the bell was known to the Peruvians appears to be no longer -doubtful, since a small copper specimen has been found in one of the -old Peruvian tombs. This interesting relic is now deposited in the -museum at Lima. M. de Castelnau has published a drawing of it, which -is here reproduced. The Peruvians called their bells _chanrares_; it -remains questionable whether this name did not designate rather the -so-called horse bells, which were certainly known to the Mexicans -who called them _yotl_. It is noteworthy that these _yotl_ are found -figured in the picture-writings representing the various objects which -the Aztecs used to pay as tribute to their sovereigns. The collection -of Mexican antiquities in the British museum contains a cluster of -yotl-bells. Being nearly round, they closely resemble the _Schellen_ -which the Germans are in the habit of affixing to their horses, -particularly in the winter when they are driving their noiseless -sledges. - -[Illustration] - -Again, in south America sonorous stones are not unknown, and were used -in olden time for musical purposes. The traveller G. T. Vigne saw -among the Indian antiquities preserved in the town of Cuzco, in Peru, -“a musical instrument of green sonorous stone, about a foot long, and -an inch and a half wide, flat-sided, pointed at both ends, and arched -at the back, where it was about a quarter of an inch thick, whence it -diminished to an edge, like the blade of a knife.... In the middle of -the back was a small hole, through which a piece of string was passed; -and when suspended and struck by any hard substance a singularly -musical note was produced.” Humboldt mentions the Amazon-stone, which -on being struck by any hard substance yields a metallic sound. It was -formerly cut by the American Indians into very thin plates, perforated -in the centre and suspended by a string. These plates were remarkably -sonorous. This kind of stone is not, as might be conjectured from its -name, found exclusively near the Amazon. The name was given to it as -well as to the river by the first European visitors to America, in -allusion to the female warriors respecting whom strange stories are -told. The natives pretending, according to an ancient tradition, that -the stone came from the country of “Women without husbands,” or “Women -living alone.” - -As regards the ancient stringed instruments of the American Indians -our information is indeed but scanty. Clavigero says that the Mexicans -were entirely unacquainted with stringed instruments: a statement -the correctness of which is questionable, considering the stage of -civilization to which these people had attained. At any rate, we -generally find one or other kind of such instruments with nations -whose intellectual progress and social condition are decidedly -inferior. The Aztecs had many claims to the character of a civilized -community and (as before said) the Tezcucans were even more advanced -in the cultivation of the arts and sciences than the Aztecs. “The -best histories,” Prescott observes, “the best poems, the best code -of laws, the purest dialect, were all allowed to be Tezcucan. The -Aztecs rivalled their neighbours in splendour of living, and even -in the magnificence of their structures. They displayed a pomp and -ostentatious pageantry, truly Asiatic.” Unfortunately historians -are sometimes not sufficiently discerning in their communications -respecting musical questions. J. Ranking, in describing the grandeur -of the establishment maintained by Montezuma, says that during the -repasts of this monarch “there was music of fiddle, flute, snail-shell, -a kettle-drum, and other strange instruments.” But as this writer does -not indicate the source whence he drew his information respecting -Montezuma’s orchestra including the fiddle, the assertion deserves -scarcely a passing notice. - -The Peruvians possessed a stringed instrument, called _tinya_, which -was provided with five or seven strings. To conjecture from the -unsatisfactory account of it transmitted to us, the _tinya_ appears to -have been a kind of guitar. Considering the fragility of the materials -of which such instruments are generally constructed, it is perhaps -not surprising that we do not meet with any specimens of them in the -museums of American antiquities. - -A few remarks will not be out of place here referring to the musical -performances of the ancient Indians; since an acquaintance with the -nature of the performances is likely to afford additional assistance -in appreciating the characteristics of the instruments. In Peru, where -the military system was carefully organised, each division of the army -had its trumpeters, called _cqueppacamayo_, and its drummers, called -_huancarcamayo_. When the Inca returned with his troops victorious from -battle his first act was to repair to the temple of the Sun in order -to offer up thanksgiving; and after the conclusion of this ceremony -the people celebrated the event with festivities, of which music and -dancing constituted a principal part. Musical performances appear to -have been considered indispensable on occasions of public celebrations; -and frequent mention is made of them by historians who have described -the festivals annually observed by the Peruvians. - -About the month of October the Peruvians celebrated a solemn feast in -honour of the dead, at which ceremony they executed lugubrious songs -and plaintive instrumental music. Compositions of a similar character -were performed on occasion of the decease of a monarch. As soon as it -was made known to the people that their Inca had been “called home to -the mansions of his father the sun” they prepared to celebrate his -obsequies with becoming solemnity. Prescott, in his graphic description -of these observances, says: “At stated intervals, for a year, the -people assembled to renew the expressions of their sorrow; processions -were made displaying the banner of the departed monarch; bards and -minstrels were appointed to chronicle his achievements, and their songs -continued to be rehearsed at high festivals in the presence of the -reigning monarch,--thus stimulating the living by the glorious example -of the dead.” The Peruvians had also particular agricultural songs, -which they were in the habit of singing while engaged in tilling the -lands of the Inca; a duty which devolved upon the whole nation. The -subject of these songs, or rather hymns, referred especially to the -noble deeds and glorious achievements of the Inca and his dynasty. -While thus singing, the labourers regulated their work to the rhythm -of the music, thereby ensuring a pleasant excitement and a stimulant in -their occupation, like soldiers regulating their steps to the music of -the military band. These hymns pleased the Spanish invaders so greatly -that they not only adopted several of them but also composed some in a -similar form and style. This appears, however, to have been the case -rather with the poetry than with the music. - -The name of the Peruvian elegiac songs was _haravi_. Some tunes of -these songs, pronounced to be genuine specimens, have been published -in recent works; but their genuineness is questionable. At all events -they must have been much tampered with, as they exhibit exactly the -form of the Spanish _bolero_. Even allowing that the melodies of -these compositions have been derived from Peruvian _harivaris_, it is -impossible to determine with any degree of certainty how much in them -has been retained of the original tunes, and how much has been supplied -besides the harmony, which is entirely an addition of the European -arranger. The Peruvians had minstrels, called _haravecs_ (_i.e._, -“inventors”), whose occupation it was to compose and to recite the -_haravis_. - -The Mexicans possessed a class of songs which served as a record -of historical events. Furthermore they had war-songs, love-songs, -and other secular vocal compositions, as well as sacred chants, in -the practice of which boys were instructed by the priests in order -that they might assist in the musical performances of the temple. -It appertained to the office of the priests to burn incense, and -to perform music in the temple at stated times of the day. The -commencement of the religious observances which took place regularly -at sunrise, at mid-day, at sunset, and at midnight, was announced by -signals blown on trumpets and pipes. Persons of high position retained -in their service professional musicians whose duty it was to compose -ballads, and to perform vocal music with instrumental accompaniment. -The nobles themselves, and occasionally even the monarch, not -unfrequently delighted in composing ballads and odes. - -Especially to be noticed is the institution termed “Council of music,” -which the wise monarch Nezahualcoyotl founded in Tezcuco. This -institution was not intended exclusively for promoting the cultivation -of music; its aim comprised the advancement of various arts, and of -sciences such as history, astronomy, &c. In fact, it was an academy -for general education. Probably no better evidence could be cited -testifying to the remarkable intellectual attainments of the Mexican -Indians before the discovery of America than this council of music. -Although in some respects it appears to have resembled the board of -music of the Chinese, it was planned on a more enlightened and more -comprehensive principle. The Chinese “board of music,” called _Yo -Poo_, is an office connected with the _Lé Poo_ or “board of rites,” -established by the imperial government at Peking. The principal object -of the board of rites is to regulate the ceremonies on occasions -of sacrifices offered to the gods; of festivals and certain court -solemnities; of military reviews; of presentations, congratulations, -marriages, deaths, burials,--in short, concerning almost every possible -event in social and public life. - -The reader is probably aware that in one of the various hypotheses -which have been advanced respecting the Asiatic origin of the American -Indians China is assigned to them as their ancient home. Some -historians suppose them to be emigrants from Mongolia, Thibet, or -Hindustan; others maintain that they are the offspring of Phœnician -colonists who settled in central America. Even more curious are the -arguments of certain inquirers who have no doubt whatever that the -ancestors of the American Indians were the lost ten tribes of Israel, -of whom since about the time of the Babylonian captivity history is -silent. Whatever may be thought as to which particular one of these -speculations hits the truth, they certainly have all proved useful -in so far as they have made ethnologists more exactly acquainted with -the habits and predilections of the American aborigines than would -otherwise have been the case. For, as the advocates of each hypothesis -have carefully collected and adduced every evidence they were able -to obtain tending to support their views, the result is that (so to -say) no stone has been left unturned. Nevertheless, any such hints as -suggest themselves from an examination of musical instruments have -hitherto remained unheeded. It may therefore perhaps interest the -reader to have his attention drawn to a few suggestive similarities -occurring between instruments of the American Indians and of certain -nations inhabiting the eastern hemisphere. - -We have seen that the Mexican pipe and the Peruvian syrinx were -purposely constructed so as to produce the intervals of the pentatonic -scale only. There are some additional indications of this scale having -been at one time in use with the American Indians. For instance, the -music of the Peruvian dance _cachua_ is described as having been very -similar to some Scotch national dances; and the most conspicuous -characteristics of the Scotch tunes are occasioned by the frequently -exclusive employment of intervals appertaining to the pentatonic scale. -We find precisely the same series of intervals adopted on certain -Chinese instruments, and evidences are not wanting of the pentatonic -scale having been popular among various races in Asia at a remote -period. The series of intervals appertaining to the Chiriqui pipe, -mentioned page 61, consisted of a semitone and two whole tones, like -the _tetrachord_ of the ancient Greeks. - -In the Peruvian _huayra-puhura_ made of talc some of the pipes possess -lateral holes. This contrivance, which is rather unusual, occurs on the -Chinese _cheng_. The _chayna_, mentioned page 64, seems to have been -provided with a reed, like the oboe: and in Hindustan we find a species -of oboe called _shehna_. The _turé_ of the Indian tribes on the Amazon, -mentioned page 69, reminds us of the trumpets _tooree_, or _tootooree_, -of the Hindus. The name appears to have been known also to the Arabs; -but there is no indication whatever of its having been transmitted to -the peninsula by the Moors, and afterwards to south America by the -Portuguese and Spaniards. - -The wooden tongues in the drum _teponaztli_ may be considered as a -contrivance exclusively of the ancient American Indians. Nevertheless -a construction nearly akin to it may be observed in certain drums of -the Tonga and Feejee islanders, and of the natives of some islands -in Torres strait. Likewise some negro tribes in western and central -Africa have certain instruments of percussion which are constructed on -a principle somewhat reminding us of the _teponaztli_. The method of -bracing the drum by means of cords, as exhibited in the _huehueil_ of -the Mexican Indians, is evidently of very high antiquity in the east. -It was known to the ancient Egyptians. - -Rattles, pandean pipes made of reed, and conch trumpets, are found -almost all over the world, wherever the materials of which they are -constructed are easily obtainable. Still, it may be noteworthy that -the Mexicans employed the conch trumpet in their religious observances -apparently in much the same way as it is used in the Buddhist worship -of the Thibetans and Kalmuks. - -As regards the sonorous metal in the great temple at Tezcuco some -inquirers are sure that it was a gong: but it must be borne in mind -that these inquirers detect everywhere traces proving an invasion of -the Mongols, which they maintain to have happened about six hundred -years ago. Had they been acquainted with the little Peruvian bell -(engraved on page 75) they would have had more tangible musical -evidence in support of their theory than the supposed gong; for this -bell certainly bears a suggestive resemblance to the little hand-bell -which the Buddhists use in their religious ceremonies. - -The Peruvians interpolated certain songs, especially those which they -were in the habit of singing while cultivating the fields, with the -word _hailli_ which signified “Triumph.” As the subject of these -compositions was principally the glorification of the Inca, the burden -_hailli_ is perhaps all the more likely to remind Europeans of the -Hebrew _hallelujah_. Moreover, Adair, who lived among the Indians of -north America during a period of about forty years, speaks of some -other words which he found used as burdens in hymns sung on solemn -occasions, and which appeared to him to correspond with certain Hebrew -words of a sacred import. - -As regards the musical accomplishments of the Indian tribes at the -present day they are far below the standard which we have found among -their ancestors. A period of three hundred years of oppression has -evidently had the effect of subduing the melodious expressions of -happiness and contentedness which in former times appear to have -been quite as prevalent with the Indians as they generally are with -independent and flourishing nations. The innate talent for music -evinced by those of the North American Indians who were converted to -Christianity soon after the emigration of the puritans to New England -is very favourably commented on by some old writers. In the year 1661 -John Elliot published a translation of the psalms into Indian verse. -The singing of these metrical psalms by the Indian converts in their -places of worship appears to have been actually superior to the sacred -vocal performances of their Christian brethren from Europe; for we find -it described by several witnesses as “excellent” and “most ravishing.” - -In other parts of America the catholic priests from Spain did not -neglect to turn to account the susceptibility of the Indians for -music. Thus, in central America the Dominicans composed as early as in -the middle of the sixteenth century a sacred poem in the Guatemalian -dialect containing a narrative of the most important events recorded -in the Bible. This production they sang to the natives, and to enhance -the effect they accompanied the singing with musical instruments. The -alluring music soon captivated the heart of a powerful cazique, who -was thus induced to adopt the doctrines embodied in the composition, -and to diffuse them among his subjects who likewise delighted in the -performances. In Peru a similar experiment, resorted to by the priests -who accompanied Pizarro’s expedition, proved equally successful. They -dramatized certain scenes in the life of Christ and represented them -with music, which so greatly fascinated the Indians that many of them -readily embraced the new faith. Nor are these entertainments dispensed -with even at the present day by the Indian Christians, especially -in the village churches of the Sierra in Peru; and as several -religious ceremonies have been retained by these people from their -heathen forefathers, it may be conjectured that their sacred musical -performances also retain much of their ancient heathen character. - -Most of the musical instruments found among the American Indians at -the present day are evidently genuine old Indian contrivances as they -existed long before the discovery of America. Take, for example, the -peculiarly shaped rattles, drums, flutes, and whistles of the North -American Indians, of which some specimens in the Kensington museum are -described in the large catalogue. A few African instruments, introduced -by the negro slaves, are now occasionally found in the hands of the -Indians, and have been by some travellers erroneously described as -genuine Indian inventions. This is the case with the African _marimba_, -which has become rather popular with the natives of Guatemala in -central America: but such adaptations are very easily discernible. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - - -EUROPEAN NATIONS DURING THE MIDDLE AGES. - -Many representations of musical instruments of the middle ages have -been preserved in manuscripts, as well as in sculptures and paintings -forming ornamental portions of churches and other buildings. Valuable -facts and hints are obtainable from these evidences, provided they -are judiciously selected and carefully examined. The subject is, -however, so large that only a few observations on the most interesting -instruments can be offered here. Unfortunately there still prevails -much uncertainty respecting several of the earliest representations -as to the precise century from which they date, and there is reason -to believe that in some instances the archæological zeal of musical -investigators has assigned a higher antiquity to such discoveries than -can be satisfactorily proved. - -It appears certain that the most ancient European instruments known to -us were in form and construction more like the Asiatic than was the -case with later ones. Before a nation has attained to a rather high -degree of civilisation its progress in the cultivation of music, as an -art, is very slow indeed. The instruments found at the present day in -Asia are scarcely superior to those which were in use among oriental -nations about three thousand years ago. It is, therefore, perhaps -not surprising that no material improvement is perceptible in the -construction of the instruments of European countries during the lapse -of nearly a thousand years. True, evidences to be relied on referring -to the first five or six centuries of the Christian era are but scanty; -although indications are not wanting which may help the reflecting -musician. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -There are some early monuments of Christian art dating from the fourth -century in which the lyre is represented. In one of them Christ is -depicted as Apollo touching the lyre. This instrument occurs at an -early period in western Europe as used in popular pastimes. In an -Anglo-saxon manuscript of the ninth century in the British museum -(Cleopatra C. VIII.) are the figures of two gleemen, one playing the -lyre and the other a double-pipe. M. de Coussemaker has published in -the “Annales Archéologiques” the figure of a crowned personage playing -the lyre, which he found in a manuscript of the ninth or tenth century -in the library at Angers. The player twangs the strings with his -fingers, while the Anglo-saxon gleeman before mentioned uses a plectrum. - -_Cithara_ was a name applied to several stringed instruments greatly -varying in form, power of sound, and compass. The illustration -represents a cithara from a manuscript of the ninth century, formerly -in the library of the great monastery of St. Blasius in the Black -Forest. When in the year 1768 the monastery was destroyed by fire, this -valuable book perished in the flames; fortunately the celebrated abbot -Gerbert possessed tracings of the illustrations, which were saved from -destruction. He published them, in the year 1774, in his work “De cantu -et musica sacra.” Several illustrations in the following pages, it -will be seen, have been derived from this interesting source. As the -older works on music were generally written in Latin we do not learn -from them the popular names of the instruments; the writers merely -adopted such Latin names as they thought the most appropriate. Thus, -for instance, a very simple stringed instrument of a triangular shape, -and a somewhat similar one of a square shape were designated by the -name of _psalterium_; and we further give a woodcut of the square kind -(p. 86), and of a _cithara_ (above) from the same manuscript. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -This last instrument is evidently an improvement upon the triangular -psalterium, because it has a sort of small sound-board at the top. -Scarcely better, with regard to acoustics, appears to have been the -instrument designated as _nablum_, which we engrave (p. 87) from a -manuscript of the ninth century at Angers. - -[Illustration] - -A small psalterium with strings placed over a sound-board was -apparently the prototype of the _citole_; a kind of dulcimer which was -played with the fingers. The names were not only often vaguely applied -by the mediæval writers but they changed also in almost every century. -The psalterium, or psalterion (Italian _salterio_, English _psaltery_), -of the fourteenth century and later had the trapezium shape of the -dulcimer. - -[Illustration] - -The Anglo-saxons frequently accompanied their vocal effusions with a -harp, more or less triangular in shape,--an instrument which may be -considered rather as constituting the transition of the lyre into the -harp. The representation of king David playing the harp is from an -Anglo-saxon manuscript of the beginning of the eleventh century, in -the British museum. The harp was especially popular in central and -northern Europe, and was the favourite instrument of the German and -Celtic bards and of the Scandinavian skalds. In the next illustration -from the manuscript of the monastery of St. Blasius twelve strings -and two sound holes are given to it. A harp similar in form and size, -but without the front pillar, was known to the ancient Egyptians. -Perhaps the addition was also non-existent in the earliest specimens -appertaining to European nations; and a sculptured figure of a small -harp constructed like the ancient eastern harp has been discovered in -the old church of Ullard in the county of Kilkenny. Of this curious -relic, which is said to date from a period anterior to the year 800, a -fac-simile taken from Bunting’s “Ancient Music of Ireland” is given (p. -91). As Bunting was the first who drew attention to this sculpture his -account of it may interest the reader. “The drawing” he says “is taken -from one of the ornamental compartments of a sculptured cross, at the -old church of Ullard. From the style of the workmanship, as well as -from the worn condition of the cross, it seems older than the similar -monument at Monasterboice which is known to have been set up before the -year 830. The sculpture is rude; the circular rim which binds the arms -of the cross together is not pierced in the quadrants, and many of the -figures originally in relievo are now wholly abraded. It is difficult -to determine whether the number of strings represented is six or seven; -but, as has been already remarked, accuracy in this respect cannot be -expected either in sculptures or in many picturesque drawings.” The -Finns had a harp (_harpu_, _kantele_) with a similar frame, devoid of -a front pillar, still in use until the commencement of the present -century. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -One of the most interesting stringed instruments of the middle ages -is the _rotta_ (German, _rotte_; English, _rote_). It was sounded by -twanging the strings, and also by the application of the bow. The first -method was, of course, the elder one. There can hardly be a doubt -that when the bow came into use it was applied to certain popular -instruments which previously had been treated like the _cithara_ or -the _psalterium_. The Hindus at the present day use their _suroda_ -sometimes as a lute and sometimes as a fiddle. In some measure we -do the same with the violin by playing occasionally _pizzicato_. The -_rotta_ (shown p. 91) from the manuscript of St. Blasius is called in -Gerbert’s work _cithara teutonica_, while the harp is called _cithara -anglica_; from which it would appear that the former was regarded as -pre-eminently a German instrument. Possibly its name may have been -originally _chrotta_ and the continental nations may have adopted it -from the Celtic races of the British isles, dropping the guttural -sound. This hypothesis is, however, one of those which have been -advanced by some musical historians without any satisfactory evidence. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -We engrave also another representation of David playing on the -_rotta_, from a psalter of the seventh century in the British museum -(Cott. Vesp. A. I). According to tradition, this psalter is one of -the manuscripts which were sent by pope Gregory to St. Augustine. -The instrument much resembles the lyre in the hand of the musician -(see p. 22) who is supposed to be a Hebrew of the time of Joseph. In -the _rotta_ the ancient Asiatic lyre is easily to be recognized. An -illumination of king David playing the _rotta_ forms the frontispiece -of a manuscript of the eighth century preserved in the cathedral -library of Durham; and which is musically interesting inasmuch as -it represents a _rotta_ of an oblong square shape like that just -noticed and resembling the Welsh _crwth_. It has only five strings -which the performer twangs with his fingers. Again, a very interesting -representation (which we engrave) of the Psalmist with a kind of -_rotta_ occurs in a manuscript of the tenth century, in the British -museum (Vitellius F. XI.). The manuscript has been much injured by -a fire in the year 1731, but Professor Westwood has succeeded, with -great care, and with the aid of a magnifying glass, in making out -the lines of the figure. As it has been ascertained that the psalter -is written in the Irish semi-uncial character it is highly probable -that the kind of _rotta_ represents the Irish _cionar cruit_, which -was played by twanging the strings and also by the application of a -bow. Unfortunately we possess no well-authenticated representation -of the Welsh _crwth_ of an early period; otherwise we should in all -probability find it played with the fingers, or with a plectrum. -Venantius Fortunatus, an Italian who lived in the second half of the -sixth century, mentions in a poem the “Chrotta Britanna.” He does -not, however, allude to the bow, and there is no reason to suppose -that it existed in England. Howbeit, the Welsh _crwth_ (Anglo-saxon, -_crudh_; English, _crowd_) is only known as a species of fiddle closely -resembling the _rotta_, but having a finger-board in the middle of the -open frame and being strung with only a few strings; while the _rotta_ -had sometimes above twenty strings. As it may interest the reader to -examine the form of the modern _crwth_ we give a woodcut of it. Edward -Jones, in his “Musical and poetical relicks of the Welsh bards,” -records that the Welsh had before this kind of _crwth_ a three-stringed -one called “Crwth Trithant,” which was, he says, “a sort of violin, or -more properly a rebeck.” The three-stringed _crwth_ was chiefly used by -the inferior class of bards; and was probably the Moorish fiddle which -is still the favourite instrument of the itinerant bards of the Bretons -in France, who call it _rébek_. The Bretons, it will be remembered, are -close kinsmen of the Welsh. - -[Illustration] - -A player on the _crwth_ or _crowd_ (a crowder) from a bas-relief on the -under part of the seats of the choir in Worcester cathedral (engraved -p. 95) dates from the twelfth or thirteenth century; and we give (p. -96) a copy of an illumination from a manuscript in the Bibliothèque -royale at Paris of the eleventh century. The player wears a crown on -his head; and in the original some musicians placed at his side are -performing on the psalterium and other instruments. These last are -figured with uncovered heads; whence M. de Coussemaker concludes that -the _crout_ was considered by the artist who drew the figures as the -noblest instrument. It was probably identical with the _rotta_ of the -same century on the continent. - -[Illustration] - -An interesting drawing of an Anglo-saxon fiddle--or _fithele_, as it -was called--is given in a manuscript of the eleventh century in the -British museum (Cotton, Tiberius, c. 6). The instrument is of a pear -shape, with four strings, and the bridge is not indicated. A German -fiddle of the ninth century, called _lyra_, copied by Gerbert from the -manuscript of St. Blasius, has only one string. These are shown in the -woodcuts (p. 97). Other records of the employment of the fiddle-bow -in Germany in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries are not wanting. -For instance, in the famous ‘Nibelungenlied’ Volker is described as -wielding the fiddle-bow not less dexterously than the sword. And in -‘Chronicon picturatum Brunswicense’ of the year 1203, the following -miraculous sign is recorded as having occurred in the village of -Ossemer: “On Wednesday in Whitsun-week, while the parson was fiddling -to his peasants who were dancing, there came a flash of lightning -and struck the parson’s arm which held the fiddle-bow, and killed -twenty-four people on the spot.” - -[Illustration] - -Among the oldest representations of performers on instruments of the -violin kind found in England those deserve to be noticed which are -painted on the interior of the roof of Peterborough cathedral. They -are said to date from the twelfth century. One of these figures is -particularly interesting on account of the surprising resemblance which -his instrument bears to our present violin. Not only the incurvations -on the sides of the body but also the two sound-holes are nearly -identical in shape with those made at the present day. Respecting the -reliance to be placed on such evidence, it is necessary to state that -the roof, originally constructed between the years 1177 and 1194, was -thoroughly repaired in the year 1835. Although we find it asserted that -“the greatest care was taken to retain every part, or to restore it -to its original state, so that the figures, even where retouched, are -in effect the same as when first painted,” it nevertheless remains a -debatable question whether the restorers have not admitted some slight -alterations, and have thereby somewhat modernised the appearance of -the instruments. A slight touch with the brush at the sound-holes, the -screws, or the curvatures, would suffice to produce modifications which -might to the artist appear as being only a renovation of the original -representation, but which to the musical investigator greatly impair -the value of the evidence. Sculptures are, therefore, more to be -relied upon in evidence than frescoes. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - - -The construction of the _organistrum_ requires but little explanation. -A glance at the finger-board reveals at once that the different -tones were obtained by raising the keys placed on the neck under the -strings, and that the keys were raised by means of the handles at -the side of the neck. Of the two bridges shown on the body, the one -situated nearest the middle was formed by a wheel in the inside, which -projected through the sound-board. The wheel which slightly touched -the strings vibrated them by friction when turned by the handle at -the end. The order of intervals was _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_, _g_, _a_, -_b-flat_, _b-natural_, _c_, and were obtainable on the highest string. -There is reason to suppose that the other two strings were generally -tuned a fifth and an octave below the highest. The _organistrum_ may -be regarded as the predecessor of the hurdy-gurdy, and was a rather -cumbrous contrivance. Two persons seem to have been required to sound -it, one to turn the handle and the other to manage the keys. Thus it is -generally represented in mediæval concerts. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -The _monochord_ (p. 100) was mounted with a single string stretched -over two bridges which were fixed on an oblong box. The string could be -tightened or slackened by means of a turning screw inserted into one -end of the box. The intervals of the scale were marked on the side, and -were regulated by a sort of movable bridge placed beneath the string -when required. As might be expected, the _monochord_ was chiefly used -by theorists; for any musical performance it was but little suitable. -About a thousand years ago when this monochord was in use the musical -scale was diatonic, with the exception of the interval of the seventh, -which was chromatic inasmuch as both _b-flat_ and _b-natural_ formed -part of the scale. The notation on the preceding page exhibits the -compass as well as the order of intervals adhered to about the tenth -century. - -This ought to be borne in mind in examining the representations of -musical instruments transmitted to us from that period. - -As regards the wind instruments popular during the middle ages, some -were of quaint form as well as of rude construction. - -The _chorus_, or _choron_, had either one or two tubes, as in the -woodcut page 101. There were several varieties of this instrument; -sometimes it was constructed with a bladder into which the tube is -inserted; this kind of _chorus_ resembled the bagpipe; another kind -resembled the _poongi_ of the Hindus, mentioned page 51. The name -_chorus_ was also applied to certain stringed instruments. One of -these had much the form of the _cithara_, page 86. It appears however, -probable that _chorus_ or _choron_ originally designated a horn -(Hebrew, _Keren_; Greek, _Keras_; Latin, _cornu_). - -[Illustration] - -The flutes of the middle ages were blown at the end, like the -flageolet. Of the _syrinx_ there are extant some illustrations of the -ninth and tenth centuries, which exhibit the instrument with a number -of tubes tied together, just like the Pandean pipe still in use. In one -specimen engraved (page 102) from a manuscript of the eleventh century -the tubes were inserted into a bowl-shaped box. This is probably the -_frestele_, _fretel_, or _fretiau_, which in the twelfth and thirteenth -centuries was in favour with the French ménétriers. - -Some large Anglo-saxon trumpets may be seen in a manuscript of the -eighth century in the British museum. The largest kind of trumpet was -placed on a stand when blown. Of the _oliphant_, or hunting horn, some -fine specimens are in the South Kensington collection. The _sackbut_ -(of which we give a woodcut) probably made of metal, could be drawn -out to alter the pitch of sound. The sackbut of the ninth century had, -however, a very different shape to that in use about three centuries -ago, and much more resembled the present _trombone_. The name _sackbut_ -is supposed to be a corruption of _sambuca_. The French, about the -fifteenth century, called it _sacqueboute_ and _saquebutte_. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -The most important wind instrument--in fact, the king of all the -musical instruments--is the organ. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -The _pneumatic organ_ is sculptured on an obelisk which was erected -in Constantinople under Theodosius the great, towards the end of the -fourth century. The bellows were pressed by men standing on them: -see page 103. This interesting monument also exhibits performers on -the double flute. The _hydraulic organ_, which is recorded to have -been already known about two hundred years before the Christian era, -was according to some statements occasionally employed in churches -during the earlier centuries of the middle ages. Probably it was more -frequently heard in secular entertainments for which it was more -suitable; and at the beginning of the fourteenth century appears to -have been entirely supplanted by the pneumatic organ. The earliest -organs had only about a dozen pipes. The largest, which were made -about nine hundred years ago, had only three octaves, in which the -chromatic intervals did not occur. Some progress in the construction -of the organ is exhibited in an illustration (engraved p. 104) dating -from the twelfth century, in a psalter of Eadwine, in the library of -Trinity college, Cambridge. The instrument has ten pipes, or perhaps -fourteen, as four of them appear to be double pipes. It required four -men exerting all their power to produce the necessary wind, and two men -to play the instrument. Moreover, both players seem also to be busily -engaged in directing the blowers about the proper supply of wind. Six -men and only fourteen pipes! It must be admitted that since the twelfth -century some progress has been made, at all events, in the construction -of the organ. - -[Illustration] - -The pedal is generally believed to have been invented by Bernhard, a -German, who lived in Venice about the year 1470. There are, however, -indications extant pointing to an earlier date of its invention. -Perhaps Bernhard was the first who, by adopting a more practicable -construction, made the pedal more generally known. On the earliest -organs the keys of the finger-board were of enormous size, compared -with those of the present day; so that a finger-board with only nine -keys had a breadth of from four to five feet. The organist struck the -keys down with his fist, as is done in playing the _carillon_ still in -use on the continent, of which presently some account will be given. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -Of the little portable organ, known as the _regal_ or _regals_, -often tastefully shaped and embellished, some interesting sculptured -representations are still extant in the old ecclesiastical edifices -of England and Scotland. There is, for instance, in Beverley minster -a figure of a man playing on a single regal, or a regal provided -with only one set of pipes; and in Melrose abbey the figure of an -angel holding in his arms a double regal, the pipes of which are in -two sets. The regal generally had keys like those of the organ but -smaller. A painting in the national Gallery, by Melozzo da Forli -who lived in the fifteenth century, contains a regal which has keys -of a peculiar shape, rather resembling the pistons of certain brass -instruments. The illustration has been drawn from that painting. -To avoid misapprehension, it is necessary to mention that the name -_regal_ (or _regals_, _rigols_) was also applied to an instrument -of percussion with sonorous slabs of wood. This contrivance was, in -short, a kind of harmonica, resembling in shape as well as in the -principle of its construction the little glass harmonica, a mere toy, -in which slips of glass are arranged according to our musical scale. -In England it appears to have been still known in the beginning of the -eighteenth century. Grassineau describes the “Rigols” as “a kind of -musical instrument consisting of several sticks bound together, only -separated by beads. It makes a tolerable harmony, being well struck -with a ball at the end of a stick.” In the earlier centuries of the -middle ages there appear to have been some instruments of percussion in -favour, to which Grassineau’s expression “a tolerable harmony” would -scarcely have been applicable. Drums, of course, were known; and their -rhythmical noise must have been soft music, compared with the shrill -sounds of the _cymbalum_; a contrivance consisting of a number of metal -plates suspended on cords, so that they could be clashed together -simultaneously; or with the clangour of the _cymbalum_ constructed -with bells instead of plates; or with the piercing noise of the -_bunibulum_, or _bombulom_; an instrument which consisted of an angular -frame to which were loosely attached metal plates of various shapes -and sizes. The lower part of the frame constituted the handle: and to -produce the noise it evidently was shaken somewhat like the sistrum of -the ancient Egyptians. We give woodcuts of the three instruments. - -[Illustration] - -The _triangle_ nearly resembled the instrument of this name in use -at the present day; it was more elegant in shape and had some metal -ornamentation in the middle. - -The _tintinnabulum_ consisted of a number of bells arranged in regular -order and suspended in a frame. - -[Illustration] - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - - -Respecting the orchestras, or musical bands, represented on monuments -of the middle ages, there can hardly be a doubt that the artists who -sculptured them were not unfrequently led by their imagination rather -than by an adherence to actual fact. It is, however, not likely that -they introduced into such representations instruments that were never -admitted in the orchestras, and which would have appeared inappropriate -to the contemporaries of the artists. An examination of one or two -of the orchestras may therefore find a place here, especially as -they throw some additional light upon the characteristics of the -instrumental music of mediæval time. - -A very interesting group of music performers dating, it is said, from -the end of the eleventh century is preserved in a bas-relief which -formerly ornamented the abbey of St. Georges de Boscherville and which -is now removed to the museum of Rouen. The orchestra comprises twelve -performers, most of whom wear a crown. The first of them plays upon -a viol, which he holds between his knees as the violoncello is held. -His instrument is scarcely as large as the smallest viola da gamba. By -his side are a royal lady and her attendant, the former playing on an -_organistrum_ of which the latter is turning the wheel. Next to these -is represented a performer on a _syrinx_ of the kind shown in the -engraving p. 112; and next to him a performer on a stringed instrument -resembling a lute, which, however, is too much dilapidated to be -recognisable. Then we have a musician with a small stringed instrument -resembling the _nablum_, p. 87. The next musician, also represented as -a royal personage, plays on a small species of harp. Then follows a -crowned musician playing the viol which he holds in almost precisely -the same manner as the violin is held. Again, another, likewise -crowned, plays upon a harp, using with the right hand a plectrum -and with the left hand merely his fingers. The last two performers, -apparently a gentleman and a gentlewoman, are engaged in striking the -_tintinnabulum_,--a set of bells in a frame. - -[Illustration] - -In this group of crowned minstrels the sculptor has introduced a -tumbler standing on his head, perhaps the vocalist of the company, as -he has no instrument to play upon. Possibly the sculptor desired to -symbolise the hilarious effects which music is capable of producing, as -well as its elevating influence upon the devotional feelings. - -[Illustration] - -The two positions in which we find the viol held is worthy of notice, -inasmuch as it refers the inquirer further back than might be expected -for the origin of our peculiar method of holding the violin, and the -violoncello, in playing. There were several kinds of the viol in use -differing in size and in compass of sound. The most common number of -strings was five, and it was tuned in various ways. One kind had a -string tuned to the note [Illustration] running at the side of the -finger-board instead of over it; this string was, therefore, only -capable of producing a single tone. The four other strings were tuned -thus: [Illustration] Two other species, on which all the strings -were placed over the finger-board, were tuned: [Illustration] and: -[Illustration] The woodcut above represents a very beautiful _vielle_; -French, of about 1550, with monograms of Henry II. This is at South -Kensington. - -The contrivance of placing a string or two at the side of the -finger-board is evidently very old, and was also gradually adopted on -other instruments of the violin class of a somewhat later period than -that of the _vielle_; for instance, on the _lira di braccio_ of the -Italians. It was likewise adopted on the lute, to obtain a fuller power -in the bass; and hence arose the _theorbo_, the _archlute_, and other -varieties of the old lute. - -[Illustration: - - A. REID. DEL. - -ORCHESTRA, TWELFTH CENTURY, AT SANTIAGO.] - -A grand assemblage of musical performers is represented on the -Portico della gloria of the famous pilgrimage church of Santiago da -Compostella, in Spain. This triple portal, which is stated by an -inscription on the lintel to have been executed in the year 1188, -consists of a large semicircular arch with a smaller arch on either -side. The central arch is filled by a tympanum, round which are -twenty-four life-sized seated figures, in high relief, representing the -twenty-four elders seen by St. John in the Apocalypse, each with an -instrument of music. These instruments are carefully represented and -are of great interest as showing those in use in Spain at about the -twelfth century. A cast of this sculpture is in the Kensington museum. - -In examining the group of musicians on this sculpture the reader will -probably recognise several instruments in their hands, which are -identical with those already described in the preceding pages. The -_organistrum_, played by two persons, is placed in the centre of the -group, perhaps owing to its being the largest of the instruments rather -than that it was distinguished by any superiority in sound or musical -effect. Besides the small harp seen in the hands of the eighth and -nineteenth musicians (in form nearly identical with the Anglo-saxon -harp) we find a small triangular harp, without a front-pillar, held on -the lap by the fifth and eighteenth musicians. The _salterio_ on the -lap of the tenth and seventeenth musicians resembles the dulcimer, but -seems to be played with the fingers instead of with hammers. The most -interesting instrument in this orchestra is the _vihuela_, or Spanish -viol, of the twelfth century. The first, second, third, sixth, seventh, -ninth, twentieth, twenty-second, twenty-third, and twenty-fourth -musicians are depicted with a _vihuela_ which bears a close resemblance -to the _rebec_. The instrument is represented with three strings, -although in one or two instances five tuning-pegs are indicated. A -large species of _vihuela_ is given to the eleventh, fourteenth, -fifteenth, and sixteenth musicians. This instrument differs from the -_rebec_ in as far as its body is broader and has incurvations at the -sides. Also the sound-holes are different in form and position. The bow -does not occur with any of these viols. But, as will be observed, the -musicians are not represented in the act of playing; they are tuning -and preparing for the performance, and the second of them is adjusting -the bridge of his instrument. - -[Illustration: FRONT OF THE MINSTRELS’ GALLERY, EXETER CATHEDRAL. XIVth -century.] - -The minstrels’ gallery of Exeter cathedral dates from the fourteenth -century. The front is divided into twelve niches, each of which -contains a winged figure or an angel playing on an instrument of music. -There is a cast also of this famous sculpture at South Kensington. The -instruments are so much dilapidated that some of them cannot be clearly -recognized; but, as far as may be ascertained, they appear to be as -follows:--1. The _cittern_. 2. The _bagpipe_. 3. The _clarion_, a small -trumpet having a shrill sound. 4. The _rebec_. 5. The _psaltery_. 6. -The _syrinx_. 7. The _sackbut_. 8. The _regals_. 9. The _gittern_, a -small guitar strung with catgut. 10. The _shalm_. 11. The _timbrel_; -resembling our present tambourine, with a double row of gingles. 12. -_Cymbals._ Most of these instruments have been already noticed in the -preceding pages. The _shalm_, or _shawm_, was a pipe with a reed in -the mouth-hole. The _wait_ was an English wind instrument of the same -construction. If it differed in any respect from the _shalm_, the -difference consisted probably in the size only. The _wait_ obtained its -name from being used principally by watchmen, or _waights_, to proclaim -the time of night. Such were the poor ancestors of our fine oboe and -clarinet. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - - -POST-MEDIÆVAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. - -Attention must now be drawn to some instruments which originated during -the middle ages, but which attained their highest popularity at a -somewhat later period. - -[Illustration] - -Among the best known of these was the _virginal_, of which we give an -engraving from a specimen of the time of Elizabeth at South Kensington. -Another was the _lute_, which about three hundred years ago was almost -as popular as is at the present day the pianoforte. Originally it had -eight thin catgut strings arranged in four pairs, each pair being tuned -in unison; so that its open strings produced four tones; but in the -course of time more strings were added. Until the sixteenth century -twelve was the largest number or, rather, six pairs. Eleven appear -for some centuries to have been the most usual number of strings: -these produced six tones, since they were arranged in five pairs and a -single string. The latter, called the _chanterelle_, was the highest. -According to Thomas Mace, the English lute in common use during the -seventeenth century had twenty-four strings, arranged in twelve pairs, -of which six pairs ran over the finger-board and the other six by -the side of it. This lute was therefore, more properly speaking, a -theorbo. The neck of the lute, and also of the theorbo, had frets -consisting of catgut strings tightly fastened round it at the proper -distances required for ensuring a chromatic succession of intervals. -The illustration on the next page represents a lute-player of the -sixteenth century. The frets are not indicated in the old engraving -from which the illustration has been taken. The order of tones adopted -for the open strings varied in different centuries and countries: -and this was also the case with the notation of lute music. The most -common practice was to write the music on six lines, the upper line -representing the first string; the second line, the second string, &c., -and to mark with letters on the lines the frets at which the fingers -ought to be placed--_a_ indicating the open string, _b_ the first fret, -_c_ the second fret, and so on. - -The lute was made of various sizes according to the purpose for -which it was intended in performance. The treble-lute was of the -smallest dimensions, and the bass-lute of the largest. The _theorbo_, -or double-necked lute which appears to have come into use during -the sixteenth century, had in addition to the strings situated over -the finger-board a number of others running at the left side of -the finger-board which could not be shortened by the fingers, and -which produced the bass tones. The largest kinds of theorbo were the -_archlute_ and the _chitarrone_. - -It is unnecessary to enter here into a detailed description of some -other instruments which have been popular during the last three -centuries, for the museum at Kensington contains specimens of many -of them of which an account is given in the large catalogue of that -collection. It must suffice to refer the reader to the illustrations -there of the cither, virginal, spinet, clavichord, harpsichord, and -other antiquated instruments much esteemed by our forefathers. - -Students who examine these old relics will probably wish to know -something about their quality of tone. “How do they sound? Might -they still be made effective in our present state of the art?” are -questions which naturally occur to the musical inquirer having such -instruments brought before him. A few words bearing on these questions -may therefore not be out of place here. - -[Illustration] - -It is generally and justly admitted that in no other branch of the art -of music has greater progress been made since the last century than -in the construction of musical instruments. Nevertheless, there are -people who think that we have also lost something here which might -with advantage be restored. Our various instruments by being more and -more perfected are becoming too much alike in quality of sound, or in -that character of tone which the French call _timbre_, and the Germans -_Klangfarbe_, and which professor Tyndall in his lectures on sound has -translated _clang-tint_. Every musical composer knows how much more -suitable one _clang-tint_ is for the expression of a certain emotion -than another. Our old instruments, imperfect though they were in many -respects, possessed this variety of _clang-tint_ to a high degree. -Neither were they on this account less capable of expression than the -modern ones. That no improvement has been made during the last two -centuries in instruments of the violin class is a well-known fact. As -to lutes and cithers the collection at Kensington contains specimens -so rich and mellow in tone as to cause musicians to regret that these -instruments have entirely fallen into oblivion. - -As regards beauty of appearance our earlier instruments were certainly -superior to the modern. Indeed, we have now scarcely a musical -instrument which can be called beautiful. The old lutes, spinets, -viols, dulcimers, &c., are not only elegant in shape but are also often -tastefully ornamented with carvings, designs in marquetry, and painting. - -[Illustration] - -The player on the _viola da gamba_, shown in the next engraving, is -a reduced copy of an illustration in “The Division Violist,” London, -1659. It shows exactly how the frets were regulated, and how the bow -was held. The most popular instruments played with a bow, at that time, -were the _treble-viol_, the _tenor-viol_, and the _bass-viol_. It was -usual for viol players to have “a chest of viols,” a case containing -four or more viols, of different sizes. Thus, Thomas Mace in his -directions for the use of the viol, “Musick’s Monument” 1676, remarks, -“Your best provision, and most complete, will be a good chest of viols, -six in number, viz., two basses, two tenors, and two trebles, all truly -and proportionably suited.” The violist, to be properly furnished with -his requirements, had therefore to supply himself with a larger stock -of instruments than the violinist of the present day. - -[Illustration] - -That there was, in the time of Shakespeare, a musical instrument -called _recorder_ is undoubtedly known to most readers from the stage -direction in Hamlet: _Re-enter players with recorders_. But not many -are likely to have ever seen a recorder, as it has now become very -scarce: we therefore give an illustration of this old instrument, which -is copied from “The Genteel Companion; Being exact Directions for the -Recorder: etc.” London, 1683. - -The _bagpipe_ appears to have been from time immemorial a special -favourite instrument with the Celtic races; but it was perhaps quite as -much admired by the Slavonic nations. In Poland, and in the Ukraine, -it used to be made of the whole skin of the goat in which the shape -of the animal, whenever the bagpipe was expanded with air, appeared -fully retained, exhibiting even the head with the horns; hence the -bagpipe was called _kosa_, which signifies a goat. The woodcut p. 120 -represents a Scotch bagpipe of the last century. - -The bagpipe is of high antiquity in Ireland, and is alluded to in Irish -poetry and prose said to date from the tenth century. A pig gravely -engaged in playing the bagpipe is represented in an illuminated Irish -manuscript, of the year 1300: and we give p. 121 a copy of a woodcut -from “The Image of Ireland,” a book printed in London in 1581. - -[Illustration] - -The _bell_ has always been so much in popular favour in England that -some account of it must not be omitted. Paul Hentzner a German, who -visited England in the year 1598, records in his journal: “The people -are vastly fond of great noises that fill the ear, such as the firing -of cannon, drums, and the ringing of bells; so that in London it is -common for a number of them that have got a glass in their heads to go -up into some belfry, and ring the bells for hours together for the sake -of exercise.” This may be exaggeration,--not unusual with travellers. -It is, however, a fact that bell-ringing has been a favourite amusement -with Englishmen for centuries. - -The way in which church bells are suspended and fastened, so as to -permit of their being made to vibrate in the most effective manner -without damaging by their vibration the building in which they are -placed, is in some countries very peculiar. The Italian _campanile_, or -tower of bells, is not unfrequently separated from the church itself. -In Servia the church bells are often hung in a frame-work of timber -built near the west end of the church. In Zante and other islands of -Greece the belfry is usually separate from the church. The reason -assigned by the Greeks for having adopted this plan is that in case -of an earthquake the bells are likely to fall and, were they placed -in a tower, would destroy the roof of the church and might cause the -destruction of the whole building. Also in Russia a special edifice -for the bells is generally separate from the church. In the Russian -villages the bells are not unfrequently hung in the branches of an -oak-tree near the church. In Iceland the bell is usually placed in the -lych-gate leading to the graveyard. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration] - -The idea of forming of a number of bells a musical instrument such -as the _carillon_ is said by some to have suggested itself first to -the English and Dutch; but what we have seen in Asiatic countries -sufficiently refutes this. Moreover, not only the Romans employed -variously arranged and attuned bells, but also among the Etruscan -antiquities an instrument has been discovered which is constructed of -a number of bronze vessels placed in a row on a metal rod. Numerous -bells, varying in size and tone, have also been found in Etruscan -tombs. Among the later contrivances of this kind in European countries -the sets of bells suspended in a wooden frame, which we find in -mediæval illuminations, deserve notice. In the British museum is a -manuscript of the fourteenth century in which king David is depicted -holding in each hand a hammer with which he strikes upon bells of -different dimensions, suspended on a wooden stand. - -It may be supposed that the device of playing tunes by means of bells -merely swung by the hand is also of ancient date. In Lancashire each -of the ringers manages two bells, holding one in either hand. Thus, an -assemblage of seven ringers insures fourteen different tones; and as -each ringer may change his two notes by substituting two other bells if -required, even compositions with various modulations, and of a somewhat -intricate character, may be executed,--provided the ringers are good -timeists; for each has, of course, to take care to fall in with his -note, just as a member of the Russian horn band contributes his single -note whenever it occurs. - -Peal-ringing is another pastime of the kind which may be regarded as -pre-eminently national to England. The bells constituting a peal are -frequently of the number of eight, attuned to the diatonic scale. Also -peals of ten bells, and even of twelve, are occasionally formed. A -peculiar feature of peal-ringing is that the bells, which are provided -with clappers, are generally swung so forcibly as to raise the mouth -completely upwards. The largest peal, and one of the finest, is at -Exeter cathedral: another celebrated one is that of St. Margaret’s, -Leicester, which consists of ten bells. Peal-ringing is of an early -date in England; Egelric, abbot of Croyland, is recorded to have cast -about the year 960 a set of six bells. - -The _carillon_ (engraved on the opposite page) is especially popular -in the Netherlands and Belgium, but is also found in Germany, Italy, -and some other European countries. It is generally placed in the church -tower and also sometimes in other public edifices. The statement -repeated by several writers that the first carillon was invented in -the year 1481 in the town of Alost is not to be trusted, for the town -of Bruges claims to have possessed similar chimes in the year 1300. -There are two kinds of carillons in use on the continent, viz.: clock -chimes, which are moved by machinery, like a self-acting barrel-organ; -and such as are provided with a set of keys, by means of which the -tunes are played by a musician. The carillon in the ‘Parochial-Kirche’ -at Berlin, which is one of the finest in Germany, contains thirty-seven -bells; and is provided with a key-board for the hands and with a pedal, -which together place at the disposal of the performer a compass of -rather more than three octaves. The keys of the manual are metal rods -somewhat above a foot in length; and are pressed down with the palms of -the hand. The keys of the pedal are of wood; the instrument requires -not only great dexterity but also a considerable physical power. It -is astonishing how rapidly passages can be executed upon it by the -player, who is generally the organist of the church in which he acts as -_carilloneur_. When engaged in the last-named capacity he usually wears -leathern gloves to protect his fingers, as they are otherwise apt to -become ill fit for the more delicate treatment of the organ. - -The want of a contrivance in the _carillon_ for stopping the vibration -has the effect of making rapid passages, if heard near, sound as a -confused noise; only at some distance are they tolerable. It must be -remembered that the _carillon_ is intended especially to be heard from -a distance. Successions of tones which form a consonant chord, and -which have some duration, are evidently the most suitable for this -instrument. - -Indeed, every musical instrument possesses certain characteristics -which render it especially suitable for the production of some -particular effects. The invention of a new instrument of music has, -therefore, not unfrequently led to the adoption of new effects in -compositions. Take the pianoforte, which was invented in the beginning -of the eighteenth century, and which has now obtained so great a -popularity: its characteristics inspired our great composers to the -invention of effects, or expressions, which cannot be properly rendered -on any other instrument, however superior in some respects it may be to -the pianoforte. Thus also the improvements which have been made during -the present century in the construction of our brass instruments, and -the invention of several new brass instruments, have evidently been -not without influence upon the conceptions displayed in our modern -orchestral works. - -Imperfect though this essay may be it will probably have convinced -the reader that a reference to the history of the music of different -nations elucidates many facts illustrative of our own musical -instruments, which to the unprepared observer must appear misty and -impenetrable. In truth, it is with this study as with any other -scientific pursuit. The unassisted eye sees only faint nebulæ where -with the aid of the telescope bright stars are revealed. - - - - -INDEX. - - - Al-Farabi, a great performer on the lute, 57 - - American Indian instruments, 59, 77 - - " value of inquiry, 59 - - " trumpets, 67 - - " theories as to origin from musical instruments, 80 - - Arab instruments very numerous, 56 - - Archlute, 109, 115 - - Ashantee trumpet, 2 - - Asor explained, 19 - - Assyrian instruments, 16 - - “Aulos,” 32 - - - Bagpipe, Hebrew, 23 - - " Greek, 31 - - " Celtic, 119 - - Barbiton, 31, 34 - - Bells, Hebrew, 25 - - " Peruvian, 75 - - " and ringing, 121-123 - - Blasius, Saint, the manuscript, 86 - - Bones, traditions about them, 47 - - " made into flutes, 64 - - Bottles, as musical instruments, 71 - - Bow, see Violin - - Bruce, his discovery of harps on frescoes, 11 - - - Capistrum, 35 - - Carillon, 121, 124 - - Catgut, how made, 1 - - Chanterelle, 114 - - Chelys, 30 - - Chinese instruments, 38 - - " bells, 40 - - " drum, 44 - - " flutes, 45 - - " board of music, 80 - - Chorus, 99 - - Cimbal, or dulcimer, 5 - - Cithara, 86 - - " Anglican, 92 - - Cittern, 113 - - Clarion, 113 - - Cornu, 36 - - Crowd, 94 - - Crwth, 34, 93 - - Cymbals, Hebrew, 25 - - " or cymbalum, 105 - - " 113 - - - David’s (King) private band, 19 - - " his favourite instrument, 20 - - Diaulos, 32 - - Drum, Hebrew, 24 - - " Greek, 32 - - " Chinese, 44 - - " Mexican, 71, 73 - - Dulcimer, 5 - - " Assyrian, 17 - - " Hebrew, 19 - - " Persian prototype, 54 - - - Egyptian (ancient) musical instruments, 10 - - Egyptian harps, 11 - - " flutes, 12 - - Etruscan instruments, 33 - - " flutes, 33 - - " trumpet, 33 - - Fiddle, originally a poor contrivance, 50 - - Fiddle, Anglo-saxon, 95 - - " early German, 95 - - Fistula, 36 - - Flute, Greek, 32 - - " Persian, 56 - - " Mexican, 63 - - " Peruvian, 63 - - " mediæval, 100 - - “Free reed,” whence imported, 5 - - - Gerbert, abbot, 86 - - Greek instruments, 27 - - " music, whence derived, 27 - - - Hallelujah, compared with Peruvian song, 82 - - Harmonicon, Chinese, 42 - - Harp, Egyptian, 11 - - " Assyrian, 16 - - " Hebrew, 19 - - " Greek, 28 - - " Anglo-saxon, 89 - - " Irish, 90 - - Hebrew instruments, 19, 26 - - " pipe, 22 - - " drum, 24 - - " cymbals, 25 - - " words among Indians, 83 - - Hindu instruments, 46-48 - - Hurdy-gurdy, 107 - - Hydraulos, hydraulic organ, 33 - - - Instruments, curious shapes, 2 - - " value and use of collections, 4, 5, 7 - - Instruments, Assyrian and Babylonian, 18 - - - Jubal, 26 - - Juruparis, its sacred character, 68 - - - Kinnor, 20 - - King, Chinese, 39 - - " various shapes, 40 - - - Lute, Chinese, 46 - - " Persian, 54 - - " Moorish, 57 - - " Elizabethan, 114 - - Lyre, Assyrian, 17 - - " Hebrew, 19 - - " " of the time of Joseph, 21 - - Lyre, Greek, 29, 30 - - " Roman, 34 - - " " various kinds, 34 - - " early Christian, 86 - - " early German “_lyra_,” 95 - - - Magadis, 27, 31 - - Magrepha, 23 - - Maori trumpet, 2 - - Materials, commonly, of instruments, 1 - - Mediæval musical instruments, 85 - - " " " derived from Asia, 85 - - Mexican instruments, 60 - - " whistle, 60 - - " pipe, 61, 81 - - " flute, 63 - - " trumpet, 69, 82 - - " drum, 71 - - " songs, 79 - - " council of music, 80 - - Minnim, 22 - - Monochord, 98 - - Moorish instruments adopted in England, 56 - - Muses on a vase at Munich, 30 - - Music one of the fine arts, 1 - - - Nablia, 35, 88 - - Nadr ben el-Hares, 54 - - Nareda, inventor of Hindu instruments, 46 - - Nero coin with an organ, 34 - - Nofre, a guitar, 11 - - - Oboe, Persian, 56 - - Oliphant, 101 - - Orchestra, 107 - - " modifications, 7 - - Organistrum, 98, 111 - - Organ, 101 - - " pneumatic and hydraulic, 101 - - " in MS. of Eadwine, 103 - - - Pandoura, 31 - - Pedal, invented, 103 - - Persian instruments, 51 - - " harp, 51 - - Peruvian pipes, 65 - - " drum, 74 - - " bells, 75 - - " stringed instruments, 77 - - " songs, 78, 79 - - Peterborough paintings of violins, 95 - - Pipe, single and double, 22 - - " Mexican, 61 - - " Peruvian, 65 - - Plektron, 30 - - Poongi, Hindu, 51 - - Pre-historic instruments, 9 - - Psalterium, 35, 87, 89, 111, 113 - - - Rattle of Nootka Sound, 2 - - " American Indian, 74 - - Rebeck, 94, 113 - - Recorder, 119 - - Regal, 103 - - Roman musical instruments, 34 - - " lyre, 34 - - Rotta, or rote, 91, 92 - - - Sackbut, 101, 113 - - Sambuca, 35 - - Santir, 5, 54 - - Sêbi, the, 12 - - Shalm, 113 - - Shophar, still used by the Jews, 24 - - Sistrum, Hebrew, 25 - - " Roman, 37 - - Songs, Peruvian and Mexican, 79 - - Stringed instruments, 3 - - Syrinx, 23, 113 - - " Greek, 32 - - " Roman, 36 - - " Peruvian, 64, 81 - - - Tamboura, 22, 47 - - Temples in China, 46 - - Theorbo, 109, 115 - - Tibia, 35 - - Timbrel, 113 - - Tintinnabulum, 106 - - Triangle, 106 - - Trigonon, 27, 30, 35 - - Trumpet, Assyrian, 18 - - " Hebrew, 24 - - " Greek, 32 - - " Roman, 36 - - " American Indian, 67 - - " of the Caroados, 69 - - " Mexican, 69, 82 - - Tympanon, 32 - - - Universality of musical instruments, 1 - - - Vielle, 107, 108 - - Vihuela, 111 - - Vina, Hindu, 47 - - " performer, 48 - - Viol, Spanish, 111, 117 - - " da gamba, 117 - - Violin bow invented by Hindus? 49 - - " Persian, 50 - - " mediæval, 95 - - Virginal, 114 - - - Wait, the instrument, 113 - - Water, supposed origin of musical instruments, 47 - - Whistle, prehistoric, 9 - - " Mexican, 60 - - Wind instruments, 3 - - - Yu, Chinese stone, 39 - - " " wind instrument, 45 - - -DALZIEL AND CO., CAMDEN PRESS, N.W. - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber's note: - -Inconsistent punctuation and capitalization are as in the original. - -Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS*** - - -******* This file should be named 54537-0.txt or 54537-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/4/5/3/54537 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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