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diff --git a/5399-h/5399-h.htm b/5399-h/5399-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..93260be --- /dev/null +++ b/5399-h/5399-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2184 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + An Essay on the American Contribution and The Democratic Idea, by Winston + Churchill + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The Project Gutenberg EBook of An Essay On The American Contribution And +The Democratic Idea, by Winston Churchill +[The Author is the American Winston Churchill not the British] + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: An Essay On The American Contribution And The Democratic Idea + +Author: Winston Churchill + +Release Date: October 6, 2006 [EBook #5399] +Last Updated: August 24, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN CONTRIBUTION *** + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + +</pre> + + <h1> + AN ESSAY ON THE AMERICAN CONTRIBUTION AND THE DEMOCRATIC IDEA + </h1> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Winston Churchill + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> I. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> IV. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> V. </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + I. + </h2> + <p> + Failure to recognize that the American, is at heart an idealist is to lack + understanding of our national character. Two of our greatest interpreters + proclaimed it, Emerson and William James. In a recent address at the Paris + Sorbonne on “American Idealism,” M. Firmin Roz observed that a people is + rarely justly estimated by its contemporaries. The French, he says, have + been celebrated chiefly for the skill of their chefs and their vaudeville + actors, while in the disturbed ‘speculum mundi’ Americans have appeared as + a collection of money grabbers whose philosophy is the dollar. It remained + for the war to reveal the true nature of both peoples. The American + colonists, M. Roz continues, unlike other colonists, were animated not by + material motives, but by the desire to safeguard and realize an ideal; our + inherent characteristic today is a belief in the virtue and power of + ideas, of a national, indeed, of a universal, mission. In the Eighteenth + Century we proposed a Philosophy and adopted a Constitution far in advance + of the political practice of the day, and set up a government of which + Europe predicted the early downfall. Nevertheless, thanks partly to good + fortune, and to the farseeing wisdom of our early statesmen who perceived + that the success of our experiment depended upon the maintenance of an + isolation from European affairs, we established democracy as a practical + form of government. + </p> + <p> + We have not always lived up to our beliefs in ideas. In our dealings with + other nations, we yielded often to imperialistic ambitions and thus, to a + certain extent, justified the cynicism of Europe. We took what we wanted—and + more. From Spain we seized western Florida; the annexation of Texas and + the subsequent war with Mexico are acts upon which we cannot look back + with unmixed democratic pride; while more than once we professed a naive + willingness to fight England in order to push our boundaries further + north. We regarded the Monroe Doctrine as altruistic, while others smiled. + But it suited England, and her sea power gave it force. + </p> + <p> + Our war with Spain in 1898, however, was fought for an idea, and, despite + the imperialistic impulse that followed it, marks a transition, an + advance, in international ethics. Imperialistic cynics were not lacking to + scoff at our protestation that we were fighting Spain in order to liberate + Cuba; and yet this, for the American people at large, was undoubtedly the + inspiration of the war. We kept our promise, we did not annex Cuba, we + introduced into international affairs what is known as the Big Brother + idea. Then came the Platt Amendment. Cuba was free, but she must not + wallow near our shores in an unhygienic state, or borrow money without our + consent. We acquired valuable naval bases. Moreover, the sudden and + unexpected acquisition of Porto Rico and the Philippines made us + imperialists in spite of ourselves. + </p> + <p> + Nations as well as individuals, however, must be judged by their + intentions. The sound public opinion of our people has undoubtedly + remained in favour of ultimate self-government for the Philippines, and + the greatest measure of self-determination for little Porto Rico; it has + been unquestionably opposed to commercial exploitation of the islands, + desirous of yielding to these peoples the fruits of their labour in + developing the resources of their own lands. An intention, by the way, + diametrically different from that of Germany. In regard to our + protectorate in the island of San Domingo, our “semi-protectorate” in + Nicaragua, the same argument of intention may fairly be urged. Germany, + who desired them, would have exploited them. To a certain extent, no + doubt, as a result of the momentum of commercial imperialism, we are still + exploiting them. But the attitude of the majority of Americans toward more + backward peoples is not cynical; hence there is hope that a democratic + solution of the Caribbean and Central American problem may be found. And + we are not ready, as yet, to accept without further experiment the dogma + that tropical and sub-tropical people will not ultimately be able to + govern themselves. If this eventually, prove to be the case at least some + such experiment as the new British Labour Party has proposed for the + Empire may be tried. Our general theory that the exploitation of foreign + peoples reacts unfavourably on the exploiters is undoubtedly sound. + </p> + <p> + Nor are the ethics of the manner of our acquisition of a part of Panama + and the Canal wholly defensible from the point of view of international + democracy. Yet it must be remembered that President Roosevelt was dealing + with a corrupt, irresponsible, and hostile government, and that the Canal + had become a necessity not only for our own development, but for that of + the civilization of the world. + </p> + <p> + The Spanish War, as has been said, marked a transition, a development of + the American Idea. In obedience to a growing perception that dominion and + exploitation are incompatible with and detrimental to our system of + government, we fought in good faith to gain self-determination for an + alien people. The only real peril confronting democracy is the arrest of + growth. Its true conquests are in the realms of ideas, and hence it calls + for a statesmanship which, while not breaking with the past, while taking + into account the inherent nature of a people, is able to deal creatively + with new situations—always under the guidance of current social + science. + </p> + <p> + Woodrow Wilson’s Mexican policy, being a projection of the American Idea + to foreign affairs, a step toward international democracy, marks the + beginning of a new era. Though not wholly understood, though opposed by a + powerful minority of our citizens, it stirred the consciousness of a + national mission to which our people are invariably ready to respond. + Since it was essentially experimental, and therefore not lacking in + mistakes, there was ample opportunity for a criticism that seemed at times + extremely plausible. The old and tried method of dealing with such anarchy + as existed across our southern border was made to seem the safe one; while + the new, because it was untried, was presented as disastrous. In reality, + the reverse was the case. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Wilson’s opponents were, generally speaking, the commercial classes in + the community, whose environment and training led them to demand a foreign + policy similar to that of other great powers, a financial imperialism + which is the logical counterpart in foreign affairs of the commercial + exploitation of domestic national resources and domestic labour. These + were the classes which combated the growth of democracy at home, in + national and state politics. From their point of view—not that of + the larger vision—they were consistent. On the other hand, the + nation grasped the fact that to have one brand of democracy at home and + another for dealing with foreign nations was not only illogical but, in + the long run, would be suicidal to the Republic. And the people at large + were committed to democratic progress at home. They were struggling for + it. + </p> + <p> + One of the most important issues of the American liberal movement early in + this century had been that for the conservation of what remains of our + natural resources of coal and metals and oil and timber and waterpower for + the benefit of all the people, on the theory that these are the property + of the people. But if the natural resources of this country belong to the + people of the United States, those of Mexico belong to the people of + Mexico. It makes no difference how “lazy,” ignorant, and indifferent to + their own interests the Mexicans at present may be. And even more + important in these liberal campaigns was the issue of the conservation of + human resources—men and women and children who are forced by + necessity to labour. These must be protected in health, given economic + freedom and a just reward for their toil. The American democracy, + committed to the principle of the conservation of domestic natural and + human resources, could not without detriment to itself persist in a + foreign policy that ignored them. For many years our own government had + permitted the squandering of these resources by adventurous capitalists; + and gradually, as we became a rich industrial nation, these capitalists + sought profitable investments for their increasing surplus in foreign + lands. Their manner of acquiring “concessions” in Mexico was quite similar + to that by which they had seized because of the indifference and ignorance + of our own people—our own mines and timber lands which our + government held in trust. Sometimes these American “concessions” have been + valid in law though the law itself violated a democratic principle; more + often corrupt officials winked at violations of the law, enabling + capitalists to absorb bogus claims. + </p> + <p> + The various rulers of Mexico sold to American and other foreign + capitalists the resources belonging to the people of their country, and + pocketed, with their followers, the proceeds of the sale. Their control of + the country rested upon force; the stability of the Diaz rule, for + instance, depended upon the “President’s” ability to maintain his + dictatorship—a precarious guarantee to the titles he had given. + Hence the premium on revolutions. There was always the incentive to the + upstart political and military buccaneer to overthrow the dictator and + gain possession of the spoils, to sell new doubtful concessions and levy + new tribute on the capitalists holding claims from a former tyrant. + </p> + <p> + The foreign capitalists appealed to their governments; commercial + imperialism responded by dispatching military forces to protect the lives + and “property” of its citizens, in some instances going so far as to take + possession of the country. A classic case, as cited by Hobson, is + Britain’s South African War, in which the blood and treasure of the people + of the United Kingdom were expended because British capitalists had found + the Boers recalcitrant, bent on retaining their own country for + themselves. To be sure, South Africa, like Mexico is rich in resources for + which advancing civilization continually makes demands. And, in the case + of Mexico, the products of the tropics, such as rubber, are increasingly + necessary to the industrial powers of the temperate zone. On the other + hand, if the exploiting nation aspire to self-government, the + imperialistic method of obtaining these products by the selfish + exploitation of the natural and human resources of the backward countries + reacts so powerfully on the growth of democracy at home—and hence on + the growth of democracy throughout the world—as to threaten the very + future of civilization. The British Liberals, when they came into power, + perceived this, and at once did their best to make amends to South Africa + by granting her autonomy and virtual independence, linking her to Britain + by the silken thread of Anglo-Saxon democratic culture. How strong this + thread has proved is shown by the action of those of Dutch blood in the + Dominion during the present war. + </p> + <p> + Eventually, if democracy is not to perish from the face of the earth, some + other than the crude imperialistic method of dealing with backward + peoples, of obtaining for civilization the needed resources of their + lands, must be inaugurated—a democratic method. And this is perhaps + the supreme problem of democracy today. It demands for its solution a + complete reversal of the established policy of imperialism, a new theory + of international relationships, a mutual helpfulness and partnership + between nations, even as democracy implies cooperation between individual + citizens. Therefore President Wilson laid down the doctrine that American + citizens enter Mexico at their own risk; that they must not expect that + American blood will be shed or the nation’s money be expended to protect + their lives or the “property” they have acquired from Mexican dictators. + This applies also to the small capitalists, the owners of the coffee + plantations, as well as to those Americans in Mexico who are not + capitalists but wage earners. The people of Mexico are entitled to try the + experiment of self-determination. It is an experiment, we frankly + acknowledge that fact, a democratic experiment dependent on physical + science, social science, and scientific education. The other horn of the + dilemma, our persistence in imperialism, is even worse—since by such + persistence we destroy ourselves. + </p> + <p> + A subjective judgment, in accordance with our own democratic standards, by + the American Government as to the methods employed by a Huerta, for + instance, is indeed demanded; not on the ground, however, that such + methods are “good” or “bad”; but whether they are detrimental to Mexican + self-determination, and hence to the progress of our own democracy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + II. + </h2> + <p> + If America had started to prepare when Belgium was invaded, had entered + the war when the Lusitania was sunk, Germany might by now have been + defeated, hundreds of thousands of lives might have been spared. All this + may be admitted. Yet, looking backward, it is easy to read the reason for + our hesitancy in our national character and traditions. We were pacifists, + yes, but pacifists of a peculiar kind. One of our greatest American + prophets, William James, knew that there was an issue for which we were + ready to fight, for which we were willing to make the extreme sacrifice,—and + that issue he defined as “war against war.” It remained for America to + make the issue. + </p> + <p> + Peoples do not rush to arms unless their national existence is threatened. + It is what may be called the environmental cause that drives nations + quickly into war. It drove the Entente nations into war, though + incidentally they were struggling for certain democratic institutions, for + international justice. But in the case of America, the environmental cause + was absent. Whether or not our national existence was or is actually + threatened, the average American does not believe that it is. He was + called upon to abandon his tradition, to mingle in a European conflict, to + fight for an idea alone. Ideas require time to develop, to seize the + imagination of masses. And it must be remembered that in 1914 the great + issue had not been defined. Curiously enough, now that it is defined, it + proves to be an American issue—a logical and positive projection of + our Washingtonian tradition and Monroe doctrine. These had for their + object the preservation and development of democracy, the banishment from + the Western Hemisphere of European imperialistic conflict and war. We are + now, with the help of our allies, striving to banish these things from the + face of the earth. It is undoubtedly the greatest idea for which man has + been summoned to make the supreme sacrifice. + </p> + <p> + Its evolution has been traced. Democracy was the issue in the Spanish War, + when we fought a weak nation. We have followed its broader application to + Mexico, when we were willing to ignore the taunts and insults of another + weak nation, even the loss of “prestige,” for the sake of the larger good. + And we have now the clue to the President’s interpretation of the nation’s + mind during the first three years of the present war. We were willing to + bear the taunts and insults of Germany so long as it appeared that a + future world peace night best be brought about by the preservation of + neutrality, by turning the weight of the impartial public opinion of our + democracy and that of other neutrals against militarism and imperialism. + Our national aim was ever consistent with the ideal of William James, to + advance democracy and put an end to the evil of war. + </p> + <p> + The only sufficient reason for the abandonment of the Washingtonian policy + is the furtherance of the object for which it was inaugurated, the advance + of democracy. And we had established the precedent, with Spain and Mexico, + that the Republic shall engage in no war of imperialistic conquest. We war + only in behalf of, or in defence of, democracy. + </p> + <p> + Before the entrance of America, however, the issues of the European War + were by no means clear cut along democratic lines. What kind of democracy + were the allies fighting for? Nowhere and at no time had it been defined + by any of their statesmen. On the contrary, the various allied governments + had entered into compacts for the transference of territory in the event + of victory; and had even, by the offer of rewards, sought to play one + small nation against another. This secret diplomacy of bargains, of + course, was a European heritage, the result of an imperialistic + environment which the American did not understand, and from which he was + happily free. Its effect on France is peculiarly enlightening. The + hostility of European governments, due to their fear of her republican + institutions, retarded her democratic growth, and her history during the + reign of Napoleon III is one of intrigue for aggrandizement differing from + Bismarck’s only in the fact that it was unsuccessful. Britain, because she + was separated from the continent and protected by her fleet, virtually + withdrew from European affairs in the latter part of the nineteenth + century, and, as a result, made great strides in democracy. The + aggressions of Germany forced Britain in self-defence into coalitions. + Because of her power and wealth she became the Entente leader, yet her + liberal government was compelled to enter into secret agreements with + certain allied governments in order to satisfy what they deemed to be + their needs and just ambitions. She had honestly sought, before the war, + to come to terms with Germany, and had even proposed gradual disarmament. + But, despite the best intentions, circumstances and environment, as well + as the precarious situation of her empire, prevented her from liberalizing + her foreign relations to conform with the growth of democracy within the + United Kingdom and the Dominions. Americans felt a profound pity for + Belgium. But she was not, as Cuba had been, our affair. The great majority + of our citizens sympathized with the Entente, regarded with amazement and + disgust the sudden disclosure of the true character of the German + militaristic government. Yet for the average American the war wore the + complexion of other European conflicts, was one involving a Balance of + Power, mysterious and inexplicable. To him the underlying issue was not + democratic, but imperialistic; and this was partly because he was unable + to make a mental connection between a European war and the brand of + democracy he recognized. Preaching and propaganda fail unless it can be + brought home to a people that something dear to their innermost nature is + at stake, that the fate of the thing they most desire, and are willing to + make sacrifices for, hangs in the balance. + </p> + <p> + During a decade the old political parties, between which there was now + little more than an artificial alignment, had been breaking up. Americans + were absorbed in the great liberal movement begun under the leadership of + President Roosevelt, the result of which was to transform democracy from a + static to a pragmatic and evolutionary conception,—in order to meet + and correct new and unforeseen evils. Political freedom was seen to be of + little worth unless also accompanied by the economic freedom the nation + had enjoyed before the advent of industrialism. Clerks and farmers, + professional men and shopkeepers and artisans were ready to follow the + liberal leaders in states and nation; intellectual elements from colleges + and universities were enlisted. Paralleling the movement, at times + mingling with it, was the revolt of labour, manifested not only in + political action, but in strikes and violence. Readily accessible books + and magazines together with club and forum lectures in cities, towns, and + villages were rapidly educating the population in social science, and the + result was a growing independent vote to make politicians despair. + </p> + <p> + Here was an instance of a democratic culture growing in isolation, + resentful of all external interference. To millions of Americans—especially + in our middle western and western states—bent upon social reforms, + the European War appeared as an arresting influence. American + participation meant the triumph of the forces of reaction. Colour was lent + to this belief because the conservative element which had opposed social + reforms was loudest in its demand for intervention. The wealthy and + travelled classes organized preparedness parades and distributed + propaganda. In short, those who had apparently done their utmost to oppose + democracy at home were most insistent that we should embark upon a war for + democracy across the seas. Again, what kind of democracy? Obviously a + status quo, commercially imperialistic democracy, which the awakening + liberal was bent upon abolishing. + </p> + <p> + There is undoubtedly in such an office as the American presidency some + virtue which, in times of crisis, inspires in capable men an intellectual + and moral growth proportional to developing events. Lincoln, our most + striking example, grew more between 1861 and 1865 than during all the + earlier years of his life. Nor is the growth of democratic leaders, when + seen through the distorted passions of their day, apparently a consistent + thing. Greatness, near at hand, is startlingly like inconsistency; it + seems at moments to vacillate, to turn back upon and deny itself, and thus + lays itself open to seemingly plausible criticism by politicians and time + servers and all who cry out for precedent. Yet it is an interesting and + encouraging fact that the faith of democratic peoples goes out, and goes + out alone, to leaders who—whatever their minor faults and failings—do + not fear to reverse themselves when occasion demands; to enunciate new + doctrines, seemingly in contradiction to former assertions, to meet new + crises. When a democratic leader who has given evidence of greatness + ceases to develop new ideas, he loses the public confidence. He flops back + into the ranks of the conservative he formerly opposed, who catch up with + him only when he ceases to grow. + </p> + <p> + In 1916 the majority of the American people elected Mr. Wilson in the + belief that he would keep them out of war. In 1917 he entered the war with + the nation behind him. A recalcitrant Middle West was the first to fill + its quota of volunteers, and we witnessed the extraordinary spectacle of + the endorsement of conscription: What had happened? A very simple, but a + very great thing Mr. Wilson had made the issue of the war a democratic + issue, an American issue, in harmony with our national hopes and + traditions. But why could not this issue have been announced in 1914 or + 1915? The answer seems to be that peoples, as well as their leaders and + interpreters, must grow to meet critical situations. In 1861 the moral + idea of the Civil War was obscured and hidden by economic and material + interests. The Abraham Lincoln who entered the White House in 1861 was + indeed the same man who signed the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863; and + yet, in a sense, he was not the same man; events and responsibilities had + effected a profound but logical growth in his personality. And the people + of the Union were not ready to endorse Emancipation in 1861. In 1863, in + the darkest hour of the war, the spirit of the North responded to the + call, and, despite the vilification of the President, was true to him to + victory. More significant still, in view of the events of today, is what + then occurred in England. The British Government was unfriendly; the + British people as a whole had looked upon our Civil War very much in the + same light as the American people regarded the present war at its + inception—which is to say that the economic and materialistic issue + seemed to overshadow the moral one. When Abraham Lincoln proclaimed it to + be a war for human freedom, the sentiment of the British people changed—of + the British people as distinct from the governing classes; and the textile + workers of the northern counties, whose mills could not get cotton on + account of the blockade, declared their willingness to suffer and starve + if the slaves in America might be freed. + </p> + <p> + Abraham Lincoln at that time represented the American people as the + British Government did not represent the British people. We are concerned + today with peoples rather than governments. + </p> + <p> + It remained for an American President to announce the moral issue of the + present war, and thus to solidify behind him, not only the liberal mind of + America, but the liberal elements within the nations of Europe. He became + the democratic leader of the world. The issue, simply stated, is the + advancement of democracy and peace. They are inseparable. Democracy, for + progress, demands peace. It had reached a stage, when, in a contracting + world, it could no longer advance through isolation: its very existence in + every country was threatened, not only by the partisans of reaction from + within, but by the menace from without of a militaristic and imperialistic + nation determined to crush it, restore superimposed authority, and + dominate the globe. Democracy, divided against itself, cannot stand. A + league of democratic nations, of democratic peoples, has become + imperative. Hereafter, if democracy wins, self-determination, and not + imperialistic exploitation, is to be the universal rule. It is the + extension, on a world scale, of Mr. Wilson’s Mexican policy, the + application of democratic principles to international relationships, and + marks the inauguration of a new era. We resort to force against force, not + for dominion, but to make the world safe for the idea on which we believe + the future of civilization depends, the sacred right of self-government. + We stand prepared to treat with the German people when they are ready to + cast off autocracy and militarism. Our attitude toward them is precisely + our attitude toward the Mexican People. We believe, and with good reason, + that the German system of education is authoritative and false, and was + more or less deliberately conceived in order to warp the nature and + produce complexes in the mind of the German people for the end of + preserving and perpetuating the power of the Junkers. We have no quarrel + with the duped and oppressed, but we war against the agents of oppression. + To the conservative mind such an aspiration appears chimerical. But + America, youngest of the nations, was born when modern science was + gathering the momentum which since has enabled it to overcome, with a + bewildering rapidity, many evils previously held by superstition to be + ineradicable. As a corollary to our democratic creed, we accepted the + dictum that to human intelligence all things are possible. The virtue of + this dictum lies not in dogma, but in an indomitable attitude of mind to + which the world owes its every advance in civilization; quixotic, perhaps, + but necessary to great accomplishment. In searching for a present-day + protagonist, no happier example could be found than Mr. Henry Ford, who + exhibits the characteristic American mixture of the practical and the + ideal. He introduces into industry humanitarian practices that even tend + to increase the vast fortune which by his own efforts he has accumulated. + He sees that democratic peoples do not desire to go to war, he does not + believe that war is necessary and inevitable, he lays himself open to + ridicule by financing a Peace Mission. Circumstances force him to abandon + his project, but he is not for one moment discouraged. His intention + remains. He throws all his energy and wealth into a war to end war, and + the value of his contribution is inestimable. + </p> + <p> + A study of Mr. Ford’s mental processes and acts illustrates the true mind + of America. In the autumn of 1916 Mr. Wilson declared that “the people of + the United States want to be sure what they are fighting about, and they + want to be sure that they are fighting for the things that will bring the + world justice and peace. Define the elements; let us know that we are not + fighting for the prevalence of this nation over that, for the ambitions of + this group of nations as compared with the ambitions of that group of + nations, let us once be convinced that we are called in to a great + combination for the rights of mankind, and America will unite her force + and spill her blood for the great things she has always believed in and + followed.” + </p> + <p> + “America is always ready to fight for the things which are American.” Even + in these sombre days that mark the anniversary of our entrance into the + war. But let it be remembered that it was in the darkest days of the Civil + War Abraham Lincoln boldly proclaimed the democratic, idealistic issue of + that struggle. The Russian Revolution, which we must seek to understand + and not condemn, the Allied defeats that are its consequences, can only + make our purpose the firmer to put forth all our strength for the building + up of a better world. The President’s masterly series of state papers, + distributed in all parts of the globe, have indeed been so many + Proclamations of Emancipation for the world’s oppressed. Not only powerful + nations shall cease to exploit little nations, but powerful individuals + shall cease to exploit their fellow men. Henceforth no wars for dominion + shall be waged, and to this end secret treaties shall be abolished. + Peoples through their representatives shall make their own treaties. And + just as democracy insures to the individual the greatest amount of + self-determination, nations also shall have self-determination, in order + that each shall be free to make its world contribution. All citizens have + duties to perform toward their fellow citizens; all democratic nations + must be interdependent. + </p> + <p> + With this purpose America has entered the war. But it implies that our own + household must be swept and cleaned. The injustices and inequalities + existing in our own country, the false standards of worth, the + materialism, the luxury and waste must be purged from our midst. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + III. + </h2> + <p> + In fighting Germany we are indeed fighting an evil Will—evil because + it seeks to crush the growth of individual and national freedom. Its + object is to put the world back under the thrall of self-constituted + authority. So long as this Will can compel the bodies of soldiers to do + its bidding, these bodies must be destroyed. Until the Will behind them is + broken, the world cannot be free. Junkerism is the final expression of + reaction, organized to the highest efficiency. The war against the Junkers + marks the consummation of a long struggle for human liberty in all lands, + symbolizes the real cleavage dividing the world. As in the French + Revolution and the wars that followed it, the true significance of this + war is social. But today the Russian Revolution sounds the keynote. + Revolutions tend to express the extremes of the philosophies of their + times—human desires, discontents, and passions that cannot be + organized. The French Revolution was a struggle for political freedom; the + underlying issue of the present war is economic freedom—without + which political freedom is of no account. It will not, therefore, suffice + merely to crush the Junkers, and with them militarism and autocracy. + Unless, as the fruit of this appalling bloodshed and suffering, the + democracies achieve economic freedom, the war will have been fought in + vain. More revolutions, wastage and bloodshed will follow, the world will + be reduced to absolute chaos unless, in the more advanced democracies, an + intelligent social order tending to remove the causes of injustice and + discontent can be devised and ready for inauguration. This new social + order depends, in turn, upon a world order of mutually helpful, free + peoples, a league of Nations.—If the world is to be made safe for + democracy, this democratic plan must be ready for the day when the German + Junker is beaten and peace is declared. + </p> + <p> + The real issue of our time is industrial democracy we must face that fact. + And those in America and the Entente nations who continue to oppose it + will do so at their peril. Fortunately, as will be shown, that element of + our population which may be designated as domestic Junkers is capable of + being influenced by contemporary currents of thought, is awakening to the + realization of social conditions deplorable and dangerous. Prosperity and + power had made them blind and arrogant. Their enthusiasm for the war was, + however, genuine; the sacrifices they are making are changing and + softening them; but as yet they can scarcely be expected, as a class, to + rejoice over the revelation—just beginning to dawn upon their minds—that + victory for the Allies spells the end of privilege. Their conception of + democracy remains archaic, while wealth is inherently conservative. Those + who possess it in America have as a rule received an education in terms of + an obsolete economics, of the thought of an age gone by. It is only within + the past few years that our colleges and universities have begun to teach + modern economics, social science and psychology—and this in the face + of opposition from trustees. Successful business men, as a rule, have had + neither the time nor the inclination to read books which they regard as + visionary, as subversive to an order by which they have profited. And that + some Americans are fools, and have been dazzled in Europe by the glamour + of a privilege not attainable at home, is a deplorable yet indubitable + fact. These have little sympathy with democracy; they have even been heard + to declare that we have no right to dictate to another nation, even an + enemy nation, what form of government it shall assume. We have no right to + demand, when peace comes, that the negotiations must be with the + representatives of the German people. These are they who deplore the + absence among us of a tradition of monarchy, since the American people + “should have something to look up to.” But this state of mind, which needs + no comment, is comparatively rare, and represents an extreme. We are not + lacking, however, in the type of conservative who, innocent of a knowledge + of psychology, insists that “human nature cannot be changed,” and that the + “survival of the fittest” is the law of life, yet these would deny Darwin + if he were a contemporary. They reject the idea that society can be + organized by intelligence, and war ended by eliminating its causes from + the social order. On the contrary they cling to the orthodox contention + that war is a necessary and salutary thing, and proclaim that the American + fibre was growing weak and flabby from luxury and peace, curiously + ignoring the fact that their own economic class, the small percentage of + our population owning sixty per cent. of the wealth of the country, and + which therefore should be most debilitated by luxury, was most eager for + war, and since war has been declared has most amply proved its courage and + fighting quality. This, however, and other evidences of the patriotic + sacrifices of those of our countrymen who possess wealth, prove that they + are still Americans, and encourages the hope and belief that as Americans + they ultimately will do their share toward a democratic solution of the + problem of society. Many of them are capable of vision, and are beginning + to see the light today. + </p> + <p> + In America we succeeded in eliminating hereditary power, in obtaining a + large measure of political liberty, only to see the rise of an economic + power, and the consequent loss of economic liberty. The industrial + development of the United States was of course a necessary and desirable + thing, but the economic doctrine which formed the basis of American + institutions proved to be unsuited to industrialism, and introduced + unforeseen evils that were a serious menace to the Republic. An + individualistic economic philosophy worked admirably while there was ample + land for the pioneer, equality of opportunity to satisfy the individual + initiative of the enterprising. But what is known as industrialism brought + in its train fear and favour, privilege and poverty, slums, disease, and + municipal vice, fostered a too rapid immigration, established in America a + tenant system alien to our traditions. The conditions which existed before + the advent of industrialism are admirably pictured, for instance, in the + autobiography of Mr. Charles Francis Adams, when he describes his native + town of Quincy in the first half of the Nineteenth Century. In those early + communities, poverty was negligible, there was no great contrast between + rich and poor; the artisan, the farmer, the well-to-do merchant met on + terms of mutual self-respect, as man to man; economic class consciousness + was non-existent; education was so widespread that European travellers + wonderingly commented on the fact that we had no “peasantry”; and with few + exceptions every citizen owned a piece of land and a home. Property, a + refuge a man may call his own, and on which he may express his + individuality, is essential to happiness and self-respect. Today, less + than two thirds of our farmers own their land, while vast numbers of our + working men and women possess nothing but the labour of their hands. The + designation of labour as “property” by our courts only served to tighten + the bonds, by obstructing for a time the movement to decrease the tedious + and debilitating hours of contact of the human organism with the machine,—a + menace to the future of the race, especially in the case of women and + children. If labour is “property,” wretches driven by economic necessity + have indeed only the choice of a change of masters. In addition to the + manual workers, an army of clerical workers of both sexes likewise became + tenants, and dependents who knew not the satisfaction of a real home. + </p> + <p> + Such conditions gradually brought about a profound discontent, a grouping + of classes. Among the comparatively prosperous there was set up a social + competition in luxury that was the bane of large and small communities. + Skilled labour banded itself into unions, employers organized to oppose + them, and the result was a class conflict never contemplated by the + founders of the Republic, repugnant to democracy which by its very nature + depends for its existence on the elimination of classes. In addition to + this, owing to the unprecedented immigration of ignorant Europeans to + supply the labour demand, we acquired a sinister proletariat of unskilled + economic slaves. Before the war labour discovered its strength; since the + war began, especially in the allied nations with quasi-democratic + institutions, it is aware of its power to exert a leverage capable of + paralyzing industry for a period sufficient to destroy the chances of + victory. The probability of the occurrence of such a calamity depends + wholly on whether or not the workman can be convinced that it is his war, + for he will not exert himself to perpetuate a social order in which he has + lost faith, even though he now obtains a considerable increase in wages. + Agreements entered into with the government by union leaders will not hold + him if at any time he fails to be satisfied that the present world + conflict will not result in a greater social justice. This fact has been + demonstrated by what is known as the “shop steward” movement in England, + where the workers repudiated the leaders’ agreements and everywhere + organized local strikes. And in America, the unskilled workers are largely + outside of the unions. + </p> + <p> + The workman has a natural and laudable desire to share more fully in the + good things of life. And it is coming to be recognized that material + prosperity, up to a certain point, is the foundation of mental and + spiritual welfare: clean and comfortable surroundings, beauty, rational + amusements, opportunity for a rational satisfaction of the human + instincts are essential to contentment and progress. The individual, of + course, must be enlightened; and local labour unions, recognizing this, + are spending considerable sums all over the country on schools to educate + their members. If a workman is a profiteer, he is more to be excused than + the business profiteer, against whom his anger is directed; if he is a + spendthrift, prodigality is a natural consequence of rapid acquisition. We + have been a nation of spendthrifts. + </p> + <p> + A failure to grasp the psychology of the worker involves disastrous + consequences. A discussion as to whether or not his attitude is + unpatriotic and selfish is futile. No more profound mistake could be made + than to attribute to any element of the population motives wholly base. + Human nature is neither all black nor all white, yet is capable of supreme + sacrifices when adequately appealed to. What we must get into our minds is + the fact that a social order that insured a large measure of democracy in + the early days of the Republic is inadequate to meet modern industrial + conditions. Higher wages, material prosperity alone will not suffice to + satisfy aspirations for a fuller self-realization, once the method by + which these aspirations can be gained is glimpsed. For it cannot be too + often repeated that the unquenchable conflicts are those waged for ideas + and not dollars. These are tinged with religious emotion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + IV. + </h2> + <p> + Mr. Wilson’s messages to the American people and to the world have + proclaimed a new international order, a League of Democracies. And in a + recent letter to New Jersey Democrats we find him warning his party, or + more properly the nation, of the domestic social changes necessarily + flowing from his international program. While rightly resolved to + prosecute the war on the battle lines to the utmost limit of American + resources, he points out that the true significance of the conflict lies + in “revolutionary change.” “Economic and social forces,” he says, “are + being released upon the world, whose effect no political seer dare to + conjecture.” And we “must search our hearts through and through and make + them ready for the birth of a new day—a day we hope and believe of + greater opportunity and greater prosperity for the average mass of + struggling men and women.” He recognizes that the next great step in the + development of democracy which the war must bring about—is the + emancipation of labour; to use his own phrase, the redemption of masses of + men and women from “economic serfdom.” “The old party slogans,” he + declares, “will mean nothing to the future.” + </p> + <p> + Judging from this announcement, the President seems prepared to condemn + boldly all the rotten timbers of the social structure that have outlived + their usefulness—a position that hitherto no responsible politician + has dared to take. Politicians, on the contrary, have revered the dead + wood, have sought to shore the old timbers for their own purposes. But so + far as any party is concerned, Mr. Wilson stands alone. Both of the two + great parties, the Republican and the Democratic, in order to make a show + of keeping abreast of the times, have merely patched their platforms with + the new ideas. The Socialist Party in the United States is relatively + small, is divided against itself, and has given no evidence of a + leadership of broad sanity and vision. It is fortunate we have been spared + in this country the formation of a political labour party, because such a + party would have been composed of manual workers alone, and hence would + have tended further to develop economic class consciousness, to + crystallize class antagonisms. Today, however, neither the Republican nor + the Democratic party represents the great issue of the times; the cleavage + between them is wholly artificial. The formation of a Liberal Party, with + a platform avowedly based on modern social science, has become essential. + Such a party, to be in harmony with our traditions and our creed, to + arrest in our democracy the process of class stratification which + threatens to destroy it, must not draw its members from the ranks of + manual labour alone, but from all elements of our population. It should + contain all the liberal professions, and clerks and shopkeepers, as well + as manual workers; administrators, and even those employers who have + become convinced that our present economic system does not suffice to meet + the needs of the day. In short, membership in such a party, as far as + possible, should not be based upon occupation or economic status, but on + an honest difference of view from that of the conservative opposition. + This would be a distinctly American solution. In order to form such a + party a campaign of education will be necessary. For today Mr. Wilson’s + strength is derived from the independent vote representing the faith of + the people as a whole; but the majority of those who support the + President, while they ardently desire the abolition in the world of + absolute monarchy, of militarism and commercial imperialism, while they + are anxious that this war shall expedite and not retard the social reforms + in which they are interested, have as yet but a vague conception of the + social order which these reforms imply. + </p> + <p> + It marks a signal advance in democracy when liberal opinion in any nation + turns for guidance and support to a statesman of another nation. No + clearer sign of the times could be desired than the fact that our American + President has suddenly become the liberal leader of the world. The + traveller in France, and especially in Britain, meets on all sides + striking evidence of this. In these countries, until America’s entrance + into the war, liberals had grown more and more dissatisfied with the + failure of their governments to define in democratic terms the issue of + the conflict, had resented the secret inter-allied compacts, savouring of + imperialism and containing the germs of future war. They are now looking + across the Atlantic for leadership. In France M. Albert Thomas declared + that Woodrow Wilson had given voice to the aspirations of his party, while + a prominent Liberal in England announced in a speech that it had remained + for the American President to express the will and purpose of the British + people. The new British Labour Party and the Inter-Allied Labour and + Socialist Conferences have adopted Mr. Wilson’s program and have made use + of his striking phrases. But we have between America and Britain this + difference: in America the President stands virtually alone, without a + party behind him representing his views; in Britain the general democratic + will of the nation is now being organized, but has obtained as yet no + spokesman in the government. + </p> + <p> + Extraordinary symptomatic phenomena have occurred in Russia as well as in + Britain. In Russia the rebellion of an awakening people against an + age-long tyranny has almost at once leaped to the issue of the day, taken + on the complexion of a struggle for industrial democracy. Whether the + Germans shall be able to exploit the country, bring about a reaction and + restore for a time monarchical institutions depends largely upon the + fortunes of the war. In Russia there is revolution, with concomitant + chaos; but in Britain there is evolution, an orderly attempt of a people + long accustomed to progress in self-government to establish a new social + order, peacefully and scientifically, and in accordance with a traditional + political procedure. + </p> + <p> + The recent development of the British Labour Party, although of deep + significance to Americans, has taken place almost without comment in this + country. It was formally established in 1900, and was then composed of + manual workers alone. In 1906, out of 50 candidates at the polls, 39 were + elected to Parliament; in 1910, 42 were elected. The Parliamentary Labour + Party, so called, has now been amalgamated with four and a half millions + of Trade Unionists, and with the three and a half millions of members of + the Co-operative Wholesale Society and the Co-operative Union. Allowing + for duplication of membership, these three organizations—according + to Mr. Sidney Webb—probably include two fifths of the population of + the United Kingdom. “So great an aggregation of working class + organizations,” he says, “has never come shoulder to shoulder in any + country.” Other smaller societies and organizations are likewise embraced, + including the Socialists. And now that the suffrage has been extended, + provision is made for the inclusion of women. The new party is organizing + in from three to four hundred constituencies, and at the next general + election is not unlikely to gain control of the political balance of + power. + </p> + <p> + With the majority of Americans, however, the word “labour” as designating + a party arouses suspicion and distrust. By nature and tradition we are + inclined to deplore and oppose any tendency toward the stratification of + class antagonisms—the result of industrial discontent—into + political groups. The British tradition is likewise hostile to such a + tendency. But in Britain the industrial ferment has gone much further than + with us, and such a result was inevitable. By taking advantage of the + British experience, of the closer ties now being knit between the two + democracies, we may in America be spared a stage which in Britain was + necessary. Indeed, the program of the new British Labour Party seems to + point to a distinctly American solution, one in harmony with the steady + growth of Anglo-Saxon democracy. For it is now announced that the word + “labour,” as applied to the new party, does not mean manual labour alone, + but also mental labour. The British unions have gradually developed and + placed in power leaders educated in social science, who have now come into + touch with the intellectual leaders of the United Kingdom, with the + sociologists, economists, and social scientists. The surprising and + encouraging result of such association is the announcement that the new + Labour Party is today publicly thrown open to all workers, both by hand + and by brain, with the object of securing for these the full fruits of + their industry. This means the inclusion of physicians, professors, + writers, architects, engineers, and inventors, of lawyers who no longer + regard their profession as a bulwark of the status quo; of clerks, of + administrators of the type evolved by the war, who indeed have gained + their skill under the old order but who now in a social spirit are + dedicating their gifts to the common weal, organizing and directing vast + enterprises for their governments. In short, all useful citizens who make + worthy contributions—as distinguished from parasites, profiteers, + and drones, are invited to be members; there is no class distinction here. + The fortunes of such a party are, of course, dependent upon the military + success of the allied armies and navies. But it has defined the kind of + democracy the Allies are fighting for, and thus has brought about an + unqualified endorsement of the war by those elements of the population + which hitherto have felt the issue to be imperialistic and vague rather + than democratic and clear cut. President Wilson’s international program is + approved of and elaborated. + </p> + <p> + The Report on Reconstruction of the new British Labour Party is perhaps + the most important political document presented to the world since the + Declaration of Independence. And like the Declaration, it is written in + the pure English that alone gives the high emotional quality of sincerity. + The phrases in which it tersely describes its objects are admirable. “What + is to be reconstructed after the war is over is not this or that + government department, this or that piece of social machinery, but Society + itself.” There is to be a systematic approach towards a “healthy equality + of material circumstance for every person born into the world, and not an + enforced dominion over subject nations, subject colonies, subject classes, + or a subject sex.” In industry as well as in government the social order + is to be based “on that equal freedom, that general consciousness of + consent, and that widest participation in power, both economic and + political, which is characteristic of democracy.” But all this, it should + be noted, is not to be achieved in a year or two of “feverish + reconstruction”; “each brick that the Labour Party helps to lay shall go + to erect the structure it intends and no other.” + </p> + <p> + In considering the main features of this program, one must have in mind + whether these are a logical projection and continuation of the Anglo-Saxon + democratic tradition, or whether they constitute an absolute break with + that tradition. The only valid reason for the adoption of such a program + in America would be, of course, the restoration of some such equality of + opportunity and economic freedom as existed in our Republic before we + became an industrial nation. “The first condition of democracy,”—to + quote again from the program, “is effective personal freedom.” + </p> + <p> + What is called the “Universal Enforcement of the National Minimum” + contemplates the extension of laws already on the statute books in order + to prevent the extreme degradation of the standard of life brought about + by the old economic system under industrialism. A living minimum wage is + to be established. The British Labour Party intends “to secure to every + member of the community, in good times and bad alike... all the requisites + of healthy life and worthy citizenship.” + </p> + <p> + After the war there is to be no cheap labour market, nor are the millions + of workers and soldiers to fall into the clutches of charity; but it shall + be a national obligation to provide each of these with work according to + his capacity. In order to maintain the demand for labour at a uniform + level, the government is to provide public works. The population is to be + rehoused in suitable dwellings, both in rural districts and town slums; + new and more adequate schools and training colleges are to be inaugurated; + land is to be reclaimed and afforested, and gradually brought under common + ownership; railways and canals are to be reorganized and nationalized, + mines and electric power systems. One of the significant proposals under + this head is that which demands the retention of the centralization of the + purchase of raw materials brought about by the war. + </p> + <p> + In order to accomplish these objects there must be a “Revolution in + National Finance.” The present method of raising funds is denounced; and + it is pointed out that only one quarter of the colossal expenditure made + necessary by the war has been raised by taxation, and that the three + quarters borrowed at onerous rates is sure to be a burden on the nation’s + future. The capital needed, when peace comes, to ensure a happy and + contented democracy must be procured without encroaching on the minimum + standard of life, and without hampering production. Indirect taxation must + therefore be concentrated on those luxuries of which it is desirable that + the consumption be discouraged. The steadily rising unearned increment of + urban and mineral land ought, by appropriate direct taxation, to be + brought into the public exchequer; “the definite teachings of economic + science are no longer to be disregarded.” Hence incomes are to be taxed + above the necessary cost of family maintenance, private fortunes during + life and at death; while a special capital levy must be made to pay off a + substantial portion of the national debt. + </p> + <p> + “The Democratic Control of Industry” contemplates the progressive + elimination of the private capitalist and the setting free of all who work + by hand and brain for the welfare of all. + </p> + <p> + The Surplus Wealth is to be expended for the Common Good. That which + Carlyle designates as the “inward spiritual,” in contrast to the “outward + economical,” is also to be provided for. “Society,” says the document, + “like the individual, does not live by bread alone, does not exist only + for perpetual wealth production.” First of all, there is to be education + according to the highest modern standard; and along with education, the + protection and advancement of the public health, ‘mens sana in corpore + sano’. While large sums must be set aside, not only for original research + in every branch of knowledge, but for the promotion of music, literature, + and fine art, upon which “any real development of civilization + fundamentally depends.” + </p> + <p> + In regard to the British Empire, the Labour Party urges self-government + for any people, whatever its colour, proving itself capable, and the right + of that people to the proceeds of its own toil upon the resources of its + territory. An unequivocal stand is taken for the establishment, as a part + of the treaty of peace, of a Universal Society of Nations; and recognizing + that the future progress of democracy depends upon co-operation and + fellowship between liberals of all countries, the maintenance of intimate + relationships is advocated with liberals oversea. + </p> + <p> + Finally, a scientific investigation of each succeeding problem in + government is insisted upon, and a much more rapid dissemination among the + people of the science that exists. “A plutocratic party may choose to + ignore science, but no labour party can hope to maintain its position + unless its proposals are, in fact, the outcome of the best political + science of its time.” + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + V. + </h2> + <p> + There are, it will be seen, some elements in the program of the new + British Labour Party apparently at variance with American and English + institutions, traditions, and ideas. We are left in doubt, for instance, + in regard to its attitude toward private property. The instinct for + property is probably innate in humanity, and American conservatism in this + regard is, according to certain modern economists, undoubtedly sound. A + man should be permitted to acquire at least as much property as is + required for the expression of his personality; such a wise limitation, + also, would abolish the evil known as absentee ownership. Again, there + will arise in many minds the question whether the funds for the plan of + National finance outlined in the program may be obtained without seriously + deranging the economic system of the nation and of the world. The older + school denounces the program as Utopian. On the other hand, economists of + the modern school who have been consulted have declared it practical. It + is certain that before the war began it would not have been thought + possible to raise the billions which in four years have been expended on + sheer destruction; and one of our saddest reflections today must be of + regret that a small portion of these billions which have gone to waste + could not have been expended for the very purposes outlined—education, + public health, the advancement of science and art, public buildings, roads + and parks, and the proper housing of populations! It is also dawning upon + us, as a result of new practices brought about by the war, that our + organization of industry was happy-go-lucky, inefficient and wasteful, and + that a more scientific and economical organization is imperative. Under + such a new system it may well be, as modern economists claim, that, we + shall have an ample surplus for the Common Good. + </p> + <p> + The chief objection to a National or Democratic Control of Industry has + been that it would tend to create vast political machines and thus give + the politicians in office a nefarious power. It is not intended here to + attempt a refutation of this contention. The remedy lies in a changed + attitude of the employee and the citizen toward government, and the fact + that such an attitude is now developing is not subject to absolute proof. + It may be said, however, that no greater menace to democracy could have + arisen than the one we seem barely to have escaped—the control of + politics and government by the capitalistic interests of the nation. What + seems very clear is that an evolutionary drift toward the national control + of industry has for many years been going on, and that the war has + tremendously speeded up the tendency. Government has stepped in to protect + the consumer of necessities from the profiteer, and is beginning to set a + limit upon profits; has regulated exports and imports; established a + national shipping corporation and merchant marine, and entered into other + industries; it has taken over the railroads at least for the duration of + the war, and may take over coal mines, and metal resources, as well as the + forests and water power; it now contemplates the regulation of wages. + </p> + <p> + The exigency caused by the war, moreover, has transformed the former + practice of international intercourse. Co-operation has replaced + competition. We are reorganizing and regulating our industries, our + business, making sacrifices and preparing to make more sacrifices in order + to meet the needs of our Allies, now that they are sore beset. For a + considerable period after the war is ended, they will require our aid. We + shall be better off than any other of the belligerent nations, and we + shall therefore be called upon to practice, during the years of + reconstruction, a continuation of the same policy of helpfulness. Indeed, + for the nations of the world to spring, commercially speaking, at one + another’s throats would be suicidal even if it were possible. Mr. Sidney + Webb has thrown a flood of light upon the conditions likely to prevail. + For example, speculative export trade is being replaced by collective + importing, bringing business more directly under the control of the + consumer. This has been done by co-operative societies, by municipalities + and states, in Switzerland, France, the United Kingdom, and in Germany. + The Co-operative Wholesale Society of Great Britain, acting on behalf of + three and a half million families, buys two and a half million dollars of + purchases annually. And the Entente nations, in order to avoid competitive + bidding, are buying collectively from us, not only munitions of war, but + other supplies, while the British Government has made itself the sole + importer of such necessities as wheat, sugar, tea, refrigerated meat, + wool, and various metals. The French and Italian governments, and also + certain neutral states, have done likewise. A purchasing commission for + all the Allies and America is now proposed. After the war, as an + inevitable result, for one thing, of transforming some thirty million + citizens into soldiers, of engaging a like number of men and women at + enhanced wages on the manufacture of the requisites of war, Mr. Webb + predicts a world shortage not only in wheat and foodstuffs but in nearly + all important raw materials. These will be required for the resumption of + manufacture. In brief, international co-operation will be the only means + of salvation. The policy of international trade implied by world shortage + is not founded upon a law of “supply and demand.” The necessities cannot + be permitted to go to those who can afford to pay the highest prices, but + to those who need them most. For the “free play of economic forces” would + mean famine on a large scale, because the richer nations and the richer + classes within the nations might be fully supplied; but to the detriment + and ruin of the world the poorer nations and the poorer classes would be + starved. Therefore governments are already beginning to give consideration + to a new organization of international trade for at least three years + after the war. Now if this organization produce, as it may produce, a more + desirable civilization and a happier world order, we are not likely + entirely to go back—especially in regard to commodities which are + necessities—to a competitive system. The principle of “priority of + need” will supersede the law of “supply and demand.” And the organizations + built up during the war, if they prove efficient, will not be abolished. + Hours of labour and wages in the co-operative League of Nations will + gradually be equalized, and tariffs will become things of the past. “The + axiom will be established,” says Mr. Webb, “that the resources of every + country must, be held for the benefit not only of its own people but of + the world.... The world shortage will, for years to come, make import + duties look both oppressive and ridiculous.” + </p> + <p> + So much may be said for the principle of Democratic Control. In spite of + all theoretical opposition, circumstances and evolution apparently point + to its establishment. A system that puts a premium on commercial greed + seems no longer possible. + </p> + <p> + The above comments, based on the drift of political practice during the + past decade and a half, may be taken for what they are worth. Predictions + are precarious. The average American will be inclined to regard the + program of the new British Labour Party as the embodiment of what he + vaguely calls Socialism, and to him the very word is repugnant. Although + he may never have heard of Marx, it is the Marxian conception that comes + to his mind, and this implies coercion, a government that constantly + interferes with his personal liberty, that compels him to tasks for which + he has no relish. But your American, and your Englishman, for that matter, + is inherently an individualist he wants as little government as is + compatible with any government at all. And the descendants of the + continental Europeans who flock to our shores are Anglo-Saxonized, also + become by environment and education individualists. The great importance + of preserving this individualism, this spirit in our citizens of + self-reliance, this suspicion against too much interference with personal + liberty, must at once be admitted. And any scheme for a social order that + tends to eliminate and destroy it should by Americans be summarily + rejected. + </p> + <p> + The question of supreme interest to us, therefore, is whether the social + order implied in the British program is mainly in the nature of a + development of, or a break with, the Anglo-Saxon democratic tradition. The + program is derived from an English source. It is based on what is known as + modern social science, which has as its ultimate sanction the nature of + the human mind as revealed by psychology. A consideration of the + principles underlying this proposed social order may prove that it is + essentially—if perhaps paradoxically—individualistic, a + logical evolution of institutions which had their origin in the Magna + Charta. Our Declaration of Independence proclaimed that every citizen had + the right to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,” which means + the opportunity to achieve the greatest self-development and + self-realization. The theory is that each citizen shall find his place, + according to his gifts and abilities, and be satisfied therewith. We may + discover that this is precisely what social science, in an industrial age, + and by spiritualizing human effort, aims to achieve. We may find that the + appearance of such a program as that of the British Labour Party, + supported as it is by an imposing proportion of the population of the + United Kingdom, marks a further step, not only in the advance of social + science and democracy, but also of Christianity. + </p> + <p> + I mention Christianity, not for controversial or apologetic reasons, but + because it has been the leaven of our western civilization ever since the + fall of the Roman Empire. Its constant influence has been to soften and + spiritualize individual and national relationships. The bitter + controversies, wars, and persecutions which have raged in its name are + utterly alien to its being. And that the present war is now being fought + by the Allies in the hope of putting an end to war, and is thus in the + true spirit of Christianity, marks an incomparable advance. + </p> + <p> + Almost up to the present day, both in our conception and practice of + Christianity, we have largely neglected its most important elements. + Christian orthodoxy, as Auguste Sabatier points out, is largely derived + from the older supernatural religions. The preservative shell of dogma and + superstition has been cracking, and is now ready to burst, and the social + teaching of Jesus would seem to be the kernel from which has sprung modern + democracy, modern science, and modern religion—a trinity and unity. + </p> + <p> + For nearly two thousand years orthodoxy has insisted that the social + principles of Christianity are impractical. And indeed, until the present + day, they have been so. Physical science, by enormously accelerating the + means of transportation and communication, has so contracted the world as + to bring into communion peoples and races hitherto far apart; has made + possible an intelligent organization of industry which, for the first time + in history, can create a surplus ample to maintain in comfort the world’s + population. But this demands the will to co-operation, which is a + Christian principle—a recognition of the brotherhood of man. + Furthermore, physical science has increased the need for world peace and + international co-operation because the territories of all nations are now + subject to swift and terrible invasion by modern instruments of + destruction, while the future submarine may sweep commerce from the seas. + </p> + <p> + Again, orthodoxy declares that human nature is inherently “bad,” while + true Christianity, endorsed by psychology, proclaims it inherently “good,” + which means that, properly guided, properly educated, it is creative and + contributive rather than destructive. No more striking proof of this fact + can be cited than the modern experiment in prison reform in which hardened + convicts, when “given a chance,” frequently become useful citizens. Unjust + and unintelligent social conditions are the chief factors in making + criminals. + </p> + <p> + Our most modern system of education, of which Professor John Dewey is the + chief protagonist, is based upon the assertions of psychology that human + nature is essentially “good” creative. Every normal child is supposed to + have a special “distinction” or gift, which it is the task of the educator + to discover. This distinction found, the child achieves happiness in + creation and contribution. Self-realization demands knowledge and + training: the doing of right is not a negative but a positive act; it is + not without significance that the Greek word for sin is literally “missing + the mark.” Christianity emphasizes above all else the worth of the + individual, yet recognizes that the individual can develop only in + society. And if the individual be of great worth, this worth must be by + society developed to its utmost. Universal suffrage is a logical + corollary. + </p> + <p> + Universal suffrage, however, implies individual judgment, which means that + the orthodox principle of external authority is out of place both in + Christianity and democracy. The Christian theory is that none shall + intervene between a man’s Maker and himself; democracy presupposes that no + citizen shall accept his beliefs and convictions from others, but shall + make up his own mind and act accordingly. Open-mindedness is the first + requisite of science and democracy. + </p> + <p> + What has been deemed, however, in Christianity the most unrealizable ideal + is that which may be called pacifism—to resist not evil, to turn the + other cheek, to agree with your adversary while you are in the way with + him. “I come not,” said Jesus, in one of those paradoxical statements + hitherto so difficult to understand, “I come not to bring peace, but a + sword.” It is indeed what we are fighting for—peace. But we believe + today, more strongly than ever before, as democracy advances, as peoples + tend to gain more and more control over their governments, that even this + may not be an unrealizable ideal. Democracies, intent on self-realization + and self-development, do not desire war. + </p> + <p> + The problem of social science, then, appears to be to organize human + society on the principles and ideals of Christianity. But in view of the + fact that the trend of evolution is towards the elimination of commercial + competition, the question which must seriously concern us today is—What + in the future shall be the spur of individual initiative? Orthodoxy and + even democratic practice have hitherto taken it for granted—in spite + of the examples of highly socialized men, benefactors of society—that + the average citizen will bestir himself only for material gain. And it + must be admitted that competition of some sort is necessary for + self-realization, that human nature demands a prize. There can be no + self-sacrifice without a corresponding self-satisfaction. The answer is + that in the theory of democracy, as well as in that of Christianity, + individualism and co-operation are paradoxically blended. For competition, + Christianity substitutes emulation. And with democracy, it declares that + mankind itself can gradually be rained towards the level of the choice + individual who does not labour for gain, but in behalf of society. For the + process of democracy is not degrading, but lifting. Like Christianity, + democracy demands faith, and has as its inspiring interpretation of + civilization evolution towards a spiritual goal. Yet the kind of faith + required is no longer a blind faith, but one founded on sane and carefully + evolved theories. Democracy has become a scientific experiment. + </p> + <p> + In this connection, as one notably inspired by emulation, by the joy of + creative work and service, the medical profession comes first to mind. The + finer element in this profession is constantly increasing in numbers, + growing more and more influential, making life less easy for the quack, + the vendor of nostrums, the commercial proprietor of the bogus medical + college. The doctor who uses his talents for gain is frowned upon by those + of his fellow practitioners whose opinion really counts. Respected + physicians in our cities give much of their time to teaching, animating + students with their own spirit; and labour long hours, for no material + return, in the clinics of the poor. And how often, in reading our + newspapers, do we learn that some medical scientist, by patient work, and + often at the risk of life and health, has triumphed over a scourge which + has played havoc with humanity throughout the ages! Typhoid has been + conquered, and infant paralysis; gangrene and tetanus, which have taken + such toll of the wounded in Flanders and France; yellow fever has been + stamped out in the tropics; hideous lesions are now healed by a system of + drainage. The very list of these achievements is bewildering, and latterly + we are given hope of the prolongation of life itself. Here in truth are + Christian deeds multiplied by science, made possible by a growing + knowledge of and mastery over Nature. + </p> + <p> + Such men by virtue of their high mission are above the vicious social and + commercial competition poisoning the lives of so many of their fellow + citizens. In our democracy they have found their work, and the work is its + own reward. They give striking testimony to the theory that absorption in + a creative or contributive task is the only source of self-realization. + And he has little faith in mankind who shall declare that the medical + profession is the only group capable of being socialized, or, rather, of + socializing themselves—for such is the true process of democracy. + Public opinion should be the leaven. What is possible for the doctor is + also possible for the lawyer, for the teacher. In a democracy, teaching + should be the most honoured of the professions, and indeed once was,—before + the advent of industrialism, when it gradually fell into neglect,—occasionally + into deplorable submission to the possessors of wealth. Yet a wage + disgracefully low, hardship, and even poverty have not hindered men of + ability from entering it in increasing numbers, renouncing ease and + luxuries. The worth of the contributions of our professors to civilization + has been inestimable; and fortunately signs are not lacking that we are + coming to an appreciation of the value of the expert in government, who is + replacing the panderer and the politician. A new solidarity of teaching + professional opinion, together with a growing realization by our public of + the primary importance of the calling, is tending to emancipate it, to + establish it in its rightful place. + </p> + <p> + Nor are our engineers without their ideal. A Goethals did not cut an + isthmus in two for gain. + </p> + <p> + Industrialism, with its concomitant “corporation” practice, has + undoubtedly been detrimental to the legal profession, since it has + resulted in large fees; in the accumulation of vast fortunes, frequently + by methods ethically questionable. Grave social injustices have been done, + though often in good faith, since the lawyer, by training and experience, + has hitherto been least open to the teachings of the new social science, + has been an honest advocate of the system of ‘laissez faire’. But to say + that the American legal profession is without ideals and lacking in the + emulative spirit would be to do it a grave injustice. The increasing + influence of national and state bar associations evidences a professional + opinion discouraging to the unscrupulous; while a new evolutionary and + more humanitarian conception of law is now beginning to be taught, and + young men are entering the ranks imbued with this. Legal clinics, like + medical clinics, are established for the benefit of those who cannot + afford to pay fees, for the protection of the duped from the predatory + quack. And, it must be said of this profession, which hitherto has held a + foremost place in America, that its leaders have never hesitated to + respond to a public call, to sacrifice their practices to serve the + nation. Their highest ambition has even been to attain the Supreme Court, + where the salary is a mere pittance compared to what they may earn as + private citizens. + </p> + <p> + Thus we may review all the groups in the nation, but the most significant + transformation of all is taking place within the business group,—where + indeed it might be least expected. Even before the war there were many + evidences that the emulative spirit in business had begun to modify the + merely competitive, and we had the spectacle of large employers of labour + awakening to the evils of industrialism, and themselves attempting to + inaugurate reforms. As in the case of labour, it would be obviously unfair + to claim that the employer element was actuated by motives of + self-interest alone; nor were their concessions due only to fear. + Instances could be cited, if there were space, of voluntary shortening of + hours of labour, of raising of wages, when no coercion was exerted either + by the labour unions or the state; and—perhaps to their surprise + employers discovered that such acts were not only humane but profitable! + Among these employers, in fact, may be observed individuals in various + stages of enlightenment, from the few who have educated themselves in + social science, who are convinced that the time has come when it is not + only practicable but right, who realize that a new era has dawned; to + others who still believe in the old system, who are trying to bolster it + up by granting concessions, by establishing committees of conference, by + giving a voice and often a financial interest, but not a vote, in the + conduct of the corporation concerned. These are the counterpart, in + industry, of sovereigns whose away has been absolute, whose intentions are + good, but who hesitate, often from conviction, to grant constitutions. Yet + even these are responding in some degree to social currents, though the + aggressive struggles of labour may have influenced them, and partially + opened their eyes. They are far better than their associates who still + seek to control the supplies of food and other necessities, whose + efficiency is still solely directed, not toward a social end, but toward + the amassing of large fortunes, and is therefore wasted so far as society + is concerned. They do not perceive that by seeking to control prices they + merely hasten the tendency of government control, for it is better to have + government regulation for the benefit of the many than proprietary + control, however efficient, for the benefit of the few. + </p> + <p> + That a significant change of heart and mind has begun to take place + amongst capitalists, that the nucleus of a “public opinion” has been + formed within an element which, by the use and wont of business and habits + of thought might be regarded as least subject to the influence of social + ideas, is a most hopeful augury. This nascent opinion has begun to operate + by shaming unscrupulous and recalcitrant employers into better practices. + It would indeed fare ill with democracy if, in such an era, men of large + business proved to be lacking in democratic initiative, wholly unreceptive + and hostile to the gradual introduction of democracy into industry, which + means the perpetuation of the American Idea. Fortunately, with us, this + capitalistic element is of comparatively recent growth, the majority of + its members are essentially Americans; they have risen from small + beginnings, and are responsive to a democratic appeal—if that appeal + be properly presented. And, as a matter of fact, for many years a leaven + had been at work among them; the truth has been brought home to them that + the mere acquisition of wealth brings neither happiness nor + self-realization; they have lavished their money on hospitals and + universities, clinics, foundations for scientific research, and other + gifts of inestimable benefit to the nation and mankind. Although the + munificence was on a Medicean scale, this private charity was in accord + with the older conception of democracy, and paved the way for a new order. + </p> + <p> + The patriotic and humanitarian motive aroused by the war greatly + accelerated the socializing transformation of the business man and the + capitalist. We have, indeed, our profiteers seeking short cuts to luxury + and wealth; but those happily most representative of American affairs, + including the creative administrators, hastened to Washington with a + willingness to accept any position in which they might be useful, and in + numerous instances placed at the disposal of the government the + manufacturing establishments which, by industry and ability, they + themselves had built up. That in thus surrendering the properties for + which they were largely responsible they hoped at the conclusion of peace + to see restored the ‘status quo ante’ should not be held against them. + Some are now beginning to surmise that a complete restoration is + impossible; and as a result of their socializing experience, are even + wondering whether it is desirable. These are beginning to perceive that + the national and international organizations in the course of construction + to meet the demands of the world conflict must form the model for a future + social structure; that the unprecedented pressure caused by the cataclysm + is compelling a recrystallization of society in which there must be fewer + misfits, in which many more individuals than formerly shall find public or + semi-public tasks in accordance with their gifts and abilities. + </p> + <p> + It may be argued that war compels socialization, that after the war the + world will perforce return to materialistic individualism. But this + calamity, terrible above all others, has warned us of the imperative need + of an order that shall be socializing, if we are not to witness the + destruction of our civilization itself. Confidence that such an order, + thanks to the advancement of science, is now within our grasp should not + be difficult for Americans, once they have rightly conceived it. We, who + have always pinned our faith to ideas, who entered the conflict for an + Idea, must be the last to shirk the task, however Herculean, of world + reconstruction along the lines of our own professed faith. We cannot be + renegades to Democracy. + </p> + <p> + Above all things, then, it is essential for us as a people not to abandon + our faith in man, our belief that not only the exceptional individual but + the majority of mankind can be socialized. What is true of our physicians, + our scientists and professional men, our manual workers, is also true of + our capitalists and business men. In a more just and intelligent + organization of society these will be found willing to administer and + improve for the common weal the national resources which formerly they + exploited for the benefit of themselves and their associates. The social + response, granted the conditions, is innate in humanity, and individual + initiative can best be satisfied in social realization. + </p> + <p> + Universal education is the cornerstone of democracy. And the recognition + of this fact may be called the great American contribution. But in our + society the fullest self-realization depends upon a well balanced + knowledge of scientific facts, upon a rounded culture. Thus education, + properly conceived, is a preparation for intelligent, ethical, and + contented citizenship. Upon the welfare of the individual depends the + welfare of all. Without education, free institutions and universal + suffrage are mockeries; semi-learned masses of the population are at the + mercy of scheming politicians, controversialists, and pseudo-scientific + religionists, and their votes are swayed by prejudice. + </p> + <p> + In a materialistic competitive order, success in life depends upon the + knack—innate or acquired, and not to be highly rated—of + outwitting one’s neighbour under the rules of the game—the law; + education is merely a cultural leaven within the reach of the + comparatively few who can afford to attend a university. The business + college is a more logical institution. In an emulative civilization, + however, the problem is to discover and develop in childhood and youth the + personal aptitude or gift of as many citizens as possible, in order that + they may find self-realization by making their peculiar contribution + towards the advancement of society. + </p> + <p> + The prevailing system of education, which we have inherited from the past, + largely fails to accomplish this. In the first place, it has been + authoritative rather than scientific, which is to say that students have + been induced to accept the statements of teachers and text books, and have + not been trained to weigh for themselves their reasonableness and worth; a + principle essentially unscientific and undemocratic, since it inculcates + in the future citizen convictions rather than encourages the habit of + open-mindedness so necessary for democratic citizenship. For democracy—it + cannot be too often repeated—is a dynamic thing, experimental, + creative in its very essence. No static set of opinions can apply to the + constantly changing aspect of affairs. New discoveries, which come upon us + with such bewildering rapidity, are apt abruptly to alter social and + industrial conditions, while morals and conventions are no longer + absolute. Sudden crises threaten the stability of nations and + civilizations. Safety lies alone in the ability to go forward, to + progress. Psychology teaches us that if authoritative opinions, + convictions, or “complexes” are stamped upon the plastic brain of the + youth they tend to harden, and he is apt to become a Democrat or + Republican, an Episcopalian or a Baptist, a free trader or a tariff + advocate or a Manchester economist without asking why. Such “complexes” + were probably referred to by the celebrated physician who emphasized the + hopelessness of most individuals over forty. And every reformer and forum + lecturer knows how difficult it is to convert the average audience of + seasoned adults to a new idea: he finds the most responsive groups in the + universities and colleges. It is significant that the “educated” adult + audiences in clubs and prosperous churches are the least open to + conversion, because, in the scientific sense, the “educated” classes + retain complexes, and hence are the least prepared to cope with the world + as it is today. The German system, which has been bent upon installing + authoritative conviction instead of encouraging freedom of thought, should + be a warning to us. + </p> + <p> + Again, outside of the realm of physical science, our text books have been + controversial rather than impartial, especially in economics and history; + resulting in erroneous and distorted and prejudiced ideas of events, such + for instance, as our American Revolution. The day of the controversialist + is happily coming to an end, and of the writer who twists the facts of + science to suit a world of his own making, or of that of a group with + which he is associated. Theory can now be labelled theory, and fact, fact. + Impartial and painstaking investigation is the sole method of obtaining + truth. + </p> + <p> + The old system of education benefited only the comparatively few to whose + nature and inclination it was adapted. We have need, indeed, of classical + scholars, but the majority of men and women are meant for other work; + many, by their very construction of mind, are unfitted to become such. And + only in the most exceptional cases are the ancient languages really + mastered; a smattering of these, imposed upon the unwilling scholar by a + principle opposed to psychology,—a smattering from which is derived + no use and joy in after life, and which has no connection with individual + inclination—is worse than nothing. Precious time is wasted during + the years when the mind is most receptive. While the argument of the old + school that discipline can only be inculcated by the imposition of a + distasteful task is unsound. As Professor Dewey points out, unless the + interest is in some way involved there can be no useful discipline. And + how many of our university and high school graduates today are in any + sense disciplined? Stimulated interest alone can overcome the resistance + imposed by a difficult task, as any scientist, artist, organizer or + administrator knows. Men will discipline themselves to gain a desired end. + Under the old system of education a few children succeed either because + they are desirous of doing well, interested in the game of mental + competition; or else because they contrive to clothe with flesh and blood + some subject presented as a skeleton. It is not uncommon, indeed, to + recognize in later years with astonishment a useful citizen or genius whom + at school or college we recall as a dunce or laggard. In our present + society, because of archaic methods of education, the development of such + is largely left to chance. Those who might have been developed in time, + who might have found their task, often become wasters, drudges, and even + criminals. + </p> + <p> + The old system tends to make types, to stamp every scholar in the same + mould, whether he fits it or not. More and more the parents of today are + looking about for new schools, insisting that a son or daughter possesses + some special gift which, under teachers of genius, might be developed + before it is too late. And in most cases, strange to say, the parents are + right. They themselves have been victims of a standardized system. + </p> + <p> + A new and distinctly American system of education, designed to meet the + demands of modern conditions, has been put in practice in parts of the + United States. In spite of opposition from school boards, from all those + who cling to the conviction that education must of necessity be an + unpalatable and “disciplinary” process, the number of these schools is + growing. The objection, put forth by many, that they are still in the + experimental stage, is met by the reply that experiment is the very + essence of the system. Democracy is experimental, and henceforth education + will remain experimental for all time. But, as in any other branch of + science, the element of ascertained fact will gradually increase: the + latent possibilities in the mind of the healthy child will be discovered + by knowledge gained through impartial investigation. The old system, like + all other institutions handed down to us from the ages, proceeds on no + intelligent theory, has no basis on psychology, and is accepted merely + because it exists. + </p> + <p> + The new education is selective. The mind of each child is patiently + studied with the view of discovering the peculiar bent, and this bent is + guided and encouraged. The child is allowed to forge ahead in those + subjects for which he shows an aptitude, and not compelled to wait on a + class. Such supervision, of course, demands more teachers, teachers of an + ability hitherto deplorably rare, and thoroughly trained in their + subjects, with a sympathetic knowledge of the human mind. Theirs will be + the highest and most responsible function in the state, and they must be + rewarded in proportion to their services. + </p> + <p> + A superficial criticism declares that in the new schools children will + study only “what they like.” On the contrary, all subjects requisite for a + wide culture, as well as for the ability to cope with existence in a + highly complex civilization, are insisted upon. It is true, however, that + the trained and gifted teacher is able to discover a method of so + presenting a subject as to seize the imagination and arouse the interest + and industry of a majority of pupils. In the modern schools French, for + example, is really taught; pupils do not acquire a mere smattering of the + language. And, what is more important, the course of study is directly + related to life, and to practical experience, instead of being set forth + abstractly, as something which at the time the pupil perceives no + possibility of putting into use. At one of the new schools in the south, + the ignorant child of the mountains at once acquires a knowledge of + measurement and elementary arithmetic by laying out a garden, of letters + by inscribing his name on a little signboard in order to identify his + patch—for the moment private property. And this principle is carried + through all the grades. In the Gary Schools and elsewhere the making of + things in the shops, the modelling of a Panama Canal, the inspection of + industries and governmental establishments, the designing, building, and + decoration of houses, the discussion and even dramatization of the books + read,—all are a logical and inevitable continuation of the abstract + knowledge of the schoolroom. The success of the direct application of + learning to industrial and professional life may also be observed in such + colleges as those at Cincinnati and Schenectady, where young men spend + half the time of the course in the shops of manufacturing, corporations, + often earning more than enough to pay their tuition. + </p> + <p> + Children are not only prepared for democratic citizenship by being + encouraged to think for themselves, but also to govern and discipline + themselves. On the moral side, under the authoritative system of lay and + religious training, character was acquired at the expense of mental + flexibility—the Puritan method; our problem today, which the new + system undertakes, is to produce character with open-mindedness—the + kind of character possessed by many great scientists. Absorption in an + appropriate task creates a moral will, while science, knowledge, informs + the mind why a thing is “bad” or “good,” disintegrating or upbuilding. + Moreover, these children are trained for democratic government by the + granting of autonomy. They have their own elected officials, their own + courts; their decisions are, of course, subject to reversal by the + principal, but in practice this seldom occurs. + </p> + <p> + The Gary Schools and many of the new schools are public schools. And the + principle of the new education that the state is primarily responsible for + the health of pupils—because an unsound body is apt to make an + unsound citizen of backward intelligence—is now being generally + adopted by public schools all over the country. This idea is essentially + an element of the democratic contention that all citizens must be given an + equality of opportunity—though all may not be created equal—now + becoming a positive rather than a negative right, guaranteed by the state + itself. An earnest attempt is thus made by the state to give every citizen + a fair start that in later years he may have no ground for discontent or + complaint. He stands on his own feet, he rises in proportion to his + ability and industry. Hence the program of the British Labour Party + rightly lays stress on education, on “freedom of mental opportunity.” The + vast sums it proposes to spend for this purpose are justified. + </p> + <p> + If such a system of education as that briefly outlined above is carefully + and impartially considered, the objection that democratic government + founded on modern social science is coercive must disappear. So far as the + intention and effort of the state is able to confer it, every citizen will + have his choice of the task he is to perform for society, his opportunity + for self-realization. For freedom without education is a myth. By degrees + men and women are making ready to take their places in an emulative rather + than a materialistically competitive order. But the experimental aspect of + this system should always be borne in mind, with the fact that its + introduction and progress, like that of other elements in the democratic + program, must be gradual, though always proceeding along sound lines. For + we have arrived at that stage of enlightenment when we realize that the + only mundane perfection lies in progress rather than achievement. The + millennium is always a lap ahead. There would be no satisfaction in + overtaking it, for then we should have nothing more to do, nothing more to + work for. + </p> + <p> + The German Junkers have prostituted science by employing it for the + destruction of humanity. In the name of Christianity they have waged the + most barbaric war in history. Yet if they shall have demonstrated to + mankind the futility of efficiency achieved merely for material ends; if, + by throwing them on a world screen, they shall have revealed the evils of + power upheld alone by ruthlessness and force, they will unwittingly have + performed a world service. Privilege and dominion, powers and + principalities acquired by force must be sustained by force. To fail will + be fatal. Even a duped people, trained in servility, will not consent to + be governed by an unsuccessful autocracy. Arrogantly Germany has staked + her all on world domination. Hence a victory for the Allies must mean a + democratic Germany. + </p> + <p> + Nothing short of victory. There can be no arrangement, no agreement, no + parley with or confidence in these modern scions of darkness—Hohenzollerns, + Hindenburgs, Zudendorffs and their tools. Propaganda must not cease; the + eyes of Germans still capable of sight must be opened. But, as the + President says, force must be used to the limit—force for a social + end as opposed to force for an evil end. There are those among us who + advocate a boycott of Germany after peace is declared. These would seem to + take it for granted that we shall fall short of victory, and hence that + selfish retaliative or vindictive practices between nations, sanctioned by + imperialism, will continue to flourish after the war. But should Germany + win she will see to it that there is no boycott against her. A compromised + peace would indeed mean the perpetuation of both imperialism and + militarism. + </p> + <p> + It is characteristic of those who put their faith in might alone that they + are not only blind to the finer relationships between individuals and + nations, but take no account of the moral forces in human affairs which in + the long run are decisive,—a lack of sensitiveness which explains + Germany’s colossal blunders. The first had to do with Britain. The German + militarists persisted in the belief that the United Kingdom was + degenerated by democracy, intent upon the acquisition of wealth, + distracted by strife at home, uncertain of the Empire, and thus would + selfishly remain aloof while the Kaiser’s armies overran and enslaved the + continent. What happened, to Germany’s detriment, was the instant + socialization of Britain, and the binding together of the British Empire. + Germany’s second great blunder was an arrogant underestimation of a + self-reliant people of English culture and traditions. She believed that + we, too, had been made flabby by democracy, were wholly intent upon the + pursuit of the dollar—only to learn that America would lavish her + vast resources and shed her blood for a cause which was American. Germany + herself provided that cause, shaped the issues so that there was no + avoiding them. She provided the occasion for the socializing of America + also; and thus brought about, within a year, a national transformation + which in times of peace might scarce in half a century have been + accomplished. + </p> + <p> + Above all, as a consequence of these two blunders, Germany has been + compelled to witness the consummation of that which of all things she had + most to fear, the cementing of a lasting fellowship between the English + speaking Republic and the English speaking Empire. For we had been severed + since the 18th Century by misunderstandings which of late Germany herself + had been more or less successful in fostering. She has furnished a bond + not only between our governments, but—what is vastly more important + for democracy—a bond between our peoples. Our soldiers are now side + by side with those of the Empire on the Frontier of Freedom; the blood of + all is shed and mingled for a great cause embodied in the Anglo-Saxon + tradition of democracy; and our peoples, through the realization of common + ideas and common ends, are learning the supreme lesson of co-operation + between nations with a common past, are being cemented into a union which + is the symbol and forerunner of the democratic league of Nations to come. + Henceforth, we believe, because of this union, so natural yet so long + delayed, by virtue of the ultimate victory it forecasts, the sun will + never set on the Empire of the free, for the drum beats of democracy have + been heard around the world. To this Empire will be added the precious + culture of France, which the courage of her sons will have preserved, the + contributions of Italy, and of Russia, yes, and of Japan. + </p> + <p> + Our philosophy and our religion are changing; hence it is more and more + difficult to use the old terms to describe moral conduct. We say, for + instance, that America’s action in entering the war has been “unselfish.” + But this merely means that we have our own convictions concerning the + ultimate comfort of the world, the manner of self-realization of + individuals and nations. We are attempting to turn calamity into good. If + this terrible conflict shall result in the inauguration of an emulative + society, if it shall bring us to the recognition that intelligence and + science may be used for the upbuilding of such an order, and for an + eventual achievement of world peace, every sacrifice shall have been + justified. + </p> + <p> + Such is the American Issue. Our statesmen and thinkers have helped to + evolve it, our people with their blood and treasure are consecrating it. + And these statesmen and thinkers, of whom our American President is not + the least, are of democracy the pioneers. From the mountain tops on which + they stand they behold the features of the new world, the dawn of the new + day hidden as yet from their brothers in the valley. Let us have faith + always that it is coming, and struggle on, highly resolving that those who + gave their lives in the hour of darkness shall not have died in vain. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of An Essay On The American Contribution +And The Democratic Idea, by Winston Churchill + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN CONTRIBUTION *** + +***** This file should be named 5399-h.htm or 5399-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/9/5399/ + +Produced by David Widger + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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