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diff --git a/old/53582-8.txt b/old/53582-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 51f2ec2..0000000 --- a/old/53582-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,21226 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mammals of Washington, Volume 2, by -Walter Woelber Dalquest - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Mammals of Washington, Volume 2 - University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History - -Author: Walter Woelber Dalquest - -Editor: E. Raymond Hall - Donald F. Hoffmeister - -Release Date: November 23, 2016 [EBook #53582] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON, VOLUME 2 *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Matthias Grammel, Joseph Cooper, -The Internet Archives for some images and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - - - - - - - - MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON - - BY - - WALTER W. DALQUEST - - - University of Kansas Publications - Museum of Natural History - - Vol. 2, pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text - - April 9, 1948 - - - UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS - LAWRENCE - 1948 - - (7) - - - - - MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON - - - - - [Illustration: Mount Rainier from Indian Henry's Hunting Ground, July, - 1934. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. - Scheffer. No. 864.)] - - - - - MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON - - BY - - WALTER W. DALQUEST - (Contribution from the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas) - - - University of Kansas Publications - Museum of Natural History - - Volume 2, pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text - - APRIL 9, 1948 - - - UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS - LAWRENCE - 1948 - - - - - UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY - Editors: E. Raymond Hall and Donald F. Hoffmeister - - - Volume 2, pp. 1-444. 140 figures in text - April 9, 1948 - - UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS - Lawrence, Kansas - - - Printed by - Ferd Voiland Jr., State Printer - Topeka, Kansas - 1948 - - [Illustration: decoration] - - 21-1993 - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - INTRODUCTION 13 - - PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF THE STATE 16 - - DISTRIBUTIONAL AREAS 20 - - CLIMATE AND VEGETATION 25 - - LIFE-ZONES AND ECOLOGY 32 - - GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF WASHINGTON 46 - - THE FAUNAS 52 - - SPECULATION AS TO EMIGRATIONAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALS 54 - - SPECULATION AS TO THE LATER DISTRIBUTIONAL HISTORY OF THE - MAMMALS 68 - - EXPLANATION OF TREATMENT 110 - - CHECK LIST OF MAMMALS 112 - - ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES 121 - - ADDENDA 416 - - BIBLIOGRAPHY 417 - - INDEX 430 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS - - - TOPOGRAPHY - - FIGURE PAGE - - Mount Rainier from Indian Henrys _frontispiece_ - - 1. Cascade Mountains at Canadian Boundary 17 - - 2. Columbia River one mile south of Kellers Ferry 19 - - 4. Cascade Mountains in Chelan National Forest 21 - - 5. Mount Rainier, Yakima Park 22 - - 6. Columbia River in Stevens County 23 - - 7. Blue Mountains, Washington 24 - - 8. North Side of Mount Rainier 26 - - 9. Mount Rainier: Cowlitz Chimneys 28 - - 10. A "pothole" crowded by drifting sand 30 - - 12. Arctic-Alpine Life-zone on Mount Rainier 33 - - 13. Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone 34 - - 14. Timbered, arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone 35 - - 15. Upper Sonoran Life-zone 37 - - 16. Canadian Life-zone 38 - - 18. McDowell Lake. Little Pend Oreille Wildlife Refuge 50 - - 19. Pend Oreille River near Newport 59 - - 20. Rocky bluff along north bank of the Columbia River 65 - - - MAMMALS - - FIGURE PAGE - - 21. Gibbs shrew-mole 122 - - 23. Coast mole and Townsend mole 125 - - 25. Coast mole 128 - - 41. Long-eared bat: female with young 161 - - 42. Boulder Cave: habitat of long-eared bats 162 - - 48. Female black bear and two cubs 171 - - 49. Black bear in "hibernation" 173 - - 54. Fisher 187 - - 59. Wolverine 202 - - 60. Wolverine: dried pelt 203 - - 62. River otter 208 - - 66. Badger 220 - - 69. Coyote 226 - - 72. Cougar or mountain lion: skin 234 - - 73. Cougar or mountain lion: pelts 235 - - 75. Canadian lynx 238 - - 76. Trapper's catch of nine Canadian lynx 239 - - 78. Bobcat 241 - - 82. Townsend chipmunk 260 - - 87. Golden-mantled ground squirrel 282 - - 89. Feeding station of Douglas squirrel 287 - - 91. Northern flying squirrel 292 - - 95. Northern pocket gopher 302 - - 96. Giant mounds formed by pocket gophers 304 - - 97. Food cache of northern pocket gopher 306 - - 99. Beaver 315 - - 100. Beaver lodge and pond 316 - - 101. Cottonwood pole carved by beaver 317 - - 102. Road flooded by beavers 320 - - 106. Deer mouse 327 - - 112. Pennsylvania meadow mouse 345 - - 115. Runways of Townsend meadow mice 350 - - 119. Muskrat 360 - - 121. Mountain beaver 366 - - 123. Big jumping mouse in hibernation 370 - - 130. Elk 392 - - 131. Group of elk 393 - - 132. White-tailed deer 395 - - 133. White-tailed deer: fawn 396 - - 134. Left antler of white-tailed deer 397 - - 135. Antlers of white-tailed deer 398 - - 136. Mule deer 400 - - 137. Black-tailed deer 401 - - 138. Mountain goat 407 - - 139. Group of mountain goats 408 - - - DISTRIBUTION MAPS - - 3. Mammalian distributional areas 20 - - 11. Life-zones of Washington 32 - - 17. Extent of Vashon-Wisconsin ice 48 - - 22. Gibbs shrew-mole 123 - - 24. Townsend mole 127 - - 26. Coast mole 129 - - 27. Cinereous shrew 133 - - 28. Merriam shrew and Trowbridge shrew 134 - - 29. Wandering shrew 137 - - 30. Dusky shrew 140 - - 31. Mountain water shrew 141 - - 32. Bendire water shrew and pigmy shrew 143 - - 33. Big myotis 147 - - 34. Yuma myotis 149 - - 35. Fringe-tailed myotis and Keen myotis 150 - - 36. Long-eared myotis 152 - - 37. Hairy-winged myotis 155 - - 38. California myotis 156 - - 39. Small-footed myotis 157 - - 40. Silver-haired bat 160 - - 43. Long-eared bat 163 - - 44. Western pipistrelle 164 - - 45. Big-brown bat 166 - - 46. Hoary bat 168 - - 47. Pallid bat 170 - - 50. Black bear 175 - - 51. Grizzly bears 177 - - 52. Raccoon 181 - - 53. Western marten 185 - - 55. Fisher 188 - - 56. Ermine 192 - - 57. Long-tailed weasel 196 - - 58. Mink 199 - - 61. Wolverine 204 - - 63. River otter 209 - - 64. Civet cat 214 - - 65. Striped skunk 218 - - 67. Badger 221 - - 68. Red fox 225 - - 70. Coyote 230 - - 71. Wolf 232 - - 74. Cougar 236 - - 77. Canadian lynx 240 - - 79. Bobcat 243 - - 80. Least chipmunk 252 - - 81. Yellow-pine chipmunk 256 - - 83. Townsend chipmunk 261 - - 84A. Marmots 266 - - 84B. Townsend and Washington ground squirrels 268 - - 85. Columbian and Beechey ground squirrels 274 - - 86. Golden-mantled ground squirrels 280 - - 88. Western gray squirrel 284 - - 90. Red and Douglas squirrels 289 - - 92. Northern flying squirrel 294 - - 93. Great Basin pocket mouse 298 - - 94. Ord kangaroo rat 300 - - 98. Northern pocket gopher 308 - - 103. Beaver 321 - - 104. Northern grasshopper mouse 323 - - 105. Western harvest mouse 325 - - 107. Deer mouse 329 - - 108. Bushy-tailed wood rat 335 - - 109. Northern lemming mouse 337 - - 110. Heather vole 339 - - 111. Gapper and California red-backed mice 342 - - 113. Pennsylvania meadow mouse 346 - - 114. Montane and Townsend meadow mice 348 - - 116. Long-tailed meadow mouse 352 - - 117. Water rat 356 - - 118. Creeping mouse 357 - - 120. Muskrat 362 - - 122. Mountain beaver 368 - - 124. Big jumping mouse 372 - - 125. Porcupine 375 - - 126. Pika 378 - - 127. Snowshoe rabbit 383 - - 128. Black-tailed jack rabbit 386 - - 129. Nuttall cottontail 388 - - - - -INTRODUCTION - - -Mammals of Washington are of especial interest to the naturalist -because many of them are recent immigrants; much of Washington was -buried under thick glacial ice until relatively recently and many of -the mammals, therefore, have inhabited the area only since the ice -disappeared. The evolution or development of certain subspecies, in -Washington, has certainly occurred within the last few thousand years. -To be able thus to date such evolutionary changes as have occurred is -of course a matter both of importance and interest to zoölogists. The -evolutionary changes in several species are relatively great. In color, -for example, the bobcat in the humid coastal area of western Washington -is notable for its dark coloration, whereas in the more arid area -of southeastern Washington it is remarkably pale and of a different -subspecies. Within the limits of the state of Washington, elevations -ranging from sea level to more than 14,000 feet occur. Since different -elevations have their characteristic mammals, more kinds are found in -Washington than in other areas of corresponding size that lack such -topographic diversity. Expressed in terms of the life-zone concept, -Washington includes faunas ranging from the Upper Sonoran Life-zone to -those of the Arctic-Alpine Life-zone. - -The basis for a study of the mammals of Washington was laid in 1929 -by W. P. Taylor and W. T. Shaw in the "Provisional List of the Land -Mammals of the state of Washington." Bailey's "Mammals and Life Zones -of Oregon" and "The Recent Mammals of Idaho" by W. B. Davis deal -with the habits and distribution of mammals in the areas bordering -Washington on the south and east, and were very useful in the -organization of the present report. - -The study was first planned from the taxonomic and ecologic point of -view. Such a study, of necessity, involves the classification and -distribution of the forms concerned. Classification has required more -work than any other part of the study and has been, in a sense, the -nucleus of the study. Nevertheless, as the report began to take form -it was recognized that the part dealing with classification and other -purely technical aspects of the paper probably would be uninteresting -to the average reader. Therefore it was felt that a greater impetus -to the study of the mammals of Washington would be given by reducing -the taxonomic accounts to the minimum and dealing principally with the -problems of distribution. - -As originally planned, the present report was to be of joint authorship -by Dr. Victor B. Scheffer of the United States Fish and Wildlife -Service, Seattle, and the writer. The press of other work prevented -Dr. Scheffer from devoting as much time as he had planned to the -project. He has, however, contributed his field notes, specimens, and -photographs, and in many other ways assisted in the project. - -Field work on mammals of Washington was carried out by the writer -from 1936 to 1940 but a decision to prepare a complete report was -not reached until 1938. Intensive field work was done between 1938 -and 1940. In August, 1941, the author took up residence at Berkeley, -California. Drafting of the manuscript was begun at that time as a -student under Professor E. Raymond Hall. War conditions and the press -of other work delayed completion. Subsequently, the manuscript was put -in final form at the University of Kansas. - -Many persons in addition to Dr. Scheffer have given assistance in the -course of this work. Dr. E. Raymond Hall, in particular, encouraged -the project and gave assistance in various ways including critical -attention to the manuscript. I am indebted also to Dr. Trevor Kincaid -and Mrs. Martha Flahaut of the University of Washington, Dr. Seth B. -Benson and Dr. Alden H. Miller of the University of California, Dr. H. -H. T. Jackson of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Dr. George E. -Hudson of the Charles R. Conner Museum, Mr. Burton Lauckhart of the -State of Washington Department of Game, and Mr. Ernest Booth of Walla -Walla College. Mrs. Peggy B. Dalquest typed and edited the several -preliminary drafts of the manuscript and aided in the laboratory -and field work. Thanks are due also to many others, including game -protectors, hunters and trappers, who have given assistance. The names -of some of them are mentioned in the following pages. - -Approximately ten thousand specimens of mammals were used. In -decreasing order, according to the number of specimens studied from -Washington, the following collections are to be mentioned: materials -obtained principally from southern Washington in the years 1939 to -1942 as a result of the interest of Miss Annie M. Alexander and Dr. -E. Raymond Hall; these materials are in the University of California -Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. The writer's own collection which at -one time numbered 2,500 specimens was the second source. The residue, -the part not destroyed by fire at the writer's home in the spring of -1942, in Seattle, now is in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy at the -University of California and the Museum of Natural History at the -University of Kansas. The other collections are those of the Biological -Surveys of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the Washington -State Museum at Seattle, the Charles R. Conner Museum at Washington -State College, and the Museum of Natural History at the University of -Kansas. In the latter collection are some materials obtained nearly -half a century ago by the late L. L. Dyche, some recently taken -specimens added by reason of the provision for work of this kind by -the University of Kansas Endowment Association and, as noted above, -a part of the author's original collection. Selected specimens from -several other collections have been used and these are indicated in -the text when particular reference is made to the specimens. Most of -the specimens studied were conventional study skins with skulls. In -some instances skeletons, skins alone, skulls alone, or entire animals -preserved in alcohol have been used. - - - - -PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF THE STATE - - -The state of Washington was divided into seven physiographic provinces -by Culver (1936). Culver points out that the physiography, though -complicated in detail, is basically simple. - -The state, including Puget Sound and other inland waters, is nearly -rectangular in shape and is 69,127 square miles in area. Its western -boundary is the Pacific Ocean. Politically, it is bounded on the north -by the United States-Canadian Boundary (49° north lat.), on the east by -the state of Idaho, and on the south by the state of Oregon. - -The Cascade Mountain Range, or Cascade Mountains Province, runs -from the northern to the southern boundary and divides the state -into two sections, of which the eastern is slightly the larger. The -mountain range trends approximately 10° east of north and continues -uninterruptedly into British Columbia, but on the south the Columbia -River separates the Washington Cascades from the Cascades of Oregon. -Near the northern border of the state the range is wide, extending -from the Mount Baker Range on the west to Mount Chopaka, 100 miles to -the east. In the central part of the state it is more compact, being -some 60 miles wide in the vicinity of Mount Rainier. Farther south it -expands to approximately 100 miles. - -The Cascades of Washington possess five great volcanic cones. These are -Mount Baker (10,750 feet elevation) on the north, Glacier Peak (10,436 -feet) in the north-central part, Mount Rainier (14,408 feet) in the -central area, and Mount Adams (12,326 feet) and Mount St. Helens (9,697 -feet) on the south. Excluding these volcanic peaks, the crests of the -Cascades have a relatively uniform level descending from an average -of 8,000 feet at the north to 5,000 feet at the south. Ranges jutting -southeastwardly from the north-central Cascades parallel elongate -intermontane valleys. These include the Entiat and Wenatchee mountains. -The latter range reaches the Columbia River and forms an important -barrier to mammalian movements. - -There is an extensive area of anticlinal ridges extending from the -southern Cascades to the Columbia River. This area includes the Horse -Heaven and other hills. Most of it is drained by the Yakima River and -is termed, in this report, the Yakima Valley Area. - - [Illustration: FIG. 1. Cascade Mountains at Canadian boundary, looking - west along boundary trail. Monument 100 in foreground, headwaters of - Ashnola River in broad valley at right. (Forest Service photo, No. - 4328.)] - -The Puget Sound Trough, or Puget Sound Province, is immediately west -of and parallel to the Cascade Mountains. It is part of a structural -downwarp that extends southward into Oregon. Most of the area is -below 1,000 feet elevation, and much of the northern part is below -sea level and therefore flooded by the marine waters of Puget Sound. -The most prominent feature of this area is Puget Sound. This is a -glacially-carved and drowned river valley, studded with islands, -peninsulas, fjords and bays that all possess a general north-south -orientation resulting from the direction of ice movement. Puget Sound -is connected with the Pacific Ocean by the Strait of Juan De Fuca, a -wide channel separating the state of Washington and Vancouver Island. - -The San Juan Islands represent the glaciated remnants of mountains -that, in preglacial time, may have connected the mountains on Vancouver -Island with the Cascades of Washington. The San Juan Islands lie at the -junction of Puget Sound, the Strait of Georgia, and the Strait of Juan -De Fuca. As a result of a boundary dispute and subsequent arbitration, -the islands were apportioned, on the basis of the deepest channel -separating them, between Canada and the United States. The American -portion includes more than 400 islands. These vary in size from mere -rocks above high tide to Orcas Island, 60 square miles in area. - -The Olympic Peninsula, or Olympic Province, lies between Puget Sound -and the Pacific Ocean. The Strait of Juan De Fuca separates this -peninsula from Vancouver Island on the north. In the south the valley -of the Chehalis River is a convenient boundary for the province. The -central portion of the peninsula is occupied by the Olympic Mountain -Range. This range is nearly oblong in shape, measuring some 70 miles -east to west by 45 miles north to south. The mountains are extremely -rough and jagged. They rise from sea level to above 6,000 feet. The -highest peak, Mount Olympus, is 8,150 feet in elevation. - -South of the Olympic Province and west of the Puget Sound Trough is an -area of low, rough hills. Culver called it the Willapa Hills Province. - -The northern third of the land east of the Cascade Mountains, or -northeastern Washington, is termed the Okanogan Highland Province by -Culver. Its southern boundary is set at the east-west flow of the -Spokane and Columbia rivers. The outstanding physiographic feature of -this area is its division into north-south trending areas of lowland -with intervening highlands and mountain ranges. The rivers are, from -east to west, the Clark Fork, Colville, Columbia, Kettle, San Poil and -Okanogan. Not all intervening highlands are separately designated as -mountains. Among these named are the Pend Oreille, Huckleberry, Kettle -River, and Okanogan ranges. - -The part of eastern Washington south of the Okanogan Highland Province, -save the extreme southeastern corner of the state, constitutes the -Columbia Lava Province. This is an extensive, relatively level plateau -that lies mainly below 2,000 feet elevation. The plateau consists of -gently folded lava flows that reach a depth of 4,000 feet in some -places (Russell, 1893) and slope inward from the east, north, and, -in part, the west (Flint, 1938). These horizontal layers of basalt -are extremely resistant to erosion by other than large rivers. Two -great gashes cross the Plateau diagonally from the northeast to the -southwest; these are Moses Coulee and the Grand Coulee. These old -coulees are the former valleys of the Columbia River, and were formed -at the time when the course of the river was successively blocked by -the advance of Pleistocene ice. The Snake River crosses the southern -edge of the Columbia Lava Province and separates the plateau proper -from an area of similar land to the southward. - - [Illustration: FIG. 2. Columbia River one mile west of Kellers Ferry, - Washington, elevation 1,060 feet, April 16, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife - Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 933.)] - -The Blue Mountains Province is an area of relatively small extent in -the extreme southeastern corner of the state of Washington. There, the -province concerned constitutes, as it were, a northward extension of -the Blue Mountains of Oregon. The mountains rise to only 5,000 feet -elevation in the Washington part of the Blue Mountains Province. - - - - -DISTRIBUTIONAL AREAS - - -The physiographic provinces are areas of land form. The form of the -land has a considerable effect on the temperature, humidity, drainage, -weathering, soil, and other non-organic features that combine to -produce the various life-zones and influence the distribution of -mammals. One might therefore expect a close correlation of mammalian -distributional areas with physiographic provinces. Although there is -a correlation, it is not exact because the distribution of mammals is -influenced also by certain other factors. Among these are historical -factors and isolation by geographic barriers. - - [Illustration: FIG. 3. Mammalian distributional areas of Washington. - A. Western Washington. B. Cascade Mountains. C. Northeastern - Washington. D. Blue Mountains. E. Southeastern Washington. - F. Yakima Valley. G. Columbian Plateau.] - -The Cascade Mountains Province of Culver includes the Yakima Valley -Area. This province contains two completely different mammalian -distributional areas. The higher mountains possess a boreal, alpine -fauna; the Cascade Range itself is called the Cascade Area in this -report. The Yakima Valley Area possesses a desert fauna derived from -the desert of eastern Oregon. - -The land west of the Cascades is separated into three physiographic -provinces, the Puget Sound, Willapa Hills, and Olympic Mountains -Province. The differences between the mammalian faunas of the Puget -Sound and Willapa Hills provinces are slight. The Olympic Mountains -possess a few species not found in the lower areas. The similarities of -the faunas of the three provinces far outnumber their differences, and -it seems best to consider them subdivisions of one distributional area. - - [Illustration: FIG. 4. Cascade Mountains in Chelan National Forest, - looking southwest at Straight Ridge; Cataract Creek (Methow watershed) - at left. (Forest Service photo. No. 4260.)] - -The Okanogan Highland Province extends, from a physiographic point -of view, west of the Okanogan River Valley. This valley, however, is -a fairly efficient barrier to mammals. Thus the part of the state -east of the Okanogan Valley and north of the east-west flow of the -Spokane and Columbia rivers may be called the Northeastern Washington -Distributional Area. - -The Columbia Lava Province includes the land both north and south of -the Snake River. Since the Snake River serves as a barrier to some -species, it seems better to term the area north of the Snake River -the Columbian Plateau Area and that to the south the Southeastern -Washington Distributional Area. - -The Blue Mountains Province and the Blue Mountains Distributional Area -are the same. - - [Illustration: FIG. 5. Yakima Park (or Sunrise Park), elevation 6,000 - feet, Mount Rainier, August 29, 1932. (Photo by 116th Photo Section, - Washington National Guard, No. 014-36A-116.)] - - [Illustration: FIG. 6. Columbia River at Hunters Ferry, Stevens County, - Washington, April 15, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor - B. Scheffer. No. 932.)] - - [Illustration: FIG. 7. Blue Mountains, Umatilla National Forest, - Washington, looking north-northeast across Al Williams Ridge to - Tucannon River; 1933. (Forest Service photo, No. 4437.)] - - PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES DISTRIBUTIONAL AREAS - - Cascade Mountains { Cascade Mountains - { Yakima Valley - - Puget Sound } - Willapa Hills } Western Washington - Olympic Mountains } - - Okanogan Highlands Northeastern Washington - - Columbia Lava { Columbian Plateau - { Southeastern Washington - - Blue Mountains Blue Mountains - - - - -CLIMATE AND VEGETATION - - -The life-zone theory of plant and animal distribution was proposed by -Merriam (1892). Merriam's life-zones have been severely criticized by -many authors, especially because an error was made in computing some of -the data on temperature. However, zonation of vegetation and animals is -obvious in Washington, and the life-zone concept has been employed in -Washington by numerous botanists and zoölogists. Among them are: Piper -(1906), Taylor and Shaw (1927), Jones (1936, 1938) and St. John (1937). - -The higher parts of the Cascade Mountains are in the Arctic-alpine -Life-zone. This is the area of wind-swept ridges, living glaciers, and -permanent snow fields. - -Trees are absent but a few shrubs are present; these include: _Juniperus -sibirica_, _Salix cascadensis_, _Salix nivalis_, _Gaultheria humifusa_, -_Empetrum nigrum_, and the heathers, _Phyllodoce glanduliflora_, -_Cassiope mertensiana_ and _Cassiope stelleriana_. Jones (1938) lists a -total of 98 species of plants from the Arctic-alpine Life-zone of Mount -Rainier. Many of these plants are most abundant in the next life-zone -lower, and are of but incidental occurrence in the Arctic-alpine -Life-zone. No mammalian species is resident but individuals of several -species regularly visit and occasionally breed there. - -Below the Arctic-alpine the Hudsonian Life-zone stretches the entire -length of the Cascades. Temperatures are low, especially in winter; -then the thermometer does not rise above zero for weeks at a time. -The average annual temperature at Paradise, 5500 feet, Mt. Rainier, -is 38.6° (all temperatures given here are in degrees Fahrenheit). -Snowfall is heavy. The average yearly snowfall, for four years, at -Mt. Baker Lodge, at 4200 feet elevation, Whatcom County, was 478 -inches; at Goat Lake, 2900 feet, Snohomish County, 261 inches; Tye, -Stevens Pass, 3010 feet, King County, 398 inches; Paradise, 5500 feet, -Mt. Rainier, 587 inches. The deepest snow recorded at Paradise was -27 feet, 2 inches on April 2, 1917. Following the spring thaws the -mountain passes are opened to travel, usually in April or May, although -nightly temperatures in April and May are still below zero. Spring -precipitation is heavy, the monthly average for a twelve-year period -at Paradise being 6.78 inches in April and 5.5 inches in May. Summer -temperatures are high in the daytime, when the sun beats down through -the rarefied atmosphere, but cool at night when accumulated heat is -lost through the thin atmospheric blanket. In summer precipitation is -light, averaging, at Paradise, 3.46 inches in June, .9 inches in July, -and 3.44 inches in August. In the autumn the temperature, both daily -and nightly, drops somewhat, and rain and cloudiness are the rule. At -Paradise the average precipitation in September is 8.29 inches and in -October 10.02 inches. The winter snows usually arrive by the middle of -November. - -Trees that are characteristic of parts of the Hudsonian Life-zone -include the alpine fir (_Abies lasiocarpa_), mountain hemlock (_Tsuga -mertensiana_), Alaska cedar (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) and -white-barked pine (_Pinus albicaulis_). The following shrubs are listed -by Jones (1938) as common in the Hudsonian Life-zone on Mt. Rainier: -_Salix barclayi_, _Salix commutata_, _Juniperus sibirica_, _Alnus -sinuata_, _Ribes howellii_, _Lutkea pectinata_, _Potentilla fruticosa_, -_Sorbus occidentalis_, _Spiraea densiflora_, _Pachistima myrsinites_, -_Arctostaphylos nevadensis_, _Arctostaphylos uva-ursi_, _Cassiope -mertensiana_, _Cassiope stelleriana_, _Phyllodoce empetriformis_, -_Rhododendron albiflorum_ and _Gaultheria ovalifolia_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 8. North side of Mount Rainier, 14,408 feet, with - Mount Adams at left and Mount St. Helens at right. June 19, 1932. - (Photo by 116th Photo Section, Washington National Guard, No. - 011-36A-116.)] - -There are extensive coniferous forests in the Canadian Life-zone, still -lower on the mountain slopes. This is an area of lesser temperature -extremes than is the Hudsonian Life-zone. The average annual -temperature at Longmire, 2761 feet, Mt. Rainier, is 43.8°. The average -temperature for the winter months, however, is below freezing. In July -and August the temperatures are high, especially in the daytime. The -eighteen year average for Longmire during these months is 60.6°. Snow -is regular but the fall is lighter than in the Hudsonian Life-zone. The -annual average, over a period of nineteen years, is 184.4 inches at -Longmire. Precipitation is similar to that in the Hudsonian Life-zone, -averaging perhaps slightly less. - -In the Cascades the typical feature of the Canadian Life-zone is -the extensive coniferous forest that extends, almost without a -break, the entire length of the Cascades on both sides of the main -crest. In addition to Douglas fir, the following trees occur in -this forest: western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_), amabalis fir -(_Abies amabalis_), white pine (_Pinus monticola_) and noble fir -(_Abies nobilis_). Other plants include _Vaccinnium ovalifolium_, -_Vaccinnium membranaceum_, _Menziesia ferruginea_, _Alnus sinuata_, -_Acer circinatum_, _Sorbus cascadensis_, _Cornus canadensis_, -_Clintonia uniflora_, _Stenauthium occidentale_, _Galium oreganum_, -and _Prenanthes lessingii_. Saprophytes abundant in, if not confined -to, this zone are listed by Jones as: _Monotropa uniflora_, _Monotropa -hypopitys_, _Allotropa virguta_, _Newberrya congesta_, _Pterospora -andromedea_, _Corallorrhiza maculata_, _Corallorrhiza mertensiana_ and -_Corallorrhiza striata_. - -West of the Canadian Life-zone in the western Cascades, the coniferous -forests merge with the lowland forests of western Washington. To the -east of the Canadian Life-zone in the eastern Cascades, there is a -distinct change to a more arid climate and flora. At Leavenworth, 1167 -feet, Chelan County, the annual average precipitation is but 19.5 -inches and at Cle Elum, 1930 feet, but 23.23 inches. Temperatures are -higher, the annual average of the above two localities being 47.2° -and 45.4° respectively. The winter months are cold, with the average -temperature in January and February below freezing. In summer the -averages in July and August at Leavenworth are 68.8° and 68.0°, with -the average maximum being 87.5° and 86.1°. Snowfall is heavy, the -yearly average at Leavenworth being 98.5 inches and at Cle Elum 86.3 -inches. The effect of this more arid climate is seen in the vegetation. -The dense Douglas fir forest, is replaced by more open forests of -yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosus_). Groves of oak (_Quercus garryana_) -are found near streams. The open forests give way to the extensive -grasslands bordering the desert. The transition of vegetation is -similar to that occurring in the Yakima Valley Area. - -In the Yakima Valley Area, arid conditions prevail. The average yearly -precipitation at Yakima is 6.67 inches. Only in November, December and -January may more than one inch of precipitation be expected monthly. -Snow may be expected in the winter months and the yearly average -snowfall is 22.1 inches. Winter temperatures are low, the average -for December and January being but slightly above freezing. Summer -temperatures are extreme; the July average is 73.1° and the average -maximum for the same month is 89°. The highest temperature recorded is -111°. - -The open pine forests of the eastern Cascades give way to grasslands. -Grasses of several species are common but the bunchgrass (_Agropyron -spicatum_) is most important. Other plants include the primrose -(_Oenothera pallida_), lupines (_Lupinus_), and _Mertensia_. In -ravines and near watercourses such shrubs as hawthorn (_Crataegus -douglasii_), service-berry (_Amelanchier cusickii_, _Amelanchier -utahensis_), aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), syringa (_Philadelphus -lewisii_), snowberry (_Symphoricarpos albus_), choke-berry (_Prunus -melanocarpa_) and elderberry (_Sambucus caerulae_) form thickets. -Lower in the valley the vegetation is xerophytic, similar to that -of the Columbian Plateau. Sagebrush (_Artemisiae tridentata_) is -dominant. Other shrubs include rabbit brush (_Chrysothamnus nauseosus_, -_Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus_), hop sage (_Grayia spinosa_), black sage -(_Purshia tridentata_) and greasewood (_Sarcobatus vermiculatus_). - - [Illustration: FIG. 9. Mount Rainier. Washington: Cowlitz Chimneys - from base of Dege Peak, July 19, 1933. (Fish and Wildlife Service - photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 859.)] - -Climatic conditions in the Olympic Mountains are, in general, similar -to those of the higher Cascade Mountains. There is a limited area of -Arctic-alpine Life-zone on Mount Olympus. The principal life-zone is -the Hudsonian. The Canadian merges with the lowland Humid-Transition -and is difficult to ascertain as a separate zone. In the Hudsonian -Life-zone the average temperatures are low. Winter climate is bitter -and the snow lies deep. In the absence of government weather stations -in the Olympics, detailed descriptions of climatic conditions can -not be given. Vegetation of the Hudsonian Life-zone of the Olympic -Mountains is, in general, similar to that of the same life-zone of the -Cascades (see Jones, 1936, Botanical Survey of the Olympic Peninsula). - -The lowlands of western Washington have a cool, humid climate. The -average annual temperature of the area varies little from 50°. In -winter the temperature, especially in January and February, commonly -drops below the freezing point at night. Summer temperatures are -moderate, rarely reaching 90°. Snowfall is light, averaging about 10 -inches. The prevailing winds are from the west and are moisture-laden. -They rise over the Olympic Mountains and loose heavy rains along the -coastal area of the lowlands. The average annual precipitation at La -Push, Clallam County, is 97.9 inches; at Clearwater, Jefferson County, -124.98 inches; at Aberdeen, Grays Harbor County, 81.58 inches; at South -Bend, Pacific County, 83.35 inches. In contrast, the more inland areas -receive less than half as much precipitation. The yearly average at -Bellingham is 31.09 inches; at Seattle, 30.07 inches; at Tacoma, 39.53 -inches; at Vancouver, Clark County, 37.24 inches. - -The outstanding feature of the vegetation of western Washington is the -coniferous forest. Previous to the logging activities a dense cover of -Douglas fir, western hemlock and red cedar spread almost unbroken over -the area. The openings in the forest and the marshy ravines and river -valleys supported growths of underbrush and deciduous trees so dense and -luxuriant as to compare with a tropical jungle. In the dense rain -forests along the coast, mosses and lichens develop an understory -vegetation many inches deep and clothe the branches of the forest trees. -The mild temperature and excessive rainfall cause some species that -usually are of bush or shrub size to reach the proportions of small -trees. In some places one can climb twenty feet from the ground in a -huckleberry tree, the trunk of which is five inches in diameter. The -coniferous forest is made up of several species of trees. Most important -among these are the western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_), Douglas fir -(_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_), and red cedar (_Thuja plicata_). Locally the -western yew (_Taxus brevifolia_), lodgepole pine (_Pinus contorta_) and -spruce (_Picea sitchensis_) may be common. Deciduous trees are numerous -and include several willows (_Salix_ sp.), aspen (_Populus -tremuloides_), hazel (_Corylus californica_), alder (_Alnus oregona_), -oak (_Quercus garryana_), broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_), vine -maple (_Acer circinatum_), and flowering dogwood (_Cornus nuttallii_). -Mosses and ferns are abundant. The sword fern (_Polystichum munitum_) -and bracken (_Pteridium aquilinum_) are especially common. Space -prevents listing all but a fraction of the typical shrubs but these -include huckleberry (_Vaccinium parvifolium_, _Vaccinium ovatum_), -Oregon grape (_Berberis nervosa_), salal (_Gaultheria shallon_), rose -(_Rosa gymnocarpa_), thimbleberry (_Rubus parviflorus_), salmonberry -(_Rubus spectabilis_), blackcap raspberry (_Rubus leucodermis_) and wild -blackberry (_Rubus macropetalus_). - -The higher parts of some of the ranges of northeastern Washington are in -the Hudsonian Life-zone, but most of the mountains are in the Canadian -Life-zone. The valleys are in the Transition Life-zone. Climatic -conditions are similar to those of the eastern slopes of the Cascades. -Winter temperatures are low, the average for December, January and -February being below freezing. Summer temperatures are high, the July -average for Colville being 67.2° and the July average maximum being -87.4°. Vegetation consists principally of coniferous forests in the -mountains and deciduous woods in the valleys. Among the interesting -features of the vegetation are the extensive stands of almost pure larch -(_Larix occidentalis_). In most respects the flora closely resembles -that of the Blue Mountains. - -The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington differ from other ranges -in Washington in their relative aridity. There are few streams and a -single river drains the area. There are no government weather stations -in the Blue Mountains. The winter temperatures are low and the snow deep -and lasting. Summer temperatures are high and humidity and precipitation -low. Coniferous forests of the type of arid regions form the principal -tree cover. Typical plant species include the white fir (_Abies -grandis_), alpine fir (_Abies lasiocarpa_), larch (_Larix -occidentalis_), spruce (_Picea columbiana_), and such shrubs as fool -huckleberry (_Menziesia ferruginea_), _Pachystima myrsinites_, dogwood -(_Cornus canadensis_), wild current (_Ribes petiolare_), mountain -mahogany (_Cercocarpus ledifolius_), spirea (_Spiraea_ sp.), lupines -(_Lupinus_) of several species, maple (_Acer douglasii_), buckbrush -(_Ceanothus sanguineus_), sticky brush (_Ceanothus velutinus_), and -huckleberry (_Vaccinium membranaceum_). - - [Illustration: FIG. 10. A "pothole" being crowded by drifting sand, - ten miles south of Moses Lake, Washington, March 23, 1940. (Fish and - Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 925.)] - -The Columbian Plateau and southeastern Washington present desert -conditions. At Odessa, 1590 feet, Lincoln County, the average annual -precipitation is only 9.38 inches, and only in the winter may more than -one inch of precipitation per month be expected. The average temperature -is 48.5°. In the winter the average is below freezing but in July it is -71.3°. The average maximum for July is 90° and an extreme of 111° is -recorded. Walla Walla, 991 feet, has a higher annual precipitation -(16.66 inches) but higher temperature (yearly average 53.5°, July -average 75.0°, average July maximum 88.6°, extreme 113°). Winter -temperatures on the Columbian Plateau are low. The January average at -Odessa is 25.3° and at Walla Walla 32.4° The average yearly snowfall at -Odessa is 19.4 inches and at Walla Walla 23.5 inches. Vegetation of the -Columbian Plateau and southeastern Washington is of the desert type. A -few pines and junipers grow in favored places. Along streams the -cottonwood (_Populus hastata_) and willow (_Salix_) of several species -are common. Most typical are grasses and shrubs such as the bunch grass -(_Agropyron inerme_, _Agropyron spictatum_), foxtail (_Alopecurus -aequalis_), cheat grass (_Bromus tectorum_), saltbrush (_Atriplex -truncata_), greasewood (_Sarcobatus vermiculatus_) mustard (_Arabis_ -sp., _Brassica_ sp.), sagebrush (_Artemisia rigida_, _Artemisia -tridentata_), rabbit brush (_Chrysothamnus nauseosus_, _Chrysothamnus -viscidiflorus_) and cactus (_Opuntia polyacantha_). The arid climate of -the Columbian Plateau affects, to some extent, surrounding areas. Thus -the Yakima Valley Area, the Columbia Valley, where it borders the -Plateau, and the Okanogan Valley possess vegetation typical of the -Columbia Plateau. - - - - -LIFE-ZONES AND ECOLOGY - - -The Transition Life-zone is the principal life-zone in Washington. It is -divisible into three subdivisions: Humid, Arid-timbered and -Arid-grasslands (Fig. 11) subdivisions. The Humid and Arid-timbered -subdivisions of the Transition life-zone are closely related in some -respects but different in others. They are separated by the Cascade -Mountains. All of the Transition Life-zone west of the Cascades belongs -to the Humid subdivision and the timbered Transition Life-zone east of -the Cascades belongs to the Arid-timbered subdivision. - - [Illustration: FIG. 11. Life-zones of Washington. Arctic-alpine not - shaded. A. Hudsonian and Canadian (mapped together). B. Forested - Transition (Humid and Arid subdivisions). C. Arid-grasslands of the - Transition. D. Upper Sonoran.] - -The Arid-grasslands are of minor geographic extent. Although this -subdivision is relatively distinct as concerns the distribution of -plants, insects and birds, it is of little importance as concerns the -distribution of mammals. For the most part, the mammals occupying -it are more representative of surrounding areas. Large parts of the -Arid-grasslands have been taken over for agriculture, especially wheat -raising. Perhaps the greatest extent of the Arid-grasslands existing -in a natural state is along the eastern Cascade Mountains and along -the eastern side of the Columbian Plateau. These are truly transition -areas, situated where the arid pine forests are replaced by open, -sagebrush desert. - - [Illustration: FIG. 12. Arctic-alpine Life-zone, Mount Rainier, - Washington: Cowlitz Glacier from elevation of 9,500 feet. (Fish and - Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer. No. 900.)] - -The Upper Sonoran Life-zone includes the desert areas of Washington -(figure 11 D). Its principal extent is the central Columbian Plateau. -From the central Columbian Plateau, fingerlike projections of desert -extend along the principal valleys. - -The Arctic-alpine Life-zone occurs in the high Olympic Mountains and on -the higher peaks of the Cascades. This is shown on the life-zone map, -Fig. 11, as white, unshaded areas. - -The mammalian faunas of the Hudsonian and Canadian life-zones resemble -each other closely. The boundary between them is too complex to permit -separating them on a small-scale map. Consequently they are mapped -together on Fig. 11 as A. - - -THE HUMID SUBDIVISION OF THE TRANSITION LIFE-ZONE - -This subdivision is remarkably uniform in composition over western -Washington. The greatest difference is in precipitation. Rainfall along -the coast is heavier than that in the interior. Consequently vegetation -is more dense and luxuriant along the coast. - -Four habitats may be distinguished in the Humid subdivision and further -subdivision is possible. The dominant and most extensive habitat is the -forest. Dominant mammalian species include: _Peromyscus maniculatus_, -_Sorex trowbridgii_, _Sorex obscurus_, _Tamiasciurus douglasii_, -_Clethrionomys californicus_, _Aplodontia rufa_, _Glaucomys sabrinus_ -and _Odocoileus hemionus_. Mammals are scarce and nocturnal forms -prevail. As a rule, a line of mouse traps set in a forest habitat will -take principally _Peromyscus maniculatus_ with a few _Sorex trowbridgii_ -and _Sorex obscurus_ and rarely a _Clethrionomys californicus_. In some -places, especially where the moss is deep, a line of mouse traps will -catch only shrews. - - [Illustration: FIG. 13. Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone, - Headley's Marsh, five miles east of Granite Falls, Washington, June 4, - 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 60.)] - -A second important habitat is the deciduous jungle. This differs from -the forest habitat in that the dominant trees are of the deciduous type -and in that understory vegetation, such as shrubs and annuals, is dense. -The jungle habitat occurs in ravines and in valleys of streams and -rivers and, in general, covers the lower, poorly drained portions of the -Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. Mammals are abundant and -varied in the jungle habitat. The deer mouse (_Peromyscus maniculatus_) -is the most common mammal but a line of mouse traps might also catch: -_Neurotrichus gibbsii_, _Scapanus orarius_, _Sorex vagrans_, _Microtus -oregoni_, or _Zapus p. trinotatus_. The mountain beaver, snowshoe -rabbit, and Townsend chipmunk also occur there. - -The prairies form a third habitat. These areas of native grasslands are -of minor extent but are the principal home of several races of gophers -and the Townsend mole (_Scapanus townsendii_). Deer and elk also browse -on the prairies. - - [Illustration: FIG. 14. Timbered arid subdivision of the Transition - Life-zone, Kettle Falls on the Columbia River (now beneath Coulee Dam - backwater), Stevens County, Washington, June 15, 1938. (Fish and - Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 72.)] - -A fourth habitat is the marsh. In it there is here included the sphagnum -bogs and marshy shores of lakes and streams. This habitat is -characterized by damp ground, standing water, and dense vegetation. -Typical mammalian species include the water shrew (_Sorex bendirii_), -Townsend meadow mouse, muskrat and mink. - -Other habitats, such as aerial for the bats and aquatic for the beaver -and otter, might be listed. - - -THE ARID TIMBERED SUBDIVISION OF THE TRANSITION LIFE-ZONE - -In Washington the Arid timbered subdivision of the Transition Life-zone -is the open, pine forest. Because of the aridity of this habitat, -marshes and streamside thickets are uncommon, but where habitats of this -kind do occur they have a fauna distinct from that of other habitats. - -The pine forest habitat includes many diurnal species, such as the red -squirrel, yellow-pine chipmunk, and Columbian ground squirrel. The -white-tailed deer occurs here and, for most of the year, the mule deer. -Snowshoe rabbits are usually present. Near rocks the bushy-tailed wood -rat is common. Mice are scarce, probably because of the open nature of -the surface of the ground. A night's trapping usually yields only a few -_Peromyscus maniculatus_. - -The mammalian fauna of the marshes and streamside thickets is similar. -Shrews including _Sorex vagrans_ and _Sorex obscurus_ are uncommon. -Meadow mice, including _Microtus pennsylvanicus_, _Microtus -longicaudus_, and more rarely _Microtus montanus_, are taken. - - -THE ARID GRASSLANDS SUBDIVISION OF THE TRANSITION LIFE-ZONE - -This subdivision is so much utilized by man where it occupies any -considerable areas, and is of such a transitional nature elsewhere, that -it is important for only a few native wild mammals. The sagebrush vole -(_Lagurus curtatus_) seems to be confined to the arid grasslands. The -white-tailed jack rabbit is now found principally in the arid -grasslands, but its confinement there has resulted probably from -competition with the black-tailed jack rabbit. The montane meadow mouse -(_Microtus montanus_) is the only common, representative species. Many -species from the Upper Sonoran Life-zone extend into the arid grasslands -where conditions are suitable. These include _Reithrodontomys -megalotis_, _Perognathus parvus_, _Citellus washingtoni_ and _Marmota -flaviventris_. A few species more typical of the Arid timbered -subdivision of the Transition Life-zone stray onto the arid grasslands. -_Citellus columbianus_ and _Microtus longicaudus_ may be included here. - - -THE UPPER SONORAN LIFE-ZONE - -The sagebrush desert in Washington is relatively uniform in nature. -Several different habitats may be distinguished, such as sandy areas, -open sage, dense sage, stony ground, and talus. Qualitatively, however, -the mammalian fauna of these areas is surprisingly similar. -Quantitatively, there are great differences. For example, the -grasshopper mouse is rare in the open sage areas with hard, claylike -soil but common on drifted sand. The harvest mouse is common in dense -sage but rare in open sage or in open, sandy areas. Mammals are abundant -on the sagebrush desert and typical species include: the black-tailed -jack rabbit, Nuttall cottontail, Ord kangaroo rat, Great Basin pocket -mouse, Townsend ground squirrel, Washington ground squirrel. - -Marshes are not uncommon on the Columbian Plateau and elsewhere in the -Upper Sonoran Life-zone in Washington. They do not possess a fauna that -is strictly Upper Sonoran but instead contain species more typical of -the Arid-timbered subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. Meadow mice -found in desert marshes include _Microtus montanus_ and _Microtus -pennsylvanicus_. The only shrew we have found is _Sorex vagrans_. The -harvest mouse (_Reithrodontomys megalotis_) is often abundant in -marshes. - - [Illustration: FIG. 15. Upper Sonoran Life-zone, sand and basalt - cliffs along the east bank of the Columbia River, at Vantage, - Washington, 1930. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. - Scheffer, No. 848.)] - - -THE CANADIAN LIFE-ZONE - -The Canadian Life-zone is a relatively uniform area in which the forest -habitat is most important. Talus and swift, cold streams bring some -typical mammalian species into the Canadian Life-zone from the -Hudsonian. Mammals are usually common; they are abundant only in the -upper portion of the Life-zone. Arboreal species and forms adapted to -life beneath the forest cover are dominant. The Douglas squirrel, red -squirrel, northern flying squirrel and Townsend chipmunk are typical -arboreal species. Traps set beneath the trees might catch _Peromyscus -maniculatus_, _Clethrionomys gapperi_, _Neotoma cinerea_, _Sorex -obscurus_, or _Sorex trowbridgii_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 16. Canadian Life-zone forest on Mount Rainier, - Washington, elevation 2,800 feet, September 14, 1934. Western hemlock, - Douglas fir, western red cedar, and grand fir. (Fish and Wildlife - Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 325.)] - - -THE HUDSONIAN LIFE-ZONE - -In Washington the Hudsonian Life-zone is of greater diversity than any -other. Frost and steep slopes have formed great masses of talus and, in -this talus, certain species of mammals, such as _Ochotona princeps_, -_Marmota caligata_ and _Marmota olympus_ are found. Other species, such -as the golden-mantled ground squirrels, mountain chipmunk, bushy-tailed -wood rat, red-backed mouse and long-tailed meadow mouse find the talus -an ideal home. Glacial action has produced, in the Hudsonian Life-zone, -numerous level or concave areas that contain small lakes and slow-moving -streams. Dense, herbaceous vegetation is abundant nearby. Small mammals -abound and a line of mouse traps will almost certainly catch a few such -typical species as: _Sorex palustris_, _Sorex obscurus_, _Microtus -oregoni_, _Microtus richardsoni_, _Microtus longicaudus_ and _Zapus -princeps_ as well as the ever present _Peromyscus maniculatus_. The -shrew-mole or heather vole might also be taken, though the latter is -more apt to be found in nearby heather meadows. - -TABLE 1. Distribution of mammals in Washington by Life-Zones. _A._ -Abundant. _C._ Common. _R._ Rare. - - Column headers: - - A: Humid Transition - B: Arid-timbered Transition - C: Arid-grasslands Transition - D: Upper Sonoran - E: Canadian - F: Hudsonian - - ===========================================+===+===+===+===+===+=== - SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES. | A | B | C | D | E | F - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii | | | | | ? | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - gibbsii minor | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Scapanus townsendii | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - orarius orarius | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - orarius schefferi | | | | C | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - orarius yakimensis | | | | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Sorex cinereus cinereus | | R | | | R | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - cinereus streatori | R | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - merriami merriami | | | | R | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - trowbridgii trowbridgii | A | | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - trowbridgii destructioni | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - vagrans vagrans | A | | | | R | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - vagrans monticola | | C | C | A | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - obscurus obscurus | | | | | R | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - obscurus setosus | C | | | | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - palustris navigator | | | | | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - bendirii bendirii | A | | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - bendirii albiventer | C | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Microsorex hoyi washingtoni | | R | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Myotis lucifugus carissima | | | C | C | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - lucifugus alascensis | A | | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - yumanensis sociabilis | | | C | C | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - yumanensis saturatus | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - keenii keenii | R | | | | R | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - evotis evotis | | R | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - evotis pacificus | R | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - thysanodes thysanodes | | | | R | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - volans longicrus | C | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - volans interior | | C | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - californicus californicus | | | R | R | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - californicus caurinus | A | C | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - subulatus melanorhinus | | | R | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Lasionycteris noctivagans | A | A | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii | R | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - rafinesquii intermedius | | R | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus | | | | R | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus | A | A | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Lasiurus cinereus cinereus | R | R | R | R | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Antrozous pallidus cantwelli | | | R | R | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Ursus americanus altifrontalis | A | C | | | A | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - americanus cinnamomum | | A | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - chelan | | | | | R | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Procyon lotor psora | A | | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - lotor excelsus | | R | R | C | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Martes caurina caurina | | | | | A | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - caurina origenes | | | | | A | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - pennanti | R | | | | R | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Mustela erminea invicta | | C | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - erminea gulosa | | | | | C | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - erminea murica | | R | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - erminea fallenda | R | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - erminea streatori | R | | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - erminea olympica | R | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - frenata nevadensis | | C | C | C | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - frenata effera | | A | C | C | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - frenata washingtoni | | | | | C | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - frenata altifrontalis | A | | | | C | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - vison energumenos | C | C | C | C | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Gulo luscus luteus | | | | R | R | R - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Lutra canadensis pacifica | C | R | R | R | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Spilogale gracilis saxatilis | | | R | R | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - gracilis latifrons | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Mephitis mephitis hudsonica | | A | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - mephitis major | | | R | R | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - mephitis notata | | C | R | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - mephitis spissigrada | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Taxidea taxus taxus | | C | C | C | R | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Vulpes fulva cascadensis | | | | | | R - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Canis latrans lestes | C | A | A | A | C | R - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - latrans incolatus | | A | C | C | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - lupus fuscus | R | R | R?| | R | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Felis concolor missoulensis | | C | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - concolor oregonensis | C | C | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Lynx canadensis | | | | | R | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - rufus fasciatus | A | | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - rufus pallescens | | A | C | C | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Tamias minimus scrutator | | | | C | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - minimus grisescens | | | | R | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - amoenus caurinus | | | | | A | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - amoenus felix | | | | | A | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - amoenus ludibundus | | | | | A | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - amoenus affinis | | A | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - amoenus canicaudus | | A | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - amoenus luteiventris | | C | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - ruficaudus simulans | | C | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - townsendii townsendii | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - townsendii cooperi | | C | | | A | R - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Marmota monax petrensis | | | | | R | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - flaviventris avara | | R | C | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - caligata cascadensis | | | | | R | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - olympus | | | | | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Citellus townsendii townsendii | | | | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - washingtoni | | | C | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - columbianus columbianus | | A | C | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - columbianus ruficaudus | | A | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - beecheyi douglasii | | A | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - lateralis tescorum | | | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - lateralis connectens | | | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - saturatus | | C | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni | | A | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - hudsonicus streatori | | A | | | A | R - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - douglasii douglasii | A | A | | | A | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Sciurus griseus griseus | C | C | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis | C | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - sabrinus fuliginosus | | | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - sabrinus columbiensis | | A | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - sabrinus latipes | | A | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - sabrinus bangsi | | R | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Perognathus parvus parvus | | | C | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - parvus lordi | | | C | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - parvus columbianus | | | | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Dipodomys ordii columbianus | | | | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Thomomys talpoides devexus | | | | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides columbianus | | | | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides aequalidens | | | A | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides wallowa | | | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides fuscus | | A | C | R | C | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides yakimensis | | | C | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides shawi | | | | | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides immunis | | | | | A | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides limosus | | C | A | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides douglasii | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides glacialis | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides tacomensis | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides pugetensis | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides tumuli | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides yelmensis | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides couchi | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - talpoides melanops | | | | | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Castor canadensis leucodonta | A | A | | C | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - canadensis idoneus | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus | | | | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis | | | C | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Peromyscus maniculatus oreas | A | | | | A | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - maniculatus hollisteri | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - maniculatus austerus | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - maniculatus rubidus | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - maniculatus gambelii | | C | R | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - maniculatus artemisiae | | A | R | R | C | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Neotoma cinerea occidentalis | | C | R | A | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - cinerea alticola | | C | | | A | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Synaptomys borealis wrangeli | | | | | | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Phenacomys intermedius intermedius | | | | | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - intermedius oramontis | | | | | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus | | R | | | A | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - gapperi idahoensis | | R | | | A | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - gapperi nivarius | | | | | A | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - californicus occidentalis | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris | | A | R | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - pennsylvanicus kincaidi | | | | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - montanus nanus | | | A | C | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - montanus canescens | | C | A | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - townsendii townsendii | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - townsendii pugeti | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - longicaudus halli | | A | C | C | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - longicaudus macrurus | R | | | | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - richardsoni arvicoloides | | | | | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - richardsoni macropus | | | | | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - oregoni oregoni | A | | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis | A | A | | C | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - zibethicus occipitalis | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Zapus princeps oregonus | | | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - princeps kootenayensis | | | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - princeps idahoensis | | | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - princeps trinotatus | A | | | | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Aplodontia rufa rufa | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - rufa rainieri | | | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum | | A | R | C | A | R - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - dorsatum nigrescens | | A | R | C | A | R - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Ochotona princeps cuppes | | | | | | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - princeps fenisex | | | | | | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - orinceps brunnescens | | | | | C | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Lepus townsendii townsendii | | | C | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - californicus deserticola | | | C | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - americanus washingtonii | A | | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - americanus cascadensis | | C | | | A | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - americanus pineus | | C | | | A | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - americanus columbiensis | | A | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii | | | | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - idahoensis | | | | A | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Cervus canadensis roosevelti | A | | | | A | R - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - canadensis nelsoni | | C | | | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Odocoileus virginianus leucurus | A | | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - virginianus ochrourus | | A | | | | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - hemionus hemionus | | A | | | A | C - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - hemionus columbianus | A | | | | C | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Ovis canadensis canadensis | | A | A | A | A | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - canadensis californiana | | A | A | A | A | - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - Oreamnos americanus americanus | | | | | | A - -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+--- - - - - -GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF WASHINGTON - - -The composition of the mammalian fauna of any area is dependent on -several factors. These include the composition of the original fauna, -species which have since invaded the area, and quantitative and -qualitative changes that have occurred in the area. The latter two -factors refer to changes in relative numbers or extermination of species -through environmental changes or competition with other forms and -evolutionary changes that have occurred in the species making up the -mammalian fauna. - -Our knowledge and understanding of the distribution and history of the -species of mammals occurring in Washington decreases rapidly as we go -back in time. The distribution of the modern fauna at the present time -is fairly well known. The distribution of species 100 years ago is less -well understood. This is especially true of certain game species and -carnivores whose distribution has been altered by man. Our knowledge of -the distribution of mammals in the Pleistocene and earlier times is -based on fossil skeletons. Such knowledge must necessarily be meager, -for conditions favorable to fossilization and the preservation of -fossils until their subsequent discovery by man, were not of common -occurrence. - -In the Cascades and in eastern Washington, the Miocene was a time of -orogeny and great volcanism. Great flows of lava, 4,000 feet thick in -the Snake River area (Russell, 1893), emerging from fissures in the -Snake River area, formed the Columbian Plateau. The Columbian basalt -slopes inward centripetally from the eastern, northern, and western -margins of the Columbian Plateau with an average descent of 25 feet to -the mile (Flint, 1938). The dip of the lava flows results in the -basalt-marginal course of the Spokane and Columbia rivers today, along -the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau. The earlier part of the -Pliocene was a period of erosion and deformation. In the early -Pleistocene the five great volcanic cones of the Cascades, Mount Baker, -Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount Adams and Mount St. Helens were -formed. In eastern Washington a gentle folding of the Miocene lava flows -occurred. The folding took place slowly and the Columbia River in its -course along the eastern edge of the Cascades cut through the folds as -they formed, making a series of water gaps. Farther south, the -Simcoe-Frenchman Hills anticline seems to have arisen more rapidly and -the Columbia River was forced eastward before it became impounded and -rose over the barrier and plunged down, tearing out the great Wallula -Water Gap (Flint, 1938). This gap is a mile wide, eight miles long and, -in places, a thousand feet deep. The impounding of the Columbia by the -Simcoe-Frenchman Hills anticline resulted in a lake several hundred -miles in area. Sediments deposited in this lake form the Ringold -formation. The Ringold formation possesses a very early Pleistocene -mammalian fauna. - -The Pleistocene was a time of great change in the mammalian fauna of the -world. Unfortunately the beautiful glacial sequence revealed in Europe -and the Mississippi Valley cannot be detected in Washington. In western -Washington the deposits of the last continental glaciation and fluvial -deposits of the last interglacial period almost everywhere obscure -evidence of earlier glaciations. Deposits of an earlier glaciation, -named Admiralty by Bretz (1913), have been detected in places. Deposits -of greater age, that may represent a still earlier glaciation, have been -noted. In eastern Washington the only definite proof of multiple -glaciation is of one glaciation preceding the last. This is the Spokane -glaciation of Bretz (1923). That multiple glaciation in the sequence -reported from the Mississippi Valley affected Washington seems probable. -The lack of evidence of a complete sequence is negative evidence. In -western Washington the earliest glacial deposits might be beneath the -later deposits or they may have been removed or reworked by subsequent -glaciations, whereas in eastern Washington they may have been removed by -subsequent glaciation and erosion. - -The time interval between the two known glaciations appears to have been -of greater duration than the Recent. The drift of the earlier period is -sometimes found covered by the till of the later glaciation, and -preserved by it. The early material is deeply weathered and all save the -hardest pebbles and quartzites, for example, are rotten and disintegrate -at the touch. In contrast, the later deposits are almost unweathered. -Pebbles are hard, and ring when struck. A zone of leaching and oxidation -of the finer materials reaches a depth of some 30 inches, below which -the till is fresh. - -Two names are currently applied to the last continental glaciation of -the state of Washington. That west of the Cascade Mountains, studied and -described by Bretz (1913), was termed "Vashon." The interglacial cycle -preceding it was called "Puyallup." The glaciation of eastern Washington -has been called "Wisconsin," after the Mississippi Valley terminology, -by several writers. Papers by Flint (1935, 1937) describe and map it. - -The Vashon and Wisconsin glaciations probably occupied the same time -interval, although this has not certainly been established. In the -present report I have used the term "Vashon-Wisconsin" in speaking of -the entire period, or the glaciers both east and west of the Cascades -together. Vashon, alone, is restricted to western Washington and -Wisconsin to eastern Washington. - - [Illustration: FIG. 17. Extent of Vashon-Wisconsin ice over - Washington. The Wisconsin and Vashon glaciers have been connected - through the Mount Rainier section of the Cascades because it is - thought that few or no mammalian species lived in the Cascades north - of Mount Rainier while the ice was in place. Data generalized from - Flint (1937), Bretz (1913), Culver (1936) and other sources.] - -The Vashon glaciation seems to have consisted of an ice dome centering -in Puget Sound (the Puget Glacier of Bretz, 1913) and flooding the -lowlands from the Olympic Mountains to the Cascade Mountains. The -southern edge of the Puget Glacier was slightly south of the present -terminus of Puget Sound. Fingerlike projections of ice were forced up -valleys of the western Cascades and the northern and eastern Olympics. -Some of these upward moving fingers of ice met and coalesced with valley -glaciers descending from the mountains. At the southern edge of the -glacier, the Black Hills and Porcupine Hills remained above the ice -although partially surrounded by it. - -The Wisconsin glacier, according to Flint (1935), was a great piedmont -glacier, fed by valley glaciers from the Cascades and Coast Ranges -to the west and the Rockies to the east. It extended from the Idaho -boundary to the Cascade Mountains. From the Canadian Boundary it sloped -down to an approximate elevation of some 6500 feet at Republic and to -2500 feet on the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau which was the -southern edge of the glacier. The Kettle River Mountains, in almost -the center of the glacier, remained a peninsula or driftless area that -divided the glacier into two lobes. The Pend Oreille, Huckleberry and -other mountain ranges, formed nunataks, or islands above the ice, at -the southern part of the glacier. - -The behavior of valley glaciers in the northern Cascade Mountains -during Vashon-Wisconsin time, seems to have been variable. Some -depression of the snow line, at least in the north, seems probable. - -The Vashon Glacier impinged on the eastern, northern and to some extent -the western, slopes of the Olympic Mountains. Late Pleistocene valley -glaciers in the Olympics, however, seem to have been inconsequential. - -The time of the retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers is a subject -of special interest to the mammalogist in that it represents time for -invasion and dispersal of species and in that it represents generations -of individuals upon which natural selection might act. It is generally -agreed that a period of approximately ten thousand years has elapsed -since the retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers from Washington. - -Information on the climate of the state of Washington previous to the -period of the last continental glaciation is understandably meager. -Bretz (1913) considers the Puyallup period a time of excessive -precipitation and erosion. Bits of lignite from Puyallup sediments -seem to be of Douglas fir. Presumably the climate was slightly warmer -and more humid than it is today. Vegetation possibly consisted of -coniferous forests. - -With the advance of the Vashon ice, mammals north of the ice border -were all or mostly eliminated. Climatic conditions south of the border -of the ice probably were strongly affected by it. Remains of mammoths -have been found in Vashon till. The presence of many non-boreal species -of mammals in southwestern Washington indicates their persistence -there and that conditions therefore were not intolerable for them. -Probably the climate of southwestern Washington was cool and dry. Fir, -spruce, and Douglas fir may have been the dominant trees. Hansen (1941 -A: 209) found evidence from studies of pollen that coniferous forests -were growing in west-central Oregon in late glacial time. These pollen -studies of postglacial peat bogs by Henry P. Hansen give evidence of -postglacial climatic changes. Hansen points out (1941 B, 1941 C) that -climatic changes west of the Cascades were probably slight because of -the influence of the Pacific Ocean. Pollen profiles indicate an early, -cool, dry climate followed by a warmer one and increasing humidity. -The present climate may be considered cool and humid. Most of western -Washington lies in the Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. - - [Illustration: FIG. 18. McDowell Lake, Little Pend Oreille Wildlife - Refuge, Stevens County, Washington, September 29, 1939. (Fish and - Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 730.)] - -The pre-Wisconsin climate of eastern Washington is unknown. From -the loessial nature of the Palouse Soil (Bryan, 1927), a preglacial -deposit, the area would seem to have been arid, probably a grassland or -a sagebrush desert. If the fossil fauna discovered at Washtuckna Lake, -Adams County, is of this period, the forest conditions of the Blue -Mountains were slightly more extensive than at present. The glacial -climate of the Columbian Plateau in Wisconsin time was probably cool -and arid. Pollen studies by Hansen (1939, 1940) indicate increasing -dryness and warmth since the retreat of the Wisconsin ice. Present-day -climate on the Columbian Plateau is warm and dry. The plateau is -principally a sagebrush desert. The glaciated area to the north is -cooler and more humid, supporting extensive forests of yellow pine and -other conifers. - - - - -THE FAUNAS - - -We have mentioned elsewhere that three different mammalian faunas occur -in Washington. These may be described as follows. - -1. THE GREAT BASIN FAUNA. This fauna is best typified by such genera as -_Perognathus_ and _Dipodomys_. Species that, at least in Washington, -are confined to this fauna are: - - _Sorex merriami_ _Tamias minimus_ - _Myotis thysanodes_ _Perognathus parvus_ - _Myotis subulatus_ _Dipodomys ordii_ - _Pipistrellus hesperus_ _Onychomys leucogaster_ - _Antrozous pallidus_ _Reithrodontomys megalotis_ - _Taxidea taxus_ _Lagurus curtatus_ - _Marmota flaviventris_ _Lepus californicus_ - _Citellus townsendii_ _Sylvilagus nuttallii_ - _Citellus washingtoni_ _Sylvilagus idahoensis_ - -The break between the Great Basin Fauna and the other two faunas is -extremely sharp, probably as a consequence of a sharp break in the -flora. - -2. THE PACIFIC COASTAL FAUNA. The mammals of the humid coastal district -range from the Fraser River, British Columbia, southward to the -vicinity of Monterey Bay, California. In Washington typical genera are -_Aplodontia_, _Neurotrichus_ and _Scapanus_. The following species are -typical of the Pacific Coastal Fauna in Washington: - - _Neurotrichus gibbsii_ _Tamiasciurus douglasii_ - _Scapanus townsendii_ _Sciurus griseus_ - _Sorex trowbridgii_ _Clethrionomys californicus_ - _Sorex bendirii_ _Microtus townsendii_ - _Marmota olympus_ _Microtus oregoni_ - _Tamias townsendii_ _Aplodontia rufa_ - -Some species which range outside this faunal area have strongly marked -races confined to it. _Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis_ and _Lepus -americanus washingtonii_ are examples. The Pacific Coastal Fauna is a -forest fauna. Like the Great Basin Fauna, it reaches its northern limit -of distribution in Washington and is better represented farther south. -Unlike the Great Basin Fauna, the break between the Pacific Coastal and -the surrounding fauna is not sharp, because forests continue into the -more boreal faunal areas to the north and east. There, some mingling of -coastal and Rocky Mountain faunas occurs. - -3. ROCKY MOUNTAIN FAUNA. If this fauna be thought of as including -mammals of the Rocky Mountains of the United States, and also those of -the subarctic faunal area to the east of these mountains in Canada, the -species in Washington are as follows: - - _Sorex palustris_ _Synaptomys borealis_ - _Microsorex hoyi_ _Phenacomys intermedius_ - _Lynx canadensis_ _Clethrionomys gapperi_ - _Marmota caligata_ _Microtus richardsoni_ - _Citellus lateralis_ _Ochotona princeps_ - _Citellus columbianus_ _Lepus americanus_ - _Tamias amoenus_ _Rangifer montanus_ - _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_ _Oreamnos americanus_ - _Glaucomys sabrinus_ - -Of the three, the Great Basin Fauna is the most distinct. Only about -twenty species which occur within the Great Basin Faunal Area, occur -also outside of it in one or both of the two other faunal areas. Most -of these twenty are subspecifically different in the Great Basin Faunal -Area as contrasted with one or both of the other areas. Each of the -other two areas has no less than 32 species that are not restricted to -it. - - - - -SPECULATION AS TO EMIGRATIONAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALS - - -The present fauna of the state of Washington was derived in part from -Asia and in part from native forms. Great changes occurred in early -Pleistocene through emigration. By the late Pleistocene most of the -mammals now occurring in the state of Washington were as they are -today. The greatest changes that seem to have occurred in the late -Pleistocene are the extinctions of numerous groups, locally or totally. -Among the carnivores, Matthew (1902: 321) reports remains of the great -lion, _Felis atrox_, associated with such familiar species as the -badger, cougar, lynx and mountain goat. The great lion was very similar -to the modern African lion but was fully a fourth larger. Associated -with the great lion in the California tar pits are the carnivorous -short-faced bears (_Tremarctotherium_), as large as the Alaskan -brown bears; dire wolves (_Aenocyon_), larger than timber wolves; -and saber-tooth tigers (_Smilodon_). These forms were probably also -present in Washington in the late Pleistocene. Matthew (_loc. cit._) -reports remains of the giant beaver, _Castoroides_, from the Silver -Lake deposit of Oregon. This great beaver, as large as a black bear, -was doubtless a resident of Washington also. Peccaries, camels, bison, -horses and giant ground sloths have been recorded from Pleistocene -deposits of Washington and nearby areas. Of the elephant tribe, the -mastodon and several species of mammoths were present. - -These extinct forms have doubtless exerted some influence on the past -distribution of mammals in Washington and possibly have had an effect -on the distribution of members of the living fauna. One species of the -mammoth, at least, existed in Washington in postglacial time. Remains -of this form, _Elephas columbi_, have been found in Vashon till. - -The three faunas of Washington can be placed in two categories. One is -Sonoran, essentially a desert type, and occupies the Columbian Plateau. -The other two are forest faunas, predominantly boreal in complexion, -and are closely related. The Rocky Mountain Fauna is found in the Blue -Mountains and in northeastern Washington. The Pacific Coastal Fauna is -found in western Washington. - -The ice sheets of Vashon-Wisconsin time descended southward to southern -Puget Sound and to the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau. If the -area of the ice sheet be superimposed on a map of distributional areas -of Washington, it is seen that the area occupied by the Rocky Mountain -Fauna in northeastern Washington is eliminated. Thus, at the maximum -descent of Wisconsin ice, the Rocky Mountain type of mammalian fauna -was found only in extreme southeastern Washington. No point of contact -between the forest fauna of the Rocky Mountains and the fauna of the -Pacific coast exists, anywhere, because desert areas, or at least -barren plains, lie between them from the border of the glaciers south -to Mexico. For the entire period, perhaps thousands of years long, -while the glaciers were in place, the two forest faunas were separated. -Repeated separation of the faunas by successive glaciations is thought -to be responsible for many of the differences now existing between them. - -Following the retreat of the ice, the Pacific Coastal Fauna extended -its range northward to the Fraser River and, in part, into the Cascade -Mountains. The Rocky Mountain Fauna invaded northeastern Washington and -boreal Canada, including the Pacific Coast north of the Fraser River. -Certain parts of the Rocky Mountain Fauna also invaded the Cascade -Mountains. - -Inasmuch as the Cascades were invaded by species from both faunas, a -detailed analysis of the mammals existing there now seems justified. -Several significant features of the composition of the mammal fauna -of the Cascades are apparent. First, several species typical of the -Pacific Coastal Fauna are present, such as _Neurotrichus gibbsii_, -_Sorex trowbridgii_, _Sorex bendirii_, _Tamias townsendii_, _Microtus -oregoni_ and _Aplodontia rufa_. Each of these species has no close -relatives in the Rocky Mountain Fauna and, save perhaps _Sorex -trowbridgii_, occupies a unique ecological niche and has no counterpart -in the Rocky Mountain Fauna. - -A second group includes species with close relatives in both the Rocky -Mountain and Pacific Coastal faunas. This group is remarkable in that it -is composed of either very closely related species or very strongly -differentiated subspecies in each fauna. For example, the golden-mantled -ground squirrel (_Citellus saturatus_) of the Cascade Mountains is -specifically distinct from _Citellus lateralis_. Supposedly the Cascade -form was isolated in the southern Cascades during Vashon-Wisconsin time. -The Douglas squirrel (_Tamiasciurus douglasii_) of the Cascades, which -has a red belly, is the same as the squirrel of the lowlands of western -Washington but is specifically distinct from the red squirrel -(_Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_) of the Rocky Mountain Fauna, which has a -white belly. In the extreme northeastern Cascades the two species come -together. They do not interbreed but seem to compete, for they do not -occur together. The flying squirrel (_Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus_) -of the Cascades is only slightly differentiated from other races of the -Rocky Mountain Fauna but is much different, as are all Rocky Mountain -races, from the western Washington subspecies (_Glaucomys s. -oregonensis_). The red-backed mouse of the Cascades is _Clethrionomys -gapperi_, a species distinct from _Clethrionomys californicus_ of -western Washington. The jumping mouse of the Cascades is _Zapus princeps -trinotatus_, the same race that occurs in western Washington. It is -quite distinct from, and has previously been considered a species -separate from, the races of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. The snowshoe -rabbit of the Cascades is closely related to other races of the Rocky -Mountain Fauna but is distinct from _L. a. washingtonii_ of western -Washington. The pika (_Ochotona princeps_) of the Cascades was -apparently isolated in the southern part of the range during the -glaciation. After the retreat of the glaciers it extended its range -northward. Competition between two subspecies has resulted in parallel -distributions due to relative body size. The two races freely intergrade -and the differences between them are not so great as in the other forms -mentioned. - -The third group of mammalian species of the Cascades is composed of -species typical of the Rocky Mountain Fauna such as: _Marmota caligata_, -_Synaptomys borealis_, and _Orcamnos americanus_. Each has no ecological -counterpart in the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Each is absent from the -Cascades of Oregon. - -We interpret the mixture of faunas in the Cascades as follows: The -Vashon-Wisconsin ice sheet was in place for a long period of time, -longer, probably, than the Recent. During this time, forest mammals of -the Pacific Coast were isolated from forest mammals farther east by -glaciers to the north and desert to the east. Changes took place in both -of the separated forest faunas. Certain species, perhaps, such as the -mammoth, became extinct. Other forms were exterminated then or at an -earlier time in one fauna or the other. If _Aplodontia_, _Neurotrichus_ -or _Scapanus_ occurred in the Rocky Mountain faunal area, it lived in an -inland area of rigorous climate, and disappeared there because it was -unable to adapt itself to the cold. In the mild climate caused by -proximity of the ocean, mild even in Vashon-Wisconsin time to judge from -evidence yielded by study of fossil pollens, primitive forms such as -moles, the Bendire shrew, and mountain beaver persisted along the coast, -where there were no boreal conditions. Some alpine forms, such as -_Marmota olympus_, _Ochotona princeps brunnescens_ and _Citellus -saturatus_ persisted in the Olympic or Cascade mountains as relic -species. On the whole, however, the glacial divergence resulted in a -boreal forest fauna and a temperate forest fauna. - -In addition to change in component species, there were evolutionary -changes in the species themselves. In some these were considerable, as -shown by the differences between related forms of the two faunas. In -most species, however, evolutionary changes have resulted in only -subspecific differences. - -Following the retreat of the glaciers and the establishment of -vegetation on the deglaciated areas, movements of the faunas occurred. -The Rocky Mountain Fauna spread northward and westward, to northeastern -Washington and, in Canada to the Pacific, occupying most of the land -exposed by the glaciers. The Pacific Coastal Fauna spread northward only -as far as the relatively slight barrier of the Fraser River. The Cascade -Mountains became a "no-man's land." The pika and golden-mantled ground -squirrel of the southern Cascades spread northward. Boreal Rocky -Mountain forms with no ecologic competitors from the Pacific Coastal -Fauna occupied the Cascades. Also, coastal species with no Rocky -Mountain competitors occupied the Cascades. Nevertheless, some -competition between members of the two faunas ultimately occurred, and -in instances where closely related forms occurred in the two faunas, one -or the other prevailed in the Cascade Range. For example, the Douglas -squirrel and big jumping mouse are now established in that range, but -the relative of each occurring in the Rocky Mountains is present in the -extreme northeastern Cascades. It is possible that in these two cases, -the related form occurring in the Rocky Mountains has just entered the -area and that competition has just begun. With regard to the flying -squirrel, red-backed mouse and snowshoe rabbit, the more boreal Rocky -Mountain representatives have definitely displaced the coastal forms. - -Certain mass movements of mammals are popularly believed to have -occurred with the advance of the ice sheets of the Pleistocene. The -boreal birds and plants on higher peaks of the Cascades and the Sierra -Nevada of California are thought to represent relics of faunas that -moved northward. Such mass movements probably did occur and there is -some evidence of their occurrence in Washington. Probably the -pre-Wisconsin flora of coastal British Columbia consisted of coniferous -forest similar to that of western Washington today. If this were the -case, the mammalian species in British Columbia corresponded closely to -those of western Washington. An influx of such a fauna into coastal -Washington would scarcely be evident today if, indeed, it was noticeable -even then. In eastern Washington, forest species forced southward would -come upon the barren, inhospitable plains and deserts of the Columbian -Plateau. - -The greater part of the southward moving forms found refuge in the -Cascade Mountains where, for most of Wisconsin time, they were isolated -in the southern Cascades. Examples are _Sorex palustris_, _Martes -caurina_, _Martes pennanti_, _Gulo luscus_, _Vulpes fulva_, _Lynx -canadensis_, _Tamias amoenus_, _Thomomys talpoides_ (_douglasii_ group), -_Phenacomys intermedius_, _Microtus richardsoni_ and _Ochotona -princeps_. In each of these species little or no subspecific variation -has occurred between the populations in the Cascades of Washington and -the Cascades of Oregon. - -While the ice sheet existed in Washington there may have been relatively -little movement of the mammalian fauna. There is definite evidence of a -brief contact between the Rocky Mountain Fauna of the Blue Mountains and -the fauna of the southern Cascades. For example, the pocket gopher of -southeastern Washington (_Thomomys talpoides aequalidens_) is most -closely related to the gopher of the Simcoe Anticline, and the -long-tailed meadow mouse (_Microtus longicaudus halli_) of the Blue -Mountains closely resembles the meadow mouse of the Yakima Valley. - -Mammals of the Blue Mountains and those of the southern Cascades may -have come into contact on the Simcoe-Horseheaven Hills Anticline, which -now stretches 150 miles from the Cascades to the Wallula Water Gap. -Excepting the easternmost 40 miles, it is timbered. East of the -Columbia, a continuation of the anticline and other hills reaches to the -Blue Mountains. Supposedly, in Wisconsin Time, this anticline possessed -a more humid climate and the habitat was essentially the same as that of -an alpine meadow today. The forms on the two ends of the anticline that -are closely related inhabit humid, meadow habitat. In an earlier paper, -Dalquest and Scheffer (1944: 316) named this connection the Simcoe -Bridge. Its existence was so strongly indicated by the distribution of -pocket gophers in Washington that we supposed that the study of many -other species would show that they crossed this bridge. However, study -of additional species shows that for them the Simcoe Bridge was of only -slight importance; there appears to have been but little mingling of the -fauna of the Blue Mountains and the Cascades by way of the bridge. The -Columbia River probably acted as an effective barrier to many forms that -might otherwise have utilized it. The forms that did cross on this -bridge are species known to be active in winter and to emigrate over -considerable areas through tunnels under the snow (Davis, 1939: 257). -The pocket gopher and long-tailed meadow mouse may have crossed the -Columbia, under a cover of snow, when the river was frozen over. The -Columbia has frozen over at the Wallula Water Gap in historic times. - - [Illustration: FIG. 19. Pend Oreille River (or Clark Fork of the - Columbia) from a point near Newport, Washington, looking south, - June 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. - Scheffer, No. 67.)] - -Great movements of mammal species came after the retreat of the -Vashon-Wisconsin ice. The greatest of these was the spread of the Rocky -Mountain Fauna northward and eastward to the Pacific. In this process, -northeastern Washington was inhabited by animals that probably came from -Idaho and Montana. Some of the species from farther north, as for -example the caribou, may first have been forced into Idaho and Montana -by the glaciers. The invasion of northeastern Washington probably was -not a mass movement of an entire fauna, because invasion seems to be -still going on. As yet the woodchuck and striped ground squirrel of the -Pend Oreille Mountains have not crossed the Columbia River, a -relatively minor barrier in northeastern Washington. The mountains west -of the Columbia are occupied instead by the yellow-bellied marmot, a -member of the Great Basin Fauna, and there is no ecologic counterpart in -these mountains of the golden-mantled ground squirrel. - -Also the invasion of the Cascade Mountains by a number of Rocky Mountain -species may have been an intermittant or gradual movement. The red -squirrel and Rocky Mountain subspecies of jumping mouse now are present -in the extreme northeastern Cascades, where they possibly arrived -relatively recently. The squirrel is competing with the coastal species -already present and may eventually supplant it. The same may be true of -the two forms of jumping mouse. - -The invasion by the Rocky Mountain Fauna was rapid as compared with that -of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Evidence of this was presented in an -earlier paper (Dalquest and Scheffer, 1944: 310), where it was shown -that the gophers of the _douglasii_ group, isolated during the Vashon -time in the southern Cascades, made only a few feeble postglacial -movements and then only when conditions were ideal. In this same time -the _fuscus_ group of gophers moved from Idaho and virtually surrounded -the range of the _douglasii_ group. This tendency to immobility seems to -have been characteristic of every member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. -If the retreat of the Vashon and Wisconsin glaciers occurred at the same -time, both faunas had an equal opportunity to invade the deglaciated -area. Yet, the Pacific Coastal Fauna actually moved northward along the -coast only to the Fraser River area, and slightly farther in the -Cascades. - -Possibly the two glaciers retreated at different times. The Wisconsin -Glacier was a piedmont glacier, fed by valley glaciers to the west and -east, and may have disappeared when the feeder glaciers dried up. The -Vashon Glacier was instead an ice cap, supposedly self-supporting much -in the same manner as is the Greenland Ice Cap, and may have persisted -longer than the Wisconsin glacier. If it did persist longer it formed a -barrier to the northward emigration of coastal species of mammals. - -Possibly, also, the whole of the Pacific Coastal Fauna possessed an -inherent sluggishness resulting from their long residence in the uniform -climate and habitat of the Pacific Coast. Certainly the species show -today great habitat specialization as compared with species of the Rocky -Mountain Fauna. Also, there are fewer individual mammals per unit of -area in western Washington than in northeastern Washington. The -persistence of the Vashon Glacier, an inherent lack of incentive to -emigrate, or retention of a favorable environment, may account for the -relatively small area invaded by the Pacific Coastal Fauna. - -The Olympic Mountains, on the Olympic Peninsula, rise above the -timber-line and are surrounded by forested lowlands which in a sense -isolates this mountain range. Early workers, notably Elliot, obtained -specimens of mammals from the Olympics and described numerous races, -principally, it appears, on the supposition that because the range was -somewhat isolated it should possess a unique fauna. Subsequent revisions -of groups of mammals have indicated that most of the names proposed, on -the basis of specimens from the Olympics, were either invalid or -pertained to mammals found also in the Cascades. - -The mammals of the Olympic Peninsula appear to be divisible into three -groups. A majority of them fall within the first group, namely coastal -races possessing wide ranges in the lowlands of western Washington. The -second group consists of species of the Rocky Mountain Fauna but with -close relatives in the Cascades. The third group includes but two forms, -both unique and found only on the Olympic Peninsula. - -The first group includes nonalpine forms of the lowlands surrounding the -Olympic Mountains. For the most part these are identical with races of -the Puget Sound area. A few are slightly differentiated from the mammals -of the Puget Sound area but are the same as mammals from southwestern -Washington. As will be shown later, some differentiation in the Pacific -Coastal Fauna has occurred. This is thought to be evolution _in situ_, -rather than the result of mass movements. Many nonalpine Coastal mammals -occur in alpine habitat in the Olympics. - -The second group consists of species of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. Their -relationship to the mammals of the Cascades is indicated in the two -parallel columns below. - - OLYMPICS CASCADES - - _Sorex palustris navigator_ _Sorex palustris navigator_ - _Martes caurina caurina_ _Martes caurina caurina_ - _Martes pennanti_ _Martes pennanti_ - _Tamias amoenus caurinus_ _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_ - _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis_ _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis_ - _Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius_ _Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus_ - -Only two of these are racially distinct from their relatives in the -Cascades. Of these the chipmunk is a plastic species and breaks down -into many races in Washington. The chipmunks of the Olympics and of Mt. -Rainier are so similar that Howell (1929: 77) considered them as -identical and mapped Mount Rainier as an isolated part of the range of -the Olympic form (see account of _T. a. caurinus_). The relationship of -the red-backed mice, also, is close, but has been obscured by the usual -assumption of relationship between _californicus_ (_occidentalis_) and -_gapperi_. The principal difference between the alpine forms is the -pallor of _nivarius_. This pallor of mammals in general from the Olympic -Mountains is noteworthy, but in the red-backed mouse is exceptionally -noticeable. This pallor is discussed beyond in the paragraphs dealing -with differentiation. Mention should be made here of _Myotis keenii_. -This is a species which seems to have extended its range to Washington -from the north. The power of flight, of course, removes it from -consideration in attempting to reconstruct routes followed by -terrestrial mammals. - -The route of the pocket gopher (_Thomomys_) in emigrating from the -Cascades to the Olympics (Dalquest and Scheffer, 1944: 310), was over -the outwash train of the Mount Rainier Glaciers, especially the -Nisqualli Glacier, to the extensive outwash aprons of the Vashon Glacier -around southern Puget Sound, and thence into the Olympic Mountains. -Under the conditions in early postglacial time this invasion route, -hereinafter termed the Puget Bridge, around the Pleistocene Lake Russell -(present Puget Sound), is thought to have been mainly an alpine meadow. -Indeed, the isolated prairies remaining today are the unforested -remnants of the outwash aprons (see Dalquest and Scheffer, 1942: 69) and -possess several species of alpine plants, notably the shooting star, -camas, and bear grass. - -If the Vashon Glacier remained in place considerably longer than the -Wisconsin Glacier, these Rocky Mountain species may have invaded the -Cascades from northeastern Washington and travelled around the southern -edge of the Puget Glacier or of Lake Russell. The close relationship of -the races involved, however, suggests that the emigration took place -much more recently. The barriers to such movement even today are slight, -consisting principally of narrow areas of forest. For the water shrew, -an almost continuous water habitat still exists, by way of the Nisqualli -River, streams in the Puget Sound area, and the Satsop River in the -Olympics. Tree-living forms such as the fisher and marten might easily -travel the intervening distance today, and, by going along the forests -north of the Chehalis River, reach the Olympics without crossing more -than small streams and virtually without descending to the ground. -Chipmunks and mice probably utilized the prairie or meadow area of the -Puget Bridge, as did the gophers. - -Considering the long existence of the Puget Bridge, it is surprising -that such forms as the pika, water rat and golden-mantled ground -squirrel did not cross to the Olympics. These forms are, however, -species of the higher or eastern slopes of the Cascades. - -The third group of Olympic mammals includes the white-bellied water -shrew and the Olympic marmot, both indigenous forms. - -The Bendire water shrew, _Sorex bendirii albiventer_, is not restricted -to alpine habitat but occurs throughout the Olympic Peninsula. Its -nearest relative is _S. b. bendirii_ of the rest of western Washington. -_S. b. albiventer_ differs from _bendirii_ only in possessing a -partially white ventral surface. We can only conclude that the white -belly of _albiventer_ is a mutation that the local environment has -favored and that the characters have, therefore, spread through the -population on the Olympic Peninsula. Occasional specimens are taken with -dark bellies characteristic of _bendirii_ (Jackson, 1928: 199). - -The Olympic marmot, _Marmota olympus_, specifically distinct, and -apparently the only preglacial relic species of alpine mammal in the -Olympics, is most nearly related to _Marmota vancouverensis_ of the -unglaciated mountains of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Both -_olympus_ and _vancouverensis_ are close relatives of _Marmota caligata_ -which ranges southward into the Cascades of Washington. - -The Columbia River in its course westward through the Cascade Mountains, -might be expected to act as a highway for the movement of mammals, but -the extent to which it has done so seems to be slight, at least in -postglacial time. The pocket gopher of southwestern Washington reached -the area about Vancouver from the southern Cascades by way of meadows on -the gravel terraces of Wisconsin glacial drift. No other mammal seems to -have extended this far. Several Great Basin species, such as the -cottontail, extend westward in the valley of the Columbia to the -vicinity of Bingen. - -The mammals of western Oregon and southwestern Washington are closely -similar as are the plants and climate, despite the fact that the broad -Columbia River courses through the area and did so all through Recent -and Pleistocene times. Many species would be expected to have crossed -this barrier by swimming and rafting, and that they did so is indicated -by the large number of mammals which are identical or very closely -related on the two sides of the river. - -Mammals which seem not to differ on the two sides of the river include: - - _Scapanus townsendii_ _Citellus beecheyi_ - _Scapanus orarius_ _Tamias townsendii_ - _Sorex trowbridgii_ _Sciurus griseus_ - _Sorex vagrans_ _Glaucomys sabrinus_ - _Canis lupus_ _Castor canadensis_ - _Felis concolor_ _Microtus townsendii_ - _Lynx rufus_ _Microtus oregoni_ - _Mephitis mephitis_ _Ondatra zibethicus_ - _Spilogale gracilis_ _Zapus princeps_ - _Procyon lotor_ _Odocoileus hemionus_ - _Ursus americanus_ - -The following mammals are subspecifically distinct in western Washington -and western Oregon: - - WASHINGTON OREGON - - _Sorex bendirii bendirii_ _Sorex bendirii palmeri_ - _Sorex obscurus setosus_ _Sorex obscurus bairdi_ - _Neotoma cinerea occidentalis_ _Neotoma cinerea fusca_ - _Peromyscus maniculatus austerus_ _Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus_ - _Clethrionomys californicus _Clethrionomys californicus - occidentalis_ californicus_ - _Microtus longicaudus macrurus_ _Microtus longicaudus abditus_ - _Aplodontia rufa rufa_ _Aplodontia rufa pacifica_ - -The following species are found in western Oregon but do not occur in -western Washington: - - _Vulpes fulva_ _Phenacomys albipes_ - _Urocyon cinereoargenteus_ _Microtus canicaudus_ - _Neotoma fuscipes_ _Thomomys bulbivorus_ - _Phenacomys silvicola_ _Lepus californicus_ - _Phenacomys longicaudus_ _Sylvilagus bachmani_ - -Several of these mammals which occur south of the river but not north of -it are common on the south bank, a few miles from favorable but -uninhabited territory on the north. - -Seemingly the pre-Vashon faunas of western Oregon and Washington were -similar. Some species became extinct in Washington in the course of -Vashon isolation. Others persisted. The very close relationship of the -mammals of the first group indicates some crossing of the river. The -best known of such crossings was that of the Beechey ground squirrel -which, previous to 1915, was unknown in Washington. In 1915, when there -was no man-made bridge at White Salmon, it crossed the river and since -has spread over an area of at least 50 square miles. The distribution of -the mountain beavers is unusual in that the form in the lowlands of -Washington is indistinguishable from the subspecies in the Cascades of -Oregon. - -The mammals that are racially distinct on the two sides of the -Columbia River merit careful scrutiny. The _Peromyscus_ of the two -sides more closely resemble one another than those of southern Oregon -resemble those of northern Oregon or than those of southern Washington -resemble those of northern Washington. For _Peromyscus maniculatus_, -the Columbia River is simply a convenient boundary for the separation -of two slightly different races. The Oregon race of the bushy-tailed -wood rat is a coastal type but the Washington form is the same as that -of eastern Washington. Seemingly the more eastern race spread to an -unoccupied habitat in western Washington. Other races that differ on -the two sides of the Columbia probably developed while separated by the -river. - - [Illustration: FIG. 20. Rocky bluff along north bank of the Columbia - River near Lyle. Washington. March 20. 1939. Habitat of Beechey ground - squirrel and yellow-bellied marmot. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo - by Victor B. Scheffer. No. 640.)] - -The San Juan Islands now possess a limited mammalian fauna. -Unfortunately the activities of man have somewhat changed the native -populations, especially by the introduction of the domestic rabbit -which is now a serious pest in the islands. The Douglas squirrel, -present on Blakeley Island, is said to have been introduced and one -resident claims to have first brought it to the island. Two different -persons claim credit for introducing the Townsend chipmunk on Orcas -Island but do not account for its presence on Lopez Island. The three -mammals most abundant and widely distributed in the islands are _Sorex -vagrans_, _Peromyscus maniculatus_ and _Microtus townsendii_. These -species, at least, probably reached the islands at an early time. The -two last named are now subspecifically distinct from their mainland -relatives. Other mammals which probably were established before the -arrival of the white man include the mink, otter, beaver, muskrat, -raccoon and black-tailed deer. - -The Great Basin Fauna of eastern Washington exists as three units, one -on the Columbian Plateau, another in southeastern Washington and the -third in the Yakima Valley area. The desert species of the Yakima Valley -are more closely related to the species of eastern Oregon than they are -to those of the Columbian Plateau. In a number of respects the Columbian -Plateau gives indications of age. The ground squirrel, _Citellus -washingtoni_, is related to, but specifically distinct from _Citellus -townsendii_ of the Yakima Valley and eastern Oregon. _Perognathus parvus -lordi_ is a well-marked race, as is _Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi_ -and _Thomomys talpoides devexus_. We suppose that these species were -present on the Columbian Plateau at least through the Recent and -probably through all of Wisconsin Time. The loess deposits of eastern -Washington seem to have been laid down in Wisconsin and Recent times. -These indicate an arid climate which, although probably cool, was -probably not so cold as to exterminate these species. On the other hand, -some species that are now abundant on the Columbian Plateau seem to have -arrived there relatively recently. The black-tailed jack rabbit, for -example, was unknown in eastern Washington before 1870 when it appeared -in Walla Walla County. In 1905 it crossed the Snake River on ice and -invaded the Columbian Plateau where it rapidly spread over the whole -area. In January, 1920, it crossed the Columbia in two places and spread -over the Yakima Valley. - -The known facts of this movement were sufficiently impressive to cause -the author to study rather closely the distribution of mammals in this -area. The collection of bones from a cave along the Columbia River near -Vantage, Grant County, on the Columbian Plateau, is especially helpful -in this respect. This cave was first visited in 1938. It had been the -habitat of owls, bats, and primitive man. The floor of the cave was -buried under from one to three feet of bat guano, much of which had -been hauled away for fertilizer. Here and there we found traces of fire -and occasional piles of mussel shells. Some arrowheads and one beautiful -obsidian spear head were found, all buried in guano and about midway -between the floor and the top of the deposit. Remains of mammals were -abundant through the bat guano, and apparently had been brought to the -cave both by man and owls. The jaw of a mountain sheep was found. This -species was known to be present when the first settlers reached the area -(Cowan, 1940: 558). The remains of smaller mammals included gopher, -pocket mouse, muskrat, meadow mouse, deer mouse, coyote and white-tailed -jack rabbit. No remains of cottontail, black-tailed jack rabbit or -harvest mouse were found. The absence of the cottontail was especially -surprising, in that fully thirty skulls of white-tailed jack rabbits -were noted. The grasshopper mouse (_Onychomys_) was also absent, but -this species is not common. The two rabbits and the harvest mouse, -however, are abundant in the area today. The cottontail and harvest -mouse have only recently been recorded from the Okanogan Valley of -British Columbia (Cowan and Hatter, 1940: 9). The black-tailed jack -rabbit has never been taken there. - -Apparently then, some species have only recently entered the Upper -Sonoran Life-zone of eastern Washington. They have, of course, reached -the state from Oregon. The first step in the invasion probably was the -occupation of southeastern Washington. No barrier prevents mammals from -reaching southeastern Washington from eastern Oregon but the Columbia to -the north and west prevents them from occupying the Yakima Valley, and -the Snake River prevents them from reaching the Columbian Plateau. The -kangaroo rat, Great Basin striped skunk and Great Basin spotted skunk -now are at this stage of invasion. The second stage was the crossing of -the Columbia River to the Yakima Valley. This has been accomplished by -the black-tailed jack rabbit and, earlier, by the pocket mouse, -_Perognathus parvus parvus_, and ground squirrel, _Citellus townsendii_. -The third stage was the crossing of the Snake River and occupation of -the Columbian Plateau. The final stage is the crossing of the northern -Columbia River and occupation of the Okanogan Valley. - - - - -SPECULATION AS TO THE LATER DISTRIBUTIONAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALS - - -Whereas it is probable that a few of the species now occurring in -Washington evolved there, most are immigrants from other areas. The -success of a given species in any area is dependent on numerous factors -which may be classified under food, shelter from the elements, -protection from enemies and safe breeding places. The factors may be of -an inorganic nature, such as climate, soil and exposure or they may be -organic, such as vegetation, competition for food and response to -enemies. Abundance results in population pressure and a tendency for the -range of a species to expand. - -Mammalian populations are dynamic and change in accordance with -alterations in environment. Because the later geologic history of the -state of Washington was violent, with resultant changes in climate and -geography, the mammalian populations and the distribution of the species -have changed much. With changes in environment, rare species may become -common; common and widespread species may become rare or extinct; -species foreign to the area may enter, become established and affect the -distribution of other forms. - -Subspecies are groups of individuals with similar genetic components or -are groups of microgeographic races. In instances where the phenotypic -expression of these similar genetic factors, or the "characters," are, -as a unit, uniformly different from those of animals of the same species -in another geographic area, it is convenient to give recognition to the -two kinds by separate subspecific name. Intergradation between two -geographically adjacent subspecies occurs, directly or where impassable -barriers separate them, indirectly by way of one or more other -subspecies. Subspecies of mammals are geographic races, which means that -to warrant recognition by subspecific name, there must be a logical -geographic range in addition to morphological characters. - -Timofeef-Ressovsky (1932, 1940) advances the theory of harmoniously -stabilized gene-complexes to account for the persistence of subspecies. -The persistence of subspecies as genetic units has been best explained, -I feel, by Sumner (1932: 84-86) who theorizes as follows: - - 1. The number of young produced by a subspecies is greater than the - carrying capacity of the land they occupy, at least at certain - times or in some years. - - 2. Population pressure results, with a tendency of individuals to - emigrate outwards, to the border of the range of the subspecies, - where the population pressure is less. - - 3. The outward moving tendency keeps the center of the range of - the subspecies genetically "pure." - - 4. The peripheral wave continues, as long as favorable habitat is - encountered, until an oppositely directed wave of another race is - encountered. - - 5. Areas of intergradation represent local mingling of genetic - factors and do not affect the "pure" individuals of the central - part of the range of the subspecies. - -Certain aspects of this hypothesis are strongly supported by the -distribution of mammals in Washington. Witness the rapid invasion of -_Citellus beecheyi_ and _Lepus californicus_ in Washington, and the -eastern cottontail in western Washington and the domestic rabbit in the -San Juan Islands. The volume of the "wave of population pressure" where -no opposing force is met, is scarcely believable. In seven years the -eastern cottontails released in southwestern Washington multiplied from -a maximum of 12 individuals to a minimum of 40,000. - -Competition between subspecies where their ranges come into contact -seems to be exceptional. _Peromyscus maniculatus oreas_ and _P. m. -austerus_ seem to afford an example of this. However, in a few cases -subspecies seem to be determined in part by adaptation to restricted -environments; each race lives only where local conditions favor its -respective adaptations. - -In the pocket gophers, where restricted habitat and fossorial habits -cause numerous microgeographic races, these microgeographic races may be -potential subspecies. This is especially true in the Puget Sound area, -where six races occur in a small area. These races meet all the -requirements of subspecies and are recognized as such. It should be -pointed out, however, that these races and probably many other races -produced by isolation, may represent degenerative mutations of the type -mentioned by Wright (in Huxley, 1940). The principal differences of such -races seem to have resulted from the loss of factors of original -multiple factor series, with resultant homogeneity of the race. Inherent -variability is another thing that has to be taken into account when -considering the differentiation of the mammals of Washington into -subspecies. The pocket gopher is an extremely plastic species, -especially in Washington, whereas the Douglas squirrel is less so. The -flying squirrels, the yellow-pine chipmunk and the snowshoe rabbit are -the other plastic species. These species are not so likely to break up -into numerous subspecies over all of their ranges as they are in -Washington where in a small area the topography is highly varied. The -range of the one subspecies, _Tamias amoenus amoenus_, to the southeast -of Washington is larger than the combined ranges of all six races -occurring in Washington but, so far as I can see, the topography and -environment are no more varied in Washington than in the mentioned area -to the southeast of it. The range of one subspecies, _Lepus americanus -americanus_, in Canada is several times larger than the entire state of -Washington, in which four races are found. - -The shrews are poor subjects for a study of differentiation, principally -because their small size makes it difficult to see morphological -variations that may be present. The difficulty is increased because -cranial sutures become ossified at an early age. Although it is -difficult to evaluate the differentiation in them, there is some. The -bats, especially the _Myotis_, are less restricted by geographic -barriers than are terrestial mammals. Nevertheless, obvious -differentiation exists. The larger predatory mammals and the -artiodactyls are able to move over large areas, at least in the breeding -season, but in these animals also, some differentiation has occurred. - -The greatest changes, other than the extinctions, to occur in the -mammalian fauna of Washington since the late Pleistocene, are changes in -distribution. The interglacial cycle preceding the Vashon-Wisconsin -glaciation was of far greater duration than the Recent. Presumably the -mammalian fauna had, from a distributional standpoint, reached a -relatively stable condition. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice -destroyed the stability and set parts of the fauna in motion. Probably -no stability was reached before the ice began to recede, and when it did -so the previous movements of the various species were, at least in part, -reversed. Stability has not yet been reached by the mammalian fauna of -Washington. Great changes have occurred in historic times and other -changes probably are under way at present. - -In the following pages an attempt has been made to interpret the -probable late Pleistocene and Recent distributional history of the -species of mammals occurring in Washington. The interpretations are made -in the light of what is known of the physical history of the state and -are to be accepted as such rather than as evidence for the conclusions -made concerning the physical history of the state of Washington and -adjacent areas. - -SCAPANUS TOWNSENDII.--Probably this animal was confined to the Humid -Transition Life-zone of the Pacific Coast since the Pliocene. - -SCAPANUS ORARIUS.--This species probably had a history similar to that -of _townsendii_ up to the late Pleistocene. It seems slightly more -adaptable than _townsendii_, and to be able to extend higher into the -mountains. The distribution of the subspecies _orarius_ is almost -exactly that of _S. townsendii_. In Oregon, _orarius_ extended eastward -over the Cascades where the subspecies _schefferi_ developed. Perhaps -this subspecies developed since the Pleistocene and since that time -extended along the Columbia River Valley to southeastern Washington. The -race _yakimensis_, in the Yakima Valley area, is closely related to -_schefferi_, and seemingly could have been developed from a stock of -_schefferi_ that migrated westward across the Simcoe Bridge. - -NEUROTRICHUS GIBBSII.--The history of _Neurotrichus_ in North America -was probably similar to that of the two species of _Scapanus_. It -tolerates environmental differences to about the same degree that -_Scapanus orarius_ does but occurs much farther south (Monterey County, -California) than _S. orarius_. This may be because _Neurotrichus_ has no -counterpart to compete with it in the south, whereas _Scapanus orarius_ -must compete in northern California with the morphologically similar -_Scapanus latimanus_. _S. orarius_ stops short at this place and _S. -latimanus_ occupies all the territory to the south. - -The shrew-mole of the lowland of Washington (_N. g. minor_) probably -became distinct from the mountain subspecies (_gibbsii_) in -Vashon-Wisconsin time. - -SOREX CINEREUS.--It is reasonable to suppose that the cinereous shrew -had a continuous range across the forested area of British Columbia in -pre-Wisconsin time. Without having been isolated, the dark coastal race -(_streatori_) may have developed from the wider-ranging inland -_cinereus_, as a response to the denser, humid, coastal forest-habitat, -after having been forced southward to Washington by the Vashon -Glaciation. Since that time it is presumed to have reoccupied the coast -of British Columbia and southern Alaska. This coastal race might have -developed in Vashon time, while isolated in southwestern Washington. The -Cascades are populated by a race of the Rocky Mountain Fauna, _S. c. -cinereus_, which probably entered the Cascades from northeastern -Washington or British Columbia in Recent Time. The absence of the -species in western Oregon, its rarity in western Washington, and its -abundance farther north suggest a northern origin and northward rather -than southward postglacial movement. Had the full species _cinereus_ -been a preglacial resident of western Washington we would expect -_streatori_ or a race related to it to occur in the Cascades. - -SOREX MERRIAMI.--The periphery of the range of this member of the Great -Basin Fauna may have been in southeastern Washington since pre-Wisconsin -time. - -SOREX TROWBRIDGII.--This shrew is a typical Pacific coastal species with -an extensive range along the Pacific Coast south of Washington. The -Washington population may have been isolated in southwestern Washington -during Vashon time or may have crossed the Columbia into Washington from -western Oregon early in the Recent. Since the retreat of the ice it has -extended northward to southern British Columbia and eastward to the -eastern side of the Cascades. Save for crossing the Cascades its -postglacial movements have been slight, as is typical of Pacific Coastal -species. The race _destructioni_ probably has been isolated on -Destruction Island for several thousand years. - -SOREX VAGRANS.--This species probably has had a continuous range over -the western United States since the late Pleistocene. The dark coastal -race (_vagrans_) probably was differentiated from the paler races of the -Great Basin in response to the more humid climate along the coast. - -SOREX OBSCURUS.--The history of this shrew of alpine predilection -probably corresponded closely to that of _Sorex cinereus_. The -derivation of the dark, long-tailed, coastal race (_S. o. setosus_) from -the smaller, paler, inland race (_obscurus_) probably occurred before -Vashon-Wisconsin Time. _Sorex o. setosus_ is one of a complex of races -distributed along the Pacific Coast from Alaska to California. - -SOREX PALUSTRIS.--This species has a wide range in North America and -extends southward in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada Chain to southern -California. Its extensive range at present in this mountain chain -suggests that it was resident in the Cascades previous to Wisconsin -time. Mountain water shrews probably reached the Olympic Mountains from -the Cascades by way of the Puget Bridge in early Recent Time. - -SOREX BENDIRII.--This Pacific Coastal species probably had a history -very similar to that of _Neurotrichus_ and _Scapanus orarius_. - -The difference between the Bendire water shrews of western Washington -and western Oregon indicates that the Washington population was -separated from the shrews of western Oregon during Vashon Time. The -white-bellied race of the Olympic Peninsula is probably of local -origin. - -MICROSOREX HOYI.--The Washington record of this shrew at Loon Lake, -Stevens County, is in an area where mammals typical of the Rocky -Mountain Fauna occur. - -MYOTIS LUCIFUGUS.--The dark race of this species (_alascensis_) may have -persisted through the glacial period in southwestern Washington. The -race _carissima_, of the Great Basin Fauna, may have entered the state -since the glacial period, from the south, of course. Habitat selection -determines their range at present. - -MYOTIS YUMANENSIS.--The dark, coastal race (_saturatus_) seems to be an -established member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Unlike _lucifugus_, the -coastal race is not found east of the Cascades. The race _sociabilis_, -of the Great Basin, has doubtless entered the desert of eastern -Washington from eastern Oregon. - -MYOTIS KEENII.--The southernmost record station for this north coastal -species is on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington. It probably developed -in the humid, northern part of the Pacific Coastal area previous to the -last Pleistocene glaciation and extended its range to the south in -Vashon-Wisconsin Time. The range of tolerance in _M. k. keenii_ seems to -be more restricted than that of _M. lucifugus alascensis_. - -MYOTIS EVOTIS.--In Washington, the distribution of this bat is similar -to that of _Myotis lucifugus_. The dark, forest race probably originated -in the north-coastal region. The paler race, that developed in the -southwest, entered eastern Washington from Oregon. - -MYOTIS THYSANODES.--In Washington this species has been recorded only in -the southeastern part where the Great Basin Fauna occurs. It probably -originated in the southwestern United States, and a point in British -Columbia a little way north of Washington marks the northern edge of its -natural range. - -MYOTIS VOLANS and MYOTIS CALIFORNICUS.--Remarks made about _Myotis -lucifugus_ apply also to these two species. - -MYOTIS SUBULATUS.--The northwestern periphery of the range of this -species seems to be in eastern Washington. - -LASIONYCTERIS NOCTIVAGANS.--Undifferentiated subspecifically from coast -to coast, no basis is provided for judging the route by which this -species entered the state. - -PIPISTRELLUS HESPERUS.--The northwestern periphery of the range of this -bat, also, lies in eastern Washington. - -EPTESICUS FUSCUS.--Big brown bats from both eastern and western -Washington seem to have been derived from the Pacific Coastal race of -the species. Presumably it extended its range westward across the -Cascades in early post-Pleistocene Time. - -LASIURUS CINEREUS.--No speculation as to the distributional history of -the hoary bat seems justified at present. - -CORYNORHINUS RAFINESQUII.--The dark, coastal race of this bat probably -persisted in southwestern Washington and western Oregon through Vashon -Time and moved northward in the Recent. The paler _intermedius_ probably -invaded eastern Washington from eastern Oregon in the Recent. - -ANTROZOUS PALLIDUS.--This species strays into eastern Washington from -Oregon as part of the Great Basin Fauna. - -URSUS AMERICANUS.--The dark, western race of the black bear -(_altifrontalis_) and the paler, inland race (_cinnamomum_) were -probably separated by a glacial divergence. The inland race has entered -northeastern Washington in the Recent with other members of the Rocky -Mountain Fauna. - -URSUS CHELAN, etc.--The apparent past distribution of _chelan_ indicates -it to have invaded Washington from British Columbia since the -Pleistocene. - -The apparent absence of grizzly bears from the southern Cascades and -western Washington may indicate their absence from these areas -immediately before pre-Vashon time, or their extermination in or shortly -after that period. - -PROCYON LOTOR.--The raccoon of western Washington seems to be the -Pacific Coastal race which occurs also in western Oregon and -northwestern California. This indicates that the coastal race (_psora_) -was confined to the coastal area south of Washington during Vashon Time -and has only recently reinvaded western Washington. It is possible, -though less likely, that raccoons existed in southwestern Washington -during Vashon Time but did not develop racial characters, or that the -Columbia was crossed so frequently that genetic differences were -dispersed throughout the entire population. - -Reasons why the second hypothesis is inadequate are: (1) Raccoons range -but little north of the state of Washington, both east and west of the -Cascades. (2) Raccoons of western Washington and the area about San -Francisco Bay, California, are as much alike as are raccoons from -southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon. It is thought that -raccoons, if resident in western Washington since interglacial time, -would have developed strong racial characters, and the fact that they -have not indicates that they have entered the state at a relatively -recent date. - -The raccoon of eastern Washington (_excelsus_) is a member of the Great -Basin Fauna and has probably included southeastern Washington in its -natural range for a long period of time. The raccoon has not extended -its normal range into northeastern Washington, although it is seemingly -ideal raccoon habitat; only an occasional vagrant occurs there. A stock -of raccoons from which emigrants might come has existed in southeastern -Washington and the Yakima Valley for some time. The Columbia River might -serve as a highway by which emigrants could reach northeastern -Washington. - -MARTES CAURINA.--The earlier distributional history of the western -marten has been postulated by Davis (1939: 131-132), who stated: "When -the ancestral stock split into the two groups, the one that gave rise to -_americana_ may have pushed eastward across Canada to the Atlantic -Coast; the other, giving rise to _caurina_, may have migrated southward -along the Sierra Nevada-Cascade and Rocky mountains. Perhaps the great -ice sheet was instrumental in pushing _americana_ eastward and -separating it geographically from _caurina_." The present occurrence of -_americana_ in Alaska and British Columbia is thought to have been by -invasion from the east in postglacial time. - -Davis' theory seems basically correct but subject to correction in -detail. The presence of _caurina_ in the southern Rocky Mountains -suggests that it is not a Pacific Coastal species in the common sense. -Had _americana_ occupied northern British Columbia in pre-Wisconsin -Time, it and not _caurina_ would be expected to occur in the southern -Rocky Mountains today, for the form found in British Columbia almost -certainly would have been forced into the Rockies. The range now -occupied by _caurina_ in the Rocky Mountains is so extensive as to -suggest that martens could not have migrated into all of it from the -Pacific Coast since Vashon Time, even had the region been unoccupied by -any species of marten. The presence of _americana_ in Alaska and British -Columbia suggests that it arrived in those areas before _caurina_ and -that had the Rocky Mountains been unoccupied by martens in pre-Wisconsin -time, _americana_ and not _caurina_ would have reached the Rockies -first. It appears that _caurina_ occupied much of western North America -in pre-Wisconsin Time and was forced southward into the southern Rocky -Mountains and along the Pacific Coast by Vashon-Wisconsin ice. - -The separation of _americana_ and _caurina_ may be supposed to have -occurred before the pre-Vashon-Wisconsin interglacial interval, perhaps -by a glacier similar to but antedating the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciation. - -The martens of western Washington (_Martes caurina caurina_) are a -coastal race. Those of northeastern Washington belong to a race of the -Rocky Mountain Fauna, and are referred to _M. c. origenes_. Davis (1939: -132) refers the martens of Idaho to _Martes caurina caurina_. I have -compared specimens from Idaho with animals trapped for fur from the -Pacific Coast proper and feel that the animals from northeastern -Washington and those from Idaho are more like _origenes_ than _caurina_, -although perhaps not typical. The animals from the Pacific Coast proper -are _caurina_ and have darker heads and brown instead of yellow patches -on the throat. - -MARTES PENNANTI.--Fishers are found throughout the Cascade Mountains and -probably were widely distributed over western North America in -pre-Wisconsin Time. - -MUSTELA ERMINEA.--The distribution of ermines along the coast of -northern California and in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada of Oregon and -California indicates, as does their differentiation there, that they -ranged southward to these areas before and during Vashon-Wisconsin Time. - -In immediate pre-Vashon-Wisconsin Time, the dark race _streatori_ -probably occurred in western Washington. The race _murica_ probably -occurred in the Blue Mountains then, as it does today, but probably -occurred also in the Cascades of Washington. The descent of the Vashon -glaciers probably displaced _streatori_ from the northern part of its -range, at least temporarily. In the Cascades, _murica_ was likewise -forced southward. Ermines related to the northern _richardsonii_ were -forced into northern Washington and Idaho by the Wisconsin ice. They -probably were unable to live on the barren, unglaciated plains of -eastern Washington but persisted in Idaho. - -The ranges of the three forms at the maximum extent of the -Vashon-Wisconsin may be reconstructed as follows: _streatori_ in -southwestern Washington; _murica_ in the southern Cascades and the Blue -Mountains; _invicta_ stock in northern Idaho. While so isolated, the -ermines of the southern Cascades probably mingled, to a certain extent, -with _streatori_ and developed the characters that now separate _gulosa_ -from both _murica_ and _streatori_. The intermediate nature of _gulosa_ -has been mentioned by Hall (1945: 85). - -The retreat of the ice allowed _streatori_ to move north and _invicta_ -to move north and east into Washington and the northeastern Cascades. To -a lesser extent, _gulosa_ may have moved north. The poorly-marked race -_olympica_ probably evolved from _streatori_ in the Recent. It is -difficult to account for the dark race _fallenda_. - -It must have evolved from _streatori_ in the Recent but the origin of -such a strongly marked race in such a short time is surprising. It might -be mentioned that a similarly differentiated race of chipmunk, _Eutamias -amoenus felix_, occupies much the same range. - -MUSTELA FRENATA.--The long-tailed weasels of the Pacific Coast behave as -a plastic group and clearly show the effect of the Vashon-Wisconsin -Divergence. The range of the coastal race, _altifrontalis_, indicates -that it was isolated in southwestern Washington during Vashon Time. In -that period, or shortly after, it extended its range southward but only -along the extreme, coastal area of Oregon (see Hall, 1936: 101). -Following the retreat of the ice it extended its range northward to the -deglaciated area of western Washington. - -Also following the retreat of the ice, a Great Basin subspecies -(_nevadensis_) extended its range northward. This race seems to have -been more adaptable and successful than other kinds of Great Basin -mammals, for it extended its range farther northward, eastward and -westward than most. - -A third race, _washingtoni_, was isolated in the southern Cascade -Mountains during Vashon Time and became differentiated from both -_altifrontalis_ and _nevadensis_. It is now found in the Cascades from -central Oregon north to Mount Rainier. It is difficult to see why it did -not extend its range to include the northern Cascades when the glacial -ice left, but it did not. Instead _altifrontalis_ entered the northern -Cascades from the west and _nevadensis_ did the same from the east. -Weasels obtained in habitats north of Mt. Rainier are intergrades -between _altifrontalis_ and _nevadensis_. - -One is reminded here of the _douglasii_ group of _Thomomys talpoides_ in -which subspecies did not move north of Mt. Rainier in postglacial time. -The area north of Mt. Rainier was populated instead by gophers of the -_fuscus_ group, subspecies of which invaded the area from the east. -Perhaps Mt. Rainier itself served as a barrier to alpine mammals in the -immediate post-Pleistocene. Perhaps _Mustela f. washingtoni_ will -eventually extend its range northward, displacing the -_altifrontalis-nevadensis_ intergrades from the habitats to which -_washingtoni_ may be better adapted. - -The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington are occupied by a weasel -(_effera_) that has a more extensive range in eastern Oregon. The range -of this race has probably not changed materially for a long period of -time. - -One would expect the weasels from extreme northeastern Washington to be -referable to the race _oribasa_, of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. Instead -they are intermediate between that race and the Great Basin race, -_nevadensis_. Apparently _nevadensis_ was so dynamic and adaptable that -it actually entered the geographic ranges of surrounding races for some -distance. In view of Sumner's theory for the retention of subspecies, -one might say that the population pressure of _nevadensis_ on the -periphery of its range is stronger than the opposing pressure of some -surrounding races. - -MUSTELA VISON.--Pending a review of the minks of North America, little -can be said concerning their historical distribution in the state of -Washington. From the general range of the species in western North -America, one would expect some effect of the Vashon-Wisconsin Divergence -to be apparent. There is some evidence for this. Minks from Idaho and -adjacent parts of British Columbia are distinctly less reddish than -minks from the area about Puget Sound, as noted by Davis (1939: 138). - -GULO LUSCUS.--The range of the subspecies _luteus_, peculiar to the -Cascades and Sierra Nevada suggest that the wolverine may have been -forced southward in the Cascades and there isolated during Vashon Time. -The differences separating the southern race from the northern may have -been developed while the two populations were isolated. The range of the -wolverine was probably more extensive in glacial and immediate -postglacial time than at present. - -LUTRA CANADENSIS.--The otter of western Washington seems to be a member -of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Little can be said regarding the -distributional history of the species in the state, for specimens from -eastern Washington are not numerous enough to permit of a person -certainly establishing their systematic position. - -SPILOGALE GRACILIS.--The western race of the civet cat (_latifrons_) -seems to be a coastal race, isolated in southwestern Washington and -western Oregon during Vashon time. The eastern race, _saxatilis_, is a -race of the Great Basin Fauna, that has entered the state from Oregon -and that will probably extend its range to the north. - -MEPHITIS MEPHITIS.--Of the four subspecies of skunks occurring in -Washington, two seem to have been resident in the state during Vashon -Time. The western race, _spissigrada_, was probably isolated in -southwestern Washington and extended its range northward, in the -deglaciated area of western Washington, after the retreat of the ice. -Another race (_notata_) was probably isolated in the southeastern -Cascades and adjacent Oregon. _M. m. hudsonica_ of the Rocky Mountain -Fauna entered the northeastern part of Washington after the ice -retreated from there. A race of the Great Basin Fauna, _major_, entered -southeastern Washington from Oregon and may eventually extend its range -farther north. - -It is interesting to note that both of the western races, _spissigrada_ -and _notata_, both of which probably developed in Washington during -Vashon Time, occupy limited ranges in adjacent Oregon (Bailey, 1936: -308). - -TAXIDEA TAXUS.--This species has probably long been resident on the -Columbian Plateau and in southeastern Washington. For the early -distributional history of the species see Hall (1944: 17). Pleistocene -remains, referable to this race, have been found in Franklin County. - -VULPES FULVA.--The red fox of the Cascades was probably isolated there -during Vashon Time by glacial ice. Its range extends southward in the -Cascades to Oregon. The fox of eastern Washington is probably a member -of the Rocky Mountain Fauna that lived in the Blue Mountains of -southeastern Washington in Wisconsin Time and that emigrated to -northeastern Washington in Recent Time. - -CANIS LATRANS.--The distributional history of the coyote in Washington -is not clear. - -CANIS LUPUS.--The dark wolf (_fuscus_) of western Washington is probably -a coastal race. The race that may have occurred in northeastern -Washington probably was an invader from the Rocky Mountain Fauna, and -the race that possibly occurred in southeastern Washington would be -assumed to have long been a resident of the area. - -FELIS CONCOLOR.--The cougar of western Washington is a coastal race, -probably developed while isolated in southwestern Washington and western -Oregon. The cougar of northeastern Washington probably entered the state -with other Rocky Mountain species, early in the Recent. The cougar of -the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington has probably long been -resident there. - -LYNX RUFUS.--The bobcat of western Washington seems to be a coastal race -that was isolated in either southwestern Washington or western Oregon by -Vashon ice. It has since extended its range into southern British -Columbia. The bobcat of eastern Washington seems to be a member of the -Great Basin Fauna that has spread to some forested areas on the -periphery of the more arid life-zones. - -LYNX CANADENSIS.--The lynx is an element of a northern fauna that was -probably forced southward into the Cascades and Rocky Mountains. Its -range was probably more extensive, as is indicated by the scattered -records of its occurrence in Oregon (Bailey, 1936:271). - -MARMOTA MONAX.--The woodchuck invaded northeastern Washington in the -early Recent with the Rocky Mountain Fauna. - -MARMOTA FLAVIVENTRIS.--The yellow-bellied marmot is a typical member of -the faunas of the Great Basin and the southern Rocky Mountains. It has -doubtless entered southeastern Washington from eastern Oregon at an -early time. In northeastern Washington, west of the Columbia River, it -occupies alpine habitat, but it does not occur farther east, where -_Marmota monax_ is found, or in the Cascades where _Marmota caligata_ -lives. - -The yellow-bellied marmots are great wanderers, and commonly are found -in scattered outcrops far out on the Columbian Plateau. There is even -one record for western Washington, near Bellingham, Whatcom County. This -individual must have crossed some low pass in the Cascades from the area -about Lake Chelan. There are records of eastern Washington birds -occurring in this same area, so it seems likely that the marmot was a -natural stray and not an animal that escaped from captivity. - -MARMOTA CALIGATA.--The absence of the hoary marmot from the Cascades of -Oregon, and the presence there of _Marmota flaviventris_, indicates that -the species did not occur in the southern Cascades of Washington during -Vashon Time. Presumably the hoary marmot is a member of the fauna of the -northern Rocky Mountains and entered the Cascades of Washington in the -Recent, after which it spread widely and rapidly owing to lack of -competition with any established species of marmot. - -MARMOTA OLYMPUS.--This species has probably lived in the Olympic -Mountains since pre-Vashon Time. - -CITELLUS WASHINGTONI.--This ground squirrel has probably lived on the -Columbian Plateau since before Wisconsin Time. - -CITELLUS TOWNSENDII.--The Townsend ground squirrel probably entered the -Yakima Valley area from Oregon. The differences between it and its -relatives in Oregon indicate a considerable period of isolation but one -far shorter than the period during which _washingtoni_ is presumed to -have been isolated from _townsendii_. - -CITELLUS COLUMBIANUS.--The Columbian ground squirrel might have been -forced southward in the Rocky Mountain area by the Wisconsin glaciation, -might have lived in southeastern Washington since then, and might have -invaded northeastern Washington in the Recent with other species of the -Rocky Mountain Fauna. - -CITELLUS BEECHEYI.--This ground squirrel is known to have entered -Washington about 1915 from Oregon. - -CITELLUS SATURATUS.--The mantled ground squirrel of the Cascades -probably evolved, from the _lateralis_ stock, as a separate species -while isolated in the southern Cascades during Vashon Time. It is a -poorly differentiated species and may actually be instead a strongly -marked subspecies. - -CITELLUS LATERALIS.--The golden-mantled ground squirrels of northeastern -and southeastern Washington are closely similar. It is deduced that -_connectens_ of southeastern Washington developed the differences that -characterize it while isolated, from the main stock, in the Blue -Mountains area of Washington and Oregon. - -The race found in extreme northeastern Washington (_tescorum_) probably -reached that area in relatively recent times. Its range in Washington is -more restricted than that of several other members of the Rocky Mountain -Fauna; areas of suitable habitat west of the Columbia River are not -inhabited by these ground squirrels. Its range in Washington is almost -exactly that of (_Marmota monax_). - -TAMIAS MINIMUS.--The least chipmunk of the Yakima Valley is the same -race (_scrutator_) as that occupying the Great Basin area of Oregon and -Nevada. It must have crossed the Columbia in relatively recent times. -Had it been resident in the isolated Yakima Valley area for any -considerable period of time, the development of distinctive racial -characters there would be expected. Perhaps, then, it has not been -resident there as long as has the Townsend ground squirrel which, though -closely related to the ground squirrel of eastern Oregon, is racially -distinct. - -The least chipmunk of the Columbian Plateau is thought to be racially -distinct from its relatives in the Yakima Valley and eastern Oregon. -Probably it reached the Plateau very early in the Recent. It has -probably not been separated from the parent stock as long as has the -ground squirrel (_Citellus washingtoni_) of the plateau. The ground -squirrel is specifically rather than racially distinct. - -TAMIAS AMOENUS.--The distributional picture of the yellow pine chipmunks -in Washington is complex. (Fig. 81.) Certain habits of these mammals -doubtless have modified what was probably the original postglacial -distribution of the species. Chipmunks are diurnal and natural -selective factors for color possibly operate more strongly on animals -active by day than on nocturnal animals. Yellow pine chipmunks are -neither forest nor desert inhabitants. Indeed, dense forests or open -deserts serve as barriers to their distribution. They prefer brush -lands, open woods, and other habitats where there is food and cover but -abundant sunlight. In such habitats they are almost independent of -altitude, temperature and humidity. They live in the Olympic Mountains -where rainfall is heavy and humidity high. They live and breed at -considerable altitudes in the Cascades, even in the crater of Mount -Rainier, where snow, ice and freezing conditions exist the year around. -On the other extreme, they occupy the low, open pine forests and brush -lands at the lower edge of the Arid Transition Life-zone where -temperatures, in summer, are high and rainfall scarce. - -We find in the present distribution of the species in the Cascade-Sierra -Nevada chain and the Rocky Mountains, indication that the species had a -wide geographic range over western North America previous to the -Vashon-Wisconsin glacial interval. Probably the range of the species -extended in an arc, from the Rocky Mountains across northern Washington -to the Cascades, around the basaltic plateau desert in eastern -Washington and Oregon. Presumably the descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin -glaciers broke this arc into two parallel geographic ranges, the Rocky -Mountains and the Cascade-Sierra Nevada chain, with a desert area -between. - -Almost every species of forest-dwelling animal had its range separated -into two parts by the southward movement of the glaciers. Most of these -forest-dwelling species were composed of relatively homogeneous stocks, -although the yellow pine chipmunk probably was not. The extensive range -of tolerance of the yellow pine chipmunk to altitude and climate and its -unique habitat requirements cause it to meet radically different natural -selective factors. The predators of the chipmunks near Wenatchee, Chelan -County, would include: rattlesnake, gopher snake, badger, striped skunk, -prairie falcon, red-tailed hawk and other predominantly desert-dwelling -species. The chipmunks at Stevens Pass, in the mountains to the west, -would have to contend with: marten, black bear, goshawk, bald eagle and -other alpine predators. At the present time, the chipmunk of the eastern -Cascades is racially distinct from that of the higher Cascades. Geologic -and botanical evidence indicates that the Columbian Plateau was a desert -in pre-Wisconsin Time. We suppose that a transition from alpine -conditions in the Cascades to desert conditions on the Columbian -Plateau existed even in pre-Wisconsin Times. We suppose also that the -chipmunk existed in this transition area and in the Cascades before -Wisconsin Time and in the southern and southeastern Cascades during -Wisconsin Time. We further suppose that the differences separating the -transition area race (_Tamias amoenus affinis_) from the mountain race -(_T. a. ludibundus_) came about through natural selection and not as a -result of geographic isolation. The principal difference between the two -is the paler color of the race in the transition area. - -The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers, then, found two races of -the yellow pine chipmunk in the Cascades. Chipmunks living north of the -Columbian Plateau, in northern Washington and British Columbia, were -probably forced southward onto the inhospitable plains of the plateau -and exterminated. Farther east, north of northeastern Washington, -chipmunks from the north were probably forced southward to compete with -resident chipmunks. - -The range of _Tamias amoenus luteiventris_ in Washington, Idaho and -Montana is most unusual (See Howell, 1929; Davis, 1939). From a compact -range in Montana, two long fingers reach northward and westward. The -western finger crosses Idaho to end in the Blue Mountains of Oregon and -Washington. The northern finger crosses northern Idaho, northeastern -Washington and extends on into southern British Columbia. Between these -two fingers of the range of _luteiventris_ another race (_canicaudus_) -is found. This race occupies a more lowland area than does -_luteiventris_. The range of _luteiventris_ in the northern Rocky -Mountains is extensive. Presumably this race occupied an area farther -north in pre-Wisconsin Time and was forced southward to its present -range by the Wisconsin glaciers. The original population occupying -extreme eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho was _Tamias amoenus -canicaudus_. The pre-Wisconsin range of this race might have been more -extensive. At any rate, _luteiventris_ which was driven southward -displaced _canicaudus_, or some other race of chipmunk, from much of the -Rocky Mountains south of the glacier. The northern chipmunks were -adapted to more boreal conditions and perhaps otherwise better suited to -environmental conditions of the northern Rocky Mountains. A small -population of the older established race (_canicaudus_) persisted in -lowland areas of eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho. - -Regarding the range of _canicaudus_, surrounded by the range of -_luteiventris_ on three sides and faced by desert on the west, Davis -(1939: 220) writes, "It may be that, of these two races, _luteiventris_ -has a greater range of tolerance to environmental conditions and, thus, -is able to succeed in areas to which _canicaudus_ is not adapted. This -inference is supported by the fact that _luteiventris_ occupies a large -range which is diversified geographically and climatically, whereas -_canicaudus_ seems to be limited to a much smaller, more nearly uniform -area." Seemingly _canicaudus_ now exists only in an area ideally suited -to it, and one where it can successfully compete with the generally more -adaptable and successful _luteiventris_. The maximum extent of the -glacial ice, then, found _luteiventris_ the dominant chipmunk in the -northern Rocky Mountains, with an isolated population of _canicaudus_ in -eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho. - -The topography of the ground moraine exposed by the retreat of the -Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers was a barrier to many species of mammals. The -rough, rocky surface with thin soil probably first supported mosses and -grasses, then brush, and later trees. The earlier stages of plant -succession on the deglaciated ground probably presented ideal habitat -for yellow pine chipmunks. Certainly the races immediately adjacent to -the glaciers extended their ranges farther north than many species. In -eastern Washington, _T. a. luteiventris_ spread to the northeastern -corner of the state and on into British Columbia. In the northern -Cascades, _T. a. affinis_ spread northward and eastward, across the -Okanogan River, into northeastern Washington as far as the range of -_luteiventris_. The chipmunk of the higher Cascades (_ludibundus_) -likewise extended its range northward into British Columbia. In the -northwestern Cascades of northern Washington and southern British -Columbia, a richly-colored race, _T. a. felix_, now occupies a limited -geographic range. This race doubtless originated from _ludibundus_ stock -but the method of its development is unknown. Perhaps in early -postglacial time, selective factors developed in chipmunks of the -western slopes of the Cascade Mountains the rich, dark color of _felix_. -The ancestral _ludibundus_ may have given rise to a pale race, -_affinis_, in the arid eastern Cascades and a dark race, _felix_, on the -humid western slope of the Cascades. This seems improbable for there is -no trend to darker color on the western border of the range of -_ludibundus_ south of the range of _felix_, and instead, _affinis_ may -have given rise to _ludibundus_. A more appealing hypothesis is that a -local mutation in some _ludibundus_ stock so changed the range of -tolerance of a portion of the population that it was allowed to enter -the more dense habitat along the coast north of the Fraser River and, -there, isolated by habitat selection, it developed the characters of -_felix_. Population pressure later forced it eastward until the eastern -border of its range again met the range of the ancestral race, -_ludibundus_. - -The chipmunks of the Olympic Mountains probably reached their present -range from the Cascades. Their probable path of emigration was westward -from Mt. Rainier, along the glacial outwash train of Nisqualli Glacier, -to the moraine and outwash apron of the Vashon Glacier and thence to the -Olympics. So similar are the chipmunks of Mt. Rainier and the Olympic -Mountains that Howell (1929) included Mt. Rainier in the range of -_caurinus_. - -Briefly summarized, the probable pre-Vashon-Wisconsin distribution of -chipmunks of the species _Tamias amoenus_ in Washington was: -_ludibundus_ in the higher Cascades; _affinis_ in the eastern Cascades; -_canicaudus_ in eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho; and -_luteiventris_ in the area north of the range of _canicaudus_. The -descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice restricted but did not materially -alter the ranges of _ludibundus_ or _affinis_. On the east, -_luteiventris_ was forced southward to compete with _canicaudus_ and -displaced it over a large region, especially in mountainous areas. -Following the retreat of the ice, _luteiventris_, _affinis_, and -_ludibundus_ extended their ranges northward over the deglaciated -territory. A stock of _ludibundus_ that moved westward from Mt. Rainier -became isolated and gave rise to _caurinus_. In some less obvious -development, _ludibundus_ stock gave rise to _felix_ north of the Fraser -River in the Cascades. - -TAMIAS RUFICAUDUS.--Until a better understanding of the range of this -chipmunk and its relation to other _Tamias_ is gained, uncertainty will -remain concerning its distribution in the past. - -TAMIAS TOWNSENDII.--This is a typical coastal species that ranges -southward, along the coast, to California. The lowland race of western -Oregon and Washington (_townsendii_) probably occurred no farther north -than southwestern Washington when the Vashon Glacier was in place. -Chipmunks of this species in the Cascades and in the southern Olympic -Mountains probably developed independently the slightly paler color that -separates _cooperi_ from _townsendii_. The tendency for species of the -Pacific Coastal Fauna of the Cascades and the Olympic Mountains to be -paler than their lowland relatives is widespread. - -After the retreat of the ice, both races probably moved northward. -Perhaps because of its alpine adaptations, _cooperi_ has moved farther -than _townsendii_. Also, _townsendii_, in the lowlands, ranges to the -Fraser River, a barrier not encountered by _cooperi_. - -SCIURUS GRISEUS.--This species of the Pacific Coastal Fauna probably -entered Washington from Oregon since the retreat of the Vashon Glacier. -It has probably entered the state in relatively recent times. - -TAMIASCIURUS HUDSONICUS.--The two species of red squirrels, _T. -hudsonicus_ and _T. douglasii_, are specifically distinct and probably -became differentiated in the Pleistocene when southward moving glaciers -cut in two the range of the ancestral stock. The morphological -differences are too great, comparatively, to have occurred during the -Vashon-Wisconsin Divergence. _T. hudsonicus_ probably occupied a range -in pre-Wisconsin Time that included the Rocky Mountains and areas to the -north. Glacial ice probably restricted the range of _hudsonicus_ in -Wisconsin Time but after the retreat of the ice _hudsonicus_ moved -northward to reoccupy its former range. It also moved westward across -northern Washington to the Cascades, where it met the range of -_douglasii_. Farther north, it moved westward to the Pacific, thus -occupying an area that, in pre-Vashon time, probably was occupied by -_douglasii_. - -TAMIASCIURUS DOUGLASII.--The Douglas squirrel probably occupied the -coastal region of Oregon, Washington and British Columbia in pre-Vashon -Time. The descent of the ice restricted its range to southwestern -Washington and areas to the south. After the retreat of the ice it moved -northward somewhat but, like other coastal species, the movement was -slow. Meanwhile _hudsonicus_ from the Rocky Mountain Fauna, had spread -to the coast of British Columbia. - -GLAUCOMYS SABRINUS.--This flying squirrel is a plastic species. It -inhabits all of the forested parts of Washington. The distributional -picture presented by the 5 races (Fig. 92) which occur in Washington is -complicated. The ranges of 3 of these lie principally outside the state -of Washington. - -The race _oregonensis_ occupies Washington and Oregon west of the -Cascades; _fuliginosus_ occupies the Cascades of Washington, Oregon and -southern British Columbia; _columbiensis_ occupies the interior valleys -of British Columbia and adjoining Washington; _latipes_ occupies the -northern Rocky Mountains of British Columbia, northern Idaho and extreme -northeastern Washington; and _bangsi_ occupies the Blue Mountains of -Washington and Oregon and a wide range in Idaho and eastward. - -The differences separating the race _oregonensis_ from other subspecies -found in Washington are relatively great. This lowland race is smaller -and richer in color. The other races exhibit slight but relatively -constant differences. The relatively great difference between -_oregonensis_ and the other races indicates that _oregonensis_ was -isolated from the remainder of the species for a considerable time. -Presumably _oregonensis_ was a strongly differentiated coastal race in -pre-Vashon Time and occupied most of western Washington and Oregon. The -descent of the Vashon ice restricted the range of _oregonensis_ to -southwestern Washington and western Oregon. The descent of the ice -forced a northern race, _fuliginosus_, southward into the range of -_oregonensis_. The northern race, adapted to boreal conditions, was able -to compete successfully with the established _oregonensis_ only in -mountainous areas. In the Cascade Mountains, _fuliginosus_ extended its -range southward to southern Oregon. - -The descent of the Wisconsin ice in eastern Washington forced the flying -squirrels of adjacent British Columbia southward into the Rocky -Mountains. These squirrels were probably closely related to -_fuliginosus_, or to _bangsi_, which latter race already may have been -established farther south in the Rocky Mountains. The Blue Mountains of -southeastern Washington were probably inhabited by _bangsi_ in Wisconsin -times, or even earlier. The retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers -allowed the flying squirrels to extend their ranges northward. In -western Washington _oregonensis_ moved to southern British Columbia. In -the Cascade Mountains the more boreal _fuliginosus_ moved much farther -northward and, north of the Okanogan Valley, spread eastward to the -arid, interior valleys of British Columbia. Subsequent differentiation -in the population of the arid, interior valleys developed the slightly -differentiated race _columbiensis_. Farther east, flying squirrels from -the northern Rocky Mountains moved northward. Northeastern Washington -and adjacent British Columbia were occupied by _latipes_, derived from -_bangsi_. - -THOMOMYS TALPOIDES.--Views as to the probable historical distribution of -this plastic group have been presented in an earlier report (Dalquest -and Scheffer, 1944: 308-333). This may be briefly summarized as follows. - -Previous to Vashon-Wisconsin Times, pocket gophers occupied at least the -Cascade Mountains and the Columbian Plateau of Washington. The race -occupying the Columbian Plateau, _devexus_, was probably racially -distinct in pre-Wisconsin time. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin -glaciers isolated gophers in the southern Cascades. Three racial stocks -developed there: _shawi_ in the Mount Rainier area; _limosus_ in the -Columbia River Valley south of the Cascades; and _immunis_ in the -mountainous area between the other two races. At the maximum extent of -the Wisconsin ice, gophers from the Columbia River Valley (_limosus_) -were able to cross the Simcoe Bridge and reach the Blue Mountains. With -the retreat of the Wisconsin ice, the Simcoe Bridge was closed. Gophers -isolated in the Blue Mountains developed the racial characters of -_acqualidens_ and those between the Blue Mountains and the Columbia -River intergraded with the desert race, _devexus_. These intergrades, -which have, also, some characters of their own, bear the name -_columbianus_. Gophers in the southern Cascades (_limosus_) moved -westward on prairie-like river terraces to Clark County where, isolated, -they became racially distinct (_douglasii_). - -Gophers from the Mount Rainier area (_shawi_) moved westward on glacial -outwash trains to the extensive outwash aprons of the Vashon glaciers in -the area about Puget Sound. Here they multiplied and spread to the -Olympic Mountains. Growth of forest on the original outwash apron broke -the area into numerous isolated prairies. Gophers in the Olympic -Mountains (_melanops_) were isolated from those in the area about Puget -Sound. Six distinct races originated on the isolated prairie -(_glacialis_, _tacomensis_, _pugetensis_, _yelmensis_, _tumuli_, -_couchi_). - -Following the retreat of the glacial ice from eastern Washington, pocket -gophers from the Blue Mountains of Oregon (_wallowa_) moved northward -into Washington and gophers from the Rocky Mountain Fauna of Idaho moved -onto the deglaciated part of northeastern Washington. From northeastern -Washington they spread westward to the Cascades and thence southward to -meet the native gophers of the Cascades in the Yakima Valley Area. No -racial differentiation in these gophers occurred; all are referable to -_fuscus_. Where _fuscus_ and the native gophers came together in the -Yakima Valley, a new race, _yakimensis_, developed. - -PEROGNATHUS PARVUS.--Three races of the pocket mouse occur in -Washington. Two of these (_lordi_ and _columbianus_) occur on the -Columbian Plateau. Like many desert species that occur on the Columbian -Plateau, the pocket mice are rather different than their relatives in -eastern Oregon. Presumably they have been isolated on the plateau since -before Vashon-Wisconsin Times. - -The range of the pocket mouse of southeastern Washington, _Perognathus -parvus parvus_, is continuous with the range of the race in Oregon. -This same race occurs in the Yakima Valley, whence it probably arrived -from Oregon in relatively recent time. - -The distribution of pocket mice on the Columbian Plateau, in eastern -Oregon and in the Yakima Valley resembles that of the least chipmunk in -those areas. It is also similar to, but of more recent origin than, that -of the ground squirrels, _Citellus washingtoni_, and _townsendii_. - -DIPODOMYS ORDII.--This kangaroo rat enters the desert area of -southeastern Washington from Oregon. It may be expected eventually to -cross the Columbia River to the Yakima Valley and the Snake River to the -Columbian Plateau. - -CASTOR CANADENSIS.--Two races of beavers occur in Washington. One, found -in southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon, is dark with a -short, wide skull. The other, ranging over most of the state, is paler -with a longer, narrower skull. - -The form now found in southwestern Washington and adjacent Oregon -(_idoneus_) was probably isolated there by the Vashon glaciation and -developed its characters while isolated. The other race, _leucodonta_, -was probably widely spread in Wisconsin Time. Beavers are present in -Moses Lake, in almost the center of the Columbian Plateau. Beavers might -well have lived in the streams of melt water that emerged from the -Wisconsin Glacier. The beavers of western Washington, save those in the -extreme southwest, are like the beavers of eastern Washington. It seems -likely that the race _leucodonta_ originated north of the state of -Washington and was forced southward by the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers. -This northern race, adapted to boreal conditions, competed with the -resident coastal race, _idoneus_, and occupied much of its range. The -distribution of the races of muskrat in Washington closely resembles -that of the beavers. - -ONYCHOMYS LEUCOGASTER.--The desert-dwelling grasshopper mouse has -doubtless entered eastern Washington and the Yakima Valley from eastern -Oregon at a relatively recent time. - -REITHRODONTOMYS MEGALOTIS.--The harvest mouse, like the grasshopper -mouse, seems to have entered Washington from Oregon at a relatively -recent date. Within the last ten years it has extended its range into -the Okanogan Valley in British Columbia. - -PEROMYSCUS MANICULATUS.--Six subspecies of _Peromyscus maniculatus_ -occur in the state of Washington. The geographic range of one of these -(_rubidus_) lies mainly in the states of California and Oregon and -includes, so far as is known, a single small island in the Columbia -River that is politically within the state of Washington. Another -(_hollisteri_) is restricted to certain islands in northern Puget Sound -and obviously has become subspecifically differentiated in postglacial -time. The remaining four subspecies, namely _oreas_, _austerus_, -_artemisiae_ and _gambelii_, have extensive geographic ranges. These -subspecies are not confined to their geographic ranges by geographic -barriers. Deer mice occur in the deep forests and the open desert, on -high mountains and in low valleys, and are almost everywhere the -commonest species of mammal present. - -The study of several populations of deer mice from any general area -usually shows small but constant differences between them. Dice (1939: -21) studied stocks of deer mice from nine localities in southeastern -Washington and found significant differences between several of them. A -statistical study of mice from the San Juan islands shows that the -population of almost every island is different in one or more respects -from the mice of any other island. Geographically separated populations -of "wild caught" mice of the subspecies _austerus_, of the mainland, -were statistically compared and significant differences were found -between these populations, too. Small, differentiated populations are to -be found in many parts of the state, and each subspecies appears to be -an assemblage of such tiny genetic units. - -These genetic units probably are the microgeographic races of Debzhansky -(1937). They have been intensively studied by Sumner (1917 A, B) and -Dice. An especially important paper by the latter author (1940) -summarizes much of the available information on speciation in -_Peromyscus_ and clearly discusses the microgeographic races of -_Peromyscus_. - -The numerous microgeographic races of _Peromyscus maniculatus_ in -Washington present diverse combinations of characters which could result -from the random fixation and elimination of genes (Wright. 1932: -360-362). Such a hypothesis, however, requires at least partial -isolation of the populations involved. The mechanism of such isolation, -in such populations of deer mice as we have studied, is not readily -apparent. Some microgeographic races are not separated by noticeable -geographic or ecologic barriers and the distance between their ranges is -not too great to be traversed by a deer mouse. The tendency to remain on -a home range may have the same effect as isolation would be supposed to -have. - -The work of Murie and Murie (1931: 200-209, 1932: 79) is enlightening in -this respect. These authors found that mice residing in a locality -tended to remain in that locality; individuals trapped and marked were -retaken in the same locality a year later. Individuals released some -distance from the point of capture remained where released or returned -to the point of capture. Transported individuals did not spread at -random. The home instinct was developed in young as well as in old mice. -Two mice in the gray pelage, four to eight weeks old, returned to their -home ranges from distances one and two miles away. The authors fix the -home range of an individual _Peromyscus m. artemisiae_ in Teton County, -Wyoming, at approximately one hundred yards in diameter. - -This home-range instinct is essentially a lack of incentive for -individual mice to emigrate to new localities where mice of the same -species are already established. This may partly account for the -microgeographic races of deer mice in Washington. - -Dice (1939: 21) pointed out that, except in color, the differences in -nine stocks of mice from southeastern Washington could not be correlated -with environmental factors. We have found this to be true of -microgeographic races throughout the state of Washington. - -Of the four subspecies of deer mice that occupy extensive geographic -ranges in Washington, one, _oreas_, is a long-tailed form that seems not -to intergrade with _austerus_, a neighbor in western Washington that has -a tail of moderate length. These two and _gambelii_, a short-tailed form -with which _oreas_ intergrades, are easily distinguished. In eastern -Washington two short-tailed subspecies, _gambelii_ and _artemisiae_, are -currently recognized. The taxonomic relationships of these two -subspecies are complex. The subspecies _gambelii_ has an extensive -geographic range in Oregon and California. These mice, with short tails, -occur in the Wallula Water Gap of southeastern Washington and on the -Columbian Plateau. To the west the desert conditions of the Columbian -Plateau fade into the Transition Life-zone forests of the eastern -Cascade Mountains. The pale, short-tailed desert mice (_gambelii_) -gradually change to the dark, long-tailed subspecies, _oreas_, that -occupies the Cascade Mountains. - -North of the Columbian Plateau, in northeastern Washington, the deer -mice are darker and relatively longer-tailed than on the Columbian -Plateau. Some populations are distinctly reddish, almost as reddish as -_oreas_. Although assigned to _artemisiae_, they are almost identical -with populations of deer mice from the eastern Cascade Mountains, known -to be intergrades between _oreas_ and _gambelii_. This fact, and the -presence of surprisingly _oreas_-like characters in some -microgeographic races in extreme northeastern Washington, may indicate -that the race called _artemisiae_ is a group of intergrades between -_gambelii_ and an _oreas_-like mouse that has become extinct. - -Intergradation between _gambelii_ and _artemisiae_ is normal and takes -place gradually where the ranges of the two subspecies meet. The same is -true of intergradation between _oreas_ and _gambelii_ in the eastern -Cascade Mountains. West of the Cascade Mountains the range of _oreas_ -meets the range of _austerus_. These two subspecies appear not to -interbreed in nature, since no intergrades were taken at any of the -numerous localities in western Washington where the mice were trapped. -Pure populations of the two subspecies exist within a few miles of each -other. In the valley of the Skykomish River, in the western Cascades -Mountains, from the town of Skykomish, King County, to the lowlands to -the west, only _austerus_ was found. In the coniferous forests of the -mountains above Skykomish, only _oreas_ was taken. Several pairs, each -an _oreas_ and an _austerus_ of the other sex, were kept from four to -six months, and one pair was kept for a year, but they did not -reproduce. The _oreas_ were from the upper Skykomish Valley and the -_austerus_ were from Seattle, King County. Along the border of the -ranges of the two subspecies in the Skykomish River Valley, a definite -habitat preference was noted. The coniferous forests were occupied by -_oreas_ and brush or deciduous forests by _austerus_. Within the range -of _austerus_ and within the range of _oreas_ only one subspecies is -found whether the habitat be coniferous forest or thickets of alder and -willow, but where the ranges of the two subspecies meet _austerus_ -occurs only in the thickets of aspen and willow and _oreas_ occurs only -in the coniferous forest. - -The morphological characters that separate _oreas_ from _austerus_, -namely, larger size, richer color, and longer tail, are all features -that might be associated with a more arboreal existence in dark, -coniferous forests. Our observations show that _oreas_ is, to a large -extent, arboreal. Traps nailed to tree trunks six to eight feet from the -ground and set for flying squirrels often caught _oreas_ in the -Skykomish River Valley. On one occasion I walked up a leaning tree trunk -to set a trap, fifty feet from the ground on the trunk of another tree -that was upright. An _oreas_ was found in this trap the next morning. -Svihla (1933: 13) relates how a specimen of _oreas_ that escaped from a -live trap took refuge in a tree when pursued. We have set numerous traps -for flying squirrels in the area about Puget Sound. As far as memory and -field notes serve, we have never taken _austerus_ in these traps. Our -observations on the habits of _austerus_ are much more abundant than -those on _oreas_, but for _austerus_ no evidence of arboreal activities -has been obtained. - -There are, then, two subspecies that do not interbreed, each capable of -existing in any ecologic niche that will support deer mice. Where the -ranges of the two subspecies come together, they compete. The large -size, richer color, longer tail, and perhaps arboreal habits of _oreas_ -give it an advantage in coniferous forests. The small size and dark -color of _austerus_ give it an advantage in other habitats, especially, -perhaps, in winter, when the deciduous trees have shed their leaves. - -The differences separating _austerus_ from _oreas_ would be expected to -have developed under complete isolation. That _oreas_ developed from -_austerus_ or _austerus_ from _oreas_ seems impossible. A glance at the -distribution map (Fig. 107) shows that the range of _austerus_ clearly -separates the range of _oreas_ into two segments. The range of -_austerus_ tapers out to the north, east and west. On the south -_austerus_ intergrades with _rubidus_ from Oregon, a subspecies from -which it is but slightly differentiated. - -The geographic behavior of the four subspecies of deer mice that occupy -extensive areas in Washington may be summarized as follows: _P. m. -gambelii_ occupies southeastern Washington and intergrades normally with -_oreas_ in the eastern Cascade Mountains and with _artemisiae_ at the -northern edge of the Columbian Plateau; _artemisiae_, occupying -northeastern Washington, closely resembles populations of mice that are -known to be intergrades between _oreas_ and _gambelii_ and itself -intergrades with both _oreas_ and _gambelii_; _oreas_ occupies most of -western Washington, intergrades with its neighbors _artemisiae_ and -_gambelii_ to the east, but does not intergrade with _austerus_, its -morphologically more similar neighbor in the west; _austerus_ occupies a -range in western Washington that is almost surrounded by the range of -_oreas_, a subspecies with which it apparently does not interbreed. - -The relations of these four subspecies appear to be the result of -certain great changes in the range of deer mice in the Pacific Northwest -that occurred during and since the last Pleistocene glaciation. We -reconstruct these changes as follows. In the Puyallup interglacial -cycle, just previous to the last (Vashon-Wisconsin) continental -glaciation, clines, or gradual transitions existed in the ranges of the -deer mice along the Pacific Coast. The small, dark, short-tailed mice of -the coastal redwood forests of California and Oregon became gradually -larger, redder and longer-tailed to the north, climaxing in a large, -red, long-tailed form in the spruce forests of southern Alaska and -northern British Columbia. A similar cline existed inland. Small, pale, -short-tailed mice of the Great Basin became increasingly larger, darker, -and longer-tailed to the north, reaching a maximum in the spruce forests -of northern British Columbia. - -The development and advance of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice sheet -exterminated mice over much of British Columbia and the northern United -States. Long-tailed northern mice were forced southward and contacted -the southern, short-tailed forms. The preglacial clines were thus -destroyed. - -What might be the southern part of the western cline may be noted in the -deer mice of western Oregon today. From the southern coast of Oregon the -mice (_P. m. rubidus_) do become larger, redder and longer-tailed to the -north. The climax of this cline is now reached in _austerus_, of the -Puget Sound area of Washington. The cline is not continued farther -northward because the range of _oreas_ is encountered. - -The advance of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice from the north probably forced -species of mammals southward, ahead of it, including the long-tailed -northern deer mice which generation by generation encountered -progressively shorter-tailed forms of resident mice. Perhaps the -unfamiliar, and certainly the extremely frigid, conditions in the fore -of the glacier exterminated the short-tailed individuals but favored the -long-tailed mice, since the latter originally were adapted to a boreal -environment. The climax of the ice advance found the glaciers just -within the political limits of the United States and found the -long-tailed mice spread before the ice front. - -In western Washington the Vashon glacier advanced as far south as the -southern edge of the Puget Sound area. Long-tailed northern mice -advancing before it reached the Columbia River. This glacially swollen -stream served as a natural barrier and prevented their southward -extension. At this time the northern mice had traversed more than half -the length of the original western cline. The northern mice, originating -in a boreal habitat a thousand miles away, were unable to interbreed -with the southern mice and such individuals as might have crossed the -Columbia River never became established in Oregon. During the existence -of the glacier in western Washington, the long-tailed northern emigrants -competed with the resident deer mice of western Washington to the total -elimination of the resident mice. The retreat of the Vashon Glacier -from Washington found the northern mice in complete control of that part -of the state from the Pacific Ocean to the Cascade Mountains. - -In eastern Washington the Wisconsin Glacier advanced south to the -northern edge of the Columbian Plateau. Northern mice advancing before -it probably did not survive on the treeless plateau but existed in -forested areas of northern Idaho and driftless areas of northern -Washington. No natural barriers separated the northern mice from the -pale, short-tailed forms. The nonuniform topography perhaps allowed more -mingling of the two types where climatic conditions permitted. -Intergradation in some places as well as competition and elimination of -one form or another in other places occurred. Following the withdrawal -of the Vashon ice and the establishment of soil and forests on the -deglaciated land, the long-tailed mice of western Washington (_P. m. -oreas_) apparently spread northward, unhindered by competition, until -they reached southern Alaska. The deep coniferous forests of western -Washington presented conditions acceptable to _oreas_ and it persisted -there despite postglacial changes in climate. - -Postglacial changes in climate did, however, permit the dark, -short-tailed mice (_rubidus_) to cross the Columbia River and to become -established in suitable habitats, namely the deciduous jungles of the -river valleys. From these points the mice spread northward through the -lowlands of western Washington, infiltrating the range of _oreas_, -competing with it, and driving it from the lowlands. This movement is in -progress today. By logging and clearing of lands for agriculture man has -considerably speeded the invasion of the southern mice. Slight -differentiation of the short-tailed mice north of the Columbia River -(_austerus_) separates them from their parent race, _rubidus_. - -In the dense forests along the Pacific Coast of Washington, _austerus_ -did not become established. This area includes most of the land west of -Puget Sound. There is a narrow band of _austerus_ that extends along the -eastern and part of the northern edge of the Olympic Peninsula, where -they have probably invaded in relatively recent time. - -On the Oregon side of the Columbia River the range of _rubidus_ is -continuous from the Pacific to the Cascades. On the Washington side of -the river, _oreas_ extends from the Pacific to eastern Wahkiakum County, -where the range of _austerus_ starts. At the border of the ranges of -the two subspecies, ecological conditions determine the ranges; _oreas_ -occurs in the Douglas fir and hemlock forests and _austerus_ occurs in -the jungles of alder and salmonberry in the stream valleys. The range of -_austerus_ extends from eastern Wahkiakum County east along the -Columbia, to western Klickitat County. In a north-south strip across the -Columbia, through the ranges of _rubidus_ in Oregon and _austerus_ in -Washington, normal intergradation is apparent. By gradual degrees -_rubidus_ changes to _austerus_. In a north-south strip farther west, -through the ranges of _rubidus_ and _oreas_, the same transition of the -Oregon _rubidus_ is seen, namely an approach toward _austerus_. The -cline is, of course, abruptly terminated by the range of the dissimilar -_oreas_. - -On Puget Island, a small island lying in the Columbia River in western -Wahkiakum County and politically within the state of Washington (see -Scheffer, 1942) a population of deer mice occurs that resembles -_rubidus_ more closely than _austerus_. This island lies in the river -between the ranges of _rubidus_ and _oreas_. The lack of intergradation -between these two subspecies has probably kept the Puget Island -population pure _rubidus_. Puget Island is a junglelike lowland locally -known as "tideland." - -The San Juan Islands of northern Puget Sound were thoroughly glaciated -in Wisconsin Time and probably were under thousands of feet of ice when -the Vashon Glacier was at its maximum extent. The subspecies of deer -mouse occurring there now is _hollisteri_, a race similar to _oreas_ in -color, body size and cranial characters and probably derived from -_oreas_. _P. m. hollisteri_ differs from both _oreas_ and _austerus_ in -its much shorter tail. Shortness of tail is apparently a product of -insularity in northwest coastal mice. The transition from long-tailed -mainland mice to short-tailed island mice is shown by Hall (1938A: 461). -When _oreas_ first occupied the area about Puget Sound (this area is -occupied by _austerus_ today) some individuals probably reached the San -Juan Islands soon thereafter. Contact between _oreas_ and _hollisteri_ -is now prevented by the presence of _austerus_ between their ranges. Of -course, a water barrier separates _austerus_ from _hollisteri_ but -_austerus_ does occur in pure form on some islands in Puget Sound (not -on any of the San Juan Islands), for instance, on Whidby Island. One -wonders why _austerus_ has not established itself on some of the San -Juan Islands but considering the degree of difference between -_hollisteri_ and _austerus_, I doubt that the two would interbreed if -they did occur together. - -On Vancouver Island, British Columbia, a short-tailed, _austerus_-type -of mouse occurs in the lowlands and a long-tailed, _oreas_-type of mouse -in the mountains. Vancouver Island is a large island (16,400 square -miles). Apparently a stock of _austerus_ from the mainland reached -Vancouver Island and were able to find suitable habitat and compete with -and drive out the established _oreas_ in the manner that they probably -did in the western Washington lowlands. The large Vancouver Island -offers far more variety of habitat and opportunity for establishment of -emigrating mice than do the smaller San Juan Islands, the largest of -which is Orcas (57 square miles). - -Following the withdrawal of the Wisconsin ice from eastern Washington, -numerous minor movements and adjustments of deer mice seem to have taken -place. Long-tailed, _oreas_-type of mice were exterminated on the -Columbian Plateau if, indeed, they ever became established there. -Long-tailed mice did apparently become established in driftless areas -and forested areas to the south of the drift border. With the -establishment of soil and forests on the deglaciated land, the -short-tailed _gambelii_ and the long-tailed mice became thoroughly -intermixed. In some areas, especially near the type locality of -_artemisiae_, the _gambelii_ characters of the mixture predominate at -the present time. Deer mice from the Okanogan Valley differ from -_gambelii_ only in slightly larger size and darker color. In other -areas, notably near Metaline, Pend Oreille County, the _oreas_ -characters of the mixture dominate at the present time. Mice from here -are large and red and differ from typical _oreas_ in having relatively -short tails. Other less marked segregations of characters are numerous, -in Idaho and British Columbia as well as in Washington. Cowan (1937) has -described _Peromyscus m. alpinus_, isolated in a mountainous area of -British Columbia. This seems to be a form derived from _oreas_-type -stock. - -With the reëstablishment of soil and forests on the deglaciated land of -British Columbia north of Washington, a northward extension of the -_gambelii-oreas_ mixture occurred. Another invasion was taking place at -this time, however. _Peromyscus m. arcticus_ spread onto the deglaciated -land from the north or east, ahead of artemisiae (the _gambelii-oreas_ -mixture). This new invader intergraded with _artemisiae_ as well as with -_oreas_. Further collecting and studies are required in this area before -the relationships of the three subspecies can be completely understood. - -If geographic ranges are assigned to the named subspecies of deer mice -that occur in Washington, it must, in part, be done arbitrarily. The -deer mice of the San Juan Islands are all referred to the subspecies -_hollisteri_. Only Puget Island, Wahkiakum County, is considered to be -inhabitated by _rubidus_. The boundary between the ranges of _austerus_ -and _oreas_ is sharply defined and further collecting by resident -naturalists should result in detailed mapping of the boundary. - -The ranges and distribution of the deer mice of eastern Washington are -less clearly defined than those of western Washington. _Peromyscus m. -gambelii_ exists in its purest state on the Columbian Plateau. Here the -Columbia River makes a convenient boundary to the west. Pure _Peromyscus -m. oreas_ exist in the Cascade Mountains. In the area between the -Columbian Plateau and the Cascades the deer mice are variously -intermediate between _gambelii_ and _oreas_ and, over most of the area, -are nearest to _gambelii_. This might be considered a natural area of -intergradation such as commonly occurs between the ranges of subspecies. -These intergrades, however, are similar to _Peromyscus m. artemisiae_ -and the area occupied by these intermediates is connected on the north -with the range of _artemisiae_. Thus Osgood (1909: 61) regards specimens -from Easton and Wawawai, in the area of intergradation, as _artemisiae_ -or intergrades between _gambelii_ and _artemisiae_. Taylor and Shaw -(1929: 22) include the entire area of _intergradation_ in the range of -_artemisiae_. This treatment, although convenient to the student of -geographic variation, is apt to conceal the evolutionary and historical -influences. These influences may be appreciated better if the -intergrades from each locality are referred to the subspecies they most -closely resemble. - -The specimens upon which the name _artemisiae_ was based came from a -narrow tongue of zonally lower country that extends northward from the -range of the lighter-colored _gambelii_. As might be expected, topotypes -are lighter in color than specimens from the north, west and east. -Nevertheless, the type locality is within a geographic area that is -occupied principally by a darker race, _artemisiae_, to the north of -_gambelii_. The topotypes of _artemisiae_ may be considered to be -intermediate between _gambelii_ and the darker, northern race. Thus the -name _artemisiae_ becomes available for the mice of the general area in -question. The mice of the area immediately to the east of the type -locality, in Washington and presumably in British Columbia and Idaho -also, are essentially a mixture of the subspecies _gambelii_ and a now -mostly extinct and unnamed race that probably resembled _oreas_. Local -variations of populations from within this area are extreme but some -segregation of color and length of tail has taken place. Mice from -mountainous areas resemble _oreas_ while mice from the lowlands resemble -_gambelii_, or, more exactly, mice from coniferous forests resemble -_oreas_ while mice from other areas resemble _gambelii_. - -South of the area of racial mixture in northeastern Washington, in the -Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington, the deer mice are like -_gambelii_ except in slightly darker color. Mice from the Blue Mountains -are darker and browner than _gambelii_, not more reddish. There is no -indication of adulteration with _oreas_ stock. Since the Blue Mountains -are a forested area and are far south of the drift border, we suppose -that deer mice existed there through the last glacial period and that -their dark color is an adaptation to forest habitat. - -Mice similar to those of the Blue Mountains have an extensive range in -Idaho (Davis 1939: 290). These mice have relatively uniform racial -characters and constitute a "good" subspecies. - -At present the deer mice of northern Washington, southeastern British -Columbia, northern Idaho, northeastern Oregon, western Montana and -northwestern Wyoming are called _artemisiae_. The mice of this extensive -area are, however, of two genetic types: that type with mixed racial -characters that lives in northeastern Washington and probably also -farther east along the Wisconsin drift border, and that type that occurs -farther south in Idaho and seems to constitute a stable subspecies. - -The separation of these two types may be desirable. Detailed study of -the deer mice from the area now assigned to the range of _artemisiae_ -may show that the name _subarcticus_ (_Peromyscus texanus subarcticus_ -Allen, 1899) is applicable to the southern form. The type with mixed -racial characters must be called _artemisiae_. If the two types are -eventually separated, the mice from the Blue Mountains of Washington -will be referable to the southern form. - -NEOTOMA CINEREA.--The wood rat found over most of Washington. _Neotoma -c. occidentalis_, probably entered the state from eastern Oregon early -in the Recent and spread over most of the state. The wood rat of the -Blue Mountains (_alticola_) probably developed from _occidentalis_. - -A coastal race of the wood rat (_fusca_) occurs in western Oregon. This -race, if it occurred in western Washington in pre-Vashon Time, was -eliminated in Vashon Time or subsequently. In Oregon it lives in deep -forests (Bailey, 1936: 174). In Washington _occidentalis_ occupies but -a small part of the ecologic niche occupied by _fusca_ in Oregon. -Elimination of _fusca_ from Washington through competition with -_occidentalis_ seems highly improbable. Should _fusca_ ever cross the -Columbia River and become established it would probably spread to a -considerable part of western Washington. - -SYNAPTOMYS BOREALIS.--The lemming mouse seems now to be retreating -northward and was an arctic species forced southward by the -Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers. Unlike other alpine species, it seems to be -unable to exist for long in isolated mountain areas. - -PHENACOMYS INTERMEDIUS.--The heather vole, like the lemming mouse, -probably was forced southward by the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers. In the -Cascade and Rocky mountains it found suitable habitat and spread -southward to almost the lower end of the Sierra Nevada in California. -The Cascade race moved eastward on the Puget Bridge to the Olympic -Mountains after the retreat of the Vashon ice, and northward in the -Cascades. Northeastern Washington was reinvaded by the subspecies of the -Rocky Mountain Fauna. - -CLETHRIONOMYS GAPPERI and CALIFORNICUS.--The two species of red-backed -mouse found in Washington were probably distinct in pre-Vashon Times. At -the maximum extent of the Vashon ice, _californicus_ was probably found -in western Oregon and _gapperi_ in the Blue Mountains, where -_idahoensis_ was developed, and in the southern Cascades -(_cascadensis_). During or shortly after Vashon Time, _gapperi_ crossed -the Puget Bridge to become established in the Olympic Mountains. After -the retreat of the ice, _gapperi_ moved northward and eastward from the -Cascades and _californicus_ crossed to western Washington from Oregon -and displaced _gapperi_ from the lowlands. - -Hinton (1926: 215) separated the American _Clethrionomys_ into three -groups, suggesting that Old World counterparts of each group exist. -Davis (1939: 308) gives an excellent analysis of the emigrational -history of the American species, and points out the close relationship -of the Siberian and Arctic-American forms. He suggests that the -_rutilus_ group invaded Arctic-America from Siberia at the close of the -last glaciation. - -Two other groups are recognized by Davis, who assumes that both arose -from a common ancestral stock and divided into two stems, one of which -(_gapperi_ group) followed the main Rocky Mountain course southward and -worked eastward across Canada while the other (_californicus_ group) -followed down the Pacific Coast. Davis states, "This southward -extension of range in America probably took place in the Pleistocene, -but almost certainly the present southern range of the genus in the West -was not reached until late in, or after, that period." - -Our studies of the _Clethrionomys_ of Washington indicate the essential -correctness of Davis' conclusions. The separation of the two groups, -however, probably was caused by southward moving glaciers and the -separation of the mice into two stocks closely paralleled the divergence -of other groups, such as that of the snowshoe rabbits. The two groups of -red-backed mice are more sharply separated than was thought by Davis. -The intermediate color of the back of _C. g. idahoensis_, mentioned by -Davis, seems to be merely coincidental. The essential difference in the -two groups is the sharply marked red band of the _gapperi_ group as -opposed to the general red area on the dorsal surface of the -_californicus_ group. _Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius_ has been -considered a derivative of _occidentalis_ because the range of the -latter surrounds the Olympic Mountains, where _nivarius_ is found. -Considering the immediate post-Pleistocene movements of mammals from the -Cascades to the Olympic Mountains, so clearly illustrated in _Thomomys_, -_Tamias amoenus_, and _Phenacomys_, a means is indicated by which -_Clethrionomys_ of the _gapperi_ group might have reached the Olympics. -The apparent lack of intergradation between _occidentalis_ and -_nivarius_ gives proof of their relatively distant relationship. _C. -nivarius_ seems not to have been derived from _occidentalis_, and -apparently does not belong to the _californicus_ group. It belongs -instead to the _gapperi_ group, and I consider it to be a subspecies of -_gapperi_. In no sense is it intermediate between the two groups. The -other form considered by Davis to be intermediate between the two groups -is _caurinus_. This mouse has not yet been taken in Washington, although -it may eventually be found on Point Roberts, on the Fraser River delta. -Its distribution is paralleled by that of many other mammals that are -definitely not of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. - -The _californicus_ group, I feel, contains only the races of -_Clethrionomys californicus_, while the _gapperi_ group contains _C. -gapperi_ and its races, including _caurinus_, and possible other -species. - -Possibly intergradation occurs between _C. californicus occidentalis_ -and _C. gapperi_. Nevertheless, I fail to find evidence of such -intergradation. I have taken _C. gapperi nivarius_ and _C. californicus -occidentalis_ within ten miles of each other, but each retained its -distinctive characters with no evidence of intergradation. In the case -of _C. gapperi saturatus_ and _C. californicus occidentalis_ the proof -is less conclusive. In spite of numerous attempts to trap -_Clethrionomys_ in the area geographically intermediate between their -ranges, I have taken none. Though common along the coast, _occidentalis_ -becomes progressively scarcer to the east, being rare in the vicinity of -Seattle and apparently absent from the western base of the Cascades. So -far as is known, the ranges of _caurinus_ and _occidentalis_ are -separated by the Fraser River. - -MICROTUS PENNSYLVANICUS and MONTANUS.--The Pennsylvania meadow mouse is -closely related to _Microtus montanus_. Certain races of _montanus_, -notably those from southern Oregon, California, and northern Nevada, -closely resemble _pennsylvanicus_ externally and cranially. From the -central part of its range northward, _montanus_ becomes progressively -less like _pennsylvanicus_. The races _nanus_ and _canicaudus_ are quite -different from _pennsylvanicus_ both externally and cranially, and in -addition the anterior loop of the second molar is less constricted; -often it is not constricted at all. _Microtus pennsylvanicus_ and -_Microtus montanus_ occur together over parts of the northern Rocky -Mountains. Where the two species came together, _pennsylvanicus_ occurs -with races of _montanus_ that are most unlike it. - -_Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi_ closely resembles races of _Microtus -montanus_ that occur in southern Oregon, California, and Nevada. It is -larger, darker, and longer-furred than _Microtus pennsylvanicus -funebris_ from Washington. Seemingly _pennsylvanicus_ and _montanus_ -diverged previous to Vashon-Wisconsin Time. The stock that gave rise to -_montanus_ spread over the Great Basin while _pennsylvanicus_ ranged -farther east. Some of the _montanus_ stock worked northward in the Rocky -Mountains. _Microtus pennsylvanicus_ had meanwhile moved westward to the -Rocky Mountains. The two stocks met and behaved as full species. - -_Microtus pennsylvanicus_ probably occupied northeastern Washington in -the interglacial cycle preceding the Recent. The advance of the -Wisconsin ice eliminated most of these mice. The glacier dammed the -Columbia River and caused it to turn southward from its basalt-marginal -course and take a path over the Columbian Plateau. Along this glacial -river a population of _Microtus_ persisted to become _kincaidi_. - -While the Wisconsin ice was at its maximum extent, _Microtus montanus_ -from the Blue Mountains crossed the Simcoe Bridge to the Yakima Valley -and the eastern Cascade Mountains. The closing of the Simcoe Bridge -isolated these mice, which subsequently became slightly differentiated, -as _canescens_. Another stock moved westward along the Columbia River to -western Oregon. This stock is now called _Microtus canicaudus_ but is -probably racially rather than specifically distinct from _Microtus -montanus nanus_. - -With the retreat of the Wisconsin ice, _montanus_ extended its range -northward from the Yakima Valley along the eastern Cascade Mountains to -extreme southern British Columbia. _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris_ -entered northeastern Washington with other elements of the Rocky -Mountain Fauna. - -At present, _pennsylvanicus_ occurs in northeastern Washington while -_montanus_ is found in southeastern Washington and the eastern Cascade -Mountains. The Okanogan River Valley separates their ranges. Eventually -_montanus_ may extend its range to northeastern Washington and -_pennsylvanicus_ to the Cascades, the two forms occurring together as -they do in Montana, Idaho and Colorado. The isolation of _kincaidi_ on -the Columbian Plateau seems complete and the probability of its range -reaching that of its related species seems slight. - -MICROTUS LONGICAUDUS.--The later distributional history of the -long-tailed meadow mouse is not yet clear. - -MICROTUS TOWNSENDII.--This Pacific Coastal species probably lived west -of the Sierra Nevada-Cascade Mountains since the early Pleistocene. It -has extended its range northward since the retreat of the Vashon ice and -has reached some of the islands in Puget Sound and the Strait of -Georgia. This species seems to be related to _Microtus richardsoni_ but -the two species probably separated at an early time. - -MICROTUS RICHARDSONI.--The water rat of the Cascade Mountains seems to -be have been forced southward into Washington and Oregon by the descent -of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers where it became isolated from the water -rat of the northern Rocky Mountains. After the retreat of the ice, both -forms have moved northward. Bailey (1900) records _macropus_ from Bonner -County, Idaho, not far from northeastern Washington but in Washington up -to this time, _macropus_ has been recorded only from the Blue Mountains -of the southeastern part of the state. - -MICROTUS OREGONI.--The later historical distribution of the creeping -mouse was probably the same as that of _townsendii_. - -LAGURUS CURTATUS.--The distribution of this species of the Great Basin -Fauna has probably changed little if any since the late Pleistocene. - -ONDATRA ZIBETHICUS.--The distribution of the two races of muskrat that -occur in Washington is almost exactly that of the beavers. Probably one -form was isolated in southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon -during Vashon Time and another, more adaptable, race occurred in eastern -Washington. After the retreat of the ice the adaptable race spread -widely but the muskrats of the lower Columbia River changed their range -little or not at all. - -APLODONTIA RUFA.--The race of _Aplodontia_ found in the Cascades of -Washington was probably confined to the southern Cascades in Vashon Time -and has since spread northward to reoccupy the range as far north as -southern British Columbia. - -The presence of a mountain beaver in western Washington that is -indistinguishable from the race _rufa_, found in the Cascades of Oregon, -is most surprising. In Oregon, _pacifica_ occurs in the western lowlands -and _rufa_ in the mountains to the east. In Washington _rufa_ occurs in -the western lowlands and _rainieri_ in the mountains to the east. - -The offset in range of _rufa_ seems best explained by assuming that all -of western Washington was once occupied by mountain beavers (_rufa_) -that spread from the Cascades of Oregon to the Cascades of Washington -and thence to the western Washington lowlands. This must have occurred -early in the interglacial cycle preceding the Vashon Glaciation. While -confined to the southern Cascades, _rainieri_ developed the larger size -that now separates it from the ancestral _rufa_ that occurs to the west -and south of it. - -ZAPUS PRINCEPS.--The coastal race of the jumping mouse was probably -distinct from the more inland population before Vashon-Wisconsin Times. -The differences between them were probably accentuated while the -Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers separated their ranges. The western race -(_trinotatus_) was isolated in the southern Cascades and southwestern -Washington. After the retreat of the glaciers, _trinotatus_ moved -northward through western Washington and the Cascades into British -Columbia. The race _kootenayensis_ of the adjacent Rocky Mountains moved -eastward through northeastern Washington to the Cascades. The race -_oregonus_, found in the Blue Mountains, has probably been resident -there since it evolved from the populations to the east. - -ERETHIZON DORSATUM.--I have inadequate basis for speculation concerning -the historical distribution of the porcupine. - -OCHOTONA PRINCEPS.--The descent of the Wisconsin ice separated the -western pikas into two populations. One was confined to the -Cascade-Sierra Nevada system and another to the Rocky Mountains. Two -races are now found in the Cascades of Washington. One, _brunnescens_, -inhabits the higher Cascades and another, _fenisex_, the eastern edge of -the Cascades. The range of _brunnescens_ extends southward into Oregon -while the range of _fenisex_ extends farther north in British Columbia -than does that of _brunnescens_. The principal difference between the -two races is the smaller size and paler color of _fenisex_. In -Washington, _fenisex_ occupies a slightly more arid habitat than -_brunnescens_. Further, _fenisex_ lives in talus principally of basaltic -rock while _brunnescens_ lives in talus of granitic rock. The basaltic -talus is more finely fractured, offering smaller crevices in which pikas -can conceal themselves. The granitic rock, on the other hand, forms -talus composed of fragments of large size. Freshly fractured granite is -pale, whitish gray. After weathering, however, it becomes blackish as -the more soluble, pale feldspars are removed, leaving the black -hornblend and biotite exposed. Freshly fractured Columbian basalt is -blackish but, after weathering, becomes rusty, reddish brown. - -In Washington the two races maintain their distinctiveness because -selective factors in the basalt talus of the eastern Cascades favor the -smaller size and paler color of _fenisex_ while in the higher Cascades, -selective factors in the granitic batholith favor larger size and darker -color. - -The present range of _brunnescens_ in Oregon indicates that this race -was the pre-Wisconsin resident of the Cascades of at least southern -Washington. Probably _fenisex_ evolved in the arid interior of British -Columbia. In color _fenisex_ is intermediate between the dark -_brunnescens_ and the pale _cuppes_ of the western spurs of the Rocky -Mountains. Probably _fenisex_ was forced southward into the eastern -Cascades by the Wisconsin ice and inhabited the area east of the range -of _brunnescens_. This eastern area was not occupied by _brunnescens_ -because the basaltic talus was of small size. After the retreat of the -ice, _fenisex_ (adapted to more arid habitat than _brunnescens_), spread -northward to the relatively dry valleys of the interior of British -Columbia. - -The distinctness of _brunnescens_ and _fenisex_ is maintained by -selective factors of the habitats they occupy but the zone of -intergradation between the two is broad. A tendency towards paleness is -noticeable in specimens from as far west as the eastern side of Mount -Rainier. - -The pikas in the Rocky Mountain area have given rise to a number of -races. The pale, small race of northern Idaho, _cuppes_, entered -northeastern Washington with other members of the Great Basin Fauna -after the retreat of the ice. - -LEPUS TOWNSENDII.--The white-tailed jack rabbit has probably lived on -the Columbian Plateau ever since or even before the time when the -Wisconsin ice bordered the plateau on the north. - -LEPUS AMERICANUS.--Snowshoe rabbits were probably spread over forested -parts of Washington in pre-Wisconsin time. A coastal race, -_washingtonii_, was probably distinct from the remainder of the species -at an early time. It, and its kindred races _klamathensis_ and -_tahoensis_, are very different from races derived later from the Rocky -Mountain Fauna. From this it is deduced that _washingtonii_ was a member -of the Pacific Coastal Fauna before the advance of the last continental -glaciers. - -The snowshoe rabbits now found in the Cascade Mountains of Washington -are racially distinct from populations occurring to the north and east, -but are more closely related to the northern and eastern rabbits than -they are to _washingtonii_. This race, _cascadensis_, probably lived in -the area north of the state of Washington in pre-Wisconsin interglacial -time. The snowshoe rabbit of northeastern Washington was probably a race -having an extensive range in the Rocky Mountains from which _pineus_ in -the Blue Mountains developed. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin -glaciers found _washingtonii_ restricted to western Oregon. It might -have persisted also in southwestern Washington but, had this been the -case, we would expect a broader zone of intergradation between -_washingtonii_ and _cascadensis_ than actually exists. - -The glaciers forced _cascadensis_ southward into the Cascades of -southern Washington. The difference between _washingtonii_ and -_cascadensis_ and the narrow zone of intergradation between them, -indicate that the two races were not in contact in pre-Vashon Time. The -presence in the Cascades of Oregon of a race related to _washingtonii_ -rather than _cascadensis_ also supports this view. The snowshoe rabbits -of northeastern Washington were probably eliminated from areas where the -ice was in place. The effect of the glaciers in nearby areas was -probably less on snowshoe rabbits than upon other species. - -Following the retreat of the glaciers, _washingtonii_ reinvaded western -Washington and spread northward through the lowlands to the Fraser -River. In the Cascades, _cascadensis_ moved even farther north. _L. a. -pineus_ of the Rocky Mountain Fauna invaded northeastern Washington from -adjacent areas to the south. Another race, _columbiensis_, spread from -the interior valleys of British Columbia to the western part of -northeastern Washington in probably relatively recent times. The -post-Wisconsin history of the distribution of this race is uncertain. - -LEPUS CALIFORNICUS.--The black-tailed jack rabbit occurs throughout the -sagebrush areas of eastern Washington, except in the Okanogan Valley. It -invaded Washington from the south recently (Couch, 1927: 313). The first -blacktails were thought to have entered Walla Walla County about 1870. -Here they were checked by the Snake River. About 1905 they crossed the -Snake River, on ice, and by 1920 had spread over much of the Columbian -Plateau. In January, 1920, they crossed the Columbia River in two -places, on ice jams, and by 1927 had spread north and west over the -sagebrush areas between the Columbia River and the Cascade Mountains. -When Couch, in 1927, published his account, he predicted that the -blacktail would eventually spread to the Okanogan Valley. This has not -yet occurred although it is still to be expected. - -It should be noted that the migrational history of the black-tailed jack -rabbit is known only because the animal is large, spectacular, and -diurnal, and therefore noticed by resident ranchers, and because the -facts came to the notice of a competent biologist. Migration of a less -conspicuous mammal, for example, a mouse, would rarely be detected. - -SYLVILAGUS NUTTALLII.--The cottontail might have been resident on the -Columbian Plateau during Wisconsin Time but probably it invaded, or -perhaps reinvaded, the Plateau from eastern Oregon in the Recent. - -SYLVILAGUS IDAHOENSIS.--Too little is known about this rabbit in -Washington to hazard a guess as to its recent distributional history. - -CERVUS CANADENSIS.--The elk emigrated from Siberia to North America in -the late Pleistocene but previous, certainly, to Vashon-Wisconsin time. -Probably the coastal race was distinct from the interior population in -the preceding interglacial cycle. The descent of the last continental -glaciers, in Washington, separated the elk of the Pacific Coastal Fauna -from the Rocky Mountain Fauna. After the retreat of the ice the coastal -race moved northward to southern British Columbia and the Rocky Mountain -race moved northward and westward through British Columbia. Northeastern -Washington was reoccupied by the Rocky Mountain elk. - -Remains of elk have been found associated with human artifacts on the -northern part of the Columbian Plateau. The plateau is poorly suited to -elk but a few may have persisted there until late historic time. The -remains may have been brought by Indians from northeastern Washington. -The remains included teeth and portions of the skull and it seems -unlikely that these would have been carried any great distance. - -ODOCOILEUS HEMIONUS.--The American deer probably evolved in North -America. In this respect they are unlike the elk, moose and caribou, all -of which emigrated from Asia to America in the Pleistocene. _Odocoileus -hemionus_ and _virginianus_ probably diverged from a common stock in the -Pliocene. - -The black-tailed deer was probably a member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna -at an early time and distinct from the mule deer before the last -interglacial cycle. Probably the mule deer lived in the eastern Cascades -and on part of the Columbian Plateau in Wisconsin Time. They occur on -the plateau in limited numbers at present and their remains have been -found associated with human artifacts in the Grand Coulee area. - -ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS.--The white-tailed deer ranges from the Atlantic -to the Pacific and from Canada to Mexico. The species was probably -abundant in the Pacific Northwest in the Pleistocene, perhaps in -Vashon-Wisconsin time, but has since largely given way to the -black-tailed and mule deer. The race _O. v. leucurus_ now occupies an -extremely small range. The accounts of early naturalists indicate that -it was more abundant and had a wider range 100 years ago. Probably -_leucurus_ was once an important member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. - -The inland race, _ochrourus_, is a typical member of the Rocky Mountain -Fauna. It and _leucurus_ were probably derived from a common ancestor in -the late Pleistocene. - -ALCE AMERICANUS.--The moose occurs in Washington as a casual wanderer -from the Rocky Mountain Fauna to the east. - -RANGIFER MONTANUS.--The caribou occurs in northeastern Washington as a -winter migrant from the north. It was probably of more regular and -extensive occurrence in the past. - -ANTILOCAPRA AMERICANA.--The antelope probably was a casual wanderer to -southeastern Washington and perhaps to the Columbian Plateau from -eastern Oregon before white man reached Washington. - -BISON BISON.--The buffalo, like the antelope, probably occurred in -southeastern Washington and on the Columbian Plateau only as a casual -wanderer from Oregon in postglacial time. - -OVIS CANADENSIS.--Mountain sheep reached North America from Asia in the -Pleistocene. By Vashon-Wisconsin Time they had spread southward, perhaps -to Mexico. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice in Washington -presumably separated the _canadensis_ and _californiana_ type of sheep, -the former being confined to the Rocky Mountain Fauna and the latter to -the Cascade-Sierra Nevada chain and adjacent parts of the Great Basin. - -Mountain sheep probably persisted in the southern Cascades of Washington -and on the Columbian Plateau during Vashon-Wisconsin times. After the -retreat of the ice, these sheep (_californiana_) moved northward -slightly, both in the Cascades and on the Columbian Plateau. Remains of -sheep are to be found with human artifacts in the Grand Coulee area -today. When white man first reached the state, sheep existed throughout -the Cascades and on part of the Columbian Plateau. Only a pitiful -remnant remains in the extreme northern Cascades. - -Mountain sheep of the Rocky Mountain race probably existed in small -numbers in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington until historic -times. Sheep from the Blue Mountains or adjacent Idaho invaded -northeastern Washington shortly after that region was freed from -Wisconsin ice. These sheep were exterminated shortly after the coming of -the white man. - -OREAMNOS AMERICANUS.--Fossil remains of the mountain goat have been -discovered at Washtuckna Lake, associated with those of the lion, horse, -and camel. Probably the mountain goat had an extensive range in -Washington at the time of a glacial advance previous to the Wisconsin -glaciation. In Wisconsin Time the mountain goat was confined to the -southern Cascades. Strangely enough, it seems not to have crossed the -Columbia River to become established in the Cascades of Oregon. After -the retreat of the ice it moved northward through the Cascades. - -A mountain goat recently taken in northeastern Washington seemingly -wandered to the area from Idaho. - - - - -EXPLANATION OF TREATMENT - - -The order of arrangement of the following accounts is that of Miller -(1924) with some modifications. For example, the Chiroptera are arranged -according to Tate (1942), the Sciuridae according to Bryant (1945) and -the Cetacea according to Scheffer (1942). A few other minor changes are -included. - -Although the principal purpose of this report is to describe and -interpret the distribution of the various species and races of mammals -that occur in Washington, a brief description and account of the habits -of the animals is included. Each species account begins with a -description, based principally on external characters. This is followed -by pertinent information regarding the range of the species, its -relationships within the genus and a brief account of its habits. The -habits are dealt with in most detail for the species that are of -greatest economic importance. - -The accounts of subspecies are largely technical. The account of the -type specimen is rather complete. Subspecific diagnoses are brief, -stating often only the principal racial characters. Standard external -measurements are usually given for each subspecies. All measurements, -unless otherwise stated, are in millimeters and weights are in grams. -Specimens are adult, unless otherwise stated. - -No formal list of specimens examined is included. Localities from which -specimens have been examined are usually shown on the distribution maps -by solid circles. Open circles indicate localities from which specimens, -not examined by me, have been recorded by other persons. Most of these -records are published but a few are based on authentic trappers' -reports, photographs, or other evidence. Unusual occurrences of animals -outside their natural ranges are not shown on the maps. Not every record -from well within the range of a subspecies has been plotted, but care -has been taken to plot all records of occurrences from peripheral areas. - -When more than one race of a species occurs in Washington, specimens -from localities where the geographic range of one subspecies meets or -approaches that of another are listed as "marginal occurrences" in the -paragraph on the distribution of the race to which they are best -referred. Marginal occurrences are listed from north to south and from -west to east. The authority for the record, if published, is given. When -the record is based on specimens examined by the author, the collection -containing the specimen is indicated as follows: - - (E.S.B.) Ernest S. Booth collection. College Place, Washington. - - (J.M.E.) J. M. Edson collection, Bellingham, Washington. - - (K.U.) University of Kansas, Museum of Natural History, Lawrence, - Kansas. - - (M.V.Z.) Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, University of California, - Berkeley, California. - - (U.S.N.M.) United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. - Specimens from the Biological Surveys Collection are included - here. - - (V.B.S.) Victor B. Scheffer collection. United States National - Museum, Washington, D. C. - - (W.S.C.) Washington State College, Charles R. Conner Museum, - Pullman, Washington. - - (W.S.M.) Washington State Museum, University of Washington, - Seattle, Washington. - - (W.W.D.) Walter W. Dalquest collection, Seattle, Washington. - -In all, 230 kinds (species and subspecies) of mammals are listed for the -state of Washington. Of these, 9 kinds (opossum, eastern gray squirrel, -fox squirrel, 3 kinds of Old World rats, house mouse, nutria, and -eastern cottontail) have been introduced into Washington from elsewhere. -The dog of the Indians might be listed as a tenth introduced species. -The grizzly bear, the sea otter, the wolf, the moose, one race of -mountain sheep, one race of mountain goat, and, if they ever occurred in -the state, the pronghorn antelope and bison, are nearly or completely -extinct in Washington. Mammals other than cetaceans possibly occurring -in Washington, but of which satisfactory record is lacking, are -mentioned in a hypothetical list at the end of the accounts of species. -Of the 220 kinds of native mammals, known to occur in the state, 23 are -marine (4 pinnipeds, 19 cetaceans). The 197 living, native, land mammals -include 6 orders, 20 families, 58 genera and 101 full species. - - - - -CHECK LIST OF MAMMALS - -CLASS MAMMALIA--mammals - - - Order MARSUPALIA--marsupials - - Family DIDELPHIIDAE--opossums - Genus =Didelphis= Linnaeus--opossums - _Didelphis virginiana virginiana Kerr_ opossum - - - Order INSECTIVORA--insectivores - - Family TALPIDAE--moles - Genus =Neurotrichus= Gunther--shrew-mole - _Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii_ (Baird) } - _Neurotrichus gibbsii minor_ Dalquest } Gibbs shrew-mole - and Burgner } - - Genus =Scapanus= Pomel--western American moles - _Scapanus townsendii_ (Bachman) Townsend mole - _Scapanus orarius orarius_ True } - _Scapanus orarius yakimensis_ Dalquest } coast mole - and Scheffer } - _Scapanus orarius schefferi_ Jackson } - - Family SORICIDAE--shrews - Genus =Sorex= Linnaeus--long-tailed shrews - _Sorex cinereus cinereus_ Kerr } - _Sorex cinereus streatori_ Merriam } cinereous shrew - _Sorex merriami merriami_ Dobson Merriam shrew - _Sorex trowbridgii trowbridgii_ Baird } - _Sorex trowbridgii destructioni_ Scheffer } Trowbridge shrew - and Dalquest } - _Sorex vagrans vagrans_ Baird } - _Sorex vagrans monticola_ Merriam } wandering shrew - _Sorex obscurus obscurus_ Merriam } - _Sorex obscurus setosus_ Elliot } dusky shrew - _Sorex palustris navigator_ (Baird) mountain water-shrew - _Sorex bendirii bendirii_ (Merriam) } - _Sorex bendirii albiventer_ Merriam } Bendire water-shrew - - Genus =Microsorex= Coues--pigmy shrew - _Microsorex hoyi washingtoni_ Jackson pigmy shrew - - - Order CHIROPTERA--bats - - Family VESPERTILIONIDAE--vespertilionid bats - Genus =Myotis= Kaup--mouse-eared bats - _Myotis lucifugus carissima_ Thomas } - _Myotis lucifugus alascensis_ Miller } big myotis - _Myotis yumanensis sociabilis_ } - H. W. Grinnell } - _Myotis yumanensis saturatus_ Miller } Yuma myotis - _Myotis keenii keenii_ (Merriam) Keen myotis - _Myotis evotis evotis_ (H. Allen) } long-eared myotis - _Myotis evotis pacificus_ Dalquest } - _Myotis thysanodes thysanodes_ Miller fringe-tailed myotis - _Myotis volans longicrus_ (True) } hairy-winged myotis - _Myotis volans interior_ Miller } - _Myotis californicus caurinus_ Miller } California myotis - _Myotis californicus californicus_ } - (Audubon and Bachman) } - _Myotis subulatus melanorhinus_ (Merriam) small-footed myotis - - Genus =Lasionycteris= Peters--silver-haired bat - _Lasionycteris noctivagans_ (Le Conte) silver-haired bat - - Genus =Corynorhinus= H. Allen--long-eared bats - _Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii_ } long-eared bat - (Cooper) } - _Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius_ } - H. W. Grinnell } - - Genus =Pipistrellus= Kaup--pipistrelles - _Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus_ (H. Allen) western pipistrelle - - Genus =Eptesicus= Rafinesque--serotine bats - _Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus_ Rhoads big brown bat - - Genus =Lasiurus= Gray--hairy-tailed bats - _Lasiurus cinereus cinereus_ (Beauvois) hoary bat - - Genus =Antrozous= H. Allen--nyctophiline bats - _Antrozous pallidus cantwelli_ Bailey pallid bat - - - Order CARNIVORA - - Family URSIDAE--bears - Genus =Ursus= Linnaeus--bears - _Ursus americanus altifrontalis_ Elliot } - _Ursus americanus cinnamomum_ } black bear - (Audubon and Bachman) } - _Ursus chelan_ Merriam grizzly bear - - Family PROCYONIDAE--raccoons and allies - Genus =Procyon= Storr-raccoons - _Procyon lotor psora_ Gray } - _Procyon lotor excelsus_ Nelson and } raccoon - Goldman } - - Family MUSTELIDAE--weasels and allies - Genus =Martes= Pinel--martens and fisher - _Martes caurina caurina_ (Merriam) } western marten - _Martes caurina origenes_ (Rhoads) } - _Martes pennanti_ (Erxleben) fisher - - Genus =Mustela= Linnaeus--weasels, ferrets and minks - _Mustela erminea invicta_ Hall } - _Mustela erminea fallenda_ Hall } - _Mustela erminea olympica_ Hall } ermine - _Mustela erminea streatori_ (Merriam) } - _Mustela erminea gulosa_ Hall } - _Mustela erminea murica_ (Bangs) } - _Mustela frenata washingtoni_ (Merriam) } - _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_ Hall } - _Mustela frenata effera_ Hall } long-tailed weasel - _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ Hall } - _Mustela vison energumenos_ (Bangs) mink - - Genus =Gulo= Pallas--wolverines - _Gulo luscus luteus_ Elliot wolverine - - Genus =Lutra= Brisson--river otters - _Lutra canadensis pacifica_ Rhoads } - _Lutra canadensis vancouverensis_ Goldman } river otter - - Genus =Enhydra= Fleming--sea otter - _Enhydra lutris nereis_ (Merriam) sea otter - - Genus =Spilogale= Gray--civet cats or spotted skunks - _Spilogale gracilis saxatilis_ Merriam } civet cat or - _Spilogale gracilis latifrons_ Merriam } spotted skunks - - Genus =Mephitis= Geoffroy and Cuvier--striped skunks - _Mephitis mephitis hudsonica_ Richardson } - _Mephitis mephitis major_ (Howell) } - _Mephitis mephitis notata_ (Howell) } striped skunk - _Mephitis mephitis spissigrada_ Bangs } - - Genus =Taxidea= Waterhouse--American badger - _Taxidea taxus taxus_ (Schreber) badger - - Family CANIDAE--foxes, coyote, wolves and dogs - Genus =Vulpes= Oken--foxes - _Vulpes fulva cascadensis_ Merriam red fox - - Genus =Canis= Linnaeus--coyote, wolves and dogs - _Canis latrans testes_ Merriam } - _Canis latrans incolatus_ Hall } coyote - _Canis lupus fuscus_ Richardson wolf - _Canis familiaris_ Linnaeus dog - - Family FELIDAE--cats - Genus =Felis= Linnaeus--true cats - _Felis concolor oregonensis_ Rafinesque } cougar or - _Felis concolor missoulensis_ Goldman } mountain lion - - Genus =Lynx= Kerr--lynxes and bobcats - _Lynx canadensis canadensis_ Kerr Canadian lynx - _Lynx rufus fasciatus_ Rafinesque } - _Lynx rufus pallescens_ Merriam } bobcat - - - Order PINNIPEDIA--seals and walruses - - Family OTARIIDAE--eared seals - Genus =Zalophus= Gill--Californian sea lions - _Zaluphus californianus_ (Lesson) California sea lion - - Genus =Eumetopias= Gill--Steller sea lion - _Eumetopias jubata_ (Schreber) Steller sea lion - - Genus =Callorhinus= Gray--Alaska fur seal - _Callorhinus ursinus cynocephalus_ - (Walbaum) Alaska fur seal - - Family PHOCIDAE--hair seals - Genus =Phoca= Linnaeus--hair seals - _Phoca vitulina richardii_ (Gray) hair seal - - - Order RODENTIA--rodents - - Family SCIURIDAE--squirrels and allies - Genus =Tamias= Illiger--chipmunks - _Tamias minimus scrutator_ (Hall and } - Hatfield) } least chipmunk - _Tamias minimus grisescens_ (Howell) } - _Tamias amoenus caurinus_ (Merriam) } - _Tamias amoenus felix_ Rhoads } - _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_ (Hollister) } - _Tamias amoenus affinis_ Allen } yellow-pine chipmunk - _Tamias amoenus canicaudus_ (Merriam) } - _Tamias amoenus luteiventris_ Allen } - _Tamias ruficaudus simulans_ (Howell) red-tailed chipmunk - _Tamias townsendii townsendii_ Bachman } - _Tamias townsendii cooperi_ Baird } Townsend chipmunk - - Genus =Marmota= Blumenbach--marmots - _Marmota monax petrensis_ Howell woodchuck - _Marmota flaviventris avara_ (Bangs) yellow-bellied marmot - _Marmota caligata cascadensis_ Howell hoary marmot - _Marmota olympus_ (Merriam) Olympic marmot - - Genus =Citellus= Oken--ground squirrels - _Citellus townsendii townsendii_ (Bachman) Townsend ground - squirrel - _Citellus washingtoni_ Howell Washington ground - squirrel - _Citellus columbianus columbianus_ (Ord) } - _Citellus columbianus ruficaudus_ Howell } Columbian ground - squirrel - _Citellus beecheyi douglasii_ - (Richardson) Beechey ground squirrel - _Citellus lateralis tescorum_ (Hollister) } - _Citellus lateralis connectens_ (Howell) } golden-mantled ground - _Citellus saturatus_ (Rhoads) } squirrel - - Genus =Sciurus= Linnaeus--tree squirrels - _Sciurus griseus griseus_ Ord western gray squirrel - _Sciurus carolinensis hypophaeus_ Merriam eastern gray squirrel - _Sciurus niger_ Linnaeus, subsp.? fox squirrel - - Genus =Tamiasciurus= Trouessart--red squirrels - _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori_ } - (Allen) } - _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni_ } red squirrel - (Bachman) } - _Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii_ } - (Bachman) } Douglas squirrel - - Genus =Glaucomys= Thomas--American flying squirrels - _Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis_ } - (Bachman) } - _Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi_ (Rhoads) } northern flying - _Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis_ Howell } squirrel - _Glaucomys sabrinus latipes_ Howell } - _Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus_ (Rhoads) } - - Family HETEROMYIDAE--pocket mice, kangaroo mice and kangaroo rats - Genus =Perognathus= Weid--pocket mice - _Perognathus parvus parvus_ (Peale) } great basin pocket - _Perognathus parvus lordi_ (Gray) } mouse - _Perognathus parvus columbianus_ Merriam } - - Genus =Dipodomys= Gray--kangaroo rats - _Dipodomys ordii columbianus_ (Merriam) Ord kangaroo rat - - Family GEOMYIDAE--pocket gophers - Genus =Thomomys= Weid--smooth-toothed pocket gophers - _Thomomys talpoides devexus_ Hall and } - Dalquest } - _Thomomys talpoides columbianus_ Bailey } - _Thomomys talpoides aequalidens_ } - Dalquest } - _Thomomys talpoides wallowa_ Hall } - and Orr } - _Thomomys talpoides fuscus_ Merriam } - _Thomomys talpoides yakimensis_ Hall } - and Dalquest } - _Thomomys talpoides shawi_ Taylor } - _Thomomys talpoides immunis_ Hall and } - Dalquest } northern pocket - _Thomomys talpoides limosus_ Merriam } gopher - _Thomomys talpoides douglasii_ } - (Richardson) } - _Thomomys talpoides glacialis_ Dalquest } - and Scheffer } - _Thomomys talpoides tacomensis_ Taylor } - _Thomomys talpoides pugetensis_ Dalquest } - and Scheffer } - _Thomomys talpoides tumuli_ Dalquest } - and Scheffer } - _Thomomys talpoides yelmensis_ Merriam } - _Thomomys talpoides couchi_ Goldman } - _Thomomys talpoides melanops_ Merriam } - - Family CASTORIDAE--beavers - Genus =Castor= Linnaeus--beavers - _Castor canadensis leucodonta_ Gray } - _Castor canadensis idoneus_ Jewett and } beaver - Hall } - - Family MURIDAE--rats and mice - Genus =Onychomys= Baird--grasshopper mice - _Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus_ } northern grasshopper - Anthony } mouse - - Genus =Reithrodontomys= Giglioli--American harvest mice - _Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis_ } western harvest - (Baird) } mouse - - Genus =Peromyscus= Gloger--white-footed mice - _Peromyscus maniculatus oreas_ Bangs } - _Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri_ } - Osgood } - _Peromyscus maniculatus austerus_ (Baird) } - _Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus_ Osgood } deer mouse - _Peromyscus maniculatus gambelii_ (Baird) } - _Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae_ } - (Rhoads) } - - Genus =Neotoma= Say and Ord--wood rats - _Neotoma cinerea occidentalis_ Baird } bushy-tailed wood rat - _Neotoma cinerea alticola_ Hooper } - - Genus =Synaptomys= Baird--lemming mice - _Synaptomys borealis wrangeli_ Merriam northern lemming mouse - - Genus =Phenacomys= Merriam--heather voles and tree mice - _Phenacomys intermedius intermedius_ } - Merriam } heather vole - _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis_ } - Rhoads } - - Genus =Clethrionomys= Tilesius--red-backed mice - _Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus_ } - (Rhoads) } - _Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis_ } - (Merriam) } Gapper red-backed - _Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis_ } mouse - Booth } - _Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius_ } - (Bailey) } - _Clethrionomys californicus } California red-backed - occidentalis_ (Merriam) } mouse - - Genus =Microtus= Schrank--meadow mice - _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris_ Dale } Pennsylvania meadow - _Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi_ } mouse - Dalquest } - _Microtus montanus nanus_ (Merriam) } montane meadow - _Microtus montanus canescens_ Bailey } mouse - _Microtus townsendii townsendii_ } - (Bachman) } Townsend meadow - _Microtus townsendii pugeti_ Dalquest } mouse - _Microtus longicaudus halli_ Ellerman } long-tailed meadow - _Microtus longicaudus macrurus_ Merriam } mouse - _Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides_ } - (Rhoads) } water rat - _Microtus richardsoni macropus_ (Merriam) } - _Microtus oregoni oregoni_ (Bachman) creeping mouse - - Genus =Lagurus= Gloger--short-tailed voles - _Lagurus curtatus pauperrimus_ (Cooper) sagebrush vole - - Genus =Ondatra= Link--muskrat - _Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis_ (Lord) } - _Ondatra zibethicus occipitalis_ (Elliot) } muskrat - - Genus =Rattus= Fischer--Old World rats - _Rattus rattus rattus_ (Linnaeus) } roof rat - _Rattus rattus alexandrinus_ (Geoffroy) } - _Rattus norvegicus norvegicus_ (Erxleben) Norway rat - - Genus =Mus= Linnaeus--house mice - _Mus musculus_ Linnaeus, subsp.? house mouse - - Family APLONTIDAE--mountain beaver - Genus =Aplodontia= Richardson--mountain beaver - _Aplodontia rufa rufa_ (Rafinesque) } - _Aplodontia rufa rainieri_ Merriam } mountain beaver - - Family DIPODIDAE--jumping mice and allies - Genus =Zapus= Coues--jumping mice - _Zapus princeps trinotatus_ Rhoads } - _Zapus princeps kootenayensis_ Anderson } big jumping mouse - _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ Davis } - _Zapus princeps oregonus_ Preble } - - Family ERETHIZONTIDAE--American porcupines - Genus =Erethizon= Cuvier--North American porcupine - _Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum_ Brandt } porcupine - _Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens_ Allen } - - Family CHINCHILLIDAE Bennett--chinchillas and allies - Genus =Myocastor= Kerr--nutria - _Myocastor coypus_ (Molina), subsp.? nutria - - - Order LAGOMORPHA--pikas, hares and rabbits - - Family OCHOTONIDAE--pikas - Genus =Ochotona= Link--pikas - _Ochotona princeps cuppes_ Bangs } - _Ochotona princeps fenisex_ Osgood } pika - _Ochotona princeps brunnescens_ Howell } - - Family LEPORIDAE--hares and rabbits - Genus =Lepus= Linnaeus--hares - _Lepus townsendii townsendii_ Bachman white-tailed jack - rabbit - _Lepus americanus washingtonii_ Baird } - _Lepus americanus cascadensis_ Nelson } snowshoe rabbit - _Lepus americanus pineus_ Dalquest } - _Lepus americanus columbiensis_ Rhoads } - _Lepus californicus deserticola_ Mearns black-tailed jack - rabbit - - Genus =Sylvilagus= Gray--cottontails and allies - _Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii_ (Bachman) Nuttall cottontail - _Sylvilagus floridanus_ (Allen), subsp.? Florida cottontail - _Sylvilagus idahoensis_ (Merriam) pigmy rabbit - - - Order ARTIODACTYLA--even-toed ungulates - - Family CERVIDAE--deer and allies - Genus =Cervus= Linnaeus--American elk or wapiti - _Cervus canadensis roosevelti_ Merriam } elk or wapiti - _Cervus canadensis nelsoni_ Bailey } - - Genus =Odocoileus= Rafinesque--northern deer - _Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus_ Bailey } - _Odocoileus virginianus leucurus_ } white-tailed deer - (Douglas) } - _Odocoileus hemionus hemionus_ } - (Rafinesque) } mule deer or - _Odocoileus hemionus columbianus_ } black-tailed deer - (Richardson) } - - Genus =Alce= Gray--Moose and Old-World elk - _Alce americana shirasi_ Nelson moose - - Genus =Rangifer= Hamilton-Smith--reindeer and caribou - _Rangifer arcticus montanus_ Seton-Thompson caribou - - Family BOVIDAE--cattle, sheep, goats and allies - Genus =Bison= Hamilton-Smith--bison - _Bison bison oregonus_ Bailey bison - - Genus =Ovis= Linnaeus--sheep - _Ovis canadensis canadensis_ Shaw } mountain sheep - _Ovis canadensis californiana_ Douglas } - - Genus =Oreamnos= Rafinesque--mountain goat - _Oreamnos americanus americanus_ } mountain goat - (Blainville) } - _Oreamnos americanus missoulae_ Allen } - - - Order CETACEA--whales and porpoises - - Family ZIPHIIDAE--beaked whales - Genus =Berardius= Duvernoy--beaked whales - _Berardius bairdii_ Stejneger Baird beaked whale - - Genus =Mesoplodon= Gervais--beaked whales - _Mesoplodon stejnegeri_ True Stejneger beaked whale - - Family DELPHINIDAE--porpoises - Genus =Delphinus= Linnaeus--dolphins - _Delphinus bairdii_ Dall Baird porpoise - - Genus =Lissodelphis= Gloger--right-whale porpoises - _Lissodelphis borealis_ (Peale) } northern right-whale - } porpoise - - Genus =Lagenorhynchus= Gray--striped porpoises - _Lagenorhynchus obliquidens_ Gill striped porpoise - - Genus =Grampus= Gray--killer whales - _Grampus rectipinna_ (Cope) Pacific killer - - Genus =Grampidelphis= Iredale and Troughton - _Grampidelphis griseus_ (Cuvier) grampus - - Genus =Globicelphalus= Hamilton--blackfishes - _Globicephalus scammonii_ (Cope) blackfish - - Genus =Phocoena= Cuvier--harbor porpoises - _Phocoena vomerina_ (Gill) harbor porpoise - - Genus =Phocoenoides= Andrews--Dall porpoises - _Phocoenoides dalli_ (True) Dall porpoise - - Family PHYSETERIDAE--sperm whales - Genus =Physeter= Linnaeus--sperm whale - _Physeter catodon_ Linnaeus sperm whale - - Family KOGIIDAE--pigmy sperm whale - Genus =Kogia= Gray--pigmy sperm whale - _Kogia breviceps_ (Blainville) pigmy sperm whale - - Family RHACHIANECTIDAE--gray whale - Genus =Rhachianectes= Cope--gray whale - _Rhachianectes glaucus_ (Cope) gray whale - - Family BALAENOPTERIDAE--finback whales - Genus =Balaenoptera= Lacépède--finback whales - _Balaenoptera physalus_ (Linnaeus) finback whale - _Balaenoptera borealis_ Lesson Pollack whale - _Balaenoptera acutorostrata_ Lacépède pike whale - - Genus =Sibbaldus= Gray--blue whale - _Sibbaldus musculus_ (Linnaeus) blue whale - - Genus =Megaptera= Gray--humpbacked whales - _Megaptera novaeangliae_ (Borowski) humpback whale - - Family BALAENIDAE--baleen whales - Genus =Eubalaena= Gray--baleen whales - _Eubalaena sieboldii_ (Gray) Pacific right whale - - - - -ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES - - -=Didelphis virginiana virginiana= Kerr - -Opossum - - _Didelphis virginiana_ Kerr. Anim. Kingd., p. 193, 1792. - - _Type locality._--Virginia - -_Description._--Slightly smaller than a house cat; body in older animals -heavy and fat; tail long, naked, scaled and prehensile. Ears large, -naked and black with white tips; muzzle elongate and pointed; color of -fur variable; overhair usually white and underfur white tipped with -black; guard hairs long and coarse but underfur soft and dense; forefoot -with opposable thumb; females with abdominal pouch. - -_Remarks._--The opossum has been introduced from the eastern United -States into California and Oregon and has become well established in -those states. Recent records from Clear Lake, Skagit County, and South -Bend, Pacific County, indicate that the opossum is now resident in -Washington and it may be expected to increase and spread (Scheffer, -1943). The animals may also enter the area about Walla Walla from -Oregon. The source of the opossums which have appeared in Washington is -not yet known. - -Of this animal, Dr. Carl Hartman (1923: 347) has written: - -"In the popular mind, the generation of no animal is so shrouded in -mystery as that of the opossum. Throughout the country, among both -whites and negroes, deeply rooted tradition has it that the opossum -copulates through the nose and that the female blows the fruit of -conception into the pouch. Other myths relating to details of the -reproductive process in this species are current among the people. - -"The growth of such legends need not surprise one, however, for the -early birth of the embryos and the use of the pouch as an incubator -certainly challenge the imagination. These phenomena attract the -attention because they are unique, differing from the familiar method -of rearing the young obtaining among the higher mammals, including man. -Familiarity breeds contempt; the ordinary ceases to be marvelous. Thus -on account of its rareness and its 'different' character the opossum, -our only marsupial, figures in the folklore to a prominent degree." - - -=Neurotrichus gibbsii= - -Gibbs shrew-mole - -_Description._--The shrew-mole is tiny, possessing a head and body -2-1/2 to 3 inches long and a tail about 1-1/2 inches in length. -The body is relatively stout but is less cylindrical than that of -_Scapanus_. The eyes are nearly buried in the fur. The nose is long -and pointed. The legs are short and the forefeet wide and powerful. -The tail is thick, constricted at the base and clothed with short, -stiff bristles. The fur is short and posteriorly directed. In color the -shrew-mole is dark slate, almost black. - - [Illustration: FIG. 21. Gibbs shrew-mole (_Neurotrichus gibbsii - minor_), female in captivity; Seattle, Washington, September 12, - 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. - 719.)] - -_Remarks._--Shrew-moles inhabit moist habitats from sea level to 8,000 -feet. They are burrowing mammals and prefer to live in soft earth, free -of sod. In the lowlands of western Washington, shrew-moles are most -abundant in damp, shady ravines where the vegetation includes deciduous -trees and dense underbrush with but little grass. In the mountains, -shrew-moles are usually found near streams or rock slides, where the -larger annuals grow densely on soil that is deep, soft, and free of -turf. Vertically they range from the Humid Transition Life-zone -through the Canadian, and well into the Hudsonian Life-zone. - - [Illustration: FIG. 22. Distribution of the Gibbs shrew-mole in - Washington. A. _Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii._ B. _Neurotrichus - gibbsii minor._] - -Shrew-moles are both diurnal and nocturnal. They rest or sleep -periodically, the length of their rest or sleep being longer when much -food is eaten, and the intervals between their periods of rest or sleep -is longer when less food is eaten. Owls and snakes appear to be their -principal enemies. Predatory mammals eat some shrew-moles, and probably -kill many that they do not eat. Shrew-moles are completely blind, and -their long, prehensile nose guides all their activity. Their ordinary -movements on the surface of the ground are slow and cautious. When -frightened they break into a scuttling rush which ends beneath a leaf or -bit of bark where the animal becomes motionless. Shrew-moles, on the -surface of the ground, make considerable noise. They construct molelike -burrows, but these are not as extensive or complicated as those of -moles. The shrew-mole hunts for food in shallow trenches that it makes -just under the layer of dead leaves and vegetable debris that covers the -ground in their habitat. The food of the shrew-moles includes -earthworms, isopods, insect larvae, soft-bodied insects, and other -animal matter. Some vegetable matter is eaten. - -Breeding takes place at all seasons of the year, save perhaps in -December and January. Embryos vary from one to four. The nest of a -shrew-mole at Seattle, King County, consisted of a handful of damp -leaves in a cavity of a rotten, punky, alder stump. The nest contained -four half-grown young. - - -=Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii= (Baird) - - _Urotrichus gibbsii_ Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 76, 1857. - - _Neurotrichus [sic] gibbsii_ Günther, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pl. - 42, 1880. - - _Neurotrichus Gibbsii_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):607, - 1885. - - _Neurotrichus gibbsii_ Bryant, Zoe. 1:359, February, 1891. - - _Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 79:11, December 31, 1912. - - _Type._--Obtained at Naches Pass, 4,500 ft., Pierce County, - Washington, by G. Gibbs on July 15, 1854 (see Dalquest and Burgner, - 1941); type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Size relatively large; tail relatively long; - foreclaws straight on ventral surface. - - _Measurements._--Two females from Tye, 4,000 ft., Stevens Pass, - King County, average: total length, 121.5; length of tail, 45; - length of hind foot, 18. - - _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, from British Columbia - south, and Destruction Island, Jefferson County. Records of - occurrence are Baker Lake (J. M. E.), Tye (M. V. Z.), and Mount - Rainier (Mount Rainier Ntl. Park Mus.) - -_Remarks._--Shrew-moles are present on Destruction Island, a small -island in the Pacific off the coast of Jefferson County. These moles are -large, and are like _gibbsii_. It is thought, however, that this -resemblance is due to convergent evolution rather than a once-continuous -range with _gibbsii_. It is significant that a shrew (_Sorex trowbridgii -destructioni_), the only other native land mammal on the island, differs -from its mainland counterpart in much the same way as does _Neurotrichus -g. gibbsii_ from _Neurotrichus g. minor_. - - -=Neurotrichus gibbsii minor= Dalquest and Burgner - - _Neurotrichus gibbsii_ minor Dalquest and Burgner, Murrelet, 22:12, - April 30, 1941. - - _Type._--Obtained on the University of Washington Campus, Seattle, - King County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on May 19, 1940; type in - the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Size small; tail short; foreclaws light and - weak as compared to those of _gibbsii_, with ventral surfaces - curved. - - _Measurements._--Eighty-five specimens (males and females) from - Seattle, King County, average: total length, 107.0; length of - tail, 35.3; length of hind foot, 15.0. - - _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington. Marginal - records are: Mt. Vernon (Jackson, 1915: 97), Cottage Lake (W.W.D.) - and Yacolt (M. V.Z.). - - - - -Genus =Scapanus= Pomel - -Moles - - [Illustration: FIG. 23. Coast mole (_Scapanus orarius orarius_) left - and Townsend mole (_Scapanus townsendii_) right; Puyallup. Washington, - May, 1914. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by T. H. Scheffer, No. - B-18637.)] - -Moles are of stocky build and have cylindrical, rounded bodies. The eyes -are tiny, nearly concealed in the fur. They have no external ears. The -legs are short; the forefeet wide, spadelike, and armed with powerful -claws. The fur is erect, not posteriorly directed. The color of the fur -is deep bluish or brownish slate. The short, nearly naked tail is pale -pink or whitish. Moles of this genus are found only along the Pacific -Coast of North America from southern Canada south into Baja California. - - -=Scapanus townsendii= (Bachman) - -Townsend mole - - _Scalops townsendii_ Bachman. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 - (pt. 1):58, 1839. - - _Scapanus tow[n]sendii_ Pomel. Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat., Geneva, 9 - (ser. 4):247, 1848. - - _Scapanus Townsendii_ True. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1881):607, - 1885. - - _Type._--Probably obtained at Fort Vancouver. Clark County. - Washington, by J. K. Townsend. A cotype was obtained on May 9. - 1835; type in Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. - - _Measurements._--Three males and 6 females from southwestern - Washington average, respectively: total length 221, 214; length of - tail 51, 46; hind foot 28.3, 26; weight 147, 117 grams. - - _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington. Marginal - occurrences are: Sauk (Jackson. 1915: 61); Skykomish (Jackson, - 1915: 61) and Yacolt (M.V.Z.). - -_Remarks._--_Scapanus townsendii_ occurs only in a narrow belt extending -from southwestern British Columbia to northwestern California. It seems -to prefer a generally damper habitat than the smaller-sized coast mole, -although both species are sometimes found in the same locality. The -larger mole is abundant in the meadows on the flood plains of rivers at -low elevations, and on the glacial outwash prairies. It is often -numerous in the fir forests, although its workings and mounds are less -conspicuous there. The bodies of nine drowned individuals were found in -a well by an old cabin in dense fir forest near Duvall, King County. -Townsend moles occasionally occur in the Canadian Life-zone, as at -Staircase on the north side of Lake Cushman in Mason County where -workings were observed, but most records are from the Humid division of -the Transition Life-zone. - -The Townsend mole is mainly nocturnal. If ridges of its runways are -crushed down, they usually remain so throughout the day and are rebuilt -the following night. Only about ten per cent of the ridges that were -crushed were rebuilt in the daytime, and most of these were repaired in -the early morning. The species is almost completely subterranean. Some -individuals are crushed on highways by cars, showing that these moles -occasionally travel on the surface of the ground. - -Townsend moles throw up numerous mounds, each usually containing about a -cubic foot of earth. The mounds commonly are built just about as far -apart as a man can step. The general direction as well as the twists and -turns of a mole's burrow can usually be determined from the mounds. -Townsend moles also construct ridges on the surface of the ground by -pushing up sod in building a tunnel just below the grass roots. Smaller -ridges are less commonly made by coast moles. More extensive tunnels, -constructed deeper in the earth, serve as living quarters. - - [Illustration: FIG. 24. Distribution of the Townsend mole, _Scapanus - townsendii_, in Washington.] - -According to Wight (1928: 24), Scheffer (1922: 11) and Moore (1933: 39), -the food of this large mole includes earthworms and ground-inhabiting -insects, insect larvae, spiders, centipedes, flesh, and small amounts of -soft vegetation. Scheffer (1922: 10) found that the large mole breeds in -February and produces from two to four young at a litter, with an -average of three. - - -=Scapanus orarius= - -Coast mole - -_Description._--The coast mole is almost identical with the larger mole -in form of body but is smaller. Head and body are about 5-1/4 and tail -about 1-1/2 inches in length. - -The coast mole occupies all of the territory inhabited by the Townsend -mole and ranges slightly farther northward, southward and eastward. -However it does not range east of the boundaries of the three Pacific -Coast states or British Columbia. - -The mounds and workings of the coast mole are smaller than those of the -Townsend mole and consequently are less noticed. It seems less prone to -make numerous mounds, a pace apart, than the larger mole, and burrows -tend to extend deeper in the ground. Upthrust ridges are less commonly -built by _orarius_ than by _townsendii_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 25. Coast mole (_Scapanus orarius orarius_). - Freshly killed; Seattle, Washington, June 9, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife - Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 64.)] - -Jackson (1915: 62) mentions the possibility of ecologic differences -between _orarius_ and _townsendii_. There are some differences in -habitat and habits. The coast mole seems to live deeper in the ground, -prefers better drained soil, and is less colonial than the Townsend -mole. These are average differences, however, and the two species -commonly occur together. Another difference is that the larger mole -rarely enters the dense deciduous woods, such as the brush-grown alder -and dogwood jungles along the stream valleys. I have taken the coast -mole in such localities, and often have found their workings there. The -surface of a nearby meadow may be dotted with mounds of both species, -but the larger mole seems not to enter ground that is thickly grown with -brush. The coast mole ascends to greater altitudes in the Cascade -Mountains than does the Townsend mole. - -Like the larger mole the coast mole feeds principally on earthworms and -insects (Moore, 1933: 38). On September 29, 1939, in a ravine at -Seattle, in two baited traps set six inches apart, a creeping mouse -(_Microtus oregoni_) and a coast mole were found. The mouse had come to -the bait and been caught. The mole had seemingly emerged from the ground -through a tunnel a foot away and had been attracted to the body of the -mouse. It had eaten an area a half inch in diameter and three-quarters -of an inch deep into the body of the mouse just behind the shoulder, -when in shifting its position it had become caught in the unsprung trap -behind it. When found the mole lay dead with its nose inside the body of -the mouse and its back broken. This is the only case known to me of a -coast mole appearing voluntarily on the surface of the ground. Never -have I found coast moles crushed on the highway; several Townsend moles -so killed have been found. - - [Illustration: FIG. 26. Distribution of the coast mole in Washington. - A. _Scapanus orarius orarius._ B. _Scapanus orarius yakimensis._ - C. _Scapanus orarius schefferi._] - -The coast mole seems to breed very early in the spring. Males with -swollen testes are found late in January. The young usually number four -and are born in late March or early April. The breeding season seems to -be the same as that of _townsendii_ but the number of young to a litter -may average slightly greater. - - -=Scapanus orarius orarius= True - - _Scapanus orarius_ True. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 19:52, December 21, - 1896. - - _Scapanus orarius orarius_ Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 38:61, - September 30, 1915. - - _Type._--Obtained at Shoalwater (= Willapa) Bay, Pacific County, - Washington, by J. G. Cooper on August 30, 1855; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Racial Characters._--Color dark bluish; frontal region of skull - not inflated. - - _Measurements._--Eight males and two females from Seattle, King - County, average, respectively: total length 159, 155; length of - tail 33, 31; hind foot 20.7, 20.5; weight 58.5, 55.8. - - _Distribution._--Western Washington. Marginal occurrences are: - Skykomish (B.S.C.), Merritt (B.S.C.), Wenatchee (B.S.C.), Lester - (Jackson, 1915: 64) and Yacolt (M.V.Z.). - - -=Scapanus orarius yakimensis= Dalquest and Scheffer - - _Scapanus orarius yakimensis_ Dalquest and Scheffer, Murrelet, - 25:27, September 19, 1944. - - _Type._--Obtained 3/4 mile north of Union Gap, Yakima County, - Washington, by J. A. Gray, Jr., on July 3, 1941; type in Museum of - Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial Characters._--Color pale, grayish; skull narrow with - inflated frontal region. - - _Measurements._--Six specimens (males and females) from Selah, - Yakima County, average: total length 164; length of tail 37; - length of hind foot 21.5. The type specimen weighed 58 grams. - - _Distribution._--The Yakima Valley area; recorded from the type - locality northwestward to Easton (B.S.C.). - - -=Scapanus orarius schefferi= Jackson - - _Scapanus orarius schefferi_ Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 38:63, - September 30, 1915. - - _Type._--Obtained at Walla Walla, Walla Walla County, Washington, - by T. H. Scheffer on August 8, 1914; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial Characters._--Large size; pale color; large, wide skull - with inflated frontal area. - - _Measurements._--Six topotypes average: total length 159; length - of tail 35; hind foot 21.5. - - _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington; recorded from Fort Walla - Walla (Jackson, 1915: 64), Walla Walla (Jackson, 1915: 64) and - Dayton (M.V.Z.). - - -Genus =Sorex= Linnaeus - -Long-tailed shrews - -Shrews have tiny eyes, almost concealed in the fur. The body is slim; -the nose elongate and pointed. The legs are short and the feet small and -weak. The fur is short but soft and posteriorly directed. The cinereous -shrew, for example, is about 4 inches in length, of which the tail -comprises 1-3/4 inches. The upper parts are dark grayish brown and the -underparts dull gray. - -Shrews of the genus _Sorex_ are cosmopolitan in distribution. In North -America they range from the arctic south to Central America. Three -subgenera are recognized by Jackson (1928: 27), all three of which are -represented in the state of Washington. The twelve subspecies present -occupy numerous habitats, and their ranges include almost all of the -state. - -Jackson pointed out (1928: 1) that "No other group of American mammals -having a wide distribution, and in many localities an abundance of -individuals, is so little known to the nonprofessional mammalogist as -the long-tailed shrews." In Washington, especially in the coastal area -of western Washington, shrews are widespread and abundant in many -habitats. In some places they are the most common mammal present. In -spite of this their presence is often unsuspected by persons that are -otherwise alert to the animal life around them. This is even more -surprising when one takes into account the facts that long-tailed shrews -are diurnal as well as nocturnal and are less apt to detect the presence -of man than are most other species of mammals. - -An important factor making long-tailed shrews inconspicuous is their -small size, and contributing factors include their rapid movements and -dull colors. On several occasions the writer, after seeing a long-tailed -shrew vanish soundlessly under a log or into a patch of dead leaves, was -left wondering if one actually had been seen or if instead his -imagination had conjured up an animal from a dust mote or wind-blown -leaf. - -The environment of the long-tailed shrews, except for the water shrews, -is the zone at the very surface of the earth, just beneath the layer of -moss, grass, dead leaves, and decaying vegetation. The removal of the -covering vegetative layer reveals a maze of tiny tunnels, the branchings -and complexities of which are infinite. Tiny traps baited with oats or -meat and set in these runways catch the long-tailed shrews that inhabit -them. - -The food of long-tailed shrews is varied. It is principally soft-bodied -insects, insect pupae, and earthworms. At times a considerable quantity -of soft vegetation and some seeds are eaten. Recent studies (Moore, -1940: 1942) have shown that by destroying seeds some shrews may -adversely affect the reforestation of some coniferous trees. Shrews -readily eat meat, and often destroy the small mammals, including other -shrews, taken in the mammal collector's traps. - -Hamilton (1940: 485) found that in one species of long-tailed shrew in -the United States individuals rarely lived more than one year. This -seems not to be true of at least some of the species found in -Washington. - -Parasites, internal or external, are not commonly found on long-tailed -shrews. They are regularly eaten by owls and snakes, but most -carnivorous mammals, though they readily kill them, rarely eat them. - - -=Sorex cinereus= Kerr - -Cinereous shrew - -The cinereous shrew ranges over most of Alaska, Canada and the northern -half of the United States. A number of subspecies have been described, -of which two have been reported from Washington. The cinereous shrew is -of medium size and difficult to distinguish from the dusky and wandering -shrews, especially in eastern Washington, without studying the skulls. -In _cinereus_ the fourth unicuspid tooth is smaller than the third; in -_vagrans_ and _obscurus_ it is larger. The relatively narrow rostrum of -_cinereus_ also serves to separate it from the other two species. - -The cinereous shrew seems to be less restricted to the vicinity of -streams and marshes than _Sorex vagrans_, resembling _Sorex obscurus_ -and _Sorex trowbridgii_ in this respect. In Washington it seems to be -rare and has not been taken by the writer. Published records for _Sorex -c. cinereus_ indicate that this race is, in Washington, confined to -mountainous areas. The coastal race, _streatori_, seems to be confined -to the humid area. - - -=Sorex cinereus cinereus= Kerr - - _Sorex arcticus cinereus_ Kerr. Anim. Kingd., p. 206, 1792. - - _Sorex cinereus cinereus_ Jackson. Jour. Mamm., 6: 56, February 9, - 1925. - - _Type._--None. Name based on the account of a shrew seen at Fort - Severn, Canada, by J. R. Forster in 1772. - - _Racial characters._--Small size and pale color. - - _Measurements._--Seven males and 8 females from Indian Point Lake, - British Columbia, average, respectively: total length 99, 95; - length of tail 43.5, 42.2; hind foot 12.7, 12.3. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington (Metaline and Loon Lake, - Jackson, 1928: 49) and the Cascades from Whatcom Pass (Jackson, - 1928: 55) southward to Conrad Meadows (Jackson, 1928: 49). There - is a specimen in the collection of the California Academy of - Sciences, from Mt. Rainier. - -_Remarks._--This is the most wide-ranging subspecies of shrew, being -recorded from Alaska, 10 Canadian provinces and 26 states (Jackson, -1928: 46-50). In the more northern and eastern parts of its range it is -sometimes the commonest shrew. - - [Illustration: FIG. 27. Distribution of the cinereous shrew in - Washington. A. _Sorex cinereus cinereus._ B. _Sorex cinereus - streatori._] - - -=Sorex cinereus streatori= Merriam - - _Sorex personatus streatori_ Merriam. N. Amer. Fauna, 10:62, - December 31. 1895. - - _Sorex cinereus streatori_ Jackson. Jour. Mamm., 6:56. February 9, - 1925. - - _Type._--Obtained at Yakutat, Alaska, by C. P. Streator on July 9, - 1895; type in the United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Larger and darker than _Sorex cinereus - cinereus_. - - _Measurements._--Five females from Alta Lake, British Columbia, - average: total length 103; length of tail 45; hind foot 12.5. - - _Distribution._--The western part of the northern Cascades - (Glacier, Jackson, 1928: 55) and the Olympic Peninsula (Neah Bay - south to Cedarville, Jackson, 1928: 55). - -_Remarks._--This shrew seems to occupy the same range as _Sorex obscurus -setosus_ but is rare where _obscurus_ is common. - - -=Sorex merriami merriami= Dobson - -Merriam shrew - - _Sorex merriami_ Dobson. Monogr. Insectivora, pt. 3, fasc. 1, pl. - 23, fig. 6, May, 1890. - - _Sorex merriami merriami_ Benson and Bond. Jour. Mamm., 20: 348, - August 14, 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained on Little Bighorn River, about a mile and a half - above Fort Custer, Crow Indian Reservation, Montana, by Charles E. - Bendire on December 26, 1884; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Measurements._--Of type: total length 90; length of tail 35; hind - foot 11.5 (after Jackson, 1928: 80). - - _Distribution._--A single specimen of this rare shrew is known - from Washington. Jackson (1928: 81) states that it "was collected - by George G. Cantwell, November 18, 1919, at the entrance to an - old badger digging on top of a 'high bunch grass hill' at Starbuck - (altitude 645 feet), Columbia County, Wash." - -_Description._--Similar to _Sorex cinereus_ but upper parts pale grayish -and underparts white. - -The Merriam shrew has been recorded from but a few localities in the -western United States. It is one of the rarest of the small mammals -known to occur in North America. All the known specimens have been found -in desert areas. - - -=Sorex trowbridgii= Baird - -Trowbridge shrew - -_Description._--The Trowbridge shrew closely resembles the cinereous -shrew in body form but possesses a longer tail. The head and body of -adults measure about 2-1/4 inches and the tail about 2 inches. The -Trowbridge shrew may be separated from all other small shrews that -occur in Washington by its dark bluish upper parts and bluish or slaty -underparts. The tail is distinctly bicolor. - -Trowbridge shrews occur from southern British Columbia south to central -California. Their distribution, to the south, is more extensive than -that of many members of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. They are forest -animals, ranging widely over the dry ground beneath the fir forest, -where they are usually the only shrews present. They are abundant in -ravines and in some swampy woods when other shrews are absent, but they -avoid open meadows or marshes. Vertically, they occur from the humid -division of the Transition Life-zone to the Hudsonian Life-zone. - -These little shrews do not live well in captivity and I have learned -relatively little concerning their habits from live specimens. They -seem to be slower-moving and less aggressive than the wandering shrew. -Population studies showed that the Trowbridge shrew is unable to -compete with the wandering shrew in ravine habitats (Dalquest, 1941A: -173). The principal food of the Trowbridge shrew includes soft-bodied -insects and insect pupae. - - [Illustration: FIG. 28. Distribution of the Merriam and Trowbridge - shrews in Washington. A. _Sorex merriami merriami._ B. _Sorex - trowbridgii trowbridgii._ C. _Sorex trowbridgii destructioni._] - -Moore (1942) has shown that shrews eat the seeds of the Douglas fir -and may be a serious check on the reproduction of this important tree. -The Trowbridge shrew is the most abundant shrew in the fir forests and -probably constitutes the principal shrew that might be classed as a -pest. - -A specimen containing 4 embryos was taken near Shelton, Mason County, -on April 23, 1937. Males with enlarged, greenish testes were taken in -April of 1938, 1939 and 1940. Specimens obtained in other months showed -no indications of breeding. - - -=Sorex trowbridgii trowbridgii= Baird - - _Sorex trowbridgii_ Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. - 1):13, 1857. - - _Type._--Two cotypes were obtained at Astoria, Clatsop County, - Oregon. The skin of one (the lectotype) was entered in the U. S. - National Museum catalogue in July, 1855, and the skull in January, - 1857. The other was obtained by J. Wayne on July 10, 1855. - - _Racial characters._--Small size and narrow skull. - - _Measurements._--The average measurements of 38 adults from King - County, Washington, are: total length 115.3; length of tail 54.4; - hind foot 13.4. - - _Distribution._--Forested areas from the Pacific Coast eastward - through the Cascades to Stehekin (Jackson, 1928: 96), 2 mi. S. - Blewitt Pass (Jackson, 1928: 96) and Satus Pass (M.V.Z.). - - -=Sorex trowbridgii destructioni= Scheffer and Dalquest - - _Sorex trowbridgii destructioni_ Scheffer and Dalquest, Jour. - Mamm., 23:334, August 13, 1942. - - _Type._--Obtained on Destruction Island, Jefferson County, - Washington, by V. B. Scheffer on April 22, 1941; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Large size and wide skull. - - _Measurements._--Thirty topotypes average: total length 122.5; - length of tail 56.7; hind foot 14.3; weight 7.5 grams. - - _Distribution._--Known only from Destruction Island, 35 acres in - area, lying 4 miles off the Washington Coast. - - -=Sorex vagrans= Baird - -Wandering shrew - -_Description._--This species closely resembles the cinereous shrew in -body form. Its head and body measure about 2-1/4 inches; the tail -slightly less than 2 inches. In summer the upper parts are reddish brown -and the underparts gray tinged with brownish. In winter the upper parts -are more dusky. - -Several races of the wandering shrew range over western North America -from southwestern British Columbia south to southern Mexico. Two races -occur in the state of Washington. - -Marshy areas and damp places are the habitat of the wandering shrew. -Cattail and tule marshes, sphagnum bogs, and meadows are favored. -They frequent streams through forests but rarely are taken in places -away from water. On some of the San Juan Islands, wandering shrews -were found along the beaches where they were feeding on the amphipods -that live in the dead seaweed and litter at the high tide line. In a -favorable habitat, wandering shrews may be the most abundant mammal -present. Specimens are occasionally taken in 90 per cent or more of a -mammal collector's traps. - -The preference of the wandering shrew for damp areas makes it more -or less independent of life-zones, for marshy areas, whether in -Transition, Canadian, or Upper Sonoran life-zones, present comparable -ecological conditions. - -Broadbrooks (1939: 65) found that captives taken at Seattle ate rolled -oats, apple, fresh or cooked meat, sow bugs, centipedes, earthworms, -frogs (_Hyla regilla_), a salamander (_Plethodon vehiculum_), and -small, black slugs (_Arean arean_). Wandering shrews proved incapable -of destroying snails (_Helisoma occidentalis_) and large slugs. The -captive shrews kept by Broadbrooks ate an average of 1.3 times their -own weight in food each day. - - [Illustration: FIG. 29. Distribution of the wandering shrew in - Washington. A. _Sorex vagrans vagrans._ B. _Sorex vagrans monticola._] - -The wandering shrew changes from winter to summer pelage in a few days, -seemingly in the second week of October (Dalquest, 1944: 147). The -spring molt occurs rapidly but perhaps at a less regular date. Rarely a -midsummer molt occurs. - -The earliest evidence of breeding in a wandering shrew was discovered -on January 27, 1937. Most adult females taken in February, March, April -and May were pregnant. Embryos were less often found in summer and -fall, but one pregnant female was taken in November. Embryos varied in -number from 3 to 8 with an average of six. - - -=Sorex vagrans vagrans= Baird - - _Sorex vagrans_ Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. 1):15, - 1857. - - _Sorex suckleyi_ Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. 1):18, - 1857 (type from Steilacoom Pierce County, Washington). - - _Type._--Obtained at Willapa Bay [Shoalwater Bay], Pacific County, - Washington, by J. G. Cooper; entered in U. S. Nat. Mus. catalogue - on October 23, 1856. - - _Racial characters._--Dark color. - - _Measurements._--Twenty-five males and 25 females from Seattle, - King County, average, respectively: total length 110.5, 107; - length of tail 44.6, 45; hind foot 12.4, 12.4. - - _Distribution._--This is the common marsh shrew of western - Washington and occurs from the Pacific Ocean east to the Cascades - at Lake Keechelus (W.S.M.) and 15 mi. NW White Salmon (Jackson, - 1928: 106). - - -=Sorex vagrans monticola= Merriam - - _Sorex monticolus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 3:43, September 11, - 1896. - - _Sorex vagrans monticola_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:69, December - 31, 1895. - - _Type._--Obtained on San Francisco Mountain, 1150 ft. altitude, - Coconino County, Arizona, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey on August - 28, 1889; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Pale color. - - _Measurements._--Five males and 5 females from Selah, Yakima - County, average, respectively: total length 100, 98.4; length of - tail 40.6, 39.2; hind foot 12.2, 12. - - _Distribution._--Eastern Washington. The range of this shrew - extends west to Bauerman Ridge (Jackson, 1928: 113), Merritt - (W.W.D.) and Maryhill (M.V.Z.). - - _Remarks._--A series of shrews from Moses Lake, Grant County, - differs from _monticola_ in larger size and darker color. They - agree rather closely with _Sorex r. amoenus_ from California and - Nevada. Because they are isolated from that subspecies it seems - best to consider them a microgeographic race referable to - _monticola_. - - -=Sorex obscurus= Merriam - -Dusky shrew - -_Description._--The dusky shrew is similar in form of body to the -cinereous shrew. The length of head and body is about 2-1/4 inches. The -tail is about 2-1/2 inches. The upper parts are rusty or reddish brown. -The underparts are brownish gray. The dusky shrew differs from the -wandering shrew in possessing a slightly longer body and longer tail, -but in eastern Washington the two species are almost indistinguishable. - -Dusky shrews range from northern Alaska to southern New Mexico, and from -the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Thirteen subspecies are -recognized by Jackson (1928: 115), of which two occur in Washington. - -Records of the dusky shrew are not available from the arid subdivision -of the Transition or the Upper Sonoran life-zones. It occurs sparingly -in the humid subdivision of the Transition and is common in the Canadian -and Hudsonian life-zones. - -The habitat of the dusky shrew is varied. Near Seattle, King County, -several specimens were trapped in marshes where _Sorex vagrans_ was -abundant. Near Stevens Pass, King County, two were taken in a marsh; two -others were trapped in a dry, coniferous forest; one was taken in a -small bed of heather on a barren mountain top; and another was found -dead in a pan of pancake batter in camp. Two specimens were trapped -along a small stream at Dewey Lake, Mt. Rainier, Yakima County. Four -specimens were caught in traps set in a talus slope on a dry hillside at -the North Fork of the Quinault River, Jefferson County. Three others -were trapped in dense, rain-forest thickets along the ocean at La Push, -Jefferson County. These records indicate that the dusky shrew has a -wider environmental range than other Washington shrews. Despite this -wide range of tolerance the dusky shrew is common only locally, except -in the Hudsonian Life-zone. - -Little is known of the habits of dusky shrews but they seem to be as -diurnal as they are nocturnal. At Wolf Bar, North Fork of the Quinault -River, Jefferson County, a dusky shrew was seen on the packed-earth -floor of an old trapper's cabin. A hat was carefully dropped over the -live animal but, when the hat was lifted, the shrew was found dead. In -an old cabin at Stevens Pass, King County, a dusky shrew was found dead -one morning in a pan of flapjack batter prepared the evening before. As -this pan was on a table about three feet from the floor, the shrew must -have climbed to the table by way of the rough cabin wall, but how the -animal managed to scale the side of the pan is a mystery. - -Slipp (1942: 211) discovered the nest of a dusky shrew between Round -Pass and Lake George, 4200 feet elevation, in Mt. Rainier National Park, -on July 25, 1937. The nest was in a rotten fir log 20 inches in -diameter. The nest, a ball of dry grass the size of a man's fist, had no -central cavity or passages, the occupants "merely pushed through -wherever they wished." Seven young shrews were found in and near the -nest. Though the eyes of the young were still closed, they were able to -creep about and squeal. - -A specimen obtained 5 miles west-southwest of Guler, Skamania County, -contained 4 embryos on July 10, 1939. - - [Illustration: FIG. 30. Distribution of the dusky shrew in Washington. - A. _Sorex obscurus obscurus._ B. _Sorex obscurus setosus._] - - -=Sorex obscurus obscurus= Merriam - - _Sorex vagrans similis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5: 34, July 30, - 1891 (not of Hensel, 1855). - - _Sorex obscurus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10: 72, December 31, - 1895 (substitute for _similis_ Merriam). - - _Type._--Obtained on Timber Creek, 8,200 ft., Lemhi Mountains, - Lemhi County, Idaho, by V. Bailey and B. H. Dutcher on August 26, - 1890; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Tail relatively short, color pale. - - _Measurements._--Thirteen males and 10 females from Indian-point - Lake, British Columbia, average, respectively: total length 105, - 107; length of tail 45, 46; hind foot 13.3, 13.3. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington west, according to - Jackson (1928: 122), to Pasayten River, Stehekin and Wenatchee. - Because specimens from Tye, King County, and Mt. Stuart, Easton - and Lake Keechelus are clearly referable to _S. o. setosus_, the - specimens recorded by Jackson (1928: 122), from Easton and Signal - Peak, are mapped in the range of _setosus_. - - -=Sorex obscurus setosus= Elliot - - _Sorex setosus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 32. zoöl. ser., - 1:274. March, 1899. - - _Sorex obscurus setosus_ Jackson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. - 31:127. November 29, 1918. - - _Sorex obscurus bairdi_ Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 51:140. July 24, - 1928. - - _Type._--Obtained at Happy Lake, Clallam County, Washington, by D. - G. Elliot on August 18, 1898; type in Field Museum of Natural - History. - - _Racial characters._--Tail long, color dark. - - _Measurements._--Twelve males and 17 females from southwestern - Washington average, respectively: total length 118, 119; length of - tail 53, 53; hind foot 13.8, 13.7; weight 6.6, 5.2 grams. - - _Distribution._--Western Washington, east through the Cascades to - Barron (Jackson, 1928: 137), Cascade River (Jackson 1928: 137) and - Satus Pass (W. W. D.). - - -=Sorex palustris navigator= (Baird) - -Mountain water shrew - - [Illustration: FIG. 31. Distribution of the mountain water shrew. - _Sorex palustris navigator_, in Washington.] - - _Neosorex navigator_ Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. I): - 11, 1857. - - _Sorex (Neosorex) palustris navigator_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, - 10:92, December 31, 1895. - - _Sorex palustris navigator_ Stephens, California Mammals, p. 254, - June, 1906. - - _Type._--Obtained at head of Yakima River, Kittitas County, - Washington, by J. G. Cooper on August 31, 1853; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Measurements._--Two males and 4 females from Washington average, - respectively: total length 150, 150; length of tail 70, 74; hind - foot 18.5, 20; weight?, 11.0 grams. - - _Distribution._--Mountainous areas of entire state, including the - Olympic Mountains, from Elwah (Jackson, 1928: 188) south to - Quinault River (Jackson, 1928: 189); the Cascades from Tomyhoi - Lake (W. W. D.) south to 15 mi. N. Carson (Jackson, 1928: 189); - northeastern Washington from Shovel Creek (W. W. D.) south to - Gifford (Jackson, 1928: 189); the Blue Mountains at Godman Springs - (M. V. Z.) and Hompeg Falls (M. V. Z.). - -_Description._--In general form of body the mountain water shrew -resembles the cinereous shrew but is perhaps more stocky. It is a large -shrew, nearly as large as a house mouse. The head and body measure about -3 inches; the tail also is about 3 inches long. The fur is exceedingly -soft. The upper parts are blackish in color, lightly frosted with paler -hairs. The underparts, from throat to vent, are whitish tinged with gray -or brown. The stiff, curved fringe of bristles on the outer part of the -hind foot serves as an aid in swimming. - -Mountain water shrews range over much of Canada and in mountainous areas -of the western United States extend south to Arizona. The subspecies -found in Washington ranges over all of the western United States. - -The mountain water shrew is primarily a mammal of the Hudsonian and -Canadian life-zones. It sometimes descends to the Transition Life-zone -along clear, cold streams where conditions are similar to those in the -Canadian Life-zone. - -The favored habitats of the mountain water shrew are the clear, cold -streams of the alpine cirques and gushing streams on the mountain sides. -In the pools and waterfalls, and among the rocks and mosses that border -them, the larvae of aquatic insects, upon which the mountain water shrew -feeds, are abundant. Svihla (1934: 45) observed that the fur of a -swimming water shrew gathered air bubbles and "it had difficulty in -forcing its way down to the bottom [of an aquarium]. On reaching the -bottom it literally stood on its long flexible nose which was thrust -into the sand and debris, searching for food, its feet kicking rapidly -in order to maintain this position. A change in direction was brought -about by a twist of the body. To come to the surface again it merely -stopped kicking and immediately rose like a cork." The buoyancy of the -water shrew allows it to float in the water, like a duck. Jackson (1928: -9) observed a water shrew run across the surface of a small pool. Near -Stevens Pass a water shrew dashed from under a stone and ran, did not -swim, across the surface of a small, deep pool to escape in a burrow on -the other side. According to Jackson, an air bubble held in each foot -supports the shrew on the surface of the water. A mountain water shrew -observed at Shovel Creek, Ferry County, was as agile on land as any -other species of shrew. In summary, water shrews are able to swim, dive, -float like a duck, and walk on the surface of the water as well as walk -on land. - -The food of the mountain water shrew includes snails, leeches, and the -larvae of aquatic insects. Mice caught in traps are sometimes eaten by -water shrews. Svihla (_loc. cit._) found a captive water shrew unable to -capture pollywogs and minnows kept in the same aquarium. - - -=Sorex bendirii= (Merriam) - -Bendire water shrew - -_Description._--The Bendire water shrew is similar in form of body to -the cinereous shrew but possesses a more stocky body which, with the -head, measures about 3-1/2 inches long; the tail is about 2-3/4 inches -long. The Bendire water shrew closely resembles also the mountain water -shrew but has a longer body and shorter tail. The upper parts are -blackish in color, not lightly frosted with gray hairs. The hind feet -lack the fringe of stiff, curved bristles characteristic of the mountain -water shrew. The underparts are black in the race _S. b. bendirii_. In -the race _albiventer_ the throat is blackish but the abdomen is pale -gray tinged with brownish. - - [Illustration: FIG. 32. Distribution of the Bendire water shrew and - the pigmy shrew in Washington. A. _Sorex bendirii bendirii._ - B. _Sorex bendirii albiventer._ C. _Microsorex hoyi washingtoni._] - -Bendire water shrews are restricted to the Pacific Coast of North -America from southern British Columbia to northern California. -Generally they are found at elevations lower than are mountain water -shrews. They are typically mammals of the humid division of the -Transition Life-zone but often occur in the Canadian Life-zone. They -occupy marshes, swamps, damp ravines, and the banks of slow-moving -streams. Little is known of their habits, except what has been deduced -from the circumstances of their capture. They seem less aquatic than the -mountain water shrew. Near Jackson Guard Station on the Hoh River, -Jefferson County, one was taken by setting traps on dense beds of water -cress that floated in a slow-moving stream. The animal must have swum or -walked on the surface of the mat of vegetation. Near Paradise Lake, King -County, several were caught in a deep, dark, red cedar swamp. One was -caught in a marsh nearby. Nothing is known of the food habits of the -Bendire water shrew. - - -=Sorex bendirii bendirii= (Merriam) - - _Atophyrax bendirii_ Merriam, Trans. Linn. Soc. New York, 2:217, - August 28, 1884. - - _Atophyrax Bendirei_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):606, - 1885. - - _Sorex bendirii_ Dobson, Monog. Insectivora, part 3, fasc. 1, pl. - 23, 1890. - - _Neosorex bendirii bendirii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:22, - December 31, 1912. - - _Type._--Obtained approximately 1 mile from Williamson River, 18 - miles southeast of Fort Klamath, Klamath County, Oregon, by C. C. - Bendire on August 1, 1882; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Underparts everywhere sooty black. - - _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females from southwestern - Washington average, respectively: total length 163.9, 161.0; - length of tail 71.0, 72.6; hind foot 20.5, 20.3; weight 16.8, 14.5 - grams. - - _Distribution._--The southern Cascades and the lowlands of western - Washington, exclusive of the Olympic Peninsula. Marginal - localities on the west include Mt. Vernon (Jackson, 1928: 196), - Bothell (W.S.M.), Renton (M.V.Z.), Puyallup (W.W.D.), Steilacoom - (Jackson, 1928: 196) and Oakville (Jackson, 1928: 196). - - -=Sorex bendirii albiventer= Merriam - - _Sorex (Atophyrax) bendirii albiventer_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, - 10:97, December 31, 1895. - - _Neosorex bendirii albiventer_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 79:22, December 31, 1912. - - _Sorex bendirii albiventer_ Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 51:198, July - 24, 1928. - - _Type._--Obtained at Lake Cushman, Mason County, Washington, by C. - P. Streator on July 7, 1894; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Area on abdomen whitish. - - _Measurements._--A male from near the type locality measures: - total length 167; length of tail 69; hind foot 22. One from - Potlatch, Mason County, measures 167; 69; 22. - - _Distribution._--The Olympic Peninsula of Washington. Marginal - localities on the south are: Potlatch (M.V.Z.) and Lake Quinault - (Jackson, 1928: 199). - - -=Microsorex hoyi washingtoni= Jackson - -Pigmy shrew - - _Microsorex hoyi washingtoni_ Jackson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 38:125, November 13, 1925. - - _Type._--Obtained at Loon Lake, Stevens County, Washington, by V. - Bailey on September 26, 1897; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Measurements._--Of type: total length 89; length of tail 27; hind - foot 9. - - _Distribution._--In Washington, known only from the type specimen - which was "found dead in a trail in dry pine woods" (Jackson, - 1928: 4). - -_Description._--The pigmy shrew is similar in form of body to the -cinereous shrew but smaller. The head and body are about 1-3/4 inches in -length; the tail is about 1 inch long. The upper parts are reddish brown -and the underparts are gray. - -These tiny mammals range widely across central Canada and northern -United States from the Atlantic nearly to the Pacific, and north to -central Alaska. A single species is known, one race of which occurs in -Washington. The subspecies is known from but two specimens: the type and -an individual from Montana (Koford, 1938: 372.) - - -Genus =Myotis= Kaup - -Mouse-eared bats - -_Description._--The genus _Myotis_ may be separated from all other bats -that occur in Washington by the presence of 38 teeth (dental formula i. -2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 3-3/3-3, m. 3-3/3-3 = 38). Their small size -separates them from all other genera save _Pipistrellus_, from which -_Myotis_ may be distinguished by the straight, rather than hooked, -anterior border of the tragus. Species of _Myotis_ found in Washington -vary considerably in size, but all are less than 100 mm. in total -length. The upper parts are various shades of brown in color. The ears, -when laid forward, always extend to the nostrils or beyond. - -This genus is one of the most widely ranging groups of Recent mammals. -It occurs on all continents, including Australia and many of the larger -islands. Of the 19 American species recognized by Miller and Allen -(1928), eight occur in the state of Washington. They are low-flying -forms and as a rule appear relatively late in the evening. Their flight -is rapid and erratic. They often hunt over the surfaces of streams, -pools, and lakes. Some kinds hunt in the shade of forest trees and these -are especially difficult to collect. Others hunt the brushy canyons and -coulees of the desert areas of eastern Washington. - -Grinnell (1918: 241-242) points out that, although bats are not subject -to isolation by topographic barriers, as most wingless mammals are, they -may be restricted by ecologic barriers in the same way as are other -small mammals. This is particularly true of _Myotis_ in Washington. Of -the eight species in the state, five are represented by one subspecies -west of the Cascade Mountains and another, paler subspecies in the more -arid country east of the Cascades. - -The mobility of bats makes it difficult to determine their origin and -migrational history. Five of the _Myotis_ found in Washington seem to -belong to the Pacific Coastal Fauna, and to have been isolated south of -the last continental glacier. Complete isolation is unlikely as these -species occur in the Cascade Mountains as well as in the Pacific Coastal -Faunal Area, and three occur also in the Blue Mountains of southeastern -Washington. The differentiation of the Coastal type of _Myotis_ may have -come about through habitat selection, of the type discussed by Miller -(1942: 25). One western Washington _Myotis_ (_M. keenii_) seems to -belong to a northern fauna, and to have extended its range south to -Washington. All seven species of the desert-living _Myotis_ found in -eastern Washington have subspecies which seem to have been derived from -the Great Basin Faunal Area. - - -=Myotis lucifugus= (Le Conte) - -Big myotis - -_Myotis lucifugus_ is represented by two geographic races in Washington. -The species ranges across Canada and the United States, from the -Atlantic to the Pacific and from the northern limit of tree growth to -southern Mexico. - - [Illustration: FIG. 33. Distribution of the big myotis in Washington. - A. _Myotis lucifugus alascensis._ B. _Myotis lucifugus carissima._] - -It usually proves rather difficult to separate _Myotis lucifugus_, on -the basis of external features, from other species with which it may -occur. Its large foot (9-10 mm.), short ear (when laid forward not -extending past nose) and the absence of a keel on the calcar separate it -from all species except _Myotis yumanensis_. From the latter species, -_lucifugus_ may be distinguished by the gradually rather than abruptly -rising forehead, as seen in cleaned skulls, and by more shiny, metallic -color of fur. - -Little is known of the habits of this bat in Washington. It usually -appears after dusk, and most specimens are shot over ponds or lakes, -where the reflection of light from the sky on the water allows the -hunter enough light to sight a gun. A few specimens were collected in -deep forests. Its flight and feeding habits are not known to differ from -those of other species with which it was associated, except at the south -end of Lake Chelan, Chelan County, where two individuals were shot as -they hovered near the tops of pine trees and seemed to be picking -insects from the branches. I have never found this bat in its daytime -retreat. - -A specimen taken at Sportman's Lake, San Juan County, held one embryo on -June 26, 1938. - - -=Myotis lucifugus carissima= Thomas - - _Myotis (Leuconoë) carissima_ Thomas, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 13 - (ser. 7): 383, May, 1904. - - _Myotis lucifugus carissima_ Cary, N. Amer. Fauna, 42:43, October - 3, 1917. - - _Type._--Obtained at Yellowstone Lake, Yellowstone National Park, - Wyoming by J. Darling in September, 1903; type in British Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Color pale, rather "brassy" in tone; distal - border of interfemoral membrane paler than proximal part. - - _Measurements._--Four specimens from eastern Washington average: - total length 77; length of tail 33; hind foot 11; ear 13; height - of tragus 7.3. - - _Distribution._--East of the eastern base of the Cascade - Mountains, save for the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. - Western records are Stehekin (Miller and Allen, 1928: 52) and - Vantage (W. W. D.) - - -=Myotis lucifugus alascensis= Miller - - _Myotis lucifugus alascensis_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:63, - October 16, 1897. - - _Vespertilio gryphus lucifugus_ Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 43:78, March 14, 1894 (part specimens from Washington). - - _Type._--Obtained at Sitka, Alaska, by C. P. Streator on August 5, - 1895; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Color dark, almost bronze; wing and tail - membranes uniformly dark in color. - - _Measurements._--Five specimens from San Juan County, Washington, - average: total length 80.9; length of tail 32.1; hind foot 12; ear - 12; height of tragus 7; weight 5.4 grams. - - _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains - west of the Pacific, and the Blue Mountains of southeastern - Washington. Marginal occurrences listed by Miller and Allen - (1928:49) are Chilliwack River, Lake Wenatchee, and Lyle. - - - - -=Myotis yumanensis= (H. Allen) - -Yuma myotis - -_Description._--The present species closely resembles _Myotis lucifugus_ -and specimens in worn pelage can not be distinguished from that species -unless the cleaned skulls are examined. In fresh pelage, _yumanensis_ is -duller than _lucifugus_. - -_Myotis yumanensis_ ranges from southern British Columbia to central -Mexico west of the Mississippi River. Four races are recognized by -Miller and Allen (1928: 62). - - [Illustration: FIG. 34. Distribution of the Yuma myotis in Washington. - A. _Myotis yumanensis saturatus._ B. _Myotis yumanensis sociabilis._] - -The habits of _Myotis yumanensis_ and _Myotis lucifugus_ appear to be -the same. In Washington the two species are commonly found together. In -western Washington, _Myotis yumanensis_ seems to be more common than -_Myotis lucifugus_. - -In the San Juan Islands a _yumanensis_ was found hiding in the attic of -an old cabin on Blakeley Island. A specimen of long-eared bat was taken -at the same place. Another Yuma myotis was caught behind a door of a -mill on Blakeley Island (Dalquest, 1940: 4). - -This species shares with _Myotis californicus_ the habit of apparently -drinking salt water. - -A specimen obtained at Sportsmans Lake, San Juan County, held one embryo -on June 27, 1938. One from Peavine Pass, Blakeley Island, San Juan -County, held one embryo on June 22, 1939. - - -=Myotis yumanensis sociabilis= H. W. Grinnell - - _Myotis yumanensis sociabilis_ H. W. Grinnell, Univ. California - Publ. Zoöl., 12:318, December 4, 1914. - - _Type._--Obtained at old Fort Tejon, Kern County, California, by J. - Grinnell on July 23, 1904; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial character._--Color pale. - - _Measurements._--Two males and 2 females from Selah, Yakima - County, average: total length 78; length of tail 36; hind foot 10; - ear 14; height of tragus 7. - - _Distribution._--Eastern Washington generally. Marginal records on - the west are: Stehekin (Miller and Allen, 1928: 69), and Selah - (W.W.D.). - - [Illustration: FIG. 35. Distribution of the fringe-tailed myotis and - the Keen myotis in Washington. A. _Myotis thysanodes thysanodes._ - B. _Myotis keenii keenii._] - - -=Myotis yumanensis saturatus= Miller - - _Myotis yumanensis saturatus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:68, - October 16, 1897. - - _Type._--Obtained at Hamilton, Skagit County, Washington, by T. S. - Palmer on September 13, 1889; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial character._--Color dark. - - _Measurements._--Eighteen adults of both sexes from San Juan - County, Washington, average: Total length 78.2; length of tail - 34.4; hind foot 10.1; ear 15; height of tragus 7.4; weight 5.9 - grams. - - _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains to - the Pacific. This is the commonest _Myotis_ found in western - Washington. Marginal localities are: Hamilton (Miller and Allen, - 1928: 71), and Goldendale (Miller and Allen, 1928: 71). - - -=Myotis keenii keenii= (Merriam) - -Keen myotis - - _Vespertilio subulatus keenii_ Merriam, Amer. Nat., 29:860, - September, 1895. - - _Myotis subulatus keenii_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:77, October - 16, 1897. - - _Myotis keenii keenii_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 144:104, May 25, 1928. - - _Type._--Obtained at Masset, Graham Island, Queen Charlotte - Islands, British Columbia, by J. H. Keen in 1894; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Measurements._--Miller and Allen (1928: 109) list the - measurements of a male from Sol Duc Hot Springs, Clallam County, - and a specimen of unknown sex from Lake Cushman, Jefferson County, - as, respectively: total length 89, 87; length of tail 34, 36; hind - foot 8.4, 7.4; ear?, 14.6. - - _Distribution._--Only the Olympic Peninsula, where it has been - recorded by Miller and Allen (1928: 104) from Sol Duc Hot Springs - and Lake Cushman. - -_Description._--_Myotis keenii_ is similar, in general, to _Myotis -lucifugus_ and _Myotis yumanensis_, but the ears are longer and when -laid forward reach about 4 mm. past the nose rather than ending at the -nostrils. The foot is of medium size (about 8 mm.) and no keel is -present on the calcar. - -The distribution of this species is given by Miller and Allen (1928: -101) as "northern North America from the limits of tree growth south in -the east to South Carolina and Arkansas, and in the west to northwestern -Washington." - -I have not observed this bat in Washington and know nothing of its -habits. Its distribution is most unusual. Its range seems to lie only in -the glaciated area of western British Columbia and northern Washington. - - -=Myotis evotis= (H. Allen) - -Long-eared myotis - -_Description._--The distinguishing feature of _Myotis evotis_ is its -long ears, which, when laid forward, reach 5 mm. in front of the nose. -_Myotis thysanodes_ and _Myotis keenii_, other species in which the ears -are rather long, have the ears ending less than 5 mm. anterior to the -nose when laid forward. The foot of _Myotis evotis_ is of moderate size -(8 to 9 mm.). - -This species ranges over the western United States, from British -Columbia to central Mexico. Two subspecies of this interesting bat are -recognized, both of which occur in Washington. - -Though I have hunted for this species of bat in Washington on numerous -occasions, I have taken no specimens. In the summer of 1939, _Myotis_ -identified as this species because of their large ears, were seen -flying at midnight in the light of searchlights over Lake Washington -Canal at Seattle. Mary Greer gave us a specimen which was struck by -her auto near Baker Lake, Whatcom County. According to Miss Greer, -the specimen was seen "hovering in the road, like a large moth." The -time was about midnight. This evidence indicates that the species does -its hunting late at night, when ordinary methods of hunting bats are -useless, and may account for the scarcity of specimens from the state. -Nevertheless, collectors from the California Museum of Vertebrate -Zoölogy took specimens in the Blue Mountains where the bats flew -slowly, in rather straight courses, 20 to 25 feet from the ground. - - [Illustration: FIG. 36. Distribution of the long-eared myotis in - Washington. A. _Myotis evotis evotis._ B. _Myotis evotis pacificus._] - -This species has not, so far as is known, been taken in Washington in -its daytime retreat. Daniel Bonell saved two specimens from under slabs -of loose bark on old, dead snags near Tillamook, Oregon. Davis (1939: -214) reported them as hiding in the daytime in a cave in Craters of -the Moon National Monument, Idaho. Whitlow and Hall (1933: 241) report -specimens found in an old cabin near Pocatello, Idaho, two of them -containing one embryo each. - - -=Myotis evotis evotis= (H. Allen) - - _Vespertilio evotis_ Allen, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no. - 165):48, June, 1864. - - _Myotis evotis_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:77, October 16, 1897. - - _Myotis evotis evotis_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 144:114, April 14, 1928. - - _Type._--Description based on a series of specimens, one of which - came from Monterey, California. This locality was designated the - type locality by Miller (1897: 78). - - _Racial character._--Color pale. - - _Measurements._--Two males and 2 specimens of unknown sex from the - Blue Mountains, Columbia County, average: total length 87; length - of tail 40; hind foot 7.5; ear 20; height of tragus 11; weight 5.4 - grams. - - _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains area, of southeastern - Washington; recorded from South Touchet (Miller and Allen, 1928: - 116) and Godman Springs (W. S. M.). - -_Remarks._--Miller and Allen (1928: 116) record the dark race of _Myotis -evotis_ from the Blue Mountains. Specimens examined by me are much paler -than _pacificus_ and most of them are indistinguishable from specimens -of _evotis_ from California. - - -=Myotis evotis pacificus= Dalquest - - _Vespertilio evotis_ Allen, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no. - 165):48, June, 1864 (part specimens from Puget Sound). - - _Myotis evotis evotis_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 144:114, May 25, 1928. - - _Myotis evotis pacificus_ Dalquest, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 56:2, February 25, 1943. - - _Type._--Obtained from 3-1/2 miles east and 5 miles north of - Yacolt, Clark County, Washington, by John Chattin on August 3, - 1940; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial character._--Color dark. - - _Measurements._--Five specimens from the type locality average: - Total length 85; length of tail 41; hind foot 7.4; ear 19.4; - height of tragus 10; weight 5.5 grams. - - _Distribution._--Western Washington from the Cascade Mountains - westward. Marginal occurrences are: Baker Lake (W. W. D.) and - Easton (Miller and Allen, 1928: 116). - - -=Myotis thysanodes thysanodes= Miller - -Fringe-tailed myotis - - _Myotis thysanodes_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:80, October 16, - 1897. - - _Myotis thysanodes thysanodes_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. - Bull., 144:126, May 25, 1928. - - _Type._--Obtained at Old Fort Tejon, Kern County, California, by T. - S. Palmer on July 5, 1891; type in United States National Museum. - - _Measurements._--Two males and 3 females from Vernon, British - Columbia, average, respectively: total length 90.5, 82; length of - tail 41.5, 37; hind foot 10.5, 10; ear 18.5, 16; height of tragus - 14, 13. - - - _Distribution._--In Washington known only from the southeastern - border of the state, namely from Dayton (W. S. M.) and Anatone - (Miller and Allen, 1928: 127). - -_Description._--_Myotis thysanodes_ resembles _Myotis evotis_, but -differs in larger size, smaller ear (reaching less than 5 mm. past nose -when laid forward), and in possessing a well developed fringe of hairs -along the border of the caudal membrane. - -This species of bat ranges over western North America from southern -British Columbia to southern Mexico. Two geographic races are currently -recognized, only one of which occurs in the United States. This bat is -not recorded by Davis (1939) as occurring in Idaho and has been found -only once in Oregon. The only published account of the habits of -_thysanodes_ seems to be that of Palmer (in Miller, 1897: 84, also -Grinnell, 1918) who found adults and young of various sizes in company -with _Myotis yumanensis_ in the attic of an old adobe building near Old -Fort Tejon, California, in July, 1891. The specimens obtained in -Washington and British Columbia came from dry areas of pine forest. - - -=Myotis volans= (H. Allen) - -Hairy-winged myotis - -_Description._--This species, in Washington, may be easily recognized by -its relatively large size and the presence of a distinct keel on the -side of the calcar, posterior to the foot. - -Four subspecies of _Myotis volans_ are recognized by Miller and Allen -(1928: 136). These range over western North America from southern Alaska -to southern Mexico. Two subspecies occur in Washington. - -The record stations in Washington for the pale, southern race are all in -arid places and the dark, coastal race is a forest animal. Most of the -specimens taken by me (all of the dark race) were in clearings or along -roads through timber near the crests of hills. They appeared relatively -late in the evening, after the big-brown and the silver-haired bats had -been in the air for some time. Often they were taken in company with -_Myotis lucifugus_ and _Myotis yumanensis_. They were appreciably larger -than those species and their flight was slower and less erratic. They -usually flew in relatively straight lines or large circles at from ten -to forty feet from the ground. At Lake Kapowsin, Pierce County, they -were attracted by swishing a long pole in the air. At Renton, King -County, one was shot as it hunted insects at a city street light several -hours after dark. - - -=Myotis volans longicrus= (True) - - _Vespertilio longicrus_ True, Science, 8:588, 1886. - - _Vespertilio nitidus longicrus_ H. Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 43:103, March 14, 1894. - - _Myotis lucifugus longicrus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:64, - October 16, 1897. - - _Myotis longicrus_ Lyon and Osgood, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 62:271, - January 28, 1909. - - _Myotis volans longicrus_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 144:140, May 25, 1928. - - _Type._--Obtained in the "vicinity of Puget Sound, Washington" by - D. S. Jordan, and catalogued in the U. S. National Museum on - December 16, 1886. - - _Racial character._--Color dark. - - _Measurements._--A female from 6 miles northeast of Kelso, Cowlitz - County, measures: total length 95; length of tail 39; hind foot 8; - ear 13; height of tragus 8. - - _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains to - the Pacific. Marginal records (from Miller and Allen, 1928: 142) - are Oroville, Entiat, and Carson. - - [Illustration: FIG. 37. Distribution of the hairy-winged myotis in - Washington. A. _Myotis volans longicrus._ B. _Myotis volans interior._] - - -=Myotis volans interior= Miller - - _Myotis longicrus_ interior Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 27:211, October 31, 1914. - - _Myotis volans interior_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 144:142, May 25, 1928. - - _Type._--Obtained 5 miles south of Twining, Taos County, New - Mexico, by Vernon Bailey on July 23, 1904; type in United States - National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Smaller and paler than _Myotis v. - longicrus_. - - _Measurements._--Four males and a female from the Blue Mountains, - Columbia County, average: total length 93; length of tail 41.5; - hind foot?; ear 12; height of tragus 6.3. - - _Distribution._--Known only from the Blue Mountains area of the - southeastern part of the state, from Walla Walla (E. S. B.) east - to Anatone (Miller and Allen, 1928: 144). - - _Remarks._--Of 5 specimens available from the Blue Mountains, 4 - are like _interior_ and 1 is like _longicrus_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 38. Distribution of the California myotis in - Washington. A. _Myotis californicus californicus._ B. _Myotis - californicus caurinus._] - - -=Myotis californicus= (Audubon and Bachman) - -California myotis - -_Description._--_Myotis californicus_ may be separated from all _Myotis_ -that occur in Washington, except _Myotis subulatus_, by its small foot -(about 6 mm.). It is the only small-footed bat found in western -Washington. In eastern Washington, where _Myotis subulatus_ occurs, the -cleaned skulls of the two species must be compared before certain -identification of some specimens is possible. The skull of _M. -californicus_ possesses a higher cranium and more abruptly rising -forehead than that of _M. subulatus_. - -Four geographic races of this bat recognized by Miller and Allen (1928: -149) range from southern Alaska southward over western North America to -southern Mexico. Two subspecies occur in Washington. - -_Myotis californicus_, in western Washington, often occurs in company -with _Myotis yumanensis_, _lucifugus_, and _volans_. In flight it cannot -be distinguished from _M. yumanensis_ or _M. lucifugus_. Most of our -specimens were collected over water, for these bats usually fly rather -late and can be shot most easily where their reflection on the water -assists the hunter in aiming. They are usually not common, one or two -being taken at a single locality. This species, like _Myotis -yumanensis_, seems to drink salt water. On May 9, 1936, a living -specimen was caught under a loose piece of bark on a dead tree. - - -=Myotis californicus caurinus= Miller - - _Vespertilio nitidus_ H. Allen, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, - p. 247, 1862 (part of the specimens were from Fort Steilacoom, - Pierce Co., Washington). - - _Myotis californicus caurinus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:72, - October 16, 1897. - - _Type._--Obtained at Masset, Graham Island, Queen Charlotte - Islands, British Columbia, by J. H. Keen in 1895; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Racial character._--Color reddish-brown. - - [Illustration: FIG. 39. Distribution of the small-footed myotis, - _Myotis subulatus melanorhinus_, in Washington.] - - _Measurements._--Eight specimens, including both sexes, from the - San Juan Islands, San Juan and Skagit counties, average: total - length 77.8; length of tail 36.7; hind foot 6.7; ear?; height of - tragus 7.6; weight 5.2 grams. - - _Distribution._--Western Washington east through the northern - Cascades to Chelan, Blue Creek and Colville (Miller and Allen, - 1928: 156) in northeastern Washington, and, farther south, east to - Mount Rainier (Miller and Allen, 1928: 156) and Carson (Miller and - Allen, 1928: 156). - - -=Myotis californicus californicus= (Audubon and Bachman) - - _Vespertilio californicus_ Audubon and Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. - Sci., Philadelphia, 8 (ser. 1, ser. 1, pt. 2):285, 1842. - - _Myotis californicus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:69, October 16, - 1897. - - _Type._--None designated. Type locality fixed at Monterey, Monterey - County, California, by Miller and Allen (1928: 153). - - _Racial character._--Color pale. - - _Measurements._--A female from Crooked River, Crook County, - Oregon, measures: Total length 80; length of tail 40; hind foot 7; - ear 13; height of tragus 5; weight 3.2 grams. - - _Distribution._--Recorded only from the eastern part of the state. - Westernmost records, according to Miller and Allen (1928: 155) - are: Orondo, Goldendale and Lyle. - - -=Myotis subulatus melanorhinus= (Merriam) - -Small-footed myotis - - _Vespertilio melanorhinus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 3:46, September - 11, 1890. - - _Myotis subulatus melanorhinus_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. - Bull., 144:169, May 25, 1928. - - _Type._--Obtained on San Francisco Mountain, 8250 ft. elevation, - Coconino County, Arizona, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey on August - 4, 1889; type in United States National Museum. - - _Measurements._--Three males and 2 females from eastern Washington - average: total length 77; length of tail 37; hind foot 7; ear 15; - height of tragus 8. One weighed 5.4 grams. - - _Distribution._--Desert areas of eastern Washington, including the - Columbian Plateau and the lower Columbia River Valley. Marginal - records are: 5 mi. S Grand Coulee Dam (W. W. D.) in the north, - Wenatchee (W. W. D.) in the northwest, Lyle (W. W. D.) in the - southwest, and Bly (Miller and Allen, 1928: 171) in the southeast. - -_Description._--_Myotis subulatus_ is closely similar to _Myotis -californicus_, but is more orange in color and has the skin on the face -more nearly black. Specimens cannot be identified with certainty until -the cleaned skulls are examined. The more flattened cranium and less -abruptly rising forehead separate _Myotis subulatus_ from _M. -californicus_. - -This species is confined to the United States and northern Mexico. Two -races are recognized by Miller and Allen (1928), of which one occurs in -Washington. It is the commonest bat in the desert of eastern -Washington. It lives far from trees on plains and in sandy or rocky -areas, emerging rather early in the evening. It is not difficult to -shoot. Its flight is erratic. The animal usually hunts in large, -irregular circles at 10 to 25 feet from the ground. It has not been -found in its daytime retreat but may hide in crevices in rocky outcrops. -Near Vantage, Grant County, individuals were shot as they hung up in a -concrete underpass to digest food. The stomachs of specimens taken were -so crammed with the remains of insects that their abdomens were greatly -distended. The underpass seemed to be only a resting place, not -inhabited by day. Others were taken when they came to rest in the loft -of a barn at Selah, Yakima County. They usually did not arrive at the -barn until an hour after sunset and were still present there at -midnight. - - -=Lasionycteris noctivagans= (Le Conte) - -Silver-haired bat - - _V[espertilio]. noctivagans_ Le Conte, McMurtrie's Cuvier, Anim. - Kingd., 1:431, 1831. - - _Vesperugo noctivagans_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885. - - _Lasionycteris noctivagans_ Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 43:105, - March 14, 1894. - - _Type._--None designated; described from a specimen obtained in the - "eastern United States." - - _Measurements._--Five males from San Juan County, Washington, - average: total length 96.2; length of tail 46.4; hind foot 8.5; - ear 16; height of tragus 7.2; weight 8.2 grams. - - _Distribution._--Forested areas of the entire state. This species - is migratory and first appears about the middle of May. September - 15th is the latest recorded occurrence, when one was seen at - Seattle, King County. Marginal records are: Sportsmans Lake (W. W. - D.), in the northwest; Carson (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9) in the - southwest; Pass Creek Pass (W. W. D.) in the northeast; and Bly - (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9) in the southeast. - -_Remarks._--The chocolate-brown color phase of the silver-haired bat is -most common east of the Cascade Mountains, while almost all specimens -from western Washington represent the black phase. - -This medium-sized bat is the darkest-colored species living in the -state, ranging from chocolate-brown to nearly black. Numerous -white-tipped hairs give the upper parts a frosted appearance. The upper -surface of the interfemoral membrane is well furred, a character shared -only with _Lasiurus_. The dental formula (i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. -2-2/3-3, m. 3-3/3-3 = 36) is the same as that of _Corynorhinus_. The -small ears and short tragus immediately distinguish the silver-haired -bat from the long-eared bat. - -The genus _Lasionycteris_ contains but a single species, of which no -geographic races have been described. It ranges across North America -from coast to coast and from central Canada southward, in forested -areas, nearly to Mexico. This species is known to be migratory, and -southern records probably do not represent breeding individuals. - -In Washington these bats have been taken in the Transition, Canadian, -and Hudsonian life-zones. They were found near clearings in forests of -open pine woods in the arid section of eastern Washington, near mountain -hemlock thickets in the high mountains, and in the dense rain-forests of -the Pacific Coastal area. - - [Illustration: FIG. 40. Distribution of the silver-haired bat. - _Lasionycteris noctivagans_, in Washington.] - -The size and flight of the silver-haired bats are distinctive, and after -some experience it is possible to identify them in the air. It is an -early flier, usually appearing just after the swallows roost. They fly -at a considerable height, rarely coming within forty feet of the ground. -The wings are moved with a "fluttery" motion, and their flight is -interrupted by frequent short glides. They fly more rapidly than the big -brown-bats, and twist and dart sideways more frequently. Compared with -big brown-bats, silver-haired bats are relatively gregarious, and six to -a dozen individuals were seen in the same area. They generally hunt in -sweeping circles, from fifty to one hundred yards in diameter. In the -daytime the silver-haired bats hide beneath slabs of loose bark on dead -trees. Near Cottage Lake, King County, two individuals were found -beneath the bark on an old, lightning-blasted stub. The dark color of -the bats blended with the charred surface of the stub. - -This species feeds mainly on forest insects and for this reason is -probably of considerable value to man. The stomachs of specimens were -usually crammed with the remains of small, soft-bodied insects. - - -=Corynorhinus rafinesquii= (Lesson) - -Long-eared bat - -_Description._--Diagnostic characters of the long-eared bat are: medium -size (total length about 4 inches); dull, grayish-brown color; -exceptionally long ears (over 1 inch from notch); thin, tissue-like -membranes; and paired "lumps" on the rostrum. The dental formula is: i. -2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 2-2/3-3, m. 3-3/3-3 = 36. - - [Illustration: FIG. 41. Long-eared bat (_Corynorhinus rafinesquii - intermedius_), female with young; Boulder Cave, Kittitas County, - Washington, July 20, 1928. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by T. H. - Scheffer, No. B-33332.)] - -Long-eared bats range from southern British Columbia to southern Mexico. -Three species are listed by Miller (1924: 82), one of which -(_rafinesquii_) is divisible into five geographic races. - -This bat is colonial and is not uncommonly found in caves, mine shafts, -and darkened attics of old buildings. It is of scattered distribution -throughout the state. In Washington its distribution in winter is -unknown. A specimen from Friday Harbor, San Juan County, taken in March, -1936, indicates that it hibernates in the state. Whitlow and Hall -(1933: 245) give a detailed account of individuals found hibernating in -winter near Pocatello, Idaho. - - [Illustration: FIG. 42. Entrance to Boulder Cave, inhabited by - long-eared bats (_Corynorhinus_); Kittitas County, Washington, May 26, - 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 56.)] - -John K. Townsend (1839: 325) mentions that the "great-eared bat" at the -forts of the Columbia River district (Fort Vancouver) were protected by -the "gentlemen of the Hudson's Bay Company for their services in -destroying the _dermestes_ which abound in their fur establishments." -Townsend mentions also that the long-eared bats seldom left the -"storehouses attached to the forts," even at night. My own observations -are similar, in that at Boulder Cave, Kittitas County, on July 7, 1936, -when not less than 100 long-eared bats were present in the cave, I -watched the entrances to the cave until an hour after dark but no bats -were seen to emerge. All of the specimens available from Washington were -caught in their daytime hiding place. The number of long-eared bats at -Boulder Cave has decreased in recent years. On July 12, 1930, bats were -so abundant that 90 were captured with a single sweep of a butterfly net -(T. H. Scheffer, 1930: 11). On July 7, 1936, it was estimated that there -were slightly more than 100 in the cave. On June 11, 1937, the number -was less, probably about 75. - -Little is known of the food habits of the long-eared bat. The stomach of -a specimen from Blakeley Island, San Juan County, was crammed with the -remains of insects, including the wing scales of _Lepidoptera_ and the -wings of small Diptera. - -Scheffer noted that the long-eared bats at Boulder Cave were nearly -ready to give birth to young on July 12, 1930, and were carrying naked -young a week later. On July 7, 1936, at the same locality, females -contained nearly full-term embryos. - - [Illustration: FIG. 43. Distribution of the long-eared bat in - Washington. A. _Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii._ B. _Corynorhinus - rafinesquii intermedius._] - - -=Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii= (Cooper) - - _Plecotus townsendii_ Cooper, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York, 4:73, - November, 1837. - - _Corynorhinus macrotis townsendii_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:53, - October 16, 1897. - - _Corynorhinus megalotis townsendii_ G. M. Allen, Bull. Mus. Comp. - Zoöl., 60:344, April, 1916. - - _Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. - Bull., 128:82, April 29, 1924. - - _Type._--Probably obtained at Fort Vancouver, Clark County, - Washington; type not now in existence. - - _Racial character._--Dark color. - - _Measurements._--A male from Blakeley Island, San Juan County, - measured: total length 83; length of tail 43; hind foot 8.5; ear - 37.4; tragus 15.1; weight 10 grams. - - _Distribution._--Western Washington, from Blakeley Island (W. W. - D.) in the north, south to Seattle (W. W. D.) and Fort Vancouver. - - -=Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius= H. W. Grinnell - - _Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius_ H. W. Grinnell, Univ. - California Publ. Zoöl., 12:320, December 4, 1914. - - _Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii_ Dalquest, Jour. Mamm., - 19:213, May 14, 1938. - - _Type._--Obtained at Auburn, Placer County, California, by J. C. - Hawver on July 31, 1909; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Paler and duller than _townsendii_. - - _Measurements._--One male and 6 females from 15 miles east of - Tonasket, Okanogan County, average: total length 96, length of - tail 47; hind foot 11; ear 35.5; tragus 14. - - _Distribution._--Scattered localities in the arid subdivision of - the Transition Life-zone of eastern Washington, from 15 mi. E - Tonasket (W. W. D.) on the north to Boulder Cave (W. W. D.) on the - west and Spokane (W. S. C.) on the east. - -_Remarks._--Of specimens in the University of Kansas, Museum of Natural -History, those from Selah (not plotted on distribution map), Yakima -County, are paler than those from Boulder Cave, Yakima County, but both -series are paler than specimens from the coast of Oregon. - - [Illustration: FIG. 44. Distribution of the western pipistrelle, - _Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus_, in Washington.] - - -=Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus= (H. Allen) - -Western pipistrelle - - _Scotophilus hesperus_ H. Allen, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no. - 165):43, June, 1864. - - _Vesperugo hesperus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885. - - _Pipistrellus hesperus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:88, October 16, - 1897. - - _Type._--Obtained at Old Fort Yuma, Imperial County, California, by - G. H. Thomas; catalogued in U. S. National Museum on October 31, - 1861. - - _Measurements._--A specimen from Maryhill, Klickitat County, - measures: total length 68; length of tail 27; hind foot 7; ear 10; - height of tragus 3; weight 4.2 grams. Two males from Vantage, - Grant County, average: 68.5; 27.5; 6; 11; 4. - - _Distribution._--Known only from along the Snake and Columbia - rivers of south-central Washington; recorded from Vantage - (W.W.D.), south to Maryhill (M.V.Z.), and east to Almota (Taylor - and Shaw, 1929: 9). - -_Description._--This is the smallest bat found in Washington, its body -being approximately 1-3/4 inches long and the tail 1-1/4. It may be -separated from _Myotis_ by the bent tragus and by the possession of 34 -rather than 38 teeth. The dental formula is: i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. -2-2/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 34. - -The genus _Pipestrellus_ is cosmopolitan in distribution. The few -records for the single subspecies found in Washington indicate that it -is a casual, though probably regular, summer visitant from the south. - -Two western pipistrelles were shot at Vantage, Grant County, on July 23, -1937. They flew in slow circles about 50 feet from the ground. No -breeding records are known from the state. - - -=Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus= Rhoads - -Big brown-bat - - _Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. - Philadelphia, 1901:619, February 6, 1902. - - _Eptesicus fuscus pallidus_ Engels, Amer. Midland Nat., 17:656, - May, 1936 (part specimens from Washington). - - _Type._--Obtained near San Bernardino, San Bernardino County, - California, by R. B. Herron on May 26, 1893; type in Academy of - Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. - - _Measurements._--Three males and 5 females from Washington - average: total length 117; length of tail 48; hind foot 11.5; ear - 18.3; height of tragus 9. - - _Distribution._--Forested areas of the entire state of Washington. - Marginal localities are San Juan Island (W.W.D.) in the northwest, - Carson (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9), in the southwest, Newport - (W.W.D.) in the northeast, and Grand Ronde River (Taylor and Shaw, - 1929: 9) in the southeast. - -_Remarks._--Specimens from both eastern and western Washington vary -greatly in color, and series of specimens from eastern Washington -average little, if any, paler than series from western Washington. -Washington specimens most closely resemble specimens from California of -the race _bernardinus_ and average darker than _pallidus_. - -_Description._ The big brown-bat may be distinguished from other bats by -its large size (about 4-1/2 inches), rich, brown color, and small ears -(reaching only to nostril when laid forward). It possesses 32 teeth, the -dental formula being: i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 1-1/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = -32. - -Bats of the genus _Eptesicus_ are cosmopolitan in distribution. A single -species occurs in North America, of which Engels (1936) recognizes four -races in western United States. - - [Illustration: FIG. 45. Distribution of the big brown-bat, _Eptesicus - fuscus bernardinus_, in Washington.] - -The big brown-bat appears early in the evening, often before the -swallows have retired. This, and its large size, makes it relatively -easy to study. It is principally a forest bat but also is found in towns -and cities. It is common in Seattle and hunts around street lights and -about the trees in the city parks. In its more natural habitat it flies -over trees and clearings. Big brown-bats were repeatedly timed, with a -car's speedometer, at 17 miles an hour as they flew down a road lined -with tall trees. This is a greater speed than that at which they -usually hunt. When the speed of the car was increased the bats dodged -sideways, around the car. At lesser speeds they pulled ahead and -escaped. - -Big brown-bats are less gregarious, when hunting, than some bats. One or -two may be found in a small area, the limits of which are definitely -fixed. We noted this repeatedly near Cottage Lake, King County, where -the big brown-bats hunted along roads through second-growth conifers. -The bats patrolled back and forth along a section of a road about a -quarter of a mile in length. When a bat reached the end of its personal -territory, it would wheel and return. On six successive trips a bat -turned, to retrace its course, at points less than 50 feet distant from -the point of the first turn. When the bat approached the turning point -on the seventh trip, a bat from the adjoining strip of road approached -the area. The two animals fluttered about each other with shrill -squeaks, audible 50 feet away. The fluttering and squeaking continued -for nearly a minute, after which both bats resumed their hunting. -Darkness concluded the observations. - -On several occasions we stood on a road patrolled by a big brown-bat. -The bat immediately detected the watcher and fluttered about his head -and face. Big brown-bats ignore other species of bats hunting on their -territory. Indeed, such comparatively slow flyers could scarcely drive -the more speedy bats away. - -Two _Eptesicus_, kept in captivity for several weeks, exhibited very -different personalities. One was shy and sullen. It cowered in the back -of its cage and attempted to bite when handled. It would eat only small -quantities of finely scraped liver tendered to it on a spoon. If a bit -of liver adhered to its face it would shake violently and refuse to eat -more. When it had eaten its fill, it would seize the spoon in its teeth -and spill the remaining food. The second specimen was tame and greedy. -It ate insects, liver, earthworms, and even pieces of flesh. After two -days in captivity it learned to come to the door of its cage at a -person's approach and open its mouth, in anticipation of food. If it -dropped bits of liver on which it was chewing it would descend from the -top of its cage to retrieve them, squeaking indignantly while doing so. -It also descended to the floor of the cage to lap water from a dish. It -habitually hung head downward from the roof of its cage, but reversed -its position when evacuating urine or feces. Engler (1943: 96) -discovered that big brown-bats will kill and eat smaller bats, at least -in captivity. - - -=Lasiurus cinereus cinereus= (Beauvois) - -Hoary bat - - _Vespertilio cinereus_ (misspelled _linereus_) Beauvois, Catal. - Raisonné Mus. Peale, Philadelphia, 1796:18 (p. 15 of English - edition by Peale and Beauvois). - - _Lasiurus cinereus_ H. Allen, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no. - 165): 21, 1864. - - _Atalapha cinerea_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885. - - _Type._--None designated. Type locality Pennsylvania, probably near - Philadelphia. - - _Measurements._--Ten specimens from California average: Total - length 130.5; length of tail 54.8; hind foot 10.7; ear 16; height - of tragus 9.5; weight (of 3) 20.4 grams. - - _Distribution._--Recorded from Seattle (W.S.M.) to the north, - Westport (W.S.M.) to the west and Pullman (W.S.M.) to the east. - - [Illustration: FIG. 46. Record stations for the hoary bat, _Lasiurus - cinerea_, in Washington.] - -_Remarks._--The hoary bat is the largest and most distinctively -marked kind of bat in the state. Adults are usually more than 5 -inches in total length. The fur is exceptionally long and soft. The -wing-membranes are thick and leathery. The posterior half of the -wing-membrane is black; the anterior half is pale. The interfemoral -membrane is furred. Dorsally the color of the fur is mottled white and -seal-brown, giving a silvery-gray effect. The ears are short and thick; -the feet short and wide. The dental formula is: i. 1-1/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, -p. 2-2/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 32. - -The genus _Lasiurus_ is found in North America, South America, and the -Hawaiian Islands. _Lasiurus cinereus_ ranges from British Columbia to -southern South America. Osgood (1943: 53) records two subspecies from -Chile. - -Information on the natural history of the hoary bat is meager. It was -observed in the Kettle River Mountains, but none was obtained. It flew -erratically and rapidly and did not appear until darkness had set in. -At least two were seen above a road through a forest of western larch -and ponderosa pine. Probably it breeds in the mountains of northeastern -Washington and in the northern Cascades. - -The hoary bat is migratory, leaving the state in August and September, -rarely lingering until early October. It winters along the coast of -central and southern California (Dalquest, 1943: 23). - - -=Antrozous pallidus cantwelli= Bailey - -Pallid bat - - _Antrozous pallidus cantwelli_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:391, - August 29, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained at Rogersburg, Asotin County, Washington, by G. - G. Cantwell on May 28, 1918; type in United States National Museum. - - _Measurements._--A male from the south bank of the Columbia River, - opposite Fallbridge, Klickitat County, measures: total length 113; - length of tail 40; hind foot 14; ear 36; height of tragus 13; - weight 19.8 grams. - - _Distribution._--Recorded only from localities near the Columbia - and Snake rivers in eastern Washington; from Wenatchee (W.W.D.) - south and east to Bly and Rogersburg (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9). - -_Description._--_Antrozous pallidus_ is more likely to be confused with -_Corynorhinus_ than with any other kind of bat and can be distinguished -from _Corynorhinus_ by its larger size (4-1/2 to 5 inches), lighter -color, thick and leathery membranes, and shorter, wider ears. -_Antrozous_ lacks the prominent "lumps" on the rostrum, characteristic -of the long-eared bat. The dental formula is: i. 1-1/2-2, c. 1-1/1-1, p. -1-1/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 28. - -The genus _Antrozous_ is confined to western United States and -northwestern Mexico. Two species are recognized by Miller (1924: 84). -One of these (_pallidus_) includes three geographic races. A single race -is known to occur in Washington. - - [Illustration: FIG. 47. Distribution of the pallid bat, _Antrozous - pallidus cantwelli_, in Washington.] - -The pallid bat chooses a crevice in a cliff, cave, or building as its -daytime hiding place. Like _Corynorhinus_, it is colonial. The basalt -cliffs of eastern Washington offer such ideal hiding places that pallid -bats are seldom seen and consequently little is known of their habits. -In the southwestern United States, pallid bats are more abundant and -better known. H. W. Grinnell (1918: 355) notes that the floor of a roost -of pallid bats was strewn each morning with the heads, wings, and legs -of insects. Most numerous were the remains of the Jerusalem cricket -(_Stenopelmatus_), a flightless insect that the bats must have secured -on the ground. Engler (1943: 96) found that in captivity, pallid bats -would kill and eat smaller bats and lizards confined with them. - -Bailey (1936: 392) believes that the young of this bat are born in late -June and early July. One or two young constitute a litter. - - -=Ursus americanus= Pallas - -Black bear - -_Description._--The black bear is the largest carnivore found in -Washington if the grizzly is extinct there. The exact size of the adult -male black bear is somewhat in question. Few actual weights are on -record of Washington bears. Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale (1937: 101) -paid special attention to the maximum weight of black bears in -California and concluded that few ever exceeded 500 pounds. The total -length of the largest black bear among specimens from the entire Pacific -Coastal area, especially from California and Alaska, they give as 5 -feet, 10 inches (_op. cit._, p. 102). It may safely be assumed that few -individuals ever reach a length of six feet. Females are smaller; -recorded weights of adults rarely exceed 350 pounds. The largest males -have hind feet from 10 to 10-1/2 inches in length. - - [Illustration: FIG. 48. Female black bear (_Ursus americanus - altifrontalis_), and two cubs, near Big Four Inn, Mt. Baker National - Forest, Washington, July, 1939. (Forest Service photo by R. L. - Fromme.)] - -The black bear, including its closely related species, the Mexican bear, -_Ursus machetes_, ranges over Alaska, Canada, the United States and -northern Mexico. The distinction between the black and grizzly bears has -been listed under the account of _Ursus chelan_. - -The fur of black bears in the Cascade Mountains in the fall is long, -sleek and glossy but rather stiff. In the spring and early summer the -fur of animals at Mount Rainier often appeared coarse, wooly and patchy -or rubbed on older animals. Some smaller bears possessed sleek, -well-groomed pelts. Bears from the lowland areas are said to possess -poor pelts because of constant abrasion in the forests. In the fall, -when the salmon are spawning, the bears are said by trappers to roll in -decayed fish until they "smell so bad you can't come near them" and -their fur is matted and "crawling with lice." - -It is now known that the cinnamon bear, sometimes called brown bear, is -merely a color phase of the black bear. The brown phase varies in color -from a rich, dark reddish brown to a pale cinnamon brown. Cowan (1938: -204) has recorded the geographic variation in the brown and black coats -of the bears of British Columbia and, in part, of Washington. On the -Olympic Peninsula the brown phase is rare. Old residents have told me of -seeing but a few brown bears in their life. I have seen only black bears -in the lowlands of western Washington. Cowan (_loc. cit._) lists 1,197 -black and 79 brown bears from Fort Nisqually, Pierce County, between -1834 and 1852. In the Cascade Mountains the brown phase is not uncommon, -perhaps one out of five bears seen being brown. In northeastern -Washington the brown and black phases are about equal in number, and -some trappers state that the browns are more numerous. Cowan lists 3,813 -black and 2,871 brown bears from Fort Colville between 1826 and 1856. - -The black bear occurs in a variety of habitats in Washington. It seems -to be absent only from the treeless areas of eastern Washington, and is -most abundant in the Cascade Mountains and Olympic Mountains where food -is abundant and men are few. It is not uncommon throughout the timbered -lowlands of northeastern Washington and western Washington, however, and -shows a surprising ability to exist unnoticed near the larger cities. In -the dense, junglelike forests of southwestern Washington it is numerous. -Jackson (1944: 1) estimates that 13,679 black bears live in Washington, -more than in any other state. - -The habits of the black bear have changed greatly where it has come into -contact with man. At Mount Rainier National Park black bears now ignore -people, save to beg for food. In the Cascades the bears are wild but so -seldom see men that in many places they live much as they did hundreds -of years ago. In the lowlands of western Washington they are in daily -contact with evidence of man or his guns. As a result they are silent -and shy, rarely being seen. - - [Illustration: FIG. 49. Black bear (_Ursus americanus altifrontalis_), - in "hibernation," Mt. Baker region, Washington, about 1936. (John E. - Candle photo, courtesy "Field and Stream.")] - -The black bear in the mountains is active sometimes by day and sometimes -by night. Probably it is principally nocturnal but active by day only -when the food obtained at night is insufficient to meet the needs of the -animal. In the lowlands it is almost completely nocturnal. In the -mountains it enters upon its winter sleep with the first snows or, if -the snows are late, when the huckleberries are gone. Ordinarily black -bears are in "hibernation" by the middle of November. In the lowlands of -western Washington they are active until after the salmon spawning -season, and probably do not "hibernate" before the middle of December -and may not do so at all. In the mountains they emerge from the winter -sleep in May; in the lowlands they emerge in February or March. - -The black bear is omnivorous in the truest sense of the word. Because -the animal is of large size it requires much nourishment. This is -obtained by eating large quantities of material with low food value. -Material eaten passes rapidly through the digestive tract and often only -easily digested parts seem to be utilized. Feces commonly contain -complete and undigested berries and seeds or almost undigested pieces of -apples or other fruit. - -The principal food of the black bear in Washington is berries. Many -species are eaten, but the huckleberry (_Vaccinium_ sp.) is favored. -Other food items are: _Gaultheria shallon_ (pulpy fruit); Oregon grape, -_Berberis nervosa_ (flowers and fruit); salmonberry, _Rubus parviflorus_ -(leaves and fruit); leaves of several plants, including _Rubus -macropetalus_ and other thorny kinds; grass, succulent plants, and -roots. Insects are eaten and most feces show remains of a few. In June, -1938, near Cle Elum, Kittitas County, a species of sword-tailed cricket -fully two inches in length was abundant, and droppings of a bear there -were composed entirely of the remains of these crickets. Fish, -especially spawning salmon, are important food. When salmon are spawning -the bears in the vicinity feed on nothing else. Warm-blooded vertebrates -probably are eaten but none of the many bear droppings examined by me -contained remains of birds or mammals. Bennett, English and Watts (1943: -30) found few mammals to be eaten by bears studied by them in -Pennsylvania. Locally bears kill pigs and sheep, smash bee-hives and -raid fruit trees. - -The large size and sometimes awkward appearance of black bears combine -to give a comic note to some of their natural actions. A bear in full -flight, lumbering along a trail with head swinging from side to side and -hind feet stretching past the forelegs at each stride, is more apt than -not to amuse the observer. Near Stevens Pass, a large black bear was -observed lying on its back in a mud wallow. This was an oval opening in -the ground in a meadow of heather and huckleberry near a small stream. -The wallow was approximately 5 feet long, 3 feet deep and 4 feet wide. -The bear was immersed in muddy water with only its head and feet -visible. It seemed well content and comfortable, shifting its bulk -occasionally and waving its paws. When a stray breeze brought to the -bear the scent of my companion and myself the animal's contentment -vanished and it hastily made a frantic effort to depart. It had wedged -itself deeply in the hole, and as it twisted and turned in attempting to -sit up, waves of water gushed from the wallow. Eventually escaping from -its wallow, the bear half ran and half rolled to the cover of alders 100 -feet away. This particular wallow had been in use by bears for some -time, as was attested by old droppings at its edge and by its well-worn -condition. - - [Illustration: FIG. 50. Distribution of the black bear in Washington. - A. _Ursus americanus altifrontalis._ B. _Ursus americanus cinnamomum._] - -The fact that Washington has the largest population of black bears of -the states in the union is due, largely, I feel, to abundant natural -cover, food, such as salmon and huckleberries, and an intelligent game -code. In California and some other states the black bear has been -considered a fur bearer, to be trapped with steel traps. This is -permitted in spite of the fact that their pelts bring but a few dollars, -usually less than ten. Their sale scarcely repays the trapper for his -labor in preparing the hide. Townsend (1887: 182) remarked on the ease -with which bears could be trapped in California although in the same -area they were so shy that they could seldom be shot. As a result of -trapping, the number of bears in some states has been dangerously -reduced. In Washington the bear is a game animal, to be hunted with a -rifle for a few weeks in the fall when the pelt and flesh are at their -best. As a result bears are numerous and can be hunted with fair chances -of success. - - -=Ursus americanus altifrontalis= Elliot - - _Ursus altifrontalis_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 80, zoöl. - ser. 3:234, June, 1903. - - _Euarctos altifrontalis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:90, - April 29, 1924. - - _Ursus americanus americanus_ Taylor and Shaw, Mammals and Birds - of Mount Rainier National Park, U. S. Nat. Park Service, - Washington, p. 37, 1927. - - _Euarctos americanus altifrontalis_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, - 55:321, August 29, 1936. - - _Ursus americanus altifrontalis_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. - Zoöl., 30:232, March 2, 1928. - - _Type._--Obtained at Lake Crescent, Olympic Peninsula, Clallam - County, Washington, by D. G. Elliot in 1898; type in Field Museum - of Natural History. - - _Racial characters._--Color dark, almost always black instead of - brown; skull wide, high and heavy; molar teeth wide and heavy. - - _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains - westward to the Pacific. Marginal occurrences are Chelan (W.W.D.) - and Signal Peak (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 10). - - -=Ursus americanus cinnamomum= Audubon and Bachman - - _Ursus americanus var. cinnamomum_ Audubon and Bachman, Quadrupeds - of North America, 3:125, 1854. - - _Euarctos cinnamomum_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:91, April - 29, 1924. - - _Euarctos americanus cinnamomum_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:319, - August 29, 1936. - - _Ursus americanus cinnamomum_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., - 30:232, March 2, 1928. - - _Type._--Obtained near the mouth of Jim Ford Creek, Lower - Clearwater River, western Idaho (Bailey, 1936: 319) by Lewis and - Clark on May 31, 1806. - - _Racial characters._--Resembling _altifrontalis_ but skull and - molar teeth narrower; color even in black phase paler and browner; - brown and black phases of approximately equal incidence. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains of - southeastern Washington, occurring westward as far as Republic - (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 10). - - -=Ursus chelan= Merriam - -Grizzly bear - - _Ursus chelan_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 29:136, - September 6, 1916. - - _Type._--Obtained in Township 30 N. Range 16 E. Willamette - Meridian, Wenatchee National Forest, Chelan County, Washington, by - D. S. Rice on September 1, 1913; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Measurements._--The skull of the type, an old male, measures: - basal length 314; occipito-nasal length 323; palatal length 170; - zygomatic breadth 225; interorbital breadth 86. - - _Distribution._--Probably once from the Stevens Pass area north to - British Columbia. Possibly still remaining in the mountains - between Mount Baker and Lake Chelan. - - _Remarks._--Grizzly bears occurred in the lowlands of Oregon - (Bailey, 1936: 324) and California (Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, - 1937: 67) but there is no record of their ever having occurred in - the lowlands of western Washington. - -Bears of the genus _Ursus_ range over Europe, Asia and North America. No -less than 75 kinds of grizzly and big brown bears are recognized for -North America by Merriam (1918). They are closely related to the brown -bears of Asia. The 13 kinds of black bears of North America are now -thought to belong to but one species, namely _americanus_, and have no -close relatives in Eurasia. - - [Illustration: FIG. 51. Probable past distribution of grizzly bears in - Washington. A. _Ursus chelan._ B. _Ursus canadensis._ C. _Ursus - idahoensis._] - -The grizzly is the largest carnivorous mammal in North America. From the -black bear the grizzly may be distinguished in life by the prominent -muscular hump on the shoulders. Another feature is the long, slim, -gently curved claws of the forefoot as compared with the shorter, -stouter and sharply curved or hooked foreclaws of the black bear. The -grizzly is much larger than the black bear. Cranially, the grizzly -differs in possessing a larger skull with lower frontal area, higher, -more extensive sagittal crest, more posteriorly jutting occipital -condyles and much longer tooth row. The color of both species is -variable. Some grizzly bears from Alaska and British Columbia are dark -brown, almost as black as a black bear. Others are pale cinnamon with -the longer guard hairs pale gray. Individuals of this frosted appearance -popularly are known as "silver tips." In Washington, the black bear -varies in color from glossy black, through various shades of brown to a -pale cinnamon. - -The grizzly bear is extinct over most of Washington. A few may remain in -remote parts of the northern Cascades, and are regularly listed on the -game census reports of the Mount Baker National Forest. Nevertheless, I -have found no one who has seen an undoubted grizzly bear in Washington. -The type specimen was obtained well up in the Cascade Mountains where -the animals, like those in British Columbia, feed on roots, berries, -marmots, pikas and other vegetable and animal life. - - -=Procyon lotor= (Linnaeus) - -Raccoon - -_Description._--The raccoon is a relatively large carnivore with a -stout, heavy body. Large adults measure three feet in length and weigh -up to 20 pounds. The legs are of moderate length. The broad head tapers -sharply to a pointed muzzle. The ears are erect, broad, low and rounded; -the tail is long, about one-half the length of the head and body, bushy -and round; the hind feet are large, flat and naked-soled but the -forefeet are smaller with long, slim, handlike toes. The color of the -body is a grizzled gray heavily washed with black on the back and sides. -A jet-black "mask" across the eyes, sharply outlined by white muzzle and -forehead, is the most distinctive feature of the head. The tail is -alternately marked with six or seven black and five or six yellowish -gray bands. The long, loose guard hairs give the body a shaggy -appearance. The fur of the wrists is short, smooth, coarse, and directed -downward. - -The raccoon is not an aquatic mammal, yet it is closely associated with -water, whether it be streams, rivers, lakes or the ocean. The favored -habitat of the raccoon is the shore line. It is a wader and, if it can -be considered as specialized for any occupation, it is wading in mud and -shallow water. Its long toes, naked feet, and short-haired wrists are -admirable adapted for walking on muddy bottoms or in shallow water. The -coon is also at home on land. It moves swiftly and silently and when -chased by dogs can cover miles in a few hours. It is an agile climber -and lives in dens well up in trees. - -The raccoon is almost completely nocturnal. Individuals are occasionally -seen in the morning or evening, especially, when the tide is low along -the ocean beach or Puget Sound. Near Fall City, King County, a small -raccoon was seen eating a crayfish at 3:30 p.m. on a warm, sunny June -day. In the eastern United States raccoons sleep during much of the -winter, and probably they do the same in eastern Washington. In western -Washington they are active most of the winter. Some trappers stated that -the animals "hole up" in spells of unusually cold weather. Along the -Tolt River, 10 miles southeast of Duvall, King County, their tracks were -seen daily in January, 1936, although the temperature fell well below -freezing each night. - -Washington is near the northern limit of the range of the raccoon. The -animal is reasonably common in western Washington, and ranges well up -into the Cascade Mountains. The highest altitudinal record available is -Longmire, Mount Rainier National Park (Taylor and Shaw, 1927). Raccoons -are not uncommon in southeastern Washington and in the Yakima Valley. -They follow the Columbia River northward, as shown by tracks at -Wenatchee on two occasions. The river valleys that flow into the -Columbia in northeastern Washington seem admirably adapted for raccoons -but the animal is rare there. Trappers who have lived and trapped in -northeastern Washington for many years tell of seeing tracks at -intervals of years along the Okanogan, San Poil, Colville and Kettle -rivers. Several stated that tracks had been seen more often in recent -years. Northeastern Washington seems to be the peripheral range of the -species, occupied at rare intervals by animals wandering north from the -Columbia River. - -The food habits of raccoons are almost as varied as those of black -bears. Animal matter forms their diet over most of the year; along -stream courses crayfish, fish, thin-shelled fresh-water mussels, frogs -(_Hyla_ and _Rana_), and aquatic insects are eaten. Along beaches fish -brought in by the tide, crustaceans, and mussels (_Mytilus edulis_) are -taken; small sharks appear not to be eaten. A recently dead dogfish that -lay on the beach at Whidby Island, Island County, was ringed by the -tracks of a raccoon but had not been eaten. The shore crabs -(_Hemigrapsus nudus_ and _Hemigrapsus oregonensis_) are a favored food -and regular items of diet. The edible crab (_Cancer productus_) is also -eaten and in the San Juan Islands the porcelain crab (_Petrolisthes -eriomerus_) was commonly eaten. Small mammals and birds are eaten -regularly by this race of raccoon in California (Grinnell, Dixon and -Linsdale, 1937: 157), and the eggs and young of wild birds are sought in -the spring (_op. cit._: 158). The ability of the raccoon as a climber -makes it a particular menace to nesting birds. Berries, including -domestic blackberries and salmonberries, are eaten in quantity when -available. Apples are dearly loved and the trees and orchards of -abandoned ranches are regularly visited. The fondness of the raccoon for -green corn is well known. Insects are present in small quantities in -most droppings and in the late summer some feces were composed entirely -of the remains of grasshoppers. Chickens, ducks, young turkeys and eggs -are stolen and individuals become extremely adept at raiding hen-houses. - -At one time, about 1920, the raccoon became scarce in western Washington -as a result of heavy trapping and high price of the pelts. A closed -season was strictly enforced until it again became common. The price -received by the trapper for raw furs of raccoon has since been rather -low, from two to ten dollars. With fur prices in this range, the number -of raccoons probably will not be reduced to a dangerously low level by -trapping, but instead may be expected to furnish a regular winter income -to the trappers who do trap for it. - -Raccoons are known to breed in their first year of life (Pope, 1944: -91). - - -=Procyon lotor psora= Gray - - _Procyon psora_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 10: 261. December, - 1842. - - _Procyon psora pacifica_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 16: 107, October - 28, 1899 (type from Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington). - - _Procyon proteus_ Brass, Aus dem Reiche der Pelze, p. 564, 1911. - - _Procyon lotor pacifica_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. - Conner Mus., no. 2: 10. December, 1929. - - _Procyon lotor psora_ Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale, Fur-bearing - Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 137, July - 22, 1937. - - _Type locality._--Sacramento, Sacramento County, California. - - _Racial characters._--Medium size; dark color; smoothly rounded - skull. - - _Measurements._--A female from Forks, Clallam County, measures: - total length 905; length of tail 355; hind foot 125; ear 50; - weight 14-1/2 lbs. A female and 6 males, young animals of the - year, taken between November 15 and December 15, average: 772; - 284; 114; weight (of 3) 8-2/3 lbs. - - [Illustration: FIG. 52. Distribution of the raccoon in Washington. A. - _Procyon lotor psora._ B. _Procyon lotor excelsus._] - - _Distribution._--From the western slope of the Cascade Mountains - westward. Marginal occurrences are Lake Keechelus (type locality) - and Mount Rainier (Taylor and Shaw, 1927: 45). - - _Remarks._--The range of variation in color and cranial characters - of coastal raccoons is large. I am unable to find any character or - average difference to separate the raccoons of western Washington - from those of northern California. - - -=Procyon lotor excelsus= Nelson and Goldman - - _Procyon lotor excelsus_ Nelson and Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 11:458, - November 11, 1930. - - _Type._--Obtained on upper Owyhee River, near the mouth of the - North Fork in southeastern Oregon by J. W. Fisk on April 15, 1920; - type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _psora_ but larger; body paler - and grayer; skull larger, heavier and more angular. - - _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, the valleys of the Snake - and Yakima rivers and the valley of the Columbia River north to - northeastern Washington. Marginal records, from reports of - trappers, include the Okanogan River, Okanogan County, Wenatchee, - Chelan County, and Selah, Yakima County. - -_Remarks._--The assignment of the raccoons of northeastern Washington to -_excelsus_ is tentative for I have seen no specimens. - - -=Martes caurina= Merriam - -Western marten - -_Description._--The marten is slightly smaller and slimmer than a house -cat, and at first glance resembles a large squirrel. The legs are -longer, the body stouter and the fur more fluffy than those of a mink or -weasel. Adult males weigh from two to two and a half pounds, and females -from one and a half to two pounds. Males are slightly more than two feet -in total length and females about 18 inches, the tail comprising -one-third or more of the total length. The head is broad and narrows -rapidly to a sharp muzzle. The ears are large, erect and prominent. The -feet are large with stout toes and long, sharply curved pinkish-white -claws. The body and head are rich golden brown, the tail, wrists, feet -and muzzle being darker. - -The western marten ranges from British Columbia southward through Idaho -and Washington to California. A closely related species, _americana_, is -found in Alaska, the eastern United States and Canada. Martens and -fishers may be distinguished from weasels and minks by the presence of -18 rather than 16 teeth in the upper jaw and 20 instead of 18 teeth in -the lower jaw. - -The western marten is arboreal. Its principal habitat in Washington is -the Canadian Life-zone forests of the Olympic, Cascade and Blue -mountains and the various ranges in the northeastern part of the state. -At one time it ranged near sea level along the densely forested coastal -belt and may still do so in the more rugged parts of the Willapa Hills. - -The marten is both diurnal and nocturnal. In Mount Rainier National Park -the species has become quite tame and may be seen in the daytime. Many -of the small mammals upon which it feeds are diurnal, but others are -nocturnal. The marten is active throughout the year. Trappers report -that during a storm the marten "holes up in rock slides" where it lives -on conies and chipmunks until the storm passes. It spends a large part -of its time in trees, and travels through them for long distances. It -climbs more skillfully than the tree squirrels upon which it feeds. On -the ground or on snow the marten travels in bounds, a yard at a leap, -and its characteristic bounding gait forms tracks that are distinctive -and easily followed. - -Mammals of the weasel family mostly are not gregarious but the marten is -exceptional in that in the winter it travels in bands of 6 to 10 -animals. Individuals composing these bands are inclined to wander but -nevertheless the whole band travels in a definite general direction at a -good rate of speed. Travel-ways or "runs" may be used by more than one -band, and a run may extend for many miles, perhaps for as many as 50. A -band of martens may take two weeks to complete the circuit, but usually -returns to the starting point in less than a week. Most runs are about -"half-way up the mountain," or midway between the crest of the hill or -timber-line and the floor of the stream valley below. In summer the -marten ranges higher; it lives in the trees just below timber-line and -in the talus slides near timber-line. When the snows are unusually late -the martens may keep to these higher areas until November. - -The food of the marten consists principally of small mammals and -probably birds; the staple food in winter is the Douglas squirrel. In -summer they feed on pikas, mantled ground squirrels and chipmunks. Mice, -also, are eaten. The deer mouse, _Peromyscus maniculatus_, is usually -abundant about old cabins and is successfully used as bait by trappers. -Wood rats and flying squirrels are also eaten, the latter being -especially important in certain areas. The tracks of martens that had -been following snowshoe rabbits were seen on several occasions but the -martens had turned off before a kill was made. In every instance the -rabbit tracks indicated that the animals were hopping leisurely and -browsing; apparently the tracks were made some time before the marten -began to follow them. - -Martens are inquisitive, and to judge from their tracks in snow they -investigate almost every object that they pass; a fallen mound of snow, -branch, bit of moss, log or isolated tree is apt to be visited. Failing -to find a meal in or around one of these objects, the marten visits the -next object that catches its eye. Seemingly the animal always is giving -concentrated attention to some definite object although the attention -can shift in an instant when a more interesting object comes in to view. -As a result the trail of a marten in the snow is an intricate affair -composed of numerous straight lines and sharp turns. - -The trapping of martens is specialized work, engaged in by professional -trappers that follow trap lines many miles in length. Trappers commonly -have a base cabin and one or two shelters situated a day's march apart, -The trap-line is set in a circle, requiring one to three days' travel by -the trapper to complete the circuit. - -The standard "set" for marten in the Cascades consists of an opening 8 -to 10 inches wide, 4 inches high and 6 inches deep chopped into the side -of a dead stub. The hole is cut as high as the trapper can reach. A trap -is set in the opening and bait is placed in the back of the hole. A -sapling 1 to 3 inches in diameter inclined at an angle of 45° from the -ground to the hole completes the set. As the snow deepens, new holes are -chopped higher up on the stub. Such sets seen in the summer may consist -of six or seven holes spaced a foot apart. The chips from the holes are -left lying on the snow and are said to attract the animals. Bait -commonly consists of flying squirrel, red squirrel or deer mouse. - - [Illustration: FIG. 53. Distribution of the western marten in - Washington. A. _Martes caurina caurina._ B. _Martes caurina origenes._] - -The value of the marten's pelt fluctuates from year to year. In recent -years average pelts have sold at from ten to twenty dollars each. The -number of individuals taken by a trapper varies with the trapper's skill -and energy and the location of the trap line. The largest catch made by -one trapper in a single winter, of which I know, was 300 animals, taken -near Mt. Adams. - - -=Martes caurina caurina= (Merriam) - - _Mustela caurina_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:27, October 8, 1890. - - _Martes caurina caurina_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:93, - December 31, 1912. - - _Type._--Obtained near Grays Harbor, Grays Harbor County, - Washington, by L. C. Toey on February 4, 1886; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Color dark; throat patch bright orange or - brownish. - - _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains westward. Marginal - localities are (from Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 10) head of Cascade - River, Riverside, Chelan, Easton and Trout Lake. The record from - Chelan seems doubtful, and the specimen may have come from - somewhere around Lake Chelan, rather than from the town of that - name. - -_Remarks._--Skulls of martens from many localities in western North -America were studied in an effort to determine the relationship of the -eastern pine marten (_Martes americana_) and the western marten. East of -the Rocky Mountains the ranges of the two species approach closely, but -each retains distinctive characters, notably the shape of the auditory -bullae. The two species have not been taken together and the possibility -of intergradation exists. On the basis of the evidence at hand, the two -should be regarded as full species until positive proof of -intergradation is established. - -In the absence of sufficient material, the marten of the Cascades is -referred to _Martes caurina caurina_. Fur graders distinguish between a -dark "coast marten" and a paler "Cascade marten." - - -=Martes caurina origenes= (Rhoads) - - _Mustela caurina origenes_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. at Sci. - Philadelphia, 1902:458, September 30, 1902. - - _Martes caurina origenes_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:93, - December 31, 1912. - - _Type._--Obtained at Marvine Lodge, Garfield County, Colorado, by - E. T. Seton on September 16, 1901; type in Academy of Natural - Sciences of Philadelphia. - - _Racial characters._--Paler than _caurina_ with grayer head and - yellow or white rather than deep orange or brown throat patch. - - _Distribution._--Mountainous areas of northeastern Washington and - the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. Trappers have - reported this marten from the mountains near Republic, Ferry - County. - - -=Martes pennanti= (Erxleben) - -Fisher - - [_Mustela_] _pennanti_ Erxleben, Syst. Regni. Anim., 1:470, 1777. - - _Martes pennanti pennanti_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:94, - December 31, 1912. - - _Mustela canadensis pacifica_ Rhoads, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., - n.s., 19:435, September, 1898 (type from Lake Keechelus, Kittitas - County, Washington). - - _Martes pennanti pacifica_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:94, - December 31, 1912. - - _Martes pennanti_ Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, Fur-bearing Mamm. - California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 211, July 22, - 1937. - - _Type locality._--Eastern Canada. - - _Distribution._--Originally forested areas from the eastern base - of the Cascades westward and possibly the Blue Mountains of - southeastern Washington and the mountains of northeastern - Washington; now probably confined to the Cascade and Olympic - mountains. - - [Illustration: FIG. 54. Fisher (_Martes pennanti_). 2-year-old male in - captivity; New Westminster, B. C., March 7, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife - Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 598.)] - -_Remarks._--The fisher is the size of a large cat. In general -proportions it resembles the marten. Adult males measure about 3-1/2 -feet in length; the tail comprises 16 inches of this. Adult females -are slightly less than 3 feet in length of which the tail makes up -approximately 15 inches. Males weigh up to 10 lbs. and females about -5-1/2 pounds (Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 213). The fisher has -a slim body, bushy tail, short legs, large feet, and wide, low and -triangular head. The ears are low, wide, rounded and erect. The fur is -an ashy, brownish gray in color with an overwash of blackish caused by -long, dark hairs. The head is slightly paler than the body. The feet, -rump and tail are darkest. The claws are strong and sharply curved. - -The fisher is found in wooded parts of North America, extending -southward in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada Chain to central California. Its -near relatives are the martens. It is active all year. Like the marten, -it is active by day and probably also by night. In spite of absolute -protection for several years, the fisher is rare in Washington, and -seems never to have been common. In consequence relatively little is -known of its habits, and the little that is known has been reported by -fur-trappers. - - [Illustration: FIG. 55. Distribution of the fisher, _Martes pennanti_, - in Washington.] - -The fisher seems not to live in bands as does the marten. Most of the -actual records of fishers trapped are at higher altitudes but are -misleading because most trappers agree that the fisher occupied a lower -zone, altitudinally, than does the marten. There are old records of -its occurrence near sea level (Scheffer, 1938: 9). The animals are -usually taken in marten sets or in traps set especially for fishers -by trappers who find their tracks on their marten trap lines. Since -marten trappers are almost the only persons who travel in the mountains -in winter, and since they operate mostly above the areas where fishers -live, relatively few fishers are reported. - -Fishers are said to feed on chipmunks, squirrels, mice, birds and other -small, warm-blooded animals, and to climb trees and catch squirrels -in their natural habitat. Also, fishers are said to catch and kill -martens. Their tracks in the snow resemble the marten's in that the -hind feet land in the same places as the forefeet; both animals bound -rather than walk. - -The pelt of the fisher commands a high price. The smaller sized, -females, are the more valuable. The price paid for pelts fluctuates -widely and has ranged from as low as twelve dollars to as high as one -hundred dollars in recent years. - -In Washington more fishers live in the Olympic Peninsula and the -northern Cascade Mountains than elsewhere. A few may occur in -northeastern Washington, the Blue Mountains and the Willapa Hills. - -The name _pacifica_ was regarded by Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1937: -217) as a synonym of _pennanti_. - - -=Mustela erminea= Linnaeus - -Ermine - -_Description._--Though it is similar in general characters and -proportions to the long-tailed weasel, the ermine is much smaller and -has a relatively shorter tail. It is darker and less reddish or -yellowish in summer. Adult males measure about 10 inches in length, of -which 3-1/2 inches is the length of the tail. Females measure about 8 -inches and have tails 2 inches long. The upper parts are chocolate -brown; the underparts are white or pale yellow. Along the coast of -Washington, the pale color of the underparts is more restricted in the -ermine than in the long-tailed weasel. The dark brown tail has a black -tip. Ermines east of the summit of the Cascades become pure white in -winter, save for the black tail tip. West of the summit of the Cascades -the winter pelt is similar to the summer pelt but is slightly paler with -denser underfur. - -Ermines in America range from the Arctic southward, in mountainous -areas, to the southern end of the Sierra Nevada in California, and in -the Rocky Mountains to northern New Mexico. In Washington they are found -over the entire state except the arid parts of eastern Washington, where -only the long-tailed weasel occurs. So far as my observations go, the -ermine is principally nocturnal in Washington; I have seen only one -abroad in the daytime. It dashed from a roadside thicket near Glacier, -Whatcom County, and was crushed beneath the wheels of a car. Taylor and -Shaw (1927: 53) note several instances of diurnal activity of the -ermines at Mount Rainier National Park. - -The ermine seems to feed principally upon mice. Its small size adapts it -to entering burrows that larger weasels cannot enter. It probably eats -chipmunks, birds, and other small, warm-blooded animals. Ermines climb -readily and are often taken in traps set in trees for martens. Near -Skykomish, King County, William Hoffman took two ermines in traps set in -burrows of mountain beavers. The mountain beavers were needed for use as -bait on his trap line. The traps were reset and later caught mountain -beavers. Seemingly the ermines were traveling through the burrows, -perhaps to catch the mice which utilize the burrows as highways, rather -than to prey upon mountain beavers. It is difficult to see how the tiny -ermine could kill an adult mountain beaver, which outweighs it many -times. Should the incisors of the mountain beaver close even once upon -an ermine it would most certainly be seriously wounded or killed. -Judging by the forest habitat occupied by the ermine in Washington, one -might expect its principal food to consist of deer mice (_Peromyscus -maniculatus_), red-backed mice (_Clethrionomys_) and meadow mice -(_Microtus_). - -In observing the activities and habits of mammals in their natural -habitat, I have often relied on tracking in fresh snow. Strangely -enough, tracks of ermines were seldom found, and the few that were seen -came from beneath a log, bush or wind-fall and disappeared beneath -similar cover, rarely extending 20 feet on the surface of the snow. The -larger, long-tailed weasels often traveled for miles on the surface of -the snow. Possibly the ermines were following the burrows of mice -through the snow, or perhaps they kept beneath the surface from fear of -owls. This suggests a reason why ermines are so seldom seen abroad. They -may be following burrows and runways of mice and seldom come to the -surface of the ground. - -On November 18, 1936, we saw three ermines and two long-tailed weasels -taken by a trapper on Deception Creek near Stevens Pass, King County. -All were in the white winter coat. In December, 1938, we obtained two -ermines at Skykomish, King County, 18 miles west of Stevens Pass. These -were in the brown winter coat. In that area the break between the brown -and white winter coat seems to come just west of the main Cascade -Summit, or at the same point that the break occurs between the brown and -white winter coats of the long-tailed weasel. - -Ermine skins have little value and usually bring from 10 to 35 cents. -They are saved incidentally by trappers, for it takes but a few moments -to skin and prepare them. They possess the strong, musk odor so typical -of the long-tailed weasel. - - -=Mustela erminea invicta= Hall - - _Mustela erminea invicta_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:75, February 27, - 1945. - - _Type._--Obtained at Benewah, Benewah County, Idaho, by W. T. Shaw - on October 24, 1926; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Largest of the Washington ermines; winter - coat entirely white; upper lips white; black of tail more than - half length of tail vertebrae. - - _Measurements._--Ten males and 5 females from central Idaho - average, respectively (Hall, 1945): total length 291, 255; length - of tail 86, 71; hind foot 40, 32. 3. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington and the northeastern - Cascades, west to Chilliwack River and Hannegan Pass (Hall, 1945: - 78). - - -=Mustela erminea fallenda= Hall - - _Mustela erminea fallenda_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:79, February 27, - 1945. - - _Type._--Obtained at Huntingdon, British Columbia, by C. H. Young - on May 21, 1927; type in National Museum of Canada. - - _Racial characters._-Size large; winter coat usually brown; pale - color of underparts much restricted; color of upper parts dark; - color of lips variable; tail with more than distal half black. - - _Measurements._--Seven males and 2 females average, respectively - (Hall, 1945: 79): total length 278, 232; length of tail 77, 60; - hind foot 36.5, 27. - - _Distribution._--The extreme north coast of Washington, from the - Canadian boundary south through Whatcom County (Hall, 1945: - 80-81). - -_Remarks._--The range of this ermine is similar to that of the -yellow-pine chipmunk, _Eutamias amoenus felix_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 56. Distribution of the ermine in Washington. A. - _Mustela erminea invicta._ B. _Mustela erminea murica._ C. _Mustela - erminea gulosa._ D. _Mustela erminea fallenda._ E. _Mustela erminea - streatori._ F. _Mustela erminea olympica._] - - -=Mustela erminea olympica= Hall - - _Mustela erminea olympica_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:81, February 27, - 1945. - - _Type._--Obtained near head of Sol Duc River, Clallam County, - Washington, by V. Bailey, on April 28, 1897; type in United States - National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _streatori_ but smaller, - especially females. - - _Measurements._--Twelve males and 6 females average, respectively: - total length 243, 196; length of tail 65, 52; hind foot 31, 23.4 - (Hall, 1945: 81). - - _Distribution._--The Olympic Peninsula, extending southeastward to - Olympia. - - -=Mustela erminea streatori= (Merriam) - - _Putorius streatori_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:13, June 30. 1896. - - _Mustela streatori streatori_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 79:96, December 31, 1912. - - _Mustela cicognanii streatori_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. - Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929. - - _Mustela erminea streatori_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:76, February 23, - 1945. - - _Type._--Obtained at Mount Vernon, Skagit County, Washington, by D. - R. Lucky on February 29, 1896; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _fallenda_ but pale color of - underparts less restricted; tail with less than distal half black. - - _Measurements._--Two males and 2 females from extreme southwestern - Washington average, respectively: total length 245, 210; length of - tail 72, 54; hind foot 31.5, 25.5; ear 17, 14; weight 72.3, 46. - - _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington; north to - Skagit County and Whidby Island (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 11), - southward and westward to Ilwaco (M.V.Z.) and eastward to Carson - (U.S.N.M.). - - -=Mustela erminea gulosa= Hall - - _Mustela erminea gulosa_ Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:84, February 27, - 1945. - - _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickatat County, Washington, by - P. Schmid on February 3, 1897; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _invicta_ but smaller; winter - coat usually white; tail less than one-half black; upper lips - white. - - _Measurements._--Five males from Mount Rainier, and 4 females from - the Cascade Mountains, average, respectively (Hall, 1945: 84): - total length 253, 208; length of tail 76, 54; hind foot 30.2, - 24.3. - - _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains. Known from Skykomish - (W.W.D.) and southward to Mount Adams (Trout Lake, Hall, 1945: - 85). - - -=Mustela erminea murica= (Bangs) - - _Putorius (Arctogale) muricus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, - 1:71, July 31, 1899. - - _Mustela muricus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December - 31, 1912. - - _Mustela cicognanii lepta_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. - Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929. - - _Mustela cicognanii muricus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:292, - August 29, 1936. - - _Mustela erminea murica_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:77, February 27, - 1945. - - _Type._--Obtained at Echo, El Dorado County, California, by W. W. - Price and E. M. Nutting on July 15, 1897; type in Museum of - Comparative Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _invicta_ but smaller and paler. - - _Measurements._--A young female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia - County, measured: total length 201; length of tail 46; hind foot - 24; ear 14; weight 45.8. A female from Butte Creek, Columbia - County, measured: 185; 50; 26. A male from Baker Creek, White Pine - County, Nevada, measured: 220; 56; 26; 14.5; weight 57.7. - - _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. - - _Remarks._--Two specimens available from the Blue Mountains are - darker than typical _murica_. - - -=Mustela frenata= Lichtenstein - -Long-tailed Weasel - -_Description._--Male long-tailed weasels measure about 16 inches in -total length of which 6 inches is the length of the tail. Females are -smaller, measuring about 14 inches in length with a tail 5 inches long. -The body is long and exceedingly thin. The legs are short and stout with -rather large feet and strong, curved claws. The tail is well-furred, not -tapered, but lacks the bushy appearance of the tail of the fisher. The -head is low, wide at the base and abruptly tapering to the muzzle. The -ears are erect, low and rounded. The fur is short but dense and rather -soft. In summer the color of the head, back, sides and outside of the -legs is brown. The throat, chest, underside of body and insides of legs -are yellow or orange. In winter they may be entirely white, save for the -black tip of the tail. The tail is slightly darker than the back in -summer and possesses a long black tip. - -Long-tailed weasels do not hibernate even in the coldest parts of -Washington. They are active both by day and by night, apparently doing -their hunting at the time of day or night when they can most easily -obtain food. In the Cascade Mountains where diurnal mammals such as -squirrels, chipmunks and pikas are common, weasels are not uncommonly -seen by day. In the lowlands of western Washington, where they feed on -more nocturnal mammals, they are seldom seen. - -The long-tailed weasel is relatively unspecialized in habits. They climb -readily and skillfully. They are active on the surface of the ground and -follow the burrow systems of fossorial animals such as gophers and -mountain beavers. - -Weasels seen in the wild rarely exhibit fear of man but rather are -curious and apt to watch his actions. Weasels are also often hit by cars -and the number so killed seems to me to be out of proportion to their -actual numbers. - -In moving on the surface of the ground the weasel arches its back and -contracts the body until the four feet are rather close together. When -the long neck and small head are held upright the animal presents a -surprisingly giraffelike appearance. When climbing, the long, slim body -has a snakelike appearance. A weasel travels swiftly and erratically in -a series of bounds and seems always to know where the next hole is -situated. - -The weasel has been accused of killing birds and doubtless does so when -opportunity presents itself. However, in Washington I have no actual -evidence of its killing birds other than domestic fowls. At Republic, -Ferry County, a companion and I saw a weasel enter the burrow of a -ground squirrel (_Citellus columbianus_). The following day we returned -to the area. The weasel was not seen but a ground squirrel dashed into -the hole at our approach. Seemingly the ground squirrel had eluded the -weasel. At Conconully, Okanogan County, we set a number of gopher traps -in an alfalfa field. The following morning an adult male long-tailed -weasel was found in a trap but not a gopher was taken. Near Moses Lake, -Grant County, an adult male weasel was caught in a gopher trap, but no -gophers were taken. At Shelton, Mason County, 50 gopher traps were set. -At daylight the following morning the first trap visited was found to be -pulled into the burrow. When a gentle tug was given the wire fastening -the trap, a decisive jerk at the other end showed that the catch was -alive. If trapped gophers that pull the traps back into their burrows -are pulled out by main strength, their skins are often torn and damaged. -Therefore an attempt was made to reach into the burrow and pull back the -sod. An adult female long-tailed weasel promptly fastened its teeth into -my forefinger and clung on, bulldog fashion, to be lifted into the air -with the attached trap swinging. When the left hand was used to force -the animal to release its grip, it fastened onto the left thumb. With -right thumb and forefinger I forced it to release its grip, but was -unable to elude its teeth which again fastened to my right forefinger. -Only by laying it on the ground and crushing its chest with my foot -could I free myself from the vicious little beast. No gophers were taken -in traps set less than 150 feet from where the weasel was trapped. In -the three instances mentioned above, weasels had seemingly killed all -the gophers in their immediate vicinity. As regards the gophers near -Moses Lake, none was found a year later in the area where the weasel was -taken and only old, abandoned burrows were seen. T. H. Scheffer (1932: -54) records other instances of the capture of weasels in gopher burrows. - -At the northern limits of the city of Seattle, steel traps were set -for mountain beavers in a rather dense colony of these mammals. -Well-used burrows indicated that approximately 10 individuals were -present. The following morning an exceptionally large male weasel was -found in a trap, but all others were empty. The traps were left out -for two additional nights but no mountain beavers were taken. A month -later the colony seemed abandoned and no evidence of recent digging -was noted. It could only be concluded that the weasel had killed the -animals comprising the colony. A large mountain beaver weighs three or -four pounds, which is 6 or 8 times as much as a weasel. Edson (1933: -76) recounts trapping 7 weasels in burrows of mountain beavers near -Bellingham, Whatcom County. - -Near Forks, Clallam County, a weasel was seen pursuing a young snowshoe -rabbit (_Lepus americanus washingtonii_) along the edge of a concrete -highway. As our car approached and passed the animals, they separated, -the weasel retreating to the cover of horsetail (_Equisetum_) beside -the road. The car was stopped 50 feet ahead. As we emerged the weasel -dashed from cover to intercept the rabbit in the center of the road. -The weasel knocked the rabbit to its side and, placing its feet on the -rabbit's shoulders, bit fiercely at its neck. It then dashed back to -the cover of the horsetails. The rabbit stood up, made two hops and -died. It was approximately two weeks old. - - [Illustration: FIG. 57. Distribution of the long-tailed weasel in - Washington. A. _Mustela frenata washingtoni._ B. _Mustela frenata - altifrontalis._ C. _Mustela frenata nevadensis._ D. _Mustela frenata -effera._] - -The pelts of weasels bring the trapper from twenty-five cents to a -dollar and a half. Only skins in the white winter coat command the -higher price. They are usually taken in traps set for other animals. - -In the western part of the state, long-tailed weasels do not turn white -in the winter; the back is slightly less reddish than in summer and the -underparts are pale yellow or white or may be both yellow and white. -From the summit of the Cascades eastward weasels become white. The -break in winter color seems to occur slightly west of the main summit -of the Cascades. Specimens taken by marten trappers at Tye and Scenic, -near Stevens Pass, were white on November 15, 1936, but specimens from -Skykomish and Baring, 18 miles to the west, were brown. - -The long-tailed weasel possesses a distinctive odor. It results from -a glandular secretion and, although it has no great carrying power or -lasting quality, it does affect some persons strongly. It is a heavy, -rather sickening scent. - -The gestation period of _Mustela f. nevadensis_ has been recorded as -more than 131 days (Hall, 1938B: 250). The gestation period of the -long-tailed weasel of eastern United States has been recorded as more -than 70 days. Three to five young are born in a litter, usually four. - - -=Mustela frenata nevadensis= Hall - - _Mustela arizonensis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner - Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929. - - _Mustela washingtoni_ Taylor and Shaw, in part, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. - Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929. - - _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, - Publ. 473:91, November 20, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained 3 miles east of Baker, White Pine County, Nevada, - by E. R. Hall and W. C. Russell on May 30, 1929; type in Museum of - Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Size medium; colors pale; back near Brussels - Brown in summer, chin white and underparts yellow, rarely orange; - color in winter white with black tip on tail. - - _Measurements._--A male from Neppel, Grant County, measures: total - length 412; length of tail 151; hind foot 43; ear 19. Two males - from Yakima, Yakima County, average: 379; 135; 42.5; 21; weight - 176.5. A female from Ellensburg and one from 4 miles east of - Ellensburg, Kittitas County, average: 284; 98; 33; 17. - - _Distribution._--From the high Cascades eastward, save for the - Blue Mountains area. Marginal occurrences are Barron (Hall, 1936: - 93) and Easton (W. W. D.). - - _Remarks._--Specimens from the northern Cascades are intergrades - between _nevadensis_ and the form to the west, _altifrontalis_. - Specimens from extreme northeastern Washington might be referred - to _oribasa_ Bangs as readily as to _nevadensis_. - - -=Mustela frenata effera= Hall - - _Mustela frenata effera_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. - 473:93, November 20, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained at Ironside, Malheur County, Oregon, by H. E. - Anthony on September 8, 1912; type in American Museum of Natural - History. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _nevadensis_ in color but - smaller, with smaller, lighter skull. Color in winter white with - black tip on tail. - - _Measurements._--A female from Prescott, Walla Walla County, - measures: total length 310; length of tail 105; hind foot 34. - - _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake - River. Specimens from Walla Walla and Prescott have been examined. - - -=Mustela frenata washingtoni= (Merriam) - - _Putorius washingtoni_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:18, June 30, - 1896. - - _Mustela washingtoni_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:98, - December 31, 1912. - - _Mustela frenata washingtoni_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, - Publ. 473:106, November 20, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Skamania County, Washington, by D. - N. Kaegi on December 15, 1895; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Color rich, dark; hind feet free of color of - underparts. - - _Measurements._--A male from Spray Park, Pierce County, measures: - total length 423; length of tail 164; hind foot 52. - - _Distribution._--Higher Cascades from Mt. Rainer (M. V. Z.) south - to Mt. Adams (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 11). - - -=Mustela frenata altifrontalis= Hall - - _Mustela saturata_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner - Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929. - - _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, - Publ. 473:94, November 20, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained at Tillamook, Tillamook County, Oregon, by A. - Walker on July 10, 1928; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _nevadensis_ but darker above in - summer and richer orange beneath; winter color of upper parts dark - brown, underparts pale yellow or white. - - _Measurements._--Four males and 2 females from western Washington - average, respectively: total length 411.5, 267; length of tail - 145, 137.5; hind foot 50, 43; ear 26, 21.5; weight 227, 136.7 - grams. - - _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains to the Pacific. - Marginal occurrences are Rockport (Hall, 1936: 95) and Tye (W. W. - D.). - - -=Mustela vison energumenos= (Bangs) - -Mink - - _Putorius vison energumenos_ Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., - 27:5, March, 1896. - - _Mustela vison energumenos_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:101, - December 31, 1912. - - _Type._--Obtained at Sumas, British Columbia, by A. C. Brooks on - September 23, 1895; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. - - _Measurements._--A male from Seattle, King County, measures: total - length 540; length of tail 180; hind foot 66; weight 1 pound, 15 - ounces. - - _Distribution._--Throughout the state save for the Columbian - Plateau; recorded from Neah Bay (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 11) in the - northwest, Ilwaco (M.V.Z.) in the southwest, Metaline (W.W.D.) in - the northeast, and the Blue Mountains (Dice, 1919: 12) in the - southeast. - - [Illustration: FIG. 58. Distribution of the mink, _Mustela vison - energumenos_, in Washington.] - -_Description._--Because of the value and lasting popularity of its fur, -the mink is known to all. Few persons, however, recognize the animal in -the wild. The mink possesses the long, slim body and short, rather stout -legs of a weasel but has a more bushy tail. The mink is larger than the -weasel. Large males weigh up to 3 pounds; females 1-1/2 pounds. Males -measure about 2 feet in length, of which the tail comprises eight -inches. Females measure about 20 inches and have tails 7 inches long. -The color is rich, dark reddish or chocolate brown. The underparts are -slightly paler than the back. There are usually small white markings on -the chin, chest or other part of the ventral surface. These markings -sometimes take the form of narrow white lines. - -The mink ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Alaska south -to Florida, New Mexico and central California. It is active throughout -the year and is principally, though not exclusively, nocturnal. McMurry -(1940: 47) records three mink seen at 3:30 p. m. on August 8, 1939, at -Packwood Lake, Lewis County, one of which was carrying a garter snake -two feet in length. This mustelid is semiaquatic, living along rivers, -streams, lakes and salt water and spends most of its time along the -shore, on muddy or sandy beaches. In this respect it resembles the -raccoon. Whereas the raccoon spends a part of its time on the land, the -mink spends a corresponding amount of its time in the water. It is an -excellent swimmer, able to overtake and capture fish in the water. - -In the San Juan Islands minks have forsaken the shoreline and roam over -the uplands, feeding on the abundant, feral domestic rabbits. I found -evidence of their presence far inland, miles from water, in grassy and -bushy wastes; along the beaches their tracks were rarely seen. Along -Puget Sound, minks spend part of their time on the beaches, feeding on -dead fish and other marine animal life. These animals, however, seem to -live along the rivers and streams flowing into the sound. Along the -ocean coast, some minks seem to live exclusively in the marine shoreline -habitat. - -The mink ascends some distance into the Cascade and Olympic mountains -along the larger watercourses. There are reliable reports of minks from -Heart Lake and Lake Dorothy, King County, high in the Cascades. These -animals were seen in the summer but they may live in higher parts of the -Cascades, at least about some of the larger lakes throughout the year. -As far as is known there are no minks on the Columbian Plateau. - -The food probably varies with locality. Along the ocean beaches they eat -dead sea birds, stranded fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. Along Puget -Sound their tracks are commonly seen following the caked, decaying -seaweed and debris that collects at the high tide mark. Svihla and -Svihla (1931: 22) captured a mink that was feeding on the beach of the -Olympic Peninsula. This individual, in captivity, was able to open and -feed on clams. Fur trappers report that minks feed on mountain beavers, -and that the flesh of the mountain beaver is the best bait for -attracting minks. Along streams and lakes, minks are thought to feed on -mice, birds, fish, crayfish and thin-shelled, fresh-water mussels. The -muskrat forms an important item of diet near the larger lakes and -streams. Muskrats trapped near Seattle were often attacked by minks and -either eaten or so slashed and torn that their pelts were worth but a -fraction of what they would bring in an undamaged condition. - -The tracks of a mink noted in freshly fallen snow about a garbage dump -on the shore of Lake Washington, Seattle, indicated that the animal had -been hunting house rats, which were numerous there. Minks are not -uncommon in the marshes along Lake Washington near the University of -Washington campus, Seattle, where I discovered evidence of their preying -on ducks and coots. The ducks included mallards and green-winged teal, -species most apt to alight in small pools in the rushes where a mink -might find cover. I found the fresh tracks of one mink about a -half-eaten golden tench 8 inches long. The tench is a fish of the sucker -tribe, introduced into the lake. Tracks of minks are not uncommonly seen -along rivers and streams under conditions that indicate they were -hunting crayfish. - -The raw pelt of the mink sells usually at from 10 to 20 dollars. The fur -is in constant demand and fluctuates in price less than most furs. The -average trapper takes a few minks each year along with his catch of -muskrats, raccoons, and skunks but some trappers have taken as many as -100 minks in a winter in areas where the animal is especially numerous. - - -=Gulo luscus luteus= Elliot - -Wolverine - - _Gulo luteus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 87, zoöl. ser. - 3:260, December, 1903. - - _Gulo luscus luteus_ Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale, Fur-bearing - Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 251, July - 22, 1937. - - _Type._--Obtained on Mt. Whitney, Tulare County, California, by E. - Heller; type in Field Museum of Natural History. - - _Measurements._--The dried skin of a wolverine taken 3 miles south - of Riverside, Okanogan County, was 4 feet in length. The animal - weighed 40 pounds (Scheffer, 1941: 37). - - _Distribution._--Timber-line region of the Cascades Mountains. - From Robinson Creek (Scheffer, 1938: 8) south to Mount Rainier - (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12). - - _Remarks._--Specimens from Washington are intermediate in - character between _luteus_ and the race inhabiting British - Columbia, although available skulls are closer to _luteus_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 59. Wolverine (_Gulo luscus_), mounted specimen, - male, trapped by Billy Robinson about 1902 on Billy Robinson Creek, - Okanogan County, Washington. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by - Victor B. Scheffer, No. 76.)] - -_Description._--Large males measure more than three feet in length, of -which the tail makes up 10 inches; they weigh as much as 50 pounds -(Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 253). The body is wide and stocky; -the tail is short; the legs, especially the forelegs, are short, thick -and powerful; the feet are large and are armed with long, curved claws; -the head is wide; the jaws are powerful with heavy teeth. The pelage is -long and rather shaggy. Face, legs, back and terminal portion of the -tail are dark, blackish brown but the forehead is grayish, contrasting -with the dark color of face and top of the head. Two broad, -yellowish-brown bands begin on the side of the shoulders and pass back, -low on the sides, to the hips where they join across the back and base -of the tail. - -The wolverines, nominally of several species, form a compact group that -ranges over the boreal regions of the Old and New world. In North -America they range southward from the Arctic to California and Colorado. - - [Illustration: FIG. 60. Wolverine (_Gulo luscus_), male, trapped by - Reuben R. Lamb, March 22, 1941, three miles south of Riverside, - Washington; reported to weigh 40 pounds; dried pelt 3 × 4 feet. - (Reuben R. Lamb photo.)] - - [Illustration: FIG. 61. Distribution of the wolverine, _Gulo luscus - luteus_, in Washington.] - -The wolverine is adapted to boreal conditions and is most abundant in -the arctic. In the Cascades it occurs only at or near timber-line. -Except the wolf and the possibly extinct grizzly bear, the wolverine is -the rarest carnivore in Washington. Probably it has been rare since the -retreat of the continental glaciers, for suitable habitat for wolverines -is not abundant and each animal requires a large area over which to -range. An unusual record, possibly of a wandering animal, is given by -Scheffer (1941: 37). This is of an adult male taken in the Okanogan -Valley 3 miles south of Riverside, Okanogan County, on March 22, 1941. - - -=Lutra canadensis= (Schreber) - -River otter - -_Description._--The otter has the long body of many mustelids, but is -specialized for aquatic life. Males are slightly larger than females. -Large adults measure more than 3-1/2 feet in length, of which the tail -comprises 18 inches. The largest adults may weigh as much as 25 pounds. -The body is elongate but rather plump. The forelimbs are small and -laterally placed. The hind legs are the heavier, and are situated -posteriorly. The feet are large and webbed for swimming. The tail is -long, thick at the base and gradually tapering to a narrow tip. The head -is small and rounded. The ears are tiny and the eyes are of moderate -size. The upper lips are large, somewhat spaniel-like, and support a -mustache of stiff vibrissae. The fur is short, dense and soft. The tail -is sleek with short, posteriorly-directed fur, and is not bushy. The fur -is rich, dark chocolate brown in color, slightly paler on the animal's -underparts than on its upper parts. - -Otters range over Eurasia, North America and South America. Those -occurring in North America north of Mexico are thought to belong to a -single species, _canadensis_. Several species from tropical America may -eventually be shown to also be races of _canadensis_. - -The aquatic habits of the otter allow it to exist in several life-zones, -in both marine and fresh-water habitats. The principal environment is -the streams, rivers and lakes of the Transition Life-zone, but along the -larger rivers, otters range up into the Canadian Life-zone and along the -Snake and Columbia rivers they enter the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. They -are active throughout the year. As we have observed them, they are -principally nocturnal. - -Otters are extremely powerful swimmers. Tracks along the North Fork of -the Tolt River, King County, showed where otters had entered water that -flowed over a stony bottom at the velocity of rapids. Their occurrence -in the Tolt, Skykomish and Snoqualmie rivers where these are swift -mountain streams indicates exceptional swimming ability. After emerging -from the water, an otter often follows along the shore, sometimes for -miles. - -In the San Juan Islands the otters have taken to a marine existence. In -the summer of 1938, abundant opportunity offered to observe the otters -at Thatcher Bay, Blakely Island. Here, in the evening, bats were shot as -they flew over the calm water of the bay. Specimens killed were -retrieved by rowing out to them with a dory. For the first two nights -bats were collected and retrieved without incident. On the third night, -several of the bats vanished between the time they were killed and the -time that the boat was launched from the rocky beach. The presence of a -shark or other large fish was at first suspected, but observation showed -a group of three or possibly four otters to be the thieves. On -succeeding nights the animals became bolder. A dead bat became the -object of a race between otters and collector. They completely ignored -shouts, dodged stones hurled at them, and stole almost all the bats -shot. Only a sense of humor and desire to study the animals saved them -from a load of fine shot. Bat collecting was given up in disgust. - -These otters were remarkably seallike in many actions. In swimming their -heads, shoulders and part of their back were exposed. In resting in the -water, only the round head remained above the surface. They were never -seen to float prone on the surface or rest on their backs, as does the -sea otter. They were noisy swimmers, splashing with paws or heads as -they dived. Their eyesight was remarkable. Stones the size of a walnut -were hurled at them from distances as short as 25 feet. All were dodged -with little effort. In this connection the experience of two trappers -who caught an otter in the Samamish River near Woodinville, King County, -is interesting. The trap holding the otter had been attached by a wire 6 -feet long to a pole on the bank. The wire was detached from the pole; -while one trapper held the wire, the other tried to strike the otter -with an oar as the boat drifted over deep water. The otter was free to -swim and dive for the length of the wire and trap chain. It detected, -and evaded by dodging or diving, every blow directed at it and not until -the animal tired, a half hour later, could it be killed. The trappers -then noted that the splashing of oars and otter had nearly filled the -boat with water. The trappers were exhausted. - -The otters of Blakely Island were not unique in occupying a marine -habitat. At Strawberry Bay, Cypress Island, on July 5, 1938, fishermen -brought in a "strange animal" caught by them at Black Rock, a tiny bare -and isolated islet 5 miles to the west. The heavy box holding the animal -was opened, disclosing a very frightened young otter. Questioned, the -fishermen stated that four young and one adult had been seen in the -surf. They had thought the animals a species of seal, and were somewhat -surprised at being successful in their attempts to catch one. The otter -was too young to fare for itself and was kept in camp in the hope that -it might be reared and released. It ate a few fresh herring and -candlefish and drank some condensed milk. It refused whole salmon and -sea bass but ate some skinned and boned strips of these fish. It died a -week after it was captured. This young otter made a ticking sound, -almost a chirp. A variety of crying and whimpering sounds were also -made, and when petted it grunted in satisfaction. If surprised or when -first picked up it gave a deep harsh growl, unexpectedly vicious in -sound, for such a small animal. - -The otters at Blakely Island fed on a great variety of food. The only -food they were actually seen to eat was candlefish, a slim silvery fish -6 inches in length. On several occasions an otter was seen swimming with -the head of a candlefish held fast in its mouth and the fish's body -extending out in a silvery bow. Many feces of these otters were composed -entirely of the feathers of grebes and scoters. These birds were -probably not killed by the otters but died a natural death or were shot -by men. At that camp scarcely a day passed in which at least one person -was not seen firing a .22 caliber rifle from a cabin cruiser into the -flocks of scoters at the mouth of the bay. Dead sea birds were common on -the shore and doubtless furnished food for otters as they did for crows -and eagles. The majority of the otter feces examined at Blakely Island -were composed of the remains of invertebrates. The small mussel -(_Mytilus edulis_) was most abundant. Crabs formed an important part of -their diet. Strangely enough the shore crab (_Hemigrapsus nudus_) and -the porcelain crab (_Petrolisthes eriomerus_) were seldom eaten though -they were abundant beneath the rocks upon which the feces were found, -and formed the principal food item of raccoons. These species of -invertebrates live beneath rocks and the raccoon probably reaches -beneath the rocks to catch the crabs with its handlike forefeet, as the -otter is unable to do. The edible crab (_Cancer productus_) and kelp -crab (_Telmessus cheiragonus_) were most often eaten by otters. Also -eaten were snails (_Margarites_, _Littorina_), bitter oysters -(_Pododesmus macroschisma_), unidentified pelecypods, barnacles -(_Balanus_), one chiton (_Mopalia muscosa_), and once a starfish. The -invertebrate remains, save for the snails, were crushed and broken. - -Fish of many species were abundant in these waters. Salmon were often -seen leaping near the playing otters. Yet no scales or other remains of -fish were detected in the feces. Candlefish possess tiny scales that -could probably be seen by microscopic examination only. As for the -bird remains, the quantity of feathers consumed is notable. The otters -apparently do not pluck birds, as do minks. Indeed, of the material -eaten, the food value by volume seems extraordinarily low. A great -quantity must be eaten to nourish an animal as large and as active as -an otter. The number of fecal droppings seen each morning indicates -that this is the case. - - [Illustration: FIG. 62. River otter (_Lutra canadensis pacifica_), - trapped in Columbia National Forest, Washington, February, 1937. - (Adolph Roth photo.)] seems extraordinarily low. A great quantity - must be eaten to nourish an animal as large and as active as an - otter. The number of fecal droppings seen each morning indicates - that this is the case. - -The favored food of the otter in fresh water streams and lakes is the -crayfish. The greater part, perhaps 80 per cent, of otter feces seen in -the lowlands of western Washington, were composed of crayfish remains. -Some fish are also eaten and locally otters may do damage among the -steelhead trout. Even worse, from the fisherman's standpoint, they -frighten and scatter the schools of steelhead trout. Frogs are eaten, as -well as the thin-shelled mussels. The feathers of coots were twice seen -in otter feces near Cottage Lake, King County. - -The fur of the otter is dense and beautiful but the skin is rather -heavy. Changes in styles cause great fluctuation in the value of the -otter's pelt. - - [Illustration: FIG. 63. Distribution of the river otter in Washington. - Unshaded _Lutra canadensis pacifica_. Shaded _Lutra canadensis - vancouverensis_.] - - -=Lutra canadensis pacifica= Rhoads - - _Lutra hudsonica pacifica_ Rhoads, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n. - s., 19: 429, September, 1898. - - _Lutra canadensis pacifica_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., - 10: 460, November 10, 1898. - - _Type._--Obtained at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington - (altitude 3,000, rather than 8,000 feet as stated in original - citation); type in Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. - - _Measurements._--An adult male from the Lower Calawah River, near - Forks, Clallam County, measured (skinned carcass): total length - 1205; length of tail 490; weight (entire) 23 pounds. A male from - Puget Island, Wahkiakum County, measured (skinned carcass): total - length 1250; length of tail 490. A female from Satsop, Grays - Harbor County, measured (skinned carcass): total length 1205; - length of tail 440. A female from Calawah River near Forks, - Clallam County, measured: total length 1062; length of tail 430; - hind foot 120; ear 23; weight 14-3/4 pounds. - - _Distribution._--Watercourses throughout the state, scarcer east - of the Cascades; recorded at Forks (V. B. S.) in the northwest, - Puget Island (V. B. S.) in the southwest, Colville (Taylor and - Shaw, 1929: 12) in the northeast, and Touchet (Taylor and Shaw, - 1929: 12) in the southeast. - - -=Lutra canadensis vancouverensis= Goldman - - _Lutra vancouverensis_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 48: - 186, November 15, 1935. - - _Type._--Obtained at Quatsino, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, - by H. O. Berg in 1905; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--No adults, referred to this race from - Washington, have been examined. Said to have broader skull than - _pacifica_. - - _Measurements._--The only available specimen, a young female from - Black Rock, San Juan County, measured: total length 792; length of - tail 247; hind foot 103; ear 22. - - _Distribution._--The San Juan Islands of northern Puget Sound and - adjacent marine waters. - - _Remarks._--The otters of the San Juan Islands are referred to - this race on geographical grounds. Numerous islands connect - Vancouver Island with the San Juan Islands, and intervening - channels are not too wide for otters to swim. Adult material may - show that the otters of the San Juan Islands are referable to - _pacifica_ or to an undescribed race rather than to - _vancouverensis_. - - -=Enhydra lutris nereis= (Merriam) - -Sea otter - - _Latax lutris nereis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17: - 159, October 6, 1904. - - _Enhydra lutris nereis_ Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., - 21: 316, January 27, 1923. - - _Type._--Obtained on San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara Islands, by - G. M. McGuire in 1904; type in United States National Museum. - - _Distribution._--Formerly occurred along the ocean coast of - Washington. Now extinct there. - -_Description._--Adult sea otters reach a length of six feet. The body is -stout, long and round; the tail is short, flattened and about a foot in -length. The legs are short and thick. The hind feet are webbed for -swimming. The head is rounded with small eyes and ears, and a seallike -mustache of stiff bristles on the muzzle. The upper lip is thick and -heavy, drooping over the sides of the mouth in a spaniel-like fashion. -The fur is long, soft and extremely dense. The color of the body is -various shades of rich, dark brown. Scattered white hairs often give the -coat a frosted appearance. The heads of the adults are pale grey, -occasionally almost white. - -The sea otter once ranged from the Gulf of California north along the -west coast of North America to Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, Siberia and -Japan. It is now found only in a small area along the coast of -California and in remote islands of the north Pacific. Once abundant -along the coast of Washington, it is now completely extinct there. - -The habits of sea otters living on the California Coast in the vicinity -of Carmel have been described by Fisher (1939: 21-36). Available -information on the sea otter in Washington has been given by Scheffer -(1940B: 369-388). The search for sea-otter skins influenced the -exploration and settlement of the northwest. Captain James Cook obtained -skins of sea otter at Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island, in 1778. The mouth -of the Columbia River was discovered by Captain Robert Gray on May 11, -1792, while trading for sea otter skins. - -According to Scheffer, the bulk of the sea-otter population on the -Washington coast was concentrated between the mouth of the Columbia -River and Point Grenville at the mouth of the Quinault River. The otters -were found several miles from land in extensive kelp beds. The principal -food of the sea otter in Washington seems to have been the short-spined -purple sea urchin (_Strongylocentrotus purpuratus_). The animals were -social, living in herds of up to 400 individuals. They never came out on -land, living, sleeping, and bringing forth their young on the kelp beds -of the open ocean. The single young was born at any month of the year. - - -=Spilogale gracilis= Merriam - -Civet cat or spotted skunk - -_Description._--The civet cat is slightly less than 18 inches in total -length, of which the tail constitutes 6 inches. Large, fat animals may -weigh more than a pound. The body is long and moderately stout, heavier -than that of the weasel but slimmer than that of the striped skunk. The -tail is long with long, plumelike fur. The legs are slender and of -moderate length. The feet are small with long claws. The head is small -and triangular with low, erect ears and large, bright eyes. The fur is -short but soft and silky. The ground color of the civet cat is black. -Wavy lines and spots of white or salmon intercept the black in a complex -pattern. Variations in color patterns include width of stripes, waviness -of stripes, and breaking up of the stripes into spots. - -_Spilogale_ is restricted to America; it ranges from southern British -Columbia south into Central America. Several species are now recognized, -but additional material probably will show intergradation between some -of them and reduce the number. - -The name "spotted skunk" is seldom used by trappers or other persons -familiar with the animal. Nor is it appropriate, for the distinctive -color pattern is composed of short stripes. Neither is the term "civet -cat" appropriate, for the true civet is found in Asia. The name civet -cat is well established, however, and will doubtless remain in general -use. - -The civet cat is principally a lowland animal, but has been recorded -from the Nisqually entrance of Mt. Rainier National Park (Brockman, -1939: 70). Its rather generalized habits allow it to exist in areas that -will not support larger carnivores or species with specialized food -habits. It dwells in areas of thickets, brushy tangles or deep woods. In -southeastern Washington it lives in rocky places as well as in -river-side thickets of willow and cottonwood. Where conditions are -suitable it ranges up into the Canadian Life-zone but is most abundant -in the Transition Life-zone. - -The civet cats, in contrast to the striped skunks, are exclusively -nocturnal. They are active the year around in western Washington but -move about less in spells of unusually cold weather. We have taken them, -however, in freezing weather. - -In spite of their abundance and wide range, civet cats are known to few -persons other than trappers, perhaps because of their exclusively -nocturnal habits. They do occasionally make people aware of themselves -by taking up residence about old buildings. They are rather noisy at -times. At the Tolt River, 10 miles southeast of Duvall, King County, we -were asleep in an old building when a stamping noise from the next room -awakened us. Investigation revealed a civet cat indulging in a series of -short, stiff-legged hops. The forefeet were held slightly ahead and six -or eight hops made. The animal would then relax, turn, and prance off in -a new direction. The amount of noise made by its feet striking the board -floor was surprising. The civet cat seemed to enjoy the noise it made, -and the prancing may have been a method of playing. Trapped civet cats -have been seen to make a similar but shorter series of hops at the -trapper's approach, which might have been a warning. In the case -described, however, the noise of the animal's actions was heard before -the animal was seen and presumably when it was unaware of human -presence. The civet cat also makes a drumming noise similar to the -drumming of a wood rat. This was heard twice from wild animals that did -not suspect an observer's presence, and once from a captive animal. -While an animal was drumming I never had the opportunity to watch the -actions closely enough to describe them. Apparently the drumming is done -with the forefeet. - -The civet cat is said to be a good climber and to do some of its hunting -in trees. One trapped civet cat climbed to the limit of a trap chain and -wire in a low bush near Cottage Lake, King County, but, in Washington, I -have no other evidence of this animal climbing. Near Cottage Lake, we -took a civet cat in a trap set beneath 2 inches of water at the side of -a stream. The animal had either been swimming or wading. - -Trapped civet cats rarely dig holes near the traps, as striped skunks -often do. One caught near Ocean Park, Pacific County, did dig a hole -beneath a log and forced earth and leaves over the entrance. I walked -within a few feet of the animal in searching for the trap. Not until the -trap chain was seen did I find the civet cat. None was taken in traps -set in mountain beaver burrows, although I have caught both striped -skunks and weasels in such burrows. - -Some trappers state that the musk of the civet cat smells different from -that of the striped skunk. I think the odor is slightly more acrid and -that it does not carry so far as the skunk musk. The civet cat is far -more active and nervous than the striped skunk. Whereas the striped -skunk almost never throws its scent when trapped, the civet cat almost -invariably does so, apparently when the trap closes about its legs. -Striped skunks in traps move slowly and steadily but civet cats jump, -roll and squirm erratically. - - [Illustration: FIG. 64. Distribution of the civet cat in Washington. - A. _Spilogale gracilis latifrons._ B. _Spilogale gracilis saxatilis._] - -In the winter of 1934 a large male civet cat was taken near Cottage -Lake, King County. It had been killed and partially eaten in the trap. -The ground about the set was torn up, indicating that the civet cat had -put up a fight. The area for many feet about smelled of skunk musk. The -body of the civet cat was used for bait and the trap reset. The -following morning a large male striped skunk was in the trap. Its skin -bore superficial cuts in several places about its neck and rump, and it -was doubtless the animal that had killed the civet cat. Under ordinary -circumstances a striped skunk could scarcely catch the far swifter and -more agile civet cat. One civet cat in a trap was killed and partly -eaten by a horned owl. Save for dislodging a few feathers, the civet cat -seemed to have done little damage to the owl. The thick cover inhabited -by the civet cat ordinarily protects it from owls. Dead civet cats run -over by cars on the highway are rarely seen. - -The stomach of a specimen from Ocean Park, Pacific County, contained the -remains of three red-backed mice (_Clethrionomys_ _californicus_). The -stomachs of most specimens trapped were empty. Mice, birds and insects -probably constitute the bulk of the food. - -Notes on the early life of _Spilogale interrupta_, a species related to -the one occurring in Washington, have been published by Crabb (1944: -213-221). - -The fur of the civet cat is of little value; in recent years trappers -have received from fifteen cents to a dollar for large pelts. Because of -its habit of throwing scent when in the traps, most trappers discard the -animals without skinning them. - - -=Spilogale gracilis saxatilis= Merriam - - _Spilogale saxatilis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:13, October 8, - 1890. - - _Spilogale gracilis saxatilis_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 26:23, - November 24, 1906. - - _Type._--Obtained at Provo, Utah County, Utah, by V. Bailey on - November 13, 1890; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Size small; white areas extensive, - especially on tail but white triangle on head small; white areas - less often tinged with salmon or orange than _latifrons_. - - _Measurements._--Howell (1906: 32) gives the measurements of a - male from Harney, Oregon, and the average of 3 females from Oregon - as, respectively: total length 455, 360; length of tail 155, 129; - hind foot 50, 40. - - _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, north to Kamiak Butte - (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12). - - -=Spilogale gracilis latifrons= Merriam - - _Spilogale phenax latifrons_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:15, October - 8, 1890. - - _Spilogale olympica_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 32, zoöl. - ser. 1:270, March, 1899 (type from Lake Sutherland, Clallam - County, Washington). - - _Spilogale phenax olympica_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 26:33, - November 24, 1906. - - _Spilogale gracilis latifrons_ Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, - Fur-bearing Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. - 301, July 22, 1937. - - _Type._--Obtained at Roseburg, Douglas County, Oregon, by T. S. - Palmer on July 13, 1889; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Larger than _saxatilis_ with less extensive - white markings, especially on tail, but white markings on head - larger; white usually tinged with salmon or pale orange. - - _Measurements._--Means for four males, from Pacific County, are - total length 411; length of tail 136; hind foot 47.5; ear 27. One - weighed 784 grams. - - _Distribution._--Western Washington from the western edge of the - Cascades westward. Marginal records, given by Taylor and Shaw - (1929: 12) are Hamilton, on the north; Lake Keechelus, on the - east; and Carson, on the south. - - _Remarks._--Comparison of adult specimens of civet cats from - western Washington and western Oregon shows no reliable character - for recognition of two races. No difference in tail length exists. - Narrowness of rostrum was the only diagnostic character found by - Howell (1906: 34) to separate _latifrons_ and _olympica_. We have - carefully compared civet cats from western Oregon, southwestern - Washington and the area about Seattle. Some local variation exists - but overlapping is great and specimens from Washington do not have - rostra that average narrower than specimens from Oregon. - - -=Mephitis mephitis= (Schreber) - -Striped skunk - -_Description._--The striped skunk is a heavy-bodied animal about the -size of a house cat. The legs are of moderate length and stout and the -hind feet are large. The claws of the forefeet are long, strong and -curved. The head is small and pointed, with small eyes and ears. The -tail is long, nearly equal in length to the head and body. The fur is -long, soft and shiny, and is jet black with sharply contrasting white -markings. These consist of a narrow stripe on the forehead, a broad band -on the neck that diverges into two stripes on the back. The two lateral -stripes fuse on the rump. The tail has long black hairs some of which -are white at the base. - -Striped skunks range over North America from central Canada southward to -southern Mexico. Two species are recognized by Hall (1936: 64), namely -_mephitis_ and _macroura_. The latter species is found in Mexico and -parts of the southwestern United States. - -Skunks are principally nocturnal but are sometimes active in the morning -and evening, especially on cloudy days. They prefer relatively open -country such as logged-over land, old fields and river-side and -streamside thickets. Their dens usually consist of old _Aplodontia_ -burrows or burrows which they, themselves, dig under stumps or log jams, -the floors of old buildings or among rocks. They feed on a variety of -animals and wild fruit. Along Puget Sound they wander over the beaches -when the tide is out, eating stranded fish, crustaceans and other marine -animals. The purple shore crab (_Hemigrapusus nudus_) forms a staple -article of diet. Along streams and rivers they wander along low, muddy -banks and sand bars searching for fish, crayfish, insects and insect -larvae. The larger water beetles (_Dytiscidae_) are often eaten; feces -are at times composed entirely of their shells. For the most part, -however, skunks have no regular food habits but eat such insects, small -mammals, birds or refuse as are available. - -The skunk is famous for the musk which it uses as a defensive weapon. -This highly volatile liquid is ejected from two small, nipplelike ducts -situated in the edge of the anus. The consistency, color, and distance -to which the musk can be discharged varies with the amount thrown. The -first discharge or two is usually a fine, pale yellow spray, which can -be accurately directed to a distance of 25 feet. The third discharge -consists of small drops of heavy, bright-yellow liquid that travels an -arching curve, 5 feet high, reaching a maximum distance of about 10 -feet. Later discharges consist of heavy yellow mucus and can be thrown -only a few feet. As many as seven or eight discharges are possible. -Skunk musk is acrid and pungent in order. In quantity or at close range -it is choking. In small quantities it is not unpleasant. It is extremely -lasting, sometimes being noticeable for months on clothes or buildings. -It is soluble in gasoline and clothes may be de-scented by several -washings in that fluid. - -The striped skunk is an even-tempered animal. Its defensive fluid is -discharged only when it is cornered or attacked. A trapped skunk rarely -releases musk. A man, by speaking softly and moving slowly, can come -within a distance of six feet of a trapped skunk. Experienced trappers -utilize this fact to approach and shoot trapped skunks through the head -or neck and so produce odorless furs. - -The skunk is potentially a source of considerable income to trappers in -Washington. The value of their furs varies with the demand but large -prime skins usually bring from $1 to $4. In eastern Washington, where -trapping for coyotes and other terrestrial mammals is carried on, the -skunks taken incidentally are an important source of revenue. In western -Washington they are often abundant but are seldom trapped. The most -sought pelts in western Washington are the mink, muskrat and raccoon; -all semiaquatic species. Skunks are rarely taken in traps set for these -mammals and few trappers bother to set overland trap lines for skunks. - -The young of the striped skunk usually number four to six. They are born -in late May or early June in western Washington; possibly later in -eastern Washington. - - -=Mephitis mephitis hudsonica= Richardson - - _Mephitis americana_ var. _hudsonica_ Richardson, Fauna - Boreali-Americana, 1:55, 1829. - - _Mephitis hudsonica_ Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 26:536, - July 31, 1895. - - _Chincha hudsonica_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:24, August 31, - 1901. - - _Mephitis mephitis hudsonica_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, - Publ. 473:65, November 20, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained on the "plains of the Saskatchewan, Canada." - - _Racial characters._--Size moderate; stripes diverging anteriorly - on back of neck; tail long with white stripe reaching well out, - nearly to tip; zygomatic arches nearly parallel. - - _Measurements._--Howell (1901: 24) gives the average of 3 males - from Saskatchewan, Montana and Wyoming, and of 3 females from - Montana and Idaho, as, respectively: total length 726, 602; length - of tail 268, 250; hind foot 82, 71. - - _Distribution_.--Northeastern Washington and the eastern edge of - the northern Cascades, south probably to the Wenatchee Mountains. - Recorded west to Oroville (W. W. D.) and Timentwa (W. W. D.) and - south to Spokane (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12). - - -=Mephitis mephitis major= (Howell) - - _Chincha occidentalis major_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:37, August - 31, 1901. - - _Mephitis mephitis major_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., - 37:2, April 10, 1931. - - [Illustration: FIG. 65. Distribution of the striped skunk in - Washington. A. _Mephitis mephitis hudsonica._ B. _Mephitis mephitis - major._ C. _Mephitis mephitis notata._ D. _Mephitis mephitis - spissigrada._] - - _Type._--Obtained at Fort Klamath, Klamath County, Oregon, by B. L. - Cunningham on January 5, 1898; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Slightly larger than _hudsonica_ with white - stripes diverging on shoulders rather than neck. - - _Measurements._--A young male from 1 mile north of Burbank, Walla - Walla County, measures: total length 474; length of tail 205; hind - foot 68; ear 30; weight 815 grams. - - _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake River - and east of the Columbia River, occurring west to Burbank (M. V. - Z.). - - -=Mephitis mephitis notata= (Howell) - - _Chincha occidentalis notata_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:36, August - 31, 1901. - - _Mephitis mephitis notata_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. - 473:67, November 20, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, south base of Mt. Adams, Klickitat - County, Washington, by P. Schmid on March 22, 1897; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _hudsonica_ but larger; stripes - narrower, diverging anteriorly on neck or back of head; tail - shorter, sometimes without long, white hairs. - - _Measurements._--Howell (1901:37) gives the average of 3 adult - males from Trout Lake, Klickitat County, as: total length 633; - length of tail 249; hind foot 76. - - _Distribution._--The Columbia River Valley of the southern - Cascades from the Wind River east to the Snake River and the - Yakima Valley area (trappers' reports). - - -=Mephitis mephitis spissigrada= Bangs - - _Mephitis spissigrada_ Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:31, - March 24, 1898. - - _Mephitis foetulenta_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 32, zoöl. - ser., 1:269, March, 1899 (type from Laguna, near Port Angeles, - Clallam County, Washington). - - _Chincha occidentalis spissigrada_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:35, - August 31, 1901. - - _Mephitis mephitis spissigrada_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Publ. 473:67, - November 20, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained at Sumas [prairie], British Columbia, by A. - Brooks on September 30, 1895; type in Museum of Comparative - Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _hudsonica_ but larger; stripes - broader, usually diverging on shoulders; hairs of stripes often - cream color or yellowish near base; end of tail usually white. - - _Measurements._--An adult male from 2-1/2 miles southeast of - Chinook, Pacific County, measures: total length 578; length of - tail 260; hind foot 30. A female from the same place and one from - Renton, King County, average: 575; 233; 72; 27. - - _Distribution._--Lowlands of western Washington. This form rarely - goes far into the mountains except along the valleys of the larger - rivers. Marginal records are Skykomish (W. W. D.) and Washougal - River (W. W. D.). - - -=Taxidea taxus taxus= (Schreber) - -Badger - - _Ursus taxus_ Schreber, Saugethiere, 3:520, 1778. - - _Taxidea taxus_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 28:524, June, 1894. - - _Taxidea taxus neglecta_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. - Conner Mus., no. 2:12, December, 1929. - - _Taxidea taxus taxus_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. - 473:78, November 20, 1936. - - _Type._--None. Type locality probably southwest of Hudson Bay - (Hall, 1936: 78). - - _Measurements._--Two males from northern Nevada measure, - respectively: total length 780, 762; length of tail 113, 150; hind - foot 136, 120; ear 55, 54; weight 15, 11 pounds. - - _Distribution._--Of general distribution over open country east of - the Cascades. Marginal records are Wauconda (Taylor and Shaw, - 1929: 12), Chelan (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 13), Goldendale (W. W. - D.) and "Divide above Trout Lake" (trapper's photograph). - - [Illustration: FIG. 66. Badger (_Taxidea taxus taxus_), tame animal in - Seattle, Washington. January 29, 1938. Captured at Lakeside, Chelan - County, and photographed at approximate age of ten months; subadult - male. (Eloise Kuntz photo.)] - -_Description._--The badger is the size of a small dog, measuring up to -32 inches in total length and weighing up to 20 pounds. The body is -heavy, powerful and remarkably flat and compressed. The tail and legs -are short. The forelegs are thick and strong, armed with long heavy -claws for digging. The ears are wide and low. The color of the upper -parts is a grizzled yellowish brown, not unlike the color of the -yellow-bellied marmot. The underparts are buffy, often with a white area -on the abdomen. The legs, feet, top of head, ears, and small areas on -the cheeks are blackish. Triangular areas about the eyes are buffy. A -white stripe extends from the nose pad backwards, between the eyes, to -the shoulders and serves as the best recognition mark. - - [Illustration: FIG. 67. Distribution of the badger, _Taxidea taxus - taxus_, in Washington.] - -Badgers are found over central and western United States, Canada and -northern Mexico. They are commonest on the plains and desert, -principally because the burrowing mammals upon which they feed are most -abundant there. The badger is a powerful and rapid digger, being able to -overtake and capture mice, ground squirrels, and even pocket gophers. -Perry (1939: 49-53) in her interesting accounts of the habits of a pet -badger obtained at Lakeside, Chelan County, found the animal powerful -enough to dig through a concrete floor! Evidence of badger's activities -are usually seen at any ground squirrel colony in eastern Washington. -This evidence consists of large holes in the ground. Rarely a horizontal -tunnel begins at the depth of two to four feet and extends for an -unknown distance. Earth removed in excavating is heaped beside one or -both of the narrower sides of the surface opening. - -In examining badger workings in ground squirrel colonies I have been -impressed by the fact that most of the holes ended not more than four or -five feet from the entrances--perhaps at the places where the ground -squirrel nests were located, although it may be that the digging of the -badger so terrified the squirrels that they dashed out in an attempt to -escape past the badger, before he reached the nests. Kangaroo rats and -pocket mice often attempt to escape by dashing past a person when he is -excavating their burrows. - -The power of the short, thick and slightly bowed foreleg of the badger -is tremendous. The claws are stout and fully an inch long. The animal is -able to break up and remove at a scoop, the baked, claylike loess of the -Columbian Plateau. Clods of this same material are so firm that only by -twisting and exerting considerable power was I able to break them. The -soil a foot beneath the sunbaked crust is softer and more easily worked. - -It is difficult to estimate the size of badger populations. In the arid -land of eastern Washington their diggings may exist almost unchanged for -many years. Interviews with professional trappers serve to indicate -their range and numbers as follows: southeastern edge of the Cascades -and Yakima Valley, not common, rarely straying up into -mountains--average trapper's catch, only one to three a year; Okanogan -Valley and northeastern edge of Cascades, not common--average trapper's -catch is six to ten a year, occasional trappers catching as many as 35; -Columbia, Kettle River, and other valleys in northeastern Washington, -uncommon, a few records only; Columbian Plateau, fairly common--average -professional trapper's yearly catch includes 10 to 20 badgers; -southeastern Washington, now rare because of overtrapping, formerly -common. - -Trappers state that the badgers taken in northeastern Washington are -usually classified as "hair badger" by fur buyers and bring only a -dollar or two. The badgers of the eastern Cascades are "fur" badgers but -do not bring top prices. The badgers of the Columbian Plateau bring the -best prices. Seemingly some geographic variation exists among badgers in -Washington. Those from the more humid areas of northeastern Washington -and the eastern Cascades are darker and bring poorer prices than the -paler "silver" badgers of the more open desert areas. - -The principal food of the badger in Washington seems to be ground -squirrels, _Citellus washingtoni_, _townsendii_, _columbianus_, or -_saturatus_, depending on locality. Pocket mice, gophers, and other -mammals are also eaten, as are grasshoppers, sword-tailed crickets, -other insects, and birds. - -Young of badgers number 3 to 5 and are born in late April, May, or early -June. - - -=Vulpes fulva cascadensis= Merriam - -Red fox - - _Vulpes cascadensis_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 2:665, - December 28, 1900. - - _Vulpes fulvus cascadensis_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:281, August - 29, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington, by - P. Schmid on March 3, 1898; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Skull heavy, narrow; color yellowish. - - _Measurements._--A male from Crater Lake, Klamath County, Oregon, - measures: total length 1113; length of tail 441; hind foot 180; - ear 112; weight 9 pounds. - - _Distribution._--From Trout Lake northward, through the higher - Cascades, to Loomis (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 13). - -_Description._--The red fox of the Cascades is large and measures about -4 feet in total length, of which the tail comprises 15 inches. The body -is slender and doglike; the legs long and slim; the tail thick and -bushy, and the ears are large and erect. In the red phase the red fox of -the Cascades is distinctly more yellowish than the red fox of the -eastern United States; the head is especially yellow. The body has more -red on the shoulder area than posteriorly, and is darkest on the rump. -The tail is rather pale with a dusky, not black, area distally and a -white tip. The ears are dusky. The lower legs and feet are black. The -throat, chest and underparts are white. The "cross" phase, according to -Cowan (1938: 202-206), is rather common in the Cascades. In cross foxes -the color is darker, brown rather than yellowish, and the area from the -nape of the neck back between the shoulders, including a bar across the -shoulders, is deep blackish or grayish brown. In a pelt that is -stretched out a cross is formed by the dark areas. The black and silver -phases of the red fox are also said by Cowan to be relatively common in -the Cascades, constituting 48 per cent of the population. Of 3,163 foxes -traded at Fort Colville, in northeastern Washington, only 19 per cent -were silver or cross. One fox, trapped in Okanogan County, is said by -its captor to have been black above and straw colored beneath, with no -white on the body. - -Red foxes range from Alaska and northern Canada well southward into the -United States. Related forms occur in Eurasia. - -The red fox of Washington is an alpine animal, ranging at or slightly -below timber-line. Here food is abundant in summer and fall but must be -scarce in winter. In winter its habitat is difficult for man to reach -and few persons penetrate the dangerous terrain where the fox lives. A -few professional trappers regularly catch foxes in the Cascades but know -little of their habits. - -The feces of red foxes examined by Taylor and Shaw on Mt. Rainier -contained remains of insects and berries (Taylor and Shaw, 1927: 43). - -The red fox is rare in Washington; it lives in inaccessible territory -and its fur is not especially valuable. The animal is of relatively -little economic importance. - -The brood den of a red fox found by Livezey and Evendan (1943: 500) near -Corvallis, Oregon, was two-thirds of the way up a 300-foot hill in a -strip of oaks (_Quercus garryana_). Well-packed trails led to an -entrance concealed in poison oak (_Rhus diversiloba_). Remains of a -turkey, 5 ground squirrels, and a jack rabbit were found near the den. -The entrance was 8 inches wide and 15 inches high. The tunnel tapered to -5 inches in diameter and was 47 feet long. Seven pups, 4 males and 3 -females, were found in the den. - - [Illustration: FIG. 68. Distribution of the red fox in Washington. A. - _Vulpes fulva cascadensis._ B. _Vulpes fulva macroura._ (See p. 450.)] - - -=Canis latrans= Say - -Coyote - -_Description._--The coyote is a large carnivore, about the size and -general proportions of a small collie dog but with bushier tail, and -more slender body. Adults measure about four feet in length, of which -the tail comprises a fourth. Adult males weigh about 30 pounds. The -color is somewhat variable, yellowish, buffy, or grayish. The muzzle and -backs of the ears are more reddish, and the legs brown. The tail is -yellowish gray with a dusky tip. The throat, chest and underparts are -white. - - [Illustration: FIG. 69. Coyote (_Canis latrans lestes_), in trap, 5 - miles southeast of McKenna, Washington, April 10, 1924. (Fish and - Wildlife Service photo by G. R. Bach, No. 26901.)] - -The coyote ranges from Alaska southward, over western North America, to -Central America. - -At the present time the coyote ranges over almost all of Washington, -except for the highest parts of the mountains and the dense forest areas -of western Washington. According to available information it was not -found about Puget Sound or the Olympic Peninsula until relatively recent -times. Some old trappers are of the opinion that coyotes did not come -into western Washington until the timber wolves became rare there. The -scarcity of the timber wolves seems to coincide with settlement, -clearing and lumbering. Probably coyotes did not become common in -western Washington until lumbering provided extensive clearings and open -areas more suitable to them than forest. Certainly coyotes and wolves -existed together in eastern Washington. - -It is difficult to determine whether coyotes were completely absent from -western Washington in the early days or simply scarce. The glacial -prairies of the Puget Sound area provide suitable habitat for coyotes -and coyotes are abundant there at the present time. If coyotes were -present at all in western Washington in the early days it is reasonable -to suppose that they would have been common on the prairies. Yet I was -told by an old trapper who had lived near Scotts Prairie, Mason County, -for many years, that he had never seen or _heard_ coyotes there until -about 1910. Although a coyote might be mistaken for a small wolf, the -call, as this trapper pointed out, is distinctive. - -The principal habitat requirement of the coyote seems to be extensive -areas of open country. This it finds in the desert area of the Columbian -Plateau, the open forests of northeastern Washington and the eastern -Cascades, and in the extensive timbered and burned-over lands in western -Washington. In summer coyotes range well up into the Hudsonian Life-zone -of the Cascade and Olympic mountains. Their principal range is lower, in -the Transition and Upper Sonoran life-zones. - -The coyotes are both nocturnal and diurnal. In the vicinity of human -habitations they are most active at night. In the heat of the day they -take refuge in brushy areas or small gullies. Many actions of the coyote -are doglike, and were it not for the large, round, bushy tail, a coyote -might easily be mistaken for a dog. The tail is carried in a drooped -position with the tip bowed slightly backwards. When badly frightened -and running at full speed the tail is stretched out straight behind. The -ordinary gait is a purposeful trot with the head held erect, the ears -pricked up, and the legs moving smoothly and effortlessly. Near Moses -Lake, Grant County, I watched a coyote trot along the side of one of a -series of small sand dunes. At the report of the small shotgun fired at -it, the coyote's dignified trot changed to terrified bounds, its feet -dug into the dune, throwing showers of sand into the air, as it crossed -several successive dunes in full flight before turning to take advantage -of the shelter of a draw between two dunes. A coyote chased by an -automobile attained a speed of 43 miles an hour for a short distance -(Zimmerman, 1943: 400). - -I have not watched a coyote stalk game, but as described to me it creeps -up to within a few yards of its prey and catches it with a sudden dash. -In hunting a jack rabbit, the coyote is said to pursue it, taking -advantage of short cuts, until close enough to seize it. - -Better known than the coyote itself is its howl--several doglike barks, -each successive one of a series shorter and higher pitched, the last one -ending in a long, drawn-out howl. In the winter of 1936 the coyotes near -Cottage Lake, King County, were especially vociferous. They ordinarily -began to howl about 9 p.m., but could be induced to howl earlier by -imitating their call. Their howling was a signal for all nearby -ranchers' dogs to howl in reply. In the desert areas of eastern -Washington I heard coyotes most often just at dusk or at dawn. - -The coyote is principally carnivorous, feeding on any mammals and birds -easy to kill. It willingly eats carrion, even when much decayed. Large -insects such as grasshoppers and crickets are eaten when they are -abundant and easily caught. Fruit and berries are eaten when available. - -Sperry (1941) reported on the analysis of the contents of 8,339 coyote -stomachs from various places in the United States, 1,186 of the stomachs -being from Washington. The following information is from his report on -all of the 8,339 stomachs: rabbits formed one-third of the food; -_Microtus_ was found in 7 per cent of the stomachs; _Peromyscus_ in 6 -per cent; _Neotoma_ in 4 per cent. _Reithrodontomys_ were found in 53 of -the 8,339 stomachs and in insignificant numbers. _Onychomys_ occurred in -11 of the 8,339 stomachs; _Clethrionomys_ in 8. _Ondatra_ occurred in 8 -of the 8,339. Two muskrats were in stomachs obtained from Washington. -_Citellus_ (exclusive of _beecheyi_, _lateralis_, and _saturatus_) were -found in 4 per cent and were locally important; _Citellus beecheyi_ -occurred in 84 stomachs, including 1 from Washington; _Citellus -lateralis_ and _saturatus_ occurred in 50 stomachs, including 5 from -Washington. _Marmota_ were found in 1 per cent of the stomachs. They -were included in stomachs from Washington but the number was not -reported. _Tamias_ (= _Eutamias_) were found in 43 stomachs from western -United States and were present in 1 per cent of the 1,186 stomachs from -Washington. _Sciurus_ and _Tamiasciurus_ occurred in 33 stomachs. -Included were 3 _Tamiasciurus douglasii_, a _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_, -and a _Sciurus griseus_ from Washington. _Glaucomys_ occurred in 6 -Washington-taken coyotes, of a total of 11 from the entire United -States. _Perognathus_ occurred in 3 per cent of the stomachs, and 274 -individuals were represented. They were found in 10 per cent of the -1,186 Washington stomachs. _Thomomys_ occurred in 4 per cent of the -stomachs examined and in 7 per cent of the stomachs from Washington. -_Erethizon_ appeared in 2 per cent of the stomachs (135 records), -including some from Washington. _Aplodonta_ occurred in only 11 -stomachs, all taken in Washington. Locally, it is concluded, mountain -beavers are important coyote food. House mice occurred in but five -stomachs, including 2 from Washington. _Zapus_ did not occur in coyote -stomachs from Washington. Domestic sheep and goats formed 7 per cent of -the food of Washington coyotes. Calves occurred in 3 stomachs of coyotes -from Washington. Pigs occurred in 8. Deer formed 3 per cent, by volume, -of coyote food in Washington. A part of the stock and deer reported was -doubtless carrion. - -One shrew was found in the stomach of a coyote from Washington, and two -stomachs contained moles. A house cat was eaten by one Washington -coyote, and another coyote had eaten a raccoon. Birds occurred in 13 per -cent of the stomachs examined but formed only a small part by volume. -Poultry formed one-fourth of this volume. Reptiles formed 0.08 per cent -of the food eaten by coyotes and occurred in 3 per cent of the stomachs. -A coyote from Washington had eaten a garter snake. No frogs were found -in coyote stomachs. A coyote from Washington had eaten a salamander. -Another had eaten a fish. Insects formed 1.08 per cent of the total food -eaten by coyotes. Fruit formed 3.63 per cent. Carrion constituted 25.2 -per cent of the total food eaten. - -It is extremely difficult to draw conclusions regarding the economic -value of any species. Much depends on the outlook of the individual, his -occupation, the locality where the animal occurs and local conditions -there. Furthermore it is impossible to understand and fairly weigh all -the factors involved. - -Coyotes destroy game and stock. They also eat carrion and destroy sick -animals, thus preventing the spread of disease. They eat jack rabbits -which are pests, and snowshoes and cottontails which are game. They eat -mice, which are a pest in agricultural areas, a benefit on rangelands -where they destroy weed seeds, and of neutral importance elsewhere. To -analyze the economic value of the coyote, the economic importance of -all animals on which it feeds must be considered and the "good" and -"bad" balanced--a well-nigh impossible task. - -In any event, the coyote has been judged and found guilty. Coyotes are -controlled by poison, trapping, and bounty. In spite of control measures -the coyote is holding its own in numbers or increasing. - -Stimulated in part by the bounty, professional trappers take many -coyotes each year in Washington. The pelts fluctuate in value from year -to year but a large, prime skin usually brings from 5 to 10 dollars. - - [Illustration: FIG. 70. Distribution of the coyote in Washington. A. - _Canis latrans lestes._ B. _Canis latrans incolatus._] - - -=Canis latrans lestes= Merriam - - _Canis lestes_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:25, March - 15, 1897. - - _Canis latrans lestes_ Taylor and Shaw, Mamm. and Birds Mt. - Rainier Nat. Park, p. 41, 1927. - - _Type._--Obtained in the Toyabe Mountains near Cloverdale, Nye - County, Nevada, by V. Bailey on November 21, 1890; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Frontal region of skull only slightly - concave. - - _Measurements._--A male from 20 miles south of Ephrata, Grant - County, on the Columbian Plateau, measures: total length 1185; - length of tail 365; hind foot 198; ear 125; weight 26-1/2 lbs. A - female from 10 miles northeast of Goldendale, Klickitat County, in - the southern Cascades, measured: 1105; 280; 197; weight 19 lbs. A - female from Cashmere, Chelan County, in the northern Cascades, - measured: 1209; 410; 210; 131. A female from the middle fork of the - Nooksack River, Whatcom County, in western Washington, measured: - total length 1185; length of tail 358. - - _Distribution._--Suitable areas of the entire state, except for - northeastern Washington. - -_Remarks._--Pending a revision of the coyotes, those of western -Washington are referred to _lestes_. - - -=Canis latrans incolatus= Hall - - _Canis latrans incolatus_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., - 40:369, November 5, 1934. - - _Type._--Obtained at Isaacs Lake, 3,000 ft. elevation, Bowron Lakes - Region, British Columbia, by T. T. and E. B. McCabe on October 23, - 1928; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _lestes_ but frontal region more - concave. - - _Measurements._--A male from 20 miles east of Tonasket, Okanogan - County, measures: total length 1033; length of tail 291; hind foot - 163; ear 110. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, west to Okanogan and - Conconully (W. W. D.). - - _Remarks._--Several series of coyote skulls from northeastern - Washington are more variable than series of _lestes_ from - California and _incolatus_ from British Columbia. The "dish-faced" - character of _incolatus_ is more strongly represented in some - coyotes from northeastern Washington than in topotypes of - _incolatus_ but others are more like _lestes_. In average - measurements they are nearer _incolatus_. - - -=Canis lupus fuscus= Richardson - -Timber Wolf - - _Canis lupus_ var. _fusca_ Richardson, Mammalia, Zoölogy, Captain - Beechey's voyage of the Blossom, p. 5, 1839. - - _Lupus gigas_ Townsend, Jour. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, 2:75, - November, 1850 (type from near Vancouver, Clark County, - Washington). - - _Canis gigas_ Miller, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 59 (no. 15):4, June - 8, 1912. - - _Canis occidentalis gigas_ Taylor and Shaw, Birds and Mamm. Mt. - Rainier Nat. Park, p. 39, 1927. - - _Canis lycaon gigas_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:272, August 29, - 1936. - - _Type locality._--Banks of the Columbia below The Dalles in Oregon - or Washington. - - _Racial characters._--A large, relatively dark colored wolf with - wide skull and heavy dentition. - - _Distribution._--Probably occurred from the eastern base of the - Cascades westward to the Pacific. Now extinct over most of its - range. - - [Illustration: FIG. 71. Probable past distribution of the wolf in - Washington. A. _Canis lupus fuscus._ B. _Canis lupus columbianus._ C. - _Canis lupus irremotus._] - -_Description._--The wolf is a large carnivore of the general proportions -of a large collie dog. Wolves closely resemble coyotes but are larger, -with stouter body, larger feet, thicker muzzle and more massive, -powerful skull and teeth. The fur of wolves is long and rather stiff. -In general color of the body they resemble coyotes, but the underparts -are less white and the legs and feet are more contrastingly reddish. - -Wolves of the species _Canis lupus_ range over the northern parts of -both the Old and New World. In America they are found from the Arctic -south into Mexico. - -Wolves occurred in western, northeastern and southeastern Washington. -They seem not to have occurred on the Columbian Plateau. Wolves are -generally associated with the larger, hooved mammals upon which they -feed. In Washington these probably once included the elk, deer, mountain -sheep and mountain goat. Hooved animals, except mountain sheep and deer, -may not have occurred on the Columbian Plateau in historic times, and -even the deer and sheep probably were scarce. There was probably little -food for wolves on the Plateau. - -The early settlers found wolves to be common and a serious pest. By 1900 -they had nearly disappeared. In the settled parts of western Washington -they were doubtless exterminated at an early date but it is difficult to -account for their disappearance on the Olympic Peninsula. To the best of -my knowledge, two wolves killed on the north fork of the Quinault River -in 1920, or a few years earlier, were the last ones from that peninsula. -Previously they were common and I doubt that man killed them all; -perhaps some introduced disease, such as rabies, brought about their -extinction. - -In the Cascade area they probably still exist in small numbers and in -remote places. There are said to be some near Mount Adams. They have -been reported from Mount Rainier as recently as 1920. Trappers state -that there are a few in the northern Cascades, between Lake Chelan and -Mount Baker. There are no recent records for southeastern Washington. -The last wolves killed on the Columbian Plateau were two taken at -Wahluke, Grant County, on September 17, 1917. Only rumors--no authentic -reports--of wolves are available from northeastern Washington in recent -years. The reappearance of the caribou there may attract wolves from -British Columbia. - -Any report of wolves, even from experienced trappers, is open to some -question. An unusually large coyote often is mistaken for a wolf. A -large, wild and wolflike dog is even more likely to be mistaken for a -wolf. - -The wolf no longer is an important element in the mammalian fauna of -Washington and will probably never be so again. The species, like the -grizzly bear, is nearly extinct in the state. - - -=Canis familiaris= Linnaeus - -Dog - - _Canis familiaris_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1:56, 1766. - - _Type locality._--Sweden. - -Dogs were present with aboriginal man in Washington, previous to the -arrival of the white man. For greater detail see Bailey (1936), Suckley -and Gibbs (1860) and Allen (1920). - - -=Felis concolor= Linnaeus - -Cougar or mountain lion - - [Illustration: FIG. 72. Cougar or mountain lion (_Felis concolor - missoulensis_), skin mounted as a rug; shot on Mill Creek, Pend Oreille - County, Washington, February 13, 1935, by Ralph Johnson. Skin now - measures: snout to tip of tail 252 cm., span between tips of forepaws - 157 cm., tail 89 cm.; male. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor - B. Scheffer, No. 66.)] - -_Description._--The cougar is a large cat and has the general -proportions of the house cat. Large cougars measure more than seven feet -in length of which the tail comprises two feet. Large males weigh more -than 150 pounds. Females are smaller and lighter than males. In color -the head, back, tail and outside of the legs are reddish brown. The -throat, underparts and inside of the legs are white. The tip of the -tail, or area near the tip, is black or blackish. - -Cougars, often called mountain lions, pumas and panthers, range from -Canada to southern South America. - -The cougar feeds extensively upon deer and its habits and habitat are -accordingly specialized. It is active in both winter and summer and -zonally ranges from the Transition through the Canadian to the Hudsonian -life-zones. - - [Illustration: FIG. 73. Cougar or mountain lion (_Felis concolor - oregonensis_), adults and young taken by Dewey Schmid in White Salmon - Valley, Washington, about December 1, 1937, and January 1, 1938. Two - bobcats show at extreme right. (Dewey Schmid photo.)] - -The number of deer killed by the average cougar is unknown. Some -trappers believe that a cougar kills a deer at least every other day -while others feel that only one a week is taken. Other food is eaten -when available. Because cougars kill deer, they are incessantly warred -upon by hunters and sportsmen. Bounties, often generous, have long been -paid in Washington. Although many cougars are killed each year they are -still numerous in many areas. So many remote areas in the mountains are -not easily accessible to man and dogs that the cougar, as a species, -probably will persist for many years. - -A cougar is one of the most secretive animals in the wilds. Rarely are -individuals seen by man. They are difficult to trap, principally because -they are such wide-ranging animals and partly because they prefer to -feed on fresh deer meat and hence are not apt to be attracted to trap -bait. For these same reasons they are difficult to poison. By using -poisoned hamburger, a government agent did poison one near Leavenworth, -Chelan County. The principal method of killing cougar is to hunt them -with packs of especially trained hounds which pursue the cougar until it -takes refuge in a tree or other supposed place of safety, where it is -shot. - -A common gait is a swift, smooth trot in which the body is kept low and -the tail droops with the terminal part bent backwards. A wild cougar -seen near Leavenworth, Chelan County, traveled with effortless speed -until fired upon. At the sound of the shot it made two great bounds and -disappeared into the brush fringing a canyon. - - [Illustration: FIG. 74. Distribution of the cougar in Washington. A. - _Felis concolor oregonensis._ B. _Felis concolor missoulensis._] - -Although the cougar is a large and powerful carnivore it almost never -makes unprovoked attacks upon man. An exception was the cougar that -partially devoured a thirteen-year old boy near Lake Chelan, Chelan -County (Finley, 1925: 197-199). - -The hunting range of an individual cougar is many miles in extent. These -ranges are traveled periodically and any particular area may be visited -regularly every few days. The cougars may travel many miles each night -in search of deer. Their ranges must overlap to a certain extent for as -many as 12 have been taken from a single drainage area. Over most of the -year they are solitary but breeding females may attract several males -and hunters occasionally capture a female and several males at one -locality. Breeding occurs in almost any month of the year. The young are -cared for by the female and follow her for perhaps a year. Young -individuals have been taken at the same time and in the same locality as -an adult female and several adult males that supposedly were breeding. -There are from one to three young in a litter. For the first months of -their life cougar kittens are spotted. In this they differ from the -young of the bobcat which are plain or slightly mottled and do not -become spotted until later in life. Cougar kittens differ further from -bobcat kittens in possessing a long tail. - -The pelage of the cougar is short and of no value as fur although the -skins often are sold at a good price as trophies when prepared as rugs. - - -=Felis concolor oregonensis= Rafinesque - - _Felix [sic] oregonensis_ Rafinesque, Atlantic Journal, 1:62, 1832. - - _Felis hippolestes olympus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 11:220, July 15, 1897 (type from Lake Cushman, Mason County, - Washington). - - _Felis oregonensis_ Stone, Science, n. s., 9:35, January 6, 1899. - - _Felis oregonensis oregonensis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 128:158, April 29, 1924. - - _Felis concolor oregonensis_ Nelson and Goldman, Jour. Mamm., - 10:347, November 11, 1929. - - _Type locality._--"Oregon Mountains, or east or west of them." - - _Racial characters._--Light, rounded skull, dark color, extensive - black on tip of tail and short, rather coarse fur. - - _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains - westward to the Pacific. Marginal records are (trappers' - specimens): Ruby, Leavenworth, and Goldendale. - - -=Felis concolor missoulensis= Goldman - - _Felis concolor missoulensis_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 24:229, June 8, - 1943. - - _Type._--Obtained 10 miles southwest of Missoula, Missoula County, - Montana, by R. and C. Thompson, on December 30, 1936; type in - United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--A large cougar with heavy, wide skull, pale - color and rather long, soft fur. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington west at least to Republic - (W.W.D.) and the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. - - _Remarks._--Goldman (1943: 229) states "Between the Rocky - Mountains and the Cascade Range _missoulensis_ intergrades with - _oregonensis_." My own comparison of specimens reveals differences - of considerable magnitude between the cougars of western and - northeastern Washington. I suppose that intergradation takes place - in a limited area in, and west of, the Okanogan River Valley in - Washington. - - [Illustration: FIG. 75. Canadian lynx, _Lynx canadensis_, male, taken - February 16, 1939, on Baldy Mountain, northwest Idaho, by Lloyd - Robinson of Sandpoint. (Ross A. Hall photo.)] - - -=Lynx canadensis canadensis= Kerr - -Canadian lynx - - _Lynx canadensis_ Kerr, Anim. Kingd., 1: systematic catalogue - inserted between pages 32 and 33 (description, p. 157), 1792. - - _Lynx borealis canadensis_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:611, - 1885. - - _Lynx canadensis canadensis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 128:160, April 29, 1924. - - _Type locality._--Eastern Canada. - - _Measurements._--A female from Buttermills Creek, Twisp River, - Okanogan County, measured: total length 900; length of tail 95; - hind foot 205. - - _Distribution._--Higher parts of the Cascade Mountains, Blue - Mountains and mountains of northeastern Washington, recorded from - Oroville on the north (W. W. D.) to Mount Adams (Taylor and Shaw, - 1929: 13) on the south. - - [Illustration: FIG. 76. Canadian lynx (_Lynx canadensis_), catch of - nine, with two coyotes, taken by Lester Fairbrother in hills west of - Oroville, Washington, March, 1938. (Lester Fairbrother photo.)] - -_Description._--The Canadian lynx weighs about 20 pounds and is catlike -in general proportions but differs in possessing longer, stouter legs, -much larger feet, a short tail, tufted ears and long, very soft fur. The -pelage of the upper parts is soft gray with a slightly yellowish tone; -the ears and tail are black; and the underparts are gray with indistinct -black spots. The pelage is shorter and more reddish in summer. Bailey -(1936: 271) records a maximum weight of 28 pounds. - - [Illustration: FIG. 77. Distribution of the Canadian lynx, _Lynx - canadensis_, in Washington.] - -The lynx ranges over the forested parts of North America from the Arctic -south into the northern United States. It has a restricted range in -Washington, occurring in the same areas as does the red fox. Although -the lynx is an important fur bearer in Canada and Alaska, it is -unimportant in Washington because only a few are trapped each winter. -Most of the natural range is in the remote and wilder parts of the -mountains. Here, each of several trappers regularly takes a dozen or -more each year. Mr. Lester Fairbrother of Oroville, Okanogan County, -regularly traps lynxes in the northern Cascades. They are taken in -wooded areas where snowshoe rabbits, their principal food in winter, are -abundant. In the more accessible parts of the animal's range, such as -the Blue Mountains and the mountains of northeastern Washington, lynxes -are rare. As much as sixty dollars each is offered for large skins. - - -=Lynx rufus= (Schreber) - -Bobcat - -_Description._--The average male bobcat weighs approximately 20 pounds. -The female is about one-fourth lighter. A bobcat has longer, stouter -legs and larger feet than a house cat and a short tail. The ears are -short, with pointed tufts of hair. - - [Illustration: FIG. 78. Bobcat (_Lynx rufus fasciatus_), two-year-old - male captured as a kit near Lyman, Washington, in the spring of 1937, - by Earl Scott; photographed March 9, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service - photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 588.)] - -Bobcats range from southern Canada south to central Mexico. Whereas the -Canadian lynx occupies the boreal region, the bobcat occupies the -temperate region. It is thought to be principally nocturnal but is -occasionally active by day. One that I watched near Lake Samamish, King -County, when it was unaware of my presence, was decidedly uncatlike as -it strolled with a smooth but stiff-legged gait on a forest trail, with -head held up, short tail erect and wagging back and forth with each -step. The general impression was of a large, extremely long-legged -animal. There was nothing stealthy in its movements. Another individual -seen in the same locality on a later date saw me. As it bounded away the -body was kept low and the legs were bent with the forelegs appearing -almost bowlegged. - -Like many other carnivores, each bobcat has a home range which varies -with the available food supply. The range may include deep forest, dense -thickets and open grasslands, but country with considerable -edge-environment seems to be preferred to dense cover, and rocky areas -to smooth soil. Perhaps the abundance of mice and wood rats attracts -bobcats to the rocks, but the cover afforded is also a factor. - -The bobcat is almost universally regarded as a predator and the state of -Washington now offers a bounty on it. The animals doubtless do kill a -certain amount of game, but kill also other animals which man regards as -pests because they interfere with reforestation and growing of food -crops. One of the best natural checks on these pests is the bobcat -which, in certain areas, does more good than harm. Where doing damage to -game or livestock bobcats may be eliminated by trapping or hunting with -dogs. - -Trappers report that bobcats have a poor sense of smell but very keen -sight. They are easily trapped. The fur is soft and handsome but does -not wear well. Fur buyers designate the large, pale bobcats of eastern -Washington as lynx cats and reserve the name bobcat for the more reddish -race of western Washington. Immature and unprime pelts from eastern -Washington also are classed as "bobcat." - -The difference between the pale bobcat of eastern Washington and the -dark race of western Washington is greater than that which separates -many subspecies. Dewey Smith of Guler, Klickitat County, showed me skins -of bobcats taken on his trap-line along the White Salmon River, which -drains southward to the Columbia, and over into the watershed of the -Lewis River. Bobcats from the White Salmon River were pale and gray, and -those from along the Lewis River were more reddish. The difference was -striking. A very few intermediate skins indicated that interbreeding -occurs. The geographic variation between the two races is reminiscent of -that in the snowshoe rabbits of the western Cascades. - - -=Lynx rufus fasciatus= Rafinesque - - _Lynx fasciatus_ Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag., 2:46, November, - 1817. - - _Lynx fasciatus fasciatus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:160, - April 29, 1924. - - _Lynx rufus fasciatus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:269, August 29, - 1936. - - _Type locality._--Near mouth of the Columbia River on "Netul" River - (Lewis and Clark River) near Astoria (Bailey, 1936: 269). - - _Racial characters._--Size moderate; fur short; color distinctly - reddish. - - _Measurements._--A male from Forks, Clallam County, measured: - total length 890; length of tail 190; hind foot 167; ear 80; - weight 24-1/2 pounds. - - _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains westward, including - the valleys of rivers draining westward in the Cascades. Marginal - occurrences are: Skykomish (W. W. D.), Mt. Rainier (Taylor and - Shaw, 1927: 60) and headwaters of Lewis River (W. W. D.). - - [Illustration: FIG. 79. Distribution of the bobcat in Washington. A. - _Lynx rufus fasciatus._ B. _Lynx rufus pallescens._] - - -=Lynx rufus pallescens= Merriam - - _Lynx fasciatus pallescens_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 16:104, - October 28, 1899. - - _Lynx rufus uinta_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:267, August 29, - 1936. - - _Lynx rufus pallescens_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:268, August 29, - 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington, by - D. Kaegi on January 10, 1895; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Size large; skull heavy with extensive - crests and ridges; fur long and soft; color pale, more grayish and - less reddish than in _fasciatus_. - - _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains eastward, including - the valleys of rivers in the Cascades which drain southward and - eastward. Marginal records of occurrences are Oroville (W. W. D.), - Lake Keechelus (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 15) and Trout Lake (W. W. - D.). - - -=Zalophus californianus= (Lesson) - -California sea lion - - _Otaria californiana_ Lesson, Dict. Class Nat. Hist., 13:420, 1828. - - _Zalophus californianus_ Allen, Monogr. N. Amer. Pinnipeds, U. S. - Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Terr., Misc. Publ., 12:276, 1880. - - _Type locality._--California. - - _Distribution._--Rare or casual along the coast of Washington. - -_Description._--Adult males are 7 to 8 feet in length and females about -6 feet. Bulls weigh as much as 1,000 pounds, and females up to 600 -pounds. Both fore and hind limbs are modified for swimming; they are -flippers directed posteriorly. The body is cylindrical and streamlined, -the neck thick and the head small. Adult males possess a high sagittal -crest resulting in a high forehead. Eyes and ears are small. The reddish -brown pelage is short and coarse. Females are darker than the males. - -The California sea lion occurs along the Pacific Coast from Mexico to -northern California and has been recorded from Oregon (Bailey, 1936: -332), Washington and British Columbia (Greenwood, Newcombe, and Fraser, -1918: 1-39). It is of rare or casual occurrence along the coast of -Washington. - - -=Eumetopias jubata= (Schreber) - -Steller sea lion - - _Phoca jubata_ Schreber, Säugthiere, 3:300, 1776. - - _Eumetopias Stelleri_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):607, - 1885. - - _Eumetopias jubata_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:113, - March 15, 1902. - - _Type locality._--North Pacific Ocean. - - _Distribution._--Ocean coast, breeding on small, rocky islets such - as the Quillayute Needles. - -_Description._--The Steller sea lion resembles the California sea lion -but is larger. Old bulls are from 10 to 12 feet in length and weigh from -1,200 to 1,500 pounds, perhaps even a ton. Females are 8 to 9 feet in -length and may weigh up to 1000 pounds. The female Steller sea lion is -nearly as large as the male of the California sea lion. The bull Steller -sea lion lacks the high forehead characteristic of the California sea -lion, and the body is heavier and stouter, especially in the neck and -chest. Bulls are distinctly bicolored, the head, neck and chest being -cinnamon and the rest of the body darker. Females are a uniform dark -brown color. The Steller sea lion makes a loud, deep roaring sound. - -Steller sea lions occur along the coast of Asia south to Japan and the -coast of North America from the Bering Strait south to central -California. The range thus meets and overlaps that of the California sea -lion. - -Steller sea lions are splendid swimmers and spend much of their time in -the surf. They often lie in the water a few yards from where the waves -pound some jagged cliff, retaining their dangerous position without -discernible effort. They are curious and will raise their head and neck -vertically out of the water to observe a passing boat. Much time is -spent beneath the surface, presumably hunting fish. They sometimes leap -up out of the water in an arching dive or may simply lower their heads -beneath the surface and appear several minutes later at another place. -They may come to the surface with a porpoiselike roll, breathe, and -again dive. Many of their actions seem inspired by playfulness--a means -of working off excess energy. - -Sea lions haul out on a number of rocky islands along the coast. They -are slow and clumsy on land. Their rear flippers can be directed forward -and so give them some assistance in moving about. When startled they are -able, with much struggling, to move with fair speed to the water. They -can dive from considerable heights. - -The studies of Greenwood, Newcombe and Fraser (1918: 1-39) show that the -Steller sea lions eat a great variety of marine fish and other sea life. -Included in their diet are squid, starfish, crabs, clams, mussels, -salmon, herring, flounder, rock cod, sea bass and dogfish. They seem not -to be selective in their food habits but eat the food most easily -available at the time. Unfortunately this is occasionally salmon in nets -or traps and for this reason fishermen usually kill sea lions on sight. -The number of sea lions along the coast of Washington has been greatly -reduced by shooting and dynamiting the animals on their hauling-out -grounds. There is no doubt that sea lions do occasionally eat salmon, -especially in traps or nets. They also become entangled in the nets, and -damage them. On the other hand, investigations of their food habits have -shown that they do not eat any great number of salmon or other important -food fishes. They are a relatively harmless and exceedingly interesting -animal and might well be preserved in numbers exceeding their present -population. - -Until relatively recent times the sea lion was an important source of -food to the Indians living along the ocean coast. The bones of sea lions -are often the most numerous vertebrate remains in shell mounds. - -The Steller sea lion now breeds only in a few places along the coast of -Washington. They are polygamous and each of the stronger bulls has eight -or ten cows in his harem. Fierce battles between bulls are said to take -place in the breeding season, late in May. A single pup is born after a -gestation period of about one year. Pups are darker in color than -adults. - - -=Callorhinus ursinus cynocephalus= (Walbaum) - -Alaska fur seal - - _Siren cynocephalus_ Walbaum, Petri Artedi Sueci Genera Pisc., p. - 560, 1792. - - _Callorhinus ursinus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):607, - 1885. - - _Callorhinus alascanus_ Jordan and Clark, Fur Seals and Fur Seal - Islands of the North Pacific, pt. 3, p. 2, November, 1899. - - _Callotaria ursina cynocephala_ Stejneger, George Wilhelm Steller, - Harvard Univ. Press, p. 285, 1936. - - _Type locality._--Pribilof Islands, Alaska. - - _Distribution._--Breeds on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Abundant - off the coast of Washington on migration. - -_Description._--The difference in the size of male and female fur seals -is great. Males are about 8 feet in length when fully grown but the -females are only about 4 feet long. Males weigh up to 700 pounds but -females only about 100 pounds. In general appearance the fur seal -resembles the sea lion but the fur is longer, denser and softer. Males -are very dark brown in color. Females and young are grayish brown. The -fur seal, like the sea lion, can reverse its hind flippers and use them -to a certain extent in walking. - -The Alaskan fur seal breeds on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. The seals -emerge from the water to certain favored hauling-out places in May and -June. They leave the Islands in November to begin their long migration. -The bulls spend the winter off the coast of Alaska south of the -Aleutians but the females and young travel south to the ocean off -California. In the spring they start north, arriving off the coast of -Washington in February, March and April. Young, rarely adults, are -washed up on the ocean beaches of Washington (Scheffer, 1939: 43). - -The United States Government, by international treaty, manages the fur -seal herds on a sustained yield basis and pelagic sealing by independent -hunters is prohibited. Indians are allowed to take the fur seals on -migration but are subject to certain restrictions. Modern boats, -outboard motors and guns are prohibited. Indians living on the coast of -Washington hunt the fur seals from dugout canoes. The weapons are -double-headed harpoons with long cedar shafts. One harpoon head is at -the tip of the shaft and the other is on a short fork that projects -downward and forward at a 30° angle from the main shaft. The harpoon is -thrown with the aid of hand grips at the end of the shaft. The seal is -recovered by rawhide lines connected to the harpoon heads. The hunters -leave shore at dawn and travel ten to twenty miles from land, at which -distance the seal herds are usually encountered. The hunting is -dangerous work and is carried on only by skilled and brave men. -Relatively calm weather is required. The flesh of the seals is eaten -and the skins sold. - -Schultz and Rafn (1936: 13-15) examined the stomachs of 41 fur seals -taken within 30 miles of La Push, Washington, in March, April and May, -1930. Food found included squids, shrimps, herring and lampreys. - - -=Phoca vitulina richardii= (Gray) - -Hair seal or harbor seal - - _Halicyon richardii_ Gray, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 28, 1864. - - _Phoca richardii_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:491, - December 12, 1902. - - _Phoca richardii richardii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 128:164, April 29, 1924. - - _Phoca vitulina richardii_ Doutt, Ann. Carnegie Mus., 29:117, May - 12, 1942. - - _Type._--Described from a specimen obtained at the Fraser River, - British Columbia, probably on March 23, 1861, by C. B. Wood and - another obtained by Wood at Queen Charlotte Sound, British - Columbia, in 1862 (see Scheffer and Slipp, 1944: 374); type in - British Museum of Natural History. - - _Distribution._--Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan De Fuca and the - coast of Washington, extending at times up the Columbia River to - The Dalles. Has been recorded in Lake Washington, Seattle (Bonham, - 1942: 76). - -_Description._--Adults are about 5 feet in length and weigh up to 250 -pounds; males are approximately a quarter larger than females. The hair -seals differ from the sea lions and fur seals in a number of respects. -The body is widest in the midsection rather than in the chest. The neck -is short and slim. The eyes are large and there are no external ears. -The hind flippers are not reversible but are permanently directed -posteriorly. The pelage is short, stiff, and directed posteriorly. The -ground color is silver gray or yellow; usually it is yellow, blotched -and marbled with black, dusky or gray. - -Hair seals range over the northern Atlantic and Pacific oceans, -occurring southward along the Pacific Coast of North America to central -Mexico. Six races are recognized by Doutt (1942: 115). - -The hair seal is the common seal in Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan De -Fuca and on the ocean coast. Scheffer and Slipp (1944: 373) estimate -that 5,000 live along the coast of Washington. Hair seals are social to -some degree but are often seen singly. In Puget Sound, where there are -relatively few hauling-out areas, they rarely leave the water but on the -ocean coast they emerge to bask on the reefs. On Destruction Island, -Jefferson County, V. B. Scheffer and I watched a herd of about 20 -animals that lay on a reef exposed by low tide. According to the -lighthouse keeper the reef was occupied daily by these seals. Scheffer -and Slipp (_loc. cit._, p. 388) report herds of up to 200 hair seals. In -Puget Sound 10 to 20 seals seem to be the usual number in a herd, but -occasionally there are as many as 50. - -Hair seals often exhibit curiosity concerning small boats; the seals lie -in the water with only their round heads above the surface, staring at -the boat for many minutes. Constant shooting has made them shy and any -quick movement will cause them to dive; several dived instantly when I -pointed either a stick or gun at them. - -Hair seals are less spectacular than sea lions. When basking on rocks -the seals are silent. When an observer is yet a long distance away the -seals raise their small heads and remain on the alert. When they take to -the water, they travel with a jerking motion. In the water one rarely -sees more than their heads. When they dive they usually sink below the -surface, never making the spectacular arching dive so typical of the sea -lions. - -At Useless Bay, Whidby Island, Island County, a herd of five or six hair -seals was studied in July, 1936. These animals played and slept in the -shallow water beneath a high, forested bluff and could be watched from -the bluff above. The seals seemed to gather here in the early afternoon. -Much of their time was spent sleeping on the surface with the body in a -bowed position and drifting freely. Occasional waving of the rear -flippers kept them from drifting away. They played a great deal, -splashing, diving and swimming in circles or spirals. Occasionally one -would dive down to swim slowly along just above the bottom. At times one -would put on a sudden burst of speed, apparently in pursuit of some -fish, rarely continued for more than 30 or 40 feet after which the seal -usually rose to the surface to resume play. Never did I see one with a -fish in its mouth and these pursuits, if pursuits they were, seemed to -have been prompted more by a spirit of play than by hunger. - -A young seal was kept as a pet for several weeks at Friday Harbor, San -Juan County. It was tame and affectionate but decidedly temperamental. -It demanded constant attention and whimpered, cried or moaned if left -alone. It was more active by night than by day and made a characteristic -mooing cry, which continued at intervals throughout the night. This -habit led to its eventual disposal. The temper of this young seal was -shown by its actions when it encountered strands of kelp while swimming. -If the kelp strands held back its progress it would turn back, seize the -kelp in its teeth and bite viciously. Never did it attempt to bite -persons. - -The hair seal was generally thought to feed almost exclusively on -salmon, but the work of Scheffer (1928: 10-16) showed this view to be -incorrect. Of 14 hair seal stomachs examined, all of which were full, -only two contained salmon. In a later study (Scheffer and Sperry, 1931: -214-226), only two of 100 stomachs examined contained salmon. Other food -items were tomcod, flounder, sculpin, herring, shiner, hake, skate, -blenny, unidentified fish, squid, octopus, shrimp, crab and starfish. In -spite of Scheffer's work, hair seals are killed at every opportunity by -fisherman and boatman. Bounties were paid on their scalps for many -years, and more than 1,000 bounties were paid for each of several years -previous to 1930. Their small, round heads bobbing on the waves offer a -poor target and many seals, after having been fired at, become extremely -shy. They seem to be holding their own in numbers at the present time. - -Scheffer and Slipp (1944: 401) found that the young were born in late -May along the ocean coast and in June and July in Puget Sound. The young -seal mentioned as having been kept captive at Friday Harbor was obtained -from an Indian on July 26, 1938, and was said to be two weeks old at the -time. The Indian said that he had watched the birth of the young and -then killed the mother for bounty. On July 28 the young seal weighed -approximately 20 pounds and was in good health. The seal could swim -well. It was said to have been born "on the rocks" at Long Island, San -Juan County. The seal drank milk from a baby's bottle but refused fresh -scallops, clams and fish of several species. When put into a large, -screened box sunk in the water it at once investigated the other animals -in the box. It showed no fear of a large bull cod weighing 50 pounds, or -of a 20-pound skate and several sharks 5 feet long but seemed to be -frightened by a large octopus weighing about 30 pounds. In swimming, the -front flippers were held flat against the body and the actual swimming -was accomplished by the vertically-held rear flippers and the rapid -swinging of the hips. Its eyes were very dark brown, almost black, but -soft and appealing. The bases of the vibrissae were thick and soft. The -belly was silvery white and unspotted. The sides and back were iron gray -spotted with dark, bluish gray, the whole overlaid with a silvery tint. -The claws were long, round, and sharply pointed. - -When sleeping, the seal usually lay on its side, occasionally upon its -back or belly. The front flippers were held tight to its sides but the -back flippers were held straight back with the digits bent inward at -right angles and laid so that the right digits were against the left. In -moving on land the front flippers were folded into fists and used to -push the animal forward while the body was moved by snakelike motions of -the hips. It breathed in short gasps. - - -Genus =Tamias= Illiger - -Chipmunks - -The chipmunks of Asia and western North America have usually been -separated under the generic name _Eutamias_ from those of the genus -_Tamias_ of eastern America. Ellerman (1940: 428) placed both in the -same genus and Bryant (1945: 257-390) reached the same conclusions after -intensive study of American sciurids. Bryant's treatment is followed -here. The sciurid genera as they occur in Washington, are listed by -Bryant as follows: _Tamias_, _Marmota_, _Citellus_, _Sciurus_, -_Tamiasciurus_, _Glaucomys_. This order, rather than that of Miller -(1924) is used here. Four species of _Tamias_ are listed for Washington: -_minimus_ represented by two subspecies; _amoenus_, by six; _ruficaudus_ -by one; and _townsendii_, by two. - -Chipmunks from Washington vary in size from less than 8 inches in total -length to more than 10 inches in total length. Some race of chipmunk -occurs in almost every part of Washington. Their striped color pattern -serves as a universal recognition mark. The somewhat similarly striped -mantled ground squirrel is often mistakenly called chipmunk. The mantled -ground squirrel is larger than any chipmunk, has but two dark stripes as -compared with five dark stripes of chipmunks, and has a plain, reddish -head unlike the distinctly striped head of _Tamias_. - -Like most members of the squirrel family, chipmunks are active by day -and are therefore better known to man than are most of the other kinds -of small mammals, most of which are nocturnal. The attractive color and -sprightly actions of chipmunks make them a delightful feature of the -outdoors. They feed on fruit, seeds, and fungus and eagerly eat food -that can be begged or stolen from man. They have been known to kill mice -and they have been accused of destroying nests and eggs of birds. They -often eat insects and occasionally eat the flesh of mice or other -chipmunks held in collector's traps. - -Chipmunks climb trees and bushes readily but only _townsendii_ can be -called arboreal, and even it prefers to climb on stumps and dead trunks -rather than in living trees. All species are fond of climbing about -rocky outcrops and talus slides. - -The call of the chipmunks is a birdlike cheep. In _minimus_ it is shrill -and uttered rapidly, but it is low-pitched and is uttered by -_townsendii_ with longer intervals between the notes. The call of -_amoenus_ is of an intermediate nature. - -Young of chipmunks vary in number from four to six. Nests are -constructed of dry grass and are placed under rocks, logs, and in -burrows in the ground. There are four pairs of mammae, one pectoral, two -abdominal, and one inguinal. - - -=Tamias minimus= Bachman - -Least chipmunk - -_Description._--The least chipmunk is the smallest chipmunk found in -Washington. The head and body of adults measure about 3-1/2 inches; the -tail about 3-1/2 inches. Its fur is short and sleek. The dorsal stripe -is black; the upper pale stripe is buffy gray; the lower dark stripe is -rich brown; the lower stripe is white. The sides are pale buff and the -head, rump and thighs are buffy gray. The tail is brownish above, -yellowish beneath. - -_Tamias minimus_ has a wide range, being found from the Cascade-Sierra -Nevada Chain to the Great Lakes and from northern Canada to central -Arizona and New Mexico. Two races occur in Washington, both in the -sagebrush desert area. - -Least chipmunks are only locally common in Washington. I have found them -in areas where the soil was firmly packed and sagebrush the dominant -vegetation. All were far from water. Two miles west of Vantage, Kittitas -County, several were found near an old sheep corral, where one took -shelter in a pile of boards. In my experience, least chipmunks are wary -and difficult to collect. Many times as I crept silently through the -sagebrush chipmunk after chipmunk scampered with tail aloft into a hole -at the base of same sage bush, each far out of gunshot, voicing alarmed -chirps. The extreme caution of least chipmunks, as compared with other -species, is doubtless a necessary adaptation to living in an exposed -situation. The open sagebrush desert is a favored hunting place of hawks -and eagles; also coyotes, wildcats, and badgers sometimes abound there. -All these probably find the least chipmunk a suitable food item and only -the most cautious chipmunk survives to reproduce. The least chipmunk has -been timed at a speed of 10 miles per hour (Cottam and Williams, 1943: -262). - -The food of the least chipmunk in eastern Washington is almost entirely -seeds of the annuals that flourish briefly in the spring. Insects -probably are eaten and one specimen had the remains of two scorpions in -its stomach. - - -=Tamias minimus scrutator= (Hall and Hatfield) - - _Eutamias minimus pictus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 52:39, November - 30, 1929. - - _Eutamias minimus scrutator_ Hall and Hatfield, Univ. California - Publ. Zoöl., 40:321, February 12, 1934. - - _Tamias minimus scrutator_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living - Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. - - [Illustration: FIG. 80. Distribution of the least chipmunk in - Washington. A. _Tamias minimus scrutator._ B. _Tamias minimus - grisescens._] - - _Type._--Obtained near Blanco Mountain, 10500 ft. elevation, Mono - County, California, by J. Grinnell on July 28, 1917; type in Museum - of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Buffy color; wide dark stripes and narrow - pale stripes. - - _Measurements._--A male and a female from Sunnyside, Yakima - County, measure respectively; total length 186, 186; length of - tail 81, 82; hind foot 31, 31; ear 9, 10. - - _Distribution._--The sagebrush areas west of the Columbia River. - Present in scattered and widely separated areas, ranging, - according to Howell (1929: 41), north to Ellensburg and south to - Wiley City. - - This species is a member of the Great Basin Fauna that entered the - state from Oregon. The population in Washington is now isolated - north and west of the Columbia River but seems not to differ from - least chipmunks from Oregon and Nevada. - - -=Tamias minimus grisescens= (Howell) - - _Eutamias minimus grisescens_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 6:52, February - 9, 1925. - - _Tamias minimus grisescens_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living - Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 431, June 8, 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained at Farmer, Douglas County, Washington, by J. A. - Loring, on July 31, 1897; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _scrutator_ but smaller; more - grayish, less buffy in color, dark stripes narrower and pale - stripes wider. - - _Measurements._--Seven topotypes and near topotypes average: Total - length 177; length of tail 78.7; hind foot 26.8; ear 10.6. - - _Distribution._--Known only from the Columbian Plateau. This race - is rare and though we hunted for it in localities where specimens - have been collected, including the type locality, it was found but - twice. Ranchers living in the area know the chipmunk but see - individuals only occasionally. Marginal occurrences are Douglas - (Howell, 1929: 41), Vantage (V. B. S.) and Pasco (Howell, 1929: - 41). - -_Remarks._--The geographic range of this race is separated from that of -_scrutator_ by the Columbia River and many miles of country uninhabited -by chipmunks of this species. - - -=Tamias amoenus= Allen - -Yellow-pine chipmunk - -_Description._--The yellow-pine chipmunk resembles the least chipmunk -but is larger. The underside of the tail is more ochraceous, less -yellowish. The color of the sides varies considerably in the various -races. The stripes are narrow and sharply delineated, the dorsal one -being black. Next lower is a grayish stripe, followed by one of brownish -black. The lower stripe is white. The underparts, in most races, are -white but in _luteiventris_ are buffy. - -The geographic range of the species is west of the Great Plains from -central British Columbia to central California. There are twelve races, -six of them occurring in Washington. - -The yellow-pine chipmunk is a small animal, being but little larger than -the least chipmunk, and much smaller than _townsendii_. Externally it -may be separated from the Townsend chipmunk by its small size, sleek, -appressed pelage and brighter color. Separation from _minimus_ is more -difficult but, in the Washington races of _minimus_, the colored fur of -the underside of the tail is pale yellowish while in _amoenus_ it is -more ochraceous or buffy. So far as is known, the two species do not -occur together in Washington. - -The yellow-pine chipmunks live in open woods, brushy areas, clearings, -and rocky outcrops. Suitable conditions are abundant in mountainous -areas and the distribution of mountain ranges affects the distribution -of these chipmunks. Where yellow pine forests descend to relatively low -altitudes, the chipmunks enter the lowlands. Such conditions are -present in some places along the eastern base of the Cascades, the -inter-mountain river valleys of northeastern Washington, and along the -central-eastern border of the state. - -Yellow-pine chipmunks are sprightly and active. They seem always to be -moving restlessly about, running, investigating for food, and watching -for enemies. They are far tamer than the least chipmunks, usually -allowing the observer to approach within twenty feet or closer. Some, -after coaxing, will take food from a person's hand. - -Near Stevens Pass, King County, numbers of _Tamias townsendii cooperi_ -and _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_, apparently on good terms, were feeding -together on blue huckleberries which grew in abundance on an extensive -snowslide area. The yellow-pine chipmunks had been drawn from -surrounding open areas by the berries, while the Townsend chipmunks had -been attracted from the forest by the same food. The nervous movements -of _amoenus_ contrasted strongly with the more sedate behavior of -_townsendii_. At the observer's close approach the yellow-pine chipmunks -went scampering off through the brush and tangles of logs and branches, -to emerge again and watch from a hundred feet away. The same -individuals, when repeatedly followed, always remained in sight. Most of -the Townsend chipmunks, when frightened, ran into the nearest dense -cover and vanished, not to appear again. A goodly number, perhaps ten -per cent, climbed high up in fir trees. None of the yellow-pine -chipmunks took refuge in trees. - -The yellow-pine chipmunk is usually found at considerable altitude and -consequently there is deep snow and bitter cold in winter where it -lives. Hibernation is probably complete. Seemingly these chipmunks -depend on stored food rather than on accumulated fat to tide them over -the winter, for animals collected in autumn are no fatter than those -taken in the spring. Svihla (1936B: 290) found that _Tamias a. -canicaudus_, hibernating in captivity at Pullman, Whitman County, awoke -at intervals to eat stored food. The time of retirement of yellow-pine -chipmunks for the winter seems to coincide with the coming of winter -weather. In mid-November of one year, when no snow had yet fallen in the -Cascades, yellow-pine chipmunks were common near Stevens Pass, although -their actions were noticeably slow. In another autumn, when the winter -snows came early, I looked in vain for chipmunks in October where they -had been common earlier. George C. Cantwell noted a yellow-pine chipmunk -at Republic, Ferry County, on November 9, 1903, after the ground was -"well frozen," but apparently free of snow (Howell, 1929: 7). Like -other species that hibernate, they, at times, seem to become active in -winter; J. B. Flett reported seeing a yellow-pine chipmunk at Longmire, -Mt. Rainier, on February 14, 1920, and again on March 31 (Howell, _loc. -cit._, p. 7). At Deer Park, Clallam County, at timber-line, several -_Tamias townsendii cooperi_ were active in early April, 1938, but only -one _Tamias amoenus_ was seen. In the previous June they were abundant -there and _townsendii_ was scarce. - -I have watched these chipmunks eat the berries of the red huckleberry -(_Vaccinium parvifolium_), salmonberry (_Rubus spectabilis_), -thimbleberry (_Rubus parviflorus_), devil's club (_Fatsia horrida_), and -mountain ash (_Sorbus cascadensis_ and _S. occidentalis_). Of these, the -blue huckleberry (_Vaccinum occidentale_ and _V. membranaceum_) are -probably the most important to the chipmunks. At Sherman Creek Pass, in -the Kettle River Mountains, Ferry County, I watched a pika (_Ochotona_) -busily harvesting wild raspberry plants (_Rubus leucodermis_), and -laying them in a pile under a rock. A yellow-pine chipmunk waited under -the rock and ate the ripe berries from each branch as it was laid away. - -A brood nest of the yellow-pine chipmunk was discovered by Shaw (1944: -274) at Hurricane Ridge, Clallam County. The entrance was a hole 1-1/2 -inches in diameter constructed among the grass and alpine flowers of a -meadow at 6,450 feet elevation. The burrow itself was 2 inches in -diameter, and had a turning-around pocket 9 inches from the entrance. -The nest was situated just beneath the sod, 4 feet from the entrance. -The nest chamber was 7 inches high by 7-1/2 inches in diameter and in -the shape of a "round-bottomed flask." It was filled snugly with nest -material composed of a grasslike sedge (_Carex spectabilis_) mixed with -feathers of the blue grouse. Earth excavated from the nest cavity had -been forced upwards through the sod in the manner of a mole in forming -mounds. The single burrow was unbranched. Seven young of about 16 to 18 -days of age were found in the nest. - - -=Tamias amoenus caurinus= (Merriam) - - _Eutamias caurinus_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. - 352, October 4, 1898. - - _Eutamias amoenus caurinus_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, - 1922. - - _Tamias amoenus caurinus_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living - Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained at timber-line, head of Sol Duc River, Olympic - Mountains, Clallam County, Washington, by C. H. Merriam and Vernon - Bailey on August 27, 1897; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Small size and pale color. - - _Measurements._--Seven males and 3 females from Deer Park, Clallam - County, average: total length 207.4; length of tail 93.2; hind foot - 32.5; ear 16. - - _Distribution._--Higher parts of the Olympic Mountains, from Deer - Park (W. W. D.) south to head of Dosewallips River (Howell, - 1929:77). - - -=Tamias amoenus felix= Rhoads - - _Tamias quadrivittatus felix_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 29:941, October, - 1895. - - _Eutamias quadrivittatus felix_ Miller and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc. - Nat. Hist., 30:44, December 27, 1901. - - _Eutamias amoenus felix_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, - 1922. - - _Tamias amoenus felix_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living - Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. - - [Illustration: FIG. 81. Distribution of the yellow-pine chipmunk in - Washington. A. _Tamias amoenus luteiventris._ B. _Tamias amoenus - canicaudus._ C. _Tamias amoenus affinis._ D. _Tamias amoenus - ludibundus._ E. _Tamias amoenus felix._ F. _Tamias amoenus caurinus._] - - _Type._--Obtained at Church Mountain, British Columbia, near the - United States boundary by Allan Brooks on August 13, 1895; type in - Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. - - _Racial characters._--Large size and rich, dark color. - - _Measurements._--Ten topotypes average: total length 224.7; length - of tail 98.8; hind foot 34.1; ear 14.4. - - _Distribution._--The extreme northwestern Cascades, north and west - of Mt. Baker. - -_Remarks._--This richly-colored coastal race barely enters Washington. -It is abundant near Goldrun Pass and Tomyhoi Lake, Whatcom County, just -south of the international boundary. - - -=Tamias amoenus ludibundus= (Hollister) - - _Eutamias ludibundus_ Hollister, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 56 (no. - 26):1, December 5, 1911. - - _Eutamias amoenus ludibundus_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August - 4, 1922. - - _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living - Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained at Yellowhead Lake, 3,700 ft., British Columbia, - by N. Hollister on August 29, 1911; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Moderate size, brownish rump, ochraceous - sides. - - _Measurements._--Five males and 4 females from the higher parts of - the Cascades average, respectively: total length 210, 217; length - of tail 89, 90; hind foot 33, 33; ear 17.4, 16.7; weight 50, 59.7 - grams. - - _Distribution._--The higher Cascade Mountains. Marginal records - are: Barron (Howell, 1929:75), Lyman Lake (Howell, 1929:75), - Cascade Tunnel (W. W. D.), Mt. Stuart (W. W. D.), Lake Kachees (W. - W. D.), Boulder Cave (W. W. D.), and Mt. St. Helens (Howell, - 1929:75). - - _Remarks._--At the higher altitudes this race seems to be the - equivalent of _affinis_. The latter race lives in relatively arid - yellow pine forests and _ludibundus_ occupies more moist and - varied habitats higher in the mountains. - - -=Tamias amoenus affinis= Allen - - _Tamias quadrivittatus affinis_ Allen, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull., - 3:103, June, 1890. - - _Eutamias quadrivittatus affinis_ Miller and Rehn, Proc. Boston - Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:44, December 27, 1901. - - _Eutamias amoenus affinis_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, - 1922. - - _Tamias amoenus affinis_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living - Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained at Ashcroft, British Columbia, by C. P. Streator - on July 3, 1889; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Small size, grayish color including rump, - and white underparts. - - _Measurements._--Fourteen males and 7 females from Washington - average: total length 201.5; length of tail 86.5; hind foot 31.7; - ear 17.2. - - _Distribution._--The eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains. - Marginal records on the west are: Bald Mountain (Howell, 1929:73), - Mazama (Howell, 1929:73), Hart Lake (Howell, 1929:73), Lake - Wenatchee (W. W. D.), 10 mi. S. Dryden (W. W. D.), Blewett Pass - (W. W. D.), 10 mi. N. W. Ellensburg (W. W. D.), Wenas Creek (W. W. - D.), Mt. Adams (Howell, 1929:73), and Lyle (Howell, 1929:73). - Marginal occurrences on the east are: Mt. Chopaka (Howell, - 1929:73), 20 mi. E. Tonasket (W. W. D.) and Omak Lake (Howell, - 1929:73). - - -=Tamias amoenus canicaudus= (Merriam) - - _Eutamias canicaudus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 16:77, - May 29, 1903. - - _Eutamias amoenus_ canicaudus Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August - 4, 1922. - - _Tamias amoenus canicaudus_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living - Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained at Spokane, Spokane County, Washington, by C. P. - Streator, on April 11, 1891; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Large size, pale color, grayish tail, white - or buffy underparts. - - _Measurements._--Thirteen topotypes average: total length 227.2; - length of tail 104.4; hind foot 33.7; ear 14. - - _Distribution._--The pine-covered lowlands along the - central-eastern border of the state, ranging, according to Howell - (1929: 71), from Spokane County south to Pullman. - - -=Tamias amoenus luteiventris= Allen - - _Tamias quadrivittatus luteiventris_ Allen, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. - Bull., 3:101, June, 1890. - - _Eutamias quadrivittatus luteiventris_ Miller and Rehn, Proc. - Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:44, December 27, 1901. - - _Eutamias amoenus luteiventris_, Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:179, - August 4, 1922. - - _Tamias amoenus luteiventris_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living - Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained at Chief Mountain Lake (Waterton Lake), Alberta - (3-1/2 mi. N. United States boundary) by Elliott Coues on August - 24, 1874; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Small size, rich color, buffy underparts. - - _Measurements._--Twelve males and 12 females from the Blue - Mountains, Columbia County, average respectively: total length - 212, 219; length of tail 96.7, 101; hind foot 31.7, 32.5; ear - 17.3, 18; weight 46.5, 52.8 grams. - - _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington, - and the Pend Oreille Mountains of northeastern Washington, west to - Eureka, in the Kettle River Mountains, Ferry County (Howell, 1929: - 69), and south to Newport (W. W. D.). - - -=Tamias ruficaudus simulans= (Howell) - -Red-tailed chipmunk - - _Eutamias ruficaudus simulans_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:179, August - 4, 1922. - - _Tamias ruficaudus simulans_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living - Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 434, June 8, 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained at Coeur d'Alene, Kootenai County, Idaho, by C. - P. Streator on June 1, 1891. - - _Measurements._--Six males and 3 females from northeastern - Washington average: total length 234; length of tail 109; hind - foot 31.6; ear 18. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, reported from Pend - Oreille, Stevens and Ferry counties by Howell (1929: 98). - -_Description._--The red-tailed chipmunk closely resembles _Tamias -amoenus_. From _T. a. luteiventris_ and _T. a. canicaudus_ it differs -principally in larger size, wider brain case and especially in its pure -white underparts. From _T. a. affinis_ it differs in richer coloration, -especially the brownish rather than gray rump. The differences -separating it from _amoenus_ are slight, and only adult specimens can be -identified in the field. - -According to Howell (1929: 81) this species occurs in northern Idaho, -western Montana, northeastern Washington, southeastern British Columbia -and extreme southwestern Alberta. Two subspecies are recognized, only -one of which occurs in Washington. - -A number of large, white-bellied chipmunks have been taken in -northeastern Washington that answer well to the description of -_ruficaudus_. Also, there are a number of specimens that I cannot -definitely identify as either _amoenus_ or _ruficaudus_. Some -buff-bellied chipmunks from Idaho are as large, and possess brain cases -as wide, as specimens from Washington unhesitatingly called -_ruficaudus_, while some white-bellied individuals match _amoenus -luteiventris_ in all other characters. When all the specimens available -from Pend Oreille, Stevens and Ferry counties are separated into -_amoenus_ and _ruficaudus_ and the skulls are examined, it is noticeable -that all the _ruficaudus_ are old, fully adult animals and that most of -the _amoenus_ are younger, showing less wear on the teeth. Perhaps the -buffy underparts are lost with increasing age. - -This leads to the suspicion that _ruficaudus_, as applied to chipmunks -in Washington, is a synonym of _amoenus_. Until considerable material is -collected in northeastern Washington, showing individual and age -variation, it seems best to retain the name _ruficaudus_. - -Most of the specimens referable to _ruficaudus_ were taken in talus -slides high in the Pend Oreille Mountains. A smaller series was -collected at a lower altitude in open pine forests near Pend Oreille -Lakes, Stevens County. I could detect no difference between _amoenus_ -and _ruficaudus_ in habitat or habits. - - -=Tamias townsendii= Bachman - -Townsend chipmunk - -_Description._--The Townsend chipmunk is the largest of the chipmunks -that occur in Washington. Head and body measure about 5-1/2 inches; the -tail about 4-1/2 inches. The fur of the Townsend chipmunk is more lax -and less sleek than that of other species. The upper parts are duller -and darker ochraceous. Stripes are wide and not sharply delineated. -The dark stripes are deep chestnut or blackish. The upper pale stripe -is pale buffy gray; the lower is whitish. The tail is blackish frosted -with white above and rich ochraceous below. Underparts are dull white. - -The Townsend chipmunk ranges from the Fraser River in southern British -Columbia through western Washington and Oregon, to central California. -Like other members of the Pacific Coastal Fauna which extend southward -to California, its geographic range extends farther inland to the -south and geographic variation is greater; 3 races are listed by -Johnson (1943: 114) in California. - -The Townsend chipmunk is the largest and darkest chipmunk in -Washington. Over much of its range it is the only chipmunk found -although in some mountainous areas both _townsendii_ and _amoenus_ -occur together. The larger size and richer coloration, especially -the rich tawny color of the underside of the tail, separate Townsend -chipmunks from _amoenus_. - - [Illustration: FIG. 82. Townsend chipmunk (_Tamias townsendii - cooperi_), captured on Goat Creek, 3,000 feet, western Cascade - Mountains near Chinook Pass, Washington, September 16, 1940, by - Earl J. Larrison; photographed February 1, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife - Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1139.)] - -Townsend chipmunks are closely associated with the coniferous forest -where they live in clearings and tangles of underbrush such as on steep -hillsides, fire slashings, snowslide areas or mountain glades. Though -capable of swift movement, they are less nervous and active than other -chipmunks. Rarely are they as abundant, even locally, as other species, -and the home range of an individual seems to be larger than that of an -_amoenus_ or a _minimus_. Rarely are more than two seen in a locality. -Their more sedentary habits make them less conspicuous than other -species. In the fall, when berries are dried out and seeds are ripe, -they are most often seen. The Townsend chipmunk seems to be the most -arboreal species found in Washington and individuals are not uncommonly -seen in trees. - -The brushy cover inhabited by Townsend chipmunks protects them from -most hawks while their diurnal habits prevent owls from feeding on -them. Predatory mammals probably constitute their greatest menace. A -weasel (_Mustela frenata_) was seen to follow a Townsend chipmunk into -a pile of timbers near Cottage Lake, King County, and another was seen -carrying a dead Townsend chipmunk at Stevens Pass, King County. Tracks -around an area of blood and fur showed where a mink (_Mustela vison_) -had killed a Townsend chipmunk near Cottage Lake, King County. - - [Illustration: FIG. 83. Distribution of the Townsend chipmunk in - Washington. A. _Tamias townsendii townsendii._ B. _Tamias townsendii - cooperi._] - -Shaw (1944: 278) discovered the brood nest of a Townsend chipmunk on -Hurricane Ridge, Clallam County, 4,500 feet elevation. The burrow was in -a cool, damp area among surface runs of moles (_Scapanus_), and led to -an underground nest among the roots of a tree. The nest was formed of -the gray, moss-like lichen (_Usnea_), lined within with sedge leaves -(_Carex spectabilis_) and covered outside with leaves of the same sedge. -A turning-about chamber was constructed near the entrance. The burrow -was single and not branched. Three young, only two or three days old, -were in the nest. - - -=Tamias townsendii townsendii= Bachman - - _Tamias townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 - (pt. 1):68, 1839. - - _Tamias quadrivittatus townsendii_ Allen, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. - Hist., 16:290, 1874. - - _Tamias asiaticus_ var. _townsendii_ Allen, Monog. N. Amer. - Rodentia, Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., 11:794, 1877. - - _Eutamias townsendii_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 11:195, July 1, 1897. - - _Type._--Lectotype obtained near the lower mouth of the Willamette - River, Multnomah County, Oregon, by J. K. Townsend in 1834; in - Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. - - _Racial Characters._--Color of sides rich tawny; dark stripes - black or dark brown, and pale stripes cinnamon; underside of tail - tawny. - - _Measurements._--Fifteen males and 10 females from western - Washington average, respectively: total length 254.7, 258.6; - length of tail 116, 122; hind foot 36.7, 37.1; ear 20.5, 20.4; - weight 72, 81.2 grams. - - _Distribution._--The humid coastal belt of western Washington, - from the western base of the Cascade Mountains to the Pacific, - exclusive of the Olympic Mountains. When A. H. Howell revised the - chipmunks in 1929, he employed a concept of a subspecies different - from the writer's own. The locality records listed by Howell - (1929: 109-112) for _Tamias townsendii townsendii_ and _T. t. - cooperi_ are not in agreement with Howell's own distribution map - (_op. cit._: 107). When the localities listed by Howell are - plotted on a map of Washington, the ranges of the two races - overlap in some critical areas. Not all of the material examined - by Howell was seen by the writer, and, consequently, the ranges - shown in Fig. 83 are plotted, in part, on geographic grounds. - - Marginal localities on the east, so plotted, for _T. t. - townsendii_, are: Hamilton (U. S. N. M.), 5 mi. E. Monroe (W. W. - D.), Redmond (W. W. D.), Roy (U. S. N. M.), and Vancouver (U. S. - N. M.). - - -=Tamias townsendii cooperi= Baird - - _Tamias cooperi_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:334, - 1855. - - _Tamias townsendii_ var. _cooperi_ Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 737, - 1857. - - _Eutamias cooperi_ Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 50:89, June 27, - 1907. - - _Eutamias townsendii cooperi_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August - 4, 1922. - - _Type._--Cotypes obtained at Klickitat Pass, 4,500 ft., Skamania - County, Washington, by J. S. Cooper in July, 1853; in United States - National Museum. - - _Racial Characters._--Similar to _T. t. townsendii_ but paler with - pale stripes whitish rather than cinnamon. - - _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females from the Cascades - average, respectively: total length 246.4, 246.8; length of tail - 111.7, 107.6; hind foot 35, 35.4; ear 20, 20; weight 77, 89.9 - grams. - - _Distribution._--The higher and eastern Cascade Mountains and the - Olympic Mountains. Marginal localities along the Cascades probably - include: Swamp Creek (U. S. N. M.), Index (W. S. C.), North Bend - (U. S. N. M.), Mt. St. Helens (U. S. N. M.), and Yacolt (M. V. - Z.). - - -=Marmota monax petrensis= Howell - -Woodchuck - - _Marmota monax petrensis_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 37:33, April 7, - 1915. - - _Type._--Obtained at Revelstoke, British Columbia, by W. - Spreadborough on May 12, 1890; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Measurements._--Howell (1915: 33) gives the measurements of an - adult male (the type) as: total length 540; length of tail 127; - hind foot 76. An adult female from Barkerville, British Columbia, - measured: total length 505; length of tail 125; and hind foot 68. - - _Distribution._--The Pend Oreille Mountains, Pend Oreille County. - The woodchuck was seen and positively identified in northeastern - Washington but no specimens were collected. - -_Description._--The woodchuck is the smallest member of the genus -_Marmota_ that occurs in Washington. Adults are about 22 inches in -length, of which the tail comprises 5 inches. The body is stout and -plump. The legs are short. The ears are low and rounded. The eyes are -large but not prominent. The fur is rather stiff but dense. The upper -parts are cinnamon, frosted with white-tipped guard hairs. The -underparts are tawny. There is no white bar across the nose. - -Woodchucks occur from Alaska to Idaho and eastward to the Atlantic, -extending southward in the eastern United States. Miller (1924: 173-175) -lists seven subspecies, one of which enters the extreme northeastern -corner of Washington. - -The habits of the eastern woodchuck (_Marmota monax rufescens_) have -been studied by Hamilton (1934: 85-178), but the northern races are less -well known. Cowan (1939: 77-79) gives observations on the habits, nests -and burrows of _Marmota monax canadensis_. - - -=Marmota flaviventris avara= (Bangs) - -Yellow-bellied marmot - - _Arctomys flaviventer avarus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, - 1:68, July 31, 1899. - - [_Marmota flaviventer_] _avarus_ Trouessart, Catal. Mamm., viv. - foss., suppl., p. 344, 1904. - - _Marmota flaviventris avara_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 128:175, April 29, 1924. - - _Type._--Obtained at Okanogan, British Columbia, by A. C. Brooks on - July 17, 1897; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. - - _Measurements._--A male from 5 miles north of Entiat, Chelan - County, measured: total length 610; length of tail 182; hind foot - 70; ear 28. - - _Distribution._--From the eastern edge of the Cascade Mountains - eastward, except, apparently, extreme northeastern Washington. - Marginal records are: - - Okanogan (W. W. D.) in the north, Wenas (W. W. D.) in the west, - Pasco (M. V. Z.) in the south, and 14 mi. S. W. Pullman (Howell, - 1915: 42) in the east. - -_Description._--The yellow-bellied marmot is similar to the woodchuck -but is slightly larger. It is decidedly paler in color, less reddish, -but possesses white-tipped hairs on the dorsal surface, as does the -woodchuck. The yellow-bellied marmot also differs from the woodchuck in -having a distinct white bar on the nose. Its pelage is coarse and rather -thin. - -The yellow-bellied marmot is typically an animal of the basalt talus of -eastern Washington but occurs in mountainous areas in northeastern -Washington. These animals are usually found near streams, ponds, lakes, -or rivers. They wander considerably, however, and are often found far -from water. Their wandering habits probably account for their presence -near temporary streams and ponds on the Columbian Plateau. When these -temporary sources of water dry up in July or early August, the marmots -go into hibernation. Edson (1935: 68) records a marmot from Bellingham, -Whatcom County, far west of the usual range of the species. - -The "ground hog" is often hunted for sport and sometimes for food. Near -centers of human population the yellow-bellied marmots are extremely -shy. Along the highways of the Columbia River on any Sunday in June, it -is not unusual to see a dozen cars in an hour, moving slowly past a -talus slide while eager hunters scan the rocks for marmots. In the late -afternoon, when the marmots leave the protection of the talus slides to -drink at the river, they fall easy prey to rifles with telescope sights. -Near cities in eastern Washington yellow-bellied marmots have become -partially nocturnal. - -Couch (1930: 2-6) attempted to excavate several dens of yellow-bellied -marmots, but decided to leave the task "to some future road-building -crew." Embryos found by Couch numbered three to six. Couch thought the -young were born about March 15 in the Snake River area and about April -15 in the upper Okanogan area. The young appear above ground -approximately 30 days after birth. - -The yellow-bellied marmots enter aestivation from late June to early -August, depending on the locality and local conditions. They are active -longer in northeastern Washington. Couch records a yellow-bellied marmot -seen in Okanogan County on October 10, but regards this as exceptional. -The marmots near Wenatchee, Chelan County, emerge from their burrows in -early March (March 5 to 10, from reports of residents in 1937, 1938). -Couch (1930: 5) gives February 20 to March 15 as the date of -appearance. - -A principal requirement for marmots is the presence of rocks. At Cle -Elum, Kittitas County, I took a marmot from an alfalfa field where a -farmer had placed all the surface stones in a loose pile. Fifteen miles -east of Tonasket, Okanogan County, marmots were living in the stones -piled by road builders to support the ends of a small bridge. A hundred -feet away another marmot was living under an abandoned building. A high, -convenient rock near their burrow serves the yellow-bellied marmots as a -look-out post. These look-out posts seem, in many cases, to have been -used by many generations of marmots, for their feces sometimes fill -nearby crevices to a depth of several feet and cover the look-out rock -itself. The glacial boulders on the plateau between the Okanogan River -and Omak Lake, Okanogan County, furnish the best examples of look-out -posts. These numerous isolated boulders, ten to fifty feet in diameter -and ten to thirty feet high, each seem to furnish shelter to one or more -marmots. Well-worn trails lead from the boulders to burrows and feeding -areas. - -The food of the yellow-bellied marmot includes grasses and succulent -plants found in their habitat. Fondness for alfalfa makes them a serious -pest in some areas, for their large size enables them to make -considerable inroads on a field. Natural enemies probably include most -larger predaceous mammals. Hawks and eagles probably kill their young. -Near Tonasket, Okanogan County, Robert Dalquest surprised a coyote as it -ran across a small wash. A shot caused the coyote to drop a half-grown -marmot which it had been carrying. - - -=Marmota caligata cascadensis= Howell - -Hoary marmot - - _Marmota caligata cascadensis_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 27:17, February 2, 1914. - - _Type._--Obtained on Mt. Rainier, 6,000 ft., Pierce County, - Washington, by A. K. Fisher on August 11, 1897; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Measurements._--A young adult male from Stevens Pass, King - County, measures: total length 773; length of tail 221; hind foot - 93; ear 27. - - _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, ranging from Mt. Baker (W. - W. D.) and Mt. Chopaka (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 15) south to Mt. - Adams (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 15). - -_Description._--The hoary marmot is the largest of the American marmots; -adults are 28 inches or more in length, of which the tail makes up about -8 inches. The pelage is dense and rather woolly. The upper parts are not -frosted with white-tipped hairs, but are gray washed with blackish. The -head is blackish with white facial markings, and the shoulders, legs -and underparts are gray. The tail is dark reddish brown. - -Hoary marmots range from Alaska south to Washington and Idaho. Howell -(1915: 57-67) recognizes seven races of this species. - - [Illustration: FIG. 84A. Distribution of marmots in Washington. A. - _Marmota monax petrensis._ B. _Marmota flaviventris avara._ - C. _Marmota caligata cascadensis._ D. _Marmota olympus._] - -This mammal of the higher altitudes rarely goes below the Hudsonian -Life-zone. It is most common in the talus slides at the lower edge of -the Arctic-Alpine Life-zone. Like other marmots, it prefers to live amid -loose boulders. The steep talus or "scab rock" slides in the glacial -cirques provide an ideal habitat. The crevices and caves beneath the -rocks offer concealment for young and adults. A large boulder with a -flat top is usually selected as a look-out. Well-worn trails lead from -the talus slides to nearby grassy slopes. When surprised in the open, -the hoary marmot exhibits a peculiar bounding run, reminiscent of that -of tree squirrels. The short tail "follows through" in the leaps. In the -rock slides the hoary marmot is surprisingly agile. - -The clear, shrill whistle of the hoary marmot is familiar to all who -penetrate its haunts. The whistle is remarkably similar to the whistle -of a person. Locally the hoary marmot is known as "whistler" or "whistle -pig." Individuals emerge from hibernation early in June; most adults -retire again by the middle of September. On September 14, 1937, a young -of the year was shot and few were seen where they had been common in -June. All were shy. Only one adult was seen. - -Large hawks and eagles commonly hunt over the rock slides inhabited by -marmots, and probably kill very young individuals. Only the larger -predators such as bear, cougar, wolf, coyote, lynx, and bobcat would be -expected to kill an adult hoary marmot. - - -=Marmota olympus= (Merriam) - -Olympic marmot - - _Arctomys olympus_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. - 352, October 4, 1898. - - [_Marmota_] _olympus_ Trouessart, Catal. Mamm., viv. foss. suppl., - p. 344, 1904. - - _Type._--Obtained at timber-line, head of Sol Duc River, Clallam - County, Washington, by C. H. Merriam, on August 27, 1897; type in - United States National Museum. - - _Measurements._--Two small but adult females from Deer Park, - Clallam County, measure respectively: total length 758, 691; - length of tail 163, 161; hind foot 106, 97; ear 31, 29. - - _Distribution._--This species is confined to the Olympic - Mountains. - -_Description._--The Olympic marmot closely resembles the hoary marmot, -and differs in being slightly larger, and reddish or rusty brown where -the hoary marmot is gray. It lacks the blackish overwash of the hoary -marmot. The nose is whitish. - -Although the Olympic marmot belongs to the hoary marmot group it is a -distinct species, most closely related to the marmot of the mountains of -Vancouver Island. Its habits differ but little from those of the hoary -marmot. It lives in burrows in talus slides and boulder piles near -timber line. A few burrows are dug beneath logs. Well worn trails lead -from burrows to feeding grounds on nearby grassy slopes and heather -meadows. High rocks or logs serve as lookouts. The alarm whistle is -similar to that of the hoary marmot. - - -=Citellus townsendii townsendii= (Bachman) - -Townsend ground squirrel; sage rat - - _Spermophilus townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. - Philadelphia, 8:61, 1839. - - _Spermophilus mollis yakimensis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 12:70, March 24, 1898. - - [_Citellus mollis_] _yakimensis_ Trouessart, Cat. Mamm., Sup., p. - 339, 1904. - - _Citellus townsendii townsendii_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:60, - May 18, 1938. - - [Illustration: FIG. 84B. Distribution of the Townsend and Washington - ground squirrels in Washington. A. _Citellus townsendii townsendii._ - B. _Citellus washingtoni._] - - _Type._--Obtained on the western bank of the Columbia River "about - 300 miles above its mouth" (probably near the mouth of the Walla - Walla or Touchet river; more exactly, opposite Wallula, in Benton - County, Washington) by J. K. Townsend in July, 1836; type in - Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. - - _Measurements._--Ten adults from Mabton and North Yakima, Yakima - County, average: total length 212.2; length of tail 45.7; hind - foot 33.9. - - _Distribution._--The Upper Sonoran Life-zone area of the Yakima - Valley from Ellensburg (Howell, 1938: 63) south to the Columbia at - Kennewick (W. W. D.). - -_Remarks._--This race is probably derived from _C. t. mollis_ of Oregon, -from which it is but slightly differentiated. It was known for many -years as _Citellus mollis yakimensis_. For use of the name _townsendii_ -see Howell (1938: 62). - -The head and body are about 6-1/2 inches long and the tail is about 2 -inches in length. The head is large with low, rounded ears and large -eyes. The neck is distinctly constricted and the body is plump. Adults -are "pot-bellied." The legs are short and the feet small. The tail is -short, round at the base but bushy throughout the rest of its length. -The pelage is short and rather harsh. In color the upper parts are -yellowish gray flecked with tiny, pale dots. The underparts are buffy. -The face, thighs and tail are reddish buff. - -Ground squirrels occur in parts of Europe, Asia, and much of western -North America. Howell (1938: 36-37) recognizes eight subgenera and -thirty-one species in North America. Three subgenera occur in -Washington, namely: _Citellus_, the spotted ground squirrels, -represented by _Citellus townsendii_, _Citellus washingtoni_ and -_Citellus columbianus_; _Otospermophilus_, the long-tailed ground -squirrels, represented by _Citellus beecheyi_; and _Callospermophilus_, -the striped ground squirrels, represented by _Citellus lateralis_ and -_Citellus saturatus_. - -All ground squirrels are diurnal and consequently are familiar to man. -Most species bear local names and the striped or mantled ground -squirrels are often mistaken for chipmunks. Some species are destructive -to crops, especially grain. In addition they harbor sylvatic plague. -Economically the genus _Citellus_ is of great importance in Washington. - -All Washington ground squirrels live in burrows which they construct -themselves. The life histories of the two striped species are less well -known than those of the more economically important species. All species -hibernate. The striped species disappear in October and reappear the -following March. This can be called true hibernation. The long-tailed -ground squirrels probably hibernate at high altitudes but aestivate in -more arid localities. In Washington the Douglas ground squirrel occupies -an area that is relatively temperate and humid. They may hibernate or -aestivate, depending on local conditions, or they may remain active all -year. The spotted ground squirrels disappear in midsummer and sleep -(aestivate) until the following spring, for in their arid habitat the -disappearance of green food in late summer and fall makes living -conditions almost as unfavorable as in winter. - -Townsend ground squirrels range from central Washington south to -southern Nevada and from the Cascade Mountains east to eastern Idaho and -central Utah. Five races are recognized, only one of which occurs in -Washington, where it is confined to the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. It -occupies the sagebrush area, being most common where the sage is in -scattered clumps separated by grassy areas. Occasionally these squirrels -occupy extensive grasslands where sage is scarce and in the Yakima area -may enter pastures and fields. They live in colonies, often with more -than ten separate burrows to the acre. - -Burrows are dug in dusty ground, either near sage bushes or in openings -among them. Well-worn trails lead from feeding places to openings of -burrows. Mouths of burrows are usually situated on flat ground and are -surrounded by a rim of excavated earth four to six inches high. If -located on a slope, the excavated earth collects as a mound on the lower -side, and serves as a look-out post for the squirrels. Burrows excavated -by Scheffer are described by Howell (1938: 5). One reached a depth of -5-1/4 feet at a point where it branched 11 feet from the entrance. One -branch led to the nest chamber three feet to the right of the main -tunnel. The other reached a depth of six feet at a point 14 feet from -the entrance, then turned upwards at a 70 degree angle and reached the -surface through a partly obstructed entrance, 12 feet from the original -entrance. The nest chamber was 6-1/2 inches in diameter and filled with -a perfectly dry nest of fine grass, partly broken and shredded. - -Food consists of soft green vegetation and seeds. Foods listed by Howell -(1938: 5) include: _Sphaeralida munroana_, _Plantago purshii_, _Bromus -tectorum_, _Agropyron pauciflorum_, _Oryzopsis hymenoides_, _Norta -altissima_, _Artemisiae spinescens_, sunflower, alfalfa, wheat, barley, -potato, beets, carrots, lettuce, and insects (grasshoppers, cicadas). In -1917, these squirrels were reported to have practically destroyed a -ten-acre field of beets at White Swan, Yakima County. - -Aestivation of older individuals begins in late May and the last young -disappear in early June. The squirrels appear again in late January, -before the snow has disappeared (Scheffer, 1941: 272). - -The voice of the Townsend ground squirrel is a faint, high pitched -"pe-eee-ep," of remarkable carrying power for so faint a sound, and -extremely difficult to trace to its source. Scheffer (in Howell, _op. -cit._, p. 6) mentions also a chirping sound and a chatter of alarm which -I have not heard. - -Five to seven embryos were found in specimens collected near Yakima. -Scheffer (1941: 270) found the number of fetuses in 52 pregnant females -from the Kennewick area to vary from 4 to 16 with an average of 8.6. -Francis (1922: 5) reported tularemia in this species. They probably -harbor also sylvatic plague. - - -=Citellus washingtoni= Howell - -Washington ground squirrel; sage rat - - _Citellus washingtoni washingtoni_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:69, - May 18, 1938. - - _Citellus washingtoni loringi_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:71, May - 18, 1938 (type from Douglas, Douglas County, Washington). - - _Type._--Obtained at Touchet, Walla Walla County, Washington, by C. - P. Streator on May 18, 1891; type in United States National Museum. - - _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau and southward into Oregon, - ranging from Farmer (Howell, 1938: 71) and Moses Coulee (W. W. D.) - south to Wallula (M. V. Z.). - - _Measurements._--Fifteen specimens from the vicinity of the type - locality average: total length 229.2; length of tail 50; hind foot - 35.3. A male from 4 miles west of Pasco, Franklin County, weighed - 201 grams. - - _Remarks._--_Citellus w. loringi_ allegedly differs from typical - _washingtoni_ in smaller size. The specimens collected by us from - within the range of _loringi_ are as large as those from farther - south. _C. w. loringi_ is regarded as a synonym of _C. w. - washingtoni_. - -_Description._--The Washington ground squirrel closely resembles the -Townsend ground squirrel in size and appearance. It differs principally -in color. The upper parts are brownish gray marked with distinct white -spots, and the underparts are buffy. The face, thighs and tail are dull -reddish. - -This species is closely related to the Townsend ground squirrel but its -habitat is more varied. It is most common in areas of low sage bushes -surrounded by grasslands and on extensive grasslands, but occurs also in -sandy places, wheat fields, and rocky hillsides. The animals live in -colonies, in some places 50 or more individuals to the acre. They occur -also as scattered individuals or small colonies in smaller areas of -suitable habitat. For example, along the highway from Farmer, Douglas -County, to Waterville, a distance of 15 miles, a band of natural grass, -50 feet or less in width, lies between the road and the extensive wheat -fields beyond. This strip of natural cover possessed about one -_Citellus_ to each 200 feet along most of its length. The squirrels were -often seen sitting on rolls of wire drift fence, used to keep snow -drifts from the road in winter but in summer rolled into bundles 3 feet -in diameter and left standing at intervals of one each 100 feet. The -squirrels had constructed their burrow entrances beneath these rolls and -used the rolls as look-out posts. At my approach they would dodge into -the rolls of wire and, unless scared, remained in the wire roll. By -approaching carefully and overturning the rolls I was able to trap and -capture a good series of living specimens. - -Burrows, nests, habits, and food of this species seem identical to those -of _townsendii_. Aestivation dates seem to be the same (Scheffer, 1941: -270-279). The hibernation of this species has been discussed in detail -by Svhila (1939: 6-10). Food species listed by Scheffer at Wallula -(Howell, 1938: 8) are identical to those of _townsendii_ at Kennewick, -across the Columbia River (see account of _townsendii_). - -Scheffer (1941: 270-279) examined 26 pregnant females of this species -and found the fetuses to vary from 5 to 11 in number, with an average of -8. - - -=Citellus columbianus= (Ord) - -Columbian ground squirrel - -_Description._--The Columbian ground squirrel has the general body -proportions, large head, large eyes, low, rounded ears, plump body and -short tail of the Townsend ground squirrel, but is much larger. The head -and body of an adult measure about 10 inches and the tail about 4 -inches. The upper parts are grayish buff mottled with round white dots. -The underparts and forefeet are pale ochraceous. The back of the head -and neck are gray. The face, thighs and tail are reddish. - -The Columbian ground squirrel occupies inland mountainous areas from -central British Columbia to central Oregon and Idaho and from eastern -Washington and Oregon to western Montana and southwestern Alberta. It is -closely related to the arctic ground squirrels of the _Citellus parryii_ -group, which are in turn related to the Siberian forms, _buxtoni_ and -_stejnegeri_. - -The habitat of the Columbian ground squirrel is varied but is usually -more humid than that of the Townsend and Washington ground squirrels. -The most arid of the lands occupied by them in Washington are the -grasslands and wheat fields of the Poulouse country and the eastern -border of the state. In northeastern Washington they live in meadows and -grasslands in the valleys, in openings in the coniferous forest at -higher altitudes and in parks and alpine meadows almost to timber-line -on the mountains. Some individuals were in brushy places or even in -forests, far from grassy clearings. Near Republic, Ferry County, a -Columbian ground squirrel was killed as it ran along a log in dense -larch woods. Its burrows were found in a tangle of brush and fallen -logs. No clearings, meadow or grassland existed nearby. Narrow bands of -cleared land beside roads and railroad tracks are extensively used by -these squirrels. Where small meadows or pastures occur, this species -lives in dense colonies. If grasslands are extensive it lives in loose -colonies, often with considerable distances between individual burrow -systems. In the mountains the squirrels are scattered or live in small -groups. - -Burrows of the Columbian ground squirrel are often constructed in the -open. Mouths of burrows, especially if the animals are living in -colonies, usually are marked by a large pile of excavated earth. If, -however, there is some large object on the surface of the ground, such -as a stone, stump, or log, the entrance to the burrow is located beside -this. Such objects are often undermined and made to settle, eventually -becoming buried. The squirrels live under houses, and the yards of -abandoned ranch buildings are often infested with them. - -The burrows of the Columbian ground squirrel have been described by Shaw -(1919, 1924B, 1925, A, B, E, 1926) and Bailey (1918: 47). Two types of -burrows are constructed, summer burrows and hibernation dens. Summer -burrows are used year after year, perhaps by succeeding generations of -squirrels. They vary considerably but usually are 3 or 4 inches in -diameter and possess several entrances. The depth to which the burrow -descends, as well as the number of forks and subsidiary burrows, depends -to some extent on the whims of the individual squirrel and the length of -time the burrow has been occupied. Usually the burrow reaches a depth of -four feet and two or more branches are present. A turning-about chamber -is present, not far from the entrance. Here a startled squirrel can turn -about and watch the entrance and, if the alarm was false, the squirrel -resumes its activities above ground. Nests are above the level of the -main burrow system and thus are protected from flooding by rain or -melting snow. Stored food and excrement are deposited in separate -compartments. Escape entrances, concealed in grass and weeds, for use in -case the burrow is invaded, are dug from beneath the surface of the -ground and thus are unmarked by any telltale mound of earth. - -Separate dens are used for aestivation. While the squirrel is in -aestivation the entrances to the summer burrow are solidly plugged with -tamped earth. Aestivation dens are short and may or may not communicate -with the summer burrow. Shaw (1925B: 58) measured 50 such dens and found -the aestivation cell to average 2 feet 6 inches beneath the surface with -extreme depths of 6 inches and 4 feet 11 inches. Ordinarily a drainage -burrow is dug beneath the level of the nest. - - [Illustration: FIG. 85. Distribution of the Columbian and Beechey - ground squirrels in Washington. A. _Citellus columbianus columbianus._ - B. _Citellus columbianus ruficaudus._ C. _Citellus beecheyi douglasii._] - -The time and length of aestivation is variable. Old males enter -aestivation before the females and young, and emerge earlier in the -spring. In the lowlands, as about Pullman, Whitman County, the squirrels -begin to disappear in mid July. In the mountains of northeastern -Washington they are active until late August. They emerge again in late -February or early March. Shaw (1925B) mentions that food is occasionally -stored in aestivation dens of male squirrels. This food is not eaten in -the winter but in the spring, when the squirrels awaken. - -The gestation period was determined by Shaw (1925C: 108) as 24 days. Two -to five, rarely seven, young are born. The average litter is about 3.5. -Mating occurs in late March and the young are born about the middle of -April. - -Most green vegetation occurring in its habitat is food for the Columbian -ground squirrel. Bulbs, seeds, fruit, berries, grain, clover, alfalfa, -and garden truck are eagerly eaten. The squirrels are especially fond of -wheat and great damage results from their depredations. In northeastern -Washington some wheat fields are almost entirely destroyed. Shaw (1925G) -showed that one squirrel destroyed an average of more than 50 pounds of -wheat in a season. When populations range as high as ten squirrels to -the acre, little wheat is left. - -In Montana the Columbian ground squirrel is a known reservoir of Rocky -Mountain spotted fever (Birdseye, 1912: 1-46) while sylvatic plague has -been reported in this species in Oregon (Meyer, 1936: 965). Control of -the Columbian ground squirrel by traps, poison, and shooting is only -locally successful. - - -=Citellus columbianus columbianus= (Ord) - - _Arctomys columbianus_ Ord, Guthrie's Geography, 2d American - Edition, 2:292 (description, p. 303), 1815. - - _Spermophilus columbianus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:39, July 30, - 1891. - - _Citellus columbianus_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 19:536, - October 10, 1903. - - _Type._--None designated. Description based on Lewis and Clark's - account of animals taken by them between the forks of the - Clearwater and Kooskooskie rivers, Idaho. - - _Racial characters._--Smaller size and paler color than in - _ruficaudus_. - - _Measurements._--Five females from northeastern Washington - average: total length 346; length of tail 77; hind foot 48.6; ear - 20. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, from 15 mi. E. Tonasket - (W. W. D.) east to Pass Creek Pass (U. S. N. M.) and south to - Pullman (W. S. C.) along the eastern edge of the state. - - -=Citellus columbianus ruficaudus= Howell - - _Citellus columbianus ruficaudus_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 41:212, December 18, 1928. - - _Type._--Obtained at Wallowa Lake, Wallowa County, Oregon, by G. G. - Cantwell on April 13, 1919; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _Citellus columbianus - columbianus_ but tail redder, especially above, and red color - everywhere deeper. - - _Distribution._--Restricted to the Blue Mountains of extreme - southeastern Washington. - - _Remarks._--This is at best a slightly differentiated race and - upon further study, animals assigned to it may prove unworthy of - recognition as a distinct subspecies. - - -=Citellus beecheyi douglasii= (Richardson) - -Beechey ground squirrel - - _Arctomys? (Spermophilus?) douglasii_ Richardson, Fauna - Boreali-Americana, 1:172, 1829. - - _Spermophilus douglasii_ F. Cuvier, Sup. a l'hist. natur. Buffon, - 1:333, 1831. - - [_Spermophilus grammurus_] var. _douglasii_ Allen, Proc. Boston - Soc. Nat. Hist., 16:293, 1874. - - _Citellus v[ariegatus]. douglasii_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. - Publ. 76, zoöl. ser. 3:183, May, 1903. - - _Citellus beecheyi douglasi_ Grinnell, Proc. California Acad. - Sci., 3 (ser. 4):345, August 28, 1913. - - _Otospermophilus grammurus douglasii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. - Bull., 128:18, April 29, 1924. - - _Citellus douglasii_ Taylor and Shaw, _Occ._ Papers Chas. R. - Conner Mus., no. 2:15, December, 1929. - - _Citellus beecheyi douglasii_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:150, May - 18, 1938. - - _Type._--None. Description based on a hunter's skin from "Banks of - the Columbia," probably near The Dalles, Wasco County, Oregon. - - _Measurements._--A male and 6 females from Klickitat County, - average, respectively: total length 469, 480; length of tail 181, - 198; hind foot 58, 62; ear 26, 26. - - _Distribution._--The Columbia River Valley from Goldendale (W. W. - D.) west to the White Salmon River (W. W. D.). - -_Remarks._--Ground squirrels have been common on the Oregon side of the -Columbia River for a long time. The specimen upon which the description -was based was presumably obtained there in the early 1800's. Yet the -species did not become established in Washington until 100 years later, -in about 1915. - -The head is large with eyes and ears of moderate size. The body is -rather stout; thicker than that of a tree squirrel but slimmer than that -of the Columbian ground squirrel. Head and body are about 11 inches in -length and the tail is about 7 inches long. The upper parts are dark -brownish or blackish gray heavily marked with white spots. A triangular -area at the shoulders is clear black outlined in whitish. The head and -neck are grayish brown. The underparts are buffy. The tail is gray above -and buffy beneath. - -This species belongs to the subgenus _Otospermophilus_. Externally the -species _beecheyi_ differs from _Citellus washingtoni_, _townsendii_, -and _columbianus_, all of which belong to the subgenus _Citellus_, in -possessing more slender limbs, a longer, thinner body, a rather bushy -tail that is nearly two-thirds, rather than less than half, the length -of the body, and larger, more prominent ears. The Beechey ground -squirrel lacks also the hazel color of nose and thigh that is -characteristic of the subgenus _Citellus_ in Washington. - -_Citellus beecheyi_ ranges from the southern edge of the state of -Washington southward through western Oregon and California into northern -Lower California. It is a western coastal species and reaches eastward -only as far as Nevada. A related species, _Citellus variegatus_, occurs -farther inland, from Utah, Colorado, and Texas, southward to central -Mexico. Eight subspecies of _Citellus beecheyi_ are recognized by Howell -(1938), all but three of which are restricted to California. - -At present the Beechey ground squirrel occupies a limited area of -Washington, which it has invaded in recent years (Scheffer and Dalquest, -1939: 44). However, it is extending its range and may be expected -eventually to occupy a considerable part of the state. - -The habitat of this ground squirrel is varied. It occupies a more humid -terrain than do most members of the genus. At the present time it is -most common in grassy fields and rocky outcrops along the Columbia -River. It is common also in the open oak groves on the hillsides back -from the river valley and some individuals were seen near Guler, well up -on the slopes of Mount Adams. As observed in Washington, its favored -habitat is about rock outcrops and talus slides near extensive fields or -grasslands. In California and Oregon, however, it occurs among other -places, in scattered fields and meadows of the coniferous forests in the -humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. The range of tolerance of -the species is such that it might extend its range into much of western -Washington, including the Puget Sound area. It may be expected to move -northward through the eastern Cascades. - -Because of its limited range and the short time of its establishment, -the Beechey ground squirrel has been studied little in Washington. -According to Howell (1938: 28), this race is less prolific and abundant -than other members of the species. Of the Beechey ground squirrel, -certainly the subspecies _C. b. douglasii_, is less common, locally and -over wide areas, in its range in California and Oregon, than are the -subspecies _C. b. beecheyi_ and _C. b. fisheri_ in California. In -Washington, on the other hand, _douglasii_ is locally abundant, perhaps -more so than elsewhere. - -The habits of this race in California have been studied by Grinnell and -Dixon (1919: 595-807). Burrows have been excavated near Eugene, Oregon, -and the findings published (Edge, 1934: 189-193). Burrows were dug on -sloping or well-drained ground. Mounds of earth at the entrances were -usually inconspicuous but well-worn trails led to the burrows. The -burrows entered the ground at an angle of 35° for about two feet, then -flattened out horizontally for six feet or more. The burrows were from 1 -to 4 feet deep, usually about 2 feet. Ordinary burrows had a single -entrance but some older burrows had two or more. Burrows branched -frequently. Nest chambers were of the shape of a flattened sphere 10 -inches in diameter. Frequently more than one nest was found in a burrow, -but only one was in use at a time. Some nests were infested with fleas. -Nests frequently contained food. Most of the burrows observed by me had -their entrances beside rocks or oak roots. In alfalfa fields near Bingen -and Lyle, Klickitat County, the burrows were in open fields and the -entrances were marked by large mounds of earth. In actual diameter the -burrows seemed smaller than those of _Citellus columbianus_. - -Aestivation and hibernation of the ground squirrels in the lower -Columbia River Valley seem unnecessary, for the climate is temperate and -humid. It is not established that _douglasii_ hibernates in other parts -of its range where the climate is mild. Specimens shot at White Salmon -in early March were lean and gave no evidence of having hibernated. - -The Beechey ground squirrel is an excellent climber; I have seen -individuals in oak trees on a number of occasions. They like to sit on -fence posts and when alarmed descend head foremost, with speed and -agility. In running on the ground their movements are more graceful than -those of _Citellus columbianus_ but are unlike the flowing, bounding run -of tree squirrels. - -Near White Salmon and Lyle, these ground squirrels were eating burr -clover (_Medicago_), grasses (_Bromus_), and alfalfa. In some places -they do considerable damage to alfalfa fields. They probably eat acorns -and are said to eat some insects. - -In California the young are born in May and number five to seven. - -No disease has been recorded for this subspecies but a related form in -California (_Citellus b. beecheyi_) is known to harbor plague (Kellogg, -1935: 857) and tularemia (McCoy, 1911: 53-71). - - -=Citellus lateralis= (Say) - -Golden-mantled ground squirrel - -_Description._--The head and body measure about 6 inches and the tail -about 4 inches. The head is large and rounded with eyes and ears of -moderate size. The body is stouter than that of a chipmunk. The tail is -long and well furred. Upper parts are buffy gray with one pale stripe -bordered by two black stripes extending from shoulders to rump, and the -underparts are buffy. The head and shoulders are tawny. The tail is -buffy beneath and darker above. - -Externally golden-mantled ground squirrels somewhat resemble chipmunks -but actually are no more closely related to chipmunks than are other -ground squirrels. They are larger than chipmunks and their stripes -differ in that there is but one pale stripe on each side bordered with -black stripes rather than two pale stripes, and in that the stripes end -at the shoulders rather than continuing on to the face. - -These ground squirrels are distributed in mountainous areas of western -North America from central British Columbia south to central Arizona and -New Mexico. A closely related species (_Citellus madrensis_) occupies a -limited area in northern Mexico and another lives in the Cascades of -Washington. There are two subspecies of _lateralis_ in Washington, each -with a major part of its range outside of Washington. - -This species inhabits mountain clearings, parks and talus slides, where -it is most common about rocks, stumps, and logs. Its fondness for talus -slides and outcrops has earned it the common name of "rock squirrel" in -some places. - -Entrances to burrows are usually beside a rock, stump, or root, or are -concealed under talus slides. A burrow excavated by Hatt (1927) in -Colorado was three inches in diameter at the entrance and uniformly two -inches in diameter for the rest of its length. Most of the burrow was 8 -inches beneath the surface. The tunnel branched twice and contained one -pocket, probably a turning or passing chamber, in addition to the nest. -"A runway surrounded the nest on three sides, from which there were four -passages leading in. The nest cavity was 4 inches deep, the nest not -filling the space available, but occurring more as a mat in the bottom -of a cup." - -The habits of this ground squirrel in Washington are little known. Since -it occupies areas that are cold and under deep snow in winter, it -probably hibernates. According to Howell (1938: 32) these animals become -fat in the fall and must retire for the winter about the middle of -September. - -The food habits of these ground squirrels in Washington are little -known. In the Pend Oreille Mountains, Pend Oreille County, I found them -eating the fruit of the western raspberry (_Rubus leucodermis_). Howell -lists, as food of this species, the seeds of yellow pine and douglas -fir, serviceberries, other berries and seeds, grain, mushrooms, and -several kinds of insects. - - -=Citellus lateralis tescorum= (Hollister) - - _Callospermophilus lateralis tescorum_ Hollister, Smithsonian Misc. - Coll., 56 (no. 26):2, December 5, 1911. - - _Citellus lateralis tescorum_ Elliot, Check-list Mamm. N. Amer., - Supp., p. 29, 1917. - - _Type._--Obtained at the head of Moose Pass Branch, Smoky River, - Alberta (near Moose Pass, British Columbia), 7,000 ft., by N. - Hollister on August 2, 1911; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Large size, gray color. - - _Measurements._--A female from Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille - County, measures: total length 257; length of tail 90; hind foot - 40; ear 14. - - _Distribution._--Known only from the Pend Oreille Mountains, Pend - Oreille County, at Pass Creek Pass (W. W. D.). - - [Illustration: FIG. 86. Distribution of golden-mantled ground - squirrels in Washington. A. _Citellus lateralis tescorum._ - B. _Citellus lateralis connectens._ C. _Citellus saturatus._] - - -=Citellus lateralis connectens= (Howell) - - _Callospermophilus chrysodeirus connectens_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., - 12:161, May 14, 1931. - - _Citellus lateralis connectens_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:205, - May 18, 1938. - - _Type._--Obtained at Homestead, Oregon, by H. H. Sheldon on June 1, - 1916; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial Characters._--Similar to _C. l. tescorum_ but browner, - more buffy and less grayish, mantle brighter, size slightly - smaller. - - _Measurements._--Seven males from northeastern Oregon average - (Howell, 1938: 206): total length 266; length of tail 92; hind - foot 41.7; ear 14.8 (dry). An adult female from Godman Springs, - Columbia County, measures: total length 257; length of tail 87; - hind foot 37; ear 14. - - _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of extreme southeastern - Washington. - - _Remarks._--This race differs markedly from the subspecies that - occupies northeastern Washington, but differs but little from - _Citellus l. chrysodeirus_ of the Cascades of Oregon. - - -=Citellus saturatus= (Rhoads) - -Golden-mantled ground squirrel - - _Tamias lateralis saturatus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. - Philadelphia, 1895:43, April 9, 1895. - - [_Spermophilus lateralis_] _saturatus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. - Publ. 45, zoöl. ser., 2:83, 1901. - - _Citellus lateralis saturatus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. - 105, zoöl. ser., 6:106, 1905. - - _Callospermophilus lateralis saturatus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. - Bull., 79:316, December 31, 1912. - - _Citellus saturatus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:212, May 18, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained at Lake Keechelus, 3000 ft., Kittitas County, - Washington, by A. Rupert, in September, 1893; type in Academy of - Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. - - _Measurements._--Ten males from the Cascade Mountains average: - total length 305; length of tail 110.9; hind foot 46.5; ear 17 - (dry). The weights of 3 males and 5 females average, respectively: - 281 grams; 259.4 grams. - - _Distribution._--The higher and eastern Cascade Mountains from - Barron (Howell, 1938: 213) and Bauerman Ridge (Howell, 1938: 213) - south to Cleveland (Howell, 1938: 213) and Goldendale (W. W. D.). - -_Remarks._--The golden-mantled ground squirrel of the Cascades is -similar to _Citellus lateralis_ but is larger and duller-colored. Head -and body are about 8 inches in length and the tail is about 4-1/2 inches -long. The upper parts are brownish gray with one pale and two dark -stripes on each side. Head and shoulders are tawny. The underparts are -dull buffy gray. - -_Citellus saturatus_ occupies the Cascade Mountains of Washington and -southern British Columbia. It inhabits talus slides and clearings. The -rock embankment of the Great Northern Railroad between the Cascade -Tunnel and Leavenworth, Chelan County, is a favored habitat and the -population along the railroad probably averages one squirrel each -hundred yards. To the east it extends well into the Transition -Life-zone, being abundant in clearings in the open forest of yellow -pine. In places its range nearly reaches the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. A -few miles east of Leavenworth, Chelan County, we found this squirrel in -chapparal and brush, principally composed of _Ceanothus creneatus_. Here -the animals were unusually abundant and formed a colony almost as dense -as colonies of _Citellus washingtoni_. - -Entrances of burrows are usually placed beside rocks, stumps or logs. -In the area near Leavenworth, mentioned above, entrances to burrows -were in the open or among roots of bushes. The entrances to many -burrows are doubtless concealed under talus slides. No complete records -of excavations of burrows are available. One burrow, uncovered by road -construction operations three miles east of Scenic, Chelan County, was -dug in the earth-filled cleft of a great granite boulder. The cleft -was 5 feet wide at the surface of the ground but narrowed until at a -depth of six feet the stones were in contact. The cleft was at least -10 yards long. The burrow descended at an angle of 45 degrees, to a -depth of three feet. Here the construction work had passed the cleft, -but digging into the almost vertical wall uncovered the nest at the end -of a horizontal tunnel two feet farther on. It was a matted cup of dry -grass with two fresh, green fern fronds lying loose in the cup. Two -divergent burrows emerged on opposite sides of the nest cavity, but a -fall of the loose, gravelly soil prevented further observation. The -body of the occupant, crushed and mangled by the steam-shovel scoop, -was that of a small male. - - [Illustration: FIG. 87. Golden-mantled ground squirrel (_Citellus - saturatus_), captured when young at Tye, Washington, by Earl J. - Larrison, June 20, 1940; photographed February 1, 1941. (Fish and - Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1139.)] - -In spite of their vivacious appearance, these squirrels are rather -sedentary. When undisturbed they move leisurely over rocks and stumps, -pausing often, and occasionally sitting on their hindquarters to gaze -about for minutes at a time. They are good climbers and often ascend -smooth-barked trees to heights of 20 feet or more. At the approach -of danger they descend and enter the nearest burrow. In August these -ground squirrels become exceedingly fat and by late September only a -few may be seen, basking in the midday sun. These take alarm at the -slightest excuse. All have usually gone into hibernation by October 15. - -The food includes the berries of salal, huckleberry, mountain ash, and -seeds of lupine. Near Liberty, Kittitas County, a squirrel killed by a -car had its cheek pouches stuffed with garden peas. The source of its -loot was doubtless the garden of a farmhouse 100 feet away. Numerous -individuals are run over by cars, and on many occasions I have found -other individuals eating the sun-dried flesh of their mates, parents, -or young. These cannibals are often run over while so engaged, and it -is not unusual to find two or three dead on a section of pavement 20 -feet in length. - -Economically this species is of little importance. Its principal enemies -probably include hawks, weasels, martens, bobcats and coyotes. - - -=Sciurus griseus griseus= Ord - -Western gray squirrel - - _Sciurus griseus_ Ord, Jour. de phys., 87:152, 1818. - - _Sciurus griseus griseus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:222, - April 29, 1924. - - _Type._--None. Described from a squirrel seen by Lewis and Clark. - Type locality, The Dalles, Wasco County, Oregon. - - _Measurements._--A female from midway between Satus Pass and - Goldendale, Klickitat County, measured: total length 560; length - of tail 264; hind foot 76; weight 897 grams. - - _Distribution._--Southwestern Washington north to the glacial - prairies near Tacoma (W. W. D.); the Columbia River Valley of the - southern Cascades; the eastern edge of the Cascades north to Lake - Chelan (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 18). - - [Illustration: FIG. 88. Distribution of the western gray squirrel, - _Sciurus griseus_, in Washington.] - -_Description._--This is the largest tree squirrel found in Washington. -The head and body measure about 12 inches, and the tail about 11 inches. -The body is long and slender. The fur is long and soft, that on the tail -being exceptionally long. The upper parts are silvery gray and the -underparts white. - -The western gray squirrel is restricted to the region of the Pacific -Coast and ranges from central Washington south to northern Lower -California. Three subspecies are recognized, only one of which occurs in -Washington. Like the red squirrels, the western gray squirrel is -arboreal. Its favored habitat is the oak woods rather than coniferous -forest. Its range in Washington is largely regulated by the distribution -of oaks, especially the garry oak (_Quercus garryana_). Altitudinally it -ranges from near sea level at Puget Sound to above 2,500 feet elevation -in the eastern Cascade Mountains. It seems to be restricted to the -Transition Life-zone. - -The habits of the western gray squirrel are modified by its arboreal -existence. Homes consist of holes in hollow trees or outside nests of -sticks and twigs. It is extremely active in trees and travels from tree -to tree on branches that seem scarcely strong enough to bear the weight -of so large an animal. The oak woods in Washington are usually rather -open and the trees more scattered than is the case in coniferous -forests. Consequently gray squirrels must more often descend to the -ground than Douglas and red squirrels. On the ground, western gray -squirrels travel in smooth leaps each of two feet or more in length. The -long tail is held out behind and "follows through" the animal's leaps in -a remarkable way. The tip of the tail may be descending from the -previous leap while the animal's fore parts are already at the height of -a new jump. This results in a "flowing" movement that is extremely -graceful. The squirrel may stop momentarily to dig in the ground or -search for an acorn. At such times the tail is immediately switched up, -over the back. - -The western gray squirrel is able to drop unharmed for considerable -distances. Near Fort Lewis, Pierce County, a gray squirrel was cornered -in a tall fir tree and an agile friend volunteered to climb the tree. -The squirrel ascended to the very topmost branches. When only a few feet -separated them the squirrel leaped far out into the air. Its legs were -stretched out stiffly, the tail was extended and the body slightly -arched. It struck the ground with an audible thud and bounced fully 18 -inches. At the height of its bounce, the squirrel's legs began moving -rapidly, and it struck the ground the second time at a full run. - -The principal food is acorns, although the seeds of the Douglas fir and -probably other conifers are eaten. Four embryos were found by Victor B. -Scheffer in a specimen from Klickitat County on March 20, 1939. - - -=Sciurus carolinensis hypophaeus= Merriam - -Eastern gray squirrel - - _Sciurus carolinensis hypophaeus_ Merriam, Science, 7:351, April - 16, 1886. - - _Type._--Obtained at Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota. - -_Description._--Size large, slightly smaller than the western gray -squirrel; color of upper parts less silvery, more reddish, especially on -the dorsal area and top of the tail. - -_Remarks._--The eastern gray squirrel was introduced at Woodland Park, -Seattle, in 1925. The original stock (7 pairs) came from Minneapolis, -Minnesota. It has spread through the nearby woods, around Green Lake, -Cowan Park, and to the woods on the University of Washington Campus. -Occasional individuals are found outside the city limits, but the -species seems not to spread away from the city. - - -=Sciurus niger= Linnaeus subsp? - -Fox squirrel - - [_Sciurus_] _niger_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1 (10th ed.):64, 1758. - -_Description._--Similar in size and appearance to the eastern gray -squirrel but upper parts more reddish and underparts reddish orange -rather than white. - -_Remarks._--Occasional fox squirrels are encountered near Seattle where -they have been introduced from the southeastern United States. The -source and date of the introduction are unknown. - - -=Tamiasciurus hudsonicus= (Erxleben) - -Red squirrel - -_Description._--The head and body of the red squirrel measure about -7-3/4 inches, the tail about 5 inches. It may be recognized by its trim -body, bushy tail and white underparts. The upper parts are reddish gray, -reddest on the dorsal area. The red color of the center of the back -extends to the tail. A black line separates the dark upper parts from -the white underparts. - -Red squirrels range over North America from the northern limit of tree -growth south through the United States to Tennessee and North Carolina. -A related species, _douglasii_, is found along the Pacific coast from -British Columbia to California. The genus _Tamiasciurus_ differs from -_Sciurus_ of Washington in lacking a penis bone or baculum. There are -other fundamental differences in anatomy (see Mossman, Lawlah and -Bradley, 1932: 89-155). - -The habitat of the red squirrels is the coniferous forests from which -they rarely stray. Zonally they range through the Transition and -Canadian life-zones into the Hudsonian Life-zone. Red squirrels are -arboreal and most of their habits are modified by arboreal existence. -They are swift and agile climbers, able to travel from tree to tree on -slender twigs or by leaping as much as ten feet to span the distance -from one branch to another. They ascend and descend trees head first. -They hang by their hind feet, high in the air, to clip the cones of -conifers. If cornered in a tree they leap far out and, by extending the -legs and tail stiffly, fall to the ground unharmed by leaps of fifty -feet or more. - - [Illustration: FIG. 89. Douglas squirrel (_Tamiasciurus douglasii - douglasii_): feeding station with remnants of Douglas fir cone, - Longmire, Washington, elevation 2,700 feet, June 25, 1937. (Fish - and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 268.)] - -The homes of red squirrels are woodpecker holes or other holes in hollow -trees. More rarely they build outside nests of twigs and branches, about -two feet in diameter, or add onto old nests of crows or jays. Most nests -and holes are some distance from the ground but some holes are between -roots on the ground itself. - -The food consists principally of the seeds of coniferous trees, -especially Douglas fir and various species of pines. Cones are clipped -when green or just before ripening and are either allowed to fall to the -ground to be retrieved later or are at once carried to a favored feeding -place to be consumed. Cones are held between the forepaws while the -squirrel sits on its hind feet, tail curved up over its back, and -rapidly clips the cone apart to get the seeds it contains. The cone is -rotated between the paws and a steady stream of husks drops to the -ground. Soon only the core is left and this too joins the husks on the -ground. Favored feeding stations are used continually, perhaps by -generation after generation of squirrels, and debris from thousands of -cones accumulates in great piles. - -Cones are stored. In the vicinity of a favored feeding place, at times -virtually every hiding place is filled with green cones. Cones may be -jammed into cracks or crevices in logs or stumps without effort at -concealment or may be carefully covered with leaves or dry needles. Many -are placed in craterlike pits dug in the ground. Most of these pits -probably are later covered over but many are left open to the weather. -Hollows in trees are probably also used for storage, as are holes dug -into the piles of accumulated cone debris beneath feeding stations. -Other food eaten by squirrels includes hazelnuts, berries, maple seeds, -and mushrooms. A variety of fruits and seeds are doubtless eaten when -opportunity offers. - -Red squirrels do not hibernate. In the lowlands they are active all -winter long but are noticeably shy and quiet. In the mountains they -disappear after the snow falls but tracks may be seen in the snow about -their dens and occasional individuals are seen. Specimens collected at -this time are not fat, as would be the case if hibernation had been -interrupted. Seemingly they stay close to their homes and feed on stored -food. - -The call of the red squirrel is harsher, more metallic, than that of the -Douglas squirrel. The common call is a rolling "bur-r-r," starting loud -but fading out entirely in a half minute. A lower-pitched "pauf" is -uttered at intervals when the squirrel is going about its business. The -danger cry is a loud "pee-ee," not unlike the call of a red-tailed hawk -but less shrill. A low pitched "chauf-chauf-chauf," repeated at -intervals of about two seconds, is occasionally given in the fall of the -year. - - -=Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori= (Allen) - - _Sciurus hudsonicus streatori_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., - 10:267, July 22, 1898. - - _T[amiasciurus]. h[udsonicus]. streatori_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 49:135, August 22, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained at Ducks, British Columbia; type in American - Museum of Natural History. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _richardsoni_ but smaller and - darker, redder above. - - _Measurements._--Seven males from north-central Washington average: - total length 330; length of tail 129; hind foot 51; ear 23. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington. Marginal occurrences are - (from Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 17): Beaver Creek, Ruby Creek, and - head of Lake Chelan. - - _Remarks._--This race reaches Washington from the interior of - British Columbia. Intergradation between _hudsonicus streatori_ - and _h. richardsoni_ takes place over much of northeastern - Washington. - - [Illustration: FIG. 90. Distribution of the red squirrel and Douglas - squirrel in Washington. A. _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni._ B. - _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori._ C. _Tamiasciurus douglasii - douglasii._] - - -=Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni= (Bachman) - - - _Sciurus richardsoni_ Bachman, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 100, - 1838. - - _Sciurus hudsonius Richardsoni_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., - 7:595, 1884. - - _Sciurus hudsonicus richardsoni_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. - Hist., 10:265, July 22, 1898. - - _Sciurus hudsonicus richardsoni_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 128:211, April 29, 1924. - - _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni_ Svihla and Svihla, Murrelet, - 21:55, December 20, 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained at the head of the Big Lost River, Custer - County, Idaho. - - _Racial characters._--Color paler, especially on back. - - _Measurements._--Four males and 4 females average, respectively: - total length 339, 339; length of tail 133, 131; hind foot 54, 51; - ear 24, 24; weight 256, 266. - - _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. - - -=Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii= (Bachman) - -Douglas squirrel - - _Sciurus douglasii_ Bachman, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 99, - 1838. - - _Sciurus hudsonius Douglasii_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., - 7:595, 1884. - - _Sciurus douglasii douglasii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 128:212, April 29, 1924. - - _Sciurus douglasii cascadensis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. - R. Conner Mus., no. 2:18, December, 1929. - - _Tamiasciurus douglasii_ Holdenried, Jour. Mamm., 21:406, November - 14, 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained near the mouth of the Columbia River by David - Douglas. - - _Measurements._--Fifteen males and 10 females from the lowlands of - western Washington average, respectively: total length 317, 320; - length of tail 121, 126.7; hind foot 50, 49.4; ear 23.2, 22.6; - weight 204, 202 grams. - - _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains - westward to the Pacific. Marginal occurrences are: Nooksack River - (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 18), Lake Wenatchee (W. W. D.) and - Wenatchee (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 18). - -_Remarks._--Squirrels from the Puget Sound area are slightly less -intensely colored than specimens from the ocean coast and the Olympic -Mountains. Those from the higher and eastern Cascade Mountains are -paler still. When, however, squirrels from the Cascades of Washington -are compared with individuals of the race inhabiting the Cascades of -Oregon, it is apparent that the Washington squirrels are nearest to -_douglasii_. The pale tips of the hairs in the tail of the Oregon race -are strikingly white while in Washington specimens they are orange or -yellow. - -The Douglas squirrel resembles the red squirrel in size and proportions -but differs in being dusky olive (less reddish) on the upper parts and -orange instead of white on the underparts. - -Douglas squirrels range from southern British Columbia southward -to Lower California. They are confined to the Pacific Coastal -region. Although closely related to _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_, no -intergradation with that species has been found. - -The rich coloration of the Douglas squirrel matches the background of -the humid forests it inhabits. It occurs at sea level along the ocean -coast, the shores of Puget Sound and on some islands in Puget Sound. -It ranges through the Transition and Canadian life-zones well into the -Hudsonian. - -It makes its home in holes in trees or in nests constructed of conifer -twigs, needles and bark. Old nests of birds may be modified and taken -over, but most outside nests seem to have been made entirely by the -squirrel. Nests are usually placed near the top of denser fir and -cedar trees. Nests are hemispherical in shape, 12 inches or more in -diameter, and open on top. The central cup, 4 inches in diameter, is -lined with strips of inner bark of red cedar coiled but unshredded. -Nests in holes are usually some distance from the ground, but the -entrances to some are at ground level. - -The habits of the Douglas squirrels vary with the season. In spring -they are shy. They rarely call and are skillful in keeping branches -or tree trunks between themselves and persons. In June and July -they become bolder, calling more frequently and moving about more. -In September and October they become exceptionally bold. They call -almost incessantly from late morning until early afternoon, and spend -considerable time on the ground. - -The call notes of the Douglas squirrel are similar to those of the -red squirrel but are softer, more slurred. The common call is the -long, trilling "burr," loud at first and becoming gradually softer. -On hot afternoons in late summer a barking "pauf" note is given. This -sound is repeated several times at intervals of a minute or so. It -has remarkable carrying power. The danger signal is a loud, explosive -"pe-ee." Another common call is a short barking or chirping "bauf" with -a musical, questioning sound. This is repeated at intervals of a few -seconds when the presence of danger is suspected. At times it, rather -than the loud danger signal, is given also when a person is sighted. A -low chirping note is often given while the squirrel is busily at work. -This is made while the squirrel is moving about. Other calls described -are made from a standing or sitting position and are accompanied by a -jerk or a flick of the tail. - -The Douglas squirrel eats seeds of the Douglas fir, seeds of maple, -hazelnuts, dogwood berries and mushrooms. The berries of forest shrubs, -such as the red huckleberry, salal and Oregon grape, may also be eaten. - -Two broods of young may be born in a year. The first is born in early -June. Embryos found from June 11 to 28 varied in number from 6 to 8. A -nursing female was taken as early as June 10, 1938, and one was taken as -late as October 10, 1938. - -Douglas squirrels commonly have a few fleas and 2 to 5 ticks at the -bases of the ears. No lice, cases of mange, or serious infestations of -parasites have been seen. - - -=Glaucomys sabrinus= (Shaw) - -Northern flying squirrel - - [Illustration: FIG. 91. Northern flying squirrel (_Glaucomys - sabrinus_), probably from near Seattle, in Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, - Washington, January 28, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by - Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1137.)] - -_Description._--The northern flying squirrel is slightly smaller than -the red squirrel (_Tamiasciurus_). The head and body measure about 7 -inches and the tail about 5 inches. The most distinctive feature is -the loose fold of skin that stretches from the wrist of the foreleg to -the ankle of the hind leg. The fur is extremely soft and plushlike. It -is not separated into guard hair and underfur, and because all hairs -are of approximately the same length, the fur appears extremely sleek. -The fur of the tail is of the same texture as that on the body but is -dorso-ventrally compressed. The eyes are large and dark. The color of -the upper parts varies from reddish brown in some races to brownish -gray in others. The underparts are buffy gray. - -Flying squirrels range over the forested parts of North America from -Guatemala to Alaska and northern Canada and from the Atlantic to -the Pacific. A closely related genus (_Pteromys_) occurs in Europe. -Two species are found in North America. The small _volans_ ranges -in eastern United States, Mexico, and Guatemala, while the larger -_sabrinus_ occurs in parts of the western United States, most of -Canada, and central Alaska. Near the Great Lakes the two species occur -in the same area, probably in different habitats. - -Howell (1918: 16) recognized 18 subspecies of _sabrinus_, five of which -were recorded in the state of Washington. One of these (_olympicus_) -proves to be a synonym of an earlier-named subspecies but another form -(_bangsi_), not recorded for Washington by Howell, has been found in -the Blue Mountains in the southeastern corner of the state (Taylor and -Shaw, 1929: 18). - -Flying squirrels are strictly arboreal and occur only in woods and -forests. They prefer areas where trees grow close together and to -considerable heights. Older woods with dead stubs and hollow trees -are preferred. They occasionally invade attics of cabins and other -habitations of man. The old Forestry Building on the University of -Washington Campus, later the home of the Washington State Museum, -was inhabited by flying squirrels for many years. Several specimens -preserved in the Museum prove the poor judgment of the animal in -choosing a natural history museum as a home. - -Relatively little is known of the detailed habits of _Glaucomys -sabrinus_ although the life history of the eastern _Glaucomys volans_ -has been described. Flying squirrels are active all winter, even in -the high mountains. They are often caught in traps set for fur bearers -and, where trapping is an important means of livelihood, they are -serious pests. Flying squirrels do not actually fly but only glide -through the air. The loose fold of fur between their limbs is stretched -by extending the legs. With it the flying squirrel is able to sail 50 -yards or more. The flat tail serves as a rudder and allows the squirrel -to change direction while in flight. Glides end with an upward swoop, -allowing the squirrel to alight, head upwards, on a tree trunk slightly -lower than their starting point. - -Unlike other members of the squirrel family, flying squirrels are -completely nocturnal. They are seen in the daytime only when frightened -from their retreats. Homes consist principally of old woodpecker holes -or other cavities in trees. They are said to build outside nests, -similar to those of tree squirrels, but I have found none of these in -Washington. The animals can be frightened from their holes by pounding -on the bases of trees in which their nests are situated. Certain holes -seem to be preferred nesting places. Near Cottage Lake, King County, -two flying squirrels were taken from a woodpecker hole in succeeding -years. Cowan (1936B: 58) discovered remains of 14 nests of flying -squirrels in a single hollow tree near Alta Lake, British Columbia. -According to Cowan, hollow trees are used in winter but the young are -born in outside nests of shredded bark and lichens. The young usually -number 3 and are born in May and June. - - [Illustration: FIG. 92. Distribution of flying squirrel in Washington. - A. _Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis._ B. _Glaucomys sabrinus - fuliginosus._ C. _Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis._ D. _Glaucomys - sabrinus latipes._ E. _Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi._] - -Only once have I heard the voice of a flying squirrel. Near Dewey Lake, -Yakima County, the squirrels were unusually abundant in the black -hemlock and Douglas fir forests of the mountain sides. Here a birdlike -twittering note caught my attention and occasional dark, sailing shapes -were glimpsed against the clear sky. Eight traps set in the afternoon -and visited at 11 p. m. held two flying squirrels. In the morning -another was in a trap. Seemingly the squirrels are active most of the -night. - -The food consists principally of conifer seeds and probably other nuts, -seeds, and fruit. They eat the meat bait of traps set for fur bearers -and probably eat the eggs of birds. - - -=Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis= (Bachman) - - _Pteromys oregonensis_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, - 8:101, 1839. - - _Sciuropterus alpinus oregonensis_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. - Philadelphia, p. 324, June, 1897. - - _Sciuropterus alpinus olympicus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. - 30, zoöl. ser., 1:225, February 1, 1899 (type from Happy Lake, - Clallam County, Washington). - - _Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:44, - June 13, 1918. - - _Glaucomys sabrinus olympicus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:49, June - 13, 1918. - - _Type._--Obtained "in pine [= conifer] woods of the Columbia near - the sea" by J. K. Townsend in 1839. Probably near St. Helen, - Columbia County, Oregon (Rhoads, 1897:324). - - _Racial characters._--Small size, rich color. - - _Measurements._--A male from Cottage Lake, King County, measured: - total length 287; length of tail 125; hind foot 38. A female from - 5 miles southeast of Sequim, Clallam County, measured: 303; 133; - 41; ear 27. A male from Quilcene, Jefferson County, measured: 311; - 140; 41. - - _Distribution._--Western Washington west of the Cascade Mountains. - The locality records for flying squirrels in the northern Cascade - Mountains, given by Taylor and Shaw (1929: 18), when plotted on a - distribution map, show overlapping of ranges in this area. The - ranges of the three races involved have been drawn on the - accompanying map (fig. 92) on the basis of geographic probability - and are subject to revision because the specimens from this area - have not been examined. - - Marginal records that may apply to _G. s. oregonensis_ are, from - Taylor and Shaw (1929: 18): Nooksack River, Rockport, North Bend - and Skamania. - - _Remarks._--Of all the races occurring in Washington, - _oregonensis_ is the most distinct. _Glaucomys s. olympicus_ - Elliot must be regarded as a synonym of _oregonensis_. - - -=Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi= (Rhoads) - - _Sciuropterus alpinus bangsi_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. - Philadelphia, p. 321, June, 1897. - - _Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:38, June - 13, 1918. - - _Type._--Obtained in Idaho County, Idaho, by Harbison and Bargamin - on March 8, 1897; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _oregonensis_ but larger and - paler throughout. - - _Measurements._--A female from Wildcat Spring, Columbia County, - measured: total length 333; length of tail 147; hind foot 45; ear - 29; weight 151 grams. - - _Distribution._--Found only in the Blue Mountains of extreme - southeastern Washington. - - - - -=Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis= Howell - - _Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 28:111, May 27, 1915. - - _Type._--Obtained at Okanogan, British Columbia, by Allan Brooks on - May 9, 1898; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Larger than _oregonensis_ and paler. Similar - to _bangsi_ but paler, especially beneath, and less reddish above. - - _Measurements._--Howell (1918: 46) gives the average of two - subadult topotypes as: total length 313; length of tail 143; hind - foot 42. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, probably extending, from - records of Taylor and Shaw (1929: 18), west to Mazama and Stehekin - and east to Molson. - - -=Glaucomys sabrinus latipes= Howell - - _Glaucomys sabrinus latipes_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 28:112, May 27, 1915. - - _Type._--Obtained at Glacier, British Columbia, by J. A. Loring, on - August 13, 1894; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _bangsi_ and _columbiensis_ but - with larger feet and grayer color. - - _Measurements._--Howell (1918: 49) gives the average of 10 - specimens as: total length 342; length of tail 153; hind foot - 41.5. - - _Distribution._--The Pend Oreille Mountains of extreme - northeastern Washington, north (from records of Taylor and Shaw, - 1929: 18-19, as revised) to Sullivan Lake and south to Loon Lake. - - -=Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus= (Rhoads) - - _Sciuropterus alpinus fuliginosus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. - Philadelphia, p. 321, June, 1897. - - _Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:47, - June 13, 1918. - - _Type._--Obtained at Martin Station, Kittitas County, Washington, - by Allan Rupert in March, 1893; type in Philadelphia Academy of - Natural Sciences. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _columbiensis_ but underparts - darker and tail paler. Larger and paler than _oregonensis_. - - _Measurements._--Three females from the Cascades average: total - length 327; length of tail 145; hind foot 40.7; ear 25. - - _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, according to Taylor and - Shaw (1929: 18), as revised here, east to Entiat River and south - to Carson. - - -=Perognathus parvus= (Peale) - -Great Basin pocket mouse - -_Description._--Great Basin pocket mice are slightly larger than house -mice. The ears are tiny and round; the tail is relatively long, slightly -longer than the head and body; the forefeet are small but the hind feet -are large and powerful, more than one-fourth as long as the head and -body. They have relatively large, fur-lined, external cheek pouches. The -color of the upper parts varies with the subspecies from blackish -olive-gray to buffy olive-gray; a line of clear buff or buffy-olive -extends along the lower part of side, separating the darker color of the -upper parts from the white underparts; the tail is short-haired, -blackish above, olive beneath. - -Pocket mice of the genus _Perognathus_ range from Mexico northward to -British Columbia. Only one species, _parvus_, occurs in Washington where -it is represented by three subspecies. Pocket mice are most common in -the Upper Sonoran Life-zone in sandy areas dotted with desert shrubs. -They are found occasionally in dry, grassy places in the Arid Transition -Life-zone. They may be locally abundant in rocky areas and are often -trapped high on talus slides, many yards from the nearest soil. Gray -(1943: 191-193) estimates their numbers on the sagebrush areas of the -Yakima Valley at 32 per acre. They are completely nocturnal. Their -ordinary movements are rather slow and specimens studied by the aid of a -searchlight usually crept quietly into the protection of the nearest -desert shrub. The trail of a pocket mouse in soft sand may be recognized -by the distinctive mark left by the dragging tail. - -Burrows of pocket mice usually are at the bases of shrubs where tough -roots furnish protection. They are kept closed during the day by means -of a plug of fresh earth or sand. Openings may often be recognized by a -fan-shaped pile of fresh sand before the hole. Burrows excavated were -usually less than four feet in length and branched from two to four -times. No nests were found in the burrows but one contained a few fresh -stalks of desert annuals. The air in the burrows seemed warm and humid. - -The pouches of pocket mice from Washington often contain the fresh, -green tips of desert plants, grass seeds, seeds of plants other than -grasses, and plant leaves. Because of their occasional great abundance, -pocket mice may be a menace to agriculture. Fortunately much of their -habitat is unsuited to farming. - -In Washington pocket mice breed in March and April. From 4 to 8 embryos -were found in pregnant females. - - -=Perognathus parvus parvus= (Peale) - - _Cricetodipus parvus_ Peale, U. S. Explor. Exped., 8 (mamm. and - ornith.):53, 1848. - - _Perognathus parvus_ Cassin, U. S. Explor. Exped., 8 (mamm. and - ornith.):48, 1858. - - _Perognathus parvus parvus_ Miller, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., - 128:278, April 29, 1924. - - [Illustration: FIG. 93. Distribution of the Great Basin pocket mouse - in Washington. A. _Perognathus parvus parvus._ B. _Perognathus parvus - columbianus._ C. _Perognathus parvus lordi._] - - _Type._--Probably obtained in the neighborhood of The Dalles, Wasco - County, Oregon. - - _Racial characters._--Size small; upper parts brownish-buff washed - with blackish or, in gray phase, ashy gray washed with blackish; - sides buffy yellow; a buffy spot often present on throat; tail - blackish above, olive below; facial markings usually brownish-buff - but in older animals indistinct and washed with blackish. - - _Measurements._--Thirty-one males and 19 females from Washington - average, respectively: total length 169, 164; length of tail 90, - 86; hind foot 22.6, 21.8; ear 5, 5. - - _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington south of the Snake River, - the area on the north side of the Columbia River in Klickitat - County, and the Yakima Valley area as far north as the Vantage, - Kittitas County (W. W. D.). Other marginal records are: Kennewick - (W. W. D.), Atilla (W. W. D.) and Walla Walla (E. S. B.). - - _Remarks._--Dichromatism seems to be rather common in _Perognathus - p. parvus_--so common that Osgood (1900: 35) recognized both a - "red" and a "gray" phase. Anderson (1932: 102) found no - dichromatism in _P. p. lordi_ in British Columbia. A single - specimen from the Grand Coulee at Dry Falls, Grant County, does - show dichromatism. It is even more red than the reddest topotypes - of _parvus_ examined. - - Seemingly the recessive gene for red is still present in _lordi_, - or has mutated anew. When present, the color is deeper and brighter - than in the parent population, in keeping with the heavier - pigmentation of the race _lordi_. - - -=Perognathus parvus lordi= (Gray) - - _Abromys lordi_ Gray, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 202, 1868. - - _Perognathus lordi_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 1:28, October 25, - 1889. - - _Perognathus lordi lordi_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:279, - April 29, 1924. - - _Perognathus parvus lordi_ Davis, Recent Mamm. of Idaho, p. 266, - Caxton Printers, Caldwell, Idaho, April 5, 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained in southern British Columbia (probably near Lake - Osoyoos) by J. K. Lord, probably in 1860. - - _Racial characters._--Size large; color of upper parts - buffy-olive, washed with blackish; sides buff-olive; facial - markings absent or, if present, indistinct and pale olive; tail - blackish above, olive below. - - _Measurements._--Twenty-nine males and 10 females average, - respectively: total length 175, 171; length of tail 93, 89; hind - foot 23.4, 22.9; ear 5.3, 5.1. - - _Distribution._--Okanogan Valley and the Columbian Plateau, except - for the southwestern part. Marginal localities are: Vantage, Grant - County (W. W. D.), 10 mi. S. Moses Lake (W. W. D.), Washtucna (M. - V. Z.) and Pullman (M. V. Z.). - -_Remarks._--There are constant differences between _Perognathus parvus -parvus_ and _Perognathus parvus lordi_. The latter is larger, darker, -and differs slightly in average cranial measurements. The Snake River, -the Columbia River, and the Wenatchee Mountains separate the geographic -ranges of the two subspecies and prevent intergradation between them. -Nevertheless their close similarity and probable common origin indicate -that both belong to one species, namely _parvus_. - - -=Perognathus parvus columbianus= Merriam - - _Perognathus columbianus_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. - Philadelphia, p. 263, September 27, 1894. - - _Perognathus lordi columbianus_, Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 18:40, - September 20, 1900. - - _Type._--Obtained at Pasco, Franklin County, Washington, by Clark - P. Streator on May 9, 1891; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Size and color as in _lordi_ but skull - considerably wider in mastoid region. - - _Measurements._--Twenty-one male and 9 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 173, 168; length of tail 91, 89; hind - foot 23.9, 22.8; ear 5, 5. - - _Distribution._--The vicinity of the type locality and the part of - the Columbian Plateau north of the Snake and east of the Columbia - rivers. - -_Remarks._--This race is separated from _parvus_ by river barriers and -the two do not intergrade. It differs significantly from _lordi_ only in -the wider mastoid region. No barrier separates the range of _lordi_ from -that of _parvus_, and the two races intergrade over a wide area (north -to Moses Lake, east to Washtucna). The race _columbianus_ must have -originated _in situ_ from _lordi_. The habitat of _columbianus_ seems -not to differ from that of _parvus_ or _lordi_. - - -=Dipodomys ordii columbianus= (Merriam) - -Ord kangaroo rat - - _Perodipus ordi columbianus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 9:115, June 21, 1894. - - _Dipodomys ordii columbianus_ Grinnell, Jour. Mamm., 2:96, May 2, - 1921. - - _Type._--Obtained at Umatilla, Umatilla County, Oregon, by C. P. - Streator on October 18, 1890; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Measurements._--Fourteen males and 9 females from Walla Walla - County average, respectively: total length 261.5, 248.4; length of - tail 137.2, 139.1; hind foot 40.6, 40.8; ear 13.1, 13.0; weight - 52.1, 49.0 grams. - - _Distribution._--Western Walla Walla County from the Oregon - boundary north to the Snake River and on Blalock Island in the - Columbia River, Benton County. - - [Illustration: FIG. 94. Distribution of the Ord kangaroo rat, - _Dipodomys ordii columbianus_, in Washington.] - -_Description._--The kangaroo rat with a body about the size of that of a -chipmunk has an exceptionally large head and large, black eyes. The -forelegs and forefeet are tiny but the hind feet and legs are large and -powerful. The hind foot is almost a third as long as the head and body. -The tail is long, longer than the head and body. Kangaroo rats possess -fur-lined, external cheek pouches, like those of the pocket mice. The -upper parts are soft buff in color. The underparts and a stripe on each -flank are white. The tail is dusky above and below, with white sides; it -is tufted at the tip. - -Kangaroo rats are typical of the desert regions of the southwestern -United States, where numerous species and subspecies are found. A single -subspecies of the wide-ranging species _ordii_ occurs into southeastern -Washington, where it is restricted to sandy areas in the Upper Sonoran -Life-zone. In the soft, drifted sand along the Columbia River where -sagebrush and other desert shrubs are low and widely spaced kangaroo -rats are abundant. - -These rats are strictly nocturnal. When individuals are dug from their -burrows in the daytime they usually hop about in a dazed manner and -appear to be blinded by sunlight. Near Wallula, Walla Walla County, -these rats were caught at night with a butterfly net as they stood -"paralyzed" in the beam of a powerful searchlight. Such night hunting -was unsuccessful on cloudy or windy nights when kangaroo rats seem not -to move about. - -As might be guessed from their powerful hind legs, kangaroo rats travel -in bounds. Near Wallula, where we watched them in their natural habitat, -they traveled, when unfrightened, in slow hops, each hop followed by a -pause. As they struck the surface of the ground an audible thud could be -heard for a distance of several feet. After each jump they paused for a -second or so, perhaps to allow a pursuing enemy to over-run them. - -Near Wallula the burrows of kangaroo rats were dug in large mounds of -wind-blown sand. The burrows entered these natural mounds horizontally -and branched two or three times. Their average length was about five -feet. No nests or food stores were discovered although several kangaroo -rats were caught as they burst from entrances at sides of the mounds. -All entrances to burrows were plugged with soft sand. The air in the -burrows seemed warm and humid. - -Food found in the cheek pouches of kangaroo rats from Washington -included the seeds of desert annuals, short sections of sprouts of an -unidentified plant, grass seeds, and the leaves of the hop-sage. - -A female taken March 22, 1939, contained 3 embryos. - - -=Thomomys talpoides= (Richardson) - -Northern pocket gopher - -_Description._--The pocket gopher is a fossorial animal, being but -slightly less adapted to an underground existence than the moles. The -body is stout, the legs short and the head broad. The tail is short, -sparsely haired, cylindrical and blunt-ended. The fur is soft and dense. -The eyes are small and the ears tiny and naked. The incisor teeth are -external, being separated from the mouth cavity by a furry strip of -skin. Like the pocket mouse and kangaroo rat, the pocket gopher -possesses external, fur-lined cheek pouches. The openings of these begin -just below and posterior to the nostrils, sweep out and down in a -semicircle, and end at the chin posterior to the base of the lower -incisors. They extend laterally to the shoulders and easily accommodate -a fifty-cent piece. - - [Illustration: FIG. 95. Northern pocket gopher (_Thomomys talpoides - yelmensis_), from two miles southwest of Tenino, Washington, January - 28, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. - 1133.)] - -The family Geomyidae is composed of eight genera, so similar in -appearance that the name "pocket gopher" is applied to all of them. The -family is confined to North and Central America. Three genera occur in -the United States but only one, _Thomomys_, occurs in Washington. -_Thomomys_ is restricted to western North America where it ranges from -central Canada south to the southern edge of the table land of Mexico. - -Several hundred kinds of _Thomomys_ have been described and as -systematic work with this genus has been continued, more and more kinds, -originally thought to be species, are found to intergrade and to be only -subspecies. All of the 17 kinds of pocket gophers occurring in -Washington belong to a single species. - -The pocket gopher is principally nocturnal or crepuscular but sometimes -it is active at midday, especially if the day be dark and cloudy. -Pocket-gopher activity is indicated by fresh mounds of earth on the -surface of the ground. Rarely, an observer may see movement of plants as -the gopher molests the roots of the plants, or even see the head and -shoulders of an animal that partly emerges from an open burrow. The -ordinary gopher mound consists of less than a cubic foot of earth. The -earth is forced up from a single opening and usually is pushed out in -one direction. In consequence it forms in a fan-shaped pile about the -opening, and the last load forms a circular plug above and to one side -of the burrow opening. When so much earth has been forced out of one -opening that expulsion of additional loads of earth is overly difficult, -the burrow is extended slightly to one side, or even extended into the -newly formed mound, and another fan formed. Usually not more than three -coalesced fans form a mound, but where the soil is exceedingly soft and -fluffy, hundreds of fans may form a composite mound and the one mound -may include a cubic yard of earth. Large composite mounds probably are -formed gradually over a period of weeks or even months. - -The earth in a fresh gopher mound is usually "scratched," and gives the -appearance of having been sieved. Pebbles weighing more than 100 grams -are included in material ejected from burrows. The entrances to the -burrows of gophers are usually solidly plugged with earth. The plug may -be from a few inches to more than a foot in length. At times a burrow -entrance may appear to be open, but in such cases investigation will -usually reveal it to be plugged some distance back--sometimes several -feet. - -In contrast to the gopher mounds described above, the mounds of moles -are not fan-shaped but volcano-shaped. The earth from a mole's burrow is -forced straight upwards, whence it falls to either side. Later loads are -pushed up from beneath, raising the entire mound, with the last material -ejected at the center and bottom. The earth of a fresh mole-mound is not -of fine texture but instead is "clotted" and, if damp, gives the mound -a fractured appearance. When mounds are older, perhaps changed by rain -and sun, their identity as of mole-origin or pocket gopher-origin is -more difficult to establish. In such cases, if no fresh mounds can be -found, the observer must rely on the spacing of the mounds. Mole-mounds -are spaced along a burrow, about as far apart as a man can step. Gopher -mounds are irregularly spaced, and the course of the burrow cannot be -traced merely by observing the arrangement of the mounds as can that of -the mole. - -In addition to mounds, gopher burrows have plugged openings where a -gopher has come to the surface, probably to cut plants. Such entrances -are marked by a plug of earth several inches long. Mounds and feeding -entrances of the gopher burrow are usually not constructed in the main -burrow system itself, but at the ends of lateral burrows of varying -length. If one traces the burrow back from the mound, a junction with -the main, better-constructed burrow is found. The junction is usually -T-shaped, with the lateral burrow at right angles to the main burrow. -More rarely the junction has a Y-shape. - - [Illustration: FIG. 96. Giant mounds raised by pocket gophers on Mima - Prairie, Thurston County, Washington, July 13, 1941. (Fish and - Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1209.)] - -The burrow system of the pocket gopher may be divided into three main -parts. These are the laterals, just discussed, the main burrow, and the -deep nesting burrow. The main burrow is a sinuous tube or tunnel at a -relatively uniform depth, that marks the extent of the gopher's home -territory. This tunnel may branch, or even intersect. As it is extended -in one direction, the earth excavated by the gopher may in part be -thrust into an unused portion of the burrow. - -The deep, nesting burrows may be used only in the breeding season. They -are connected with the main tunnel system but descend to a greater -depth. Usually they descend into the harder, consolidated layers of soil -below the zone where plant roots penetrate. Here chambers are -constructed in which nests and food are stored. Usually a vertical shaft -is dug in the burrow ahead of the nest to lead rain water away from the -nest. - -In areas where gophers live in a thin layer of soil underlain by a more -or less impenetrable layer of rock, clay or gravel, it has been -suggested that they form unique structures known as Mima Mounds. The -formation of these mounds has been discussed in detail elsewhere -(Dalquest and Scheffer, 1942: 68-84). At least in the breeding season -the gophers work mainly and make their nest where the soil is deepest. -In the vicinity of this nest, considerable mounding and cultivation of -soil ensues. This stimulates plant growth in the area. Much observation -indicates that cultivation of earth by gophers stimulates plant growth -to a greater extent than the depredations of the gopher deplete the -ensuing growth. Thus the gopher, by cultivation of the soil in the area -about its burrow, stimulates the growth of vegetation and so increases -his own food supply. Consequently there is but little incentive for the -gopher to leave the vicinity of the nest. The gopher does, however, -construct lateral tunnels into surrounding areas. Earth from these -lateral tunnels is, in part, thrown to the surface in mounds and in part -transported back to fill the abandoned burrows near the nest. The earth -from the burrows about the nest was earlier ejected on the surface. -Slowly, then, earth is transported from surrounding areas to burrows in -the vicinity of the original nest. Each succeeding generation finds in -the vicinity of the original nest, better food and deeper soil, while -areas surrounding the nest possess thinner soil and less vegetation. -Over a period of thousands of generations of gophers, large mounds, -known as Mima Mounds, are formed. Since the removal of earth from the -surrounding areas and its accumulation in the Mima Mound are chance -affairs, the contours of the mound are smooth and flowing while the -contours of the intermound areas are smoothly convex. - -The pocket gophers in Washington are economically important. In truck -and flower gardens they are a pest, especially if the crop be bulb -plants. In grain fields they are a pest because their mounds cover -considerable grain and are apt to clog or dull the knife of the mower. -In fields of young alfalfa they are apt to crop back the plant more -rapidly than it can grow. Once the alfalfa plant is well established, -however, the cultivation resulting from activities of gophers, some -persons believe, stimulates the plant to such an extent that it grows -larger and healthier in spite of the gopher's feeding on it. In the -White Salmon Valley, Klickitat County, I examined numerous alfalfa -fields. The most luxuriant growth was invariably in fields where gophers -were common. In these fields, the largest plants were those in the -immediate vicinity of gopher activity. The commensal relation between -the gopher and alfalfa was understood by many farmers, who forbade us to -take gophers for specimens from their fields. Several told us that they -always trapped the gophers from the fields of young alfalfa and from hay -meadows but encouraged their presence in fields of older alfalfa. - - [Illustration: FIG. 97. Food cache of northern pocket gopher - (_Thomomys talpoides tacomensis_), from chamber four inches below - surface of ground, Tacoma, Washington, December 1, 1940. Contents - 575 grams (about 2 liters) of roots, principally quackgrass, - _Agropyron repens_. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor - B. Scheffer, No. 1119.)] - -Another economic factor is the gopher's removal of certain weeds from -grazing land. A number of introduced weeds form dense rosettes that -prevent the growth of grass from several square inches of ground and -themselves lie so close to the ground as to be unavailable as food to -grazing stock. These weeds seem to be favored food of gophers which cut -not only the rosettes but the roots of the weeds as well. - -In irrigated parts of eastern Washington the gopher is a serious pest. -It burrows in the banks of the main ditches, causing cave-ins and -occasional breaks with resultant water loss. The mounds of gophers fill -in the smaller channels and divert the streams. Constant attention is -necessary to keep the ditches free of gopher mounds. - -In uncultivated land the gopher is a distinct asset unless the land is -near enough to cultivated land to serve as a reservoir of pests. In the -mountains and on the desert the gopher cultivates and keeps the soil -soft and stimulates the growth of water-retaining vegetation, thus -preventing rapid run-off and erosion and keeping the flow of springs and -streams constant. Boulders, logs, and other obstructions are undermined -and, as a result of gopher activity, in time sink under the surface of -the ground. Thus a larger surface is available for plant growth. Lastly -the gopher furnishes an important food source for certain fur-bearing -mammals and eases the predator pressure on game species. - -The subspecies of pocket gopher occupying the Puget Sound area are -highly restricted in their habitat preference; they occur only on the -grassy prairies of the glacial outwash aprons. They do not occur in -woods, brush or even small openings on the borders of the prairies. The -alpine forms occupy the mountain meadows and are slightly less selective -in their habits. It should be noted that in western Washington the -forests are far more open at higher altitudes than at low elevations. -The races inhabiting the desert are found in open areas, often in sandy -places. They occur more rarely in areas where the soil is baked and -claylike, and then usually in the vicinity of springs or watercourses. -The race _T. t. fuscus_ has a wide range of tolerance as regards -environmental factors; it occurs near Wenatchee in essentially desert -conditions, in alpine meadows of northeastern Washington, and in many -habitats at intermediate elevations. It occurs also in brushy areas and -is often abundant in open pine forests. - -Since the gopher usually has a narrow range of tolerance as regards its -environmental adaptations, this has resulted in considerably more -isolation than is the case with other mammals, and has probably -contributed to the formation of the many subspecies. Within the range of -almost every race, microgeographic races, or local populations with -distinctive characters, are found. Many subspecies of _Thomomys_ are -probably the result of chance fixation of genetic characters already -present in a more genetically variable ancestral population, and the -loss of other genetic factors. Such races might be considered -degenerative (see Dalquest and Scheffer, 1944: 24). - - [Illustration: FIG. 98. Distribution of the northern pocket gopher in - Washington. A. _Thomomys talpoides devexus._ B. _Thomomys talpoides - columbianus._ C. _Thomomys talpoides aequalidens._ D. _Thomomys - talpoides wallowa._ E. _Thomomys talpoides fuscus._ F. _Thomomys - talpoides yakimensis._ G. _Thomomys talpoides shawii._ H. _Thomomys - talpoides immunis._ I. _Thomomys talpoides limosus._ J. _Thomomys - talpoides douglasii._ K. _Thomomys talpoides pugetensis._ L. _Thomomys - talpoides tacomensis._ M. _Thomomys talpoides glacialis._ N. _Thomomys - talpoides tumuli._ O. _Thomomys talpoides yelmensis._ P. _Thomomys - talpoides couchii._ Q. _Thomomys talpoides melanops._] - -The history of the pocket gophers of Washington has been traced -previously (Dalquest and Scheffer, 1942, 1944). It may be briefly -summarized as follows: At the close of Vashon-Wisconsin times, gophers -were found in the southern Cascades, on the Simcoe Bridge, the Columbian -Plateau, and in southeastern Washington. Following the retreat of the -ice, the gophers in the Mount Rainier area spread westward on the -outwash of the Nisqually and perhaps other glaciers to the Vashon -Outwash about southern Puget Sound and thence to the Olympic Mountains. -In the southern Cascades, gophers spread westward on glacial terraces of -the Columbia River to the vicinity of Vancouver, Clark County. The -establishment and growth of the forests split up the original -populations, and continued spread of forest has exterminated many units. -All the races in the lowlands of western Washington face extermination -as the prairies are reclaimed by forest. - -Pocket gophers also invaded northeastern Washington from Idaho and -spread westward to the Cascades, thence southward until the native -gophers were encountered north of Mount Rainier and in the Yakima -Valley. The invading gophers nearly surrounded the Columbian Plateau. - -T. H. Scheffer (1938B: 220-224) found the gestation period of the pocket -gopher to be approximately 28 days. No second brood is raised in -Washington. Near Kennewick, Yakima County, the young are born from -February to April. The average number of embryos found in 76 female -gophers was 6.3. Near Olympia, Thurston County, the young are born from -March to June. The average number of embryos from 312 females was 5.0. - - -=Thomomys talpoides devexus= Hall and Dalquest - - _Thomomys talpoides devexus_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:3, - April 30, 1939. - - _Thomomys talpoides ericaeus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:243, May - 15, 1939 (type from Badger Mountains, Douglas County, Washington). - - _Type._--Obtained 1 mile west-southwest of Neppel (now Moses Lake), - Grant County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on May 30, 1938; type - in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Size medium; ears tiny; color of upper parts - pale brownish gray; underparts white; postauricular spots dark. - - _Measurements._--Two male and 4 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 184, 184; length of tail 54, 55; hind - foot 25, 25; weight 89, 71 grams. - - _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau. Marginal occurrences of - the races of pocket gophers occurring in Washington are not listed - here because they have recently been placed on record (Dalquest - and Scheffer, 1944: 308-333, 423-450). - -_Remarks._--This is the smallest and palest race of pocket gopher found -in Washington. - - -=Thomomys talpoides columbianus= Bailey - - _Thomomys fuscus columbianus_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 27:117, July 10, 1914. - - _Thomomys columbianus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:106, November - 15, 1915. - - _Thomomys talpoides columbianus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:234, May - 15, 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained at Touchet, Walla Walla County, Washington, by C. - P. Streator on September 10, 1890; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Larger and brighter in color than _devexus_. - Near ochraceous orange in color. - - _Measurements._--Five male and three female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 213, 209; length of tail 60, 58; hind - foot 29, 28. - - _Distribution._--Walla Walla County, between the Snake River and - the Oregon boundary and from the Columbia River east to the - Columbia County line. - - -=Thomomys talpoides aequalidens= Dalquest - - _Thomomys talpoides aequalidens_ Dalquest, Murrelet, 23:3, May 14, - 1942. - - _Type._--Obtained at Abel Place, 2,200 ft., 6 miles south-southeast - of Dayton, Columbia County, Washington, by S. H. Lyman, on April 6, - 1934; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Large size, very dark color. - - _Measurements._--The average of four male topotypes and the - measurements of one female topotype are, respectively: total - length 202, 201; length of tail 57, 59; hind foot 26, 27. - - _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington east of the range of - _columbianus_ and north of the higher parts of the Blue Mountains. - - -=Thomomys talpoides wallowa= Hall and Orr - - _Thomomys quadratus wallowa_ Hall and Orr, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 46:41, March 24, 1933. - - _Thomomys talpoides wallowa_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:234, May 15, - 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained at Catherine Creek, 7 miles east of Telocaset, - 3,500 ft., Union County, Oregon, by R. T. Orr on June 29, 1932; - type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _devexus_ but much darker. - Similar (in Washington) to _aequalidens_ but much smaller. - - _Measurements._--Four males and 4 females from Mountain Top and - Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia County, average, respectively: total - length 191, 180; length of tail 56, 52; hind foot 26, 25. - - _Distribution._--The higher parts of the Blue Mountains. - -_Remarks._--Washington specimens referred to this race are intermediate -between _wallowa_ and _aequalidens_ but are colored like _aequalidens_. - - -=Thomomys talpoides fuscus= Merriam - - _Thomomys clusius fuscus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:69, July 30, - 1891. - - _Thomomys myops_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:112, - July 19, 1901 (type from Conconnully, Okanogan County, - Washington). - - _Thomomys fuscus fuscus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:126, November - 15, 1915. - - _Thomomys talpoides fuscus_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:4, - April 30, 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained at the head of Big Lost River, Custer County, - Idaho, by B. H. Dutcher on September 23, 1890; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _devexus_ but upper parts rich - tawny in color. - - _Measurements._--Three males and 2 females from Newport, Pend - Oreille County, average, respectively: total length 189, 186; - length of tail 54, 57; hind foot 27, 26. - - _Distribution._--Along the eastern border of the state to the - north of the Snake River, northeastern Washington, and the - northeastern Cascades. - - -=Thomomys talpoides yakimensis= Hall and Dalquest - - _Thomomys talpoides yakimensis_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:4, - April 30, 1939. - - _Thomomys talpoides badius_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:242, May 15, - 1939 (type from Wenatchee, Chelan County, Washington). - - _Type._--Obtained at Selah, Yakima County, Washington, by P. - Burgner, on November 27, 1938; type in Museum of Vertebrate - Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _fuscus_ but more orange, less - red. - - _Measurements._--Four male and 3 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 209, 191; length of tail 60, 56; hind - foot 27, 26. - - _Distribution._--The eastern edge of the Cascades from the - Wenatchee Mountains south to the Simcoe Anticline. - - -=Thomomys talpoides shawi= Taylor - - _Thomomys douglasii shawi_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 34:121, June 30, 1921. - - _Thomomys talpoides shawi_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:4, - April 30, 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained at Owyhigh Lakes, Mount Rainier, Pierce County, - Washington, by G. G. Cantwell, on August 9, 1919; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--A large, tan-colored pocket gopher, similar - to _aequalidens_ but paler. - - _Measurements._--Two male and 7 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 227, 213; length of tail 72, 64; hind - foot 32, 30. - - _Distribution._--The higher Cascade Mountains from Mount Rainier - southward. Southern limits of range unknown. - - -=Thomomys talpoides immunis= Hall and Dalquest - - _Thomomys talpoides immunis_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:4, - April 30, 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained 5 miles south of Trout Lake, Klickitat County, - Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on July 27, 1937; type in Museum of - Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _shawi_ but paler and grayer. - - _Measurements._--Two males and 2 females from Morrison Springs - Ranger Station, Skamania County, average, respectively: total - length 211, 212; length of tail 64, 58; hind foot 28, 29. - - _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains from the vicinity of Mount - Adams north. The zone of intergradation between _shawi_ and - _immunis_ is in the rugged, inaccessible mountains between Mount - Rainier and Mount Adams. - - -=Thomomys talpoides limosus= Merriam - - _Thomomys limosus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:116, - July 19, 1901. - - _Thomomys talpoides limosus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May 15, - 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained at White Salmon, Klickitat County, Washington, by - J. A. Loring on June 26, 1897; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _immunis_ but darker with - smaller, shorter skull. - - _Measurements._--One male and 13 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 210, 198; length of tail 55, 56; hind - foot 30, 28. - - _Distribution._--The lower Columbia River Valley, from the type - locality east to the Columbian Plateau. - - -=Thomomys talpoides douglasii= (Richardson) - - _Geomys douglasii_ Richardson, Fauna Boreali-American, 1:200, 1829. - - _Geomys fuliginosus_ Schinz, Syn. Mamm., 2:136, 1846 (type from - "Habitat ad fluvium Columbia"). - - _Thomomys douglasii_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:66, - April 28, 1893. - - _Thomomys douglasi douglasi_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:116, - November 15, 1915. - - _Thomomys talpoides douglasii_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:234, May - 15, 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained at Fort Vancouver (now the city of Vancouver), - Clark County, Washington, by David Douglas, probably in 1825. - Probably not now in existence. - - _Racial characters._--A medium-sized, yellowish gopher with tiny, - pointed ears and very small postauricular patches. - - _Measurements._--Two male and 10 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 227, 213; length of tail 68, 63; hind - foot 30, 30; and weight 148, 117 grams. - - _Distribution._--Known only from Clark County. - - -=Thomomys talpoides glacialis= Dalquest and Scheffer - - _Thomomys talpoides glacialis_ Dalquest and Scheffer, Proc. Biol. - Soc. Washington, 55:97, August 13, 1942. - - _Type._--Obtained 2 miles south of Roy, Pierce County, Washington, - by W. W. Dalquest, on December 19, 1941; type in United States - National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--A dark, yellowish-brown gopher with - orange-tinged underparts. - - _Measurements._--Twenty male and 17 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 225, 220; length of tail 72, 71; hind - foot 30, 30; and weight 128, 116 grams. - - _Distribution._--Known only from Roy Prairie, Pierce County. - - -=Thomomys talpoides tacomensis= Taylor - - _Thomomys douglasii tacomensis_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 32:169, September 30, 1919. - - _Thomomys talpoides tacomensis_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May - 15, 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained 6 miles south of Tacoma, Pierce County, - Washington, by G. G. Cantwell on December 24, 1918; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--A large, dark form; rich hazel in color with - large, black postauricular patches and ochraceous underparts. - - _Measurements._--Thirteen male and 15 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 224, 196; length of tail 71, 57; hind - foot 31, 29; and weight 127, 104 grams. - - _Distribution._--Restricted to the area about Steilacoom and - Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington. - - -=Thomomys talpoides pugetensis= Dalquest and Scheffer - - _Thomomys talpoides pugetensis_ Dalquest and Scheffer, Proc. Biol. - Soc. Washington, 55:96, August 13, 1942. - - _Type._--Obtained 4 miles south of Olympia, Thurston County, - Washington, by W. W. Dalquest, on December 31, 1941; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _glacialis_ but underparts not - tinged with orange and conspicuous dusky areas present on sides of - neck. - - _Measurements._--Fourteen male and 19 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 223, 205; length of tail 62, 59; hind - foot 30, 29; and weight 123, 96 grams. - - _Distribution._--Known only from the type locality. - - -=Thomomys talpoides tumuli= Dalquest and Scheffer - - _Thomomys talpoides tumuli_ Dalquest and Scheffer, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 55:96, August 13, 1942. - - _Type._--Obtained on Rocky Prairie, 7 miles north of Tenino, - Thurston County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on January 2, 1942; - type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _pugetensis_ but grayer, less - yellow. - - _Measurements._--Eleven male and 14 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 225, 216; length of tail 60, 64; hind - foot 31, 30; and weight 140, 118 grams. - - _Distribution._--Known only from the type locality. - - -=Thomomys talpoides yelmensis= Merriam - - _Thomomys douglasi yelmensis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 13:21, January 31, 1899. - - _Thomomys douglasii yelmensis_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 32:169, September 30, 1919. - - _Thomomys talpoides yelmensis_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May - 15, 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained at Tenino, Thurston County, Washington, by C. P. - Streator on October 24, 1891; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--A rather small, yellowish race with whitish - underparts. - - _Measurements._--Twenty-one male and 21 female topotypes average, - respectively; total length 213, 202; length of tail 64, 61; hind - foot 29, 28; and weight 121, 101 grams. - - _Distribution._--Known only from Grand Mound Prairie (type - locality), Vail Prairie, near Vail, and Rochester Prairie, near - Rochester, all in Thurston County. - - -=Thomomys talpoides couchi= Goldman - - _Thomomys talpoides couchi_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:243, May 15, - 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained on Scotts Prairie, 4 miles north of Shelton, - Mason County, Washington, by L. K. Couch, on June 27, 1922; type in - United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--A small race; rich hazel in color. - - _Measurements._--Thirteen male and 9 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 196, 191; length of tail 55, 53; hind - foot 27, 27; and weight 87, 79 grams. - - _Distribution._--Known only from the type locality and from Lost - Lake Prairie, near Satsop, Mason County. - - -=Thomomys talpoides melanops= Merriam - - _Thomomys melanops_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:21, - January 31, 1899. - - _Thomomys douglasi melanops_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:119, - November 15, 1915. - - _Thomomys talpoides melanops_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May - 15, 1939. - - _Type._--Obtained at head of Sol Duc River, Clallam County, - Washington, by V. Bailey on August 28, 1897; type in United States - National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Most like _shawi_ but smaller, with larger - postauricular patches and dusky areas on side of head. - - _Measurements._--A male topotype measures: total length 211; - length of tail 67; hind foot 28. - - _Distribution._--Higher Olympic Mountains. - - -=Castor canadensis= Kuhl - -Beaver - -_Description._--The beaver is the largest rodent occurring in -Washington. Large individuals weight approximately 50 pounds. They are -heavily-built, robust animals with large heads and short necks. The -large, flat, naked tail immediately separates them from all other -mammals occurring in the state. The forelegs are short and the forefeet -handlike. The hind legs are long, thick and powerful. The hind feet are -large and webbed for swimming. The ears are small and the eyes, although -of moderate size, are not prominent. The incisors are large and -prominent with a distinct yellow or orange color. The close, dense -underfur is overlaid with long, lax, rather stiff overfur or guardhairs. - - [Illustration: FIG. 99. Beaver (_Castor canadensis_). Silvana, - Washington, August 15, 1921. (Fish and Wildlife Service by Leo K. - Couch, No. B-21912.)] - -Beavers are found in Europe, Asia and North America. In America they -range from Alaska to Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Many -American subspecies have been described, all thought to belong to a -single species. - -Beavers live in streams and lakes of Washington under diverse climatic -conditions. They are perhaps most abundant in the western Washington -lowlands where there are numerous watercourses. In the Cascade -Mountains they are found well up into the Canadian Life-zone, where the -streams are swift and clear with stony bottoms. The highest altitudinal -record known to us is Reflection Lake, Mt. Rainier, 4,861 feet -(Brockman, 1939: 71). Farther east, in the timbered regions of the -eastern Cascades and in northeastern Washington, beavers live in deeper, -more sluggish streams. Abundant beaver signs were noted at the junction -of the Snake and Columbia rivers where the animals were occupying one of -the hottest, most desertlike portions of the state. They are found in -Moses Lake, in the center of the arid Columbian Plateau. Beavers once -occurred in the San Juan Islands and have recently been reintroduced -there. - - [Illustration: FIG. 100. Beaver (_Castor canadensis_): lodge and - beaver pond, Elbe, Washington, August 24, 1926. (T. H. Scheffer - photo.)] - -The part the beaver played in man's exploration of the state of -Washington is a story in itself. The establishment of Fort Vancouver and -Fort Spokane and other settlements was principally due to the trade in -beaver pelts. These forts served as headquarters for Douglas, Suckley, -Townsend, Nuttall and other early naturalists who contributed so greatly -to the knowledge of the mammalian fauna of the western United States. - - [Illustration: FIG. 101. Cottonwood pole carved by beaver, Lake - Wenatchee, Washington, May 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo - by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 33.)] - -Trapping for fur drastically reduced the number of beavers in -Washington. After trapping was prohibited they were slow in recovering -and, until about 1930, they were uncommon. After that date they seemed -to increase rapidly, becoming abundant about 1940. The present system of -removing beavers only from areas where they are doing damage, and then -only under strict supervision from the State Department of Game, has -held their numbers at a high level. - -The food of the beaver varies greatly with locality. Along the Columbia -River, in eastern Washington, cottonwood (_Populus hastata_) and willow -(_Salix_ sp.) seem to constitute favorite foods. Few other trees grow in -this arid region. On Puget Island, near the mouth of the Columbia, -willow, alder (_Alnus oregonus_) and probably other shrubs are eaten. In -the many streams that run from the western Cascade Mountains to Puget -Sound, various species of willow seem to be the principal food eaten. -Some alder, cascara, Douglas fir, red huckleberry and salmonberry are -eaten. In some streams on the eastern slope of the Cascades, coniferous -trees, including Douglas fir, yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_), and red -cedar (_Thuja plicata_) are used. - -Beaver dams are abundant in certain sections of Washington, notably the -area between the Cascade Mountains and Puget Sound. Dams several hundred -feet in length were seen in the valley of Cherry Creek, 7 miles -northeast of Duvall, King County. However, in most parts of the state -few dams are built. No dams are necessary in the larger streams and -lakes while the smaller mountain streams possess a gradient too steep -for successful damming. Spring floods and high water following rains -would destroy such dams. - -True beaver houses, or lodges, are seldom seen in Washington. In the -larger streams, rivers and lakes the beavers are "bank beavers," living -in burrows with underwater entrances. In the mountain streams, log jams -furnish protection. Great piles of logs and debris accumulate at bends -of streams in periods of high water. These jams commonly contain large, -well-anchored key logs and persist for years. Back-cutting by the stream -often forms deep pools before the jams while the sloping bank opposite -may support willows and alders. Thus beavers may find a home, food, and -a protecting pool of deep water at a log jam. In periods of low water, -and when meandering of the stream causes it to leave the log jam, canals -are constructed by the beavers to connect the log jam with the stream. - -Where dams are built a few lodges may occur. For the most part, however, -the beavers dig holes in the bank or in small islands that result from -their dam-building activities. Burrows are occasionally easy to locate -because of the mud and sticks laid on the ground above. At best these -sticks form a layer only a few inches thick and are too loosely packed -to furnish any additional protection. They probably represent a -concession to the beavers' lodge-building instincts. - -The beaver probably breeds in January. A specimen from Cle Elum, taken -on March 1, contained 4 embryos and one from the Teanaway River near Cle -Elum held 2 embryos on February 28. One from Swauk Creek, Kittitas -County, on the eastern slope of the Cascades, had 3 embryos on February -12. A young beaver was born to a captive animal on May 18. Its mother -was taken at Soos Creek in southeastern King County. This baby weighed -884 grams. - -The majority of the beavers trapped are small animals, measuring from -725 to 900 mm. (total length) in February, and weighing from 10 to 20 -pounds. These are kits, probably one and two years old. It is rather -difficult to divide these animals into two age groups but probably the -first year young (7 to 11 months old) weigh from 10 to 15 pounds and -measure between 725 and 800 mm. in total length. Two-year olds (19 to 23 -months) measure from 800 to 925 mm. and weigh from 15 to 25 pounds. They -measure approximately 1050 mm. the third year, when they become adult, -and weigh in the neighborhood of 45 pounds. Individuals occasionally -weigh more than 50 pounds; these are probably old adults. - -Damage by beavers is limited. Their dams occasionally flood roads and -rarely fields. In some parts of eastern Washington, where fruit raising -is an important industry, an individual beaver may cause considerable -damage by cutting valuable trees. Ornamental trees may be damaged near -the larger cities. Beavers living in Lake Washington in almost the -center of the city of Seattle, caused some damage to ornamental trees on -the University of Washington Golf Course. Canals and dams in small -streams and ditches in areas where stock raising is practiced, flood -stock food and sometimes form mudholes or bogs where stock might be -trapped. Where individual beavers are doing damage they are trapped and -killed, or are live-trapped and transported to more favorable habitats. -In places where any beaver may be potentially dangerous, as in the -fruit-growing areas of eastern Washington or stock-raising areas in -western Washington, their numbers should be kept down by continued -trapping. - - [Illustration: FIG. 102. Forest road flooded by beavers which built a - dam on the upstream (left) side of a bridge; Tronson Creek, Blewett - Pass, Wenatchee National Forest, May 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife - Service by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 30.)] - -Probably the greatest value of beavers lies in the impounding of water -by their dams. This is especially true in the arid mountains of eastern -Washington and in the logged-off or burned-over parts of western -Washington. These ponds prevent erosion, raise the water table and so -stimulate the growth of vegetation, insure greater regularity of stream -flow, provide suitable water for trout and muskrats as well as some -breeding grounds for waterfowl. On burned-over or logged-off land, the -greatest, and often the only, growth of new conifers is in the vicinity -of beaver ponds. In the vicinity of beaver dams, rich growths of willows -and other deciduous vegetation provides food and cover for deer and -fur-bearing mammals. - - [Illustration: FIG. 103. Distribution of the beaver in Washington. A. - _Castor canadensis leucodonta._ B. _Castor canadensis idoneus._] - -Trapping of beaver for their fur at present is not a private enterprise -but controlled trapping by the state adds to public funds. - - -=Castor canadensis leucodonta= Gray - - _Castor canadensis leucodonta_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4 - (ser. 4):293, October, 1869. - - _Castor canadensis pacificus_ Rhoads, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., - 19 (n. s.):422, September, 1898 (type from Lake Keechelus, - Kittitas County, Washington). - - _Type._--Obtained by Dr. Robert Brown, probably on Vancouver - Island, British Columbia. - - _Racial characters._--Large size; reddish color; elongate skull. - - _Distribution._--Found over all but the southwestern corner of the - state. The most westward locality from which specimens have been - examined is Lake Crescent (U. S. N. M.). - -_Remarks._--The good series of beaver skulls available from several -areas of Washington has led to careful comparison of Washington material -with specimens from Vancouver Island. Skulls from extreme southwestern -Washington are small and decidedly short, being referable to the race -_idoneus_. No satisfactory way of distinguishing between the others -could be found and all are consequently referred to the earliest named -form, _leucodonta_. - - -=Castor canadensis idoneus= Jewett and Hall - - _Castor canadensis idoneus_ Jewett and Hall, Jour. Mamm., 21:87, - February 15, 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained at Foley Creek, tributary to Nehalem River, - Tillamook County, Oregon, by C. Leach on December 15, 1914; type in - California Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Description._--Similar to _leucodonta_ but smaller, darker, with - shorter and wider skull. - - _Distribution._--Lowlands near the mouth of the Columbia River. - Specimens from Puget Island (U. S. N. M.) have been examined. - - -=Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus= Anthony - -Northern grasshopper mouse - - _Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus_ Anthony, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. - Hist., 32: 11, March 7, 1913. - - _Type._--Obtained at Ironside, Malheur County, Oregon, by H. E. - Anthony, in 1912; type in American Museum of Natural History. - - _Measurements._--Nine males and 5 females from Franklin, Benton, - and Walla Walla counties, Washington, average, respectively: total - length 132.3, 133.0; length of tail 35.8, 35.6; hind foot 19.2, - 19.6; ear 17.6, 17.6; weight 23.3, 24.1 grams. - - _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, southeastern Washington, - and the Yakima Valley, ranging north to Douglas (Taylor and Shaw, - 1929: 21), west to Yakima (M. V. Z.), east to Asotin (Taylor and - Shaw, 1929: 21) and south to Wallula (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 21). - - [Illustration: FIG. 104. Distribution of the northern grasshopper - mouse, _Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus_, in Washington.] - -_Description._--A mature grasshopper mouse is slightly larger than a -house mouse; the head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail about -1-1/4 inches; it may be recognized by the rather plump body, naked -ears, short, thick and tapering tail and soft, dense fur. The upper -parts of adults are buffy. Younger animals are blue-gray above. -Underparts and tail are white. - -Grasshopper mice of two species range over much of northern Mexico and -the western United States. The species occurring in Washington, -_leucogaster_, is found from southern Manitoba to northern Mexico, and -from the Pacific states east to North Dakota. This species is -characteristic of the Upper Sonoran Life-zone, and usually is associated -with sagebrush and greasewood. It prefers open areas of sand and avoids -heavy cover, and seems to be strictly nocturnal. It eats vegetation, -seeds, insects, or the flesh of other mice. According to Bailey (1936: -178), grasshopper mice pursue, catch and kill other mice. They hunt by -scent and follow tracks like a wolf. They make a sound, or "call," like -a miniature wolf howl. They are said to be rather docile and make -friends with humans quickly. - -On some occasions grasshopper mice are locally abundant, but for the -most part they are rather uncommon over their range. Usually one is -taken in about 200 traps set in suitable habitats. They do not -hibernate; one was caught at Moses Lake, Grant County, on a freezing -winter night. - -The grasshopper mouse is almost always associated with the pocket mouse -(_Perognathus parvus_), deer-mouse (_Peromyscus maniculatus_), and often -the harvest mouse (_Reithrodontomys megalotis_). The same snakes, owls, -and carnivorous mammals that prey on these mice doubtless eat also the -grasshopper mouse. - -R. D. Svihla (1936: 172) determined the gestation period of 3 lactating -grasshopper mice captured at Lind, Adams County, as 33, 39 and 47 days. -A non-lactating female gave birth to a litter in 32 days. Young varied -from 2 to 5 in number and were pink and hairless at birth, with eyes and -ears closed. - - -=Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis= (Baird) - -Western harvest mouse - - _Reithrodon megalotis_ Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 451, 1857. - - _Reithrodontomys megalotis nigrescens_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, - 36:32, June 5, 1914 (type from Payette, Idaho). - - _Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, - 55:189, August 29, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained between Janos, Chihuahua, and San Luis Springs, - New Mexico, by C. B. R. Kennerly, in 1855; type in United States - National Museum. - - _Measurements._--Five males and 6 females, showing moderate wear on - the third upper molars, from Walla Walla County, average, - respectively: total length 141, 137.5; length of tail 71.8, 68.1; - hind foot 17.2, 16.7; weight (males only) 10.5 grams. A female, 136 - mm. long, from Grant County, weighed 9.5 grams. Over the range of - _megalotis_ in the United States, males average consistently larger - than females in length of the hind foot and consistently less in - length of head and body. - - _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, the Upper Sonoran - Life-zone area west of the Columbia River and south of the - Wenatchee Mountains in Kittitas, Yakima, and Benton counties, the - north side of the Columbia River in Klickitat County, and Okanogan - County east of the Okanogan River. Marginal localities are: - Timentwa (W. W. D.) on the north, Maryhill (M. V. Z.) on the west, - Wallula (M. V. Z.) on the south, and Colfax (Taylor and Shaw, - 1929: 21) on the east. - - [Illustration: FIG. 105. Distribution of the western harvest mouse, - _Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis_, in Washington.] - -_Remarks._--Harvest mice from the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, -Utah, Nevada, California, Arizona, and New Mexico were examined to -ascertain the validity of the name _Reithrodontomys megalotis -nigrescens_ Howell (type from Payette County, Idaho). No cranial -characters or measurements could be found to separate _nigrescens_ from -_megalotis_. Specimens from Washington, Oregon, and west-central Idaho, -within the range ascribed to _nigrescens_, averaged slightly darker in -color with a more distinct, blackish dorsal line than specimens from New -Mexico. This difference is slight, and specimens from any one locality -vary greatly in color. Some Washington specimens are as pale as the -palest material from New Mexico, and some of the darkest _nigrescens_ -can be matched by specimens of _megalotis_ from Arizona and New Mexico. -This slight color variant is not worthy of recognition as a distinct -subspecies, and I agree with Howell (1939: 390) that _nigrescens_ is a -synonym of _megalotis_. - -_Description._--The western harvest mouse is about the size and shape of -the common house mouse. The length of the tail is approximately equal to -the length of the head and body. The tail is slim and lightly haired. -The upper parts are brownish buff lightly washed with blackish. A faint -but distinct dark dorsal stripe is usually present. The underparts are -white. From _Mus_ and _Peromyscus_, _Reithrodontomys_ can be -distinguished by the grooves on the anterior face of the upper incisors -and the long brown hairs at the bases of the ears. - -This genus reaches the extreme northern limit of its distribution in the -state of Washington, where it ranges to the Canadian border. A single -subspecies occurs in Washington. The harvest mouse is a resident of the -Upper Sonoran Life-zone and it is most abundant in dense growths of -grass, weeds, and other vegetation. Along the Yakima River, near -Ellensburg, it was abundant in thick, river-side jungle. Near Yakima -many specimens were taken in a marsh of cattails and tules. In the Grand -Coulee they live in thick grass. Near Moses Lake several were found in -their nests in a thick growth of tumbleweed. Harvest mice occur also, -although never in great numbers, in relatively open areas. At the -Potholes near Moses Lake, Grant County, a few were caught on sand dunes -among scattered bushes of sage. They were taken on sagebrush flats in -several localities. Gray (1943: 191) estimates their numbers in the -sagebrush area of the Yakima Valley at 5 per acre. - -Where harvest mice live in dense vegetation they make small runways and -food piles similar to those of _Microtus_ but in more open areas they -leave no perceptible signs. Near Yakima the nest of a harvest mouse was -found among the roots of an overturned apple tree. This nest was an -irregular ball composed of fine grasses and shredded bark closed above, -with a side entrance and a central cavity three inches in diameter. Near -Moses Lake three nests of harvest mice were discovered on the ground -under cover of a dense growth of tumbleweed, and six live harvest mice -were captured in the same area. These nests were cuplike, open above, -and were composed of dry grasses, bits of weeds, and newspaper. The -smoothly rounded inner cups measured about three inches in diameter. - -Embryos were found in harvest mice in Washington from March to April and -numbered 3 to 6. - - -=Peromyscus maniculatus= (Wagner) - -Deer mouse - -_Description._--The deer mouse is slightly larger than the house mouse, -the head and body measuring from 3-1/2 to 4 inches. The length of the -tail varies considerably in the several races, ranging from -approximately 2-1/2 inches in _gambelii_ to 4 inches or more in some -individuals of _oreas_. The eyes are large and protrude slightly. The -ears are large, erect and naked. The tail is sparsely furred with short, -posteriorly directed hairs. The color of the upper parts varies from -yellowish buff in _gambelii_ to reddish brown in _oreas_ and dusky in -_austerus_. Young deer mice are gray or bluish gray above. Underparts -and feet are white. The tail is bicolored, being dusky above and white -below. - - [Illustration: FIG. 106. Deer mouse (_Peromyscus maniculatus - austerus_), in captivity, Seattle, Washington, September 18, 1939. - (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 723.)] - -In Washington _Peromyscus_ may be separated from other naked-eared mice -by ungrooved teeth and slightly tapering, bicolor tail. Nearly every -part of North America is inhabited by one or more kinds of _Peromyscus_. -The single species, _maniculatus_, which occurs in Washington, ranges -from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Arctic to tropical Mexico. -Osgood (1909: 17) remarks: "... it is probable that a line, or several -lines, could be drawn from Labrador to Alaska and thence to southern -Mexico throughout which not a single square mile is not inhabited by -some form of this species." - -Deer mice are the most abundant mice in Washington. They occur at sea -level on the ocean beaches and above timber-line, even breeding in the -Arctic-alpine Life-zone. They occur on the islands in Puget Sound, the -lowland marshes and deciduous thickets of western Washington, the great -conifer forests, the alpine cirques and mountain parks, and the deserts -of eastern Washington. Almost everywhere they are the commonest mammal -encountered. They make their homes in city dwellings, under logs or in -hollow trees in the forest, in the burrows of larger rodents and, if -necessary, in burrows of their own construction. - -Nests are usually cup-shaped masses of soft material, 4 to 8 inches in -diameter with central cavities 2 to 3 inches in diameter. Materials -utilized include dry grass, shredded bark, rope, rags, newspaper, moss, -cattail fluff, fur, wool, and feathers. One nest discovered in the attic -of an old building near Coulee City, Grant County, consisted of the -mummified body of a wood rat (_Neotoma cinerea_). The fur of the arched -body of the rat formed one side of the nest, while the fur of the far -side of the body had been plucked to form the remainder. In the -extensive marshes along Lake Washington, King County, deer mice occupy -the ball-shaped nests of tule wrens (_Telamtodytes palustris_). These -are constructed entirely of fragments of cattail leaves and cattail -fluff and are placed in the cattail rushes about four feet above the wet -ground of the marsh. Other deer mouse nests were found in an unused -typewriter, in the pocket of an old coat, in a window frame, under a -piece of tar paper on the ground, in a cavity in the ground under a -board, between a ceiling and a loose bit of roofing paper, under rocks -and logs, in hollows in logs, and in an unused nest of a wood rat. Where -plant cover is dense, nests are placed on the surface of the ground, as -under thick growths of tumbleweed (_Salsola_) in eastern Washington. - -Deer mice are definitely nocturnal. Of thousands of specimens trapped -only a few were taken in the daytime. Two of these were taken in a rock -slide at Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille County, on the same day, and some -unusual conditions may have incited them to travel in daylight. Deer -mice are active throughout the winter and their lacy footprints are seen -on the snow in below-freezing weather. They are mainly terrestial but -one race (_oreas_) is at least partly arboreal for it is often taken in -traps set in trees for flying squirrels. One was caught in a trap set 50 -feet from the ground. All are good climbers, and _oreas_ is perhaps the -best. One was watched as it climbed the rough cedar shake wall of a -cabin, ran upside-down across three feet of rough ceiling, and -descended the opposite wall head first. They are equally agile in -climbing rocks and cliffs. - -The ordinary gait of the deer mouse is a steady run. When frightened it -may leap a distance of one foot or more. When surprised in its nest it -usually remains in the vicinity, hopping about in confusion, returning -time after time to the exposed nest. - -The food of deer mice consists principally of vegetable material such as -seeds, nuts, berries, and the soft parts of fleshy plants. Mushrooms and -lichens are eaten. Insect remains are present in small quantities in -most stomachs examined. Flesh is also eaten and small mammals caught in -traps are often eaten by deer mice. Cannibalism appears to be common -only in captivity. - - [Illustration: FIG. 107. Distribution of the deer mouse in Washington. - A. _Peromyscus maniculatus oreas._ B. _Peromyscus maniculatus - austerus._ C. _Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri._ D. _Peromyscus - maniculatus gambelii._ E. _Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae._] - -Deer mice are often heavily parasitized by tapeworms and roundworms. -Virtually all of the deer mice taken on Jones Island in the San Juan -Islands had livers so infected by the eggs of a nematode worm as to be -swollen to several times their natural size, and had a yellow, -crystalline appearance. The maggots of parasitic flies often occur in -the anal and genital region of deer mice, effectively sterilizing some -individuals. - -Predatory snakes, birds, and mammals doubtless kill and eat deer mice. -Strangely enough, although deer mice may be the commonest mammal in an -area, the pellets of owls collected in the same area usually contain the -remains of relatively few deer mice. The impact of owls seems to be -greatest upon mice, such as _Microtus_, which follow definite runways. - -The breeding season of the deer mouse extends over most of the spring -and summer. Growth and development of the young of _Peromyscus m. oreas_ -have been discussed by A. Svihla (1936A). Embryos found varied in number -from 2 to 8 with a mean of 4.5. - - -=Peromyscus maniculatus oreas= Bangs - - _Peromyscus oreas_ Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:84, March - 24, 1898. - - _Peromyscus akeleyi_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30., zoöl. - ser., 1:226. February 1, 1899 (type from Elwha River, Olympic - Mountains, Washington). - - _Peromyscus maniculatus oreas_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:51, - April 17, 1909. - - _Type._--Obtained on Church Mountain, 6,500 ft., Mt. Baker Range, - near the U. S. boundary, British Columbia, by Allan Brooks on - August 29, 1896; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Size large; tail more than 50 per cent of - total length; color of upper parts reddish. - - _Measurements._--Twenty-five males and 15 females average: total - length 202; length of tail 110; hind foot 22.6; ear 18.7. - - _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains west to the Pacific - Ocean, save for the Puget Sound area and a narrow band extending - southward nearly to the Columbia River. Marginal localities along - the west side of Puget Sound are: Deer Park (W.W.D.), Lake Cushman - (W.W.D.), and Kelso (M.V.Z.). Marginal localities on the west side - of the Cascade Mountains are: Tomyhoi Lake (W.W.D.), Forks of - Skykomish River (W.W.D.), North Bend (W.W.D.), Mt. St. Helens - (V.B.S.) and Yacolt (M.V.Z.). Marginal localities on the east - slope of the Cascade Mountains are: Grouse Creek (W.W.D.), Lake - Wenatchee (W.W.D.), Easton (W.W.D.), Morrison Springs Ranger - Station (W.W.D.) and Wind River C.C.C. Camp (W.W.D.). - - -=Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri= Osgood - - Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:62, - April 17, 1909. - - _Type._--Obtained at Friday Harbor, San Juan Island, San Juan - County, Washington, by N. Hollister on October 23, 1903; type in - United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _oreas_ but darker, less reddish, - and with much shorter tail. Length of tail about 40 per cent of - total length. - - _Measurements._--Populations of deer mice on the various islands - vary slightly in average measurements. The average measurements of - 10 males and 10 females from San Juan Island, 20 males and 15 - females from Blakeley Island, and 20 males and 15 females from - Cypress Island, are respectively: total length 189, 183, 179; - length of tail 87, 82, 79; hind foot 22.8, 22, 19.5; ear 19.4, - 18.7, 19.5; weight 33, 29, 32 grams. - - _Distribution._--The San Juan Islands, San Juan and Skagit - counties, in northern Puget Sound. - - -=Peromyscus maniculatus austerus= (Baird) - - _Hesperomys austerus_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, - 7:336, 1855. - - _Sitomys americanus austerus_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., - 5:192, August 18, 1893. - - _P[eromyscus]., austerus_ Bangs, Amer. Nat., 31:75, January 1, - 1897. - - _Peromyscus maniculatus austerus_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:63, - April 17, 1909. - - _Type._--Obtained at Old Fort Steilacoom, Pierce County, - Washington, by J. G. Suckley, probably on January 20, 1854; type in - United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _oreas_ but smaller with - relatively shorter tail; tail narrower at base, less sharply - bicolor; upper parts duller, browner, less reddish. In _oreas_ the - tail is usually more than 100 mm. In _austerus_ the tail is - usually less than 90 mm. - - _Measurements._--Twenty-seven males and 23 females from Seattle, - King County, average: total length 180.5; length of tail 88.6; - hind foot 21; ear 18. The average weight of 15 adults is 21 grams. - - _Distribution._--The Puget Sound area and south to the Columbia - River in a narrow band through the lowlands. Marginal localities - on the west side of Puget Sound are: Port Angeles (W.W.D.), - Bremerton (W.W.D.), 4 miles north of Shelton (W.W.D.), Tenino - (W.W.D.) and Mouth of Klama River (M.V.Z.). Marginal localities on - the east side of Puget Sound are: Bellingham (W.W.D.), Arlington - (W.W.D.), Everett (W.W.D.), 4 miles east of Monroe (W.W.D.), Fall - City (W.W.D.), and Vancouver (W.W.D.). - - -=Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus= Osgood - - _Peromyscus oreas rubidus_ Osgood, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 14:193, December 12, 1901. - - _Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:65, - April 17, 1909. - - _Type._--Obtained at Mendocino City, California, by J. A. Loring on - November 17, 1897; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Closely similar to _austerus_ but paler with - longer skull. Specimens from Washington are almost purplish-brown - in appearance. - - _Measurements._--Six males and 2 females from Puget Island, - Wahkiakum County, average: total length 177; length of tail 89; - hind foot 21.9; ear 18.7. - - _Distribution._--This is the deer mouse of the humid coastal belt - of Oregon and California. It enters Washington only at Puget - Island, Wahkiakum County, in the Columbia River. - - -=Peromyscus maniculatus gambelii= (Baird) - - _Peromyscus gambelii_ Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., Pacific R. R. Reports, - 8:464, 1857. - - _Sitomys americanus gambelii_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., - 5:190, August 18, 1893. - - _P[eromyscus]., t[exanus]. gambelii_ Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat. - Mus., 18:446, March 25, 1896. - - _Peromyscus maniculatus gambeli_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:67, - April 17, 1909. - - _Type._--Obtained at Monterey, Monterey County, California, by W. - P. Trowbridge; skin catalogued on January 4, 1853; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Size small; tail short; color pale, varying - from buffy gray to rich buff; rarely dark reddish brown. - - _Measurements._--Twenty-five males and 15 females average: total - length 160; length of tail 71; hind foot 19.8; ear 17.7. - - _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau. Intergradation with - _oreas_ occurs between the Columbia River and the Cascade - Mountains. Marginal records on the west are: Chelan (W.W.D.), - Leavenworth (W.W.D.), Cle Elum (W.W.D.), Satus Pass (W.W.D.), Lyle - (V.B.S.). Marginal localities on the north are: Chelan (W.W.D.), 5 - miles north of Coulee (W.W.D.), Sprague (V.B.S.) and Steptoe Butte - (M.V.Z.). - - -=Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae= (Rhoads) - - _Sitomys americanus artemisiae_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. - Philadelphia, p. 260, October 23, 1894. - - _Peromyscus texanus artemisiae_ Miller and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc. - Nat. Hist., 30:84, December, 1901. - - _Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:58, - April 17, 1909. - - _Type._--Obtained at Ashcroft, British Columbia, by S. N. Rhoads on - July 5, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Sciences. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _gambelii_ but darker, more - reddish; often with longer tail. - - _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females from northeastern - Washington average: total length 167; length of tail 80; hind foot - 20; ear 17.8. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains of - southeastern Washington, extending west, in northeastern - Washington, to Conconully (W.W.D.) and south to Duly Lake - (W.W.D.). - - -=Neotoma cinerea= Ord - -Bushy-tailed wood rat - -_Description._--The bushy-tailed wood rat is slightly larger than the -common Norway or brown rat. The head and body measure about 12-1/2 -inches and the tail about 3-1/2 inches. It resembles the deer mouse in -general proportions. The ears are large and naked and the black eyes are -large and protruding. The tail is bushy, squirrel-like. The feet are -small and have furry soles. The fur is soft and silky. Adults are -brownish gray above with white underparts and a gray tail. Young -individuals have blue-gray upper-parts. - -Wood rats range over most of North America. They exhibit great -variation, especially in the southwestern United States. The -bushy-tailed species occurs in the western United States and Canada. -Wood rats are notorious for invading buildings in the mountains and in -the desert. However, their natural habitat is broken rock or talus. This -habitat preference accounts for their distribution in Washington, for -talus is common except in the humid subdivision of the Transition -Life-zone. Wood rats are probably most abundant in the talus slides of -the Columbian Plateau, especially in the canyon of the Columbia River -and in Moses and Grand coulees. They are common in all the mountainous -areas in the state where high altitudes and steep slopes result in the -accumulation of talus. Wood rats range from sea level to 10,000 feet -elevation on Mount Rainier and from the Upper Sonoran to the -Arctic-alpine life-zones. Great horned owls and probably all of the -carnivores that share the range of the wood rat prey on it to some -extent. Sperry (1941: 15) lists _Neotoma_ in four per cent of 8,339 -coyote stomachs gathered throughout the United States. - -Wood rats in Washington are definitely nocturnal and are rarely seen in -daylight. On January 10, 1939, however, near Colville, Stevens County, a -companion and I were sitting on the porch of a deserted shack eating -lunch. Suddenly a wood rat darted out of the open door into the full -sunlight and tugged at a can, containing a few drops of tomato juice, -which one of us was holding in his hand. When the rat looked up and saw -the human, it hastily retreated. The wood rat has a habit of flattening -its body tightly against the ground when observed and also of "drumming" -with its feet when excited. This habit is shared by the snowshoe rabbit -and the spotted skunk. A captive specimen "drummed" by lifting its back -feet, alternately, about one-half inch from the surface of a piece of -wood and striking downward with surprising power. The agility of the -wood rat was demonstrated near Wallula where we watched a specimen by -the light of a flashlight as it climbed an almost vertical rock wall, -taking advantage of small fractures for toe-holds. - -Wood rats are far from noiseless in their nocturnal activities. Near -Moses Coulee, Douglas County, wood rats were heard from a distance of 50 -feet as they scampered back and forth through a concrete culvert under -the highway. - -Many species of wood rats build complicated stick houses in which they -live. In Washington, elaborate stick houses are sometimes built but are -usually not occupied. In the attic of an old building near Pend Oreille -Lakes, Stevens County, two large and complicated houses were discovered. -These were built of sticks, paper and other debris and measured more -than three feet in diameter. Three small, cup-shaped nests resembling -those of a bird, made of soft grasses, moss, and shredded paper were -found on the attic floor ten feet or more from the stick houses. These -nests gave every indication of being used, while the piles of sticks -contained no nests and seemed never to have been occupied. Near Moses -Lake, Grant County, a wood rat house built in the rafters of an old shed -was constructed entirely of tumbleweeds (_Salsola pestifer_). This house -was spherical in shape and measured more than five feet in diameter. It -appeared to be unoccupied and a wood rat, probably its builder, was -living under the floor of the shed. Most wood rat houses consist of a -half-dozen sticks arranged in a crevice in a rock pile or a cave. Wood -rats were placing fresh material on a house in the Wenatchee National -Forest on January 17, 1939, when there was two feet of snow on the -ground and the temperature was hovering around zero. The house measured -about one cubic yard and consisted of _Ceanothus_ leaves and steins, -with some twigs of fir (_Abies_). It was built under a bunk in a -broken-down cabin left by deer hunters. - -The collecting habit of the wood rat has gained it the name "pack-rat." -Taylor (1920A: 91) lists the following materials from a wood rat nest on -Mt. Rainier: _Nesting material_: rags, leaves, paper, thumb of a glove, -string, thongs, oakum; _Food_: apple core, onion peel, bacon rind, -raisins, 10 bars of chocolate, figs, puff balls, bread crust, meat -scraps, cantaloupe rind, potatoes, dried apricots, lemons, mushrooms, -beans, peanuts, banana, 15 lumps of sugar; _Miscellaneous_: dime, coffee -can cover, paraffin from jelly glass, bones, 19 pieces of candles and -several cakes of soap. - -As a rule only one or two wood rats are trapped at a given locality, -indicating that the species is not gregarious. The presence of wood rats -in a building, cave, mine tunnel, or talus slide can be detected in -several ways. The white, mineral-like incrustation formed by the urine -of many generations of wood rats is usually conspicuous on rocks near -their homes. A strong musky odor pervades the atmosphere in every -habitat occupied by wood rats. Wood rat feces, consisting of hard, black -cylinders one-half inch long and three-sixteenths of an inch in -diameter, are invariably found scattered on stones or exposed areas of -ground. - - [Illustration: FIG. 108. Distribution of the bushy-tailed wood rat in - Washington. A. _Neotoma cinerea occidentalis._ B. _Neotoma cinerea - alticola._] - -The food of the bushy-tailed wood rat is varied and includes insects and -vegetation. A captive specimen that escaped in the University of -Washington Zoölogical Laboratories killed and ate a number of lizards. - -Embryos found from April 18 to June 14 varied in number from 3 to 5. - - -=Neotoma cinerea occidentalis= Baird - - _Neotoma occidentalis_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, - p. 335, 1855. - - _Neotoma cinerea occidentalis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:58, July - 30, 1891. - - _Type._--Obtained at Shoalwater Bay (Willapa Bay), Pacific County, - Washington, by J. G. Cooper, in June, 1854; type in United States - National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Size large; color of upper parts cinnamon - brown. - - _Measurements._--A male and a female from Glade Creek, 1/2 mile - north of the Columbia River, Benton County, measure, respectively: - total length 425, 395; length of tail 181, 176; hind foot 50, 44; - ear 32, 31; weight 532.5, 330.0 grams. - - _Distribution._--Throughout the state except in the Blue - Mountains. - -_Remarks._--Specimens from the Olympic Mountains and western Washington -are slightly duller-colored than specimens from eastern Washington and -young from western Washington are more bluish, less gray, than young -individuals from the Columbian Plateau. The specimens from the Columbian -Plateau show some resemblance to _alticola_. Specimens from northeastern -Washington are more like typical _occidentalis_. - - -=Neotoma cinerea alticola= Hooper - - _Neotoma cinerca alticola_ Hooper, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., - 42:409, May 17, 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained at Parker Creek, 5,500 ft., Warner Mountains, - Modoc County, California, by N. B. Stern on June 22, 1916; type in - Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _Neotoma c. occidentalis_ but - slightly paler, with paler hind feet and narrower sphenopalatine - vacuities. - - _Measurements._--A female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia - County, measures: total length 387; length of tail 171; hind foot - 43; ear 33; weight 330 grams. - - _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake - River. - -_Remarks._--The only adult specimen available from the Blue Mountains -shows well the characters attributed to _alticola_. - - -=Synaptomys borealis wrangeli= Merriam - -Northern lemming mouse - - _Synaptomys (Mictomys) wrangeli_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 10:63, March 19, 1896. - - _Synaptomys (Mictomys) truei_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 10:62, March 19, 1896 (type from Skagit Valley, Skagit - County, Washington). - - _Synaptomys borealis wrangeli_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 50:26, June - 30, 1927. - - _Type._--Obtained at Wrangel, Alexander Archipelago, Alaska, by C. - P. Streator on September 6, 1895; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial character._--Dark color. - - _Distribution._--The northwestern Cascades, from Mt. Baker - northward. - -_Remarks._--The relationship of this race to _artemisiae_ remains -to be worked out. - - [Illustration: FIG. 109. Distribution of the northern lemming mouse in - Washington. A. _Synaptomys borealis wrangeli._ B. Possible range of - _Synaptomys borealis artemisiae_.] - -_Description._--Lemming mice may be recognized by their short, thick -bodies, slightly larger than the bodies of the common house mouse -(_Mus_); short tails, which are less than 20 per cent of their total -length; small, inconspicuous ears; and grooved upper incisors. - -Mice of the genus _Synaptomys_ range over much of boreal North America. -Two species and eleven races are recognized by Howell (1927B: 9). -_Synaptomys borealis_ ranges westward across Canada from Labrador to the -Pacific Coast and from Alaska south to Washington. The lemming mice are -terrestrial and inhabit runways similar to those of meadow mice -(_Microtus_). They are alpine in distribution. Shaw (1930: 7-10) found -them among typical annual herbs in a cold, boggy mountain valley. Other -than this, nothing is known of the species in Washington. Indeed little -is known of the life history of any member of the genus. - -The lemming mouse possesses four pairs of mammae, two pectoral and two -inguinal. It is the most primitive of the microtines. It seems to be of -boreal origin but is not known from the Old World. It was evidently -forced southward by the Pleistocene glaciers into Washington and is now -retreating northward in the wake of the ice. The only specimens recorded -from Washington are from the northern border of the state. - - -=Phenacomys intermedius= Merriam - -Heather vole - -_Description._--Heather voles are heavy-bodied, short-legged mice, -closely similar in general appearance to other microtines that occur in -Washington. Their dull, brownish upper parts, lacking a distinct reddish -dorsal stripe, separate them from the red-backed mice (_Clethrionomys_) -and the lack of grooves on their upper incisors separates them from -_Synaptomys_. Their relatively short tail (30 per cent or less of their -total length) separates them from most meadow mice (_Microtus_). There -are no external characters which serve to separate them from all species -of _Microtus_ and the teeth must be examined certainly to identify -_Phenacomys_. In _Microtus_ the angles between the cusps of the inner -and outer sides of the lower molars are of approximately equal depth, -but in _Phenacomys_ the angles on the inner side of the lower molars are -at least twice as deep as those of the outer side of the jaw. In -addition the molars of _Phenacomys_ are rooted while those of _Microtus_ -are not. - -The heather voles and their relatives are primitive microtines that -range through boreal North America including the higher parts of the -Rocky Mountains and the cool area along the Pacific Coast. Several -species are included in the genus: an arctic form (_ungava_), a lowland -Pacific Coastal species (_albipes_), two tree-inhabiting species -(_longicaudus_ and _silvicola_) and a mountain species (_intermedius_). -Thus far only _intermedius_ has been found in Washington but further -search may reveal that one or more of the arboreal species and possibly -_albipes_ are also present. - -Heather voles are alpine animals, seldom occurring below the Hudsonian -Life-zone. They are rare as compared with most microtines, and are -seldom taken in traps, even by the experienced collector of small -mammals. Evidence of their presence is most often found in the dense -meadows of heather (_Cassiope_ and _Phyllodoce_) high on the mountains. -Here their feces, runways, and old winter nests are not uncommon, and -heather voles may be far more abundant than trapping records indicate. -They are not restricted to the vicinity of heather, however, for one of -my specimens was taken in a marshy willow thicket near Stevens Pass in -King County, one in a patch of skunk-cabbage in a grassy glacial cirque -near Tomyhoi Lake in Whatcom County, and one at the edge of a snowbank -on a steep hillside at Deer Park, Clallam County. In each of these -places, however, there were heather meadows within a thousand yards. -Shaw (1924A: 12-15) also found the heather mouse on "comparatively dry -hill slopes" and reports that it "rather characteristically occurs in -such log-tangled areas as former fire zones." - - [Illustration: FIG. 110. Distribution of the heather vole in - Washington. A. _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis._ B. _Phenacomys - intermedius intermedius._] - -The winter nests of _Phenacomys intermedius_ are placed on the surface -of the ground and in the season when occupied are deeply buried under -the snow. They are spherical or oval in shape, six to eight inches in -diameter and with a side entrance. One examined by Shaw was "formed of -white heather twigs, the interstices being filled with leaves of -huckleberry." It was "lined with finely shredded grass." All those -examined by me were composed of grass and lichens. - -The principal foods of the heather vole seem to be white heather -(_Cassiope mertensiana_) and huckleberry (_Vaccinium_). Red heather -(_Phyllodoce empetriformis_) is not eaten. Shaw also lists beargrass -(_Xerophyllum tenax_) and lousewort (_Pedicularis_) as eaten. - -A burrow excavated and figured by Shaw, was slightly more than a yard -long and contained four young in a nest situated but a few inches from -one of the three entrances. The nest was made of grass and moss. A -female taken at Tye, King County, contained 4 embryos on May 28, 1939. -One taken at Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille County, contained 3 small -embryos on June 14, 1938. - - -=Phenacomys intermedius intermedius= Merriam - - _Phenacomys intermedius_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 2:32, October 30, - 1889. - - _Phenacomys intermedius intermedius_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, - 48:15, October 12, 1926. - - _Type._--Obtained 20 miles north-northwest of Kamloops, 5,500 ft. - elevation, British Columbia, by G. M. Dawson on October 2, 1888; - type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Size small; color of upper parts brownish - gray; skull small. - - _Measurements._--A female from Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille - County, measured: total length 127; length of tail 29; hind foot - 17; weight 25 grams. - - _Distribution._--Known only from extreme northeastern Washington - at Pass Creek Pass (W.W.D.) and the Blue Mountains. - - -=Phenacomys intermedius oramontis= Rhoads - - _Phenacomys oramontis_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 29:941, October, 1895. - - _Phenacomys olympicus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zoöl. - ser., 1:225, February 1, 1899 (type from Happy Lake, 5,000 ft., - Clallam County, Washington). - - _Microtus (Lagurus) pumilus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, - zoöl. ser., 1:226, February 1, 1899 (type from Happy Lake, 5,000 - ft., Clallam County, Washington). - - _Phenacomys intermedius olympicus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 48:21, - October 12, 1926. - - _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis_ Anderson, Canadian Field Nat., - 56:59, June 8, 1942. - - _Type._--Obtained on Church Mountain, 6,000 ft., Mt. Baker Range, - British Columbia, just north of international boundary, by A. C. - Brooks on August 6, 1895; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural - Sciences. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _intermedius_ but darker, browner - above and deeper gray beneath; skull large and heavy. - - _Measurements._--A female from Tye, King County, measures: total - length 152; length of tail 40; hind foot 19; ear 12. A female from - Tomyhoi Lake, Whatcom County, measures: 170; 45; 20; 15. - - _Distribution._--The Cascade and Olympic mountains, from Tomyhoi - Lake (W. W. D.) on the north, to Mt. Adams (Taylor and Shaw, - 1929:23) on the south. - - -=Clethrionomys gapperi= (Vigors) - -Gapper red-backed mouse - -_Description._--Red-backed mice are heavy-bodied, short-tailed and -short-legged mice, similar in general appearance to the meadow mice -(_Microtus_). Unlike the meadow mice, they possess rooted molars, a -primitive character. They do not have grooved incisors, like -_Synaptomys_, or the great difference in the depth of the angles of the -lower molars that characterizes both _Synaptomys_ and _Phenacomys_. -Externally _Clethrionomys_ may be recognized by the broad red dorsal -area from which they obtain their common name. Their sides are grayish -or dusky and the undersides buffy white. - -The red-backed mice, including more than one species, range over the -boreal parts of the Old and New World. In America they are found in most -of Alaska, Canada and the northern United States, and extend southward -in the Rocky Mountains and along the Pacific Coast. The one species -_Clethrionomys gapperi_ ranges across southern Canada from the Atlantic -to the Pacific, extending southward in forested areas to New Mexico. -They usually live in clearings in the forest. In the Pend Oreille -Mountains _saturatus_ was common in damp, mossy talus slides, along with -_Microtus longicaudus_ and _Phenacomys intermedius_. The _Clethrionomys_ -outnumbered the two latter species combined by 25 to 1. In nearby -forest, red-backed mice were scarce but no other microtines were found. -In the Kettle River Mountains a week later, red-backed mice were rare. A -single specimen was taken in a damp place in the forest; none was found -in talus slides. Near Stevens Pass, King County, in the Cascades, -_cascadensis_ was taken in equal numbers in talus slides and under logs -in the forest. Near Dewey Lake, Yakima County, in the Cascades, I took -them only in an extensive grassy meadow. In the Blue Mountains I found -_idahoensis_ in the dense chaparral, far from forests. - -Unlike _Microtus_, red-backed mice do not make runways, although they -sometimes follow the runways of other mammals. - -Taylor (1920B: 92) found red-backed mice breeding on Mount Rainier from -early July to the middle of September. One female gave birth to four -young in a nest in his duffle bag. - - [Illustration: FIG. 111. Distribution of the Gapper and California - red-backed mice in Washington. A. _Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus._ - B. _Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis._ C. _Clethrionomys gapperi - nivarius._ D. _Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis._ E. _Clethrionomys - californicus occidentalis._] - - -=Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus= (Rhoads) - - _Evotomys gapperi saturatus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. - Philadelphia, p. 284, October 23, 1894. - - [_Clethrionomys gapperi_] _saturatus_ Whitlow and Hall, Univ. - California Publ. Zoöl., 40:265, September 30, 1933. - - _Type._--Obtained at Nelson, British Columbia, by S. N. Rhoads on - August 27, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Sciences. - - _Racial characters._--Size small, about 140 mm. in total length; - tail short, about one-third of total length; ears large, - projecting above fur; color of head and sides gray tinged with - yellowish; back with distinct red stripe; underparts whitish - tinged with buff. - - _Measurements._--Five males and 10 females from Pass Creek Pass, - Pend Oreille County, average: total length 147; length of tail 43; - hind foot 18.3; ear 14. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington from Sherman Creek Pass - (W. W. D.) on the west to Pass Creek Pass on the east. - - -=Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis= (Merriam) - - _Evotomys idahoensis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:66, July 30, 1891. - - _Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis_ Whitlow and Hall, Univ. - California Publ. Zoöl., 40:265, September 30, 1933. - - _Type._--Obtained at Sawtooth (Alturas) Lake, 7,200 ft., Blaine - County, Idaho, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey, on October 4, 1890; - type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _saturatus_ but brain case longer - and narrower and dorsal area more reddish. - - _Measurements._--Seven males and 6 females from the Blue Mountains - average, respectively: total length 138, 142; length of tail 41, - 41; hind foot 18.7, 19.0; ear 13.6, 13.5; weight 20.5, 22.7 grams. - - _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. - - -=Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis= Booth - - _Evotomys gapperi saturatus_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. - Conner Mus., no. 2:23, December, 1929. - - _Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis_ Booth, Murrelet, 26:27, August - 10, 1945. - - _Type._--Obtained 2 miles south of Blewett Pass, 3,000 ft. - elevation, Kittitas County, Washington, by G. G. Cantwell, on - October 30, 1921; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Dark and dull with underparts dull buffy. - - _Measurements._--Ten adults from the Cascade Mountains average - (Booth, 1945: 27): total length 162; length of tail 50; hind foot - 19; ear 14. - - _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, according to Booth (_loc. - cit._, p. 28), from Hannegan Pass south to Mount Adams. Marginal - localities listed are: Swamp Creek, Glacier Peak, McKenna, and Mt. - St. Helens. These, and other localities listed by Booth are not - plotted on the accompanying distribution map (fig. 111). - - -=Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius= (Bailey) - - _Evotomys nivarius_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:136, - May 13, 1897. - - _Evotomys gapperi nivarius_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. - Conner Mus., no. 2:23, 1929. - - _Clethrionomys nivarius_ Svihla, Murrelet, 12:54, May, 1931. - - _Type._--Obtained on the northwest slope of Mt. Ellinor, 4,000 ft. - elevation, Mason County, Washington, by C. P. Streator, on July 9, - 1894; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _saturatus_ but paler throughout. - - _Measurements._--Two males and a female from 1 mile northwest of - Lake Cushman, Mason County, average: total length 140; length of - tail 42; hind foot 18; ear 13. - - _Distribution._--The Olympic Mountains, from Sol Duc Hot Springs - (W.S.M.) south and west at least to Staircase, on Lake Cushman - (W.W.D.). - - -=Clethrionomys californicus occidentalis= (Merriam) - -California red-backed mouse - - _Evotomys occidentalis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:25, October 8, - 1890. - - _Evotomys pygmaeus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. - 284, October 23, 1894 (type from mouth of Nisqually River, Pierce - County, Washington). - - _Evotomys gapperi occidentalis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. - R. Conner Mus., no. 2:23, 1929. - - _Clethrionomys occidentalis_ Hall, Murrelet, 13:79, September, - 1932. - - _Type._--Obtained at Aberdeen, Grays Harbor County, Washington, by - T. S. Palmer, on August 16, 1889; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females average: total length - 137; length of tail 45; hind foot 18; ear 12.3. - - _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington, east at least - to Cottage Lake (W. W. D.). - -_Remarks._--Specimens from the type locality of _occidentalis_ and other -places along the ocean coast are larger and brighter in color than -specimens from farther inland, but the difference appears to me to be -insufficient to warrant subspecific separation of the two lots. - -_Clethrionomys californicus_ resembles _Clethrionomys gapperi_ but is -darker and duller in color with the red dorsal area more obscured and -forming less of a stripe. _C. californicus_ is found in the forested -lowlands of western Washington, Oregon, and northern California, and in -the Cascades of Oregon. In Washington, it is confined entirely to the -forest where it is trapped under logs and on the layer of dead needles -at the bases of conifers. Mice of this species were numerous in the -forest along the Pacific Coast on the Long Beach Peninsula and at -Aberdeen, Grays Harbor County. At Lost Lake Prairie, Mason County, at -the southeastern base of the Olympic Mountains, they were rather scarce, -but were the only mammals taken in the deep woods. Near Shelton, Mason -County, at the eastern edge of the Olympic Mountains, a number of -specimens were taken along with twice as many _Peromyscus maniculatus_. -At Cottage Lake, King County, near Seattle, they were rare, comprising -about two per cent of the mammals taken in two weeks' trapping. - -Almost nothing was learned of the habits of these mice. They seem to be -rigidly restricted to a habitat where few plants other than trees grow. -The stomachs examined contained pasty masses of finely chewed white -vegetation with occasional gray particles that might have been bits of -lichens. The mice do not make runways like those of _Microtus_. - - -=Microtus pennsylvanicus= (Ord) - -Pennsylvanian meadow mouse - -_Description._--The upper parts are dark blackish brown and the -underparts grayish or whitish. The tail comprises about a fourth of the -total length and the foot does not exceed 21 mm. These two features -separate it from most other species of meadow mice. From _Microtus -oregoni_ it may be separated by its larger size, blackish color and -well-developed eyes. From _Microtus montanus_ it differs in being -larger, darker, and in having a closed posterior loop on the innerside -of the second upper molar. - - [Illustration: FIG. 112. Pennsylvania meadow mouse (_Microtus - pennsylvanicus kincaidi_), from ten miles south of Moses Lake, - Washington, April 28, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor - B. Scheffer, No. 937.)] - -_Microtus pennsylvanicus_ is the most common meadow mouse of the eastern -United States. It ranges westward through Canada and southward in the -Rocky Mountains. A number of races occur in this extensive range. In -northeastern Washington the eastern meadow mouse is locally common, -being confined to marshes and damp meadows. Well-used runways are made -through the dense vegetation and piles of feces and blades of grass are -deposited therein. A number of broods are raised in a season, for young -of many different ages are taken together in midsummer. - -On the Columbian Plateau this mouse lives in marshy areas about lakes -and potholes. Narrow trails are constructed through the dense -vegetation. It burrows in damp earth and some occupied burrows are -half-full of seepage water. Cuttings found in runways show that the mice -feed on a variety of plants, including sedge (_Carex_). In the Moses -Lake area the breeding season begins in March. Embryos found March 24, -1940, varied from 4 to 7 in number. This species is cyclically abundant. - - [Illustration: FIG. 113. Distribution of the Pennsylvania meadow mouse - in Washington. A. _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris._ B. _Microtus - pennsylvanicus kincaidi._] - - -=Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris= Dale - - _Microtus pennsylvanicus modestus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:20, - June 6, 1900. - - _Microtus drummondii_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:22, June 6, 1900. - - _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris_ Dale, Jour. Mamm., 21:338, - August 13, 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained at Coldstream. 1,450 ft., 3-1/2 miles southeast - of Vernon. British Columbia, by T. P. Maslin. Jr., on August 2, - 1937; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Size medium; color reddish brown; fur short, - harsh; skull small and narrow. - - _Measurements._--Three males from Newport, Pend Oreille County, - average: total length 165; length of tail 40; hind foot 20; ear - 15.3. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, west to Conconully - (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 24) and east to Newport (W. W. D.). - -_Remarks._--Specimens from northeastern Washington are larger and -darker, more reddish and less gray, than _drummondii_. They are larger, -more reddish, and have relatively narrower skulls, than _modestus_ from -Colorado and Idaho. They closely resemble _funebris_ from south-central -British Columbia, and are best referred to that race. Rand (1943: 123) -considers _funebris_ a synonym of _modestus_ but I feel is incorrect in -doing so. - - -=Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi= Dalquest - - _Microtus montanus kincaidi_ Dalquest, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 54:145, September 30, 1941. - - _Type._--Obtained at The Potholes, 10 miles south of Moses Lake, - Grant County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on March 24, 1940; type - in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Large size; dark blackish color; long fur; - wide, angular skull. - - _Measurements._--Six male and 12 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 176.6, 168.0; length of tail 45.1, - 43.8; hind foot 20.8, 20.3; ear 14.0, 13.4. - - _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, in the Grand Coulee area. - - -=Microtus montanus= (Peale) - -Montane meadow mouse - -_Description._--Montane meadow mice have short tails, flaring zygomatic -arches, and heavily ridged skulls. They are small, about 6-1/2 inches -long, and buffy-gray in color. Their short tails, less than one-third -the length of head and body, and gray color separate them from all other -Washington meadow mice. - -Montane meadow mice are widely distributed in the southwestern United -States, where numerous races are found. They occupy damp meadows and -marshes in the arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone of eastern -Washington. They seem to require deep, dense cover of grasses, reeds, or -sedges, near water. They are usually associated with harvest mice -(_Reithrodontomys megalotis_), wandering shrews (_Sorex vagrans -monticola_), and muskrats (_Ondatra zibethica_). Hawks and owls are -their principal enemies, but predatory mammals and snakes probably kill -many. - -Montane meadow mice evidently are both diurnal and nocturnal; specimens -were taken in the daytime as well as at night, and captives were active -periodically day and night. Captives were extremely quick in their -movements. If disturbed they sat up on their haunches and chattered -indignantly. It was almost impossible to handle them without being -bitten. - -The trails of montane meadow mice are narrower than those of other -meadow mice, and appear to be used the year around. Burrows are -numerous where the mice are plentiful. A heap of damp earth marks the -entrance to each burrow. One nest of _M. m. canescens_ near Lake Chelan, -Chelan County, was under a log on a small knoll in a marsh. The nest was -round, about 8 inches in diameter, and was composed of cattails, -grasses, and moss. - - [Illustration: FIG. 114. Distribution of the montane and Townsend - meadow mice in Washington. A. _Microtus montanus nanus._ B. _Microtus - montanus canescens._ C. _Microtus townsendii townsendii._ D. _Microtus - townsendii pugeti._] - - -_Microtus montanus nanus_ (Merriam) - - _Arvicola (Mynomes) nanus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:63, July 30, - 1891. - - _Microtus nanus_ Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:67, April - 21, 1897. - - _Microtus nanus nanus_ Miller, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 128:409, - April 29, 1924. - - _Microtus montanus nanus_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 51:133, August 23, 1938. - - _Type._--Obtained in the Pahsimeroi Mountains, 9,300 ft., Custer - County, Idaho, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey on September 16, - 1890; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Size medium; color of upper parts brownish - gray; sides paler; underparts grayish white. - - _Measurements._--A large male from Prescott, Walla Walla County, - measures: total length 168; length of tail 48; hind foot 20. A - female from Prescott, Walla Walla County, and a female from - Pullman, Whitman County, average: 133; 31; 18.5. - - _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, westward as far as 5 - miles east of Wallula (M.V.Z.). - - -=Microtus montanus canescens= Bailey - - _Microtus nanus canescens_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 12:87, April 30, 1898. - - _Microtus montanus canescens_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 51:133, August 23, 1938. - - _Type._--Obtained at Conconully, Okanogan County, Washington, by J. - A. Loring, on September 12, 1897; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Size small; color of upper parts pale - brownish gray; sides yellowish gray. This race differs from - _Microtus m. nanus_ in generally paler, less brownish coloration. - It does not differ from _nanus_ in any distinctive cranial - features. - - _Measurements._--Two male and 2 female topotypes average, - respectively: total length 151, 143; length of tail 35, 33.5; hind - foot, 19.5, 19.5. A series of 8 males and 6 females from Selah, - Yakima County, average, respectively: total length 151.7, 150.5; - length of tail 41.5, 40.1; hind foot 19.7, 18.8; ear 12.8, 13.0; - weight 47.2, 36.8 grams. - - _Distribution._--The eastern foothills of the Cascade Mountains - from the British Columbian boundary south, probably to the - Columbia River. Recorded east to Benton City (Taylor and Shaw, - 1929: 24). - -_Remarks._--A large series from Selah, Yakima County, is somewhat -intermediate between _nanus_ and _canescens_. These specimens from south -of the Wenatchee Mountains are, however, more like _canescens_ in color -than they are like _nanus_. - -Bailey (1900: 32) records a specimen of this race from North Yakima as -_Microtus canicaudus_. - - -=Microtus townsendii= (Bachman) - -Townsend meadow mouse - -_Description._--The Townsend meadow mouse is a large-bodied, long-furred -mouse with a tail of moderate length. Head and body measure about 8 -inches, the tail about 2-1/2 inches. The legs are short and the ears -scarcely project through the fur on the head. In summer the color is -dark reddish-brown. The winter color is dark brownish-black. Underparts -are paler, more grayish brown, than are the upper parts. The tail is -sparsely haired. - -Townsend meadow mice occur west of the Cascade Mountains in California, -Washington, Oregon, British Columbia, and on some British Columbian and -Washington islands. The habitats of the two races of the Townsend meadow -mice found in Washington are wholly in the humid subdivision of the -Transition Life-zone but vary somewhat in nature. The race _townsendii_ -lives in marshes or damp meadows, under cover of deep, rank vegetation. -These mice avoid forested areas or dry brush, but sometimes occur in dry -grass when it is deep enough to conceal them from enemies. The race -_pugeti_ has been recorded from meadows, salt marshes, driftwood strewn -on sea-beaches, areas of sparse, dry grass, and piles of rocks. - -Townsend meadow mice are as diurnal as they are nocturnal; specimens -have been trapped at almost all hours of the day and night. Their -ordinary method of traveling is a slow run. When startled they make a -dash for the nearest cover, into which they dive headlong. They make -considerable noise while moving about and often may be heard from -several feet away. Captives in the laboratory seemed rather dull and -stupid as compared with other meadow mice. - - [Illustration: FIG. 115. Runways of Townsend meadow mice (_Microtus - townsendii_) worn to grooves in the damp soil at Seattle; May 18, - 1938; dense cover of cattails has been burned off (W. W. Dalquest - photo).] - -In the fall, winter, and early spring the Townsend meadow mice keep to -their runways. These runways are used by successive generations of mice, -and often are worn into ditches several inches deep. In the late spring -and summer, when the grass and other vegetation in their habitat is -tall and rank, offering complete concealment, the runways are abandoned -and cuttings of rejected food are found scattered over the surface of -the ground. - -The food of the Townsend meadow mice includes the succulent leaves and -stems of many grasses and annuals. Near Seattle the staple summer food -is the velvet grass (_Holcus lanatus_), although many other plants, -including the horsetail (_Equisetum arvense_), are eaten. In winter the -common cattail is eaten. Couch (1925: 200) found caches of the roots of -mint (_Mentha canadensis_) stored by this species. As much as 14 quarts -was found in a single cache. - -The cup-shaped nests of Townsend meadow mice near Seattle were below -ground. Embryos were found from May 4 to May 20 and varied in number -from 5 to 8 with a mean of 7. In the San Juan Islands the nests of _M. -t. pugeti_ were under driftwood. - - -=Microtus townsendii townsendii= (Bachman) - - _Arvicola townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, - 8 (pt. 1):60, 1839. - - _Arvicola occidentalis_ Peale, U. S. Expl. Exped., Mammalogy, p. - 45, 1848 (type from Puget Sound). - - _M[icrotus]. townsendi_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 12:66, July 23, - 1896. - - _Microtus townsendii townsendii_ Svihla and Svihla, Murrelet, - 14:40, May, 1933. - - _Type._--Obtained on the Columbia River (probably on or near Sauvie - Island, Multnomah County, Oregon); type in Philadelphia Academy of - Natural Sciences. - - _Racial characters._--Size large; skull narrow in interorbital - region. - - _Measurements._--Eight males and 5 females from Clark and Pacific - counties, southwestern Washington, average, respectively: total - length 208.0, 208.4; length of tail 65.7, 66.0; hind foot 26.5, - 25.4; ear 15.0, 14.6; weight 80.8, 76.7 grams. Thirteen males and - 9 females from Seattle average, respectively: 211.8, 209.0; 71.2, - 68.6; 25.7, 26.0; 15.8, 15.4. - - _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington from - Bellingham (J.M.E.) south to Puget Island (V.B.S.). - - -=Microtus townsendii pugeti= Dalquest - - _Microtus townsendii pugeti_ Dalquest, Murrelet, 21:7, April 1, - 1940. - - _Type._--Obtained at Neck Point, northwest corner of Shaw Island, - San Juan County, Washington, by D. H. Johnson, on July 10, 1938; - type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Size small; skull wide in interorbital - region, averaging about 4.0 mm. (3.8-4.2); basi-sphenoid truncate - posteriorly; upper incisors strongly curved. - - _Measurements._--Two males and 6 females average: total length - 182.6; length of tail 50.3; hind foot 23.2; ear 15.0. - - _Distribution._--Found only on the San Juan Islands, San Juan and - Skagit counties. - -_Remarks._--The islands occupied by this race of mouse were heavily -glaciated by the last continental glacier (Vashon). Mice of the species -_townsendii_ apparently migrated to the islands early in the Recent era, -and under isolation developed the differences which now separate them -from the mainland population. - - -=Microtus longicaudus= (Merriam) - -Long-tailed meadow mouse - -_Description._--The several races of this species vary from small to -large in size. Their bodies are relatively longer and slimmer than those -of the other meadow mice that occur in Washington. Their most -distinctive feature is the long tail, only slightly shorter than the -head and body. Their fur is rather coarse. The color varies from grayish -brown to dull reddish brown with a brighter brown dorsal stripe. The -tail is bicolor; black or dark brown above, yellowish below. The -underparts are whitish gray. - - [Illustration: FIG. 116. Distribution of the long-tailed meadow mouse - in Washington. A. _Microtus longicaudus macrurus._ B. _Microtus - longicaudus halli._] - -Long-tailed meadow mice are widely distributed over the western United -States, Canada, and Alaska. In Washington the long-tailed meadow mouse -has been taken in many habitats. One specimen was taken along a small, -temporary stream through sagebrush in the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. -Others were found in marshes and near water in the arid subdivision of -the Transition Life-zone. In the humid subdivision of the Transition -Life-zone they are not uncommon in damp areas along the ocean coast, but -are rather rare in dry, grassy habitats. In the Canadian and Hudsonian -life-zones they are fairly common in forest-free, grassy places, being -most abundant near talus slides. Altitudinally they range from sea level -to 6,000 feet. - -Long-tailed meadow mice are rather rare. Several were taken in the -daytime at Round Top Mountain, Pend Oreille County, and two others were -taken in daytime two miles south of Tenino, Thurston County. However -most of the specimens were caught at night. - -Long-tailed meadow mice do not, at least ordinarily, make trails as do -other meadow mice. Specimens are usually taken unexpectedly, and -intensive trapping in the area where a specimen or two is taken rarely -yields additional individuals. - -Two specimens taken in the Cascade Mountains in September were pregnant; -one contained two embryos and the other four. - - -=Microtus longicaudus halli= Ellerman - - _Microtus mordax angustus_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., - 37:13, April 10, 1931 (not of Thomas, 1908). - - _Microtus longicaudus angustus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 19:491, - November 14, 1938. - - _Microtus mordax halli_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living - Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., 2:603, March 21, 1941 (new name - for _Microtus mordax angustus_ Hall). - - _Type._--Obtained at Godman Springs, 5,700 ft., Blue Mountains, - Columbia County, Washington, by S. H. Lyman, on September 1, 1927; - type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Size small; color of sides pale grayish - brown; brown dorsal stripe conspicuous; tail relatively short. - - _Measurements._--Four males and 5 females from eastern Washington - average, respectively: total length 164.8, 166.6; length of tail - 55.8, 55.8; hind foot 22.0, 21.4. - - _Distribution._--From the Blue Mountains of southeastern - Washington north, along the eastern edge of the state, to British - Columbia, and thence west, north of the Columbia River, to the - Cascades, and south along the eastern edge of the Cascades to the - Wenatchee Mountains. Marginal occurrences are: Pasayten River - (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 24), Hart Lake (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: - 24), Blewett Pass (W.W.D.), Boulder Cave (W.W.D.), and Satus Pass - (W.W.D.). - -_Remarks._--Four specimens from Satus Pass, Klickitat County, are -somewhat intermediate between this race and _macrurus_, and indicate -that _halli_ crossed the Columbia River when an alpine meadow land -extended from the Simcoe Anticline to southeastern Washington. - -One specimen from Selah, Yakima County, is colored somewhat like -_halli_, and is smaller than _macrurus_. Possibly the _halli_ type of -meadow mouse spread northward to the Yakima Valley. This specimen was -taken in the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. A specimen from the Arid -Transition Zone at Naches, Yakima County (taken in almost Canadian -Life-zone habitat), is like _macrurus-halli_ intergrades from the higher -Cascade Mountains. - - -=Microtus longicaudus macrurus= Merriam - - _Microtus macrurus_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. - 353, October 4, 1898. - - _Microtus mordax macrurus_ Dice, Murrelet, 13:49, May, 1932. - - _Microtus longicaudus macrurus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 19:491, - November 14, 1938. - - _Type._--Obtained at Lake Cushman, Mason County, Washington, by C. - P. Streator on June 26, 1894; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Size large; tail relatively long, almost as - long as head and body; color of upper parts dull brown; dorsal - stripe obscure; underparts gray. - - _Measurements._--Two males and 4 females from the Olympic - Mountains and the coast of Washington, average, respectively: - total length 212.5, 220.5; length of tail 82.5, 86.8; hind foot - 25.5, 24.7; ear 15.0, 13.7. - - _Distribution._--The Olympic Mountains, the coast region of - western Washington, and the Cascade Mountains, save in the - southeastern part. Marginal occurrences are: Sauk (Taylor and - Shaw, 1929: 24), Tye (W.W.D.), Naches River (W.W.D.), and Wind - River (W.W.D.). - -_Remarks._--Specimens from the Cascade Mountains are referred to -_macrurus_ but are intermediate between that race and _halli_. - - -=Microtus richardsoni= (De Kay) - -Water rat - -_Description._--This is the largest meadow mouse found in Washington. It -is too large to be called a mouse and the term water rat, applied to it -by Merriam, suits it well. It is the only Washington microtine measuring -more than 8 inches in total length. The upper parts are dark, reddish -brown in color; the underparts are grayish brown. The tail comprises -about one-third of the total length. - -This species of meadow mouse ranges from Canada south to Colorado in the -Rocky Mountains and in the Cascades south into Oregon. The water rats -are strictly alpine animals, occurring about streams, marshes and damp -meadows. In the Cascade Mountains they are most common in the glacial -cirques where tiny streams flow through grassy meadows to plunge over -the lip of the cirque on a rocky course of cascades to the valley below. -Here their broad trails occur along the stream banks, commonly entering -the water where it is swift. These trails are well-worn roads, usually -about four inches wide but often wider. The burrows of the water rat are -about three inches in diameter and are constructed with no effort at -concealment; large mounds of earth mark their entrances. Freshly dug -burrows are so abundant that it seems likely more are dug than are -actually inhabited. Burrows are often dug beneath rocks. - -The water rat is mainly nocturnal but not uncommonly is seen in the -daytime. Twice I cornered a water rat away from its burrow and each time -it escaped by swimming. The rats swam with great speed but with much -splashing. One dived under the surface of a small pool and disappeared. -Stones along the bank were pulled out until the rat was captured in a -small chamber at the end of a burrow. The burrow entered the bank at the -base of a large stone six inches beneath the surface. This burrow -resembled a miniature muskrat burrow and apparently had been dug when -the rat was under water. - -Like _Phenacomys_, the water rat constructs sub-snow nests on the -surface of the ground. These are recognizable by their large size and by -piles of ovoid droppings a quarter of an inch in length. These nests are -loosely built and fall apart soon after the snow melts. - -The water rat is sometimes a pest to the mammal collector for they -spring mouse traps set for other mammals without becoming caught. At -times the greater part of an entire trap line was thus rendered -ineffective by these mammals. Fully adult animals are uncommon in -collections for a rat trap or steel trap is needed to take them and -these items, when packed on back up mountains to water-rat habitat, are -usually set for still larger animals. Racey (Racey and Cowan, 1935: H27) -recounting his difficulty in securing specimens when no suitable traps -were at hand, writes: "Killed one with my hands, shot another, and a -third was stunned by a mouse trap." - -Taylor and Shaw (1927: 76) list food eaten by the water rat on Mount -Rainier as the avalanche lily, dogtooth violet, _Ligusticum purpureum_, -_Valeriana sitchensis_, _Polygonum bistortoides_, _Petasites frigida_, -_Phyllodoce empetriformis_, _Potentilla flabellifolia_, _Aster_ sp., -grass, wild clover, conifer seeds, two kinds of blueberry (_Vacinnium_) -and _Xerophyllum tenax_. Racey and Cowan (1935) list foods eaten in the -Cascades of southern British Columbia as _Lupinus polyphyllus_, _Senecio -balsamitae_, _Pedicularis bractiosa_ and _Arnica alpinus_. - -A female from Dewey Lake, Yakima County, contained 4 embryos on -September 1, 1940. One from Tye, King County, had 2 embryos on September -8, 1940. - - -=Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides= (Rhoads) - - _Aulacomys arvicoloides_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 28:182, February, - 1894. - - _Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:62, - June 6, 1900. - - _Type._--Obtained at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington, - by A. Rupert in September, 1893. Rhoads gives the altitude as 8,000 - ft. This apparently is an error, for the elevation of the lake is - 2,458 ft. and the summit of Snoqualmie Pass, to the west, is 3,100 - ft. Probably 3,000 ft. was intended; type in Philadelphia Academy - of Natural Sciences. - - _Racial characters._--Size large; color of upper parts dark - reddish brown; underparts paler. - - [Illustration: FIG. 117. Distribution of the water rat in Washington. - A. _Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides._ B. _Microtus richardsoni - macropus._] - - _Measurements._--A female from Tomyhoi Lake, Whatcom County, - measured: total length 242; length of tail 68; hind foot 27; ear - 17. A female from Tye, King County, measured: 257; 83; 26; 17. - - _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, from Tomyhoi Lake (W.W.D.) - south to Potato Hill (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 25). - - -=Microtus richardsoni macropus= (Merriam) - - _Arvicola (Mynomes) macropus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:60, July - 30, 1891. - - _Microtus richardsoni macropus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:61, - June 6, 1900. - - _Microtus richardsonii macropus_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. - R. Conner Mus., no. 2:25, December, 1929. - - _Type._--Obtained in the Pashimeroi Mountains, 9,700 ft., Custer - County, Idaho, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey in 1890; type in - United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _arvicoloides_ but slightly - smaller and redder. - - _Measurements._--A female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia - County, measures: total length 228; length of tail 73; hind foot - 25; ear 14. - - _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. - - -=Microtus oregoni oregoni= (Bachman) - -Creeping mouse - - _Arvicola oregoni_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, - 8:60, 1839. - - _Microtus oregoni_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 12:9, July 23, 1896. - - _Microtus morosus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zoöl. - ser., 1:227, February 1, 1899 (type from Boulder Lake, 5,000 ft., - Clallam County, Washington). - - _Microtus oregoni oregoni_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:227, - December 31, 1912. - - _Microtus oregoni cantwelli_ Taylor, Jour. Mamm., 1:180, August - 24, 1920 (type from Glacier Basin, 5,935 ft., Mt. Rainier, Pierce - County, Washington). - - [Illustration: FIG. 118. Distribution of the creeping mouse, _Microtus - oregoni oregoni_, in Washington.] - - _Type._--Obtained at Astoria, Clatsop County, Oregon, by J. K. - Townsend in 1836; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. - - _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females from southwestern - Washington, average, respectively: total length 133, 126; length - of tail 35, 32; hind foot 16.9, 16.7; ear 9.8, 9.7; weight 19.3, - 19.1 grams. - - _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, the Olympic Mountains, and - the lowlands of western Washington. - -_Remarks._--A large series of topotypes of _Microtus o. oregoni_ in the -California Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, and the rather large series -from Cowlitz County, Washington, show a wide range of variation in -color, size, and cranial characters. Specimens from the Cascade and -Olympic Mountains seem to average a bit paler than topotypes of -_oregoni_, but are not worthy of recognition as distinct races. Too few -topotypes of _Microtus o. serpens_ from British Columbia are available -to judge the status of that race with any certainty, but specimens from -northwestern Washington are certainly _oregoni_. - -_Description._--The creeping mouse is a small species of general -microtine form. The head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail -about 1-1/2 inches. The ears are small and the eyes tiny, nearly buried -in the fur. The fur is short and rather rough. It does not lie back -smoothly, thereby giving a woolly appearance. The upper parts are -reddish or grayish brown and the underparts are grayish white. The -nondescript appearance suggests a young rather than adult mouse. - -The creeping mouse (subgenus _Chilotus_) is restricted to the Pacific -Coast and ranges from British Columbia to California. In Washington it -occupies almost every conceivable "mouse" habitat in its range, -including wet marshes, damp ravines, dry forest, damp, mossy forest, -meadows, alpine meadows and fields of short grass. It is rare in all but -the latter habitat. In fields of short or dry grass it is often -abundant. In the Cascade Mountains it was in relatively dry places along -streams or rock slides. Altitudinally it ranges from sea level to at -least 6,000 feet, and from the Humid Transition well into the Hudsonian -life-zones. - -Creeping mice construct tiny tunnels among the grass roots and seldom -venture out of them. In suitable habitat the surface of the ground -beneath the grass is a maze of these tunnels, which cross, intersect, -and divide in a complex network. An observer standing in a field -occupied by creeping mice can scarcely conceive of the extent and -perfection of the tiny tunnel system at his feet. - -Creeping mice lived but a day or two in captivity. Save for the bits of -grass blades left in their runways, little is known of their food or -other life habits. Their nests are round balls of dry grasses placed in -cavities under logs. None of the many examined possessed a lining of -softer materials. Embryos found in pregnant females from April 10 to May -18 numbered from 2 to 4. - - -=Lagurus curtatus pauperrimus= (Cooper) - -Sagebrush vole - - _Arvicola pauperrima_ Cooper, Amer. Nat., 2:535, December, 1868. - - _Arvicola pauperrimus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:64, July 30, - 1891. - - _L[agurus]. pauperrimus_ Thomas, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, - 9:401, April, 1912. - - _Microtus pauperrimus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:214, August 29, - 1936. - - _Lemmiscus pauperrimus_ Davis, Recent Mamm. Idaho, Caxton - Printers, p. 327, April 5, 1939. - - _Lemmiscus curtatus pauperrimus_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 54:70, July 31, 1941. - - _Type._--Obtained on the "Plains of the Columbia" near the Snake - River, southwestern Washington by J. G. Cooper on October 9, 1860. - Probably from the Bunchgrass Hills near Wallula (Old Fort Walla - Walla), Walla Walla County: type in United States National Museum. - - _Measurements._--Bailey (1900: 69) gives the average of 3 adults - from the vicinity of Antelope, Oregon, as: total length 115; - length of tail 20; hind foot 16. - - _Distribution._--Known in Washington only from the type and a - specimen from Badger Mountains, 8 miles southwest of Waterville - (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 25). - -_Remarks._--This rare vole is the smallest microtine rodent in -Washington. The head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail about -1 inch. The upper parts are grayish or yellowish brown and the -underparts grayish. The upper incisors are not grooved and the inner and -outer angles of the molars are about equal in length. - -Mice of the genus _Lagurus_ occur in Siberia and in prairie areas of the -northwestern United States and Canada. The sagebrush vole inhabits the -Upper Sonoran Life-zone. It prefers upland areas of low sagebrush with -sparse grass. Poorly formed runways and small piles of feces indicate -its presence. The type of _Lagurus pauperrimus_ was obtained in -southwestern Washington 80 years ago, and a single additional record has -since been obtained. Nothing is known of its habits in Washington. The -life history of related forms has been reported on by Hall (1928: -201-204) from Nevada and Moore (1943: 188-191) from Oregon. - -Davis (1939: 326) raised the subgenus _Lemmiscus_ Thomas (for American -forms) to generic rank and Goldman (1941: 69) accepted this usage. -Comparison of the Siberian and American species reveals but three -impressive differences: the dorsal stripe of the Siberian mice, the -greater development of prisms in the molars of the American species, and -the presence of cement in the angles of the molars of the Siberian -specimens and its lack in the American. These differences seem to be of -no more than subgeneric value. Goldman (1941: 69) showed that all -American _Lagurus_ belong to a single species. - - -=Ondatra zibethicus= (Linnaeus) - -Muskrat - -_Description._--The muskrat is a large aquatic rodent. Head and body -measure about 14 inches; the tail about 10 inches. The body is plump and -the head small. Eyes and ears are relatively small. The forefeet are -small and handlike with furred wrists. The hind feet are large with -webbed toes and naked wrists. The tail is narrow, constricted at the -base and flattened vertically. It is scaled and possesses scattered, -stiff hairs. The underfur is dense and soft. The guard hair is stiff and -shiny. The upper parts are rich, dark brown. The underparts are gray -washed with cinnamon. - - [Illustration: FIG. 119. Muskrat (_Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis_), - male, Lake Washington, Seattle, October 13, 1939; weight 906 grams on - November 4, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. - Scheffer, No. 736.)] - -Muskrats are found in Canada and the United States. They are lowland -animals, rarely ranging into the Canadian Life-zone. Their aquatic -habitat makes them relatively independent of temperature, and -consequently they occur in both the Transition and Upper Sonoran -life-zones. - -The muskrat is well adapted to aquatic life. The toes of the large hind -feet are webbed at the base, the hind feet are turned slightly outward, -a fringe of stiff bristles at the rear edge of each foot furnishes -additional aid in swimming, and the laterally compressed tail makes it -an efficient rudder. In the water the surface of the fur flattens down -to entrap air in the dense underfur, keeping the body dry. - -The typical habitat of the muskrat is slow-moving water or still water, -such as in lakes, ponds, marshes and sluggish rivers and streams. -Muskrats occur commonly, though not in large numbers, in more swiftly -moving streams. In Puget Sound and the San Juan Islands they occupy a -marine habitat. - -In the extensive marshes along Lake Washington, King County, muskrats -are abundant. They occupy sluggish water, often water polluted by -garbage and sewage. In these marshes, banks suitable for the -construction of burrows are absent and houses are made of cattail stalks -and leaves. The food of these marsh-living muskrats consists principally -of cattail and other marsh vegetation. - -In contrast to the marsh-occupying muskrats, muskrats along the open, -marsh-free shores of the lake live in deep clear water where waves lap -the shore. These muskrats live exclusively in burrows dug in the banks -and feed upon fresh-water mussels. - -In still greater contrast were muskrats living 20 miles away, near -Cottage Lake, King County. Here we found them in small clear streams, 4 -to 10 feet wide. Depth of the water varied from a few inches to three -feet. The streams flowed through meadows, pastures and junglelike, -deciduous woods. Muskrats were slightly more common along wooded -stretches than in open areas. Some were trapped where the streams flowed -at high velocity over shallow, gravel bottoms. The animals lived in -burrows and fed upon fresh-water mussels and a variety of plants. - -Near Richmond Beach, Snohomish County, muskrats took up residence in a -small tidal pool along Puget Sound. The nearest fresh water stream large -enough to support a muskrat was two miles away. Two muskrats were -trapped here. Investigation of a tidal pool a mile to the north -disclosed unmistakable muskrat signs. Traps set in the culvert -connecting the pool with Puget Sound at high tide took several -specimens. Study showed that the muskrats were not living in the pool -but among the large boulders forming the breakwater for the Great -Northern Railroad, along the sound itself. They were feeding on marine -mussels (_Mytilus_). These mussels lived in the salt water of the sound, -not in the tidal pool. - -At Peavine Pass, Blakely Island, in the San Juan Islands, muskrats were -living in the swift tidal current and deep, marine waters. Several were -seen in late afternoon. All were swimming parallel to the shore about 50 -feet out. Here also they fed on _Mytilus_, but their homes were not -discovered. Certainly they were not living in the tidal pool at Flat -Point, a half-mile away. - -In the interior of Blakely Island a colony of muskrats was discovered -living in a marsh of about one acre. In the rainy season the ground of -the marsh was covered with less than one inch of water. Residents said -that in the dry season springs kept the ground moist. Muskrats were -living in burrows whose entrances descended at a 45-degree angle and -were filled with water. The ground about some occupied burrows was dry, -the only water visible being in the burrow itself. A variety of marsh -vegetation provided food. - - [Illustration: FIG. 120. Distribution of the muskrat in Washington. - A. _Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis._ B. _Ondatra zibethicus - occipitalis._] - -Burrows of muskrats always have entrances under water. Usually they -enter a vertical bank 6 to 15 inches below water line and occasionally 3 -feet below it. About half the burrows excavated near Lake Washington, -King County, had a single entrance. About 40 per cent had double or -triple entrances situated 2 to 3 feet apart and converging within a yard -to a single burrow. About 10 per cent had double burrows more than 3 -feet in length. Burrows were from 5 to 8 inches in diameter. Nest -chambers were from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, spherical, and from 6 to -30 feet from the burrow entrance. The nests themselves were bulky, loose -masses of cattail leaves. Embryos found in late February and early -March numbered 4 to 8. - -Because it is abundant, widely spread and easy to trap, the muskrat is -one of the most important fur bearers in the state. The fur is -relatively stable in value. In recent years the average skin has brought -the trapper slightly less than a dollar. Muskrat flesh is eaten and sold -on the market in the eastern United States but has never been popular in -Washington. The muskrat does little damage to agriculture, most -complaints arising from its burrows which interfere with irrigation -ditches. - - -=Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis= (Lord) - - _Fiber osoyoosensis_ Lord, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 97, 1863. - - _F[iber]. z[ibethicus]. osoyoosensis_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 23:1, February 2, 1910. - - _Ondatra zibethica osoyoosensis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 79:231, December 31, 1912. - - _Type._--Obtained at Osoyoose Lake, British Columbia, on British - Columbia-Washington boundary at head of Okanogan River, by J. K. - Lord, in 1861 or 1862. - - _Racial characters._--Color of the upper parts rich, dark brown. - - _Measurements._--Two males and a female from Seattle, King County, - average and measure respectively: total length 565, 555; length of - tail 262, 257; hind foot 80.5, 79; weight 2 pounds 13 ounces and 2 - pounds 3 ounces. - - _Distribution._--Eastern Washington generally and all but the - southern part of western Washington. Specimens from as far - southwest as Tenino (W.W.D.) are typical of _osoyoosensis_. - - -=Ondatra zibethicus occipitalis= (Elliot) - - _Fiber occipitalis_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 74, zoöl. - ser., 3:162, April, 1903. - - _Ondatra zibethica occipitalis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 79:231, December 31, 1912. - - _Type._--Obtained at Florence, Lane County, Oregon, by E. Heller, - in 1901; type in Chicago Natural History Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _osoyoosensis_ but redder; fur - shorter and interpterygoid spaces of skull narrower. - - _Measurements._--A male from Chinook, Pacific County, measures: - total length 580; length of tail 248; hind foot 78; ear 21; weight - 863 grams. - - _Distribution._--The southwestern corner of the state, extending - north to Aberdeen (V.B.S.) and east to Cathlamet (V.B.S.). - - -=Rattus rattus= (Linnaeus) - -Roof rat - -_Description._--Size large, total length approximately 400 mm.; tail -long, naked, comprising 50 per cent or more of total length; color sooty -black or brown; in brown phase, whitish beneath. - -The roof rat became established in Central America some 350 years ago, -and entered the United States (English Colonies) late in the seventeenth -century. Subsequent to the introduction of the Norway rat the roof rat -decreased in numbers and is now found only in restricted areas. - - -=Rattus rattus rattus= (Linnaeus) - - _[Mus] rattus_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1 (ed. 10):61, 1758. - - _Rattus rattus_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:126, - June 6, 1916. - - _Type._--From Uppsala, Sweden. - -_Remarks._--In Washington I have taken specimens of the roof rat in the -San Juan Islands and in the coniferous forests on the west slope of the -Cascades. In the latter area it seems to be widely spread and to live in -the wild. - - -=Rattus rattus alexandrinus= (Geoffroy) - - _Mus alexandrinus_ Geoffroy, Catal. Mam. du Mus. Nat. d'Hist. Nat. - Paris, p. 192, 1803. - - _R[attus]. rattus alexandrinus_ Hinton, Jour. Bombay Nat. Hist. - Soc., 26:63, December 20, 1918. - - _Type._--From Alexandria, Egypt. - -_Remarks._--This subspecies seems to be rare in Washington. My specimens -are all from small, isolated islands in the San Juan group. All were -taken in the vicinity of human habitations. _R. r. alexandrinus_ -resembles _R. r. rattus_, differing only in brown color of upper parts. - - -=Rattus norvegicus norvegicus= (Erxleben) - -Norway rat - - _[Mus] norvegicus_ Erxleben, Syst. Regni Anim., 1:381, 1777. - - _Rattus norvegicus_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 29:126, June 6, 1916. - - _Type._--From Norway. - - _Description._--Larger, heavier-bodied and coarser-furred than the - black rat or roof rat with shorter, heavier tail. The tail is less - than 50 per cent of the total length. The color of the back is - dull, reddish brown, the sides are paler and the underparts are - dirty gray. - -_Remarks._--The Norway rat was absent from the Pacific Coast of the -United States before 1851. It probably reached the coast slightly after -that date. It is common about all large cities in Washington. In the -western part of the state it lives along streams and marshes under feral -conditions. - - -=Mus musculus= Linnaeus, subsp? - -House mouse - - _[Mus] musculus_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1 (ed. 10):62, 1758. - -_Description._--Size small; tail about 50 per cent of total length, -naked; ears small, about 12 mm. in height; upper incisors not grooved; -color of upper parts reddish or grayish brown; underparts brown or gray. - -_Remarks._--The house mouse became established in North America soon -after its settlement by Europeans. It is now common throughout the state -of Washington, principally near human habitations, but often lives in -the wild. - -Races of the house mouse have been dealt with by Schwartz and Schwartz -(1943: 59-72), and by Nichols (1944: 82-89), but lack of adequate -material prevents subspecific identification of house mice from -Washington at this time. - - -=Aplodontia rufa= (Rafinesque) - -Mountain beaver - -_Description._--The mountain beaver is a stout-bodied animal about 14 -inches in length, with a tiny tail that is almost invisible externally. -The head is large, wide and low with small eyes, small ears and long -vibrissae. The legs are short and heavy, but the forefeet are small and -handlike; the hind feet are large and powerful. The claws of both -forefeet and hind feet are long and strong. The pelage is short, coarse -and rough. The upper parts are dark reddish brown and the underparts are -grayish brown. The feet are pink. - - [Illustration: FIG. 121. Mountain beaver (_Aplodontia rufa rufa_), - Seattle, Washington, March 19, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo - by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 919.)] - -Mountain beavers are confined to the Pacific Coast and range from -southern British Columbia to central California. The genus contains a -single species of which Taylor (1918) recognized nine races. The -principal habitat of the mountain beaver is clearings at the edge of -coniferous forests. The animals are most abundant near springs, streams -and damp places, although they are not aquatic. The tangled jungles of -deciduous trees and shrubs that grow in the ravines and stream valleys -of the Puget Sound area present optimum habitat. They occur also on -hillsides, on logged-off land and along roadside clearings. In the -mountains they occur in thickets and forests, always, in our experience, -near streams. - -The most conspicuous evidence of the presence of mountain beavers is -their burrows. These are large tunnels, four to eight inches in -diameter. To each set of tunnels there are numerous entrances, some -partly concealed in brush or beside logs or stumps, and some are in the -open. Those in the open are less used as entrances than as places for -receiving the loose earth which the animals excavate. A pile may contain -nearly a cubic yard of earth and stones. Many of the burrows are -shallow, and cave-ins are common. Breaks in the roof of a burrow are not -repaired, although debris is removed from the burrow itself. The burrows -seem not to be constructed according to a system, but are extended to -take in whatever brush, logs or other cover is available. They are -commonly dug through damp or muddy soil. Small streams flow through some -burrows. Such partly flooded runs seem to be favored by the animals. - -The nest of a mountain beaver excavated by Scheffer (1929: 15), under -the roots of a fallen tree, was oval in shape, twenty inches high and 13 -inches wide. The nest was protected from flooding by a basal chamber, or -basin, six inches beneath the nest. Two drainage tunnels lead away from -this basal chamber. The nest was composed of the leaves and stems of -bracken laced together with grass and fine twigs. Two other nests -examined by Scheffer measured 17 by 18 inches and 19 by 17 inches. Both -were about two feet beneath the surface. - -Around Puget Sound the mountain beavers mate in early March. The young -number two to three, rarely four, per litter and are born in early -April. - -Mountain beavers enter water readily but wade rather than swim. They are -rather noisy, splashing in water and breaking twigs or rustling leaves -on the ground. They climb bushes and saplings, clipping off branches for -food as they ascend. According to Scheffer (1929: 15) they leave the -stubs of branches attached to the trunk to facilitate their descent. -Twice a mountain beaver was found several feet up in a sapling. In both -saplings the animal had clipped the branches close to the trunk and was -desperately reaching with its hind feet for missing branches. When the -observer came near, one animal squealed, tumbled to the ground, and -scurried frantically to its burrow. - -Although principally nocturnal, mountain beavers are not infrequently -active by day, especially in the fall. At this season they harvest food -and spread it on logs to dry. The cured hay is removed to their burrows -for nesting material and food. In winter mountain beavers are more -restricted in habits and are rarely seen by day. Presumably they feed on -stored food at this time but they forage somewhat. In winter they eat -such evergreen shrubs as salal (_Gaultheria shallon_) and Oregon grape -(_Berberis nervosa_). They eat also the bark of trees, especially that -of the willow (_Salix_). Under cover of snow, in the mountains, they -burrow to some extent and pack excavated earth in snow burrows. The -melting of the snow in the spring reveals the earth core, six to eight -inches in diameter and two to four feet long. Several such earth cores -were forked, showing that part of the earth had been pushed into a -branching burrow. - - [Illustration: FIG. 122. Distribution of the mountain beaver in - Washington. A. _Aplodontia rufa rufa._ B. _Aplodontia rufa rainieri._] - -The mountain beaver holds its food in its forefeet, squirrel-like, when -it eats. Its food consists of the leaves and bark of woody plants and -entire herbs, including roots. The mountain beaver is the only mammal so -far as known that eats the bracken fern. It feeds on the branches of -coniferous trees, including Douglas fir, red cedar, and hemlock. Such -thorny species as the blackberry, blackcap and devil's club are eaten. -The odiferous skunk cabbage and the stinging nettle are on its bill of -fare. A list of its food would include most plants found in its habitat, -and we know of no species that it refuses as food. - -The mountain beaver is more of a nuisance than a pest. In most of its -range there is but little farming although where crops are raised the -mountain beaver may do some damage. It undermines roads and trails and -defiles springs and streams. Control is simple for the animals readily -enter steel traps set in their burrows. - - -=Aplodontia rufa rufa= (Rafinesque) - - _Anisonyx? rufa_ Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag., 2:45, November, - 1817. - - _Haplodon rufus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):596, 1885. - - _Aplodontia rufa_ Merriam, Ann. New York Acad. Sci., 3:316, May, - 1886. - - _Aplodontia olympica_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:20, - January 31, 1899 (type from Lake Quiniault, Grays Harbor County, - Washington). - - _Aplodontia rufa grisea_ Taylor, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., - 12:497, May 6, 1916 (type from Renton, King County, Washington). - - _Aplodontia rufa rufa_ Taylor, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., - 12:497, May 6, 1916. - - _Type._--None. Based on a description by Lewis and Clark. Taylor - (1918: 455) regarded as typical specimens collected at "Marmot, - Clackamas County, Oregon (western slope of Mount Hood, not far from - the Columbia River)." - - _Racial characters._--Size small; skull small. - - _Measurements._--Eight males and 7 females, from the area about - Puget Sound, average, respectively: total length 343, 338; length - of tail 37.5, 33.5; hind foot 57.8, 56; ear 25, 24.5; weight 1342, - 1300 grams. - - _Distribution._--Western Washington, between Puget Sound and the - Cascade Mountains and southward. Marginal localities are: - Bellingham (U.S.N.M.), Sauk (U.S.N.M.), Forks of Skykomish River - (W.W.D.), North Bend (U.S.N.M.), and mouth of Klama River - (M.V.Z.). - -_Remarks._--Individual variation in mountain beavers is considerable. -Two weakly defined races are recognized in Washington. - - -=Aplodontia rufa rainieri= Merriam - - _Aplodontia major rainieri_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 13:21, January 31, 1899. - - _[Haplodontia rufa] raineri_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 45, - zoöl. ser., 2:112, 1901. - - _[Aplodontia rufa] raineri_ Trouessart, Catal. Mamm., viv. foss., - suppl. p. 348, 1904. - - _Aplodontia rufa columbiana_ Taylor, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl., - 12:499, 1916 (type from Hope, British Columbia). - - _Type._--Obtained at Paradise Creek, 5, 200 ft., Mount Rainier, - Pierce County, Washington, by V. Bailey on August 6, 1897; type in - United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _rufa_ but larger with larger - skull. - - _Measurements._--Three males and a female from Tye, King County, - average and measure respectively: total length 352, 340; length of - tail 35, 40; hind foot 60, 59; ear 24, 19. - - _Distribution._--The higher Cascade Mountains from the Columbia - River northward to the Canadian boundary. Marginal localities are: - Canyon Creek (U.S.N.M.), Cascade Pass (U.S.N.M.), Tye (W.W.D.), - Mt. Rainier (U.S.N.M.), Mt. St. Helens (U.S.N.M.), and Yacolt - (M.V.Z.). - -_Remarks._--Intergradation between _rufa_ and _raineri_ is seen in -specimens from the area between Stevens Pass and Skykomish, King County. - - - - -=Zapus princeps= Allen - -Big jumping mouse - - [Illustration: FIG. 123. Big jumping mouse (_Zapus princeps - trinotatus_) in hibernation. Puyallup, Washington, January 30, 1939. - (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 576.)] - -_Description._--The big jumping mouse is a medium-sized mouse, slightly -larger than the house mouse, with an exceptionally long, tapering tail. -Head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail about 5 inches. The -body is slender with a small head, small eyes and small, naked ears. The -forefeet are small and handlike but the hind feet are large with long, -powerful legs. The long, naked tail is smoothly tapering to a narrow -point. The fur is short, posteriorly directed, stiff and bristlelike. -The dorsal area is dusky, the sides are orange or yellow, and the -underparts are creamy white. Each upper incisor tooth has a groove on -its anterior face. - -Jumping mice are boreal mammals occurring in wooded regions ranging from -the Arctic region southward to North Carolina, New Mexico and -California. Jumping mice are of rather general distribution in -Washington, being only locally common. They are partial to damp, boggy -areas but avoid true swamps. They occur in clearings in the forests in -the Puget Sound area and in meadows in river bottoms and in jungles in -ravines. They reach their greatest abundance in the boggy meadows and -glacial cirques of the mountains and spread out from such areas to -seemingly less favored habitat on dryer slopes and heather meadows. -Unlike many species, they do not seem to inhabit talus slides. They are -entirely absent from the eastern Washington desert. - -Sometimes the jumping mouse walks on all four feet but the ordinary -means of progression is by short hops on the hind feet alone. When -startled they travel in great bounds, covering six feet or more at a -jump. When jumping they make considerable noise, swishing or rustling -through the grass and landing with an audible thud. The long tail serves -as a balancing organ. A specimen whose tail had been lost was reported -by Svihla and Svihla (1933: 133) to turn somersaults in the air and -invariably to land on its back rather than its feet. - -Jumping mice become very fat and hibernate in middle summer or early -fall. In the lowlands they disappear by late July but in the mountains -they remain active until the middle of September. They spend the winter -in nests of grass several feet beneath the surface. A hibernating -individual figured by Flahaut (1939: 17) was curled in a ball, head down -with the tail wrapped completely around the greatest circumference of -the ball. - -Near Seattle the principal food of the jumping mouse was the velvet -grass (_Holchus lanatus_), and the seeds of grasses and the broad-leaved -dock. The fruit of the blackberry (_Rubus macropetalus_) is eaten and -occasional individuals are seen with the chin stained a deep purple from -the juice. - -The new-born young of the jumping mouse were reported by Svihla and -Svihla (1933: 132) to average 0.8 grams in weight. They are pink, -hairless, lacking even the facial vibrissae, with eyes closed and ears -folded. - - -=Zapus princeps trinotatus= Rhoads - - _Zapus trinotatus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, - 1894, p. 421, January 15, 1895. - - _Zapus imperator_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zoöl. ser., - 1:228, February 1, 1899 (type from Sieg's Ranch, Elwha River, - Olympic Mountains, Clallam County, Washington). - - _Type._--Obtained on Lulu Island, mouth of Fraser River, British - Columbia, by S. N. Rhoads on May 31, 1892; type in Philadelphia - Academy of Natural Sciences. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _oregonus_ but brighter; sides - orange; underparts creamy white; buffy area often present on chest. - - _Measurements._--Twenty males and 15 females from western - Washington average, respectively: total length 230, 233; length of - tail 140, 140; hind foot 33, 32.8; ear 14.9, 16.3; weight 23.7, - 25.7 grams. - - _Distribution._--Western Washington and the Cascade Mountains, - east in the northern Cascades at least to Tomyhoi Lake (W.W.D.). - -_Remarks._--Actual intergrades between _trinotatus_ and _kootenayensis_ -have not been examined but the differences separating the two forms are -of the degree that usually distinguish subspecies. Since _trinotatus_ -occurs in the high Cascades as far east as Mount Baker, at least, and -_kootenayensis_ probably occurs in the northeastern Cascades, the two -forms doubtless come together in the rugged, inaccessible area between -these two localities. Further collecting will probably show a narrow -zone of intergradation in extreme western Okanogan County. - - [Illustration: FIG. 124. Distribution of the big jumping mouse in - Washington. A. _Zapus princeps oregonus._ B. _Zapus princeps - idahoensis._ C. _Zapus princeps kootenayensis._ D. _Zapus princeps - trinotatus._] - - -=Zapus princeps kootenayensis= Anderson - - _Zapus princeps kootenayensis_ Anderson, Ann. Rept. Nat. Mus. - Canada for 1931, p. 108, November 24. 1932. - - _Type._--Obtained on Green Mountain, 6,000 ft., 10 miles north of - Rossland, West Kootenay District, British Columbia, by R. M. - Anderson, on July 18, 1929; type in National Museum of Canada. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _oregonus_ but paler; yellow more - faded. - - _Measurements._--Twenty females, including 15 topotypes, average - (Anderson, 1932: 109): total length 245; length of tail 140; hind - foot 30.5. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington. Specimens from Sullivan - Lake (E.S.B.) have been examined. - - -=Zapus princeps idahoensis= Davis - - _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ Davis, Jour. Mamm., 15:221, August 10, - 1934. - - _Type._--Obtained 5 miles east of Warm Lake, 7,000 feet elevation, - Valley County, Idaho, by W. B. Davis; type in Museum of Vertebrate - Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _kootenayensis_ but brighter in - color, more ochraceous. Similar to _oregonus_ but paler, more - yellowish. - - _Measurements._--Davis (1939:339) gives the measurements of six - adult topotypes as: total length 240; length of tail 144; hind - foot 31. - - _Distribution._--A single specimen in the Charles R. Conner Museum - from Kamiak Butte, Whitman County, is referable to this race. - - -=Zapus princeps oregonus= Preble - - _Zapus princeps oregonus_ Preble, N. Amer. Fauna. 15:24, August 8, - 1899. - - _Type._--Obtained at Elgin, Union County, Oregon, by E. A. Preble, - on May 29, 1896; type in United States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Small size, pale color. - - _Measurements._--Three males and 3 females from the Blue Mountains - average, respectively: total length 233, 234; length of tail 138, - 139; hind foot 31.8, 31.8; ear 16, 16; weight 29, 33 grams. - - _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. - - - - -=Erethizon dorsatum= (Linnaeus) - -Porcupine - -_Description._--The porcupine is one of the largest rodents found in -Washington, being exceeded in size only by the beaver. Its body is heavy -and stocky, its legs short, its tail long and thick and its eyes small. -It is best known for the modified hairs, or quills, of its tail and -dorsal area. These vary in greatest diameter from one-sixteenth to -three-sixteenths of an inch and from three-quarters of an inch to five -inches in length. They are ivory-white with black tips. In addition to -quills, the porcupine possesses wooly, black underfur and long, banded -guard hair. The bands of the guard hairs are black and yellow, varying -in width. Commonly they are of a single color, black, yellow or brown. - -Porcupines range over virtually all wooded parts of North America north -of Mexico, in and above the Transition Life-zone. The Canadian -porcupines have been studied by Anderson and Rand (1943A) and -intergradation between the eastern _dorsatum_ and the western -_epixanthum_ has been shown. - -The porcupines are commonly considered to be forest animals. However, -they are rather rare in the denser coniferous forests. In the more open -areas on the Cascade Mountains, especially on the eastern slopes, they -are not uncommon. They are rather common in the coniferous forests of -northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains. They seem to be rather -common also in desert areas at the southern edge of the Columbian -Plateau. - -The huge incisors of the porcupine are adapted to feeding on bark. They -do feed on bark to a certain extent in Washington, but it is my -observation that more herbs and bushes are eaten than bark. In areas -where porcupines are common, trees are commonly girdled, usually close -to the top. Trees girdled in this manner in the Kettle River Mountains -included western larch, ponderosa pine, and grand fir. The tops of some -trees were killed. - -The ordinary walking gait of the porcupine is a slow deliberate walk in -which he appears to waddle somewhat. They can increase their speed to a -slow trot. They are slow, deliberate climbers, ascending and descending -trees with head upward. They are able also to climb rocks and cliffs, -sometimes being seen on the tops of large boulders. - -Despite their large size, porcupines are not commonly seen. They are -mainly nocturnal and, in the daytime, find concealment high in the -branches of some conifer or a cave between the rocks in a talus slide. - -While encamped near Sherman Creek Pass in the Kettle River Mountains my -companion and I heard a crunching of gravel from the road fifty feet -away. We listened intently, wondering what person would be abroad in the -mountains at midnight. In the vicinity of our car, concealed from our -view by trees, the noise stopped, to be followed a few minutes later by -a rasping and clattering that could be heard far away. We raced to the -car to discover a large porcupine crouched on the running board by a -pile of "pick-up" antlers of the white-tailed deer left there by us. The -"porkie" had been chewing on these, heedless of the noise made by the -loose antlers clashing against the metal side of the car. - - [Illustration: FIG. 125. Distribution of the porcupine, _Erethizon - epixanthum_ in Washington. Boundaries between ranges of subspecies are - uncertain.] - -In Washington the single young is born late in May or early in June. -There are two pairs of mammae, both pectoral, of which only the anterior -are functional. - - -=Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum= Brandt - - _Erethizon epixanthus_ Brandt, Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. - Pétersbourg, ser. 6, 3 (Sci. Nat. vol. =1=): 390, 1835. - - _Erethizon dorsatus epixanthus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., - 7:600, 1885. - - _Erethizon epixanthum epixanthum_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 128:437, April 29, 1924. - - _Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum_ Anderson and Rand, Canadian Jour. - Research, 21:293, September 24, 1943. - - _Type._--None. Type locality California. - - _Racial characters._--Size large, total length of adults - approximately 30 inches; tail long (nearly one-third of total - length), thick, heavy and spiny; body stout; legs short; claws - long and curved; ears and eyes small; body spines short, thick and - most abundant on posterior part of back, longer and more slender - on sides and shoulders; guard hairs of shoulders and sides long, - almost concealing spines; fur of underparts shorter; color - variable, brown, black or yellow. In winter the fur is longer and - woolly, concealing spines. - - _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau and the Blue Mountains. - -_Remarks._--Anderson and Rand (1943A: 295) ascribe two races to -Washington. With inadequate material myself to verify this ascription. I -think it probable that the northern forest porcupine and the Great Basin -animal are racially different. In consequence the available names, -_nigrescens_ and _epixanthum_, are here applied, pending a revision of -the entire genus. - - -=Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens= Allen - - _Erethizon epixanthus nigrescens_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. - Hist., 19:558, October 10, 1903. - - _Erethizon epixanthum nigrescens_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 128:437, April 29, 1924. - - _Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens_ Anderson and Rand, Canadian Jour. - Research, 21:293, September 24, 1943. - - _Type._--Obtained on the Shesley River, British Columbia, by M. P. - Anderson on August 23, 1902; type in American Museum of Natural - History. - - _Measurements._--A female from Sherman Creek Pass, Ferry County, - measured: total length 770; length of tail 250; hind foot 95; ear - 37. A female from Tye, King County, measured: 930; 280; 125; - weight 20 pounds. - - _Distribution._--Forested parts of the state, exclusive of the - Blue Mountains. - -_Remarks._--Porcupines are extremely rare west of the Cascades but are -occasionally reported from as far west as the Olympic Peninsula. - - -=Myocastor coypus= (Molina) subsp? - -Coypu, nutria - - _Mus coypus_ Molina, Sagg. Stor. Nat. Chili, p. 287, 1782. - - _Myocastor coypus_ Kerr, Anim. Kingd., p. 225, 1792. - - _Type locality._--Chile. - -_Description._--Size large, slightly smaller than a beaver; color rich, -reddish brown; tail long, round; hind feet webbed for swimming. - -_Remarks._--The nutria, a native of South America, has been brought to -the United States and raised commercially on "fur farms." The species -has become established in the wild in several localities in western -Washington and at the Colville Indian Reservation in northeastern -Washington. For further details see Larrison (1943). - - -=Ochotona princeps= (Richardson) - -Pika or cony - -_Description._--The pika is of guinea-pig size, with a short, chunky -body about 200 mm. in length. The tail is represented externally merely -by a tuft of white fur. The short, wide head has large, circular ears, -large black eyes, and long whiskers. The legs are short and the soles of -the feet are furred. The color of the Washington races varies from -grayish-yellow to dark reddish brown. Like rabbits, all pikas have two -pairs of upper incisors. The second pair, located just in back of the -first, is small and delicate. - -_Ochotona_ is a wide-ranging genus with many more species in Asia and -extreme eastern Europe than in North America. Three races of the species -_princeps_ occur in the state of Washington, where they are confined to -the Cascade, Kettle River, and Pend Oreille Mountains. The ranges of all -three races extend northward into British Columbia; one (_brunnescens_) -occurs also in Oregon, and one (_cuppes_) in Idaho. - -In Washington pikas live only in talus slides and rock piles, where they -find refuge from most of the carnivores that prey on small mammals. -Their distribution in the state seems to be regulated by the -distribution of talus slides, and areas free of talus act as effective -barriers to pikas. They are abundant throughout the Cascades but are -absent from the Olympic Mountains although conditions there are well -suited to them. Probably the lowlands of western Washington which, owing -to moderate temperature and low relief, have little talus and exposed -rock, serve as a barrier. The Columbian Plateau is also free of pikas. -This may be due to the relative scarcity of talus as compared with -mountainous areas, and the fact that much of the talus on the Plateau is -composed of fragments of basalt too small to afford the shelter needed -by pikas. The aridity of the Columbian Plateau may contribute to the -absence of pikas, although this seems unlikely in view of the fact that -they occur on arid lands in Nevada and elsewhere. - -Altitudinally, pikas range from 300 feet, in Clark County, to 6,000 feet -on Mt. Rainier, Pierce County, and on Round Top Mountain, Pend Oreille -County. They occur from the arid subdivision of the Transition -Life-zone, at Milk Creek, Kittitas County, to the upper edge of the -Hudsonian Life-zone, at Glacier Basin, Mt. Rainier. Generally speaking, -they are mammals of the mountains. - -Common enemies of the pikas are the weasel (_Mustela frenata_), marten -(_Martes caurina_), and hawks of several species. Pikas are active by -day, especially in the early morning. Their call note is a short "eek!" -which carries a long distance. This squeaking note is often heard -throughout the night when rain threatens their drying hay. - - [Illustration: FIG. 126. Distribution of the pika in Washington. A. - _Ochotona princeps brunnescens._ B. _Ochotona princeps fenisex._ C. - _Ochotona princeps cuppes._] - -Vegetation used as food, either for immediate consumption or for winter -use, includes almost all grasses, vines, shrubs, and trees available -near the pika's home. The subalpine lupines are especially favored. Even -such a thorny growth as the devil's club (_Oplopanax horridum_) is -eaten. Heather (_Phyllodoce, Cassiope_) has not been found in any of the -numerous hay piles examined, even when it is the commonest plant in the -vicinity. Large bundles of plants are carried in the pika's mouth. The -forefeet do not assist in transporting the load. If intended for -immediate consumption, the plants are deposited on one of last year's -hay piles and are eaten at leisure. The eating habits of the pika are -rabbitlike. A large leaf is seized at the tip and drawn into the mouth -with rapid chewing motions without assistance from the forefeet. Plants -destined to become hay are carefully spread out and exposed to the sun. -In cloudy or rainy weather the exposed plants are gathered and stored -under large rocks, to be reëxposed for curing when the weather improves. -Large hay piles often include more than fifty pounds of perfectly cured -grasses, annuals, bushes and evergreens. - -No record of embryos is available for Washington pikas, but a male with -enlarged testes was taken at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, on March -22, 1940. Half-grown young of _fenisex_ were taken at Sawtooth Mountain, -Skamania County, on July 13, 1939, and of _brunnescens_ at Slate Creek, -Whatcom County, on August 16, 1937. Nearly full-grown young of _fenisex_ -are reported taken at Bald Mountain, head of Ashnola River, Okanogan -County, on September 16, 1920. Young _cuppes_ of several sizes were -taken at Sherman Creek Pass, Ferry County, on September 11, 1938. The -breeding season possibly extends from March to August with a tendency to -be earlier at lower elevations. - - -=Ochotona princeps cuppes= Bangs - - _Ochotona cuppes_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:40, June - 5, 1899. - - _Ochotona princeps cuppes_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:27, - August 21, 1924. - - _Type._--Obtained by Allan Brooks at the Monashee Divide, 4,000 - feet, Gold Range, British Columbia, on August 2, 1897; type in - Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Smallest and palest of the Washington pikas; - total length less than 8 inches; color of upper parts - grayish-yellow, grayest on posterior third of back; underparts - pale buff; skull small, but with relatively wide zygomatic and - interorbital regions. - - _Measurements._--Eight males and 3 females from Round Top - Mountain, Pend Oreille County, average, respectively: total length - 183.5, 181.5; hind foot 30.7, 31.0; ear 22.4, 23.7; one adult male - from the same locality weighed 141.6 grams. - - _Distribution._--This pika has been found at Round Top Mountain - (W.W.D.) and Pass Creek Pass (W.W.D.) in northeastern Washington. - - -=Ochotona princeps fenisex= Osgood - - _Lagomys minimus_ Lord, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 98, 1863 (not - of Schinz, 1821). - - _Ochotona minimus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:39, June - 5, 1899. - - _Ochotona fenisex_ Osgood, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:80, - March 22, 1913 (substitute for _minimus_ Lord). - - _Ochotona princeps fenisex_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:28, - August 21, 1924. - - _Type._--Obtained by J. K. Lord at "Ptarmigan Hill," near head of - Ashnola River, Cascade Range, British Columbia, in early fall of - 1860 (?); type in British Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Size and color intermediate between - _brunnescens_ and _cuppes_; length about 8 inches; color of upper - parts near Pinkish Cinnamon, becoming gray on posterior third of - back; underparts washed with buff; skull of medium size and - proportions. - - _Measurements._--Nine males and 5 females from Okanogan and Chelan - counties average, respectively: total length 190.0, 197.4; hind - foot 31.1, 32.8; ear 21.6, 22.0. - - _Distribution._--Specimens referable to this race occur from the - British Columbian boundary south, through the eastern Cascade - Mountains. Along the western border of its range, _fenisex_ - becomes larger and darker, merging into the race _brunnescens_. - Marginal records are: Hidden Lakes (U.S.N.M.), Lyman Lake - (U.S.N.M.), Mt. Stuart (W.W.D.), Easton (U.S.N.M.), Mt. Aix - (U.S.N.M.), Steamboat Mt. (M.V.Z.). - - -=Ochotona princeps brunnescens= Howell - - _Ochotona fenisex brunnescens_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 32:108, May 20, 1919. - - _Ochotona princeps brunnescens_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna. - 47:31, August 21, 1924. - - _Type._--Obtained by George G. Cantwell at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas - County, Washington, on August 23, 1917; type in United States - National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Largest and darkest of the three races of - Washington pikas; total length 8 inches or more; color of upper - parts rich cinnamon, heavily washed with blackish; posterior part - of back slightly paler; underparts buffy cinnamon; skull large and - heavy with wide zygomatic arches but relatively narrow - interorbital region and relatively narrow across maxillary tooth - rows. - - _Measurements._--Eight males and 9 females from within three miles - of Stevens Pass, King and Chelan counties, average, respectively: - total length 201.8, 208.3; hind foot 33.3, 33.0; ear 22.3, 22.6. - The average weights of 4 males and 3 females from 3 mi. S E Tumtum - Mountain, Clark County, are 178.0 and 174.3 grams, respectively. - - _Distribution._--From the British Columbia boundary south to the - Columbia River and from the western Cascades east to the area of - intergradation with _fenisex_. Marginal occurrences are: Whatcom - Pass (U.S.N.M.), Stevens Pass (W.W.D.), Keechelus (U.S.N.M.), - Cowlitz Pass (U.S.N.M.), Tumtum Mountain (M.V.Z.). - - -=Lepus townsendii townsendii= Bachman - -White-tailed jack rabbit - - _Lepus townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 - (pt. 1):90, pl. 2, 1839. - - _Lepus campestris townsendi_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 17:132, July 14, 1904. - - _Lepus townsendii townsendii_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 28:70, March 12, 1915. - - _Type._--Obtained by J. K. Townsend at old Fort Walla Walla - (present town of Wallula), Walla Walla County, Washington; type in - Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. - - _Measurements._--A male from Miller's Island, Klickitat County, in - the Columbia River, measured: total length 564; length of tail - 117; hind foot 156; ear 110; weight 337.5 grams. - - _Distribution._--Previously found over the grasslands of eastern - Washington. Now restricted and scarce except in the Okanogan - Valley. - -_Remarks._--The white-tailed jack rabbit is the largest rabbit in the -state, adults measuring 24 or more inches in length. The long legs and -long ears accentuate the impression of large size. Its body is more -bulky than that of its relative, the black-tailed jack rabbit. In summer -the pelage of the upper parts is dark gray and in winter it is white -over nearly the entire body. - -The white-tailed jack rabbit occurs from southern Saskatchewan south to -extreme northern New Mexico, and from eastern Washington east to -Wisconsin. A single race occurs in Washington. In eastern Washington -"whitetails" favor the hilly, bunchgrass territory of the arid -subdivision of the Transition and Upper Sonoran life-zones. In winter -they descend to the lower sagebrush valleys. - -The principal enemies of the white-tailed jack rabbit are the eagle, -coyote, and bobcat. Of 1,186 stomachs of coyotes from Washington, Sperry -(1941: 11) found that 27 percent contained rabbits, including jack -rabbits, snowshoe hares, and cottontails. - -In the daytime, white-tailed jack rabbits hide in forms which consist of -shallow holes dug at the bases of bushes or beside rocks. They feed in -the morning, evening, and in the night along wide, well-defined trails -through the bunchgrass. If startled from their forms they dash off in -bounding, erratic leaps, skimming away until lost to sight. A whitetail -has been timed at a speed of 34 miles per hour (Cottam and Williams, -1943: 262). - -The early explorers and settlers found the white-tailed jack rabbits -abundant in eastern Washington. With the invasion and spread of the -black-tailed jack rabbit, and the reduction of native bunchgrass through -overgrazing by livestock, the whitetail has become rare. In several -years of field work on the Columbian Plateau, I saw none. Near Wallula, -the type locality, residents had not seen whitetails for years, but -thought there might be a few left "back in the hills." There are thought -to be a few left near Ellensburg and Yakima. - -Only in the Okanogan Valley are the whitetails holding their own; they -are reasonably common there. In winter they come down from the hills on -to the sagebrush flats along the Okanogan River in Okanogan County. In -January it is not unusual to see as many as five in a day's drive. When, -as will most certainly occur, the black-tailed jack rabbit enters the -Okanogan Valley, the splendid whitetail may be expected to disappear -from Washington. - -Because this species has been so reduced in numbers, no distributional -map has been included. Taylor and Shaw (1929: 28) give its range as: -"north to Oroville, east to Pullman, south to Asotin, Walla Walla, and -Kennewick, and west to Lake Chelan (Manson), Yakima Valley, and -Klickitat County." This range is similar to that of the Nuttall -Cottontail (Fig. 129). - - -=Lepus americanus= Erxleben - -Snowshoe rabbit - -_Description._--The appearance, size, and proportions of the snowshoe -rabbit are similar to those of the Belgian hare. The body is about 16 -inches in length, the ears are midway in size between those of the -cottontail and the jack rabbit, and the feet are relatively long and the -tail is short. In summer the color of the upper parts is reddish brown, -varying with the subspecies. The winter pelage of _Lepus a. -washingtonii_ is a slightly paler brown than the summer coat. In the -other three races in Washington the winter coat is entirely white, -except for the dusky borders of the ears. - -Snowshoe rabbits occur in Alaska, Canada, and the northern United -States, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They are absent in desert or -prairie regions but range far southward in the United States in -mountainous areas. They are found throughout Washington, except on the -Columbian Plateau and in the Okanogan River Valley. None of the four -races found in Washington is restricted exclusively to the state. -Snowshoe rabbits live only in wooded areas. Their habitat varies from -dense, impenetrable rain-forests along the ocean to the alpine parks, -dotted with trees, of the Hudsonian Life-zone. They occur in humid and -arid subdivisions of the Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian life-zones. -Altitudinally they range from sea level to 6,000 feet (Mt. Rainier). - -Enemies of the snowshoe rabbit include the coyote, bobcat, lynx, -long-tailed weasel, and great horned owl. - -Snowshoe rabbits are largely nocturnal or crepuscular in habit. They are -secretive and slip away quietly at the least threat of danger. Persons -often live for years in localities where snowshoe rabbits are abundant -without seeing a live individual. Those that are seen ordinarily have -been startled from their forms at midday, or surprised while feeding on -clover along a highway in the early morning. More commonly they are seen -crossing a road in the lights of an automobile. Tracks, easily found -after a fresh snowfall, give some indication of their numbers in any -locality. - -Little information is available on the fluctuations of numbers of -snowshoe rabbits in Washington. Floyd Thornton, a trapper living at -Forks, Clallam County, states that they were numerous in 1924, scarce in -1930-31, and fairly common in 1938-39. More rabbits are seen shortly -after the breeding season than at other times of the year. From April -8-10, 1941, I saw none on a highway extending about 100 miles along the -west coast of the Olympic Peninsula, but on June 4-5 here counted 3 dead -on the road and saw 3 running across it. One was about one-third grown -and another two-thirds grown. - - [Illustration: FIG. 127. Distribution of the snowshoe hare in - Washington. A. _Lepus americanus washingtonii._ B. _Lepus americanus - cascadensis._ C. _Lepus americanus columbiensis._ D. _Lepus americanus - pineus._] - -The snowshoe rabbits are classed as game animals in Washington but few -people hunt them. Their winter food includes buds and needles of -hemlock, Douglas fir, and probably other evergreens. Annuals, grasses, -and shrubs, as well as Douglas fir needles, are eaten in the summer. -Snowshoe rabbits do some damage by eating the bark of trees and the -boughs of newly planted evergreens. Together with rodents they are -responsible for serious damage to plantations of Douglas fir and hemlock -on the Olympic Peninsula. - -At least in summer, they are heavily parasitized by fleas and ticks and -may in addition carry tularemia, or rabbit fever. - -Scheffer (1933: 77-78) found that the young were born from May 5 to July -4 in the Puget Sound area and that there were from 2 to 5, usually 5 per -litter. - - -=Lepus americanus washingtonii= Baird - - _Lepus washingtonii_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, - 7:333, 1855. - - [_Lepus americanus_] var. _Washingtoni_ J. A. Allen, Proc. Boston - Soc. Nat. Hist., 17:434, February 17, 1875. - - _Lepus americanus Washingtoni_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:601, - 1885. - - _Type._--Obtained by G. Suckley at Steilacoom, Pierce County, - Washington, on April 1, 1854; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Size small for a snowshoe rabbit; color of - upper parts dark, in summer between Sayal Brown and Cinnamon, in - winter slightly paler, near Pale Cinnamon Buff (capitalized color - terms in the accounts of the lagomorphs are after Ridgway, Color - Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912); - underparts white; soles of feet usually stained yellowish, - brownish, or blackish. - - _Measurements._--Two males and 6 females from the Olympic - Peninsula average, respectively: total length 407, 402.5; hind - foot 114, 119. Weight of a 408 mm. male from the same locality - 2-1/4 lbs. - - _Distribution._--This snowshoe rabbit occupies the humid - subdivision of the Transition Life-zone of western Washington from - the British Columbian boundary south to the Columbia River. - Marginal occurrences are (from Dalquest, 1942: 175): Mt. Vernon, - Paradise Lake, Lake Kapowsin, and White Salmon. - - -=Lepus americanus cascadensis= Nelson - - _Lepus bairdi cascadensis_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 20:87, December 11, 1907. - - _Lepus americanus cascadensis_ Racey and Cowan, Ann. Rept. - Provincial Mus. British Columbia, p. H 18, 1935. - - _Type._--Obtained by W. C. Colt near Hope, British Columbia, on - June 12, 1894; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Size medium for a snowshoe rabbit; color of - upper parts in summer near Orange Cinnamon; head paler, sharply - marked off from body; underparts white. Color in winter: entire - body pure white except for dusky borders of ears and eyelids. - - _Measurements._--Three males and 5 females from Kittitas County, - Washington, average, respectively: total length 405, 440; hind - foot 124, 133. - - _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains from the British Columbia - boundary south to Mount Adams. Marginal occurrences are: Skykomish - (Dalquest, 1942: 177), Vance (Dalquest, 1942: 177) and 7 mi. W - Guler (W.W.D.). - - -=Lepus americanus pineus= Dalquest - - _Lepus americanus pineus_ Dalquest, Jour. Mamm., 23:178, May 14, - 1942. - - _Type._--Obtained by P. G. Putnam at Cedar Mountain (now Moscow - Mountain), Latah County, Idaho, on May 29, 1921; type in University - of Michigan, Museum of Zoölogy. - - _Racial characters._--Size small for a snowshoe rabbit; in summer, - upper parts Cinnamon Brown, with sides slightly paler and rump - patch blackish; color of the head between Sayal Brown and - Cinnamon; hips Light Olivaceous Buff; chest-band light Cinnamon; - ears blackish, often edged with white. In winter the color of the - entire body is white, save for the dusky edges of the ears and the - blackish eyelids. The color of the underfur in winter is usually - Pale Pinkish Cinnamon, rarely Light Vinaceous Cinnamon or Orange - Cinnamon, with the basal portion slaty. - - _Measurements._--Two males and 5 females, from northeastern - Washington, average, respectively: total length 419, 439; hind foot - 138.5, 138. The average measurements of 3 males and 7 females from - the Blue Mountains are: 407, 422; 128, 131. - - _Distribution._--The pine forests of the arid subdivision of the - Transition Life-zone along the eastern border of Washington, in - the Blue Mountains, and in the forested parts of northeastern - Washington as far west as the Kettle River Range. Western records - of occurrence are (Dalquest, 1942: 179): Deep Lake, Colville, - Calispel Peak. - - -=Lepus americanus columbiensis= Rhoads - - _Lepus americanus columbiensis_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. - Philadelphia, p. 242, June, 1895. - - _Type._--Obtained by S. N. Rhoads at Vernon, British Columbia, on - July 29, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences. - - _Racial characters._--Size large; color in summer: upper parts - near Cinnamon Brown, sides and head slightly paler; top of tail - and small rump-patch blackish; chest-band pale Cinnamon Brown; - hips light Ochraceous Buff; chin and belly white. - - _Measurements._--A male from Molson, Okanogan County, measures: - total length 435; length of tail 150. A male and a female from - Danville, Ferry County, measure, respectively: 460, 430; 150, 142. - - _Distribution._--Only a small part of the range of this rabbit - lies within the state of Washington; the greater part is in - British Columbia. In Washington it occupies the timbered areas - north of the Columbia River, east of the Okanogan River, and west - of the Kettle River Range. Records are (Dalquest, 1942: 182): - Molson, Danville and Republic. In the 1942 paper, the latter - locality was erroneously listed under _pineus_. - - -=Lepus californicus deserticola= Mearns - -Black-tailed jack rabbit - - _Lepus texianus deserticola_ Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 18:564, - June 24, 1896. - - _Lepus texianus wallawalla_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 17:137, July 14, 1904 (type from Touchet, Walla Walla County, - Washington). - - _Lepus californicus deserticola_ Nelson, N. Amer. Fauna, 29:137, - August 31, 1909. - - _Type._--Obtained at western edge of Colorado desert, Imperial - County, California; type in American Museum of Natural History. - - _Measurements._--Three males and 4 females from Union Gap, Yakima - County, average, respectively: total length 538, 539; length of - tail 72, 71; hind foot 128, 124; ear 120, 124. Two females from - the same locality weighed 5 and 6-1/2 pounds, respectively. - - _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, southeastern Washington, - and the Yakima Valley area. The northernmost locality record is - Moses Coulee (W.W.D.). - -_Remarks._--The blacktail is the commonest jack rabbit of the West. It -is larger than the domestic rabbit and its enormous ears, long, gangling -legs, and bounding gait make it appear even larger than it really is. -Its iron-gray color, black tail and black ear tips match its sagebrush -habitat. - - [Illustration: FIG. 128. Distribution of the black-tailed jack rabbit, - _Lepus californicus deserticola_, in Washington.] - -Black-tailed jack rabbits reach the northern limit of their distribution -on the Columbian Plateau of eastern Washington. They extend from -Washington south to the Valley of Mexico and from the Pacific Coast east -to Missouri (Nelson, 1909: 127). About 20 races are recognized, of which -only one is native to Washington. - -The blacktail is restricted to the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. Seldom is it -found far from sagebrush (_Artemisia_) and rabbitbrush (_Chrysothamus_). -It is well adapted to desert life, and is able to withstand the bitterly -cold winters and hot, dry summers of eastern Washington. Blacktails are -active in the evening, night, morning, and cooler parts of the day. In -the daytime they crouch in forms consisting of shallow depressions at -the bases of shrubs. - -Blacktails eat the twigs and leaves of sagebrush, rabbitbrush, other -desert shrubs, and grasses. They are particularly fond of alfalfa and -cultivated crops, of which they destroy great quantities. They are -serious pests during periodic years of abundance. Some measure of their -abundance may be gained by counting the bodies of jack rabbits killed by -cars on well-traveled highways through sagebrush areas. In years of -abundance these may number 50 to 100 per mile, while in years of -scarcity these may number only one or two. - -Black-tailed jack rabbits are susceptible to numerous parasites and -diseases including tularemia. Diseased rabbits are especially noticeable -during years of abundance. Jack rabbits are almost never used as food -although many are shot for sport or to protect crops. - -The black-tailed jack rabbit is a swift runner. Cottam and Williams -(1943: 263) timed 6 individuals while running under varying conditions. -Full speeds for 50 to 300 yards varied from 27 to 38 miles per hour. The -maximum speed was attained by two individuals, each for 100 yards. - -Embryos found in March numbered 4, 5 and 6. - - -=Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii= (Bachman) - -Nuttall cottontail - - _Lepus nuttallii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, - 7:345, 1837. - - _Lepus artemisia_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, - 8:94, 1839 (type from Wallula, Walla Walla County, Washington). - - [_Lepus sylvaticus_] var. _Nuttallii_ Allen, Proc. Boston Soc. - Nat. Hist., 17:434, February 17, 1875. - - _Lepus sylvaticus Nuttalli_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:601, - 1885. - - _Sylvilagus (Sylvilagus) nuttallii_ Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., - 45 (no. 1456):336, June 15, 1904. - - _Sylvilagus nuttalli_ Nelson, N. A. Fauna, 29:201, August 31, - 1909. - - _Type._--Obtained near mouth of Malheur River, Malheur County, - Oregon. by T. Nuttall in August, 1834; type in Philadelphia Academy - of Natural Sciences. - - _Measurements._--Two males and 4 females from Moses Lake, Grant - County, average, respectively: total length 355, 348; length of - tail 33, 35; hind foot 83, 83; ear 63.5, 60. - - _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, Okanogan Valley, Yakima - Valley and Columbia Valley in southeastern Washington; in general, - the sagebrush area of eastern Washington; north in the Okanogan - River Valley to Oroville and in the Columbia Valley to Kettle - Falls (W.W.D., records not all shown on map). - - -_Remarks._--Nuttall cottontails are small, grayish-brown rabbits with -relatively short, rounded ears and short legs. Their small size and -small ears, which lack black tips, distinguish them from jack rabbits -where the two occur together. - - [Illustration: FIG. 129. Distribution of the Nuttall cottontail. - _Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii_, in Washington.] - -The genus _Sylvilagus_ is found in both North and South America. The -species _nuttallii_, with three subspecies, is restricted to the western -part of the United States. It ranges from southern Canada south to -central New Mexico and from western South Dakota west to the Cascades. A -single race occurs in Washington. Nuttall cottontails depend on cover -for concealment from enemies. They frequent thick stands of tall -sagebrush, riparian thickets, or rocky coulees. Seldom are they -encountered in the open. In the sand-dune areas near Moses Lake -cottontails were abundant in the dense, thorny thickets about potholes -and in areas of tall sagebrush. They are especially common near the -talus at the bases of the walls of Grand Coulee, and Moses Coulee where -they do not hesitate to enter crevices in rock slides for protection. -Indeed, cottontails are abundant everywhere within their range in the -state of Washington, where suitable cover and food are present. They -seem to be confined to the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. - -Cottontails are most active at night, as is attested by the number -killed then by automobiles on highways. The greatest number are seen by -observers in the morning and evening but it is not unusual to see an -animal feeding at midday. When startled they dash for the nearest -thicket or pile of rocks with their tiny white tails erect. They travel -in relatively straight lines and do not dash from side to side in flight -as do jack rabbits. They sometimes seek concealment by "freezing" -motionlessly in plain sight. When feeding undisturbed they travel by -slow hops. - -The trails of cottontails are characteristic of thickets in sagebrush -country. The trails are narrow, less than four inches wide, and often -enter thickets of strong, thorny growths which can scarcely be -penetrated by man. Near Okanogan Lake the trails of cottontails were -found among greasewood bushes on hard-packed gravel. Trails are usually -most abundant in thickets near water. Permanent trails are not made -through low sagebrush or over sandy areas where the animals prefer to -pick their way when traveling from one clump of cover to another. - -Nuttall cottontails probably eat many desert grasses, annuals, and -shrubs; observation indicates that sagebrush (_Artemisiae tridentata_) -and rabbit brush (_Chrysothamnus nauseosus_) are particularly important -as food. - -The young of cottontails in Washington seem to vary from one to four per -litter and are born between April and June. - - -=Sylvilagus floridanus= (Allen) subsp.? - -Florida cottontail - - _Lepus sylvaticus floridanus_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., - 3:160, October 8, 1890. - - _Sylvilagus floridanus_ Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 45 (no. - 1456):322, June 15, 1904. - -_Description._--Slightly larger than the sagebrush cottontail; smaller -than the snowshoe rabbit; ears small; color of upper parts pinkish -cinnamon-brown; sides pale grayish-cinnamon; underparts white; nape of -neck cinnamon; chest band paler cinnamon; tail brown above, white -beneath; forefeet and sides of hind feet cinnamon. - -_Remarks._--The Florida cottontail is not native to the state of -Washington but has been introduced at several localities. It is -spreading rapidly at the present time. Points of introduction include -Pullman, Whitman County (1926-1927); Battleground, Clark County (1933); -Auburn, King County (1927); and Whidby Island, Island County (1931). At -least two subspecies (_mearnsi_, _alacer_) have been introduced and a -third (_similis_) may have been introduced. - -For further information on introduced cottontails see Dalquest (1941B: -408-411). - - - - -=Sylvilagus idahoensis= (Merriam) - -Pigmy rabbit - - _Lepus idahoensis_ Merriam. N. Amer. Fauna, 5:75, July 30, 1891. - - _Brachylagus idahoensis_ Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 45 (no. - 1456):323, June 15, 1904. - - _Sylvilagus idahoensis_ Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, Univ. - California Publ. Zoöl., 35:553, October 10, 1930. - - _Type._--Obtained in the Pahsimeroi Valley, Custer County, Idaho, - by V. Bailey and B. H. Dutcher on September 16, 1890; type in - United States National Museum. - - _Distribution._--Known only from the central part of the Columbian - Plateau. - -_Description._--The pigmy rabbit is a tiny species, differing from the -cottontail in smaller size, paler, grayer color, shorter ears and -smaller legs. - -The pigmy rabbit is restricted to the Great Basin region. No subspecies -has been described. It is rare and of local occurrence in Washington, -having been recorded only from the central part of the Columbian -Plateau. Orr (1940), who studied the species in California, found them -only in stands of tall, dense sage (_Artemisiae tridentata_). It is a -burrowing form, not straying far from its hole. - - - - -=Cervus canadensis= (Erxleben) - -Elk or wapiti - -_Description._--The elk, next to the moose, is our largest deer. The -legs of the elk are slender. The tail is a short, pointed stub a few -inches long. The neck is thick in proportion to the head. Both males and -females possess the canine teeth familiar as "elk tooth charms." Only -the males possess antlers. These are huge, slender beams that curve up, -out and back with the basal tine or "dog killer" and four to six points -on each antler. The antlers are deciduous and are shed annually. The -body is grayish or tan in color. The head, neck, chest and legs are -rich, dark brown, strongly contrasting with the paler body. The -distinctive rump patch is pale tan or white. - -In the past the elk was found over most of the forested areas of -Washington. Lumbering, agriculture and settlement as well as excessive -hunting removed it from parts of eastern Washington and all except the -most inaccessible parts of the lowlands of western Washington. Only in -the Cascade and Olympic Mountains and the coastal strip between the -Columbia River and the Olympic Mountains, did the elk survive in -appreciable numbers. Conservationists and a more enlightened game policy -began to protect the elk at the turn of the century. It was already too -late to save the species in eastern Washington, where it seems never to -have been truly abundant and where relatively open country afforded -little protection from the high-powered rifle. In the dense, rugged -forests of western Washington a sizable number remained on the Olympic -Peninsula and these, under protection, increased to their present -numbers. The dense, tangled forests of the southwestern coastal area and -the western Cascades lack conditions suitable to support truly large elk -herds. These areas probably now have as large an elk population as can -safely be supported and fed. - -The elk of eastern Washington had disappeared or nearly disappeared by -1910. The race originally occurring there was the Rocky Mountain form; -it has been reintroduced from Montana and Wyoming into northeastern -Washington and the Blue Mountains area. These plantings have not been -very successful. Introduced in the eastern Cascades, however, the Rocky -Mountain elk thrived and increased on what was probably once the -peripheral range of the coastal elk. - -The habits of the elk are best known from the herds in the Olympic -Mountains and on the Rattlesnake Game Refuge in the eastern Cascade -Mountains. Here the animals are numerous and relatively tame. Their -habits seem to differ somewhat in the forests of the lowlands from -those of the animals in the higher Olympics where the topography and -climate are very different. - - [Illustration: FIG. 130. Elk or wapiti (_Cervus canadensis nelsoni_), - Banff, Alberta, October, 1939. (G. A. Thomas photo.)] - -The elk is a social animal, gathering in herds over most of the year. -The old males leave the herds in the spring but seem to stay in small -bands while their antlers are growing. In the Olympic Mountains, herds -of 100 or more animals have been seen. In the lowlands there are -ordinarily from five to ten in a herd. - - [Illustration: FIG. 131. Group of elk or wapiti (_Cervus canadensis - nelsoni_), Banff, Alberta, October 10, 1939. (G. A. Thomas photo.)] - -The elk is a browsing animal, feeding on twigs and leaves of deciduous -trees, shrubs and evergreens. In spring and summer it eats grasses and -succulent annuals, but in winter twigs and needles of evergreens, -perennial ferns, dry grass and even moss is utilized. To a certain -extent the elk are migratory, ascending to the open meadows of the -Hudsonian Life-zone in the early summer and returning to the dense -forests of the Transition and lower Canadian Life-zones with the winter -snows. The lowland elk make no such migrations, merely leaving the -riverbottom jungles when the leaves are off the deciduous plants -growing there, and live in the coniferous timber. - -In the forests the elk is capable of swift and almost silent movement. -It is an eerie experience to trail a herd of elk through a dense forest -in a winter rain, knowing that a number of the large animals are within -a few feet, moving swiftly but silently away. When a herd is feeding and -does not suspect the presence of an observer, the animals rustle -branches, break twigs, snort and wheeze as they breathe. - -The antlers of the males are shed in March. The bulls retire from the -herd until the new horns are well grown, in late August or September. -Breeding takes place in September or October and the young are born the -following April or May. - - -=Cervus canadensis roosevelti= Merriam - - _Cervus roosevelti_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:272, - December 17, 1897. - - _Cervus canadensis occidentalis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers - Chas. R. Conner Mus., 2:29, December, 1929. - - _Type._--Obtained on Mount Elaine, Mason County, Washington, by H. - and C. Emmet on October 4, 1897; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Racial characters._--A large, dark elk with short, heavy antlers. - - _Measurements._--The type measured, in the flesh (Bailey, - 1936:81): total length 2,490; tail 80; ear (dry) 208. - - _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains westward; possibly - occurred formerly in the eastern Cascades, and perhaps still - present there, in places, or mixed with introduced _nelsoni_. - - _Remarks._--For use of the name _roosevelti_ rather than - _occidentalis_ see Bailey (1936:81). - - -=Cervus canadensis nelsoni= Bailey - - _Cervus canadensis canadensis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. - R. Conner Mus., 2:29, December, 1929. - - _Cervus canadensis nelsoni_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Sec. Washington, - 48:188, November 15, 1935. - - _Type._--Obtained at Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, by J. - Pitcher; died in captivity on September 21, 1904; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Description._--Smaller and paler than _roosevelti_ with longer, - slimmer antlers. - - _Distribution._--Formerly occurred in northeastern Washington and - the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. Since then - exterminated and reintroduced to both areas from the Rocky - Mountains. Also introduced and established in the eastern - Cascades. - - - - -=Odocoileus virginianus= (Boddaert) - -White-tailed deer - -_Description._--The white-tailed deer differs from the black-tailed and -mule deer in several anatomical details. The tail is long, wide, and -when the animal is frightened is carried upright with the long, white -hair of the underside spread out. The antlers of the buck are not of a -biramous system of branching but instead consist of a main beam which -curves sharply out and forward, remaining low. All subsidiary tines, -save the basal one, emerge from the dorsal side of the main beam. The -basal tine is usually a spurlike point arising vertically from the main -beam not far from the base of the antler. In exceptional specimens the -basal tine is large and divided into several points. The body of the -"whitetail" is more smoothly rounded, and more graceful, than that of -the mule deer. - - [Illustration: FIG. 132. White-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus - leucurus_), doe at least nine years old, kept as a pet by Mrs. Jack - Hovis, Puget Island, Washington, December 16, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife - Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 750.)] - -White-tailed deer range from Canada south to Panama and from the -Atlantic to the Pacific. Their range is much more extensive to the east -and south than that of the "blacktail" and mule deer. In western -Washington the whitetail occupies a limited habitat near the mouth of -the Columbia River. Its geographic range was probably somewhat greater -in the past. Its habitat includes the low, damp, marshy islands and -floodplain of the Columbia. Blacktail range in the wooded hills -surrounding the whitetail's range but rarely enter it to compete with -the whitetail (Scheffer, 1940A: 282). - -In northeastern Washington the whitetail shows the same tendency to -occupy low, marshy areas and valleys. The habitat preference of the -whitetail in northeastern Washington is less exact than in western -Washington, for the species ranges up from the valleys into the forests -of larch and cottonwood of the Transition Life-zone. Its habitat -includes denser forest and brushy areas. Rarely does it occur in the -open type of forest occupied by the mule deer. - - [Illustration: FIG. 133. White-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus - ochrourus_): fawn kept as a pet by L. E. Borud, Ione, Washington, June - 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. - 69.)] - -In Washington the whitetail is not an important game animal. The race -occurring in western Washington is characterized by small size and small -antlers. Further, its total population is estimated at but 400 to 900 -individuals. The whitetail of northeastern Washington is larger and -possesses larger antlers. Indeed, some antlers from Ferry County are the -largest antlers of whitetail that I have ever seen. Nevertheless, the -whitetail of northeastern Washington is smaller than the mule deer and -far less common. The habitat is dense and difficult to traverse. The -animal is shy and silent, fleeing soundlessly when approached. For these -reasons most hunters in northeastern Washington prefer to hunt the mule -deer. - - [Illustration: FIG. 134. White-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus - ochrourus_): left antler found on ground at Park Rapids, Pend Oreille - County, Washington, October 1, 1937. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo - by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 756.)] - - -=Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus= Bailey - - _Odocoileus virginianus macrourus_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers - Chas. R. Conner Mus., 2:30, December, 1929. - - _Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 45:43, April 2, 1932. - - [Illustration: FIG. 135. White-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus - leucurus_), antlers of large buck killed in the fall of 1939 at - Cathlamet, Washington, by Paul Lewis. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo - by Victor B. Scheffer. No. 752.)] - - _Type._--Obtained at Coolin, south end of Priest Lake, Bonner - County, Idaho, by F. Lemmer on December 27, 1908; type in United - States National Museum. - - _Racial characters._--A large, pale white tail with large, low - antlers and distinctive cranial features. - - _Measurements._--The type, an adult male, measures (Bailey, 1936. - p. 43): total length 1,752; tail 265; hind foot 483; ear (dry) - 120. - - _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington. Probably once occurred - in southeastern Washington. - - -=Odocoileus virginianus leucurus= (Douglas) - - _Cervus leucurus_ Douglas, Zoöl. Jour., 4:330, 1829. - - _Odocoileus leucurus_ Thompson, Forest and Stream, 51:286, October - 8, 1898. - - _Odocoileus virginianus leucurus_ Lydekker, Cat. Ung. Mamm. - British Mus., 4:162, 1915. - - _Type._--Obtained on the North Umpqua River, Oregon, by David - Douglas on October 17, 1826; type originally, and perhaps still, in - British Museum. - - _Racial characters._--A small, handsome whitetail with slender, - erect antlers and brownish or grayish color. - - _Measurements._--A young adult female from 1 mile south of - Skamokawa, Wahkiakum County, measured: total length 1,545; length - of tail 250; hind foot 458; ear 143; weight 88 pounds. - - _Distribution._--Previously occurred over much of southwestern - Washington; now confined to the banks and islands of the Columbia - River in Wahkiakum County. - - - - -=Odocoileus hemionus= (Rafinesque) - -Mule deer and black-tailed deer - -_Description._--The mule and black-tailed deer are among deer of medium -to large size. Adult mule deer may weigh up to 400 pounds while some -fully adult blacktail bucks may weigh as little as 100 pounds. The body -is heavily muscled, the legs long and the tail only about 6 inches in -length. The ears are long, from 6 to 8 inches from notch to tip. The -head is long and the male has well-developed antlers. The first antlers -are almost straight spikes. Those of the second year are bent slightly -outward and forward and are equally or subequally forked with the -anterior branch usually the stouter. In the third year the -anteriolateral curvature is more pronounced and one or both of the forks -again fork. In succeeding years forks are larger and more numerous but -the essential biramous arrangement of forking is maintained. The -"blacktail" and mule deer are strongly marked races. The blacktail -differs from the mule deer in: smaller size; darker color, especially on -face and tail; tail dark brown above with dark tip rather than whitish -with black tip; tail haired beneath, not naked for half its length; -antlers smaller and lighter; and skull and teeth smaller. - -Mule deer and black-tailed deer range over western North America from -southeastern Alaska southward into northern Mexico. They inhabit -forested parts of the state of Washington. Blacktails occupy the San -Juan Islands, the islands in Puget Sound, the Olympic Mountains, the -lowlands of western Washington, and the Cascade Mountains. Mule deer -occupy the Cascades, including their eastern slope, northeastern and -southeastern Washington and parts of the Columbian Plateau. Over this -large range there is considerable local geographic variation. - -Jackson (1944: 1-56) estimated that 109,600 blacktail and 175,725 mule -deer live in Washington. Thus Washington is second only to California -in number of blacktail and ranks fifth in number of mule deer. - -Individual variation over the range of the mule deer is considerable -but no trends of variation are distinguishable. Mule deer from the -Blue Mountains, northeastern Washington and the eastern Cascades are -essentially similar. - -There is geographic variation as well as great individual variation -in the black-tailed deer of Washington. The deer of the San Juan -Islands and the islands of Puget Sound are smaller and darker than -those of the mainland and possess smaller, lighter antlers. The deer -of Whidby Island are sometimes contemptuously referred to by residents -as jackrabbit deer. Fully grown bucks on the Islands weigh in the -neighborhood of 100 pounds, rarely exceeding 150 pounds, whereas bucks -on the mainland commonly weigh more than 150 pounds dressed. - - [Illustration: FIG. 136. Mule deer (_Odocoileus hemionus hemionus_), - subadult male from Okanogan County, Washington, raised in captivity; - photographed June 29, 1938, on Hurricane Ridge, Olympic National Park. - (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 99.)] - -The dividing line between the ranges of the black-tailed and mule deer -in general is the summit of the Cascade Mountains. In summer the two -races come together and doubtless mingle in the Cascades but as fall -approaches they migrate. The mule deer moves eastward to the yellow-pine -areas on the lower slopes while the blacktails descend westward to the -denser Douglas fir and hemlock forests on the western flanks of the -Cascades. In the breeding season the two races are separated. However, -as shown by Cowan (1936A: 219), in the Pemberton Valley, British -Columbia, the two forms occur together during the breeding season and -intergradation occurs there. Intergradation occurs also in the Lake -Wenatchee area of Chelan County. Observation of hunters' specimens -showed some undoubted intergrades among the more abundant, typical mule -deer. - -Both the mule deer and blacktail have a characteristic bounding gait, -unlike the smooth run of the white-tailed deer. The tail is usually held -down, rarely erect. When not frightened they move with dainty steps, -making little noise. - - [Illustration: FIG. 137. Black-tailed deer (_Odocoileus hemionus - columbianus_), buck resting at midday, Van Trump Park, Mt. Rainier, - Washington, August, 1931. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor - B. Scheffer, No. 260.)] - -The black-tailed deer in certain areas is more nocturnal than diurnal. -They feed principally in the early morning and evening. In the Olympic -Mountains, on the North Fork of the Quinault River, in July, 1937, -blacktails were watched feeding and playing until midnight. Also in -December, 1939, deer, near the forks of the Skykomish River, were moving -about, browsing as late as 11 p. m. while a light snow was falling. In -the San Juan Islands, in the summer of 1939, deer were observed feeding -at all hours of the day. - -The blacktail lives in some of the most dense jungle areas of western -Washington. On Whidby Island and some of the San Juan Islands the brush -and vines grow so densely that a man can scarcely penetrate them. Were -it not for the deer trails, formed by generations of deer, our small -mammal investigations would have been far more difficult. The blacktail -lives also in the dense forests where fir, hemlock and cedars grow to -heights of more than 150 feet. Here lack of light allows only ferns and -moss to form an understory vegetation. These forests often clothe the -steep glacial hills and the trails of the deer on such hills show them -to be adept climbers. Deer trails generally avoid fallen trees and other -obstacles. When startled, however, a stump, fence or log is easily -leaped by a blacktail. Often they are in small bands of 6 to 10 -individuals, but almost as often are solitary, or in pairs. - -The habitat of the mule deer is generally more open than that of the -blacktail. In the summer, it may occupy rough and rugged country; in the -higher Cascades individuals were found in the rocky and brushy country -and in open glades and meadows. Farther east they were in the open -yellow-pine forests where extensive grassy slopes, free of trees, -existed. In some parts of northeastern Washington they lived in the -larch and lodgepole pine forests almost dense enough to be "blacktail -country." In the Okanogan Valley and on the northwestern corner of the -Columbia Plateau mule deer lived in open prairie country where a few -cottonwoods and willows were the only trees. - -The mule deer seem more social than the blacktail. In the late summer -they gather in bands of 10 to 20 or more. In winter, under pressure of -hunger, they gather in herds and raid haystacks and pastures. Farmers in -the Methow Valley, Okanogan County, report herds of 200 to 400 mule deer -about a single haystack. - -The mule deer and blacktail are the principal game mammals of the state -of Washington. Thousands of hunters enter the woods each year in search -of a buck. Eastern Washington is the favored hunting grounds for that is -the home of the mule deer, the larger size of which makes it a more -desirable trophy. Also the open country which it inhabits makes hunting -more productive. Sums spent on equipment, gasoline and hunting licenses -are tremendous but the feeling is that the return in recreational value -and venison are worth the cost. A few casualties result each year among -the army of deer hunters. - - -=Odocoileus hemionus hemionus= (Rafinesque) - - _Cervus hemionus_ Rafinesque, Amer. Month. Mag., 1:436, October, - 1817. - - _Cariacus macrotis_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:592, 1885. - - _Odocoileus hemionus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 12:100, April 30, 1898. - - _Odocoileus hemionus macrotis_ Bailey, National Geographic, 20:64, - 1932. - - _Type locality._--Vicinity of Big Sioux River, South Dakota. - - _Racial characters._--Large size, pale color. - - _Measurements._--Two adult males from Stay-a-while Spring, - Columbia County, measure respectively: total length 1,751, 1,559; - length of tail 172, 205; hind foot 515, 485; ear 210, 211; length - of metatarsal gland 150, 135. - - _Distribution._--Summit of Cascades eastward, in forested areas, - exact limits not certainly known. - - -=Odocoileus hemionus columbianus= (Richardson) - - _Cervus macrotis_ var. _columbiana_ Richardson, Fauna - Boreali-Americana, 1:257, 1829. - - _Cariacus columbianus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):592, - 1885. - - _Cervus columbianus_ Baird, U. S. Pacific R. R. Exp. and Surveys, - p. 659, 1857. - - _Eucervus columbianus_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 18 (ser. - 3):338, 1866. - - _Odocoileus columbianus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 12:100, April 30, 1898. - - _Odocoileus columbianus columbianus_ Swarth, Univ. California - Publ. Zoöl., 10:85, February 13, 1912. - - _Odocoileus hemionus columbianus_ Cowan, California Fish and Game, - 22:215, July, 1936. - - _Type._--Obtained at Cape Disappointment, Pacific County, - Washington, by Lewis and Clark on November 19, 1805 (Cowan, 1936A: - 218). - - _Racial characters._--Small size, dark color. - - _Distribution._--Summit of Cascades westward, including islands in - Puget Sound and San Juan Islands; exact limits of range uncertain. - - -=Alce americana shirasi= Nelson - -Moose - - _Alces americanus shirasi_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, - 27:72, April 25, 1914. - - _Type._--Obtained near the Snake River, Lincoln County, Wyoming, by - J. Shire on December 11, 1913; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Distribution._--Casual wanderer into northeastern Washington from - Canada. - -_Remarks._--The moose is the largest North American deer. Its large size -and huge, palmate antlers serve to separate it from any other member of -the deer tribe. - -Moose range from northern United States to central Canada and Alaska. -The European elk and the American moose are subspecies of the same -species. The moose is of only casual occurrence in Washington. The -latest authentic record for Washington is a bull that wandered southward -and westward from Canada until it was killed on an Indian reservation in -Ferry County. Other moose are reported to have wandered into -northeastern Washington from Canada in past years. - -Dice (1919) was told that moose once occurred in the Blue Mountains of -southeastern Washington but there is no confirmation of this report. - - -=Rangifer arcticus montanus= Seton-Thompson - -Caribou - - _Rangifer montanus_ Seton-Thompson, Ottawa Naturalist, 13:129-30, - August, 1899. - - _Rangifer arcticus montanus_ Jacobi, Erganzungsband, Zoöl. Anz., - 96:92, November, 1931. - - _Type._--Obtained near Revelstoke, Selkirk Range, British Columbia. - - _Distribution._--Rare or casual along the Canadian boundary in - northeastern Washington. - -_Remarks._--The caribou is a rather stout-bodied deer with large hoofs, -short, rounded muzzle and long, erect, flattened antlers. - -Caribou and their relatives, the reindeer, range over Arctic Europe, -Asia, Greenland and America. In North America they range from the -Atlantic to the Pacific and from the northern border of the United -States northward into the Arctic. The caribou was, until recent years, a -regular winter resident in small numbers in northeastern Washington near -the Canadian Boundary. Their wintering grounds in Washington were said -to have been destroyed by fire in 1915 and the species has appeared in -the state only casually since then. Two were killed in 1940 by hunters -who thought they were deer. Caribou are protected by law in Washington. - - -=Bison bison oregonus= Bailey - -Bison - - _Bison bison bison_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner - Mus., 2:31, December, 1929. - - _Bison bison oregonus_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 45:48, - April 2, 1932. - - _Type._--Skull and skeleton picked up at Malheur Lake, Oregon, by - G. M. Benson in November, 1931; type in United States National - Museum. - - _Distribution._--Perhaps casual in eastern Washington before - coming of the white man. - -_Remarks._--Bison, or buffalo, occurred in southeastern Oregon but -disappeared before white men reached the country (Bailey, 1936: 57). -Gibbs (1860: 138) was told by an Indian hunter in 1853 that a lost bull -had been killed in the Grand Coulee (state of Washington) 25 years -before but that "this was an extraordinary occurrence, perhaps before -unknown." In the days before horses reached the Indian tribes of eastern -Washington and Oregon, wandering bison from herds in Oregon probably -strayed into Washington, in somewhat the manner that the moose today -stray in from Canada. - - -=Ovis canadensis= Shaw - -Mountain sheep - -_Description._--The mountain sheep is the size of a small deer. The -horns of the males are massive spirals. Those of the females are -smaller, curve upward and backward, rarely forming a semicircle. The -horns are permanent structures, enlarged each year by growth at the -base. Growth is irregular, probably as the result of seasonal -reproductive activities. As a result the horns are "ringed" with -concentric ridges. The color of the upper parts is dark, grayish brown. -The face is paler, yellowish brown. The outer sides of the legs are dark -brown. The rump, abdomen, and insides of legs are white. - -Mountain sheep of the genus _Ovis_ are abundantly represented in Asia. -Two species occur in North America, _Ovis dalli_ in Alaska, and _Ovis -canadensis_ in western North America. They range from Alaska south to -northern Mexico. - -In the past the mountain sheep inhabited most of the eastern Cascade -Mountains, the Blue Mountains, Pend Oreille Mountains, and the cliffs of -the Columbia River Valley in eastern Washington. They occurred on the -eastern or Columbian Plateau side of the river and therefore probably -occupied the cliffs of Moses Coulee and the Grand Coulee. Their habitat -seems thus to have included rocky areas from the Upper Sonoran to the -Hudsonian life-zones. At the present time they are extinct over most of -their range. A small band still remains in the extreme northeastern -Cascades near Mount Chopaka. - -Little has been published concerning the habits of the mountain sheep in -Washington. In caves along the Columbia River in Grant County, bones of -sheep are found in association with stone arrowheads and other human -artifacts. Presumably the sheep were killed and eaten by the Indians. - -The history of the mountain sheep in North America is outlined by Cowan -(1940: 506). The genus is thought to have crossed from Asia to America -by the land bridge now under Bering Strait in the early Pleistocene and -spread southward through the Rockies. The advance of the glacial ice -forced them farther southward and the southern (_canadensis_) sheep were -separated from their relatives farther north. The present differences -between the Rocky Mountain and western sheep seem to have resulted from -separation by glaciers during Wisconsin Time. - - -=Ovis canadensis canadensis= Shaw - - _Ovis canadensis_ Shaw, Nat. Misc., vol. 15, text to pl. 610, about - December, 1803. - - _Type._--Obtained in the mountains on Bow River; W. B. Davis (1939: - 377) gives Dew River near Exshaw, Alberta. - - _Racial characters._--Large size; heavy, closely coiled horns. - - _Measurements._--Cowan (1940: 533) gives the measurements of a - fully adult (6-year old) ram from Colorado as: total length 1,953; - length of tail 127; hind foot 394; ear (dry) 63. - - _Distribution._--Now extinct in Washington. Cowan (_op. cit._: - 535) refers to this race as the sheep that formerly occurred in - the Blue Mountains. This view seems logical but I feel that the - sheep formerly occurring in the Pend Oreille Mountains of extreme - northeastern Washington should, on the basis of geographic - probability, also be referred to _canadensis_. - - -=Ovis canadensis californiana= Douglas - - _Ovis californianus_ Douglas, Zoöl. Jour., 4:332, 1829. - - _Ovis californica_ Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1:272, - 1829. - - _Ovis californiana_ Biddulph, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 683, - 1885. - - _Ovis canadensis californiana_ Lydekker, The Sheep and its - Cousins, p. 288, 1912. - - _Type._--Obtained from near Mount Adams, Yakima County, Washington, - by D. Douglas on August 27, 1826; type in British Museum. - - _Racial characters._--Similar to _canadensis_ but smaller with - more slender, spreading horns and horn tips less blunt. - - _Measurements._--Cowan (1940: 545) gives the measurements of a - ram, five years old, from Owens Valley, California, as: total - length, 1,582; length of tail, 110; hind foot, 240. - - _Distribution._--Formerly occupied the eastern Cascades, the - valley of the Columbia and possibly the cliffs bordering Moses - Coulee and The Grand Coulee. Now it is found only near Mt. Chopaka - in the extreme northeastern Cascades. - - -=Oreamnos americanus= (Blainville) - -Mountain goat - -_Description._--The mountain goat is of deer-size, with a stout body and -a pronounced hump on the shoulders. The legs are short but the hoofs are -large with large dewclaws. The neck is short and thick. The head is -large and goatlike in appearance. The tail is tiny. The horns are slim, -round and curve up and slightly backwards. They are hollow and are -permanent structures, added to each year. The body is snow white, -consisting of long, soft wool, which is longer and coarser on forelegs, -neck and chin than on the body. Males have a distinct beard. - -Mountain goats range from Washington and Idaho north to Alaska. Their -nearest relatives are the Old-World antelopes, especially the alpine -species of Europe and Asia. - -The mountain goat is an animal of the high mountains. Their habitat is -the bare-rock cliffs and rock-strewn slopes of the Arctic-alpine and -Hudsonian Life-zones. Where extensive, open rocky areas occur they -descend to the Canadian Life-zone. Even in winter they keep to the high -cliffs where steep slopes and strong winds keep the snow from the plants -on which they feed. - -Mountain goats are considered a game animal in Canada and Idaho. The -species has been protected in Washington for many years. As a result -they are common, although not present in numbers sufficient to withstand -hunting. The high country which they occupy is unsuited to any of man's -domestic animals and no reason is apparent at present why the mountain -goat should not be protected and conserved for many years. - - [Illustration: FIG. 138. Mountain goat (_Oreamnos americanus - americanus_), old female, Lake Chelan, Washington, March 6, 1937. - (Forest Service photo by Oliver T. Edwards, No. 348491.)] - -In spite of the protection accorded them, the mountain goat has not -become tame. In driving over Stevens Pass, King County, one can, with -the aid of glasses, usually pick out one or more mountain goats on -nearby mountains. Nevertheless, I have never seen one within 100 yards -of a highway, nor heard of one being killed by cars on a highway. - -The mountain goat does not, as a rule, allow close approach by man. At -Goat Basin, Deception Creek, King County, circumstances are particularly -favorable for goats and several are usually to be seen. While studying -them on several occasions, I was never able to get truly close to them. -On the few occasions when I came upon a band unexpectedly, they rapidly -went over the mountain or up the nearest cliff. - - [Illustration: FIG. 139. Group of mountain goats (_Oreamnos americanus - americanus_), northern Cascade Mountains, Washington. (Forest Service - photo, No. 348490.)] - -When unfrightened, these mountain goats spent much time standing, or -lying with forefeet folded under them, looking into space. For such -large animals they seemed to spend little time feeding. At intervals of -about five minutes they plucked the ferns or other plants that grew in -abundance on ledges or in tiny crevices in the cliffs. Some animals did -browse for several minutes at a time. They seemed rather particular as -to their food, plucking only one or two stems from a clump of -vegetation. - -The ordinary movements of the mountain goats are deliberate. They rarely -move more than a few feet at a time. They climb with sure-footed ease -but usually slowly. In climbing, the forelegs are spread and the knees -are bent. The animal moves as if it were climbing steps. The greatest -action is in the knee joints. If surprised in the open they run with a -smoother gait, the legs moving from the shoulder and hip. If near a -cliff they climb rapidly, jumping when necessary, and rarely stop while -in sight. Evidence of the presence of mountain goats is usually seen in -the form of tufts and strands of wool. Their wool becomes caught in -bushes and rough rocks and seemingly pulls out easily. - -The range of the mountain goat in Washington includes the entire Cascade -range from Mt. Adams and Mt. Saint Helens north to the Canadian -boundary. They extend west to Mt. Baker, Mt. Higgins and Mt. Index and -east to Lake Chelan and, in the Wenatchee Range, east of Mt. Stuart, -perhaps almost to the Columbia River. - -Dice (1919: 21) was told that mountain goats once occurred in the Blue -Mountains of southeastern Washington. We know of no suitable goat -country in the Blue Mountains of Washington and feel that the report was -probably based on an erroneous identification. - -There is a single record, supported by specimen, of a mountain goat from -northeastern Washington. This individual probably wandered into -Washington from northern Idaho, Montana, or adjacent British Columbia. - - -=Oreamnos americanus americanus= (Blainville) - - _Ovis montanus_ Ord, Guthrie's Geol., 2d Amer. Ed., p. 292, 1815 - (preoccupied). - - _R[upicapra]. americana_ Blainville, Bull. Sci. Soc. Philomath, - Paris, p. 80, 1816. - - _Mazama dorsata_ Rafinesque, Amer. Month. Mag., 2:44, 1817 (new - name for _Ovis montanus_ Ord). - - _Mazama montana_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):592, 1885. - - _Oreamnos montanus_ Merriam, Science, n. s., 1:19, 1895. - - _Oreamnos montanus montanus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., - 79:398, December 31, 1912. - - _Oreamnos americanus americanus_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 25:186, December 24, 1912. - - _Type._--None. Descriptions all based on _Ovis montanus_ Ord who, - in turn, based his description on the account of skins seen by - Lewis and Clark on the Columbia River of Washington or Oregon. As - the mountain goat is not known to have ever occurred in Oregon in - Recent times, the type locality is probably near Mt. Adams, - Washington, the point where goats come nearest the Columbia. - - _Measurements._--The measurements of a large male killed "west of - North Yakima" were reported by A. S. Harmer as: 8 feet 3 inches - from tip of nose to tip of tail; horns 10 inches; weight 507 - pounds (Outdoor Life, 1915: 459). - - _Distribution._--Throughout the higher Cascade Mountains. - - -=Oreamnos americanus missoulae= Allen - - _Oreamnos montanus missoulae_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., - 20:20, February 10, 1904. - - _Oreamnos americanus missoulae_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. - Washington, 25:186, December 24, 1912. - - _Type._--Obtained at Missoula, Missoula County, Montana; type in - American Museum of Natural History. - - _Distribution._--A single record for northeastern Washington. - Seemingly a rare wanderer from outside the state. - - -ORDER CETACEA - -Whales and porpoises - -Because Victor B. Scheffer and John W. Slipp have in preparation a -detailed account of Cetaceans properly ascribable to Washington, members -of this order here are not treated in as much detail as are other native -mammals. - - -=Berardius bairdii= Stejneger - -Baird beaked whale - -_Description._--Length about 40 feet; mandibles elongate, "beak-like"; -one or two large teeth at tip of lower jaw; dorsal fin small and -situated posteriorly; color black but abdomen occasionally grayish. - -_Remarks._--This rare whale is known from a few specimens recorded from -Alaska south to California. - - -=Mesoplodon stejnegeri= True - -Stejneger beaked whale - -_Description._--Similar to the previous species in proportions but -smaller; length about 17 feet. Differs in possessing one large flat tusk -in lower jaw. - -_Remarks._--Known only from a specimen from Alaska and another from the -coast of Oregon. - - -=Delphinus bairdii= Dall - -Dolphin - -_Description._--A slender porpoise about 6 or 7 feet long; long, narrow -beak with 80-120 conical teeth; color above black tinged with greenish; -sides gray; belly and throat white. - -_Remarks._--Recorded from California and probably ranges into Washington -in off-shore waters. - - -=Lissodelphis borealis= (Peale) - -Right whale porpoise - -_Description._--A small, beaked porpoise lacking a dorsal fin; color -black with narrow white area from breast to tail; length about 4 feet. - -_Remarks._--A rare species described from waters 500 miles off the mouth -of the Columbia River. - - -=Lagenorhynchus obliquidens= Gill - -Striped porpoise - -_Description._--Length about 7 feet; beak not prominent; 44-46 conical -teeth in each jaw; anterior edge of dorsal fin curved; color of upper -parts greenish black; sides with one white or gray stripe posteriorly; -underparts white. - -_Remarks._--This is the common porpoise in the Straits of Juan De Fuca -from about the vicinity of Port Townsend to the ocean and in immediate -off-shore waters. One specimen was obtained 100 miles off Grays Harbor. -Rarely seen in Puget Sound. - - -=Grampus rectipinna= (Cope) - -Killer whale - -_Description._--A large porpoise, 20-30 feet in length; dorsal fin high -and nearly straight; teeth large, conical, 12 above, 13 below; color -black above with white patch on side anteriorly. - -_Remarks._--The killer is common in Puget Sound and off the ocean coast. -Both the killer and the true blackfish are locally termed "blackfish." - - -=Grampidelphis griseus= (Cuvier) - -Grampus - -_Description._--A round-headed porpoise about 10 feet in length; dorsal -fin high and narrow; 4 to 6 teeth in each jaw; color black, occasionally -with white head or with body mottled with white and gray. - -_Remarks._--An off-shore species, probably not uncommon off the coast of -Washington at times. - - -=Globicephalus scammonii= (Cope) - -Blackfish - -_Description._--A large, stout-bodied, round-headed porpoise about 20 -feet in length. Teeth large; 8-10 in lower jaw; 10-12 in upper jaw. -Color black. Differs from the killer whale in possessing a low, long -dorsal fin rather than a high, erect one. - -_Remarks._--The blackfish is a colonial species, often common in Puget -Sound. It is frequently confused with the killer whale. - - -=Phocoena vomerina= (Gill) - -Harbor porpoise - -_Description._--A small, stout-bodied porpoise with a rounded head. -Length 5 to 6 feet. Teeth small, slightly flattened; about 25 above, 24 -below; color blackish or brownish to liver color. - -_Remarks._--Small schools of harbor porpoises are common in Puget Sound, -among the San Juan Islands, and in the Straits of Juan De Fuca. This is -the commonest inshore porpoise but, because of its smaller size, is less -well known to most persons than are the blackfish and killer whale. - - -=Phocoenoides dalli= (True) - -Dall porpoise - -_Description._--A small porpoise, about 6 feet in length, with pointed -head and moderately stout body. Teeth small, 23 above and 27 below. -Color greenish black with flanks or posterior sides white. - -_Remarks._--A rare off-shore species. - - -=Physeter catodon= Linnaeus - -Sperm whale - -_Description._--A toothed whale about 60 feet long; head enormous, -squarish; teeth conical, 50 or fewer in lower jaw. - -_Remarks._--Occurs off the coast of Washington and rarely enters the -Straits of Juan De Fuca. - - -=Kogia breviceps= (Blainville) - -Pigmy sperm whale - -_Description._--Similar to the sperm whale in proportions but less than -10 feet in length. - -_Remarks._--A rare species whose habits are little known. The available -information concerning this species in the Atlantic has been summarized -by Allen (1941). - - -=Rhachianectes glaucus= (Cope) - -Gray whale - -_Description._--A relatively slender whale, about 40 feet in length; -dorsal fin absent; baleen short, yellow in color; color of body mottled -gray or blackish. - -_Remarks._--The gray whale was once abundant and occurred off the coast -of Washington in spring and summer migrations. Hunted until now rare. - - -=Balaenoptera physalus= (Linnaeus) - -Finback whale - -_Description._--A relatively slender whale, up to 82 feet in length; -dorsal fin far posterior, prominent; baleen in two slabs, well -developed, about two feet in length and gray in color; color of body -blackish or brownish above, white below. - -_Remarks._--Recorded off-shore. - - -=Balaenoptera borealis= Lesson - -Sei or Pollack whale - -_Description._--Similar to the finback whale but dorsal fin larger; -baleen dark; body dark blue or brownish; belly with restricted white -area. - -_Remarks._--Recorded off-shore. - - -=Balaenoptera acutorostrata= Lacépède - -Pike whale - -_Description._--A small whalebone whale, about 30 feet in length; body -slender; head pointed; pectoral fin well developed and prominent; baleen -short, white; color black above, white beneath. - -_Remarks._--A rare species that has been recorded from Washington. - - -=Sibbaldus musculus= (Linnaeus) - -Blue whale or sulphur-bottom whale - -_Description._--Largest of the whales; length up to 100 feet; body -slender; head flat above, rounded beneath; dorsal fin slender but -prominent; baleen in two series, heavy and black; belly with numerous -longitudinal ridges; color bluish black above, yellow beneath. - -_Remarks._--Probably uncommon off-shore. - - -=Megaptera novaeangliae= (Borowski) - -Humpback whale - -_Description._--A medium-sized, stout-bodied whale up to 54 feet in -length; dorsal fin low, not prominent; head flat above, rounded beneath; -prominent "hump" at back of head; belly with numerous longitudinal -ridges; baleen small; color blackish or grayish above, paler below; body -characteristically blotched with patches of whitish barnacles. - -_Remarks._--The humpback is the commonest whale off the coast of -Washington, often coming into northern Puget Sound. - - -=Eubalaena sieboldii= (Gray) - -Pacific right whale - -_Description._--A large whale, 60-70 feet in length, with enormous, -rounded head; dorsal fin absent; belly lacking longitudinal ridges; -baleen blackish, 8 feet in length; color uniformly blackish. - -_Remarks._--A much hunted species now probably rare off shore. - - - - -HYPOTHETICAL LIST - -MAMMALS OTHER THAN CETACEANS POSSIBLY OCCURRING IN WASHINGTON OF WHICH -SATISFACTORY RECORD IS LACKING - - 1. _Ursus canadensis_ Merriam, grizzly bear.--This species has been - recorded from Kootenay Lake, British Columbia, 30 miles northeast - from the northeastern corner of the state of Washington and may - have occurred in northeastern Washington. - - 2. _Ursus idahoensis_ Merriam, grizzly bear.--Recorded by Merriam - (1918: 54) from the Wallowa Mountains, Oregon. This form may have - occurred in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. - - 3. _Vulpes fulva macroura_ Baird, red fox.--Reported from the Blue - Mountains and northeastern Washington; no specimen recorded. - - 4. _Canis lupus columbianus_ Goldman, wolf.--Possibly occurred in - northeastern Washington in historic time, and perhaps is - occasionally still found there. - - 5. _Canis lupus irremotus_ Goldman, wolf.--Perhaps once occurred - in southeastern Washington. - - 6. _Mirounga angustirostris_ (Gill), sea elephant.--May occur as a - casual wanderer off the coast of Washington. The home of this - species is Lower California but a dead specimen was washed upon - the shore of Prince of Wales Island, Alaska (Willett, 1943: 500). - - 7. _Perognathus parvus laingi_ Anderson, Great Basin pocket - mouse.--Probably present in the mountains east of Lake Osoyoos in - Washington, but no specimens have yet been collected. - - 8. _Synaptomys borealis artemisiae_ Anderson, northern lemming - mouse.--Probably present in the Cascades of northern Okanogan - County but no specimens have yet been obtained. - - 9. _Antilocapra americana_ (Ord) subsp?, pronghorned - antelope.--This species is restricted to North America and once - ranged over much of the plains region of the western part of the - continent. Taylor and Shaw (1929: 31) included the antelope in - their list of Washington mammals with the statement "Now - extirpated within State; the former range of the pronghorn - included much of the plains country of eastern Washington." So far - as known to me, there is no record by any of the early explorers - of antelope killed or seen in what is now Washington. No bones of - antelope have been discovered in caves in eastern Washington. - Ogden (1909: 339) mentions an antelope killed in Oregon a day's - journey south of The Dalles. This record is fairly close to - Washington and indicates that antelope might have occurred at - least in southeastern Washington in historic times. - - - - -ADDENDA - - - 1. The antelope (_Antilocapra americana_) has been introduced into the - Yakima Valley by the state of Washington, Department of Game. - - 2. The elephant seal (_Mirounga angustirostris_) has been discovered off - the coast of Washington (Seattle _Times_, April 15, 1947, p. 3). - - 3. The yellow-pine chipmunk of the Blue Mountains has been described as - a new subspecies, _Eutamias [Tamias] amoenus albiventris_ Booth, - Murrelet, 28 (no. 1):7, 1947. 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Mamm., 24:400. - - - _Transmitted August 14, 1947._ - - - - -INDEX - - - Abromys lordi, 299 - - Accounts of species, 121 - - acutorostrata, Balaenoptera, 413 - - addenda, 416 - - aequalidens, Thomomys talpoides, 310 - - affinis, - Eutamias amoenus, 257 - Tamias amoenus, 257 - - akeleyi, Peromyscus, 330 - - alascanus, Callorhinus, 246 - - alascensis, Myotis lucifugus, 148 - - Alaska fur seal, 246 - - albiventer, - Neosorex bendirii, 144 - Sorex bendirii, 144 - - albiventris, Tamias amoenus, 416 - - Alce, - americana, 403 - shirasi, 403 - - Alces, - americanus, 403 - shirasi, 403 - - alexandrinus, - Mus, 364 - Rattus rattus, 364 - - alpinus, Sciuropterus, 295 - - alticola, Neotoma cinerea, 336 - - altifrontalis, - Euarctos, 176 - Mustela frenata, 198 - Ursus, 176 - - americana, - Alce, 403 - Antilocapra, 415, 416 - Martes, 186 - Mephitis, 217 - Rupicapra, 409 - - americanus, - Euarctos, 176 - Lepus, 382 - Oreamnos, 406 - Sitomys, 331 - Ursus, 171 - - amoenus, - Eutamias, 255 - Tamias, 253 - - angustirostris, Mirounga, 415, 416 - - angustus, Microtus, 353 - - Anisonyx rufa, 369 - - antelope, 415, 416 - - Antilocapra americana, 415, 416 - - Antrozous, - cantwelli, 169 - pallidus, 169 - - Aplodontia, - columbiana, 369 - grisea, 369 - olympica, 369 - raineri, 369 - rainieri, 369 - rufa, 366 - - Arctic-alpine Life-zone, 33 - - arcticus, - Rangifer, 404 - Sorex, 132 - - Arctomys, - avarus, 263 - columbianus, 275 - douglasii, 276 - flaviventer, 263 - olympus, 267 - - Arean arean, 137 - - arizonensis, Mustela, 197 - - artemisia, Lepus, 387 - - artemisiae, - Peromyscus maniculatus, 332 - Sitomys americanus, 332 - Synaptomys borealis, 415 - - Artiodactyla, 118 - - Arvicola, - macropus, 356 - nanus, 348 - occidentalis, 351 - oregoni, 357 - pauperrimus, 359 - townsendii, 351 - - arvicoloides, - Aulacomys, 356 - Microtus, 356 - - asiaticus, Tamias, 262 - - Atophyrax bendirii, 144 - - Aulacomys arvicoloides, 356 - - austerus, - Hesperomys, 331 - Peromyscus, 331 - Sitomys americanus, 331 - - avara, Marmota flaviventris, 263 - - avarus, Arctomys flaviventer, 263 - - - badger, 220 - - badius, Thomomys talpoides, 311 - - Baird beaked whale, 410 - - bairdi, - Lepus, 384 - Sorex obscurus, 140 - - bairdii, - Berardius, 410 - Delphinus, 410 - - Balaenoptera, - acutorostrata, 413 - borealis, 413 - physalus, 413 - - Balanus, 207 - - bangsi, - Glaucomys sabrinus, 295 - Sciuropterus alpinus, 295 - - bat, - big-brown, 165 - hoary, 168 - long-eared, 161 - pallid, 170 - silvery-haired, 159 - - bats, mouse-eared, 146 - - beaked whale, - Baird, 410 - Stejneger, 410 - - bear, - black, 170 - grizzly, 176, 415 - - beaver, 315 - mountain, 366 - - Beechey ground squirrel, 276 - - Bendirei, Atophyrax, 144 - - bendirii, - Atophyrax, 144 - Sorex, 144 - Neosorex, 144 - - Berardius bairdii, 410 - - bernardinus, Eptesicus fuscus, 165 - - bibliography, 417 - - big, - brown bat, 417 - jumping mouse, 370 - myotis, 147 - - Bison, - bison, 404 - oregonus, 404 - - bison, Bison, 404 - - black bear, 171 - - blackfish, 411 - - black tailed, - deer, 399 - jack rabbit, 385 - - blue whale, 413 - - bobcat, 241 - - borealis, - Balaenoptera, 413 - Lissodelphis, 410 - Lynx, 239 - Synaptomys, 337 - - Brachylagus idahoensis, 390 - - breviceps, Kogia, 412 - - brown bat, big, 165 - - brunnescens, Ochotona princeps, 380 - - bushy-tailed wood rat, 333 - - - California, - myotis, 156 - red-backed mouse, 344 - sea lion, 244 - - californiana, Ovis, 406 - - californianus, - Otaria, 244 - Ovis, 406 - Zalophus, 244 - - californicus, - Clethrionomys, 344 - Lepus, 385 - Myotis, 156 - Vespertilio, 158 - - Callorhinus, - alascanus, 246 - cynocephalus, 246 - ursinus, 246 - - Callospermophilus, - chrysodeirus, 280 - connectens, 280 - lateralis, 279 - saturatus, 281 - tescorum, 279 - - Callotaria ursina cynocephala, 246 - - campestris, Lepus, 380 - - canadensis, - Castor, 315 - Cervus, 391 - Lutra, 205 - Lynx, 239 - Mustela, 187 - Ovis, 405 - - Canadian, - Life-zone, 37 - lynx, 239 - - Cancer productus, 180, 207 - - canescens, Microtus montanus, 349 - - canicaudus, - Eutamias amoenus, 257 - Tamias amoenus, 257 - - Canis, - columbianus, 415 - familiaris, 234 - fuscus, 232 - gigas, 232 - incolatus, 231 - irremotus, 415 - latrans, 226 - lestes, 226 - lupus, 232 - lycaon, 232 - occidentalis, 232 - - cantwelli, - Antrozous pallidus, 169 - Microtus oregoni, 357 - - Cariacus, - hemionus, 403 - macrotis, 403 - - caribou, 404 - - carissima, Myotis lucifugus, 148 - - Carnivora, 113 - - carolinensis, Sciurus, 286 - - cascadensis, - Clethrionomys gapperi, 343 - Lepus americanus, 384 - Sciurus, 290 - Vulpes, 224 - - Castor, - canadensis, 315 - idoneus, 322 - pacificus, 322 - leucodonta, 322 - - cat, civet, 212 - - catodon, Physeter, 412 - - caurina, - Martes, 183 - Mustela, 186 - - caurinus, - Eutamias, 255 - Myotis californicus, 157 - Tamias amoenus, 255 - - Cervus, - canadensis, 391 - columbianus, 403 - hemionus, 403 - leucurus, 398 - macrotis, 403 - nelsoni, 394 - occidentalis, 394 - roosevelti, 394 - - Cetacea, 410 - - Check List, 112 - - cheiragonus, Telmessus, 207 - - chelan, Ursus, 176 - - Chincha, - hudsonica, 217 - major, 218 - occidentalis, 219 - spissigrada, 219 - - chipmunk, - least, 251 - red-tailed, 258 - Townsend, 259 - Yellow-pine, 253, 416 - - Chipmunks, 250 - - Chiroptera, 112 - - cicognanii, Mustela, 193 - - cinerea, - Atalapha, 168 - Neotoma, 333 - - cinereus, - Lasiurus, 168 - Sorex, 132 - Vespertilio, 168 - - cinnamomum, - Euarctos, 176 - Ursus, 176 - - Citellus, - beecheyi, 276 - columbianus, 272 - connectens, 280 - douglasii, 276 - lateralis, 278 - loringi, 271 - mollis, 268 - ruficaudus, 275 - saturatus, 281 - tescorum, 279 - townsendii, 268 - washingtoni, 271 - yakimensis, 268 - - civet cat, 212 - - Clethrionomys, - californicus, 344 - cascadensis, 343 - gapperi, 341 - idahoensis, 342 - nivarius, 343 - occidentalis, 344 - saturatus, 342 - - Climate and vegetation, 20 - - clusius, Thomomys, 310 - - Columbian ground squirrel, 272 - - columbianus, - Arctomys, 275 - Canis lupus, 415 - Cariacus, 403 - Cervus, 403 - Citellus, 272 - Eucervus, 403 - Odocoileus, 403 - Perognathus, 299 - Spermophilus, 275 - Thomomys, 310 - - columbiensis, - Glaucomys sabrinus, 296 - Lepus americanus, 385 - - concolor, Felis, 234 - - connectens, - Callospermophilus chrysodeirus, 280 - Citellus lateralis, 280 - - cony, 377 - - cooperi, - Eutamias, 262 - Tamias, 262 - - coots, 209 - - Corynorhinus, - macrotis, 163 - megalotis, 163 - intermedius, 164 - rafinesquii, 161 - townsendii, 163 - - cottontail, - Florida, 389 - Nuttall, 387 - - couchi, Thomomys talpoides, 314 - - cougar, 234 - - coyote, 226 - - coypu, 376 - - crayfish, 209, 216 - - creeping mouse, 357 - - curtatus, - Lagurus, 359 - Lemmiscus, 359 - - cuppes, Ochotona, 379 - - cynocephala, Callotaria, 246 - - cynocephalus, - Callorhinus, 246 - Siren, 246 - - - Dall porpoise, 412 - - dalli, Phocenoides, 412 - - deer, - black-tailed, 399 - mouse, 327 - mule, 399 - white-tailed, 395 - - Delphinus bairdii, 410 - - dermestes, 162 - - deserticola, Lepus californicus, 385 - - destructioni, Sorex trowbridgii, 136 - - devexus, Thomomys talpoides, 309 - - Didelphis virginiana, 121 - - Dipodomys, - columbianus, 300 - ordii, 300 - - Distributional, - areas, 20 - history, 68 - - dog, 234 - - dolphin, 410 - - dorsata, Mazama, 409 - - dorsatum, Erethizon, 374 - - Douglas squirrel, 290 - - douglasii, - Arctomys, 276 - Citellus, 276 - Geomys, 312 - Otospermophilus grammurus, 276 - Sciurus, 290 - Spermophilus, 276 - Tamiasciurus, 290 - Thomomys, 312 - - drummondii, Microtus, 346 - - Dytiscidae, 216 - - - Ecology, Life-zones and, 32 - - edulis, Mytilus, 180, 207 - - effera, Mustela frenata, 198 - - elk, 391 - - Emmigrational history, 54 - - energumenos, - Mustela vison, 199 - Putorius vison, 199 - - Enhydra lutris nereis, 211 - - epixanthum, Erethizon, 376 - - Eptesicus, - bernardinus, 165 - fuscus, 165 - pallidus, 165 - - Erethizon, - dorsatum, 374 - epixanthum, 376 - epixanthus, 376 - nigrescens, 376 - - ericacus, Thomomys talpoides, 309 - - eriomerus, Petrolisthes, 180, 207 - - ermine, 191 - - erminea, Mustela, 190 - - Euarctos, - altifrontalis, 176 - americanus, 176 - cinnamomum, 176 - - Eubalaena sieboldii, 414 - - Eumetopias, - jubata, 244 - stelleri, 244 - - Eutamias, - affinis, 257 - albiventris, 416 - amoenus, 255 - canicaudus, 257 - caurinus, 255 - cooperi, 262 - felix, 262 - grisescens, 253 - ludibundus, 257 - luteiventris, 258 - minimus, 252 - pictus, 252 - quadrivittatus, 256 - ruficaudus, 258 - scrutator, 252 - simulans, 258 - townsendii, 258 - - evotis, - Myotis, 151 - Vespertilio, 153 - - Evotomys, - gapperi, 342 - idahoensis, 342 - nivarius, 343 - occidentalis, 344 - pygmaeus, 344 - saturatus, 342 - - excelsus, Procyon lotor, 182 - - - fallenda, Mustela erminea, 191 - - familiaris, Canis, 234 - - fasciatus, Lynx, 243 - - Faunas, - Great Basin, 32 - Pacific Coastal, 52 - Rocky Mountain, 53 - - Felis, - concolor, 234 - hippolestes, 237 - olympus, 237 - oregonensis, 237 - missoulensis, 237 - - felix, - Eutamias amoenus, 256 - Tamias amoenus, 256 - - fenisex, Ochotona, 379 - - Fiber, - occipitalis, 363 - osoyoosensis, 363 - zibethicus, 363 - - finback whale, 413 - - fisher, 187 - - flaviventris, Marmota, 263 - - Florida cottontail, 389 - - floridanus, - Lepus sylvaticus, 389 - Sylvilagus, 389 - - flying squirrel, northern, 292 - - foetulenta, Mephitis, 219 - - fox, - red, 224 - squirrel, 286 - - frenata, Mustela, 194 - - fringe-tailed myotis, 153 - - fuliginosus, - Geomys, 312 - Glaucomys sabrinus, 296 - - fulva, Vulpes, 224 - - funebris, Microtus pennsylvanicus, 346 - - fur seal, 246 - - fuscogriseus, Onychomys leucogaster, 323 - - fuscus, - Canis lupus, 232 - Eptesicus, 165 - Thomomys, 310 - - - gambelii, - Hesperomys, 331 - Peromyscus maniculatus, 331 - Sitomys americanus, 331 - - gapperi, - Clethrionomys, 341 - Evotomys, 342 - - Gapper red-backed mouse, 341 - - Geologic history, 46 - - Geomys, - douglasii, 312 - fuliginosus, 312 - - gibbsii, - Neurotrichus, 124, 122 - Urotrichus, 124 - - gigas, - Canis, 232 - Lupus, 232 - - glacialis, Thomomys talpoides, 312 - - Glaciation, 47 - - Glaucomys, - bangsi, 295 - columbiensis, 296 - fuliginosus, 296 - latipes, 296 - olympicus, 295 - oregonensis, 295 - sabrinus, 292 - - glaucus, Rhachianectes, 412 - - Globicephalus scammonii, 411 - - goat, mountain, 406 - - Golden-mantled ground squirrel, 278, 281 - - gopher, northern pocket, 302 - - gracilis, Spilogale, 212 - - grammurus, - Otospermophilus, 276 - Spermophilus, 276 - - Grampidelphis griseus, 411 - - Grampus rectipinna, 411 - - grampus, 411 - - grasshopper mouse, northern, 323 - - gray squirrel, - eastern, 286 - western, 284 - - gray whale, 412 - - Great Basin pocket mouse, 297 - - grisea, Aplodontia rufa, 369 - - grisescens, - Eutamias minimus, 253 - Tamias minimus, 253 - - griseus, - Grampidelphis, 411 - Sciurus, 284 - - ground squirrel, - Beechey, 276 - Columbian, 272 - golden-mantled, 278, 281 - Townsend, 268 - Washington, 271 - - gryphus, Vespertilio, 148 - - gulosa, Mustela erminea, 193 - - - hair seal, 247 - - hairy-winged myotis, 154 - - halli, Microtus longicaudus, 353 - - Haplodon rufus, 369 - - Haplodontia, - raineri, 369 - rufa, 369 - - harbor, - porpoise, 412 - seal, 247 - - harvest mouse, western, 324 - - heather vole, 338 - - Helisoma occidentalis, 137 - - Hemigrapsus, - oregonensis, 180 - nudus, 180, 207, 216 - - hemionus, - Cervus, 403 - Odocoileus, 403 - - Hesperomys, - austerus, 331 - gambelii, 331 - - hesperus, - Pipistrellus, 165 - Scotophilus, 165 - Vespertilio, 165 - - hippolestes, Felis, 237 - - hoary marmot, 265 - - hollisteri, Peromyscus maniculatus, 330 - - house mouse, 365 - - hoyi, Microsorex, 145 - - Hudsonian Life-zone, 39 - - hudsonica, - Chincha, 217 - Lutra, 210 - Mephitis, 217 - - hudsonicus, - Sciurus, 288 - Tamiasciurus, 286 - - humpback whale, 413 - - Hyla, 180 - regilla, 137 - - hypophaeus, Sciurus carolinensis, 286 - - hypothetical list, 415 - - - idahoensis, - Brachylagus, 390 - Clethrionomys gapperi, 342 - Evotomys, 342 - Lepus, 390 - Sylvilagus, 390 - Zapus princeps, 373 - - idoneus, Castor canadensis, 322 - - immunis, Thomomys talpoides, 311 - - imperator, Zapus, 372 - - incolatus, Canis latrans, 231 - - Insectivora, 112 - - interior, Myotis volans, 155 - - intermedius, - Corynorhinus rafinesquii, 164 - Phenacomys, 338 - - invicta, Mustela erminea, 191 - - irremotus, Canis lupus, 415 - - - jack rabbit, - black-tailed, 385 - white-tailed, 380 - - jubata, - Eumetopias, 244 - Phoca, 244 - - jumping mouse, big, 370 - - - kangaroo rat, Ord, 300 - - Keen myotis, 151 - - keenii, - Myotis, 151 - Vespertilio, 151 - - killer whale, 411 - - kincaidi, Microtus pennsylvanicus, 347 - - Kogia breviceps, 412 - - kootenayensis, Zapus princeps, 373 - - - Lagenorhynchus obliquidens, 411 - - Lagomorpha, 118 - - Lagomys minimus, 379 - - Lagurus, - curtatus, 359 - pauperrimus, 359 - - laingi, Perognathus parvus, 415 - - Lasionycteris noctivagans, 159 - - Latax lutris nereis, 211 - - lateralis, - Callospermophilus, 279 - Citellus, 278 - Spermophilus, 281 - Tamias, 281 - - latifrons, Spilogale, 215 - - latipes, Glaucomys sabrinus, 296 - - latrans, Canis, 226 - - lemming mouse, northern, 337 - - Lemmiscus, - curtatus, 359 - pauperrimus, 359 - - lepta, Mustela cicognanii, 193 - - Lepus, - americanus, 382 - artemisia, 387 - bairdi, 384 - californicus, 385 - campestris, 380 - cascadensis, 384 - columbiensis, 385 - deserticola, 385 - floridanus, 389 - nuttallii, 387 - pineus, 384 - sylvaticus, 387 - texianus, 385 - townsendii, 380 - - lestes, Canis, 230 - - leucodonta, Castor canadensis, 322 - - leucogaster, Onychomys, 323 - - leucurus, - Cervus, 398 - Odocoileus, 398 - - Life-zones and ecology, 32 - - limosus, Thomomys, 312 - - lion, mountain, 234 - - Lissodelphis borealis, 410 - - Littorina, 207 - - long-eared myotis, 151 - - long-tailed, - meadow mouse, 352 - shrews, 131 - weasel, 194 - - longicaudus, Microtus, 352 - - longicrus, - Myotis, 155 - Vespertilio, 155 - - lordi, - Abromys, 299 - Perognathus, 299 - - loringi, Citellus washingtoni, 271 - - lotor, Procyon, 179 - - ludibundus, - Eutamias, 257 - Tamias amoenus, 257 - - lucifugus, - Gryphus, 148 - Myotis, 148 - Vespertilio, 148 - - Lupus gigas, 232 - - lupus, Canis, 232 - - luteiventris, - Eutamias amoenus, 258 - Tamias amoenus, 258 - - Lutra, - canadensis, 205 - hudsonica, 210 - pacifica, 210 - vancouverensis, 210 - - lutris, - Enhydra, 211 - Latax, 211 - - lycaon, Canis, 232 - - Lynx, - borealis, 239 - canadensis, 239 - fasciatus, 243 - pallescens, 243 - rufus, 241 - uinta, 243 - - lynx, Canadian, 239 - - - machetes, Ursus, 171 - - macropus, - Arvicola, 356 - Microtus, 356 - Mynomes, 356 - - macroschisma, Pododesmus, 207 - - macrotis, - Cariacus, 403 - Cervus, 403 - Corynorhinus, 163 - Odocoileus hemionus, 403 - - macroura, Vulpes fulva, 415 - - macrurus, Microtus, 354 - - major, - Chincha occidentalis, 218 - Mephitis mephitis, 218 - - maniculatus, Peromyscus, 327 - - Margarites, 207 - - marmot, - hoary, 265 - Olympic, 267 - yellow-bellied, 263 - - Marmota, - avara, 263 - flaviventris, 263 - monax, 263 - olympus, 267 - petrensis, 263 - - Marsupalia, 112 - - marten, western, 183 - - Martes, - americana, 186 - caurina, 183 - origenes, 186 - pacifica, 187 - pennanti, 187 - - Mazama, - dorsata, 409 - montana, 409 - - megalotis, - Corynorhinus, 163 - Reithrodon, 324 - Reithrodontomys, 324 - - Megaptera novaeangliae, 413 - - melanops, Thomomys, 314 - - melanorhinus, - Myotis, 158 - Vespertilio, 158 - - Mephitis, - americana, 217 - foetulenta, 219 - hudsonica, 217 - major, 218 - mephitis, 216 - notata, 219 - spissigrada, 219 - - mephitis, Mephitis, 216 - - merriami, Sorex, 134 - - Mesoplodon stejnegeri, 410 - - Microsorex, - hoyi, 145 - washingtoni, 145 - - Microtus, - angustus, 353 - arvicoloides, 356 - canescens, 349 - cantwelli, 357 - drummondii, 346 - funebris, 346 - halli, 353 - kincaidi, 347 - longicaudus, 352 - macropus, 356 - macrurus, 354 - modestus, 346 - montanus, 347 - mordax, 353 - morosus, 357 - nanus, 348 - oregoni, 357 - pauperrimus, 359 - pennsylvanicus, 345 - pugeti, 351 - richardsonii, 354 - townsendii, 349 - - minimus, - Eutamias, 252 - Ochotona, 379 - Lagomys, 379 - Tamias, 251 - - minor, Neurotrichus, 124 - - Mirounga angustirostris, 415, 416 - - missoulae, Oreamnos americanus, 409 - - missoulensis, Felis concolor, 237 - - modestus, Microtus pennsylvanicus, 346 - - mole, 125 - coast, 127 - Gibbs shrew-, 122 - shrew-, 122 - Townsend, 126 - - mollis, - Citellus, 268 - Spermophilus, 268 - - monax, Marmota, 263 - - montana, Mazama, 409 - - Montane meadow mouse, 347 - - montanus, - Microtus, 347 - Oreamnos, 409 - Rangifer, 404 - - monticola, Sorex vagrans, 138 - - monticolus, Sorex, 138 - - moose, 403 - - Mopalia muscosa, 207 - - mordax, Microtus, 353 - - morosus, Microtus, 357 - - mountain, - beaver, 366 - goat, 406 - lion, 234 - sheep, 405 - - mouse, - big jumping, 370 - California red-backed, 344 - creeping, 357 - deer, 327 - Gapper red-backed, 341 - grasshopper, northern, 323 - Great Basin pocket, 297 - harvest, western, 324 - house, 365 - jumping, big, 370 - lemming, northern, 337 - long-tailed meadow, 352 - meadow, 345 - montane meadow, 347 - northern grasshopper, 323 - northern lemming, 337 - Pennsylvania meadow, 345 - pocket, Great Basin, 297 - red-backed, California, 344 - red-backed, Gapper, 341 - Townsend meadow, 349 - western harvest, 324 - - mouse-eared bats, 146 - - mule deer, 399 - - murica, Mustela erminea, 193 - - muricus, - Mustela, 193 - Putorius, 193 - - Mus, - alexandrinus, 364 - musculus, 365 - norvegicus, 365 - rattus, 364 - - muscosa, Mopalia, 207 - - musculus, - Mus, 365 - Sibbaldus, 413 - - muskrat, 360 - - Mustela, - altifrontalis, 198 - arizonensis, 197 - canadensis, 187 - caurina, 186 - cicognanii, 193 - effera, 190 - energumenos, 199 - erminea, 198 - fallenda, 191 - frenata, 194 - gulosa, 193 - invicta, 191 - lepta, 193 - murica, 193 - nevadensis, 197 - olympica, 192 - origenes, 186 - pacifica, 187 - pennanti, 187 - saturata, 198 - streatori, 193 - washingtoni, 198 - - Mynomes, - macropus, 356 - nanus, 348 - - myops, Thomomys, 310 - - Myotis, 146 - big, 147 - California, 156 - californicus, 156 - carissima, 148 - caurinus, 157 - evotis, 151 - fringe-tailed, 153 - hairy-winged, 154 - interior, 155 - Keen, 151 - keenii, 151 - long-eared, 151 - longicrus, 155 - lucifugus, 147 - melanorhinus, 158 - pacificus, 153 - saturatus, 150 - sociabilis, 150 - small-footed, 158 - subulatus, 158 - thysanodes, 153 - volans, 154 - Yuma, 149 - yumanensis, 149 - - Mytilus edulis, 180, 207 - - - nanus, - Arvicola, 348 - Microtus, 348 - - navigator, - Neosorex, 141 - Sorex palustris, 141 - - neglecta, Taxidea taxus, 220 - - nelsoni, Cervus canadensis, 394 - - Neosorex, - albiventer, 144 - bendirii, 144 - navigator, 141 - - Neotoma, - alticola, 336 - cinerea, 333 - occidentalis, 336 - - nereis, - Enhydra lutris, 211 - Latax lutris, 211 - - Neurotrichus, - gibbsii, 124 - minor, 124 - - nevadensis, Mustela frenata, 197 - - niger, Sciurus, 286 - - nigrescens, - Erethizon dorsatum, 376 - Reithrodontomys megalotis, 324 - - nitidus, Vespertilio, 155, 157 - - nivarius, - Clethrionomys gapperi, 343 - Evotomys, 343 - - noctivagans, - Lasionycteris, 159 - Vespertilio, 159 - Vesperugo, 159 - - northern, - flying squirrel, 292 - grasshopper mouse, 323 - lemming mouse, 337 - pocket gopher, 302 - - norvegicus, - Mus, 365 - Rattus, 365 - - Norway rat, 365 - - notata, Mephitis mephitis, 219 - - novaeangliae, Megaptera, 413 - - nudus, Hemigrapsus, 180, 207, 216 - - nutria, 376 - - Nuttall cottontail, 387 - - nuttallii, - Lepus, 387 - Sylvilagus, 387 - - - obliquidens, Lagenorhynchus, 411 - - obscurus, Sorex, 138 - - occidentalis, - Arvicola, 351 - Canis, 232 - Cervus canadensis, 394 - Chincha, 219 - Clethrionomys californicus, 344 - Evotomys, 344 - Helisoma, 137 - Neotoma, 336 - - occipitalis, - Fiber, 363 - Ondatra zibethicus, 363 - - Ochotona, - brunnescens, 380 - cuppes, 379 - fenisex, 379 - minimus, 379 - princeps, 377 - - ochrourus, Odocoileus virginianus, 398 - - Odocoileus, - columbianus, 403 - hemionus, 399 - leucurus, 398 - macrotis, 403 - ochrourus, 398 - virginianus, 398 - - Olympic marmot, 267 - - olympica, - Aplodontia, 369 - Mustela erminea, 192 - Spilogale, 215 - - olympicus, - Glaucomys sabrinus, 295 - Phenacomys, 340 - Sciuropterus alpinus, 295 - - olympus, - Felis, 237 - Marmota, 267 - - Ondatra, - occipitalis, 363 - osoyoosensis, 363 - zibethicus, 360 - - Onychomys, - fuscogriseus, 323 - leucogaster, 323 - - opossum, 121 - - oramontis, Phenacomys, 340 - - orarius, Scapanus, 127 - - Ord kangaroo rat, 300 - - ordii, - Dipodomys, 300 - Perodipus, 300 - - Oreamnos, - americanus, 409 - missoulae, 409 - montanus, 409 - - oreas, Peromyscus, 330 - - oregonensis, - Felis, 237 - Glaucomys sabrinus, 295 - Hemigrapsus, 180 - Pteromys, 295 - Sciuropterus alpinus, 295 - - oregoni, - Arvicola, 357 - Microtus, 357 - - oregonus, - Bison, 404 - Zapus princeps, 373 - - origenes, Martes caurina, 186 - - osoyoosensis, - Fiber, 363 - Ondatra, 363 - - Otaria californianus, 244 - - otter, - river, 205 - sea, 211 - - Ovis, - californiana, 406 - canadensis, 405 - - - Pacific right whale, 414 - - pacifica, - Lutra hudsonica, 210 - Martes pennanti, 187 - Mustela canadensis, 187 - Procyon lotor, 181 - - pacificus, - Castor canadensis, 322 - Myotis evotis, 153 - - pallescens, Lynx, 243 - - pallidus, - Antrozous, 169 - Eptesicus fuscus, 165 - - palustris, Sorex, 140 - - panther, 235 - - parvus, - Cricetodops, 298 - Perognathus, 297 - - pauperrimus, - Arvicola, 359 - Lagurus, 359 - Lemmiscus, 359 - Microtus, 359 - - pennanti, - Martes, 187 - Mustela, 187 - - Pennsylvanian meadow mouse, 345 - - pennsylvanicus, Microtus, 345 - - Perodipus, - columbianus, 300 - ordii, 300 - - Perognathus, - columbianus, 299 - laingi, 415 - lordi, 299 - parvus, 297 - - Peromyscus, - akeleyi, 330 - americanus, 331 - artemisiae, 332 - austerus, 331 - gambelii, 331 - hollisteri, 330 - maniculatus, 327 - oreas, 330 - rubidus, 331 - texianus, 331 - - personatus, Sorex, 133 - - petrensis, Marmota monax, 263 - - Petrolisthes eriomerus, 180, 207 - - Phenacomys, - intermedius, 338 - oramontis, 340 - olympicus, 340 - - Phoca, - jubata, 244 - richardii, 247 - vitulina, 247 - - Phocena vomerina, 412 - - Phocenoides dalli, 412 - - physalus, Balaenoptera, 413 - - Physeter catodon, 412 - - Physiographic provinces, 16 - - pictus, Eutamias minimus, 252 - - pigmy, - rabbit, 390 - sperm whale, 412 - - pika, 377 - - pike whale, 413 - - pineus, Lepus americanus, 384 - - Pinnipedia, 114 - - pipistrelle, western, 165 - - Pipistrellus hesperus, 165 - - pocket, - gopher, northern, 302 - mouse, Great Basin, 297 - - Podedesmus macroschisma, 207 - - Plecotus townsendii, 163 - - Plethodon vehiculum, 137 - - Pollack whale, 413 - - porcupine, 374 - - porpoise, - Dall, 412 - harbor, 412 - right whale, 410 - striped, 411 - - porpoises, 410 - - princeps, - Ochotona, 377 - Zapus, 371 - - Procyon, - excelsus, 182 - lotor, 179 - pacifica, 181 - proteus, 181 - psora, 181 - - productus, Cancer, 180, 207 - - pronghorned antelope, 415 - - proteus, Procyon, 181 - - psora, Procyon, 181 - - Pteromys oregonensis, 295 - - pugetensis, Thomomys talpoides, 312 - - pugeti, Microtus townsendii, 351 - - puma, 235 - - pygmacus, Evotomys, 344 - - - quadratus, Thomomys, 310 - - quadrivittatus, - Eutamias, 256 - Tamias, 256 - - - rabbit, - black-tailed jack, 385 - jack, 380 - pigmy, 390 - snowshoe, 382 - white-tailed jack, 380 - - raccoon, 179 - - rafinesquii, Carynorhinus, 161 - - raineri, - Aplodontia, 369 - Haplodontia, 369 - - rainieri, Aplodontia rufa, 369 - - Rana, 180 - - Rangifer, - arcticus, 404 - montanus, 404 - - rat, - bushy-tailed wood, 333 - kangaroo, Ord, 300 - Norway, 365 - Ord kangaroo, 300 - roof, 364 - sage, 271 - water, 354 - wood, bushy-tailed, 333 - - Rattus, - alexandrinus, 364 - norvegicus, 365 - rattus, 364 - - rattus, - Mus, 364 - Rattus, 364 - - rectipinna, Grampus, 411 - - red-backed mouse, - California, 344 - Gapper, 341 - - red, - fox, 224 - squirrel, 286 - - regilla, Hyla, 137 - - Reithrodon megalotis, 324 - - Reithrodontomys, - megalotis, 324 - nigrescens, 324 - - richardii, - Halicyon, 247 - Phoca, 247 - - richardsonii, - Microtus, 354 - Sciurus, 289 - Tamiasciurus, 289 - - right, - whale, Pacific, 414 - whale porpoise, 410 - - river otter, 205 - - Rhachianectes glaucus, 412 - - Rodentia, 115 - - roof rat, 364 - - roosevelti, Cervus, 394 - - rubidus, Peromyscus maniculatus, 331 - - rufa, - Aplodontia, 366 - Anisonyx, 369 - Haplodon, 369 - - ruficaudus, - Citellus columbianus, 275 - Eutamias, 258 - Tamias, 258 - - rufus, - Haplodon, 369 - Lynx, 241 - - Rupicapra americana, 409 - - - sabrinus, Glaucomys, 292 - - sage rat, 271 - - sagebrush vole, 359 - - saturata, Mustela, 198 - - saturatus, - Callospermophilus lateralis, 281 - Citellus, 281 - Clethrionomys gapperi, 342 - Evotomys gapperi, 342 - Myotis yumanensis, 150 - Spermophilus, 281 - Tamias, 281 - - saxatilis, Spilogale, 215 - - Scalops townsendii, 126 - - scammonii, Globicephalus, 411 - - Scapanus, 125 - orarius, 127 - schefferi, 130 - townsendii, 126 - yakimensis, 130 - - schefferi, Scapanus orarius, 130 - - Sciuropterus, - alpinus, 295 - bangsi, 295 - olympicus, 295 - oregonensis, 295 - - Sciurus, - cascadensis, 290 - carolinensis, 286 - douglasii, 290 - griseus, 284 - hudsonicus, 288 - hypophaeus, 286 - niger, 286 - richardsonii, 289 - streatori, 290 - - Scotophilus hesperus, 165 - - scrutator, - Eutamias minimus, 252 - Tamias minimus, 252 - - sea lion, - California, 244 - Steller, 244 - - sea otter, 211 - - seal, - Alaska fur, 246 - fur, Alaska, 246 - hair, 247 - harbor, 247 - - Sei whale, 413 - - setosus, 140 - - shawi, Thomomys talpoides, 311 - - sheep, mountain, 405 - - shirasi, Alce americanus, 403 - - shrew, - Bendire, 143 - cinereous, 132 - dusky, 138 - long-tailed, 131 - -mole, 122 - Merriam, 134 - mountain, 141 - pigmy, 145 - Trowbridge, 134 - wandering, 136 - water, 141, 143 - - shrew-mole, Gibbs, 122 - - shrews, long-tailed, 131 - - Sibbaldus musculus, 413 - - sieboldii, Eubalaena, 414 - - silvery-haired bat, 159 - - similis, Sorex vagrans, 140 - - simulans, - Eutamias ruficaudus, 258 - Tamias ruficaudus, 258 - - Siren cynocephalus, 246 - - Sitomys, - americanus, 331 - artemisiae, 332 - austerus, 331 - gambelii, 331 - - skunk, - spotted, 212 - striped, 216 - - small-footed myotis, 158 - - snowshoe rabbit, 382 - - sociabilis, Myotis yumanensis, 150 - - sorex, 131, - albiventer, 144 - areticus, 132 - bairdi, 140 - bendirei, 144 - bendirii, 144 - cinereus, 132 - destructioni, 136 - merriami, 134 - monticola, 138 - monticolus, 138 - navigator, 141 - obscurus, 138 - palustris, 141 - personatus, 133 - setosus, 140 - similis, 140 - streatori, 133 - suckleyi, 138 - trowbridgii, 134 - vagrans, 136 - - sperm whale, 412 - - Spermophilus, - columbianus, 275 - douglasii, 276 - grammurus, 276 - lateralis, 281 - mollis, 268 - saturatus, 281 - townsendii, 268 - - Spilogale, - gracilis, 212 - latifrons, 215 - olympica, 215 - saxatilis, 215 - - spissigrada, - Chincha occidentalis, 219 - Mephitis, 219 - - spotted skunk, 212 - - squirrel, - Beechey ground, 276 - Columbian ground, 272 - Douglas, 290 - eastern gray, 286 - flying, northern, 292 - fox, 286 - golden-mantled ground, 278, 281 - gray, eastern, 286 - gray, western, 284 - northern flying, 292 - red, 286 - Townsend ground, 268 - Washington ground, 271 - western gray, 284 - - steelhead trout, 209 - - Stejneger beaked whale, 410 - - stejnegeri, Mesoplodon, 410 - - Steller sea lion, 244 - - Stenopalmatus, 170 - - streatori, - Mustela, 193 - Putorius, 193 - Sciurus, 288 - Sorex cinereus, 133 - Tamiasciurus, 288 - - striped, - porpoise, 411 - skunk, 216 - - subulatus, - Myotis, 151, 158 - Vespertilio, 151 - - suckleyi, Sorex, 138 - - sulphur-bottom whale, 413 - - sylvaticus, Lepus, 387 - - Sylvilagus, - floridanus, 389 - idahoensis, 390 - nuttallii, 387 - - Synaptomys, - artemisiae, 415 - borealis, 337 - truei, 337 - wrangeli, 337 - - - tacomensis, Thomomys talpoides, 312 - - talpoides, Thomomys, 302 - - Tamias, - affinis, 257 - albiventris, 416 - amoenus, 253 - asiaticus, 262 - canicaudus, 257 - caurinus, 255 - cooperi, 262 - felix, 256 - grisescens, 253 - lateralis, 281 - ludibundus, 257 - luteiventris, 258 - minimus, 251 - quadrivittatus, 256 - ruficaudus, 258 - saturatus, 281 - scrutator, 252 - simulans, 258 - townsendii, 258 - - Tamiasciurus, - douglasii, 290 - hudsonicus, 286 - richardsonii, 289 - streatori, 290 - - Taxidea, - neglecta, 220 - taxus, 220 - - taxus, - Taxidea, 220 - Ursus, 220 - - Telmessus cheiragonus, 207 - - tescorum, - Callospermophilus lateralis, 279 - Citellus lateralis, 279 - - texanus, Peromyscus, 331 - - texianus, Lepus, 385 - - Thomomys, - aequalidens, 310 - badius, 311 - clusius, 310 - columbianus, 310 - couchi, 314 - devexus, 309 - douglasii, 312 - ericaeus, 309 - fuscus, 310 - glacialis, 312 - immunis, 311 - limosus, 312 - melanops, 314 - myops, 310 - pugetensis, 312 - quadratus, 310 - shawi, 311 - tacomensis, 312 - talpoides, 302 - tumuli, 313 - wallowa, 310 - yakimensis, 311 - yelmensis, 313 - - thysanodes, Myotis, 153 - - timber wolf, 232 - - Townsend, - ground squirrel, 268 - meadow mouse, 349 - - townsendii, - Arvicola, 351 - Citellus, 268 - Corynorhinus, 163 - Corynorhinus rafinesquii, 163 - Eutamias, 262 - Lepus, 380 - Microtus, 349 - Plecotus, 163 - Scalops, 126 - Scapanus, 125 - Spermophilus, 268 - Tamias, 259 - - Transition Life-zone, 32 - - trinotatus, Zapus, 372 - - trout, steelhead, 209 - - trowbridgii, Sorex, 134 - - truei, Synaptomys, 337 - - tumuli, Thomomys talpoides, 313 - - - uinta, Lynx, 243 - - Upper Sonoran Life-zone, 36 - - Urotrichus, gibbsii, 124 - - ursina, Callotaria, 246 - - ursinus, Callorhinus, 246 - - Ursus, - altifrontalis, 176 - americanus, 176 - canadensis, 415 - cinnamomum, 176 - chelan, 176 - idahoensis, 415 - machetes, 171 - taxus, 220 - - - vagrans, Sorex, 136 - - vancouverensis, Lutra, 210 - - Vegetation, Climate and, 25 - - vehiculum, Plethodon, 137 - - Vespertilio, - californicus, 158 - cinereus, 168 - evotis, 153 - gryphus, 148 - hesperus, 165 - keenii, 151 - lucifugus, 155 - longicrus, 148 - nitidus, 155, 157 - noctivagans, 159 - subulatus, 151 - - Vesperugo, - hesperus, 165 - noctivagans, 159 - - virginiana, Didelphis, 121 - - virginianus, Odocoileus, 398 - - vitulina, Phoca, 247 - - volans, Myotis, 154 - - vole, - heather, 338 - sagebrush, 359 - - vomerina, Phocena, 412 - - Vulpes, - cascadensis, 224 - fulva, 224 - macroura, 415 - - - wallowa, Thomomys talpoides, 310 - - wallawalla, Lepus texianus, 385 - - wapiti, 391 - - Washington ground squirrel, 271 - - washingtoni, - Citellus, 271 - Microsorex hoyi, 145 - Mustela, 198 - Putorius, 198 - - washingtonii, Lepus, 384 - - water rat, 354 - - weasel, long-tailed, 194 - - western, - gray squirrel, 284 - harvest mouse, 324 - pipistrelle, 165 - - whale, - Baird beaked, 410 - blue, 413 - finback, 413 - gray, 412 - humpback, 413 - killer, 411 - Pacific right, 414 - pigmy sperm, 412 - pike, 413 - Pollack, 413 - Sei, 413 - sperm, 412 - sulphur-bottom, 413 - Stejneger beaked, 410 - - whales, 410 - - white-tailed, - deer, 395 - jack rabbit, 380 - - wolf, timber, 232 - - woodchuck, 263 - - wood rat, bushy-tailed, 333 - - wrangeli, Synaptomys, 337 - - - yakimensis, - Citellus mollis, 268 - Scapanus orarius, 130 - Thomomys talpoides, 311 - - yellow-bellied marmot, 263 - - yelmensis, Thomomys talpoides, 313 - - Yuma myotis, 149 - - yumanensis, Myotis, 149 - - - Zalophus californianus, 244 - - Zapus, - idahoensis, 373 - imperator, 372 - kootenayensis, 373 - oregonus, 363 - princeps, 371 - trinotatus, 372 - - zibethicus, - Fiber, 363 - Ondatra, 360 - - - - -Transcriber's notes: - -Bold text marked as = ... = - -Italic text marked as _ ... _ - -Legend for column headers (TABLE 1) inserted. - -Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected, but other -variations in spelling and punctuation remain unchanged. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mammals of Washington, Volume 2, by -Walter Woelber Dalquest - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON, VOLUME 2 *** - -***** This file should be named 53582-8.txt or 53582-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/5/8/53582/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Matthias Grammel, Joseph Cooper, -The Internet Archives for some images and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net - 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