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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0ccf98b --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #53910 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53910) diff --git a/old/53910-0.txt b/old/53910-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 91e701b..0000000 --- a/old/53910-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2757 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The School and Society, by John Dewey - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The School and Society - Being three lectures - -Author: John Dewey - -Release Date: January 7, 2017 [EBook #53910] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCHOOL AND SOCIETY *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - THE SCHOOL AND SOCIETY - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS - CHICAGO, ILLINOIS - - - Agents - - THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS - LONDON AND EDINBURGH - - THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA - TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO - - KARL W. HIERSEMANN - LEIPZIG - - THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY - NEW YORK - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - _The_ - _SCHOOL_ - _and_ - _SOCIETY_ - _BEING THREE LECTURES_ - - - _by_ - - JOHN DEWEY - - _SUPPLEMENTED BY_ - A STATEMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL - - THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS - CHICAGO, ILLINOIS - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - COPYRIGHT 1900 BY - JOHN DEWEY - - All Rights Reserved - - FIRST EDITION -–1,000 copies. Printed November, 1899. - SECOND IMPRESSION -–1,500 copies. Printed February, 1900. - THIRD IMPRESSION -–5,000 copies. Printed July, 1900. - FOURTH IMPRESSION -–1,000 copies. Printed June, 1904. - FIFTH IMPRESSION -–2,500 copies. Printed February, 1905. - SIXTH IMPRESSION -–2,500 copies. Printed August, 1907. - SEVENTH IMPRESSION -–1,000 copies. Printed September, 1909. - EIGHTH IMPRESSION -–1,000 copies. Printed August, 1910. - NINTH IMPRESSION -–1,000 copies. Printed August, 1911. - TENTH IMPRESSION -–1,000 copies. Printed March, 1912. - ELEVENTH IMPRESSION -–2,000 copies. Printed August, 1913. - - - Composed and Printed By - The University of Chicago Press - Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TO - - MRS. EMMONS BLAINE - - TO WHOSE INTEREST IN EDUCATIONAL - REFORM - THE APPEARANCE OF THIS BOOK - IS DUE - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - CONTENTS - - - PAGE - I. THE SCHOOL AND SOCIAL PROGRESS 19 - - II. THE SCHOOL AND THE LIFE OF THE CHILD 47 - - III. WASTE IN EDUCATION 77 - - IV. THREE YEARS OF THE UNIVERSITY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 113 - - - - - LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FACING PAGE - - DRAWING OF A CAVE AND TREES 56 - - DRAWING OF A FOREST 58 - - DRAWING OF HANDS SPINNING 60 - - DRAWING OF A GIRL SPINNING 62 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - PUBLISHER’S NOTE - - -The three lectures presented in the following pages were delivered -before an audience of parents and others interested in the University -Elementary School, in the month of April of the year 1899. Mr. Dewey -revised them in part from a stenographic report, and unimportant changes -and the slight adaptations necessary for the press have been made in his -absence. The lectures retain therefore the unstudied character as well -as the power of the spoken word. As they imply more or less familiarity -with the work of the Elementary School, Mr. Dewey’s supplementary -statement of this has been added. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - AUTHOR’S NOTE - - -A second edition affords a grateful opportunity for recalling that this -little book is a sign of the coöperating thoughts and sympathies of many -persons. Its indebtedness to Mrs. Emmons Blaine is partly indicated in -the dedication. From my friends, Mr. and Mrs. George Herbert Mead, came -that interest, unflagging attention to detail, and artistic taste which, -in my absence, remade colloquial remarks until they were fit to print, -and then saw the results through the press with the present attractive -result—a mode of authorship made easy, which I recommend to others -fortunate enough to possess such friends. - -It would be an extended paragraph which should list all the friends -whose timely and persisting generosity has made possible the school -which inspired and defined the ideas of these pages. These friends, I am -sure, would be the first to recognize the peculiar appropriateness of -especial mention of the names of Mrs. Charles R. Crane and Mrs. William -R. Linn. - -And the school itself in its educational work is a joint undertaking. -Many have engaged in shaping it. The clear and experienced intelligence -of my wife is wrought everywhere into its texture. The wisdom, tact and -devotion of its instructors have brought about a transformation of its -original amorphous plans into articulate form and substance with life -and movement of their own. Whatever the issue of the ideas presented in -this book, the satisfaction coming from the coöperation of the diverse -thoughts and deeds of many persons in undertaking to enlarge the life of -the child will abide. - - January 5, 1900 - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - I - THE SCHOOL AND SOCIAL PROGRESS - - -We are apt to look at the school from an individualistic standpoint, as -something between teacher and pupil, or between teacher and parent. That -which interests us most is naturally the progress made by the individual -child of our acquaintance, his normal physical development, his advance -in ability to read, write, and figure, his growth in the knowledge of -geography and history, improvement in manners, habits of promptness, -order, and industry—it is from such standards as these that we judge the -work of the school. And rightly so. Yet the range of the outlook needs -to be enlarged. What the best and wisest parent wants for his own child, -that must the community want for all of its children. Any other ideal -for our schools is narrow and unlovely; acted upon, it destroys our -democracy. All that society has accomplished for itself is put, through -the agency of the school, at the disposal of its future members. All its -better thoughts of itself it hopes to realize through the new -possibilities thus opened to its future self. Here individualism and -socialism are at one. Only by being true to the full growth of all the -individuals who make it up, can society by any chance be true to itself. -And in the self-direction thus given, nothing counts as much as the -school, for, as Horace Mann said, “Where anything is growing, one former -is worth a thousand re-formers,” - -Whenever we have in mind the discussion of a new movement in education, -it is especially necessary to take the broader, or social view. -Otherwise, changes in the school institution and tradition will be -looked at as the arbitrary inventions of particular teachers; at the -worst transitory fads, and at the best merely improvements in certain -details—and this is the plane upon which it is too customary to consider -school changes. It is as rational to conceive of the locomotive or the -telegraph as personal devices. The modification going on in the method -and curriculum of education is as much a product of the changed social -situation, and as much an effort to meet the needs of the new society -that is forming, as are changes in modes of industry and commerce. - -It is to this, then, that I especially ask your attention: the effort to -conceive what roughly may be termed the “New Education” in the light of -larger changes in society. Can we connect this “New Education” with the -general march of events? If we can, it will lose its isolated character, -and will cease to be an affair which proceeds only from the -over-ingenious minds of pedagogues dealing with particular pupils. It -will appear as part and parcel of the whole social evolution, and, in -its more general features at least, as inevitable. Let us then ask after -the main aspects of the social movement; and afterwards turn to the -school to find what witness it gives of effort to put itself in line. -And since it is quite impossible to cover the whole ground, I shall for -the most part confine myself to one typical thing in the modern school -movement—that which passes under the name of manual training, hoping if -the relation of that to changed social conditions appears, we shall be -ready to concede the point as well regarding other educational -innovations. - -I make no apology for not dwelling at length upon the social changes in -question. Those I shall mention are writ so large that he who runs may -read. The change that comes first to mind, the one that overshadows and -even controls all others, is the industrial one—the application of -science resulting in the great inventions that have utilized the forces -of nature on a vast and inexpensive scale: the growth of a world-wide -market as the object of production, of vast manufacturing centers to -supply this market, of cheap and rapid means of communication and -distribution between all its parts. Even as to its feebler beginnings, -this change is not much more than a century old; in many of its most -important aspects it falls within the short span of those now living. -One can hardly believe there has been a revolution in all history so -rapid, so extensive, so complete. Through it the face of the earth is -making over, even as to its physical forms; political boundaries are -wiped out and moved about, as if they were indeed only lines on a paper -map; population is hurriedly gathered into cities from the ends of the -earth; habits of living are altered with startling abruptness and -thoroughness; the search for the truths of nature is infinitely -stimulated and facilitated and their application to life made not only -practicable, but commercially necessary. Even our moral and religious -ideas and interests, the most conservative because the deepest-lying -things in our nature, are profoundly affected. That this revolution -should not affect education in other than formal and superficial fashion -is inconceivable. - -Back of the factory system lies the household and neighborhood system. -Those of us who are here today need go back only one, two, or at most -three generations, to find a time when the household was practically the -center in which were carried on, or about which were clustered, all the -typical forms of industrial occupation. The clothing worn was for the -most part not only made in the house, but the members of the household -were usually familiar with the shearing of the sheep, the carding and -spinning of the wool, and the plying of the loom. Instead of pressing a -button and flooding the house with electric light, the whole process of -getting illumination was followed in its toilsome length, from the -killing of the animal and the trying of fat, to the making of wicks and -dipping of candles. The supply of flour, of lumber, of foods, of -building materials, of household furniture, even of metal ware, of -nails, hinges, hammers, etc., was in the immediate neighborhood, in -shops which were constantly open to inspection and often centers of -neighborhood congregation. The entire industrial process stood revealed, -from the production on the farm of the raw materials, till the finished -article was actually put to use. Not only this, but practically every -member of the household had his own share in the work. The children, as -they gained in strength and capacity, were gradually initiated into the -mysteries of the several processes. It was a matter of immediate and -personal concern, even to the point of actual participation. - -We cannot overlook the factors of discipline and of character-building -involved in this: training in habits of order and of industry, and in -the idea of responsibility, of obligation to do something, to produce -something, in the world. There was always something which really needed -to be done, and a real necessity that each member of the household -should do his own part faithfully and in coöperation with others. -Personalities which became effective in action were bred and tested in -the medium of action. Again, we cannot overlook the importance for -educational purposes of the close and intimate acquaintance got with -nature at first hand, with real things and materials, with the actual -processes of their manipulation, and the knowledge of their social -necessities and uses. In all this there was continual training of -observation, of ingenuity, constructive imagination, of logical thought, -and of the sense of reality acquired through first-hand contact with -actualities. The educative forces of the domestic spinning and weaving, -of the saw-mill, the gristmill, the cooper shop, and the blacksmith -forge, were continuously operative. - -No number of object-lessons, got up _as_ object-lessons for the sake of -giving information, can afford even the shadow of a substitute for -acquaintance with the plants and animals of the farm and garden, -acquired through actual living among them and caring for them. No -training of sense-organs in school, introduced for the sake of training, -can begin to compete with the alertness and fullness of sense-life that -comes through daily intimacy and interest in familiar occupations. -Verbal memory can be trained in committing tasks, a certain discipline -of the reasoning powers can be acquired through lessons in science and -mathematics; but, after all, this is somewhat remote and shadowy -compared with the training of attention and of judgment that is acquired -in having to do things with a real motive behind and a real outcome -ahead. At present, concentration of industry and division of labor have -practically eliminated household and neighborhood occupations—at least -for educational purposes. But it is useless to bemoan the departure of -the good old days of children’s modesty, reverence, and implicit -obedience, if we expect merely by bemoaning and by exhortation to bring -them back. It is radical conditions which have changed, and only an -equally radical change in education suffices. We must recognize our -compensations—the increase in toleration, in breadth of social judgment, -the larger acquaintance with human nature, the sharpened alertness in -reading signs of character and interpreting social situations, greater -accuracy of adaptation to differing personalities, contact with greater -commercial activities. These considerations mean much to the city-bred -child of today. Yet there is a real problem: how shall we retain these -advantages, and yet introduce into the school something representing the -other side of life—occupations which exact personal responsibilities and -which train the child with relation to the physical realities of life? - -When we turn to the school, we find that one of the most striking -tendencies at present is toward the introduction of so-called manual -training, shop-work, and the household arts—sewing and cooking. - -This has not been done “on purpose,” with a full consciousness that the -school must now supply that factor of training formerly taken care of in -the home, but rather by instinct, by experimenting and finding that such -work takes a vital hold of pupils and gives them something which was not -to be got in any other way. Consciousness of its real import is still so -weak that the work is often done in a half-hearted, confused, and -unrelated way. The reasons assigned to justify it are painfully -inadequate or sometimes even positively wrong. - -If we were to cross-examine even those who are most favorably disposed -to the introduction of this work into our school system, we should, I -imagine, generally find the main reasons to be that such work engages -the full spontaneous interest and attention of the children. It keeps -them alert and active, instead of passive and receptive; it makes them -more useful, more capable, and hence more inclined to be helpful at -home; it prepares them to some extent for the practical duties of later -life—the girls to be more efficient house managers, if not actually -cooks and sempstresses; the boys (were our educational system only -adequately rounded out into trade schools) for their future vocations. I -do not underestimate the worth of these reasons. Of those indicated by -the changed attitude of the children I shall indeed have something to -say in my next talk, when speaking directly of the relationship of the -school to the child. But the point of view is, upon the whole, -unnecessarily narrow. We must conceive of work in wood and metal, of -weaving, sewing, and cooking, as methods of life not as distinct -studies. - -We must conceive of them in their social significance, as types of the -processes by which society keeps itself going, as agencies for bringing -home to the child some of the primal necessities of community life, and -as ways in which these needs have been met by the growing insight and -ingenuity of man; in short, as instrumentalities through which the -school itself shall be made a genuine form of active community life, -instead of a place set apart in which to learn lessons. - -A society is a number of people held together because they are working -along common lines, in a common spirit, and with reference to common -aims. The common needs and aims demand a growing interchange of thought -and growing unity of sympathetic feeling. The radical reason that the -present school cannot organize itself as a natural social unit is -because just this element of common and productive activity is absent. -Upon the playground, in game and sport, social organization takes place -spontaneously and inevitably. There is something to do, some activity to -be carried on, requiring natural divisions of labor, selection of -leaders and followers, mutual coöperation and emulation. In the -schoolroom the motive and the cement of social organization are alike -wanting. Upon the ethical side, the tragic weakness of the present -school is that it endeavors to prepare future members of the social -order in a medium in which the conditions of the social spirit are -eminently wanting. - -The difference that appears when occupations are made the articulating -centers of school life is not easy to describe in words; it is a -difference in motive, of spirit and atmosphere. As one enters a busy -kitchen in which a group of children are actively engaged in the -preparation of food, the psychological difference, the change from more -or less passive and inert recipiency and restraint to one of buoyant -outgoing energy, is so obvious as fairly to strike one in the face. -Indeed, to those whose image of the school is rigidly set the change is -sure to give a shock. But the change in the social attitude is equally -marked. The mere absorption of facts and truths is so exclusively -individual an affair that it tends very naturally to pass into -selfishness. There is no obvious social motive for the acquirement of -mere learning, there is no clear social gain in success thereat. Indeed, -almost the only measure for success is a competitive one, in the bad -sense of that term—a comparison of results in the recitation or in the -examination to see which child has succeeded in getting ahead of others -in storing up, in accumulating the maximum of information. So thoroughly -is this the prevalent atmosphere that for one child to help another in -his task has become a school crime. Where the school work consists in -simply learning lessons, mutual assistance, instead of being the most -natural form of coöperation and association, becomes a clandestine -effort to relieve one’s neighbor of his proper duties. Where active work -is going on all this is changed. Helping others, instead of being a form -of charity which impoverishes the recipient, is simply an aid in setting -free the powers and furthering the impulse of the one helped. A spirit -of free communication, of interchange of ideas, suggestions, results, -both successes and failures of previous experiences, becomes the -dominating note of the recitation. So far as emulation enters in, it is -in the comparison of individuals, not with regard to the quantity of -information personally absorbed, but with reference to the quality of -work done—the genuine community standard of value. In an informal but -all the more pervasive way, the school life organizes itself on a social -basis. - -Within this organization is found the principle of school discipline or -order. Of course, order is simply a thing which is relative to an end. -If you have the end in view of forty or fifty children learning certain -set lessons, to be recited to a teacher, your discipline must be devoted -to securing that result. But if the end in view is the development of a -spirit of social coöperation and community life, discipline must grow -out of and be relative to this. There is little order of one sort where -things are in process of construction; there is a certain disorder in -any busy workshop; there is not silence; persons are not engaged in -maintaining certain fixed physical postures; their arms are not folded; -they are not holding their books thus and so. They are doing a variety -of things, and there is the confusion, the bustle, that results from -activity. But out of occupation, out of doing things that are to produce -results, and out of doing these in a social and coöperative way, there -is born a discipline of its own kind and type. Our whole conception of -school discipline changes when we get this point of view. In critical -moments we all realize that the only discipline that stands by us, the -only training that becomes intuition, is that got through life itself. -That we learn from experience, and from books or the sayings of others -_only_ as they are related to experience, are not mere phrases. But the -school has been so set apart, so isolated from the ordinary conditions -and motives of life, that the place where children are sent for -discipline is the one place in the world where it is most difficult to -get experience—the mother of all discipline worth the name. It is only -where a narrow and fixed image of traditional school discipline -dominates, that one is in any danger of overlooking that deeper and -infinitely wider discipline that comes from having a part to do in -constructive work, in contributing to a result which, social in spirit, -is none the less obvious and tangible in form—and hence in a form with -reference to which responsibility may be exacted and accurate judgment -passed. - -The great thing to keep in mind, then, regarding the introduction into -the school of various forms of active occupation, is that through them -the entire spirit of the school is renewed. It has a chance to affiliate -itself with life, to become the child’s habitat, where he learns through -directed living; instead of being only a place to learn lessons having -an abstract and remote reference to some possible living to be done in -the future. It gets a chance to be a miniature community, an embryonic -society. This is the fundamental fact, and from this arise continuous -and orderly sources of instruction. Under the industrial _régime_ -described, the child, after all, shared in the work, not for the sake of -the sharing, but for the sake of the product. The educational results -secured were real, yet incidental and dependent. But in the school the -typical occupations followed are freed from all economic stress. The aim -is not the economic value of the products, but the development of social -power and insight. It is this liberation from narrow utilities, this -openness to the possibilities of the human spirit that makes these -practical activities in the school allies of art and centers of science -and history. - -The unity of all the sciences is found in geography. The significance of -geography is that it presents the earth as the enduring home of the -occupations of man. The world without its relationship to human activity -is less than a world. Human industry and achievement, apart from their -roots in the earth, are not even a sentiment, hardly a name. The earth -is the final source of all man’s food. It is his continual shelter and -protection, the raw material of all his activities, and the home to -whose humanizing and idealizing all his achievement returns. It is the -great field, the great mine, the great source of the energies of heat, -light, and electricity; the great scene of ocean, stream, mountain, and -plain, of which all our agriculture and mining and lumbering, all our -manufacturing and distributing agencies, are but the partial elements -and factors. It is through occupations determined by this environment -that mankind has made its historical and political progress. It is -through these occupations that the intellectual and emotional -interpretation of nature has been developed. It is through what we do in -and with the world that we read its meaning and measure its value. - -In educational terms, this means that these occupations in the school -shall not be mere practical devices or modes of routine employment, the -gaining of better technical skill as cooks, sempstresses, or carpenters, -but active centers of scientific insight into natural materials and -processes, points of departure whence children shall be led out into a -realization of the historic development of man. The actual significance -of this can be told better through one illustration taken from actual -school work than by general discourse. - -There is nothing which strikes more oddly upon the average intelligent -visitor than to see boys as well as girls of ten, twelve, and thirteen -years of age engaged in sewing and weaving. If we look at this from the -standpoint of preparation of the boys for sewing on buttons and making -patches, we get a narrow and utilitarian conception—a basis that hardly -justifies giving prominence to this sort of work in the school. But if -we look at it from another side, we find that this work gives the point -of departure from which the child can trace and follow the progress of -mankind in history, getting an insight also into the materials used and -the mechanical principles involved. In connection with these -occupations, the historic development of man is recapitulated. For -example, the children are first given the raw material—the flax, the -cotton plant, the wool as it comes from the back of the sheep (if we -could take them to the place where the sheep are sheared, so much the -better). Then a study is made of these materials from the standpoint of -their adaptation to the uses to which they may be put. For instance, a -comparison of the cotton fiber with wool fiber is made. I did not know -until the children told me, that the reason for the late development of -the cotton industry as compared with the woolen is, that the cotton -fiber is so very difficult to free by hand from the seeds. The children -in one group worked thirty minutes freeing cotton fibers from the boll -and seeds, and succeeded in getting out less than one ounce. They could -easily believe that one person could only gin one pound a day by hand, -and could understand why their ancestors wore woolen instead of cotton -clothing. Among other things discovered as affecting their relative -utilities, was the shortness of the cotton fiber as compared with that -of wool, the former being one-tenth of an inch in length, while that of -the latter is an inch in length; also that the fibers of cotton are -smooth and do not cling together, while the wool has a certain roughness -which makes the fibers stick, thus assisting the spinning. The children -worked this out for themselves with the actual material, aided by -questions and suggestions from the teacher. - -They then followed the processes necessary for working the fibers up -into cloth. They re-invented the first frame for carding the wool—a -couple of boards with sharp pins in them for scratching it out. They -re-devised the simplest process for spinning the wool—a pierced stone or -some other weight through which the wool is passed, and which as it is -twirled draws out the fiber; next the top, which was spun on the floor, -while the children kept the wool in their hands until it was gradually -drawn out and wound upon it. Then the children are introduced to the -invention next in historic order, working it out experimentally, thus -seeing its necessity, and tracing its effects, not only upon that -particular industry, but upon modes of social life—in this way passing -in review the entire process up to the present complete loom, and all -that goes with the application of science in the use of our present -available powers. I need not speak of the science involved in this—the -study of the fibers, of geographical features, the conditions under -which raw materials are grown, the great centers of manufacture and -distribution, the physics involved in the machinery of production; nor, -again, of the historical side—the influence which these inventions have -had upon humanity. You can concentrate the history of all mankind into -the evolution of the flax, cotton, and wool fibers into clothing. I do -not mean that this is the only, or the best, center. But it is true that -certain very real and important avenues to the consideration of the -history of the race are thus opened—that the mind is introduced to much -more fundamental and controlling influences than usually appear in the -political and chronological records that pass for history. - -Now, what is true of this one instance of fibers used in fabrics (and, -of course, I have only spoken of one or two elementary phases of that) -is true in its measure of every material used in every occupation, and -of the processes employed. The occupation supplies the child with a -genuine motive; it gives him experience at first hand; it brings him -into contact with realities. It does all this, but in addition it is -liberalized throughout by translation into its historic values and -scientific equivalencies. With the growth of the child’s mind in power -and knowledge it ceases to be a pleasant occupation merely, and becomes -more and more a medium, an instrument, an organ—and is thereby -transformed. - -This, in turn, has its bearing upon the teaching of science. Under -present conditions, all activity, to be successful, has to be directed -somewhere and somehow by the scientific expert—it is a case of applied -science. This connection should determine its place in education. It is -not only that the occupations, the so-called manual or industrial work -in the school, give the opportunity for the introduction of science -which illuminates them, which makes them material, freighted with -meaning, instead of being mere devices of hand and eye; but that the -scientific insight thus gained becomes an indispensable instrument of -free and active participation in modern social life. Plato somewhere -speaks of the slave as one who in his actions does not express his own -ideas, but those of some other man. It is our social problem now, even -more urgent than in the time of Plato, that method, purpose, -understanding, shall exist in the consciousness of the one who does the -work, that his activity shall have meaning to himself. - -When occupations in the school are conceived in this broad and generous -way, I can only stand lost in wonder at the objections so often heard, -that such occupations are out of place in the school because they are -materialistic, utilitarian, or even menial in their tendency. It -sometimes seems to me that those who make these objections must live in -quite another world. The world in which most of us live is a world in -which everyone has a calling and occupation, something to do. Some are -managers and others are subordinates. But the great thing for one as for -the other is that each shall have had the education which enables him to -see within his daily work all there is in it of large and human -significance. How many of the employed are today mere appendages to the -machines which they operate! This may be due in part to the machine -itself, or to the _régime_ which lays so much stress upon the products -of the machine; but it is certainly due in large part to the fact that -the worker has had no opportunity to develop his imagination and his -sympathetic insight as to the social and scientific values found in his -work. At present, the impulses which lie at the basis of the industrial -system are either practically neglected or positively distorted during -the school period. Until the instincts of construction and production -are systematically laid hold of in the years of childhood and youth, -until they are trained in social directions, enriched by historical -interpretation, controlled and illuminated by scientific methods, we -certainly are in no position even to locate the source of our economic -evils, much less to deal with them effectively. - -If we go back a few centuries, we find a practical monopoly of learning. -The term _possession_ of learning was, indeed, a happy one. Learning was -a class matter. This was a necessary result of social conditions. There -were not in existence any means by which the multitude could possibly -have access to intellectual resources. These were stored up and hidden -away in manuscripts. Of these there were at best only a few, and it -required long and toilsome preparation to be able to do anything with -them. A high-priesthood of learning, which guarded the treasury of truth -and which doled it out to the masses under severe restrictions, was the -inevitable expression of these conditions. But, as a direct result of -the industrial revolution of which we have been speaking, this has been -changed. Printing was invented; it was made commercial. Books, -magazines, papers were multiplied and cheapened. As a result of the -locomotive and telegraph, frequent, rapid, and cheap intercommunication -by mails and electricity was called into being. Travel has been rendered -easy; freedom of movement, with its accompanying exchange of ideas, -indefinitely facilitated. The result has been an intellectual -revolution. Learning has been put into circulation. While there still -is, and probably always will be, a particular class having the special -business of inquiry in hand, a distinctively learned class is henceforth -out of the question. It is an anachronism. Knowledge is no longer an -immobile solid; it has been liquefied. It is actively moving in all the -currents of society itself. - -It is easy to see that this revolution, as regards the materials of -knowledge, carries with it a marked change in the attitude of the -individual. Stimuli of an intellectual sort pour in upon us in all kinds -of ways. The merely intellectual life, the life of scholarship and of -learning, thus gets a very altered value. Academic and scholastic, -instead of being titles of honor, are becoming terms of reproach. - -But all this means a necessary change in the attitude of the school, one -of which we are as yet far from realizing the full force. Our school -methods, and to a very considerable extent our curriculum, are inherited -from the period when learning and command of certain symbols, affording -as they did the only access to learning, were all-important. The ideals -of this period are still largely in control, even where the outward -methods and studies have been changed. We sometimes hear the -introduction of manual training, art and science into the elementary, -and even the secondary schools, deprecated on the ground that they tend -toward the production of specialists—that they detract from our present -scheme of generous, liberal culture. The point of this objection would -be ludicrous if it were not often so effective as to make it tragic. It -is our present education which is highly specialized, one-sided and -narrow. It is an education dominated almost entirely by the mediæval -conception of learning. It is something which appeals for the most part -simply to the intellectual aspect of our natures, our desire to learn, -to accumulate information, and to get control of the symbols of -learning; not to our impulses and tendencies to make, to do, to create, -to produce, whether in the form of utility or of art. The very fact that -manual training, art and science are objected to as technical, as -tending toward mere specialism, is of itself as good testimony as could -be offered to the specialized aim which controls current education. -Unless education had been virtually identified with the exclusively -intellectual pursuits, with learning as such, all these materials and -methods would be welcome, would be greeted with the utmost hospitality. - -While training for the profession of learning is regarded as the type of -culture, as a liberal education, that of a mechanic, a musician, a -lawyer, a doctor, a farmer, a merchant, or a railroad manager is -regarded as purely technical and professional. The result is that which -we see about us everywhere—the division into “cultured” people and -“workers,” the separation of theory and practice. Hardly one per cent. -of the entire school population ever attains to what we call higher -education; only five per cent. to the grade of our high school; while -much more than half leave on or before the completion of the fifth year -of the elementary grade. The simple facts of the case are that in the -great majority of human beings the distinctively intellectual interest -is not dominant. They have the so-called practical impulse and -disposition. In many of those in whom by nature intellectual interest is -strong, social conditions prevent its adequate realization. Consequently -by far the larger number of pupils leave school as soon as they have -acquired the rudiments of learning, as soon as they have enough of the -symbols of reading, writing, and calculating to be of practical use to -them in getting a living. While our educational leaders are talking of -culture, the development of personality, etc., as the end and aim of -education, the great majority of those who pass under the tuition of the -school regard it only as a narrowly practical tool with which to get -bread and butter enough to eke out a restricted life. If we were to -conceive our educational end and aim in a less exclusive way, if we were -to introduce into educational processes the activities which appeal to -those whose dominant interest is to do and to make, we should find the -hold of the school upon its members to be more vital, more prolonged, -containing more of culture. - -But why should I make this labored presentation? The obvious fact is -that our social life has undergone a thorough and radical change. If our -education is to have any meaning for life, it must pass through an -equally complete transformation. This transformation is not something to -appear suddenly, to be executed in a day by conscious purpose. It is -already in progress. Those modifications of our school system which -often appear (even to those most actively concerned with them, to say -nothing of their spectators) to be mere changes of detail, mere -improvement within the school mechanism, are in reality signs and -evidences of evolution. The introduction of active occupations, of -nature study, of elementary science, of art, of history; the relegation -of the merely symbolic and formal to a secondary position; the change in -the moral school atmosphere, in the relation of pupils and teachers—of -discipline; the introduction of more active, expressive, and -self-directing factors—all these are not mere accidents, they are -necessities of the larger social evolution. It remains but to organize -all these factors, to appreciate them in their fullness of meaning, and -to put the ideas and ideals involved into complete, uncompromising -possession of our school system. To do this means to make each one of -our schools an embryonic community life, active with types of -occupations that reflect the life of the larger society, and permeated -throughout with the spirit of art, history, and science. When the school -introduces and trains each child of society into membership within such -a little community, saturating him with the spirit of service, and -providing him with the instruments of effective self-direction, we shall -have the deepest and best guarantee of a larger society which is worthy, -lovely, and harmonious. - - - - - II - THE SCHOOL AND THE LIFE OF THE CHILD - - -Last week I tried to put before you the relationship between the school -and the larger life of the community, and the necessity for certain -changes in the methods and materials of school work, that it might be -better adapted to present social needs. - -Today I wish to look at the matter from the other side, and consider the -relationship of the school to the life and development of the children -in the school. As it is difficult to connect general principles with -such thoroughly concrete things as little children, I have taken the -liberty of introducing a good deal of illustrative matter from the work -of the University Elementary School, that in some measure you may -appreciate the way in which the ideas presented work themselves out in -actual practice. - -Some few years ago I was looking about the school supply stores in the -city, trying to find desks and chairs which seemed thoroughly suitable -from all points of view—artistic, hygienic, and educational—to the needs -of the children. We had a good deal of difficulty in finding what we -needed, and finally one dealer, more intelligent than the rest, made -this remark: “I am afraid we have not what you want. You want something -at which the children may work; these are all for listening.” That tells -the story of the traditional education. Just as the biologist can take a -bone or two and reconstruct the whole animal, so, if we put before the -mind’s eye the ordinary schoolroom, with its rows of ugly desks placed -in geometrical order, crowded together so that there shall be as little -moving room as possible, desks almost all of the same size, with just -space enough to hold books, pencils and paper, and add a table, some -chairs, the bare walls, and possibly a few pictures, we can reconstruct -the only educational activity that can possibly go on in such a place. -It is all made “for listening”—for simply studying lessons out of a book -is only another kind of listening; it marks the dependency of one mind -upon another. The attitude of listening means, comparatively speaking, -passivity, absorption; that there are certain ready-made materials which -are there, which have been prepared by the school superintendent, the -board, the teacher, and of which the child is to take in as much as -possible in the least possible time. - -There is very little place in the traditional schoolroom for the child -to work. The workshop, the laboratory, the materials, the tools with -which the child may construct, create, and actively inquire, and even -the requisite space, have been for the most part lacking. The things -that have to do with these processes have not even a definitely -recognized place in education. They are what the educational authorities -who write editorials in the daily papers generally term “fads” and -“frills.” A lady told me yesterday that she had been visiting different -schools trying to find one where activity on the part of the children -preceded the giving of information on the part of the teacher, or where -the children had some motive for demanding the information. She visited, -she said, twenty-four different schools before she found her first -instance. I may add that that was not in this city. - -Another thing that is suggested by these schoolrooms, with their set -desks, is that everything is arranged for handling as large numbers of -children as possible; for dealing with children _en masse_, as an -aggregate of units; involving, again, that they be treated passively. -The moment children act they individualize themselves; they cease to be -a mass, and become the intensely distinctive beings that we are -acquainted with out of school, in the home, the family, on the -playground, and in the neighborhood. - -On the same basis is explicable the uniformity of method and curriculum. -If everything is on a “listening” basis, you can have uniformity of -material and method. The ear, and the book which reflects the ear, -constitute the medium which is alike for all. There is next to no -opportunity for adjustment to varying capacities and demands. There is a -certain amount—a fixed quantity—of ready-made results and -accomplishments to be acquired by all children alike in a given time. It -is in response to this demand that the curriculum has been developed -from the elementary school up through the college. There is just so much -desirable knowledge, and there are just so many needed technical -accomplishments in the world. Then comes the mathematical problem of -dividing this by the six, twelve, or sixteen years of school life. Now -give the children every year just the proportionate fraction of the -total, and by the time they have finished they will have mastered the -whole. By covering so much ground during this hour or day or week or -year, everything comes out with perfect evenness at the end—provided the -children have not forgotten what they have previously learned. The -outcome of all this is Matthew Arnold’s report of the statement, proudly -made to him by an educational authority in France, that so many -thousands of children were studying at a given hour, say eleven o’clock, -just such a lesson in geography; and in one of our own western cities -this proud boast used to be repeated to successive visitors by its -superintendent. - -I may have exaggerated somewhat in order to make plain the typical -points of the old education: its passivity of attitude, its mechanical -massing of children, its uniformity of curriculum and method. It may be -summed up by stating that the center of gravity is outside the child. It -is in the teacher, the text-book, anywhere and everywhere you please -except in the immediate instincts and activities of the child himself. -On that basis there is not much to be said about the _life_ of the -child. A good deal might be said about the studying of the child, but -the school is not the place where the child _lives_. Now the change -which is coming into our education is the shifting of the center of -gravity. It is a change, a revolution, not unlike that introduced by -Copernicus when the astronomical center shifted from the earth to the -sun. In this case the child becomes the sun about which the appliances -of education revolve; he is the center about which they are organized. - -If we take an example from an ideal home, where the parent is -intelligent enough to recognize what is best for the child, and is able -to supply what is needed, we find the child learning through the social -converse and constitution of the family. There are certain points of -interest and value to him in the conversation carried on: statements are -made, inquiries arise, topics are discussed, and the child continually -learns. He states his experiences, his misconceptions are corrected. -Again the child participates in the household occupations, and thereby -gets habits of industry, order, and regard for the rights and ideas of -others, and the fundamental habit of subordinating his activities to the -general interest of the household. Participation in these household -tasks becomes an opportunity for gaining knowledge. The ideal home would -naturally have a workshop where the child could work out his -constructive instincts. It would have a miniature laboratory in which -his inquiries could be directed. The life of the child would extend out -of doors to the garden, surrounding fields, and forests. He would have -his excursions, his walks and talks, in which the larger world out of -doors would open to him. - -Now, if we organize and generalize all of this, we have the ideal -school. There is no mystery about it, no wonderful discovery of pedagogy -or educational theory. It is simply a question of doing systematically -and in a large, intelligent, and competent way what for various reasons -can be done in most households only in a comparatively meager and -haphazard manner. In the first place, the ideal home has to be enlarged. -The child must be brought into contact with more grown people and with -more children in order that there may be the freest and richest social -life. Moreover, the occupations and relationships of the home -environment are not specially selected for the growth of the child; the -main object is something else, and what the child can get out of them is -incidental. Hence the need of a school. In this school the life of the -child becomes the all-controlling aim. All the media necessary to -further the growth of the child center there. Learning?—certainly, but -living primarily, and learning through and in relation to this living. -When we take the life of the child centered and organized in this way, -we do not find that he is first of all a listening being; quite the -contrary. - -The statement so frequently made that education means “drawing out” is -excellent, if we mean simply to contrast it with the process of pouring -in. But, after all, it is difficult to connect the idea of drawing out -with the ordinary doings of the child of three, four, seven, or eight -years of age. He is already running over, spilling over, with activities -of all kinds. He is not a purely latent being whom the adult has to -approach with great caution and skill in order gradually to draw out -some hidden germ of activity. The child is already intensely active, and -the question of education is the question of taking hold of his -activities, of giving them direction. Through direction, through -organized use, they tend toward valuable results, instead of scattering -or being left to merely impulsive expression. - -If we keep this before us, the difficulty I find uppermost in the minds -of many people regarding what is termed the new education is not so much -solved as dissolved; it disappears. A question often asked is: if you -begin with the child’s ideas, impulses and interests, all so crude, so -random and scattering, so little refined or spiritualized, how is he -going to get the necessary discipline, culture and information? If there -were no way open to us except to excite and indulge these impulses of -the child, the question might well be asked. We should either have to -ignore and repress the activities, or else to humor them. But if we have -organization of equipment and of materials, there is another path open -to us. We can direct the child’s activities, giving them exercise along -certain lines, and can thus lead up to the goal which logically stands -at the end of the paths followed. - -“If wishes were horses, beggars would ride.” Since they are not, since -really to satisfy an impulse or interest means to work it out, and -working it out involves running up against obstacles, becoming -acquainted with materials, exercising ingenuity, patience, persistence, -alertness, it of necessity involves discipline—ordering of power—and -supplies knowledge. Take the example of the little child who wants to -make a box. If he stops short with the imagination or wish, he certainly -will not get discipline. But when he attempts to realize his impulse, it -is a question of making his idea definite, making it into a plan, of -taking the right kind of wood, measuring the parts needed, giving them -the necessary proportions, etc. There is involved the preparation of -materials, the sawing, planing, the sand-papering, making all the edges -and corners to fit. Knowledge of tools and processes is inevitable. If -the child realizes his instinct and makes the box, there is plenty of -opportunity to gain discipline and perseverance, to exercise effort in -overcoming obstacles, and to attain as well a great deal of information. - -So undoubtedly the little child who thinks he would like to cook has -little idea of what it means or costs, or what it requires. It is simply -a desire to “mess around,” perhaps to imitate the activities of older -people. And it is doubtless possible to let ourselves down to that level -and simply humor that interest. But here, too, if the impulse is -exercised, utilized, it runs up against the actual world of hard -conditions, to which it must accommodate itself; and there again come in -the factors of discipline and knowledge. One of the children became -impatient recently, at having to work things out by a long method of -experimentation, and said: “Why do we bother with this? Let’s follow a -recipe in a cook-book.” The teacher asked the children where the recipe -came from, and the conversation showed that if they simply followed this -they would not understand the reasons for what they were doing. They -were then quite willing to go on with the experimental work. To follow -that work will, indeed, give an illustration of just the point in -question. Their occupation happened that day to be the cooking of eggs, -as making a transition from the cooking of vegetables to that of meats. -In order to get a basis of comparison they first summarized the -constituent food elements in the vegetables and made a preliminary -comparison with those found in meat. Thus they found that the woody -fiber or cellulose in vegetables corresponded to the connective tissue -in meat, giving the element of form and structure. They found that -starch and starchy products were characteristic of the vegetables, that -mineral salts were found in both alike, and that there was fat in both—a -small quantity in vegetable food and a large amount in animal. They were -prepared then to take up the study of albumen as the characteristic -feature of animal food, corresponding to starch in the vegetables, and -were ready to consider the conditions requisite for the proper treatment -of albumen—the eggs serving as the material of experiment. - -[Illustration: CHILD’S DRAWING OF A CAVE AND TREES] - -They experimented first by taking water at various temperatures, finding -out when it was scalding, simmering, and boiling hot, and ascertained -the effect of the various degrees of temperature on the white of the -egg. That worked out, they were prepared, not simply to cook eggs, but -to understand the principle involved in the cooking of eggs. I do not -wish to lose sight of the universal in the particular incident. For the -child simply to desire to cook an egg, and accordingly drop it in water -for three minutes, and take it out when he is told, is not educative. -But for the child to realize his own impulse by recognizing the facts, -materials and conditions involved, and then to regulate his impulse -through that recognition, is educative. This is the difference, upon -which I wish to insist, between exciting or indulging an interest and -realizing it through its direction. - -Another instinct of the child is the use of pencil and paper. All -children like to express themselves through the medium of form and -color. If you simply indulge this interest by letting the child go on -indefinitely, there is no growth that is more than accidental. But let -the child first express his impulse, and then through criticism, -question, and suggestion bring him to consciousness of what he has done, -and what he needs to do, and the result is quite different. Here, for -example, is the work of a seven-year-old child. It is not average work, -it is the best work done among the little children, but it illustrates -the particular principle of which I have been speaking. They had been -talking about the primitive conditions of social life when people lived -in caves. The child’s idea of that found expression in this way: the -cave is neatly set up on the hill side in an impossible way. You see the -conventional tree of childhood; a vertical line with horizontal branches -on each side. If the child had been allowed to go on repeating this sort -of thing day by day, he would be indulging his instinct rather than -exercising it. But the child was now asked to look closely at trees, to -compare those seen with the one drawn, to examine more closely and -consciously into the conditions of his work. Then he drew trees from -observation. - -Finally he drew again from combined observation, memory, and -imagination. He made again a free illustration, expressing his own -imaginative thought, but controlled by detailed study of actual trees. -The result was a scene representing a bit of forest; so far as it goes, -it seems to me to have as much poetic feeling as the work of an adult, -while at the same time its trees are, in their proportions possible -ones, not mere symbols. - -[Illustration: CHILD’S DRAWING OF A FOREST] - -If we roughly classify the impulses which are available in the school, -we may group them under four heads. There is the social instinct of the -children as shown in conversation, personal intercourse, and -communication. We all know how self-centered the little child is at the -age of four or five. If any new subject is brought up, if he says -anything at all, it is: “I have seen that;” or, “My papa or mamma told -me about that.” His horizon is not large; an experience must come -immediately home to him, if he is to be sufficiently interested to -relate it to others and seek theirs in return. And yet the egoistic and -limited interest of little children is in this manner capable of -infinite expansion. The language instinct is the simplest form of the -social expression of the child. Hence it is a great, perhaps the -greatest of all educational resources. - -Then there is the instinct of making—the constructive impulse. The -child’s impulse to do finds expression first in play, in movement, -gesture, and make-believe, becomes more definite, and seeks outlet in -shaping materials into tangible forms and permanent embodiment. The -child has not much instinct for abstract inquiry. The instinct of -investigation seems to grow out of the combination of the constructive -impulse with the conversational. There is no distinction between -experimental science for little children and the work done in the -carpenter shop. Such work as they can do in physics or chemistry is not -for the purpose of making technical generalizations or even arriving at -abstract truths. Children simply like to do things, and watch to see -what will happen. But this can be taken advantage of, can be directed -into ways where it gives results of value, as well as be allowed to go -on at random. - -And so the expressive impulse of the children, the art instinct, grows -also out of the communicating and constructive instincts. It is their -refinement and full manifestation. Make the construction adequate, make -it full, free, and flexible, give it a social motive, something to tell, -and you have a work of art. Take one illustration of this in connection -with the textile work—sewing and weaving. The children made a primitive -loom in the shop; here the constructive instinct was appealed to. Then -they wished to do something with this loom, to make something. It was -the type of the Indian loom, and they were shown blankets woven by the -Indians. Each child made a design kindred in idea to those of the Navajo -blankets, and the one which seemed best adapted to the work in hand was -selected. The technical resources were limited, but the coloring and -form were worked out by the children. The example shown was made by the -twelve-year-old children. Examination shows that it took patience, -thoroughness, and perseverance to do the work. It involved not merely -discipline and information of both a historical sort and the elements of -technical design, but also something of the spirit of art in adequately -conveying an idea. - -[Illustration: CHILD’S DRAWING OF HANDS SPINNING] - -One more instance of the connection of the art side with the -constructive side. The children had been studying primitive spinning and -carding, when one of them, twelve years of age, made a picture of one of -the older children spinning. Here is another piece of work which is not -quite average; it is better than the average. It is an illustration of -two hands and the drawing out of the wool to get it ready for spinning. -This was done by a child eleven years of age. But, upon the whole, with -the younger children especially, the art impulse is connected mainly -with the social instinct—the desire to tell, to represent. - -[Illustration: CHILD’S DRAWING OF A GIRL SPINNING] - -Now, keeping in mind these fourfold interests—the interest in -conversation or communication; in inquiry, or finding out things; in -making things, or construction; and in artistic expression—we may say -they are the natural resources, the uninvested capital, upon the -exercise of which depends the active growth of the child. I wish to give -one or two illustrations, the first from the work of children seven -years of age. It illustrates in a way the dominant desire of the -children to talk, particularly about folks and of things in relation to -folks. If you observe little children, you will find they are interested -in the world of things mainly in its connection with people, as a -background and medium of human concerns. Many anthropologists have told -us there are certain identities in the child interests with those of -primitive life. There is a sort or natural recurrence of the child mind -to the typical activities of primitive peoples; witness the hut which -the boy likes to build in the yard, playing hunt, with bows, arrows, -spears, and so on. Again the question comes: What are we to do with this -interest—are we to ignore it, or just excite and draw it out? Or shall -we get hold of it and direct it to something ahead, something better? -Some of the work that has been planned for our seven-year-old children -has the latter end in view—to utilize this interest so that it shall -become a means of seeing the progress of the human race. The children -begin by imagining present conditions taken away until they are in -contact with nature at first hand. That takes them back to a hunting -people, to a people living in caves or trees and getting a precarious -subsistence by hunting and fishing. They imagine as far as possible the -various natural physical conditions adapted to that sort of life; say, a -hilly, woody slope, near mountains and a river where fish would be -abundant. Then they go on in imagination through the hunting to the -semi-agricultural stage, and through the nomadic to the settled -agricultural stage. The point I wish to make is that there is abundant -opportunity thus given for actual study, for inquiry which results in -gaining information. So, while the instinct primarily appeals to the -social side, the interest of the child in people and their doings is -carried on into the larger world of reality. For example, the children -had some idea of primitive weapons, of the stone arrowhead, etc. That -provided occasion for the testing of materials as regards their -friability, their shape, texture, etc., resulting in a lesson in -mineralogy, as they examined the different stones to find which was best -suited to the purpose. The discussion of the iron age supplied a demand -for the construction of a smelting oven made out of clay, and of -considerable size. As the children did not get their drafts right at -first, the mouth of the furnace not being in proper relation to the -vent, as to size and position, instruction in the principles of -combustion, the nature of drafts and of fuel, was required. Yet the -instruction was not given ready-made; it was first needed, and then -arrived at experimentally. Then the children took some material, such as -copper, and went through a series of experiments, fusing it, working it -into objects; and the same experiments were made with lead and other -metals. This work has been also a continuous course in geography, since -the children have had to imagine and work out the various physical -conditions necessary to the different forms of social life implied. What -would be the physical conditions appropriate to pastoral life? to the -beginning of agriculture? to fishing? What would be the natural method -of exchange between these peoples? Having worked out such points in -conversation, they have afterward represented them in maps and -sand-molding. Thus they have gained ideas of the various forms of the -configuration of the earth, and at the same time have seen them in their -relation to human activity, so that they are not simply external facts, -but are fused and welded with social conceptions regarding the life and -progress of humanity. The result, to my mind, justifies completely the -conviction that children, in a year of such work (of five hours a week -altogether), get indefinitely more acquaintance with facts of science, -geography, and anthropology than they get where information is the -professed end and object, where they are simply set to learning facts in -fixed lessons. As to discipline, they get more training of attention, -more power of interpretation, of drawing inferences, of acute -observation and continuous reflection, than if they were put to working -out arbitrary problems simply for the sake of discipline. - -I should like at this point to refer to the recitation. We all know what -it has been—a placer where the child shows off to the teacher and the -other children the amount of information he has succeeded in -assimilating from the text-book. From this other standpoint, the -recitation becomes preëminently a social meeting place; it is to the -school what the spontaneous conversation is at home, excepting that it -is more organized, following definite lines. The recitation becomes the -social clearing-house, where experiences and ideas are exchanged and -subjected to criticism, where misconceptions are corrected, and new -lines of thought and inquiry are set up. - -This change of the recitation from an examination of knowledge already -acquired to the free play of the children’s communicative instinct, -affects and modifies all the language work of the school. Under the old -_régime_ it was unquestionably a most serious problem to give the -children a full and free use of language. The reason was obvious. The -natural motive for language was seldom offered. In the pedagogical -text-books language is defined as the medium of expressing thought. It -becomes that, more or less, to adults with trained minds, but it hardly -needs to be said that language is primarily a social thing, a means by -which we give our experiences to others and get theirs again in return. -When it is taken from its natural basis, it is no wonder that it becomes -a complex and difficult problem to teach language. Think of the -absurdity of having to teach language as a thing by itself. If there is -anything the child will do before he goes to school, it is to talk of -the things that interest him. But when there are no vital interests -appealed to in the school, when language is used simply for the -repetition of lessons, it is not surprising that one of the chief -difficulties of school work has come to be instruction in the -mother-tongue. Since the language taught is unnatural, not growing out -of the real desire to communicate vital impressions and convictions, the -freedom of children in its use gradually disappears, until finally the -high-school teacher has to invent all kinds of devices to assist in -getting any spontaneous and full use of speech. Moreover, when the -language instinct is appealed to in a social way, there is a continual -contact with reality. The result is that the child always has something -in his mind to talk about, he has something to say; he has a thought to -express, and a thought is not a thought unless it is one’s own. On the -traditional method, the child must say something that he has merely -learned. There is all the difference in the world between having -something to say and having to say something. The child who has a -variety of materials and facts wants to talk about them, and his -language becomes more refined and full, because it is controlled and -informed by realities. Reading and writing, as well as the oral use of -language, may be taught on this basis. It can be done in a _related_ -way, as the outgrowth of the child’s social desire to recount his -experiences and get in return the experiences of others, directed always -through contact with the facts and forces which determine the truth -communicated. - -I shall not have time to speak of the work of the older children, where -the original crude instincts of construction and communication have been -developed into something like scientifically directed inquiry, but I -will give an illustration of the use of language following upon this -experimental work. The work was on the basis of a simple experiment of -the commonest sort, gradually leading the children out into geological -and geographical study. The sentences that I am going to read seem to me -poetic as well as “scientific.” “A long time ago when the earth was new, -when it was lava, there was no water on the earth, and there was steam -all round the earth up in the air, as there were many gases in the air. -One of them was carbon dioxide. The steam became clouds, because the -earth began to cool off, and after a while it began to rain, and the -water came down and dissolved the carbon dioxide from the air.” There is -a good deal more science in that than probably would be apparent at the -outset. It represents some three months of work on the part of the -child. The children kept daily and weekly records, but this is part of -the summing up of the quarter’s work. I call this language poetic, -because the child has a clear image and has a personal feeling for the -realities imaged. I extract sentences from two other records to -illustrate further the vivid use of language when there is a vivid -experience back of it. “When the earth was cold enough to condense, the -water, with the help of carbon dioxide, _pulls_ the calcium out of the -rocks into a large body of water where the little animals could get it.” -The other reads as follows: “When the earth cooled, calcium was in the -rocks. Then the carbon dioxide and water united and formed a solution, -and, as it ran, it _tore_ out the calcium and carried it on to the sea, -where there were little animals who took it out of solution.” The use of -such words as “pulled” and “tore” in connection with the process of -chemical combination evidences a personal realization which compels its -own appropriate expression. - -If I had not taken so much time in my other illustrations, I should like -to show how, beginning with very simple material things, the children -were led on to larger fields of investigation, and to the intellectual -discipline that is the accompaniment of such research. I will simply -mention the experiment in which the work began. It consisted in making -precipitated chalk, used for polishing metals. The children, with simple -apparatus—a tumbler, lime water, and a glass tube—precipitated the -calcium carbonate out of the water; and from this beginning went on to a -study of the processes by which rocks of various sorts, igneous, -sedimentary, etc., had been formed on the surface of the earth and the -places they occupy; then to points in the geography of the United -States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico; to the effects of these various bodies -of rock, in their various configurations, upon the human occupations; so -that this geological record finally rounded itself out into the life of -man at the present time. The children saw and felt the connection -between these geologic processes taking place ages and ages ago, and the -physical conditions determining the industrial occupations of today. - -Of all the possibilities involved in the subject, “The School and the -Life of the Child,” I have selected but one, because I have found that -that one gives people more difficulty, is more of a stumbling-block, -than any other. One may be ready to admit that it would be most -desirable for the school to be a place in which the child should really -live, and get a life-experience in which he should delight and find -meaning for its own sake. But then we hear this inquiry: how, upon this -basis, shall the child get the needed information; how shall he undergo -the required discipline? Yes, it has come to this, that with many, if -not most, people the normal processes of life appear to be incompatible -with getting information and discipline. So I have tried to indicate, in -a highly general and inadequate way (for only the school itself, in its -daily operation, could give a detailed and worthy representation), how -the problem works itself out—how it is possible to lay hold upon the -rudimentary instincts of human nature, and, by supplying a proper -medium, so control their expression as not only to facilitate and enrich -the growth of the individual child, but also to supply the results, and -far more, of technical information and discipline that have been the -ideals of education in the past. - -But although I have selected this especial way of approach (as a -concession to the question almost universally raised), I am not willing -to leave the matter in this more or less negative and explanatory -condition. Life is the great thing after all; the life of the child at -its time and in its measure, no less than the life of the adult. Strange -would it be, indeed, if intelligent and serious attention to what the -child _now_ needs and is capable of in the way of a rich, valuable, and -expanded life should somehow conflict with the needs and possibilities -of later, adult life. “Let us live with our children,” certainly means, -first of all, that our children shall live—not that they shall be -hampered and stunted by being forced into all kinds of conditions, the -most remote consideration of which is relevancy to the present life of -the child. If we seek the kingdom of heaven, educationally, all other -things shall be added unto us—which, being interpreted, is that if we -identify ourselves with the real instincts and needs of childhood, and -ask only after its fullest assertion and growth, the discipline and -information and culture of adult life shall all come in their due -season. - -Speaking of culture reminds me that in a way I have been speaking only -of the outside of the child’s activity—only of the outward expression of -his impulses toward saying, making, finding out, and creating. The real -child, it hardly need be said, lives in the world of imaginative values, -and ideas which find only imperfect outward embodiment. We hear much -nowadays about the cultivation of the child’s “imagination.” Then we -undo much of our own talk and work by a belief that the imagination is -some special part of the child, that finds its satisfaction in some one -particular direction—generally speaking, that of the unreal and -make-believe, of the myth and made-up story. Why are we so hard of heart -and so slow to believe? The imagination is the medium in which the child -lives. To him there is everywhere and in everything that occupies his -mind and activity at all, a surplusage of value and significance. The -question of the relation of the school to the child’s life is at bottom -simply this: shall we ignore this native setting and tendency, dealing -not with the living child at all, but with the dead image we have -erected, or shall we give it play and satisfaction? If we once believe -in life and in the life of the child, then will all the occupations and -uses spoken of, then will all history and science, become instruments of -appeal and materials of culture to his imagination, and through that to -the richness and the orderliness of his life. Where we now see only the -outward doing and the outward product, there, behind all visible -results, is the re-adjustment of mental attitude, the enlarged and -sympathetic vision, the sense of growing power, and the willing ability -to identify both insight and capacity with the interests of the world -and man. Unless culture be a superficial polish, a veneering of mahogany -over common wood, it surely is this—the growth of the imagination in -flexibility, in scope, and in sympathy, till the life which the -individual lives is informed with the life of nature and of society. -When nature and society can live in the schoolroom, when the forms and -tools of learning are subordinated to the substance of experience, then -shall there be an opportunity for this identification, and culture shall -be the democratic password. - - - - - III - WASTE IN EDUCATION - - -The subject announced for today was “Waste in Education.” I should like -first to state briefly its relation to the two preceding lectures. The -first dealt with the school in its social aspects, and the necessary -re-adjustments that have to be made to render it effective in present -social conditions. The second dealt with the school in relation to the -growth of individual children. Now the third deals with the school as -itself an institution, both in relation to society and to its own -members—the children. It deals with the question of organization, -because all waste is the result of the lack of it, the motive lying -behind organization being promotion of economy and efficiency. This -question is not one of the waste of money or the waste of things. These -matters count; but the primary waste is that of human life, the life of -the children while they are at school, and afterward because of -inadequate and perverted preparation. - -So, when we speak of organization, we are not to think simply of the -externals; of that which goes by the name “school system”—the school -board, the superintendent, and the building, the engaging and promotion -of teachers, etc. These things enter in, but the fundamental -organization is that of the school itself as a community of individuals, -in its relations to other forms of social life. All waste is due to -isolation. Organization is nothing but getting things into connection -with one another, so that they work easily, flexibly, and fully. -Therefore in speaking of this question of waste in education, I desire -to call your attention to the isolation of the various parts of the -school system, to the lack of unity in the aims of education, to the -lack of coherence in its studies and methods. - -I have made a chart (I) which, while I speak of the isolations of the -school system itself, may perhaps appeal to the eye and save a little -time in verbal explanations. A paradoxical friend of mine says there is -nothing so obscure as an illustration, and it is quite possible that my -attempt to illustrate my point will simply prove the truth of his -statement. - -The blocks represent the various elements in the school system, and are -intended to indicate roughly the length of time given to each division, -and also the overlapping, both in time and subjects studied, of the -individual parts of the system. With each block is given the historical -conditions in which it arose and its ruling ideal. - -[Illustration: Chart I] - - Professional Schools - +---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |///|///|///|///|///| | - |///|///|///|///|///| | - +---+---+---+---+---+---+ - Mediæval The 19^{th} Century - _Culture_ _Utility_ - - High School - Kindergarten Primary- or Academy - +---+--+--+ +--+--+---+---+---+ +---+---+---+---+ - | | |//| |//| | | |///| |///| | |///| - | | |//| |//| | | |///| |///| | |///| - +---+--+--+ +--+--+---+---+---+ +---+---+---+---+ - 18^{th} Century 16^{th} Century Renaissance - _Moral_ _Utility_ _Culture_ - _Discipline_ - - University- College - Graduate-------Schools - +---+---+---+---+---+---+ - |///|///| | | | | - |///|///| | | | | - +---+---+---+---+---+---+ - Mediæval - _Culture_ - _Discipline_ - - Connecting Grammar or - Class Intermediate School Normal - +----+ +---+---+---+---+-- +---+---+---+---+ - |////| |///| | |///| |///| |///|///| - |////| |///| | |///| |///| |///|///| - +----+ +---+---+---+---+-- +---+---+---+---+ - 19^{th} Century Renaissance 19th Century - _Culture_ _Utility_ - _Discipline_ _Culture_ - - Technical Schools - +---+---+---+---+---+ - | | | | | | - | | | | | | - +---+---+---+---+---+ - 19^{th} Century - _Utility_ - -The school system, upon the whole, has grown from the top down. During -the middle ages it was essentially a cluster of professional -schools—especially law and theology. Our present university comes down -to us from the middle ages. I will not say that at present it is a -mediæval institution, but it had its roots in the middle ages, and it -has not outlived all mediæval traditions regarding learning. - -The kindergarten, rising with the present century, was a union of the -nursery and of the philosophy of Schelling; a wedding of the plays and -games which the mother carried on with her children, to Schelling’s -highly romantic and symbolic philosophy. The elements that came from the -actual study of child life—the continuation of the nursery—have remained -a life-bringing force in all education; the Schellingesque factors made -an obstruction between it and the rest of the school system, brought -about isolations. - -The line drawn over the top indicates that there is a certain -interaction between the kindergarten and the primary school; for, so far -as the primary school remained in spirit foreign to the natural -interests of child life, it was isolated from the kindergarten, so that -it is a problem, at present, to introduce kindergarten methods into the -primary school; the problem of the so-called connecting class. The -difficulty is that the two are not one from the start. To get a -connection the teacher has had to climb over the wall instead of -entering in at the gate. - -On the side of aims, the ideal of the kindergarten was the moral -development of the children, rather than instruction or discipline; an -ideal sometimes emphasized to the point of sentimentality. The primary -school grew practically out of the popular movement of the sixteenth -century, when along with the invention of printing and the growth of -commerce, it became a business necessity to know how to read, write, and -figure. The aim was distinctly a practical one; it was utility; getting -command of these tools, the symbols of learning, not for the sake of -learning, but because they gave access to careers in life otherwise -closed. - -The division next to the primary school is the grammar school. The term -is not much used in the West, but is common in the eastern states. It -goes back to the time of the revival of learning—a little earlier -perhaps than the conditions out of which the primary school originated, -and, even when contemporaneous, having a different ideal. It had to do -with the study of language in the higher sense; because, at the time of -the Renaissance, Latin and Greek connected people with the culture of -the past, with the Roman and Greek world. The classic languages were the -only means of escape from the limitations of the middle ages. Thus there -sprang up the prototype of the grammar school, more liberal than the -university (so largely professional in character), for the purpose of -putting into the hands of the people the key to the old learning, that -men might see a world with a larger horizon. The object was primarily -culture, secondarily discipline. It represented much more than the -present grammar school. It was the liberal element in the college, -which, extending downward, grew into the academy and the high school. -Thus the secondary school is still in part just a lower college (having -an even higher curriculum than the college of a few centuries ago) or a -preparatory department to a college, and in part a rounding up of the -utilities of the elementary school. - -There appear then two products of the nineteenth century, the technical -and normal schools. The schools of technology, engineering, etc., are, -of course, mainly the development of nineteenth-century business -conditions, as the primary school was the development of business -conditions of the sixteenth century. The normal school arose because of -the necessity for training teachers, with the idea partly of -professional drill, and partly that of culture. - -Without going into more detail, we have some eight different parts of -the school system as represented on the chart, all of which arose -historically at different times, having different ideals in view, and -consequently different methods. I do not wish to suggest that all of the -isolation, all of the separation, that has existed in the past between -the different parts of the school system still persists. One must, -however, recognize that they have never yet been welded into one -complete whole. The great problem in education on the administrative -side is how to unite these different parts. - -Consider the training schools for teachers—the normal schools. These -occupy at present a somewhat anomalous position, intermediate between -the high school and the college, requiring the high-school preparation, -and covering a certain amount of college work. They are isolated from -the higher subject-matter of scholarship, since, upon the whole, their -object has been to train persons _how_ to teach, rather than _what_ to -teach; while, if we go to the college, we find the other half of this -isolation—learning _what_ to teach, with almost a contempt for methods -of teaching. The college is shut off from contact with children and -youth. Its members, to a great extent, away from home and forgetting -their own childhood, become eventually teachers with a large amount of -subject-matter at command, and little knowledge of how this is related -to the minds of those to whom it is to be taught. In this division -between what to teach and how to teach, each side suffers from the -separation. - -It is interesting to follow out the inter-relation between primary, -grammar, and high schools. The elementary school has crowded up and -taken many subjects previously studied in the old New England grammar -school. The high school has pushed its subjects down. Latin and algebra -have been put in the upper grades, so that the seventh and eighth grades -are, after all, about all that is left of the old grammar school. They -are a sort of amorphous composite, being partly a place where children -go on learning what they already have learned (to read, write, and -figure), and partly a place of preparation for the high school. The name -in some parts of New England for these upper grades was “Intermediate -School.” The term was a happy one; the work was simply intermediate -between something that had been and something that was going to be, -having no special meaning on its own account. - -Just as the parts are separated, so do the ideals differ—moral -development, practical utility, general culture, discipline, and -professional training. These aims are each especially represented in -some distinct part of the system of education; and with the growing -interaction of the parts, each is supposed to afford a certain amount of -culture, discipline, and utility. But the lack of fundamental unity is -witnessed in the fact that one study is still considered good for -discipline, and another for culture; some parts of arithmetic, for -example, for discipline and others for use, literature for culture, -grammar for discipline, geography partly for utility, partly for -culture; and so on. The unity of education is dissipated, and the -studies become centrifugal; so much of this study to secure this end, so -much of that to secure another, until the whole becomes a sheer -compromise and patchwork between contending aims and disparate studies. -The great problem in education on the administrative side is to secure -the unity of the whole, in the place of a sequence of more or less -unrelated and overlapping parts and thus to reduce the waste arising -from friction, reduplication and transitions that are not properly -bridged. - -[Illustration: Chart II] - - Business - | 3. ^ - | | - v | - +------------------+ - | | - | | - Technical | | - Research ---> | | - | | - | | ---> - 4. University | School | 1. Home - | A | <--- - | | - Professional <--- | | - Schools Teachers | | - | | - | | - +------------------+ - ^ | - | | - | v - { Garden - 2. { Park - { Country - -In this second symbolic diagram (II) I wish to suggest that really the -only way to unite the parts of the system is to unite each to life. We -can get only an artificial unity so long as we confine our gaze to the -school system itself. We must look at it as part of the larger whole of -social life. This block (A) in the center represents the school system -as a whole. (1) At one side we have the home, and the two arrows -represent the free interplay of influences, materials, and ideas between -the home life and that of the school. (2) Below we have the relation to -the natural environment, the great field of geography in the widest -sense. The school building has about it a natural environment. It ought -to be in a garden, and the children from the garden would be led on to -surrounding fields, and then into the wider country, with all its facts -and forces. (3) Above is represented business life, and the necessity -for free play between the school and the needs and forces of industry. -(4) On the other side is the university proper, with its various phases, -its laboratories, its resources in the way of libraries, museums, and -professional schools. - -From the standpoint of the child, the great waste in the school comes -from his inability to utilize the experiences he gets outside the school -in any complete and free way within the school itself; while, on the -other hand, he is unable to apply in daily life what he is learning at -school. That is the isolation of the school—its isolation from life. -When the child gets into the schoolroom he has to put out of his mind a -large part of the ideas, interests, and activities that predominate in -his home and neighborhood. So the school, being unable to utilize this -everyday experience, sets painfully to work, on another tack and by a -variety of means, to arouse in the child an interest in school studies. -While I was visiting in the city of Moline a few years ago, the -superintendent told me that they found many children every year, who -were surprised to learn that the Mississippi river in the text-book had -anything to do with the stream of water flowing past their homes. The -geography being simply a matter of the schoolroom, it is more or less of -an awakening to many children to find that the whole thing is nothing -but a more formal and definite statement of the facts which they see, -feel, and touch every day. When we think that we all live on the earth, -that we live in an atmosphere, that our lives are touched at every point -by the influences of the soil, flora, and fauna, by considerations of -light and heat, and then think of what the school study of geography has -been, we have a typical idea of the gap existing between the everyday -experiences of the child, and the isolated material supplied in such -large measure in the school. This is but an instance, and one upon which -most of us may reflect long before we take the present artificiality of -the school as other than a matter of course or necessity. - -Though there should be organic connection between the school and -business life, it is not meant that the school is to prepare the child -for any particular business, but that there should be a natural -connection of the everyday life of the child with the business -environment about him, and that it is the affair of the school to -clarify and liberalize this connection, to bring it to consciousness, -not by introducing special studies, like commercial geography and -arithmetic, but by keeping alive the ordinary bonds of relation. The -subject of compound-business-partnership is probably not in many of the -arithmetics nowadays, though it was there not a generation ago, for the -makers of text-books said that if they left out anything they could not -sell their books. This compound-business-partnership originated as far -back as the sixteenth century. The joint-stock company had not been -invented, and as large commerce with the Indies and Americas grew up, it -was necessary to have an accumulation of capital with which to handle -it. One man said, “I will put in this amount of money for six months,” -and another, “So much for two years,” and so on. Thus by joining -together they got money enough to float their commercial enterprises. -Naturally, then, “compound partnership” was taught in the schools. The -joint-stock company was invented; compound partnership disappeared, but -the problems relating to it stayed in the arithmetics for two hundred -years. They were kept after they had ceased to have practical utility, -for the sake of mental discipline—they were “such hard problems, you -know.” A great deal of what is now in the arithmetics under the head of -percentage is of the same nature. Children of twelve and thirteen years -of age go through gain and loss calculations, and various forms of bank -discount so complicated that the bankers long ago dispensed with them. -And when it is pointed out that business is not done this way, we hear -again of “mental discipline.” And yet there are plenty of real -connections between the experience of children and business conditions -which need to be utilized and illuminated. The child should study his -commercial arithmetic and geography, not as isolated things by -themselves, but in their reference to his social environment. The youth -needs to become acquainted with the bank as a factor in modern life, -with what it does, and how it does it; and then relevant arithmetical -processes would have some meaning—quite in contradistinction to the -time-absorbing and mind-killing examples in percentage, partial -payments, etc., found in all our arithmetics. - -The connection with the university, as indicated in this chart, I need -not dwell upon. I simply wish to indicate that there ought to be a free -interaction between all the parts of the school system. There is much of -utter triviality of subject-matter in elementary and secondary -education. When we investigate it, we find that it is full of facts -taught that are not facts, which have to be unlearned later on. Now, -this happens because the “lower” parts of our system are not in vital -connection with the “higher.” The university or college, in its idea, is -a place of research, where investigation is going on, a place of -libraries and museums, where the best resources of the past are -gathered, maintained and organized. It is, however, as true in the -school as in the university that the spirit of inquiry can be got only -through and with the attitude of inquiry. The pupil must learn what has -meaning, what enlarges his horizon, instead of mere trivialities. He -must become acquainted with truths, instead of things that were regarded -as such fifty years ago, or that are taken as interesting by the -misunderstanding of a partially educated teacher. It is difficult to see -how these ends can be reached except as the most advanced part of the -educational system is in complete interaction with the most rudimentary. - -The next chart (III) is an enlargement of the second. The school -building has swelled out, so to speak, the surrounding environment -remaining the same, the home, the garden and country, the relation to -business life and the university. The object is to show what the school -must become to get out of its isolation and secure the organic -connection with social life of which we have been speaking. It is not -our architect’s plan for the school building that we hope to have; but -it is a diagrammatic representation of the idea which we want embodied -in the school building. On the lower side you see the dining-room and -the kitchen, at the top the wood and metal shops, and the textile room -for sewing and weaving. The center represents the manner in which all -come together in the library; that is to say, in a collection of the -intellectual resources of all kinds that throw light upon the practical -work, that give it meaning and liberal value. If the four corners -represent practice, the interior represents the theory of the practical -activities. In other words, the object of these forms of practice in the -school is not found chiefly in themselves, or in the technical skill of -cooks, seamstresses, carpenters and masons, but in their connection, on -the social side, with the life without; while on the individual side -they respond to the child’s need of action, of expression, of desire to -do something, to be constructive and creative, instead of simply passive -and conforming. Their great significance is that they keep the balance -between the social and individual sides—the chart symbolizing -particularly the connection with the social. Here on one side is the -home. How naturally the lines of connection play back and forth between -the home and the kitchen and the textile room of the school! The child -can carry over what he learns in the home and utilize it in the school; -and the things learned in the school he applies at home. These are the -two great things in breaking down isolation, in getting connection—to -have the child come to school with all the experience he has got outside -the school, and to leave it with something to be immediately used in his -everyday life. The child comes to the traditional school with a healthy -body and a more or less unwilling mind, though, in fact, he does not -bring both his body and mind with him; he has to leave his mind behind, -because there is no way to use it in the school. If he had a purely -abstract mind, he could bring it to school with him, but his is a -concrete one, interested in concrete things, and unless these things get -over into school life, he cannot take his mind with him. What we want is -to have the child come to school with a whole mind and a whole body, and -leave school with a fuller mind and an even healthier body. And speaking -of the body suggests that, while there is no gymnasium in these -diagrams, the active life carried on in its four corners brings with it -constant physical exercise, while our gymnasium proper will deal with -the particular weaknesses of children and their correction, and will -attempt more consciously to build up the thoroughly sound body as the -abode of the sound mind. - -[Illustration: Chart III] - - Business - | | - | | - +------------+<= =>+------------+ - | | | | - Technical Schools | | | Textile | - Laboratory | Shop | | Industries | - Research | | | | - | +------+ |-----| - | | | - +-------+ +-------+<== | - | | | => - | Library | Home - | B | | => - +-------+ +-------+<== | - University | | | - Library | +------+ |-----| - Museum | Dining | | | - | Room | | Kitchen | - | | | | - | | ==>| | - +------------+ | +------------+ - | | - | | - Garden<== - Park - Country - -That the dining-room and kitchen connect with the country and its -processes and products it is hardly necessary to say. Cooking may be so -taught that it has no connection with country life, and with the -sciences that find their unity in geography. Perhaps it generally has -been taught without these connections being really made. But all the -materials that come into the kitchen have their origin in the country; -they come from the soil, are nurtured through the influences of light -and water, and represent a great variety of local environments. Through -this connection, extending from the garden into the larger world, the -child has his most natural introduction to the study of the sciences. -Where did these things grow? What was necessary to their growth? What -their relation to the soil? What the effect of different climatic -conditions? and so on. We all know what the old-fashioned botany was: -partly collecting flowers that were pretty, pressing and mounting them; -partly pulling these flowers to pieces and giving technical names to the -different parts, finding all the different leaves, naming all their -different shapes and forms. It was a study of plants without any -reference to the soil, to the country, or to growth. In contrast, a real -study of plants takes them in their natural environment and in their -uses as well, not simply as food, but in all their adaptations to the -social life of man. Cooking becomes as well a most natural introduction -to the study of chemistry, giving the child here also something which he -can at once bring to bear upon his daily experience. I once heard a very -intelligent woman say that she could not understand how science could be -taught to little children, because she did not see how they could -understand atoms and molecules. In other words, since she did not see -how highly abstract facts could be presented to the child independently -of daily experience, she could not understand how science could be -taught at all. Before we smile at this remark, we need to ask ourselves -if she is alone in her assumption, or whether it simply formulates -almost all of our school practice. - -The same relations with the outside world are found in the carpentry and -the textile shops. They connect with the country, as the source of their -materials, with physics, as the science of applying energy, with -commerce and distribution, with art in the development of architecture -and decoration. They have also an intimate connection with the -university on the side of its technological and engineering schools; -with the laboratory, and its scientific methods and results. - -To go back to the square which is marked the library (Chart III, A): if -you imagine rooms half in the four corners and half in the library, you -will get the idea of the recitation room. That is the place where the -children bring the experiences, the problems, the questions, the -particular facts which they have found, and discuss them so that new -light may be thrown upon them, particularly new light from the -experience of others, the accumulated wisdom of the world—symbolized in -the library. Here is the organic relation of theory and practice; the -child not simply doing things, but getting also the _idea_ of what he -does; getting from the start some intellectual conception that enters -into his practice and enriches it; while every idea finds, directly or -indirectly, some application in experience, and has some effect upon -life. This, I need hardly say, fixes the position of the “book” or -reading in education. Harmful as a substitute for experience, it is -all-important in interpreting and expanding experience. - -The other chart (IV) illustrates precisely the same idea. It gives the -symbolic upper story of this ideal school. In the upper corners are the -laboratories; in the lower corners are the studios for art work, both -the graphic and auditory arts. The questions, the chemical and physical -problems, arising in the kitchen and shop, are taken to the laboratories -to be worked out. For instance, this past week one of the older groups - -[Illustration: Chart IV] - - +------------+ +------------+ - | | | | - | Physical | | Biological | - Laboratories |and Chemical| | Laboratory | - Research |Laboratories| | | - | +------+ | - | | - +-------+ +-------+ - University | | - | Museum | - | | - Library +-------+ +-------+ - Museum | | - | +------+ | - | | | | - | Art | | Music | - | | | | - | | | | - +------------+ +------------+ - -of children doing practical work in weaving which involved the use of -the spinning wheel, worked out the diagrams of the direction of forces -concerned in treadle and wheel, and the ratio of velocities between -wheel and spindle. In the same manner, the plants with which the child -has to do in cooking, afford the basis for a concrete interest in -botany, and may be taken and studied by themselves. In a certain school -in Boston science work for months was centered in the growth of the -cotton plant, and yet something new was brought in every day. We hope to -do similar work with all the types of plants that furnish materials for -sewing and weaving. These examples will suggest, I hope, the relation -which the laboratories bear to the rest of the school. - -The drawing and music, or the graphic and auditory arts, represent the -culmination, the idealization, the highest point of refinement of all -the work carried on. I think everybody who has not a purely literary -view of the subject recognizes that genuine art grows out of the work of -the artisan. The art of the Renaissance was great, because it grew out -of the manual arts of life. It did not spring up in a separate -atmosphere, however ideal, but carried on to their spiritual meaning -processes found in homely and everyday forms of life. The school should -observe this relationship. The merely artisan side is narrow, but the -mere art, taken by itself, and grafted on from without, tends to become -forced, empty, sentimental. I do not mean, of course, that all art work -must be correlated in detail to the other work of the school, but simply -that a spirit of union gives vitality to the art, and depth and richness -to the other work. All art involves physical organs, the eye and hand, -the ear and voice; and yet it is something more than the mere technical -skill required by the organs of expression. It involves an idea, a -thought, a spiritual rendering of things; and yet it is other than any -number of ideas by themselves. It is a living union of thought and the -instrument of expression. This union is symbolized by saying that in the -ideal school the art work might be considered to be that of the shops, -passed through the alembic of library and museum into action again. - -Take the textile room as an illustration of such a synthesis. I am -talking about a future school, the one we hope, some time, to have. The -basal fact in that room is that it is a workshop, doing actual things in -sewing, spinning, and weaving. The children come into immediate -connection with the materials, with various fabrics of silk, cotton, -linen and wool. Information at once appears in connection with these -materials; their origin, history, their adaptation to particular uses, -and the machines of various kinds by which the raw materials are -utilized. Discipline arises in dealing with the problems involved, both -theoretical and practical. Whence does the culture arise? Partly from -seeing all these things reflected through the medium of their scientific -and historic conditions and associations, whereby the child learns to -appreciate them as technical achievements, as thoughts precipitated in -action; and partly because of the introduction of the art idea into the -room itself. In the ideal school there would be something of this sort: -first, a complete industrial museum, giving samples of materials in -various stages of manufacture, and the implements, from the simplest to -the most complex, used in dealing with them; then a collection of -photographs and pictures illustrating the landscapes and the scenes from -which the materials come, their native homes, and their places of -manufacture. Such a collection would be a vivid and continual lesson in -the synthesis of art, science, and industry. There would be, also, -samples of the more perfect forms of textile work, as Italian, French, -Japanese, and Oriental. There would be objects illustrating motives of -design and decoration which have entered into production. Literature -would contribute its part in its idealized representation of the -world-industries, as the Penelope in the Odyssey—a classic in literature -only because the character is an adequate embodiment of a certain -industrial phase of social life. So, from Homer down to the present -time, there is a continuous procession of related facts which have been -translated into terms of art. Music lends its share, from the Scotch -song at the wheel to the spinning song of Marguerite, or of Wagner’s -Senta. The shop becomes a pictured museum, appealing to the eye. It -would have not only materials, beautiful woods and designs, but would -give a synopsis of the historical evolution of architecture in its -drawings and pictures. - -Thus I have attempted to indicate how the school may be connected with -life so that the experience gained by the child in a familiar, -commonplace way is carried over and made use of there, and what the -child learns in the school is carried back and applied in everyday life, -making the school an organic whole, instead of a composite of isolated -parts. The isolation of studies as well as of parts of the school system -disappears. Experience has its geographical aspect, its artistic and its -literary, its scientific and its historical sides. All studies arise -from aspects of the one earth and the one life lived upon it. We do not -have a series of stratified earths, one of which is mathematical, -another physical, another historical, and so on. We should not live very -long in any one taken by itself. We live in a world where all sides are -bound together. All studies grow out of relations in the one great -common world. When the child lives in varied but concrete and active -relationship to this common world, his studies are naturally unified. It -will no longer be a problem to correlate studies. The teacher will not -have to resort to all sorts of devices to weave a little arithmetic into -the history lesson, and the like. Relate the school to life, and all -studies are of necessity correlated. - -Moreover, if the school is related as a whole to life as a whole, its -various aims and ideals—culture, discipline, information, utility—cease -to be variants, for one of which we must select one study and for -another another. The growth of the child in the direction of social -capacity and service, his larger and more vital union with life, becomes -the unifying aim; and discipline, culture and information fall into -place as phases of this growth. - -I wish to say one word more about the relationship of our particular -school to the University. The problem is to unify, to organize -education, to bring all its various factors together, through putting it -as a whole into organic union with everyday life. That which lies back -of the pedagogical school of the University is the necessity of working -out something to serve as a model for such unification, extending from -work beginning with the four-year-old child up through the graduate work -of the University. Already we have much help from the University in -scientific work planned, sometimes even in detail, by heads of the -departments. The graduate student comes to us with his researches and -methods, suggesting ideas and problems. The library and museum are at -hand. We want to bring all things educational together; to break down -the barriers that divide the education of the little child from the -instruction of the maturing youth; to identify the lower and the higher -education, so that it shall be demonstrated to the eye that there is no -lower and higher, but simply education. - -Speaking more especially with reference to the pedagogical side of the -work: I suppose the oldest university chair of pedagogy in our country -is about twenty years old—that of the University of Michigan, founded in -the latter seventies. But there are only one or two that have tried to -make a connection between theory and practice. They teach for the most -part by theory, by lectures, by reference to books, rather than through -the actual work of teaching itself. At Columbia, through the Teachers’ -College, there is an extensive and close connection between the -University and the training of teachers. Something has been done in one -or two other places along the same line. We want an even more intimate -union here, so that the University shall put all its resources at the -disposition of the elementary school, contributing to the evolution of -valuable subject-matter and right method, while the school in turn will -be a laboratory in which the student of education sees theories and -ideas demonstrated, tested, criticised, enforced, and the evolution of -new truths. We want the school in its relation to the University to be a -working model of a unified education. - -A word as to the relation of the school to educational interests -generally. I heard once that the adoption of a certain method in use in -our school was objected to by a teacher on this ground: “You know that -it is an experimental school. They do not work under the same conditions -that we are subject to.” Now, the purpose of performing an experiment is -that other people need not experiment; at least need not experiment so -much, may have something definite and positive to go by. An experiment -demands particularly favorable conditions in order that results may be -reached both freely and securely. It has to work unhampered, with all -the needed resources at command. Laboratories lie back of all the great -business enterprises of today, back of every great factory, every -railway and steamship system. Yet the laboratory is not a business -enterprise; it does not aim to secure for itself the conditions of -business life, nor does the commercial undertaking repeat the -laboratory. There is a difference between working out and testing a new -truth, or a new method, and applying it on a wide scale, making it -available for the mass of men, making it commercial. But the first thing -is to discover the truth, to afford all necessary facilities, for this -is the most practical thing in the world in the long run. We do not -expect to have other schools literally imitate what we do. A working -model is not something to be copied; it is to afford a demonstration of -the feasibility of the principle, and of the methods which make it -feasible. So (to come back to our own point) we want here to work out -the problem of the unity, the organization of the school system in -itself, and to do this by relating it so intimately to life as to -demonstrate the possibility and necessity of such organization for all -education. - - - - - IV - THREE YEARS OF THE UNIVERSITY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL[1] - - -The school was started the first week in January, three years ago. I -shall try this afternoon to give a brief statement of the ideas and -problems that were in mind when the experiment was started, and a sketch -of the development of the work since that time. We began in a small -house in Fifty-seventh street, with fifteen children. We found ourselves -the next year with twenty-five children in Kimbark avenue, and then -moved in January to Rosalie court, the larger quarters enabling us to -take forty children. The next year the numbers increased to sixty, the -school remaining at Rosalie court. This year we have had ninety-five on -the roll at one time, and are located at 5412 Ellis avenue, where we -hope to stay till we have a building and grounds of our own. - -Footnote 1: - - Stenographic report of a talk by John Dewey at a meeting of the - Parents’ Association of the University Elementary School, February, - 1899; somewhat revised. - -The children during the first year of the school were between the ages -of six and nine. Now their ages range between four and thirteen—the -members of the oldest group being in their thirteenth year. This is the -first year that we have children under six, and this has been made -possible through the liberality of friends in Honolulu, H. I., who are -building up there a memorial kindergarten along the same lines. - -The expenses of the school during the first year, of two terms only, -were between $1,300 and $1,400. The expenses this year will be about -$12,000. Of this amount $5,500 will come from tuitions; $5,000 has been -given by friends interested in the school, and there remains about -$1,500 yet to be raised for the conduct of the school. This is an -indication of the increase of expenses. The average expense per pupil is -about the same since the start, _i. e._, $120 per child per school year. -Relatively speaking, this year the expenses of the school took something -of a jump, through the expense of moving to a new building, and the -repairs and changes there necessary. An increase in the staff of -teachers has also enlarged the work as well as the debits of the school. -Next year (1899–1900) we hope to have about 120 children, and apparently -the expenses will be about $2,500 more than this. Of this amount $2,000 -will be met by the increase in tuition from the pupils. The cost of a -child to the school, $120 a year, is precisely the tuition charged by -the University for students and is double the average tuition charged by -the school. But it is not expected that the University tuition will come -anywhere near meeting the expense involved there. One reason for not -increasing the tuition here, even if it were advisable for other -reasons, is that it is well to emphasize, from an educational point of -view, that elementary as well as advanced education requires endowment. -There is every reason why money should be spent freely for the -organization and maintenance of foundation work in education as well as -for the later stages. - -The elementary school has had from the outset two sides: one, the -obvious one of instruction of the children who have been intrusted to -it; the other, relationship to the University, since the school is under -the charge, and forms a part of the pedagogical work of the University. - -When the school was started, there were certain ideas in mind—perhaps it -would be better to say questions and problems; certain points which it -seemed worth while to test. If you will permit one personal word, I -should like to say that it is sometimes thought that the school started -out with a number of ready-made principles and ideas which were to be -put into practice at once. It has been popularly assumed that I am the -author of these ready-made ideas and principles which were to go into -execution. I take this opportunity to say that the educational conduct -of the school, as well as its administration, the selection of -subject-matter, and the working out of the course of study, as well as -actual instruction of children, have been almost entirely in the hands -of the teachers of the school; and that there has been a gradual -development of the educational principles and methods involved, not a -fixed equipment. The teachers started with question marks, rather than -with fixed rules, and if any answers have been reached, it is the -teachers in the school who have supplied them. We started upon the whole -with four such questions, or problems: - -1. What can be done, and how can it be done, to bring the school into -closer relation with the home and neighborhood life—instead of having -the school a place where the child comes solely to learn certain -lessons? What can be done to break down the barriers which have -unfortunately come to separate the school life from the rest of the -everyday life of the child? This does not mean, as it is sometimes, -perhaps, interpreted to mean, that the child should simply take up in -the school things already experienced at home and study them, but that, -so far as possible, the child shall have the same attitude and point of -view in the school as in the home; that he shall find the same interest -in going to school, and in there doing things worth doing for their own -sake, that he finds in the plays and occupations which busy him in his -home and neighborhood life. It means, again, that the motives which keep -the child at work and growing at home shall be used in the school, so -that he shall not have to acquire another set of principles of actions -belonging only to the school—separate from those of the home. It is a -question of the unity of the child’s experience, of its actuating -motives and aims, not of amusing or even interesting the child. - -2. What can be done in the way of introducing subject-matter in history -and science and art, that shall have a positive value and real -significance in the child’s own life; that shall represent, even to the -youngest children, something worthy of attainment in skill or knowledge; -as much so to the little pupil as are the studies of the high-school or -college student to him? You know what the traditional curriculum of the -first few years is, even though many modifications have been made. Some -statistics have been collected showing that 75 or 80 per cent. of the -first three years of a child in school are spent upon the form—not the -substance—of learning, the mastering of the symbols of reading, writing, -and arithmetic. There is not much positive nutriment in this. Its -purpose is important—is necessary—but it does not represent the same -kind of increase in a child’s intellectual and moral experience that is -represented by positive truth of history and nature, or by added insight -into reality and beauty. One thing, then, we wanted to find out is how -much can be given a child that is really worth his while to get, in -knowledge of the world about him, of the forces in the world, of -historical and social growth, and in capacity to express himself in a -variety of artistic forms. From the strictly educational side this has -been the chief problem of the school. It is along this line that we hope -to make our chief contribution to education in general; we hope, that -is, to work out and publish a positive body of subject-matter which may -be generally available. - -3. How can instruction in these formal, symbolic branches—the mastering -of the ability to read, write, and use figures intelligently—be carried -on with everyday experience and occupation as their background and in -definite relations to other studies of more inherent content, and be -carried on in such a way that the child shall feel their necessity -through their connection with subjects which appeal to him on their own -account? If this can be accomplished, he will have a vital motive for -getting the technical capacity. It is not meant, as has been sometimes -jocosely stated, that the child learn to bake and sew at school, and to -read, write, and figure at home. It is intended that these formal -subjects shall not be presented in such large doses at first as to be -the exclusive objects of attention, and that the child shall be led by -that which he is doing to feel the need for acquiring skill in the use -of symbols and the immediate power they give. In any school, if the -child realizes the motive for the use and application of number and -language he has taken the longest step toward securing the power; and he -can realize the motive only as he has some particular—not some general -and remote—use for the symbols. - -4. Individual attention. This is secured by small groupings—eight or ten -in a class—and a large number of teachers supervising systematically the -intellectual needs and attainments and physical well-being and growth of -the child. To secure this we have now 135 hours of instructors’ time per -week, that is, the time of nine teachers for three hours per day, or one -teacher per group. It requires but a few words to make this statement -about attention to individual powers and needs, and yet the whole of the -school’s aims and methods, moral, physical, intellectual, are bound up -in it. - -I think these four points present a fair statement of what we have set -out to discover. The school is often called an experimental school, and -in one sense that is the proper name. I do not like to use it too much, -for fear parents will think we are experimenting upon the children, and -that they naturally object to. But it is an experimental school—at least -I hope so—with reference to education and educational problems. We have -attempted to find out by trying, by doing—not alone by discussion and -theorizing—_whether_ these problems may be worked out, and _how_ they -may be worked out. - -Next a few words about the means that have been used in the school in -order to test these four questions, and to supply their answers, and -first as to the place given to hand-work of different kinds in the -school. There are three main lines regularly pursued: (_a_) the -shop-work with wood and tools, (_b_) cooking work, and (_c_) work with -textiles—sewing and weaving. Of course, there is other hand-work in -connection with science, as science is largely of an experimental -nature. It is a fact that may not have come to your attention that a -large part of the best and most advanced scientific work involves a -great deal of manual skill, the training of the hand and eye. It is -impossible for one to be a first-class worker in science without this -training in manipulation, and in handling apparatus and materials. In -connection with the history work, especially with the younger children, -hand-work is brought in in the way of making implements, weapons, tools, -etc. Of course, the art work is another side—drawing, painting, and -modeling. Logically, perhaps, the gymnasium work does not come in here, -but as a means of developing moral and intellectual control through the -medium of the body it certainly does. The children have one-half hour -per day of this form of physical exercise. Along this line we have found -that hand-work, in large variety and amount, is the most easy and -natural method of keeping up the same attitude of the child in and out -of the school. The child gets the largest part of his acquisitions -through his bodily activities, until he learns to work systematically -with the intellect. That is the purpose of this work in the school, to -direct these activities, to systematize and organize them, so that they -shall not be as haphazard and as wandering as they are outside of -school. The problem of making these forms of practical activity work -continuously and definitely together, leading from one factor of skill -to another, from one intellectual difficulty to another, has been one of -the most difficult, and at the same time one in which we have been most -successful. The various kinds of work, carpentry, cooking, sewing, and -weaving, are selected as involving different kinds of skill, and -demanding different types of intellectual attitude on the part of the -child, and because they represent some of the most important activities -of the everyday outside world: the question of living under shelter, of -daily food and clothing, of the home, of personal movement and exchange -of goods. He gets also the training of sense organs, of touch, of sight, -and the ability to coördinate eye and hand. He gets healthy exercise; -for the child demands a much larger amount of physical activity than the -formal program of the ordinary school permits. There is also a continual -appeal to memory, to judgment, in adapting ends to means, a training in -habits of order, industry, and neatness in the care of the tools and -utensils, and in doing things in a systematic, instead of a haphazard, -way. Then, again, these practical occupations make a background, -especially in the earlier groups, for the later studies. The children -get a good deal of chemistry in connection with cooking, of number work -and geometrical principles in carpentry, and a good deal of geography in -connection with their theoretical work in weaving and sewing. History -also comes in with the origin and growth of various inventions, and -their effects upon social life and political organization. - -Perhaps more attention, upon the whole, has been given to our second -point, that of positive subject-matter, than to any one other thing. On -the history side the curriculum is now fairly well worked out. The -younger children begin with the home and occupations of the home. In the -sixth year the intention is that the children should study occupations -outside the home, the larger social industries—farming, mining, lumber, -etc.—that they may see the complex and various social industries on -which life depends, while incidentally they investigate the use of the -various materials—woods, metals, and the processes applied—thus getting -a beginning of scientific study. The next year is given to the -historical development of industry and invention—starting with man as a -savage and carrying him through the typical phases of his progress -upward, until the iron age is reached and man begins to enter upon a -civilized career. The object of the study of primitive life is not to -keep the child interested in lower and relatively savage stages, but to -show him the steps of progress and development, especially along the -line of invention, by which man was led into civilization. There is a -certain nearness, after all, in the child to primitive forms of life. -They are much more simple than existing institutions. By throwing the -emphasis upon the progress of man, and upon the way advance has been -made, we hope to avoid the objections that hold against paying too much -attention to the crudities and distracting excitements of savage life. - -The next two or three years, _i. e._, the fourth and fifth grades, and -perhaps the sixth, will be devoted to American history. It is then that -history, properly speaking, begins, as the study of primitive life can -hardly be so called. - -Then comes Greek history and Roman, in the regular chronological order, -each year having its own work planned with reference to what has come -before and after. - -The science work was more difficult to arrange and systematize, because -there was so little to follow—so little that has been already done in an -organized way. We are now at work upon a program,[2] and I shall not -speak in detail about it. The first two or three years cultivate the -children’s powers of observation, lead them to sympathetic interest in -the habits of plants and animals, and to look at things with reference -to their uses. Then the center of the work becomes geographical—the -study of the earth, as the most central thing. From this almost all the -work grows out, and to it the work goes back. Another standpoint in the -science work is that of the application of natural forces to the service -of man through machines. Last year a good deal of work was done in -electricity (and will be repeated this year), based on the telegraph and -telephone—taking up the things that can easily be grasped. - -Footnote 2: - - This year’s program is published in the _Elementary School Record_. - Address The University of Chicago Press for particulars. - -In mechanics they have studied locks and clocks with reference to the -adaptation of the various parts of the machinery. All this work makes a -most excellent basis for more formal physics later on. Cooking gives -opportunity for getting a great many ideas of heat and water, and of -their effects. The scientific work taken up in the school differs mainly -from that of other schools in having the experimental part—physics and -chemistry—emphasized, and is not confined simply to nature study—the -study of plants and animals. Not that the latter is less valuable, but -that we find it possible to introduce the physical aspects from the -first. - -If I do not spend a large amount of time in speaking of the music and -art work, it is not because they are not considered valuable and -important—certainly as much so as any other work done in the school, not -only in the development of the child’s moral and æsthetic nature, but -also from a strictly intellectual point of view. I know of no work in -the school that better develops the power of attention, the habit of -observation and of consecutiveness, of seeing parts in relation to a -whole. - -I shall now say a few words about the administrative side of the school. -At the outset we mixed up the children of different ages and attainments -as much as possible, believing there were mental advantages in the -give-and-take thus secured, as well as the moral advantages in having -the older assume certain responsibilities in the care of the younger. As -the school grew, it became necessary to abandon the method, and to group -the children with reference to their common capacities. These groupings, -however, are based, not on ability to read and write, but upon -similarity of mental attitude and interest, and upon general -intellectual capacity and mental alertness. There are ways in which we -are still trying to carry out the idea of mixing up the children, that -we may not build the rigid stepladder system of the “graded” school. One -step in this direction is having the children move about and come in -contact with different teachers. While there are difficulties and evils -connected with this, I think one of the most useful things in the school -is that children come into intimate relation with a number of different -personalities. The children also meet in general assemblies—for singing, -and for the report of the whole school work as read by members of the -different groups. The older children are also given a half hour a week -in which to join some of the younger groups, and, if possible, as in -hand-work, enter into the work of the younger children. In various ways -we are attempting to keep a family spirit throughout the school, and not -the feeling of isolated classes and grades. - -The organization of the teaching force has gradually become -departmental, as the needs of the work have indicated its chief -branches. So we now have recognized divisions of Science, History, -Domestic or Household Arts, Manual Training in the limited sense (wood -and metals), Music, Art (that is, drawing, water colors, clay modeling, -etc.), and Gymnasium. As the work goes on into the secondary period, the -languages and mathematics will also of necessity assume a more -differentiated and distinct position. As it is sometimes said that -correlated or thoroughly harmonized work cannot be secured upon this -basis, I am happy to say that our experience shows positively that there -are no intrinsic difficulties. Through common devotion to the best -development of the child, through common loyalty to the main aims and -methods of the school, our teachers have demonstrated that in education, -as in business, the best organization is secured through proper regard -for natural divisions of labor, interest, and training. The child -secures the advantage in discipline and knowledge of contact with -experts in each line, while the individual teachers serve the common -thought in diverse ways, thus multiplying and reinforcing it. - -Upon the moral side, that of so-called discipline and order, where the -work of the University Elementary School has perhaps suffered most from -misunderstanding and misrepresentation, I shall say only that our ideal -has been, and continues to be, that of the best form of family life, -rather than that of a rigid graded school. In the latter, the large -number of children under the care of a single teacher, and the very -limited number of modes of activity open to the pupils, have made -necessary certain fixed and somewhat external forms of “keeping order.” -It would be very stupid to copy these, under the changed conditions of -our school, its small groups permitting and requiring the most intimate -personal acquaintance of child and teacher, and its great variety of -forms of work, with their differing adaptations to the needs of -different children. If we have permitted to our children more than the -usual amount of freedom, it has not been in order to relax or decrease -real discipline, but because under our particular conditions larger and -less artificial responsibilities could thus be required of the children, -and their entire development of body and spirit be more harmonious and -complete. And I am confident that the parents who have intrusted their -children to us for any length of time will agree in saying that, while -the children like, or love, to come to school, yet work, and not -amusement, has been the spirit and teaching of the school; and that this -freedom has been granted under such conditions of intelligent and -sympathetic oversight as to be a means of upbuilding and strengthening -character. - -At the end of three years, then, we are not afraid to say that some of -our original questions have secured affirmative answers. The increase of -our children from fifteen to almost one hundred, along with a practical -doubling of fees, has shown that parents are ready for a form of -education that makes individual growth its sole controlling aim. The -presence of an organized corps of instructors demonstrates that -thoroughly educated teachers are ready to bring to elementary education -the same resources of training, knowledge, and skill that have long been -at the command of higher education. The everyday work of the school -shows that children can live in school as out of it, and yet grow daily -in wisdom, kindness, and the spirit of obedience—that learning may, even -with little children, lay hold upon the substance of truth that -nourishes the spirit, and yet the forms of knowledge be observed and -cultivated; and that growth may be genuine and thorough, and yet a -delight. - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- - - - - - TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES - - - 1. Silently corrected typographical errors. - 2. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - 3. 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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: The School and Society - Being three lectures - -Author: John Dewey - -Release Date: January 7, 2017 [EBook #53910] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCHOOL AND SOCIETY *** - - - - -Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class='tnotes covernote'> - -<p class='c000'><strong>Transcriber's Note:</strong></p> - -<p class='c000'>The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.</p> - -</div> - -<div class='ph1'> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div>THE SCHOOL AND SOCIETY</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c002' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div>THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS</div> - <div>CHICAGO, ILLINOIS</div> - <div class='c002'>Agents</div> - <div class='c003'>THE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS</div> - <div>LONDON AND EDINBURGH</div> - <div class='c003'>THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA</div> - <div>TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO</div> - <div class='c003'>KARL W. HIERSEMANN</div> - <div>LEIPZIG</div> - <div class='c003'>THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY</div> - <div>NEW YORK</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='box'> - -<div> - <h1 class='c004'><span class='color_red'><span class='xlarge'><em>The</em></span><br /> <span class='under'>SCHOOL</span><br /> <span class='xlarge'><em>and</em></span><br /> <span class='under'>SOCIETY</span></span><br /> <span class='large'><em>BEING THREE LECTURES</em></span></h1> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div><span class='large'><em>by</em></span></div> - <div class='c003'><span class='xlarge'>JOHN DEWEY</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='box'> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div><span class='large'><em>SUPPLEMENTED BY</em></span></div> - <div><span class='large'>A STATEMENT OF THE UNIVERSITY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL</span></div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> - -<div class='box'> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> - <div class='nf-center'> - <div>THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS</div> - <div>CHICAGO, ILLINOIS</div> - </div> -</div> - -</div> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div><span class='sc'>Copyright 1900 By</span></div> - <div><span class='sc'>John Dewey</span></div> - <div class='c003'>All Rights Reserved</div> - </div> -</div> - -<table class='table0' summary=''> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>First Edition</span></td> - <td class='c005'>-–1,000 copies.</td> - <td class='c006'>Printed November, 1899.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Second Impression</span></td> - <td class='c005'>-–1,500 copies.</td> - <td class='c006'>Printed February, 1900.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Third Impression</span></td> - <td class='c005'>-–5,000 copies.</td> - <td class='c006'>Printed July, 1900.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Fourth Impression</span></td> - <td class='c005'>-–1,000 copies.</td> - <td class='c006'>Printed June, 1904.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Fifth Impression</span></td> - <td class='c005'>-–2,500 copies.</td> - <td class='c006'>Printed February, 1905.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Sixth Impression</span></td> - <td class='c005'>-–2,500 copies.</td> - <td class='c006'>Printed August, 1907.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Seventh Impression</span></td> - <td class='c005'>-–1,000 copies.</td> - <td class='c006'>Printed September, 1909.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Eighth Impression</span></td> - <td class='c005'>-–1,000 copies.</td> - <td class='c006'>Printed August, 1910.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Ninth Impression</span></td> - <td class='c005'>-–1,000 copies.</td> - <td class='c006'>Printed August, 1911.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Tenth Impression</span></td> - <td class='c005'>-–1,000 copies.</td> - <td class='c006'>Printed March, 1912.</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Eleventh Impression</span></td> - <td class='c005'>-–2,000 copies.</td> - <td class='c006'>Printed August, 1913.</td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c002'> - <div>Composed and Printed By</div> - <div>The University of Chicago Press</div> - <div>Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='nf-center-c1'> -<div class='nf-center c001'> - <div>TO</div> - <div class='c003'>MRS. EMMONS BLAINE</div> - <div class='c003'>TO WHOSE INTEREST IN EDUCATIONAL</div> - <div>REFORM</div> - <div>THE APPEARANCE OF THIS BOOK</div> - <div>IS DUE</div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c007'>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table1' summary='CONTENTS'> - <tr> - <th class='c008'></th> - <th class='c009'> </th> - <th class='c010'>PAGE</th> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>I.</td> - <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The School and Social Progress</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_19'>19</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>II.</td> - <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>The School and the Life of the Child</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_47'>47</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>III.</td> - <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Waste in Education</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_77'>77</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c008'>IV.</td> - <td class='c009'><span class='sc'>Three Years of the University Elementary School</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#Page_113'>113</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c007'>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -</div> - -<table class='table1' summary='LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS'> - <tr> - <th class='c005'></th> - <th class='c010'>FACING PAGE</th> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Drawing of a Cave and Trees</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#i56'>56</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Drawing of a Forest</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#i58'>58</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Drawing of Hands Spinning</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#i60'>60</a></td> - </tr> - <tr><td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class='c005'><span class='sc'>Drawing of a Girl Spinning</span></td> - <td class='c010'><a href='#i62'>62</a></td> - </tr> -</table> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c007'>PUBLISHER’S NOTE</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>The three lectures presented in the following -pages were delivered before an audience of -parents and others interested in the University -Elementary School, in the month of April of -the year 1899. Mr. Dewey revised them in -part from a stenographic report, and unimportant -changes and the slight adaptations necessary -for the press have been made in his absence. -The lectures retain therefore the unstudied character -as well as the power of the spoken word. -As they imply more or less familiarity with -the work of the Elementary School, Mr. Dewey’s -supplementary statement of this has been added.</p> -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_I'>I</span> - <h2 class='c007'>AUTHOR’S NOTE</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>A second edition affords a grateful opportunity -for recalling that this little book is a sign of the -coöperating thoughts and sympathies of many -persons. Its indebtedness to Mrs. Emmons -Blaine is partly indicated in the dedication. -From my friends, Mr. and Mrs. George Herbert -Mead, came that interest, unflagging attention to -detail, and artistic taste which, in my absence, -remade colloquial remarks until they were fit to -print, and then saw the results through the press -with the present attractive result—a mode of -authorship made easy, which I recommend to -others fortunate enough to possess such friends.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It would be an extended paragraph which -should list all the friends whose timely and persisting -generosity has made possible the school -which inspired and defined the ideas of these -pages. These friends, I am sure, would be the -first to recognize the peculiar appropriateness of -especial mention of the names of Mrs. Charles R. -Crane and Mrs. William R. Linn.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And the school itself in its educational work is -a joint undertaking. Many have engaged in -shaping it. The clear and experienced intelligence -of my wife is wrought everywhere into its -<span class='pageno' id='Page_II'>II</span>texture. The wisdom, tact and devotion of its -instructors have brought about a transformation -of its original amorphous plans into articulate -form and substance with life and movement of -their own. Whatever the issue of the ideas presented -in this book, the satisfaction coming from -the coöperation of the diverse thoughts and deeds -of many persons in undertaking to enlarge the -life of the child will abide.</p> - -<div class='lg-container-r'> - <div class='linegroup'> - <div class='group'> - <div class='line'>January 5, 1900</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_19'>19</span> - <h2 class='c007'>I<br /> THE SCHOOL AND SOCIAL PROGRESS</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>We are apt to look at the school from an individualistic -standpoint, as something between teacher -and pupil, or between teacher and parent. That -which interests us most is naturally the progress -made by the individual child of our acquaintance, -his normal physical development, his advance in -ability to read, write, and figure, his growth in -the knowledge of geography and history, improvement -in manners, habits of promptness, -order, and industry—it is from such standards as -these that we judge the work of the school. And -rightly so. Yet the range of the outlook needs -to be enlarged. What the best and wisest parent -wants for his own child, that must the community -want for all of its children. Any other ideal for -our schools is narrow and unlovely; acted upon, -it destroys our democracy. All that society has -accomplished for itself is put, through the agency -of the school, at the disposal of its future members. -All its better thoughts of itself it hopes to -realize through the new possibilities thus opened -to its future self. Here individualism and socialism -are at one. Only by being true to the full -growth of all the individuals who make it up, can -<span class='pageno' id='Page_20'>20</span>society by any chance be true to itself. And in -the self-direction thus given, nothing counts as -much as the school, for, as Horace Mann said, -“Where anything is growing, one former is -worth a thousand re-formers,”</p> - -<p class='c000'>Whenever we have in mind the discussion of -a new movement in education, it is especially -necessary to take the broader, or social view. -Otherwise, changes in the school institution and -tradition will be looked at as the arbitrary inventions -of particular teachers; at the worst transitory -fads, and at the best merely improvements -in certain details—and this is the plane upon -which it is too customary to consider school -changes. It is as rational to conceive of the -locomotive or the telegraph as personal devices. -The modification going on in the method and -curriculum of education is as much a product of -the changed social situation, and as much an effort -to meet the needs of the new society that is -forming, as are changes in modes of industry and -commerce.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is to this, then, that I especially ask your -attention: the effort to conceive what roughly -may be termed the “New Education” in the -light of larger changes in society. Can we -connect this “New Education” with the general -march of events? If we can, it will lose its isolated -character, and will cease to be an affair which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_21'>21</span>proceeds only from the over-ingenious minds of -pedagogues dealing with particular pupils. It -will appear as part and parcel of the whole social -evolution, and, in its more general features at -least, as inevitable. Let us then ask after the main -aspects of the social movement; and afterwards -turn to the school to find what witness it gives of -effort to put itself in line. And since it is quite -impossible to cover the whole ground, I shall for -the most part confine myself to one typical -thing in the modern school movement—that -which passes under the name of manual training, -hoping if the relation of that to changed social -conditions appears, we shall be ready to concede -the point as well regarding other educational -innovations.</p> - -<p class='c000'>I make no apology for not dwelling at length -upon the social changes in question. Those I -shall mention are writ so large that he who runs -may read. The change that comes first to mind, -the one that overshadows and even controls all -others, is the industrial one—the application of -science resulting in the great inventions that have -utilized the forces of nature on a vast and inexpensive -scale: the growth of a world-wide -market as the object of production, of vast -manufacturing centers to supply this market, of -cheap and rapid means of communication and -distribution between all its parts. Even as to its -<span class='pageno' id='Page_22'>22</span>feebler beginnings, this change is not much more -than a century old; in many of its most important -aspects it falls within the short span of those -now living. One can hardly believe there has -been a revolution in all history so rapid, so -extensive, so complete. Through it the face of -the earth is making over, even as to its physical -forms; political boundaries are wiped out and -moved about, as if they were indeed only lines -on a paper map; population is hurriedly gathered -into cities from the ends of the earth; habits of -living are altered with startling abruptness and -thoroughness; the search for the truths of nature -is infinitely stimulated and facilitated and their -application to life made not only practicable, -but commercially necessary. Even our moral -and religious ideas and interests, the most conservative -because the deepest-lying things in -our nature, are profoundly affected. That this -revolution should not affect education in other -than formal and superficial fashion is inconceivable.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Back of the factory system lies the household -and neighborhood system. Those of us who -are here today need go back only one, two, or -at most three generations, to find a time when -the household was practically the center in which -were carried on, or about which were clustered, -all the typical forms of industrial occupation. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_23'>23</span>The clothing worn was for the most part not only -made in the house, but the members of the household -were usually familiar with the shearing of -the sheep, the carding and spinning of the wool, -and the plying of the loom. Instead of pressing -a button and flooding the house with electric -light, the whole process of getting illumination -was followed in its toilsome length, from the -killing of the animal and the trying of fat, to the -making of wicks and dipping of candles. The -supply of flour, of lumber, of foods, of building -materials, of household furniture, even of metal -ware, of nails, hinges, hammers, etc., was in the -immediate neighborhood, in shops which were -constantly open to inspection and often centers -of neighborhood congregation. The entire industrial -process stood revealed, from the production -on the farm of the raw materials, till the -finished article was actually put to use. Not -only this, but practically every member of the -household had his own share in the work. The -children, as they gained in strength and capacity, -were gradually initiated into the mysteries of the -several processes. It was a matter of immediate -and personal concern, even to the point of actual -participation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We cannot overlook the factors of discipline -and of character-building involved in this: training -in habits of order and of industry, and in -<span class='pageno' id='Page_24'>24</span>the idea of responsibility, of obligation to do -something, to produce something, in the world. -There was always something which really -needed to be done, and a real necessity that each -member of the household should do his own part -faithfully and in coöperation with others. Personalities -which became effective in action were bred -and tested in the medium of action. Again, we -cannot overlook the importance for educational -purposes of the close and intimate acquaintance -got with nature at first hand, with real things and -materials, with the actual processes of their manipulation, -and the knowledge of their social necessities -and uses. In all this there was continual -training of observation, of ingenuity, constructive -imagination, of logical thought, and of the sense -of reality acquired through first-hand contact with -actualities. The educative forces of the domestic -spinning and weaving, of the saw-mill, the gristmill, -the cooper shop, and the blacksmith forge, -were continuously operative.</p> - -<p class='c000'>No number of object-lessons, got up <em>as</em> object-lessons -for the sake of giving information, can -afford even the shadow of a substitute for acquaintance -with the plants and animals of the -farm and garden, acquired through actual living -among them and caring for them. No training of -sense-organs in school, introduced for the sake of -training, can begin to compete with the alertness -<span class='pageno' id='Page_25'>25</span>and fullness of sense-life that comes through daily -intimacy and interest in familiar occupations. -Verbal memory can be trained in committing -tasks, a certain discipline of the reasoning -powers can be acquired through lessons in science -and mathematics; but, after all, this is -somewhat remote and shadowy compared with -the training of attention and of judgment that is -acquired in having to do things with a real motive -behind and a real outcome ahead. At present, -concentration of industry and division of labor -have practically eliminated household and neighborhood -occupations—at least for educational purposes. -But it is useless to bemoan the departure -of the good old days of children’s modesty, reverence, -and implicit obedience, if we expect merely -by bemoaning and by exhortation to bring them -back. It is radical conditions which have -changed, and only an equally radical change in -education suffices. We must recognize our compensations—the -increase in toleration, in breadth -of social judgment, the larger acquaintance with -human nature, the sharpened alertness in reading -signs of character and interpreting social situations, -greater accuracy of adaptation to differing -personalities, contact with greater commercial -activities. These considerations mean much to -the city-bred child of today. Yet there is a real -problem: how shall we retain these advantages, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_26'>26</span>and yet introduce into the school something representing -the other side of life—occupations -which exact personal responsibilities and which -train the child with relation to the physical realities -of life?</p> - -<p class='c000'>When we turn to the school, we find that one -of the most striking tendencies at present is -toward the introduction of so-called manual -training, shop-work, and the household arts—sewing -and cooking.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This has not been done “on purpose,” with a -full consciousness that the school must now supply -that factor of training formerly taken care of -in the home, but rather by instinct, by experimenting -and finding that such work takes a vital hold -of pupils and gives them something which was not -to be got in any other way. Consciousness of its -real import is still so weak that the work is often -done in a half-hearted, confused, and unrelated way. -The reasons assigned to justify it are painfully -inadequate or sometimes even positively wrong.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If we were to cross-examine even those who are -most favorably disposed to the introduction of -this work into our school system, we should, -I imagine, generally find the main reasons to be -that such work engages the full spontaneous interest -and attention of the children. It keeps them -alert and active, instead of passive and receptive; -it makes them more useful, more capable, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_27'>27</span>hence more inclined to be helpful at home; it -prepares them to some extent for the practical -duties of later life—the girls to be more efficient -house managers, if not actually cooks and sempstresses; -the boys (were our educational system -only adequately rounded out into trade schools) -for their future vocations. I do not underestimate -the worth of these reasons. Of those indicated -by the changed attitude of the children I -shall indeed have something to say in my next talk, -when speaking directly of the relationship of the -school to the child. But the point of view is, -upon the whole, unnecessarily narrow. We must -conceive of work in wood and metal, of weaving, -sewing, and cooking, as methods of life not as -distinct studies.</p> - -<p class='c000'>We must conceive of them in their social significance, -as types of the processes by which society -keeps itself going, as agencies for bringing home -to the child some of the primal necessities of community -life, and as ways in which these needs have -been met by the growing insight and ingenuity of -man; in short, as instrumentalities through which -the school itself shall be made a genuine form of -active community life, instead of a place set apart -in which to learn lessons.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A society is a number of people held together -because they are working along common lines, in -a common spirit, and with reference to common -<span class='pageno' id='Page_28'>28</span>aims. The common needs and aims demand a -growing interchange of thought and growing -unity of sympathetic feeling. The radical reason -that the present school cannot organize itself -as a natural social unit is because just this element -of common and productive activity is absent. -Upon the playground, in game and sport, -social organization takes place spontaneously and -inevitably. There is something to do, some -activity to be carried on, requiring natural divisions -of labor, selection of leaders and followers, -mutual coöperation and emulation. In the -schoolroom the motive and the cement of social -organization are alike wanting. Upon the ethical -side, the tragic weakness of the present school is -that it endeavors to prepare future members of -the social order in a medium in which the conditions -of the social spirit are eminently wanting.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The difference that appears when occupations -are made the articulating centers of school life is -not easy to describe in words; it is a difference -in motive, of spirit and atmosphere. As one -enters a busy kitchen in which a group of -children are actively engaged in the preparation -of food, the psychological difference, the change -from more or less passive and inert recipiency -and restraint to one of buoyant outgoing energy, -is so obvious as fairly to strike one in the face. -Indeed, to those whose image of the school is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_29'>29</span>rigidly set the change is sure to give a shock. -But the change in the social attitude is equally -marked. The mere absorption of facts and -truths is so exclusively individual an affair that -it tends very naturally to pass into selfishness. -There is no obvious social motive for the -acquirement of mere learning, there is no clear -social gain in success thereat. Indeed, almost -the only measure for success is a competitive -one, in the bad sense of that term—a comparison -of results in the recitation or in the examination -to see which child has succeeded in -getting ahead of others in storing up, in accumulating -the maximum of information. So thoroughly -is this the prevalent atmosphere that for -one child to help another in his task has become -a school crime. Where the school work consists -in simply learning lessons, mutual assistance, -instead of being the most natural form of coöperation -and association, becomes a clandestine -effort to relieve one’s neighbor of his proper -duties. Where active work is going on all this is -changed. Helping others, instead of being a -form of charity which impoverishes the recipient, -is simply an aid in setting free the powers and -furthering the impulse of the one helped. A -spirit of free communication, of interchange of -ideas, suggestions, results, both successes and -failures of previous experiences, becomes the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_30'>30</span>dominating note of the recitation. So far as -emulation enters in, it is in the comparison of -individuals, not with regard to the quantity of -information personally absorbed, but with reference -to the quality of work done—the genuine -community standard of value. In an informal -but all the more pervasive way, the school life -organizes itself on a social basis.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Within this organization is found the principle -of school discipline or order. Of course, order -is simply a thing which is relative to an end. If -you have the end in view of forty or fifty -children learning certain set lessons, to be -recited to a teacher, your discipline must be -devoted to securing that result. But if the end -in view is the development of a spirit of social -coöperation and community life, discipline must -grow out of and be relative to this. There is -little order of one sort where things are in -process of construction; there is a certain -disorder in any busy workshop; there is not -silence; persons are not engaged in maintaining -certain fixed physical postures; their arms are not -folded; they are not holding their books thus -and so. They are doing a variety of things, and -there is the confusion, the bustle, that results -from activity. But out of occupation, out of -doing things that are to produce results, and out -of doing these in a social and coöperative way, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_31'>31</span>there is born a discipline of its own kind and -type. Our whole conception of school discipline -changes when we get this point of view. In -critical moments we all realize that the only -discipline that stands by us, the only training that -becomes intuition, is that got through life itself. -That we learn from experience, and from books -or the sayings of others <em>only</em> as they are related -to experience, are not mere phrases. But the -school has been so set apart, so isolated from -the ordinary conditions and motives of life, that -the place where children are sent for discipline -is the one place in the world where it is most -difficult to get experience—the mother of all -discipline worth the name. It is only where a -narrow and fixed image of traditional school -discipline dominates, that one is in any danger of -overlooking that deeper and infinitely wider discipline -that comes from having a part to do in constructive -work, in contributing to a result which, -social in spirit, is none the less obvious and tangible -in form—and hence in a form with reference -to which responsibility may be exacted and accurate -judgment passed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The great thing to keep in mind, then, regarding -the introduction into the school of various -forms of active occupation, is that through them -the entire spirit of the school is renewed. It has -a chance to affiliate itself with life, to become the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_32'>32</span>child’s habitat, where he learns through directed -living; instead of being only a place to learn -lessons having an abstract and remote reference -to some possible living to be done in the -future. It gets a chance to be a miniature community, -an embryonic society. This is the fundamental -fact, and from this arise continuous and -orderly sources of instruction. Under the industrial -<i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">régime</span></i> described, the child, after all, shared in the -work, not for the sake of the sharing, but for the -sake of the product. The educational results secured -were real, yet incidental and dependent. -But in the school the typical occupations followed -are freed from all economic stress. The aim is -not the economic value of the products, but the -development of social power and insight. It is -this liberation from narrow utilities, this openness -to the possibilities of the human spirit that makes -these practical activities in the school allies of -art and centers of science and history.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The unity of all the sciences is found in geography. -The significance of geography is that it -presents the earth as the enduring home of the -occupations of man. The world without its relationship -to human activity is less than a world. -Human industry and achievement, apart from their -roots in the earth, are not even a sentiment, hardly -a name. The earth is the final source of all man’s -food. It is his continual shelter and protection, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_33'>33</span>the raw material of all his activities, and the -home to whose humanizing and idealizing all his -achievement returns. It is the great field, the -great mine, the great source of the energies of -heat, light, and electricity; the great scene of -ocean, stream, mountain, and plain, of which all -our agriculture and mining and lumbering, all our -manufacturing and distributing agencies, are but -the partial elements and factors. It is through -occupations determined by this environment that -mankind has made its historical and political -progress. It is through these occupations that the -intellectual and emotional interpretation of nature -has been developed. It is through what we do -in and with the world that we read its meaning -and measure its value.</p> - -<p class='c000'>In educational terms, this means that these -occupations in the school shall not be mere practical -devices or modes of routine employment, -the gaining of better technical skill as cooks, -sempstresses, or carpenters, but active centers of -scientific insight into natural materials and processes, -points of departure whence children shall -be led out into a realization of the historic development -of man. The actual significance of -this can be told better through one illustration -taken from actual school work than by general -discourse.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There is nothing which strikes more oddly upon -<span class='pageno' id='Page_34'>34</span>the average intelligent visitor than to see boys as -well as girls of ten, twelve, and thirteen years of -age engaged in sewing and weaving. If we look -at this from the standpoint of preparation of the -boys for sewing on buttons and making patches, -we get a narrow and utilitarian conception—a -basis that hardly justifies giving prominence to -this sort of work in the school. But if we look -at it from another side, we find that this work -gives the point of departure from which the child -can trace and follow the progress of mankind in -history, getting an insight also into the materials -used and the mechanical principles involved. In -connection with these occupations, the historic -development of man is recapitulated. For example, -the children are first given the raw material—the -flax, the cotton plant, the wool as it comes -from the back of the sheep (if we could take them -to the place where the sheep are sheared, so much -the better). Then a study is made of these materials -from the standpoint of their adaptation to -the uses to which they may be put. For instance, -a comparison of the cotton fiber with wool fiber is -made. I did not know until the children told -me, that the reason for the late development of -the cotton industry as compared with the woolen -is, that the cotton fiber is so very difficult to free -by hand from the seeds. The children in one -group worked thirty minutes freeing cotton fibers -<span class='pageno' id='Page_35'>35</span>from the boll and seeds, and succeeded in getting -out less than one ounce. They could -easily believe that one person could only gin -one pound a day by hand, and could understand -why their ancestors wore woolen instead -of cotton clothing. Among other things discovered -as affecting their relative utilities, was -the shortness of the cotton fiber as compared with -that of wool, the former being one-tenth of an -inch in length, while that of the latter is an inch -in length; also that the fibers of cotton are smooth -and do not cling together, while the wool has a -certain roughness which makes the fibers stick, thus -assisting the spinning. The children worked this -out for themselves with the actual material, aided -by questions and suggestions from the teacher.</p> - -<p class='c000'>They then followed the processes necessary for -working the fibers up into cloth. They re-invented -the first frame for carding the wool—a couple of -boards with sharp pins in them for scratching it -out. They re-devised the simplest process for -spinning the wool—a pierced stone or some -other weight through which the wool is passed, -and which as it is twirled draws out the fiber; -next the top, which was spun on the floor, while -the children kept the wool in their hands until -it was gradually drawn out and wound upon -it. Then the children are introduced to the invention -next in historic order, working it out -<span class='pageno' id='Page_36'>36</span>experimentally, thus seeing its necessity, and -tracing its effects, not only upon that particular -industry, but upon modes of social life—in this -way passing in review the entire process up to -the present complete loom, and all that goes with -the application of science in the use of our present -available powers. I need not speak of the -science involved in this—the study of the fibers, -of geographical features, the conditions under -which raw materials are grown, the great centers -of manufacture and distribution, the physics -involved in the machinery of production; nor, -again, of the historical side—the influence which -these inventions have had upon humanity. You -can concentrate the history of all mankind into -the evolution of the flax, cotton, and wool fibers -into clothing. I do not mean that this is the -only, or the best, center. But it is true that -certain very real and important avenues to the -consideration of the history of the race are thus -opened—that the mind is introduced to much -more fundamental and controlling influences than -usually appear in the political and chronological -records that pass for history.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Now, what is true of this one instance of fibers -used in fabrics (and, of course, I have only -spoken of one or two elementary phases of that) -is true in its measure of every material used in -every occupation, and of the processes employed. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_37'>37</span>The occupation supplies the child with a genuine -motive; it gives him experience at first hand; -it brings him into contact with realities. It does -all this, but in addition it is liberalized throughout -by translation into its historic values and -scientific equivalencies. With the growth of the -child’s mind in power and knowledge it ceases to -be a pleasant occupation merely, and becomes -more and more a medium, an instrument, an -organ—and is thereby transformed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This, in turn, has its bearing upon the teaching -of science. Under present conditions, all activity, -to be successful, has to be directed somewhere -and somehow by the scientific expert—it is a -case of applied science. This connection should -determine its place in education. It is not only -that the occupations, the so-called manual or -industrial work in the school, give the opportunity -for the introduction of science which -illuminates them, which makes them material, -freighted with meaning, instead of being mere -devices of hand and eye; but that the scientific -insight thus gained becomes an indispensable -instrument of free and active participation in -modern social life. Plato somewhere speaks of -the slave as one who in his actions does not -express his own ideas, but those of some other -man. It is our social problem now, even more -urgent than in the time of Plato, that method, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_38'>38</span>purpose, understanding, shall exist in the consciousness -of the one who does the work, that -his activity shall have meaning to himself.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When occupations in the school are conceived -in this broad and generous way, I can only stand -lost in wonder at the objections so often heard, -that such occupations are out of place in the -school because they are materialistic, utilitarian, -or even menial in their tendency. It sometimes -seems to me that those who make these objections -must live in quite another world. The world in -which most of us live is a world in which everyone -has a calling and occupation, something to -do. Some are managers and others are subordinates. -But the great thing for one as for -the other is that each shall have had the education -which enables him to see within his daily work -all there is in it of large and human significance. -How many of the employed are today mere -appendages to the machines which they operate! -This may be due in part to the machine itself, or -to the <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">régime</span></i> which lays so much stress upon the -products of the machine; but it is certainly due -in large part to the fact that the worker has had -no opportunity to develop his imagination and his -sympathetic insight as to the social and scientific -values found in his work. At present, the impulses -which lie at the basis of the industrial system are -either practically neglected or positively distorted -<span class='pageno' id='Page_39'>39</span>during the school period. Until the instincts of -construction and production are systematically -laid hold of in the years of childhood and youth, -until they are trained in social directions, enriched -by historical interpretation, controlled and illuminated -by scientific methods, we certainly are in -no position even to locate the source of our economic -evils, much less to deal with them effectively.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If we go back a few centuries, we find a practical -monopoly of learning. The term <em>possession</em> -of learning was, indeed, a happy one. Learning -was a class matter. This was a necessary result -of social conditions. There were not in existence -any means by which the multitude could possibly -have access to intellectual resources. These were -stored up and hidden away in manuscripts. Of -these there were at best only a few, and it required -long and toilsome preparation to be able -to do anything with them. A high-priesthood of -learning, which guarded the treasury of truth and -which doled it out to the masses under severe restrictions, -was the inevitable expression of these -conditions. But, as a direct result of the industrial -revolution of which we have been speaking, -this has been changed. Printing was invented; -it was made commercial. Books, magazines, -papers were multiplied and cheapened. As a -result of the locomotive and telegraph, frequent, -rapid, and cheap intercommunication by -<span class='pageno' id='Page_40'>40</span>mails and electricity was called into being. -Travel has been rendered easy; freedom of movement, -with its accompanying exchange of ideas, -indefinitely facilitated. The result has been an -intellectual revolution. Learning has been put -into circulation. While there still is, and probably -always will be, a particular class having the -special business of inquiry in hand, a distinctively -learned class is henceforth out of the question. -It is an anachronism. Knowledge is no longer an -immobile solid; it has been liquefied. It is actively -moving in all the currents of society itself.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is easy to see that this revolution, as regards -the materials of knowledge, carries with it a -marked change in the attitude of the individual. -Stimuli of an intellectual sort pour in upon us in -all kinds of ways. The merely intellectual life, -the life of scholarship and of learning, thus gets a -very altered value. Academic and scholastic, -instead of being titles of honor, are becoming -terms of reproach.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But all this means a necessary change in the -attitude of the school, one of which we are as -yet far from realizing the full force. Our school -methods, and to a very considerable extent our -curriculum, are inherited from the period when -learning and command of certain symbols, affording -as they did the only access to learning, were -all-important. The ideals of this period are still -<span class='pageno' id='Page_41'>41</span>largely in control, even where the outward methods -and studies have been changed. We sometimes -hear the introduction of manual training, -art and science into the elementary, and even the -secondary schools, deprecated on the ground that -they tend toward the production of specialists—that -they detract from our present scheme of -generous, liberal culture. The point of this objection -would be ludicrous if it were not often so -effective as to make it tragic. It is our present -education which is highly specialized, one-sided -and narrow. It is an education dominated almost -entirely by the mediæval conception of learning. -It is something which appeals for the most part -simply to the intellectual aspect of our natures, -our desire to learn, to accumulate information, -and to get control of the symbols of learning; -not to our impulses and tendencies to make, to -do, to create, to produce, whether in the form -of utility or of art. The very fact that manual -training, art and science are objected to as technical, -as tending toward mere specialism, is of -itself as good testimony as could be offered to -the specialized aim which controls current education. -Unless education had been virtually identified -with the exclusively intellectual pursuits, -with learning as such, all these materials and -methods would be welcome, would be greeted -with the utmost hospitality.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_42'>42</span>While training for the profession of learning -is regarded as the type of culture, as a liberal -education, that of a mechanic, a musician, a -lawyer, a doctor, a farmer, a merchant, or a -railroad manager is regarded as purely technical -and professional. The result is that which we -see about us everywhere—the division into “cultured” -people and “workers,” the separation of -theory and practice. Hardly one per cent. of -the entire school population ever attains to what -we call higher education; only five per cent. to -the grade of our high school; while much more -than half leave on or before the completion of -the fifth year of the elementary grade. The simple -facts of the case are that in the great majority -of human beings the distinctively intellectual -interest is not dominant. They have the so-called -practical impulse and disposition. In many of those -in whom by nature intellectual interest is strong, -social conditions prevent its adequate realization. -Consequently by far the larger number of pupils -leave school as soon as they have acquired the -rudiments of learning, as soon as they have enough -of the symbols of reading, writing, and calculating -to be of practical use to them in getting a -living. While our educational leaders are talking -of culture, the development of personality, -etc., as the end and aim of education, the great -majority of those who pass under the tuition of -<span class='pageno' id='Page_43'>43</span>the school regard it only as a narrowly practical -tool with which to get bread and butter enough -to eke out a restricted life. If we were to conceive -our educational end and aim in a less -exclusive way, if we were to introduce into educational -processes the activities which appeal to -those whose dominant interest is to do and to -make, we should find the hold of the school upon -its members to be more vital, more prolonged, -containing more of culture.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But why should I make this labored presentation? -The obvious fact is that our social life has -undergone a thorough and radical change. If -our education is to have any meaning for life, -it must pass through an equally complete transformation. -This transformation is not something -to appear suddenly, to be executed in a day by -conscious purpose. It is already in progress. -Those modifications of our school system which -often appear (even to those most actively concerned -with them, to say nothing of their spectators) -to be mere changes of detail, mere improvement -within the school mechanism, are in reality -signs and evidences of evolution. The introduction -of active occupations, of nature study, -of elementary science, of art, of history; the -relegation of the merely symbolic and formal to -a secondary position; the change in the moral -school atmosphere, in the relation of pupils and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_44'>44</span>teachers—of discipline; the introduction of more -active, expressive, and self-directing factors—all -these are not mere accidents, they are necessities -of the larger social evolution. It remains -but to organize all these factors, to appreciate -them in their fullness of meaning, and to put the -ideas and ideals involved into complete, uncompromising -possession of our school system. To -do this means to make each one of our schools -an embryonic community life, active with types -of occupations that reflect the life of the larger -society, and permeated throughout with the -spirit of art, history, and science. When the -school introduces and trains each child of society -into membership within such a little community, -saturating him with the spirit of service, and providing -him with the instruments of effective self-direction, -we shall have the deepest and best -guarantee of a larger society which is worthy, -lovely, and harmonious.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_47'>47</span> - <h2 class='c007'>II<br /> THE SCHOOL AND THE LIFE OF THE CHILD</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>Last week I tried to put before you the relationship -between the school and the larger life -of the community, and the necessity for certain -changes in the methods and materials of school -work, that it might be better adapted to present -social needs.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Today I wish to look at the matter from the -other side, and consider the relationship of the -school to the life and development of the children -in the school. As it is difficult to connect -general principles with such thoroughly concrete -things as little children, I have taken the liberty -of introducing a good deal of illustrative matter -from the work of the University Elementary -School, that in some measure you may appreciate -the way in which the ideas presented work themselves -out in actual practice.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Some few years ago I was looking about the -school supply stores in the city, trying to find -desks and chairs which seemed thoroughly suitable -from all points of view—artistic, hygienic, -and educational—to the needs of the children. -We had a good deal of difficulty in finding what -<span class='pageno' id='Page_48'>48</span>we needed, and finally one dealer, more intelligent -than the rest, made this remark: “I am afraid -we have not what you want. You want something -at which the children may work; these are -all for listening.” That tells the story of the traditional -education. Just as the biologist can take -a bone or two and reconstruct the whole animal, -so, if we put before the mind’s eye the ordinary -schoolroom, with its rows of ugly desks placed in -geometrical order, crowded together so that there -shall be as little moving room as possible, desks -almost all of the same size, with just space enough -to hold books, pencils and paper, and add a table, -some chairs, the bare walls, and possibly a few pictures, -we can reconstruct the only educational -activity that can possibly go on in such a place. -It is all made “for listening”—for simply studying -lessons out of a book is only another kind of -listening; it marks the dependency of one mind -upon another. The attitude of listening means, -comparatively speaking, passivity, absorption; -that there are certain ready-made materials which -are there, which have been prepared by the school -superintendent, the board, the teacher, and of -which the child is to take in as much as possible -in the least possible time.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There is very little place in the traditional -schoolroom for the child to work. The workshop, -the laboratory, the materials, the tools with which -<span class='pageno' id='Page_49'>49</span>the child may construct, create, and actively inquire, -and even the requisite space, have been for -the most part lacking. The things that have to -do with these processes have not even a definitely -recognized place in education. They are what the -educational authorities who write editorials in the -daily papers generally term “fads” and “frills.” -A lady told me yesterday that she had been -visiting different schools trying to find one where -activity on the part of the children preceded -the giving of information on the part of the -teacher, or where the children had some motive -for demanding the information. She visited, -she said, twenty-four different schools before she -found her first instance. I may add that that was -not in this city.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Another thing that is suggested by these schoolrooms, -with their set desks, is that everything is -arranged for handling as large numbers of children -as possible; for dealing with children <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">en masse</span></i>, -as an aggregate of units; involving, again, that -they be treated passively. The moment children -act they individualize themselves; they cease to -be a mass, and become the intensely distinctive -beings that we are acquainted with out of school, -in the home, the family, on the playground, and -in the neighborhood.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the same basis is explicable the uniformity -of method and curriculum. If everything is on -<span class='pageno' id='Page_50'>50</span>a “listening” basis, you can have uniformity of -material and method. The ear, and the book -which reflects the ear, constitute the medium -which is alike for all. There is next to no opportunity -for adjustment to varying capacities and -demands. There is a certain amount—a fixed -quantity—of ready-made results and accomplishments -to be acquired by all children alike in a -given time. It is in response to this demand -that the curriculum has been developed from the -elementary school up through the college. There -is just so much desirable knowledge, and there -are just so many needed technical accomplishments -in the world. Then comes the mathematical -problem of dividing this by the six, -twelve, or sixteen years of school life. Now -give the children every year just the proportionate -fraction of the total, and by the time they have -finished they will have mastered the whole. By -covering so much ground during this hour or day -or week or year, everything comes out with perfect -evenness at the end—provided the children -have not forgotten what they have previously -learned. The outcome of all this is Matthew -Arnold’s report of the statement, proudly made -to him by an educational authority in France, that -so many thousands of children were studying at a -given hour, say eleven o’clock, just such a lesson -in geography; and in one of our own western -<span class='pageno' id='Page_51'>51</span>cities this proud boast used to be repeated to -successive visitors by its superintendent.</p> - -<p class='c000'>I may have exaggerated somewhat in order to -make plain the typical points of the old education: -its passivity of attitude, its mechanical massing of -children, its uniformity of curriculum and method. -It may be summed up by stating that the center of -gravity is outside the child. It is in the teacher, -the text-book, anywhere and everywhere you -please except in the immediate instincts and activities -of the child himself. On that basis there -is not much to be said about the <em>life</em> of the child. -A good deal might be said about the studying of -the child, but the school is not the place where -the child <em>lives</em>. Now the change which is coming -into our education is the shifting of the center -of gravity. It is a change, a revolution, not -unlike that introduced by Copernicus when the -astronomical center shifted from the earth to -the sun. In this case the child becomes the sun -about which the appliances of education revolve; -he is the center about which they are organized.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If we take an example from an ideal home, -where the parent is intelligent enough to recognize -what is best for the child, and is able to supply -what is needed, we find the child learning -through the social converse and constitution of -the family. There are certain points of interest -and value to him in the conversation carried on: -<span class='pageno' id='Page_52'>52</span>statements are made, inquiries arise, topics are -discussed, and the child continually learns. He -states his experiences, his misconceptions are corrected. -Again the child participates in the household -occupations, and thereby gets habits of -industry, order, and regard for the rights and -ideas of others, and the fundamental habit of subordinating -his activities to the general interest of -the household. Participation in these household -tasks becomes an opportunity for gaining knowledge. -The ideal home would naturally have a -workshop where the child could work out his -constructive instincts. It would have a miniature -laboratory in which his inquiries could -be directed. The life of the child would extend -out of doors to the garden, surrounding fields, -and forests. He would have his excursions, his -walks and talks, in which the larger world out of -doors would open to him.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Now, if we organize and generalize all of this, -we have the ideal school. There is no mystery -about it, no wonderful discovery of pedagogy or -educational theory. It is simply a question of doing -systematically and in a large, intelligent, and -competent way what for various reasons can be -done in most households only in a comparatively -meager and haphazard manner. In the first place, -the ideal home has to be enlarged. The child -must be brought into contact with more grown -<span class='pageno' id='Page_53'>53</span>people and with more children in order that there -may be the freest and richest social life. Moreover, -the occupations and relationships of the -home environment are not specially selected for -the growth of the child; the main object is something -else, and what the child can get out of them -is incidental. Hence the need of a school. In -this school the life of the child becomes the all-controlling -aim. All the media necessary to further -the growth of the child center there. Learning?—certainly, -but living primarily, and learning -through and in relation to this living. When we -take the life of the child centered and organized -in this way, we do not find that he is first of all a -listening being; quite the contrary.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The statement so frequently made that education -means “drawing out” is excellent, if we mean -simply to contrast it with the process of pouring -in. But, after all, it is difficult to connect the idea -of drawing out with the ordinary doings of the -child of three, four, seven, or eight years of age. -He is already running over, spilling over, with -activities of all kinds. He is not a purely latent -being whom the adult has to approach with great -caution and skill in order gradually to draw out -some hidden germ of activity. The child is already -intensely active, and the question of education is -the question of taking hold of his activities, of -giving them direction. Through direction, through -<span class='pageno' id='Page_54'>54</span>organized use, they tend toward valuable results, -instead of scattering or being left to merely -impulsive expression.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If we keep this before us, the difficulty I find -uppermost in the minds of many people regarding -what is termed the new education is not so -much solved as dissolved; it disappears. A question -often asked is: if you begin with the child’s -ideas, impulses and interests, all so crude, so -random and scattering, so little refined or spiritualized, -how is he going to get the necessary discipline, -culture and information? If there were -no way open to us except to excite and indulge -these impulses of the child, the question might -well be asked. We should either have to ignore -and repress the activities, or else to humor them. -But if we have organization of equipment and of -materials, there is another path open to us. We -can direct the child’s activities, giving them exercise -along certain lines, and can thus lead up to -the goal which logically stands at the end of -the paths followed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>“If wishes were horses, beggars would ride.” -Since they are not, since really to satisfy an -impulse or interest means to work it out, and working -it out involves running up against obstacles, -becoming acquainted with materials, exercising -ingenuity, patience, persistence, alertness, it of -necessity involves discipline—ordering of power—and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_55'>55</span>supplies knowledge. Take the example -of the little child who wants to make a box. If -he stops short with the imagination or wish, he -certainly will not get discipline. But when he -attempts to realize his impulse, it is a question of -making his idea definite, making it into a plan, of -taking the right kind of wood, measuring the -parts needed, giving them the necessary proportions, -etc. There is involved the preparation of -materials, the sawing, planing, the sand-papering, -making all the edges and corners to fit. Knowledge -of tools and processes is inevitable. If the -child realizes his instinct and makes the box, there -is plenty of opportunity to gain discipline and -perseverance, to exercise effort in overcoming -obstacles, and to attain as well a great deal of -information.</p> - -<p class='c000'>So undoubtedly the little child who thinks he -would like to cook has little idea of what it -means or costs, or what it requires. It is simply -a desire to “mess around,” perhaps to imitate -the activities of older people. And it is doubtless -possible to let ourselves down to that level -and simply humor that interest. But here, too, -if the impulse is exercised, utilized, it runs up -against the actual world of hard conditions, to -which it must accommodate itself; and there -again come in the factors of discipline and knowledge. -One of the children became impatient -<span class='pageno' id='Page_56'>56</span>recently, at having to work things out by a long -method of experimentation, and said: “Why do -we bother with this? Let’s follow a recipe in -a cook-book.” The teacher asked the children -where the recipe came from, and the conversation -showed that if they simply followed this they -would not understand the reasons for what they -were doing. They were then quite willing to go -on with the experimental work. To follow that -work will, indeed, give an illustration of just the -point in question. Their occupation happened -that day to be the cooking of eggs, as making a -transition from the cooking of vegetables to that -of meats. In order to get a basis of comparison -they first summarized the constituent food elements -in the vegetables and made a preliminary comparison -with those found in meat. Thus they found -that the woody fiber or cellulose in vegetables corresponded -to the connective tissue in meat, giving -the element of form and structure. They found -that starch and starchy products were characteristic -of the vegetables, that mineral salts were -found in both alike, and that there was fat in -both—a small quantity in vegetable food and a -large amount in animal. They were prepared -then to take up the study of albumen as the -characteristic feature of animal food, corresponding -to starch in the vegetables, and were ready -to consider the conditions requisite for the proper -treatment of albumen—the eggs serving as the -material of experiment.</p> - -<div id='i56' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_057.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>CHILD’S DRAWING OF A CAVE AND TREES</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_57'>57</span>They experimented first by taking water at -various temperatures, finding out when it was -scalding, simmering, and boiling hot, and ascertained -the effect of the various degrees of temperature -on the white of the egg. That worked -out, they were prepared, not simply to cook -eggs, but to understand the principle involved -in the cooking of eggs. I do not wish to lose -sight of the universal in the particular incident. -For the child simply to desire to cook an egg, -and accordingly drop it in water for three minutes, -and take it out when he is told, is not educative. -But for the child to realize his own -impulse by recognizing the facts, materials and -conditions involved, and then to regulate his -impulse through that recognition, is educative. -This is the difference, upon which I wish to insist, -between exciting or indulging an interest and -realizing it through its direction.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Another instinct of the child is the use of -pencil and paper. All children like to express -themselves through the medium of form and -color. If you simply indulge this interest by -letting the child go on indefinitely, there is no -growth that is more than accidental. But let the -child first express his impulse, and then through -criticism, question, and suggestion bring him to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_58'>58</span>consciousness of what he has done, and what he -needs to do, and the result is quite different. -Here, for example, is the work of a seven-year-old -child. It is not average work, it is the best work -done among the little children, but it illustrates -the particular principle of which I have been -speaking. They had been talking about the -primitive conditions of social life when people -lived in caves. The child’s idea of that found -expression in this way: the cave is neatly set up -on the hill side in an impossible way. You see -the conventional tree of childhood; a vertical -line with horizontal branches on each side. If -the child had been allowed to go on repeating -this sort of thing day by day, he would be indulging -his instinct rather than exercising it. But -the child was now asked to look closely at trees, -to compare those seen with the one drawn, to -examine more closely and consciously into the -conditions of his work. Then he drew trees from -observation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Finally he drew again from combined observation, -memory, and imagination. He made again -a free illustration, expressing his own imaginative -thought, but controlled by detailed study of -actual trees. The result was a scene representing -a bit of forest; so far as it goes, it seems to me -to have as much poetic feeling as the work of an -adult, while at the same time its trees are, in -their proportions possible ones, not mere symbols.</p> - -<div id='i58' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_061.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>CHILD’S DRAWING OF A FOREST</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_59'>59</span>If we roughly classify the impulses which are -available in the school, we may group them -under four heads. There is the social instinct of -the children as shown in conversation, personal -intercourse, and communication. We all know -how self-centered the little child is at the age of -four or five. If any new subject is brought up, -if he says anything at all, it is: “I have seen -that;” or, “My papa or mamma told me about -that.” His horizon is not large; an experience -must come immediately home to him, if he is to -be sufficiently interested to relate it to others -and seek theirs in return. And yet the egoistic -and limited interest of little children is in this -manner capable of infinite expansion. The language -instinct is the simplest form of the social -expression of the child. Hence it is a great, -perhaps the greatest of all educational resources.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Then there is the instinct of making—the -constructive impulse. The child’s impulse to -do finds expression first in play, in movement, -gesture, and make-believe, becomes more definite, -and seeks outlet in shaping materials into tangible -forms and permanent embodiment. The child has -not much instinct for abstract inquiry. The -instinct of investigation seems to grow out of the -combination of the constructive impulse with the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_60'>60</span>conversational. There is no distinction between -experimental science for little children and the -work done in the carpenter shop. Such work as -they can do in physics or chemistry is not for -the purpose of making technical generalizations -or even arriving at abstract truths. Children -simply like to do things, and watch to see what -will happen. But this can be taken advantage -of, can be directed into ways where it gives -results of value, as well as be allowed to go on -at random.</p> - -<p class='c000'>And so the expressive impulse of the children, -the art instinct, grows also out of the communicating -and constructive instincts. It is their refinement -and full manifestation. Make the construction -adequate, make it full, free, and flexible, give -it a social motive, something to tell, and you have -a work of art. Take one illustration of this in connection -with the textile work—sewing and weaving. -The children made a primitive loom in the -shop; here the constructive instinct was appealed -to. Then they wished to do something with this -loom, to make something. It was the type of -the Indian loom, and they were shown blankets -woven by the Indians. Each child made a -design kindred in idea to those of the Navajo -blankets, and the one which seemed best adapted -to the work in hand was selected. The technical -resources were limited, but the coloring and form -were worked out by the children. The example -shown was made by the twelve-year-old children. -Examination shows that it took patience, thoroughness, -and perseverance to do the work. It -involved not merely discipline and information of -both a historical sort and the elements of technical -design, but also something of the spirit of -art in adequately conveying an idea.</p> - -<div id='i60' class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_065.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>CHILD’S DRAWING OF HANDS SPINNING</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_61'>61</span>One more instance of the connection of the -art side with the constructive side. The children -had been studying primitive spinning and carding, -when one of them, twelve years of age, made -a picture of one of the older children spinning. -Here is another piece of work which is not quite -average; it is better than the average. It is an -illustration of two hands and the drawing out of -the wool to get it ready for spinning. This was -done by a child eleven years of age. But, upon -the whole, with the younger children especially, -the art impulse is connected mainly with the -social instinct—the desire to tell, to represent.</p> - -<div id='i62' class='figcenter id002'> -<img src='images/i_069.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>CHILD’S DRAWING OF A GIRL SPINNING</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>Now, keeping in mind these fourfold interests—the -interest in conversation or communication; -in inquiry, or finding out things; in making -things, or construction; and in artistic expression—we -may say they are the natural resources, -the uninvested capital, upon the exercise of which -depends the active growth of the child. I wish -to give one or two illustrations, the first from the -work of children seven years of age. It illustrates -in a way the dominant desire of the children -to talk, particularly about folks and of things -in relation to folks. If you observe little children, -you will find they are interested in the -world of things mainly in its connection with -people, as a background and medium of human -concerns. Many anthropologists have told us -there are certain identities in the child interests -with those of primitive life. There is a sort or -natural recurrence of the child mind to the -typical activities of primitive peoples; witness -the hut which the boy likes to build in the -yard, playing hunt, with bows, arrows, spears, -and so on. Again the question comes: What -are we to do with this interest—are we to ignore -it, or just excite and draw it out? Or shall we -get hold of it and direct it to something ahead, -something better? Some of the work that has -been planned for our seven-year-old children has -the latter end in view—to utilize this interest -so that it shall become a means of seeing the -progress of the human race. The children begin -by imagining present conditions taken away until -they are in contact with nature at first hand. -That takes them back to a hunting people, to a -people living in caves or trees and getting a precarious -subsistence by hunting and fishing. They -imagine as far as possible the various natural -<span class='pageno' id='Page_63'>63</span>physical conditions adapted to that sort of life; -say, a hilly, woody slope, near mountains and -a river where fish would be abundant. Then -they go on in imagination through the hunting to -the semi-agricultural stage, and through the nomadic -to the settled agricultural stage. The -point I wish to make is that there is abundant -opportunity thus given for actual study, for inquiry -which results in gaining information. So, -while the instinct primarily appeals to the social -side, the interest of the child in people and their -doings is carried on into the larger world of -reality. For example, the children had some -idea of primitive weapons, of the stone arrowhead, -etc. That provided occasion for the testing -of materials as regards their friability, their shape, -texture, etc., resulting in a lesson in mineralogy, as -they examined the different stones to find which -was best suited to the purpose. The discussion -of the iron age supplied a demand for the construction -of a smelting oven made out of clay, -and of considerable size. As the children did -not get their drafts right at first, the mouth of -the furnace not being in proper relation to the -vent, as to size and position, instruction in the -principles of combustion, the nature of drafts and -of fuel, was required. Yet the instruction was not -given ready-made; it was first needed, and then -arrived at experimentally. Then the children -<span class='pageno' id='Page_64'>64</span>took some material, such as copper, and went -through a series of experiments, fusing it, working -it into objects; and the same experiments -were made with lead and other metals. This work -has been also a continuous course in geography, -since the children have had to imagine and -work out the various physical conditions necessary -to the different forms of social life implied. -What would be the physical conditions appropriate -to pastoral life? to the beginning of agriculture? -to fishing? What would be the natural -method of exchange between these peoples? -Having worked out such points in conversation, -they have afterward represented them in maps -and sand-molding. Thus they have gained ideas -of the various forms of the configuration of the -earth, and at the same time have seen them -in their relation to human activity, so that they -are not simply external facts, but are fused and -welded with social conceptions regarding the life -and progress of humanity. The result, to my -mind, justifies completely the conviction that -children, in a year of such work (of five hours a -week altogether), get indefinitely more acquaintance -with facts of science, geography, and -anthropology than they get where information is -the professed end and object, where they are -simply set to learning facts in fixed lessons. As -to discipline, they get more training of attention, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_65'>65</span>more power of interpretation, of drawing inferences, -of acute observation and continuous reflection, -than if they were put to working out arbitrary -problems simply for the sake of discipline.</p> - -<p class='c000'>I should like at this point to refer to the recitation. -We all know what it has been—a placer -where the child shows off to the teacher and the -other children the amount of information he has -succeeded in assimilating from the text-book. -From this other standpoint, the recitation becomes -preëminently a social meeting place; it is -to the school what the spontaneous conversation -is at home, excepting that it is more organized, -following definite lines. The recitation becomes -the social clearing-house, where experiences and -ideas are exchanged and subjected to criticism, -where misconceptions are corrected, and new -lines of thought and inquiry are set up.</p> - -<p class='c000'>This change of the recitation from an examination -of knowledge already acquired to the free -play of the children’s communicative instinct, -affects and modifies all the language work of the -school. Under the old <i><span lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">régime</span></i> it was unquestionably -a most serious problem to give the -children a full and free use of language. The -reason was obvious. The natural motive for -language was seldom offered. In the pedagogical -text-books language is defined as the -medium of expressing thought. It becomes -<span class='pageno' id='Page_66'>66</span>that, more or less, to adults with trained minds, -but it hardly needs to be said that language -is primarily a social thing, a means by which -we give our experiences to others and get theirs -again in return. When it is taken from its -natural basis, it is no wonder that it becomes a -complex and difficult problem to teach language. -Think of the absurdity of having to teach language -as a thing by itself. If there is anything the -child will do before he goes to school, it is to -talk of the things that interest him. But when -there are no vital interests appealed to in the -school, when language is used simply for the repetition -of lessons, it is not surprising that one of the -chief difficulties of school work has come to be -instruction in the mother-tongue. Since the language -taught is unnatural, not growing out of the -real desire to communicate vital impressions and -convictions, the freedom of children in its use -gradually disappears, until finally the high-school -teacher has to invent all kinds of devices to -assist in getting any spontaneous and full use of -speech. Moreover, when the language instinct is -appealed to in a social way, there is a continual -contact with reality. The result is that the child -always has something in his mind to talk about, -he has something to say; he has a thought to -express, and a thought is not a thought unless -it is one’s own. On the traditional method, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_67'>67</span>the child must say something that he has merely -learned. There is all the difference in the -world between having something to say and -having to say something. The child who has a -variety of materials and facts wants to talk about -them, and his language becomes more refined -and full, because it is controlled and informed -by realities. Reading and writing, as well as the -oral use of language, may be taught on this basis. -It can be done in a <em>related</em> way, as the outgrowth -of the child’s social desire to recount his experiences -and get in return the experiences of others, -directed always through contact with the facts -and forces which determine the truth communicated.</p> - -<p class='c000'>I shall not have time to speak of the work of -the older children, where the original crude instincts -of construction and communication have -been developed into something like scientifically -directed inquiry, but I will give an illustration of -the use of language following upon this experimental -work. The work was on the basis of a -simple experiment of the commonest sort, gradually -leading the children out into geological and -geographical study. The sentences that I am going -to read seem to me poetic as well as “scientific.” -“A long time ago when the earth was new, -when it was lava, there was no water on the earth, -and there was steam all round the earth up in the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_68'>68</span>air, as there were many gases in the air. One of -them was carbon dioxide. The steam became -clouds, because the earth began to cool off, and -after a while it began to rain, and the water came -down and dissolved the carbon dioxide from the -air.” There is a good deal more science in -that than probably would be apparent at the outset. -It represents some three months of work on -the part of the child. The children kept daily -and weekly records, but this is part of the summing -up of the quarter’s work. I call this language -poetic, because the child has a clear image -and has a personal feeling for the realities imaged. -I extract sentences from two other records to illustrate -further the vivid use of language when there -is a vivid experience back of it. “When the -earth was cold enough to condense, the water, -with the help of carbon dioxide, <em>pulls</em> the calcium -out of the rocks into a large body of water where -the little animals could get it.” The other reads -as follows: “When the earth cooled, calcium -was in the rocks. Then the carbon dioxide and -water united and formed a solution, and, as it ran, -it <em>tore</em> out the calcium and carried it on to the sea, -where there were little animals who took it out of -solution.” The use of such words as “pulled” and -“tore” in connection with the process of chemical -combination evidences a personal realization -which compels its own appropriate expression.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_69'>69</span>If I had not taken so much time in my other -illustrations, I should like to show how, beginning -with very simple material things, the children -were led on to larger fields of investigation, -and to the intellectual discipline that is the accompaniment -of such research. I will simply -mention the experiment in which the work -began. It consisted in making precipitated -chalk, used for polishing metals. The children, -with simple apparatus—a tumbler, lime water, -and a glass tube—precipitated the calcium carbonate -out of the water; and from this beginning -went on to a study of the processes by which -rocks of various sorts, igneous, sedimentary, etc., -had been formed on the surface of the earth and -the places they occupy; then to points in the geography -of the United States, Hawaii, and Puerto -Rico; to the effects of these various bodies of -rock, in their various configurations, upon the -human occupations; so that this geological record -finally rounded itself out into the life of man at -the present time. The children saw and felt the -connection between these geologic processes taking -place ages and ages ago, and the physical -conditions determining the industrial occupations -of today.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Of all the possibilities involved in the subject, -“The School and the Life of the Child,” I have -selected but one, because I have found that that -<span class='pageno' id='Page_70'>70</span>one gives people more difficulty, is more of a -stumbling-block, than any other. One may be -ready to admit that it would be most desirable -for the school to be a place in which the child -should really live, and get a life-experience in -which he should delight and find meaning for -its own sake. But then we hear this inquiry: -how, upon this basis, shall the child get the -needed information; how shall he undergo the -required discipline? Yes, it has come to this, -that with many, if not most, people the normal -processes of life appear to be incompatible with -getting information and discipline. So I have -tried to indicate, in a highly general and inadequate -way (for only the school itself, in its daily -operation, could give a detailed and worthy representation), -how the problem works itself out—how -it is possible to lay hold upon the rudimentary -instincts of human nature, and, by supplying a -proper medium, so control their expression as -not only to facilitate and enrich the growth of the -individual child, but also to supply the results, -and far more, of technical information and discipline -that have been the ideals of education in the -past.</p> - -<p class='c000'>But although I have selected this especial way -of approach (as a concession to the question -almost universally raised), I am not willing to -leave the matter in this more or less negative and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_71'>71</span>explanatory condition. Life is the great thing -after all; the life of the child at its time and in -its measure, no less than the life of the adult. -Strange would it be, indeed, if intelligent and -serious attention to what the child <em>now</em> needs and -is capable of in the way of a rich, valuable, and -expanded life should somehow conflict with the -needs and possibilities of later, adult life. “Let -us live with our children,” certainly means, first -of all, that our children shall live—not that they -shall be hampered and stunted by being forced -into all kinds of conditions, the most remote consideration -of which is relevancy to the present -life of the child. If we seek the kingdom of -heaven, educationally, all other things shall be -added unto us—which, being interpreted, is that -if we identify ourselves with the real instincts and -needs of childhood, and ask only after its fullest -assertion and growth, the discipline and information -and culture of adult life shall all come in -their due season.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Speaking of culture reminds me that in a way -I have been speaking only of the outside of the -child’s activity—only of the outward expression -of his impulses toward saying, making, finding -out, and creating. The real child, it hardly need -be said, lives in the world of imaginative values, -and ideas which find only imperfect outward -embodiment. We hear much nowadays about -<span class='pageno' id='Page_72'>72</span>the cultivation of the child’s “imagination.” -Then we undo much of our own talk and work -by a belief that the imagination is some special -part of the child, that finds its satisfaction in some -one particular direction—generally speaking, that -of the unreal and make-believe, of the myth -and made-up story. Why are we so hard of -heart and so slow to believe? The imagination -is the medium in which the child lives. To him -there is everywhere and in everything that occupies -his mind and activity at all, a surplusage of -value and significance. The question of the relation -of the school to the child’s life is at bottom -simply this: shall we ignore this native setting -and tendency, dealing not with the living child -at all, but with the dead image we have erected, -or shall we give it play and satisfaction? If -we once believe in life and in the life of the child, -then will all the occupations and uses spoken of, -then will all history and science, become instruments -of appeal and materials of culture to -his imagination, and through that to the richness -and the orderliness of his life. Where we -now see only the outward doing and the outward -product, there, behind all visible results, is the -re-adjustment of mental attitude, the enlarged and -sympathetic vision, the sense of growing power, -and the willing ability to identify both insight -and capacity with the interests of the world and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_73'>73</span>man. Unless culture be a superficial polish, a -veneering of mahogany over common wood, it -surely is this—the growth of the imagination in -flexibility, in scope, and in sympathy, till the life -which the individual lives is informed with the -life of nature and of society. When nature and -society can live in the schoolroom, when the -forms and tools of learning are subordinated to -the substance of experience, then shall there be -an opportunity for this identification, and culture -shall be the democratic password.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_77'>77</span> - <h2 class='c007'>III<br /> WASTE IN EDUCATION</h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>The subject announced for today was “Waste -in Education.” I should like first to state briefly -its relation to the two preceding lectures. The -first dealt with the school in its social aspects, -and the necessary re-adjustments that have to be -made to render it effective in present social conditions. -The second dealt with the school in -relation to the growth of individual children. -Now the third deals with the school as itself an -institution, both in relation to society and to its -own members—the children. It deals with the -question of organization, because all waste is the -result of the lack of it, the motive lying behind -organization being promotion of economy and -efficiency. This question is not one of the waste -of money or the waste of things. These matters -count; but the primary waste is that of human -life, the life of the children while they are at -school, and afterward because of inadequate and -perverted preparation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>So, when we speak of organization, we are not -to think simply of the externals; of that which -goes by the name “school system”—the school -board, the superintendent, and the building, the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_78'>78</span>engaging and promotion of teachers, etc. These -things enter in, but the fundamental organization -is that of the school itself as a community of individuals, -in its relations to other forms of social -life. All waste is due to isolation. Organization -is nothing but getting things into connection -with one another, so that they work easily, flexibly, -and fully. Therefore in speaking of this -question of waste in education, I desire to call -your attention to the isolation of the various -parts of the school system, to the lack of unity -in the aims of education, to the lack of coherence -in its studies and methods.</p> - -<p class='c000'>I have made a chart (I) which, while I speak -of the isolations of the school system itself, may -perhaps appeal to the eye and save a little time -in verbal explanations. A paradoxical friend of -mine says there is nothing so obscure as an illustration, -and it is quite possible that my attempt -to illustrate my point will simply prove the truth -of his statement.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The blocks represent the various elements in -the school system, and are intended to indicate -roughly the length of time given to each division, -and also the overlapping, both in time and subjects -studied, of the individual parts of the system. -With each block is given the historical -conditions in which it arose and its ruling -ideal.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_79'>79</span> -<img src='images/i_087.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Chart I</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_81'>81</span>The school system, upon the whole, has grown -from the top down. During the middle ages it -was essentially a cluster of professional schools—especially -law and theology. Our present university -comes down to us from the middle ages. -I will not say that at present it is a mediæval -institution, but it had its roots in the middle ages, -and it has not outlived all mediæval traditions -regarding learning.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The kindergarten, rising with the present century, -was a union of the nursery and of the philosophy -of Schelling; a wedding of the plays -and games which the mother carried on with her -children, to Schelling’s highly romantic and symbolic -philosophy. The elements that came from -the actual study of child life—the continuation -of the nursery—have remained a life-bringing -force in all education; the Schellingesque factors -made an obstruction between it and the rest of -the school system, brought about isolations.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The line drawn over the top indicates that -there is a certain interaction between the kindergarten -and the primary school; for, so far as the -primary school remained in spirit foreign to the -natural interests of child life, it was isolated from -the kindergarten, so that it is a problem, at present, -to introduce kindergarten methods into the -primary school; the problem of the so-called -connecting class. The difficulty is that the two -<span class='pageno' id='Page_82'>82</span>are not one from the start. To get a connection -the teacher has had to climb over the wall instead -of entering in at the gate.</p> - -<p class='c000'>On the side of aims, the ideal of the kindergarten -was the moral development of the children, -rather than instruction or discipline; an ideal -sometimes emphasized to the point of sentimentality. -The primary school grew practically out -of the popular movement of the sixteenth century, -when along with the invention of printing and -the growth of commerce, it became a business -necessity to know how to read, write, and figure. -The aim was distinctly a practical one; it was -utility; getting command of these tools, the symbols -of learning, not for the sake of learning, but -because they gave access to careers in life otherwise -closed.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The division next to the primary school is the -grammar school. The term is not much used in -the West, but is common in the eastern states. -It goes back to the time of the revival of learning—a -little earlier perhaps than the conditions -out of which the primary school originated, and, -even when contemporaneous, having a different -ideal. It had to do with the study of language -in the higher sense; because, at the time of the -Renaissance, Latin and Greek connected people -with the culture of the past, with the Roman and -Greek world. The classic languages were the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_83'>83</span>only means of escape from the limitations of the -middle ages. Thus there sprang up the prototype -of the grammar school, more liberal than -the university (so largely professional in character), -for the purpose of putting into the hands of -the people the key to the old learning, that -men might see a world with a larger horizon. -The object was primarily culture, secondarily discipline. -It represented much more than the -present grammar school. It was the liberal element -in the college, which, extending downward, -grew into the academy and the high school. -Thus the secondary school is still in part just a -lower college (having an even higher curriculum -than the college of a few centuries ago) or a preparatory -department to a college, and in part a -rounding up of the utilities of the elementary -school.</p> - -<p class='c000'>There appear then two products of the nineteenth -century, the technical and normal schools. -The schools of technology, engineering, etc., are, -of course, mainly the development of nineteenth-century -business conditions, as the primary school -was the development of business conditions of -the sixteenth century. The normal school arose -because of the necessity for training teachers, -with the idea partly of professional drill, and -partly that of culture.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Without going into more detail, we have -<span class='pageno' id='Page_84'>84</span>some eight different parts of the school system -as represented on the chart, all of which arose -historically at different times, having different -ideals in view, and consequently different methods. -I do not wish to suggest that all of the -isolation, all of the separation, that has existed -in the past between the different parts of the -school system still persists. One must, however, -recognize that they have never yet been welded -into one complete whole. The great problem in -education on the administrative side is how to -unite these different parts.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Consider the training schools for teachers—the -normal schools. These occupy at present a -somewhat anomalous position, intermediate between -the high school and the college, requiring -the high-school preparation, and covering a certain -amount of college work. They are isolated -from the higher subject-matter of scholarship, -since, upon the whole, their object has been -to train persons <em>how</em> to teach, rather than <em>what</em> -to teach; while, if we go to the college, we find -the other half of this isolation—learning <em>what</em> to -teach, with almost a contempt for methods of -teaching. The college is shut off from contact -with children and youth. Its members, to a great -extent, away from home and forgetting their own -childhood, become eventually teachers with a -large amount of subject-matter at command, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_85'>85</span>little knowledge of how this is related to the -minds of those to whom it is to be taught. In -this division between what to teach and how to -teach, each side suffers from the separation.</p> - -<p class='c000'>It is interesting to follow out the inter-relation -between primary, grammar, and high schools. -The elementary school has crowded up and -taken many subjects previously studied in the -old New England grammar school. The high -school has pushed its subjects down. Latin and -algebra have been put in the upper grades, so -that the seventh and eighth grades are, after all, -about all that is left of the old grammar school. -They are a sort of amorphous composite, being -partly a place where children go on learning -what they already have learned (to read, write, -and figure), and partly a place of preparation for -the high school. The name in some parts of -New England for these upper grades was “Intermediate -School.” The term was a happy one; -the work was simply intermediate between something -that had been and something that was -going to be, having no special meaning on its -own account.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Just as the parts are separated, so do the ideals -differ—moral development, practical utility, -general culture, discipline, and professional training. -These aims are each especially represented -in some distinct part of the system of education; -<span class='pageno' id='Page_86'>86</span>and with the growing interaction of the parts, -each is supposed to afford a certain amount of -culture, discipline, and utility. But the lack of -fundamental unity is witnessed in the fact that -one study is still considered good for discipline, -and another for culture; some parts of arithmetic, -for example, for discipline and others for use, -literature for culture, grammar for discipline, -geography partly for utility, partly for culture; -and so on. The unity of education is dissipated, -and the studies become centrifugal; so much of -this study to secure this end, so much of that to -secure another, until the whole becomes a sheer -compromise and patchwork between contending -aims and disparate studies. The great problem -in education on the administrative side is to -secure the unity of the whole, in the place of a -sequence of more or less unrelated and overlapping -parts and thus to reduce the waste arising -from friction, reduplication and transitions that -are not properly bridged.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<span class='pageno' id='Page_87'>87</span> -<img src='images/i_095.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Chart II</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>In this second symbolic diagram (II) I wish to -suggest that really the only way to unite the parts -of the system is to unite each to life. We can get -only an artificial unity so long as we confine our -gaze to the school system itself. We must look -at it as part of the larger whole of social life. This -block (A) in the center represents the school -system as a whole. (1) At one side we have the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_89'>89</span>home, and the two arrows represent the free -interplay of influences, materials, and ideas between -the home life and that of the school. (2) -Below we have the relation to the natural environment, -the great field of geography in the widest -sense. The school building has about it a natural -environment. It ought to be in a garden, and -the children from the garden would be led on to -surrounding fields, and then into the wider country, -with all its facts and forces. (3) Above is -represented business life, and the necessity for -free play between the school and the needs -and forces of industry. (4) On the other side -is the university proper, with its various phases, -its laboratories, its resources in the way of -libraries, museums, and professional schools.</p> - -<p class='c000'>From the standpoint of the child, the great -waste in the school comes from his inability to -utilize the experiences he gets outside the school -in any complete and free way within the school -itself; while, on the other hand, he is unable to -apply in daily life what he is learning at school. -That is the isolation of the school—its isolation -from life. When the child gets into the schoolroom -he has to put out of his mind a large part of -the ideas, interests, and activities that predominate -in his home and neighborhood. So the school, -being unable to utilize this everyday experience, -sets painfully to work, on another tack and by a -<span class='pageno' id='Page_90'>90</span>variety of means, to arouse in the child an interest -in school studies. While I was visiting in the city -of Moline a few years ago, the superintendent told -me that they found many children every year, -who were surprised to learn that the Mississippi -river in the text-book had anything to do with -the stream of water flowing past their homes. -The geography being simply a matter of the -schoolroom, it is more or less of an awakening to -many children to find that the whole thing is -nothing but a more formal and definite statement -of the facts which they see, feel, and touch every -day. When we think that we all live on the -earth, that we live in an atmosphere, that our lives -are touched at every point by the influences of -the soil, flora, and fauna, by considerations of -light and heat, and then think of what the school -study of geography has been, we have a typical -idea of the gap existing between the everyday -experiences of the child, and the isolated material -supplied in such large measure in the school. -This is but an instance, and one upon which most -of us may reflect long before we take the present -artificiality of the school as other than a matter -of course or necessity.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Though there should be organic connection -between the school and business life, it is not -meant that the school is to prepare the child for -any particular business, but that there should be -<span class='pageno' id='Page_91'>91</span>a natural connection of the everyday life of the -child with the business environment about him, -and that it is the affair of the school to clarify -and liberalize this connection, to bring it to consciousness, -not by introducing special studies, -like commercial geography and arithmetic, but -by keeping alive the ordinary bonds of relation. -The subject of compound-business-partnership is -probably not in many of the arithmetics nowadays, -though it was there not a generation ago, -for the makers of text-books said that if they -left out anything they could not sell their books. -This compound-business-partnership originated -as far back as the sixteenth century. The joint-stock -company had not been invented, and as -large commerce with the Indies and Americas -grew up, it was necessary to have an accumulation -of capital with which to handle it. One man -said, “I will put in this amount of money for six -months,” and another, “So much for two years,” -and so on. Thus by joining together they got -money enough to float their commercial enterprises. -Naturally, then, “compound partnership” -was taught in the schools. The joint-stock company -was invented; compound partnership disappeared, -but the problems relating to it stayed -in the arithmetics for two hundred years. They -were kept after they had ceased to have practical -utility, for the sake of mental discipline—they -<span class='pageno' id='Page_92'>92</span>were “such hard problems, you know.” A -great deal of what is now in the arithmetics -under the head of percentage is of the same -nature. Children of twelve and thirteen years of -age go through gain and loss calculations, and -various forms of bank discount so complicated -that the bankers long ago dispensed with them. -And when it is pointed out that business is not -done this way, we hear again of “mental discipline.” -And yet there are plenty of real connections -between the experience of children and -business conditions which need to be utilized and -illuminated. The child should study his commercial -arithmetic and geography, not as isolated -things by themselves, but in their reference to -his social environment. The youth needs to -become acquainted with the bank as a factor in -modern life, with what it does, and how it does -it; and then relevant arithmetical processes -would have some meaning—quite in contradistinction -to the time-absorbing and mind-killing -examples in percentage, partial payments, etc., -found in all our arithmetics.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The connection with the university, as indicated -in this chart, I need not dwell upon. I -simply wish to indicate that there ought to be -a free interaction between all the parts of the -school system. There is much of utter triviality -of subject-matter in elementary and secondary -<span class='pageno' id='Page_93'>93</span>education. When we investigate it, we find that -it is full of facts taught that are not facts, which -have to be unlearned later on. Now, this happens -because the “lower” parts of our system -are not in vital connection with the “higher.” -The university or college, in its idea, is a place of -research, where investigation is going on, a place -of libraries and museums, where the best resources -of the past are gathered, maintained and organized. -It is, however, as true in the school as in -the university that the spirit of inquiry can be -got only through and with the attitude of inquiry. -The pupil must learn what has meaning, what -enlarges his horizon, instead of mere trivialities. -He must become acquainted with truths, instead -of things that were regarded as such fifty years -ago, or that are taken as interesting by the misunderstanding -of a partially educated teacher. -It is difficult to see how these ends can be -reached except as the most advanced part of the -educational system is in complete interaction -with the most rudimentary.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next chart (III) is an enlargement of the -second. The school building has swelled out, so -to speak, the surrounding environment remaining -the same, the home, the garden and country, the -relation to business life and the university. The -object is to show what the school must become -to get out of its isolation and secure the organic -<span class='pageno' id='Page_94'>94</span>connection with social life of which we have been -speaking. It is not our architect’s plan for the -school building that we hope to have; but it is a -diagrammatic representation of the idea which -we want embodied in the school building. On -the lower side you see the dining-room and the -kitchen, at the top the wood and metal shops, and -the textile room for sewing and weaving. The -center represents the manner in which all come -together in the library; that is to say, in a collection -of the intellectual resources of all kinds that -throw light upon the practical work, that give it -meaning and liberal value. If the four corners -represent practice, the interior represents the theory -of the practical activities. In other words, -the object of these forms of practice in the school -is not found chiefly in themselves, or in the technical -skill of cooks, seamstresses, carpenters and -masons, but in their connection, on the social -side, with the life without; while on the individual -side they respond to the child’s need of action, -of expression, of desire to do something, to be -constructive and creative, instead of simply passive -and conforming. Their great significance is -that they keep the balance between the social -and individual sides—the chart symbolizing particularly -the connection with the social. Here on -one side is the home. How naturally the lines of -connection play back and forth between the home -<span class='pageno' id='Page_96'>96</span>and the kitchen and the textile room of the school! -The child can carry over what he learns in the -home and utilize it in the school; and the things -learned in the school he applies at home. These -are the two great things in breaking down isolation, -in getting connection—to have the child -come to school with all the experience he has -got outside the school, and to leave it with something -to be immediately used in his everyday life. -The child comes to the traditional school with a -healthy body and a more or less unwilling mind, -though, in fact, he does not bring both his body -and mind with him; he has to leave his mind -behind, because there is no way to use it in the -school. If he had a purely abstract mind, he -could bring it to school with him, but his is a -concrete one, interested in concrete things, and -unless these things get over into school life, he -cannot take his mind with him. What we want -is to have the child come to school with a whole -mind and a whole body, and leave school with a -fuller mind and an even healthier body. And -speaking of the body suggests that, while there -is no gymnasium in these diagrams, the active -life carried on in its four corners brings with it -constant physical exercise, while our gymnasium -proper will deal with the particular weaknesses -of children and their correction, and -will attempt more consciously to build up the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_97'>97</span>thoroughly sound body as the abode of the sound -mind.</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_103.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Chart III</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_98'>98</span>That the dining-room and kitchen connect with -the country and its processes and products it is -hardly necessary to say. Cooking may be so -taught that it has no connection with country life, -and with the sciences that find their unity in geography. -Perhaps it generally has been taught without -these connections being really made. But -all the materials that come into the kitchen have -their origin in the country; they come from the -soil, are nurtured through the influences of light -and water, and represent a great variety of -local environments. Through this connection, -extending from the garden into the larger world, -the child has his most natural introduction to the -study of the sciences. Where did these things -grow? What was necessary to their growth? -What their relation to the soil? What the effect -of different climatic conditions? and so on. We -all know what the old-fashioned botany was: -partly collecting flowers that were pretty, pressing -and mounting them; partly pulling these -flowers to pieces and giving technical names to -the different parts, finding all the different leaves, -naming all their different shapes and forms. It -was a study of plants without any reference to -the soil, to the country, or to growth. In contrast, -a real study of plants takes them in their natural -<span class='pageno' id='Page_99'>99</span>environment and in their uses as well, not simply -as food, but in all their adaptations to the social -life of man. Cooking becomes as well a most -natural introduction to the study of chemistry, giving -the child here also something which he can at -once bring to bear upon his daily experience. I -once heard a very intelligent woman say that she -could not understand how science could be -taught to little children, because she did not see -how they could understand atoms and molecules. -In other words, since she did not see how highly -abstract facts could be presented to the child -independently of daily experience, she could not -understand how science could be taught at all. -Before we smile at this remark, we need to ask -ourselves if she is alone in her assumption, or -whether it simply formulates almost all of our -school practice.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The same relations with the outside world are -found in the carpentry and the textile shops. -They connect with the country, as the source of -their materials, with physics, as the science of -applying energy, with commerce and distribution, -with art in the development of architecture and -decoration. They have also an intimate connection -with the university on the side of its technological -and engineering schools; with the laboratory, -and its scientific methods and results.</p> - -<p class='c000'>To go back to the square which is marked the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_100'>100</span>library (Chart III, A): if you imagine rooms half -in the four corners and half in the library, you will -get the idea of the recitation room. That is the -place where the children bring the experiences, the -problems, the questions, the particular facts which -they have found, and discuss them so that new -light may be thrown upon them, particularly new -light from the experience of others, the accumulated -wisdom of the world—symbolized in the -library. Here is the organic relation of theory and -practice; the child not simply doing things, but -getting also the <em>idea</em> of what he does; getting -from the start some intellectual conception that -enters into his practice and enriches it; while -every idea finds, directly or indirectly, some application -in experience, and has some effect upon -life. This, I need hardly say, fixes the position -of the “book” or reading in education. Harmful -as a substitute for experience, it is all-important -in interpreting and expanding experience.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_101'>101</span>The other chart (IV) illustrates precisely the -same idea. It gives the symbolic upper story of -this ideal school. In the upper corners are the -laboratories; in the lower corners are the studios -for art work, both the graphic and auditory -arts. The questions, the chemical and physical -problems, arising in the kitchen and shop, are -taken to the laboratories to be worked out. For -instance, this past week one of the older groups</p> - -<div class='figcenter id001'> -<img src='images/i_109.jpg' alt='' class='ig001' /> -<div class='ic001'> -<p>Chart IV</p> -</div> -</div> -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_103'>103</span>of children doing practical work in weaving -which involved the use of the spinning wheel, -worked out the diagrams of the direction of -forces concerned in treadle and wheel, and the -ratio of velocities between wheel and spindle. -In the same manner, the plants with which the -child has to do in cooking, afford the basis for a -concrete interest in botany, and may be taken and -studied by themselves. In a certain school in -Boston science work for months was centered in -the growth of the cotton plant, and yet something -new was brought in every day. We hope -to do similar work with all the types of plants -that furnish materials for sewing and weaving. -These examples will suggest, I hope, the relation -which the laboratories bear to the rest of the -school.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The drawing and music, or the graphic and -auditory arts, represent the culmination, the -idealization, the highest point of refinement of -all the work carried on. I think everybody who -has not a purely literary view of the subject recognizes -that genuine art grows out of the work of -the artisan. The art of the Renaissance was great, -because it grew out of the manual arts of life. It -did not spring up in a separate atmosphere, however -ideal, but carried on to their spiritual meaning -processes found in homely and everyday -forms of life. The school should observe this -<span class='pageno' id='Page_104'>104</span>relationship. The merely artisan side is narrow, -but the mere art, taken by itself, and grafted on -from without, tends to become forced, empty, -sentimental. I do not mean, of course, that all -art work must be correlated in detail to the -other work of the school, but simply that a -spirit of union gives vitality to the art, and depth -and richness to the other work. All art involves -physical organs, the eye and hand, the ear and -voice; and yet it is something more than the -mere technical skill required by the organs of -expression. It involves an idea, a thought, a -spiritual rendering of things; and yet it is other -than any number of ideas by themselves. It is a -living union of thought and the instrument of -expression. This union is symbolized by saying -that in the ideal school the art work might be -considered to be that of the shops, passed through -the alembic of library and museum into action -again.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Take the textile room as an illustration of such -a synthesis. I am talking about a future school, -the one we hope, some time, to have. The basal -fact in that room is that it is a workshop, doing -actual things in sewing, spinning, and weaving. -The children come into immediate connection -with the materials, with various fabrics of silk, cotton, -linen and wool. Information at once appears -in connection with these materials; their origin, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_105'>105</span>history, their adaptation to particular uses, and -the machines of various kinds by which the raw -materials are utilized. Discipline arises in dealing -with the problems involved, both theoretical and -practical. Whence does the culture arise? Partly -from seeing all these things reflected through -the medium of their scientific and historic conditions -and associations, whereby the child learns -to appreciate them as technical achievements, -as thoughts precipitated in action; and partly -because of the introduction of the art idea into -the room itself. In the ideal school there would -be something of this sort: first, a complete industrial -museum, giving samples of materials in various -stages of manufacture, and the implements, -from the simplest to the most complex, used in -dealing with them; then a collection of photographs -and pictures illustrating the landscapes -and the scenes from which the materials come, -their native homes, and their places of manufacture. -Such a collection would be a vivid and -continual lesson in the synthesis of art, science, -and industry. There would be, also, samples of -the more perfect forms of textile work, as Italian, -French, Japanese, and Oriental. There would -be objects illustrating motives of design and -decoration which have entered into production. -Literature would contribute its part in its idealized -representation of the world-industries, as -<span class='pageno' id='Page_106'>106</span>the Penelope in the Odyssey—a classic in literature -only because the character is an adequate -embodiment of a certain industrial phase of social -life. So, from Homer down to the present time, -there is a continuous procession of related facts -which have been translated into terms of art. -Music lends its share, from the Scotch song at -the wheel to the spinning song of Marguerite, or -of Wagner’s Senta. The shop becomes a pictured -museum, appealing to the eye. It would have -not only materials, beautiful woods and designs, -but would give a synopsis of the historical evolution -of architecture in its drawings and pictures.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Thus I have attempted to indicate how the -school may be connected with life so that the -experience gained by the child in a familiar, -commonplace way is carried over and made -use of there, and what the child learns in the -school is carried back and applied in everyday -life, making the school an organic whole, instead -of a composite of isolated parts. The isolation -of studies as well as of parts of the school system -disappears. Experience has its geographical -aspect, its artistic and its literary, its scientific -and its historical sides. All studies arise from -aspects of the one earth and the one life lived -upon it. We do not have a series of stratified -earths, one of which is mathematical, another -physical, another historical, and so on. We -<span class='pageno' id='Page_107'>107</span>should not live very long in any one taken by -itself. We live in a world where all sides are -bound together. All studies grow out of relations -in the one great common world. When the child -lives in varied but concrete and active relationship -to this common world, his studies are naturally -unified. It will no longer be a problem to -correlate studies. The teacher will not have to -resort to all sorts of devices to weave a little -arithmetic into the history lesson, and the like. -Relate the school to life, and all studies are of -necessity correlated.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Moreover, if the school is related as a whole to -life as a whole, its various aims and ideals—culture, -discipline, information, utility—cease to be -variants, for one of which we must select one -study and for another another. The growth of -the child in the direction of social capacity and -service, his larger and more vital union with life, -becomes the unifying aim; and discipline, culture -and information fall into place as phases of this -growth.</p> - -<p class='c000'>I wish to say one word more about the relationship -of our particular school to the University. -The problem is to unify, to organize education, -to bring all its various factors together, -through putting it as a whole into organic union -with everyday life. That which lies back of -the pedagogical school of the University is the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_108'>108</span>necessity of working out something to serve as a -model for such unification, extending from work -beginning with the four-year-old child up through -the graduate work of the University. Already -we have much help from the University in scientific -work planned, sometimes even in detail, by heads -of the departments. The graduate student comes -to us with his researches and methods, suggesting -ideas and problems. The library and museum -are at hand. We want to bring all things educational -together; to break down the barriers -that divide the education of the little child from -the instruction of the maturing youth; to identify -the lower and the higher education, so that it -shall be demonstrated to the eye that there is no -lower and higher, but simply education.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Speaking more especially with reference to -the pedagogical side of the work: I suppose -the oldest university chair of pedagogy in our -country is about twenty years old—that of the -University of Michigan, founded in the latter -seventies. But there are only one or two that -have tried to make a connection between theory -and practice. They teach for the most part by -theory, by lectures, by reference to books, rather -than through the actual work of teaching itself. -At Columbia, through the Teachers’ College, -there is an extensive and close connection between -the University and the training of teachers. -<span class='pageno' id='Page_109'>109</span>Something has been done in one or two other -places along the same line. We want an even -more intimate union here, so that the University -shall put all its resources at the disposition of the -elementary school, contributing to the evolution -of valuable subject-matter and right method, -while the school in turn will be a laboratory in -which the student of education sees theories and -ideas demonstrated, tested, criticised, enforced, -and the evolution of new truths. We want the -school in its relation to the University to be a -working model of a unified education.</p> - -<p class='c000'>A word as to the relation of the school to -educational interests generally. I heard once -that the adoption of a certain method in use in -our school was objected to by a teacher on this -ground: “You know that it is an experimental -school. They do not work under the same -conditions that we are subject to.” Now, the -purpose of performing an experiment is that -other people need not experiment; at least need -not experiment so much, may have something -definite and positive to go by. An experiment -demands particularly favorable conditions in -order that results may be reached both freely -and securely. It has to work unhampered, with -all the needed resources at command. Laboratories -lie back of all the great business enterprises -of today, back of every great factory, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_110'>110</span>every railway and steamship system. Yet the -laboratory is not a business enterprise; it does -not aim to secure for itself the conditions of -business life, nor does the commercial undertaking -repeat the laboratory. There is a difference -between working out and testing a new truth, or -a new method, and applying it on a wide scale, -making it available for the mass of men, making -it commercial. But the first thing is to discover -the truth, to afford all necessary facilities, for -this is the most practical thing in the world in -the long run. We do not expect to have other -schools literally imitate what we do. A working -model is not something to be copied; it is to -afford a demonstration of the feasibility of the -principle, and of the methods which make it -feasible. So (to come back to our own point) -we want here to work out the problem of the -unity, the organization of the school system in -itself, and to do this by relating it so intimately -to life as to demonstrate the possibility and -necessity of such organization for all education.</p> - -<div class='chapter'> - <span class='pageno' id='Page_113'>113</span> - <h2 class='c007'>IV<br /> THREE YEARS OF THE UNIVERSITY ELEMENTARY SCHOOL<a id='r1' /><a href='#f1' class='c012'><sup>[1]</sup></a></h2> -</div> - -<p class='c011'>The school was started the first week in January, -three years ago. I shall try this afternoon to -give a brief statement of the ideas and problems -that were in mind when the experiment was -started, and a sketch of the development of the -work since that time. We began in a small house -in Fifty-seventh street, with fifteen children. We -found ourselves the next year with twenty-five -children in Kimbark avenue, and then moved in -January to Rosalie court, the larger quarters -enabling us to take forty children. The next -year the numbers increased to sixty, the school -remaining at Rosalie court. This year we have -had ninety-five on the roll at one time, and are -located at 5412 Ellis avenue, where we hope to -stay till we have a building and grounds of our -own.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f1'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r1'>1</a>. </span>Stenographic report of a talk by John Dewey at a meeting -of the Parents’ Association of the University Elementary School, -February, 1899; somewhat revised.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>The children during the first year of the school -were between the ages of six and nine. Now -<span class='pageno' id='Page_114'>114</span>their ages range between four and thirteen—the -members of the oldest group being in their thirteenth -year. This is the first year that we have -children under six, and this has been made possible -through the liberality of friends in Honolulu, -H. I., who are building up there a memorial kindergarten -along the same lines.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The expenses of the school during the first -year, of two terms only, were between $1,300 and -$1,400. The expenses this year will be about -$12,000. Of this amount $5,500 will come from -tuitions; $5,000 has been given by friends interested -in the school, and there remains about -$1,500 yet to be raised for the conduct of the -school. This is an indication of the increase of -expenses. The average expense per pupil is -about the same since the start, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i. e.</span></i>, $120 per -child per school year. Relatively speaking, this -year the expenses of the school took something -of a jump, through the expense of moving to a -new building, and the repairs and changes there -necessary. An increase in the staff of teachers -has also enlarged the work as well as the debits -of the school. Next year (1899–1900) we hope -to have about 120 children, and apparently the -expenses will be about $2,500 more than this. Of -this amount $2,000 will be met by the increase in -tuition from the pupils. The cost of a child to -the school, $120 a year, is precisely the tuition -<span class='pageno' id='Page_115'>115</span>charged by the University for students and is -double the average tuition charged by the school. -But it is not expected that the University tuition -will come anywhere near meeting the expense -involved there. One reason for not increasing -the tuition here, even if it were advisable for other -reasons, is that it is well to emphasize, from an -educational point of view, that elementary as -well as advanced education requires endowment. -There is every reason why money should be -spent freely for the organization and maintenance -of foundation work in education as well -as for the later stages.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The elementary school has had from the outset -two sides: one, the obvious one of instruction -of the children who have been intrusted to -it; the other, relationship to the University, -since the school is under the charge, and forms a -part of the pedagogical work of the University.</p> - -<p class='c000'>When the school was started, there were certain -ideas in mind—perhaps it would be better -to say questions and problems; certain points -which it seemed worth while to test. If you will -permit one personal word, I should like to say -that it is sometimes thought that the school -started out with a number of ready-made principles -and ideas which were to be put into practice -at once. It has been popularly assumed that I -am the author of these ready-made ideas and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_116'>116</span>principles which were to go into execution. I -take this opportunity to say that the educational -conduct of the school, as well as its administration, -the selection of subject-matter, and the -working out of the course of study, as well as -actual instruction of children, have been almost -entirely in the hands of the teachers of the -school; and that there has been a gradual development -of the educational principles and methods -involved, not a fixed equipment. The teachers -started with question marks, rather than with -fixed rules, and if any answers have been reached, -it is the teachers in the school who have supplied -them. We started upon the whole with four such -questions, or problems:</p> - -<p class='c000'>1. What can be done, and how can it be -done, to bring the school into closer relation -with the home and neighborhood life—instead of -having the school a place where the child comes -solely to learn certain lessons? What can be -done to break down the barriers which have unfortunately -come to separate the school life from the -rest of the everyday life of the child? This does -not mean, as it is sometimes, perhaps, interpreted -to mean, that the child should simply take up in -the school things already experienced at home -and study them, but that, so far as possible, the -child shall have the same attitude and point of -view in the school as in the home; that he shall -<span class='pageno' id='Page_117'>117</span>find the same interest in going to school, and in -there doing things worth doing for their own sake, -that he finds in the plays and occupations which -busy him in his home and neighborhood life. It -means, again, that the motives which keep the -child at work and growing at home shall be used -in the school, so that he shall not have to acquire -another set of principles of actions belonging -only to the school—separate from those of the -home. It is a question of the unity of the child’s -experience, of its actuating motives and aims, -not of amusing or even interesting the child.</p> - -<p class='c000'>2. What can be done in the way of introducing -subject-matter in history and science and art, -that shall have a positive value and real significance -in the child’s own life; that shall represent, -even to the youngest children, something worthy -of attainment in skill or knowledge; as much so -to the little pupil as are the studies of the high-school -or college student to him? You know -what the traditional curriculum of the first few -years is, even though many modifications have -been made. Some statistics have been collected -showing that 75 or 80 per cent. of the first three -years of a child in school are spent upon the -form—not the substance—of learning, the -mastering of the symbols of reading, writing, -and arithmetic. There is not much positive nutriment -in this. Its purpose is important—is -<span class='pageno' id='Page_118'>118</span>necessary—but it does not represent the same kind -of increase in a child’s intellectual and moral experience -that is represented by positive truth of -history and nature, or by added insight into reality -and beauty. One thing, then, we wanted to find -out is how much can be given a child that is -really worth his while to get, in knowledge of the -world about him, of the forces in the world, of -historical and social growth, and in capacity to -express himself in a variety of artistic forms. -From the strictly educational side this has been -the chief problem of the school. It is along this -line that we hope to make our chief contribution -to education in general; we hope, that is, to work -out and publish a positive body of subject-matter -which may be generally available.</p> - -<p class='c000'>3. How can instruction in these formal, symbolic -branches—the mastering of the ability to -read, write, and use figures intelligently—be -carried on with everyday experience and occupation -as their background and in definite relations -to other studies of more inherent content, -and be carried on in such a way that the child -shall feel their necessity through their connection -with subjects which appeal to him on their own -account? If this can be accomplished, he will -have a vital motive for getting the technical -capacity. It is not meant, as has been sometimes -jocosely stated, that the child learn to bake and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_119'>119</span>sew at school, and to read, write, and figure at -home. It is intended that these formal subjects -shall not be presented in such large doses at first -as to be the exclusive objects of attention, and -that the child shall be led by that which he is -doing to feel the need for acquiring skill in the -use of symbols and the immediate power they -give. In any school, if the child realizes the motive -for the use and application of number and -language he has taken the longest step toward -securing the power; and he can realize the motive -only as he has some particular—not some -general and remote—use for the symbols.</p> - -<p class='c000'>4. Individual attention. This is secured by -small groupings—eight or ten in a class—and -a large number of teachers supervising systematically -the intellectual needs and attainments and -physical well-being and growth of the child. To -secure this we have now 135 hours of instructors’ -time per week, that is, the time of nine -teachers for three hours per day, or one teacher -per group. It requires but a few words to make -this statement about attention to individual powers -and needs, and yet the whole of the school’s -aims and methods, moral, physical, intellectual, -are bound up in it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>I think these four points present a fair statement -of what we have set out to discover. The -school is often called an experimental school, and -<span class='pageno' id='Page_120'>120</span>in one sense that is the proper name. I do not -like to use it too much, for fear parents will -think we are experimenting upon the children, -and that they naturally object to. But it is an -experimental school—at least I hope so—with -reference to education and educational problems. -We have attempted to find out by trying, by doing—not -alone by discussion and theorizing—<em>whether</em> -these problems may be worked out, and -<em>how</em> they may be worked out.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Next a few words about the means that have -been used in the school in order to test these -four questions, and to supply their answers, -and first as to the place given to hand-work of -different kinds in the school. There are three -main lines regularly pursued: (<em>a</em>) the shop-work -with wood and tools, (<em>b</em>) cooking work, and (<em>c</em>) -work with textiles—sewing and weaving. Of -course, there is other hand-work in connection -with science, as science is largely of an experimental -nature. It is a fact that may not have -come to your attention that a large part of the -best and most advanced scientific work involves -a great deal of manual skill, the training of the -hand and eye. It is impossible for one to be a -first-class worker in science without this training -in manipulation, and in handling apparatus -and materials. In connection with the history -work, especially with the younger children, -<span class='pageno' id='Page_121'>121</span>hand-work is brought in in the way of making -implements, weapons, tools, etc. Of course, the -art work is another side—drawing, painting, and -modeling. Logically, perhaps, the gymnasium -work does not come in here, but as a means -of developing moral and intellectual control -through the medium of the body it certainly -does. The children have one-half hour per -day of this form of physical exercise. Along -this line we have found that hand-work, in large -variety and amount, is the most easy and natural -method of keeping up the same attitude of the -child in and out of the school. The child gets the -largest part of his acquisitions through his bodily -activities, until he learns to work systematically -with the intellect. That is the purpose of this -work in the school, to direct these activities, to -systematize and organize them, so that they shall -not be as haphazard and as wandering as they are -outside of school. The problem of making these -forms of practical activity work continuously and -definitely together, leading from one factor of skill -to another, from one intellectual difficulty to -another, has been one of the most difficult, and -at the same time one in which we have been -most successful. The various kinds of work, -carpentry, cooking, sewing, and weaving, are -selected as involving different kinds of skill, and -demanding different types of intellectual attitude -<span class='pageno' id='Page_122'>122</span>on the part of the child, and because they represent -some of the most important activities of the -everyday outside world: the question of living -under shelter, of daily food and clothing, of the -home, of personal movement and exchange of -goods. He gets also the training of sense organs, -of touch, of sight, and the ability to coördinate -eye and hand. He gets healthy exercise; for the -child demands a much larger amount of physical -activity than the formal program of the ordinary -school permits. There is also a continual -appeal to memory, to judgment, in adapting -ends to means, a training in habits of order, -industry, and neatness in the care of the tools -and utensils, and in doing things in a systematic, -instead of a haphazard, way. Then, again, -these practical occupations make a background, -especially in the earlier groups, for the later -studies. The children get a good deal of -chemistry in connection with cooking, of number -work and geometrical principles in carpentry, and -a good deal of geography in connection with -their theoretical work in weaving and sewing. -History also comes in with the origin and growth -of various inventions, and their effects upon -social life and political organization.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Perhaps more attention, upon the whole, has -been given to our second point, that of positive -subject-matter, than to any one other thing. On -<span class='pageno' id='Page_123'>123</span>the history side the curriculum is now fairly well -worked out. The younger children begin with the -home and occupations of the home. In the sixth -year the intention is that the children should -study occupations outside the home, the larger -social industries—farming, mining, lumber, etc.—that -they may see the complex and various social -industries on which life depends, while incidentally -they investigate the use of the various materials—woods, -metals, and the processes applied—thus -getting a beginning of scientific study. The -next year is given to the historical development -of industry and invention—starting with man as -a savage and carrying him through the typical -phases of his progress upward, until the iron age -is reached and man begins to enter upon a -civilized career. The object of the study of -primitive life is not to keep the child interested -in lower and relatively savage stages, -but to show him the steps of progress and -development, especially along the line of invention, -by which man was led into civilization. -There is a certain nearness, after all, in -the child to primitive forms of life. They are -much more simple than existing institutions. -By throwing the emphasis upon the progress -of man, and upon the way advance has been -made, we hope to avoid the objections that -hold against paying too much attention to -<span class='pageno' id='Page_124'>124</span>the crudities and distracting excitements of savage -life.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The next two or three years, <i><span lang="la" xml:lang="la">i. e.</span></i>, the fourth -and fifth grades, and perhaps the sixth, will be -devoted to American history. It is then that -history, properly speaking, begins, as the study -of primitive life can hardly be so called.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Then comes Greek history and Roman, in -the regular chronological order, each year having -its own work planned with reference to what has -come before and after.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The science work was more difficult to arrange -and systematize, because there was so little to -follow—so little that has been already done in -an organized way. We are now at work upon a -program,<a id='r2' /><a href='#f2' class='c012'><sup>[2]</sup></a> and I shall not speak in detail about it. -The first two or three years cultivate the children’s -powers of observation, lead them to sympathetic -interest in the habits of plants and -animals, and to look at things with reference to -their uses. Then the center of the work becomes -geographical—the study of the earth, as the most -central thing. From this almost all the work -grows out, and to it the work goes back. Another -standpoint in the science work is that of the -application of natural forces to the service of man -through machines. Last year a good deal of work -<span class='pageno' id='Page_125'>125</span>was done in electricity (and will be repeated this -year), based on the telegraph and telephone—taking -up the things that can easily be grasped.</p> - -<div class='footnote' id='f2'> -<p class='c000'><span class='label'><a href='#r2'>2</a>. </span>This year’s program is published in the <cite>Elementary School -Record</cite>. Address The University of Chicago Press for particulars.</p> -</div> - -<p class='c000'>In mechanics they have studied locks and clocks -with reference to the adaptation of the various -parts of the machinery. All this work makes -a most excellent basis for more formal physics -later on. Cooking gives opportunity for getting -a great many ideas of heat and water, and -of their effects. The scientific work taken up -in the school differs mainly from that of other -schools in having the experimental part—physics -and chemistry—emphasized, and is not confined -simply to nature study—the study of -plants and animals. Not that the latter is less -valuable, but that we find it possible to introduce -the physical aspects from the first.</p> - -<p class='c000'>If I do not spend a large amount of time in -speaking of the music and art work, it is not -because they are not considered valuable and -important—certainly as much so as any other -work done in the school, not only in the -development of the child’s moral and æsthetic -nature, but also from a strictly intellectual -point of view. I know of no work in -the school that better develops the power of -attention, the habit of observation and of consecutiveness, -of seeing parts in relation to a -whole.</p> - -<p class='c000'><span class='pageno' id='Page_126'>126</span>I shall now say a few words about the administrative -side of the school. At the outset we -mixed up the children of different ages and attainments -as much as possible, believing there were -mental advantages in the give-and-take thus -secured, as well as the moral advantages in having -the older assume certain responsibilities in -the care of the younger. As the school grew, it -became necessary to abandon the method, and to -group the children with reference to their common -capacities. These groupings, however, are -based, not on ability to read and write, but upon -similarity of mental attitude and interest, and -upon general intellectual capacity and mental -alertness. There are ways in which we are still -trying to carry out the idea of mixing up the -children, that we may not build the rigid stepladder -system of the “graded” school. One -step in this direction is having the children move -about and come in contact with different teachers. -While there are difficulties and evils connected -with this, I think one of the most useful things -in the school is that children come into intimate -relation with a number of different personalities. -The children also meet in general assemblies—for -singing, and for the report of the whole -school work as read by members of the different -groups. The older children are also given a -half hour a week in which to join some of the -<span class='pageno' id='Page_127'>127</span>younger groups, and, if possible, as in hand-work, -enter into the work of the younger children. -In various ways we are attempting to -keep a family spirit throughout the school, and -not the feeling of isolated classes and grades.</p> - -<p class='c000'>The organization of the teaching force has -gradually become departmental, as the needs of the -work have indicated its chief branches. So we -now have recognized divisions of Science, History, -Domestic or Household Arts, Manual Training in -the limited sense (wood and metals), Music, Art -(that is, drawing, water colors, clay modeling, -etc.), and Gymnasium. As the work goes on -into the secondary period, the languages and -mathematics will also of necessity assume a more -differentiated and distinct position. As it is -sometimes said that correlated or thoroughly -harmonized work cannot be secured upon this -basis, I am happy to say that our experience -shows positively that there are no intrinsic difficulties. -Through common devotion to the best -development of the child, through common loyalty -to the main aims and methods of the school, -our teachers have demonstrated that in education, -as in business, the best organization is secured -through proper regard for natural divisions -of labor, interest, and training. The child -secures the advantage in discipline and knowledge -of contact with experts in each line, while -<span class='pageno' id='Page_128'>128</span>the individual teachers serve the common thought -in diverse ways, thus multiplying and reinforcing it.</p> - -<p class='c000'>Upon the moral side, that of so-called discipline -and order, where the work of the University -Elementary School has perhaps suffered most -from misunderstanding and misrepresentation, I -shall say only that our ideal has been, and continues -to be, that of the best form of family life, -rather than that of a rigid graded school. In -the latter, the large number of children under -the care of a single teacher, and the very limited -number of modes of activity open to the -pupils, have made necessary certain fixed and -somewhat external forms of “keeping order.” It -would be very stupid to copy these, under the -changed conditions of our school, its small -groups permitting and requiring the most intimate -personal acquaintance of child and teacher, -and its great variety of forms of work, with -their differing adaptations to the needs of different -children. If we have permitted to our -children more than the usual amount of freedom, -it has not been in order to relax or decrease real -discipline, but because under our particular conditions -larger and less artificial responsibilities -could thus be required of the children, and their -entire development of body and spirit be more -harmonious and complete. And I am confident -that the parents who have intrusted their -<span class='pageno' id='Page_129'>129</span>children to us for any length of time will agree -in saying that, while the children like, or love, to -come to school, yet work, and not amusement, -has been the spirit and teaching of the school; -and that this freedom has been granted under -such conditions of intelligent and sympathetic -oversight as to be a means of upbuilding and -strengthening character.</p> - -<p class='c000'>At the end of three years, then, we are not -afraid to say that some of our original questions -have secured affirmative answers. The increase -of our children from fifteen to almost one hundred, -along with a practical doubling of fees, has -shown that parents are ready for a form of education -that makes individual growth its sole controlling -aim. The presence of an organized -corps of instructors demonstrates that thoroughly -educated teachers are ready to bring to elementary -education the same resources of training, -knowledge, and skill that have long been at the -command of higher education. The everyday -work of the school shows that children can live -in school as out of it, and yet grow daily in wisdom, -kindness, and the spirit of obedience—that -learning may, even with little children, lay hold -upon the substance of truth that nourishes the -spirit, and yet the forms of knowledge be observed -and cultivated; and that growth may be -genuine and thorough, and yet a delight.</p> - -<div class='pbb'> - <hr class='pb c003' /> -</div> -<div class='tnotes'> - -<div class='chapter'> - <h2 class='c007'>TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES</h2> -</div> - <ol class='ol_1 c002'> - <li>Silently corrected typographical errors. - - </li> - <li>Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. - </li> - </ol> - -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The School and Society, by John Dewey - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SCHOOL AND SOCIETY *** - -***** This file should be named 53910-h.htm or 53910-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/9/1/53910/ - -Produced by Richard Tonsing and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was -produced from images generously made available by The -Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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