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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #53582 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/53582)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mammals of Washington, Volume 2, by 
-Walter Woelber Dalquest
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Mammals of Washington, Volume 2
-       University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History
-
-Author: Walter Woelber Dalquest
-
-Editor: E. Raymond Hall
-        Donald F. Hoffmeister
-
-Release Date: November 23, 2016 [EBook #53582]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON, VOLUME 2 ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Matthias Grammel, Joseph Cooper,
-The Internet Archives for some images and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-                             MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON
-
-                                       BY
-
-                               WALTER W. DALQUEST
-
-
-                      University of Kansas Publications
-                          Museum of Natural History
-
-                    Vol. 2, pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text
-
-                                  April 9, 1948
-
-
-                              UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
-                                    LAWRENCE
-                                      1948
-
-                                       (7)
-
-
-
-
-                             MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON
-
-
-
-
-  [Illustration: Mount Rainier from Indian Henry's Hunting Ground, July,
-                 1934. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B.
-                 Scheffer. No. 864.)]
-
-
-
-
-                             MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON
-
-                                       BY
-
-                               WALTER W. DALQUEST
-  (Contribution from the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas)
-
-
-                      University of Kansas Publications
-                          Museum of Natural History
-
-                  Volume 2, pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text
-
-                                APRIL 9, 1948
-
-
-                             UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
-                                   LAWRENCE
-                                     1948
-
-
-
-
-        UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
-             Editors: E. Raymond Hall and Donald F. Hoffmeister
-
-
-                  Volume 2, pp. 1-444. 140 figures in text
-                                April 9, 1948
-
-                            UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
-                              Lawrence, Kansas
-
-
-                                 Printed by
-                      Ferd Voiland Jr., State Printer
-                               Topeka, Kansas
-                                    1948
-
-  [Illustration: decoration]
-
-                                  21-1993
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-                                                                PAGE
-
-  INTRODUCTION                                                    13
-
-  PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF THE STATE                            16
-
-  DISTRIBUTIONAL AREAS                                            20
-
-  CLIMATE AND VEGETATION                                          25
-
-  LIFE-ZONES AND ECOLOGY                                          32
-
-  GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF WASHINGTON                                  46
-
-  THE FAUNAS                                                      52
-
-  SPECULATION AS TO EMIGRATIONAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALS           54
-
-  SPECULATION AS TO THE LATER DISTRIBUTIONAL HISTORY OF THE
-    MAMMALS                                                       68
-
-  EXPLANATION OF TREATMENT                                       110
-
-  CHECK LIST OF MAMMALS                                          112
-
-  ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES                             121
-
-  ADDENDA                                                        416
-
-  BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                   417
-
-  INDEX                                                          430
-
-
-
-
-ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-
-                              TOPOGRAPHY
-
-  FIGURE                                                        PAGE
-
-         Mount Rainier from Indian Henrys             _frontispiece_
-
-     1. Cascade Mountains at Canadian Boundary                   17
-
-     2. Columbia River one mile south of Kellers Ferry            19
-
-     4. Cascade Mountains in Chelan National Forest               21
-
-     5. Mount Rainier, Yakima Park                                22
-
-     6. Columbia River in Stevens County                          23
-
-     7. Blue Mountains, Washington                                24
-
-     8. North Side of Mount Rainier                               26
-
-     9. Mount Rainier: Cowlitz Chimneys                           28
-
-    10. A "pothole" crowded by drifting sand                      30
-
-    12. Arctic-Alpine Life-zone on Mount Rainier                  33
-
-    13. Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone             34
-
-    14. Timbered, arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone    35
-
-    15. Upper Sonoran Life-zone                                   37
-
-    16. Canadian Life-zone                                        38
-
-    18. McDowell Lake. Little Pend Oreille Wildlife Refuge        50
-
-    19. Pend Oreille River near Newport                           59
-
-    20. Rocky bluff along north bank of the Columbia River        65
-
-
-                                MAMMALS
-
-  FIGURE                                                        PAGE
-
-    21. Gibbs shrew-mole                                         122
-
-    23. Coast mole and Townsend mole                             125
-
-    25. Coast mole                                               128
-
-    41. Long-eared bat: female with young                        161
-
-    42. Boulder Cave: habitat of long-eared bats                 162
-
-    48. Female black bear and two cubs                           171
-
-    49. Black bear in "hibernation"                              173
-
-    54. Fisher                                                   187
-
-    59. Wolverine                                                202
-
-    60. Wolverine: dried pelt                                    203
-
-    62. River otter                                              208
-
-    66. Badger                                                   220
-
-    69. Coyote                                                   226
-
-    72. Cougar or mountain lion: skin                            234
-
-    73. Cougar or mountain lion: pelts                           235
-
-    75. Canadian lynx                                            238
-
-    76. Trapper's catch of nine Canadian lynx                    239
-
-    78. Bobcat                                                   241
-
-    82. Townsend chipmunk                                        260
-
-    87. Golden-mantled ground squirrel                           282
-
-    89. Feeding station of Douglas squirrel                      287
-
-    91. Northern flying squirrel                                 292
-
-    95. Northern pocket gopher                                   302
-
-    96. Giant mounds formed by pocket gophers                    304
-
-    97. Food cache of northern pocket gopher                     306
-
-    99. Beaver                                                   315
-
-   100. Beaver lodge and pond                                    316
-
-   101. Cottonwood pole carved by beaver                         317
-
-   102. Road flooded by beavers                                  320
-
-   106. Deer mouse                                               327
-
-   112. Pennsylvania meadow mouse                                345
-
-   115. Runways of Townsend meadow mice                          350
-
-   119. Muskrat                                                  360
-
-   121. Mountain beaver                                          366
-
-   123. Big jumping mouse in hibernation                         370
-
-   130. Elk                                                      392
-
-   131. Group of elk                                             393
-
-   132. White-tailed deer                                        395
-
-   133. White-tailed deer: fawn                                  396
-
-   134. Left antler of white-tailed deer                         397
-
-   135. Antlers of white-tailed deer                             398
-
-   136. Mule deer                                                400
-
-   137. Black-tailed deer                                        401
-
-   138. Mountain goat                                            407
-
-   139. Group of mountain goats                                  408
-
-
-                             DISTRIBUTION MAPS
-
-     3. Mammalian distributional areas                            20
-
-    11. Life-zones of Washington                                  32
-
-    17. Extent of Vashon-Wisconsin ice                            48
-
-    22. Gibbs shrew-mole                                         123
-
-    24. Townsend mole                                            127
-
-    26. Coast mole                                               129
-
-    27. Cinereous shrew                                          133
-
-    28. Merriam shrew and Trowbridge shrew                       134
-
-    29. Wandering shrew                                          137
-
-    30. Dusky shrew                                              140
-
-    31. Mountain water shrew                                     141
-
-    32. Bendire water shrew and pigmy shrew                      143
-
-    33. Big myotis                                               147
-
-    34. Yuma myotis                                              149
-
-    35. Fringe-tailed myotis and Keen myotis                     150
-
-    36. Long-eared myotis                                        152
-
-    37. Hairy-winged myotis                                      155
-
-    38. California myotis                                        156
-
-    39. Small-footed myotis                                      157
-
-    40. Silver-haired bat                                        160
-
-    43. Long-eared bat                                           163
-
-    44. Western pipistrelle                                      164
-
-    45. Big-brown bat                                            166
-
-    46. Hoary bat                                                168
-
-    47. Pallid bat                                               170
-
-    50. Black bear                                               175
-
-    51. Grizzly bears                                            177
-
-    52. Raccoon                                                  181
-
-    53. Western marten                                           185
-
-    55. Fisher                                                   188
-
-    56. Ermine                                                   192
-
-    57. Long-tailed weasel                                       196
-
-    58. Mink                                                     199
-
-    61. Wolverine                                                204
-
-    63. River otter                                              209
-
-    64. Civet cat                                                214
-
-    65. Striped skunk                                            218
-
-    67. Badger                                                   221
-
-    68. Red fox                                                  225
-
-    70. Coyote                                                   230
-
-    71. Wolf                                                     232
-
-    74. Cougar                                                   236
-
-    77. Canadian lynx                                            240
-
-    79. Bobcat                                                   243
-
-    80. Least chipmunk                                           252
-
-    81. Yellow-pine chipmunk                                     256
-
-    83. Townsend chipmunk                                        261
-
-    84A. Marmots                                                 266
-
-    84B. Townsend and Washington ground squirrels                268
-
-    85. Columbian and Beechey ground squirrels                   274
-
-    86. Golden-mantled ground squirrels                          280
-
-    88. Western gray squirrel                                    284
-
-    90. Red and Douglas squirrels                                289
-
-    92. Northern flying squirrel                                 294
-
-    93. Great Basin pocket mouse                                 298
-
-    94. Ord kangaroo rat                                         300
-
-    98. Northern pocket gopher                                   308
-
-   103. Beaver                                                   321
-
-   104. Northern grasshopper mouse                               323
-
-   105. Western harvest mouse                                    325
-
-   107. Deer mouse                                               329
-
-   108. Bushy-tailed wood rat                                    335
-
-   109. Northern lemming mouse                                   337
-
-   110. Heather vole                                             339
-
-   111. Gapper and California red-backed mice                    342
-
-   113. Pennsylvania meadow mouse                                346
-
-   114. Montane and Townsend meadow mice                         348
-
-   116. Long-tailed meadow mouse                                 352
-
-   117. Water rat                                                356
-
-   118. Creeping mouse                                           357
-
-   120. Muskrat                                                  362
-
-   122. Mountain beaver                                          368
-
-   124. Big jumping mouse                                        372
-
-   125. Porcupine                                                375
-
-   126. Pika                                                     378
-
-   127. Snowshoe rabbit                                          383
-
-   128. Black-tailed jack rabbit                                 386
-
-   129. Nuttall cottontail                                       388
-
-
-
-
-INTRODUCTION
-
-
-Mammals of Washington are of especial interest to the naturalist
-because many of them are recent immigrants; much of Washington was
-buried under thick glacial ice until relatively recently and many of
-the mammals, therefore, have inhabited the area only since the ice
-disappeared. The evolution or development of certain subspecies, in
-Washington, has certainly occurred within the last few thousand years.
-To be able thus to date such evolutionary changes as have occurred is
-of course a matter both of importance and interest to zoölogists. The
-evolutionary changes in several species are relatively great. In color,
-for example, the bobcat in the humid coastal area of western Washington
-is notable for its dark coloration, whereas in the more arid area
-of southeastern Washington it is remarkably pale and of a different
-subspecies. Within the limits of the state of Washington, elevations
-ranging from sea level to more than 14,000 feet occur. Since different
-elevations have their characteristic mammals, more kinds are found in
-Washington than in other areas of corresponding size that lack such
-topographic diversity. Expressed in terms of the life-zone concept,
-Washington includes faunas ranging from the Upper Sonoran Life-zone to
-those of the Arctic-Alpine Life-zone.
-
-The basis for a study of the mammals of Washington was laid in 1929
-by W. P. Taylor and W. T. Shaw in the "Provisional List of the Land
-Mammals of the state of Washington." Bailey's "Mammals and Life Zones
-of Oregon" and "The Recent Mammals of Idaho" by W. B. Davis deal
-with the habits and distribution of mammals in the areas bordering
-Washington on the south and east, and were very useful in the
-organization of the present report.
-
-The study was first planned from the taxonomic and ecologic point of
-view. Such a study, of necessity, involves the classification and
-distribution of the forms concerned. Classification has required more
-work than any other part of the study and has been, in a sense, the
-nucleus of the study. Nevertheless, as the report began to take form
-it was recognized that the part dealing with classification and other
-purely technical aspects of the paper probably would be uninteresting
-to the average reader. Therefore it was felt that a greater impetus
-to the study of the mammals of Washington would be given by reducing
-the taxonomic accounts to the minimum and dealing principally with the
-problems of distribution.
-
-As originally planned, the present report was to be of joint authorship
-by Dr. Victor B. Scheffer of the United States Fish and Wildlife
-Service, Seattle, and the writer. The press of other work prevented
-Dr. Scheffer from devoting as much time as he had planned to the
-project. He has, however, contributed his field notes, specimens, and
-photographs, and in many other ways assisted in the project.
-
-Field work on mammals of Washington was carried out by the writer
-from 1936 to 1940 but a decision to prepare a complete report was
-not reached until 1938. Intensive field work was done between 1938
-and 1940. In August, 1941, the author took up residence at Berkeley,
-California. Drafting of the manuscript was begun at that time as a
-student under Professor E. Raymond Hall. War conditions and the press
-of other work delayed completion. Subsequently, the manuscript was put
-in final form at the University of Kansas.
-
-Many persons in addition to Dr. Scheffer have given assistance in the
-course of this work. Dr. E. Raymond Hall, in particular, encouraged
-the project and gave assistance in various ways including critical
-attention to the manuscript. I am indebted also to Dr. Trevor Kincaid
-and Mrs. Martha Flahaut of the University of Washington, Dr. Seth B.
-Benson and Dr. Alden H. Miller of the University of California, Dr. H.
-H. T. Jackson of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Dr. George E.
-Hudson of the Charles R. Conner Museum, Mr. Burton Lauckhart of the
-State of Washington Department of Game, and Mr. Ernest Booth of Walla
-Walla College. Mrs. Peggy B. Dalquest typed and edited the several
-preliminary drafts of the manuscript and aided in the laboratory
-and field work. Thanks are due also to many others, including game
-protectors, hunters and trappers, who have given assistance. The names
-of some of them are mentioned in the following pages.
-
-Approximately ten thousand specimens of mammals were used. In
-decreasing order, according to the number of specimens studied from
-Washington, the following collections are to be mentioned: materials
-obtained principally from southern Washington in the years 1939 to
-1942 as a result of the interest of Miss Annie M. Alexander and Dr.
-E. Raymond Hall; these materials are in the University of California
-Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy. The writer's own collection which at
-one time numbered 2,500 specimens was the second source. The residue,
-the part not destroyed by fire at the writer's home in the spring of
-1942, in Seattle, now is in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy at the
-University of California and the Museum of Natural History at the
-University of Kansas. The other collections are those of the Biological
-Surveys of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the Washington
-State Museum at Seattle, the Charles R. Conner Museum at Washington
-State College, and the Museum of Natural History at the University of
-Kansas. In the latter collection are some materials obtained nearly
-half a century ago by the late L. L. Dyche, some recently taken
-specimens added by reason of the provision for work of this kind by
-the University of Kansas Endowment Association and, as noted above,
-a part of the author's original collection. Selected specimens from
-several other collections have been used and these are indicated in
-the text when particular reference is made to the specimens. Most of
-the specimens studied were conventional study skins with skulls. In
-some instances skeletons, skins alone, skulls alone, or entire animals
-preserved in alcohol have been used.
-
-
-
-
-PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF THE STATE
-
-
-The state of Washington was divided into seven physiographic provinces
-by Culver (1936). Culver points out that the physiography, though
-complicated in detail, is basically simple.
-
-The state, including Puget Sound and other inland waters, is nearly
-rectangular in shape and is 69,127 square miles in area. Its western
-boundary is the Pacific Ocean. Politically, it is bounded on the north
-by the United States-Canadian Boundary (49° north lat.), on the east by
-the state of Idaho, and on the south by the state of Oregon.
-
-The Cascade Mountain Range, or Cascade Mountains Province, runs
-from the northern to the southern boundary and divides the state
-into two sections, of which the eastern is slightly the larger. The
-mountain range trends approximately 10° east of north and continues
-uninterruptedly into British Columbia, but on the south the Columbia
-River separates the Washington Cascades from the Cascades of Oregon.
-Near the northern border of the state the range is wide, extending
-from the Mount Baker Range on the west to Mount Chopaka, 100 miles to
-the east. In the central part of the state it is more compact, being
-some 60 miles wide in the vicinity of Mount Rainier. Farther south it
-expands to approximately 100 miles.
-
-The Cascades of Washington possess five great volcanic cones. These are
-Mount Baker (10,750 feet elevation) on the north, Glacier Peak (10,436
-feet) in the north-central part, Mount Rainier (14,408 feet) in the
-central area, and Mount Adams (12,326 feet) and Mount St. Helens (9,697
-feet) on the south. Excluding these volcanic peaks, the crests of the
-Cascades have a relatively uniform level descending from an average
-of 8,000 feet at the north to 5,000 feet at the south. Ranges jutting
-southeastwardly from the north-central Cascades parallel elongate
-intermontane valleys. These include the Entiat and Wenatchee mountains.
-The latter range reaches the Columbia River and forms an important
-barrier to mammalian movements.
-
-There is an extensive area of anticlinal ridges extending from the
-southern Cascades to the Columbia River. This area includes the Horse
-Heaven and other hills. Most of it is drained by the Yakima River and
-is termed, in this report, the Yakima Valley Area.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 1. Cascade Mountains at Canadian boundary, looking
-  west along boundary trail. Monument 100 in foreground, headwaters of
-  Ashnola River in broad valley at right. (Forest Service photo, No.
-  4328.)]
-
-The Puget Sound Trough, or Puget Sound Province, is immediately west
-of and parallel to the Cascade Mountains. It is part of a structural
-downwarp that extends southward into Oregon. Most of the area is
-below 1,000 feet elevation, and much of the northern part is below
-sea level and therefore flooded by the marine waters of Puget Sound.
-The most prominent feature of this area is Puget Sound. This is a
-glacially-carved and drowned river valley, studded with islands,
-peninsulas, fjords and bays that all possess a general north-south
-orientation resulting from the direction of ice movement. Puget Sound
-is connected with the Pacific Ocean by the Strait of Juan De Fuca, a
-wide channel separating the state of Washington and Vancouver Island.
-
-The San Juan Islands represent the glaciated remnants of mountains
-that, in preglacial time, may have connected the mountains on Vancouver
-Island with the Cascades of Washington. The San Juan Islands lie at the
-junction of Puget Sound, the Strait of Georgia, and the Strait of Juan
-De Fuca. As a result of a boundary dispute and subsequent arbitration,
-the islands were apportioned, on the basis of the deepest channel
-separating them, between Canada and the United States. The American
-portion includes more than 400 islands. These vary in size from mere
-rocks above high tide to Orcas Island, 60 square miles in area.
-
-The Olympic Peninsula, or Olympic Province, lies between Puget Sound
-and the Pacific Ocean. The Strait of Juan De Fuca separates this
-peninsula from Vancouver Island on the north. In the south the valley
-of the Chehalis River is a convenient boundary for the province. The
-central portion of the peninsula is occupied by the Olympic Mountain
-Range. This range is nearly oblong in shape, measuring some 70 miles
-east to west by 45 miles north to south. The mountains are extremely
-rough and jagged. They rise from sea level to above 6,000 feet. The
-highest peak, Mount Olympus, is 8,150 feet in elevation.
-
-South of the Olympic Province and west of the Puget Sound Trough is an
-area of low, rough hills. Culver called it the Willapa Hills Province.
-
-The northern third of the land east of the Cascade Mountains, or
-northeastern Washington, is termed the Okanogan Highland Province by
-Culver. Its southern boundary is set at the east-west flow of the
-Spokane and Columbia rivers. The outstanding physiographic feature of
-this area is its division into north-south trending areas of lowland
-with intervening highlands and mountain ranges. The rivers are, from
-east to west, the Clark Fork, Colville, Columbia, Kettle, San Poil and
-Okanogan. Not all intervening highlands are separately designated as
-mountains. Among these named are the Pend Oreille, Huckleberry, Kettle
-River, and Okanogan ranges.
-
-The part of eastern Washington south of the Okanogan Highland Province,
-save the extreme southeastern corner of the state, constitutes the
-Columbia Lava Province. This is an extensive, relatively level plateau
-that lies mainly below 2,000 feet elevation. The plateau consists of
-gently folded lava flows that reach a depth of 4,000 feet in some
-places (Russell, 1893) and slope inward from the east, north, and,
-in part, the west (Flint, 1938). These horizontal layers of basalt
-are extremely resistant to erosion by other than large rivers. Two
-great gashes cross the Plateau diagonally from the northeast to the
-southwest; these are Moses Coulee and the Grand Coulee. These old
-coulees are the former valleys of the Columbia River, and were formed
-at the time when the course of the river was successively blocked by
-the advance of Pleistocene ice. The Snake River crosses the southern
-edge of the Columbia Lava Province and separates the plateau proper
-from an area of similar land to the southward.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 2. Columbia River one mile west of Kellers Ferry,
-  Washington, elevation 1,060 feet, April 16, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife
-  Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 933.)]
-
-The Blue Mountains Province is an area of relatively small extent in
-the extreme southeastern corner of the state of Washington. There, the
-province concerned constitutes, as it were, a northward extension of
-the Blue Mountains of Oregon. The mountains rise to only 5,000 feet
-elevation in the Washington part of the Blue Mountains Province.
-
-
-
-
-DISTRIBUTIONAL AREAS
-
-
-The physiographic provinces are areas of land form. The form of the
-land has a considerable effect on the temperature, humidity, drainage,
-weathering, soil, and other non-organic features that combine to
-produce the various life-zones and influence the distribution of
-mammals. One might therefore expect a close correlation of mammalian
-distributional areas with physiographic provinces. Although there is
-a correlation, it is not exact because the distribution of mammals is
-influenced also by certain other factors. Among these are historical
-factors and isolation by geographic barriers.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 3. Mammalian distributional areas of Washington.
-  A. Western Washington. B. Cascade Mountains. C. Northeastern
-  Washington. D. Blue Mountains. E. Southeastern Washington.
-  F. Yakima Valley. G. Columbian Plateau.]
-
-The Cascade Mountains Province of Culver includes the Yakima Valley
-Area. This province contains two completely different mammalian
-distributional areas. The higher mountains possess a boreal, alpine
-fauna; the Cascade Range itself is called the Cascade Area in this
-report. The Yakima Valley Area possesses a desert fauna derived from
-the desert of eastern Oregon.
-
-The land west of the Cascades is separated into three physiographic
-provinces, the Puget Sound, Willapa Hills, and Olympic Mountains
-Province. The differences between the mammalian faunas of the Puget
-Sound and Willapa Hills provinces are slight. The Olympic Mountains
-possess a few species not found in the lower areas. The similarities of
-the faunas of the three provinces far outnumber their differences, and
-it seems best to consider them subdivisions of one distributional area.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 4. Cascade Mountains in Chelan National Forest,
-  looking southwest at Straight Ridge; Cataract Creek (Methow watershed)
-  at left. (Forest Service photo. No. 4260.)]
-
-The Okanogan Highland Province extends, from a physiographic point
-of view, west of the Okanogan River Valley. This valley, however, is
-a fairly efficient barrier to mammals. Thus the part of the state
-east of the Okanogan Valley and north of the east-west flow of the
-Spokane and Columbia rivers may be called the Northeastern Washington
-Distributional Area.
-
-The Columbia Lava Province includes the land both north and south of
-the Snake River. Since the Snake River serves as a barrier to some
-species, it seems better to term the area north of the Snake River
-the Columbian Plateau Area and that to the south the Southeastern
-Washington Distributional Area.
-
-The Blue Mountains Province and the Blue Mountains Distributional Area
-are the same.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 5. Yakima Park (or Sunrise Park), elevation 6,000
-  feet, Mount Rainier, August 29, 1932. (Photo by 116th Photo Section,
-  Washington National Guard, No. 014-36A-116.)]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 6. Columbia River at Hunters Ferry, Stevens County,
-  Washington, April 15, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor
-  B. Scheffer. No. 932.)]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 7. Blue Mountains, Umatilla National Forest,
-  Washington, looking north-northeast across Al Williams Ridge to
-  Tucannon River; 1933. (Forest Service photo, No. 4437.)]
-
-  PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES        DISTRIBUTIONAL AREAS
-
-  Cascade Mountains            { Cascade Mountains
-                               { Yakima Valley
-
-  Puget Sound       }
-  Willapa Hills     }            Western Washington
-  Olympic Mountains }
-
-  Okanogan Highlands             Northeastern Washington
-
-  Columbia Lava                { Columbian Plateau
-                               { Southeastern Washington
-
-  Blue Mountains                 Blue Mountains
-
-
-
-
-CLIMATE AND VEGETATION
-
-
-The life-zone theory of plant and animal distribution was proposed by
-Merriam (1892). Merriam's life-zones have been severely criticized by
-many authors, especially because an error was made in computing some of
-the data on temperature. However, zonation of vegetation and animals is
-obvious in Washington, and the life-zone concept has been employed in
-Washington by numerous botanists and zoölogists. Among them are: Piper
-(1906), Taylor and Shaw (1927), Jones (1936, 1938) and St. John (1937).
-
-The higher parts of the Cascade Mountains are in the Arctic-alpine
-Life-zone. This is the area of wind-swept ridges, living glaciers, and
-permanent snow fields.
-
-Trees are absent but a few shrubs are present; these include: _Juniperus
-sibirica_, _Salix cascadensis_, _Salix nivalis_, _Gaultheria humifusa_,
-_Empetrum nigrum_, and the heathers, _Phyllodoce glanduliflora_,
-_Cassiope mertensiana_ and _Cassiope stelleriana_. Jones (1938) lists a
-total of 98 species of plants from the Arctic-alpine Life-zone of Mount
-Rainier. Many of these plants are most abundant in the next life-zone
-lower, and are of but incidental occurrence in the Arctic-alpine
-Life-zone. No mammalian species is resident but individuals of several
-species regularly visit and occasionally breed there.
-
-Below the Arctic-alpine the Hudsonian Life-zone stretches the entire
-length of the Cascades. Temperatures are low, especially in winter;
-then the thermometer does not rise above zero for weeks at a time.
-The average annual temperature at Paradise, 5500 feet, Mt. Rainier,
-is 38.6° (all temperatures given here are in degrees Fahrenheit).
-Snowfall is heavy. The average yearly snowfall, for four years, at
-Mt. Baker Lodge, at 4200 feet elevation, Whatcom County, was 478
-inches; at Goat Lake, 2900 feet, Snohomish County, 261 inches; Tye,
-Stevens Pass, 3010 feet, King County, 398 inches; Paradise, 5500 feet,
-Mt. Rainier, 587 inches. The deepest snow recorded at Paradise was
-27 feet, 2 inches on April 2, 1917. Following the spring thaws the
-mountain passes are opened to travel, usually in April or May, although
-nightly temperatures in April and May are still below zero. Spring
-precipitation is heavy, the monthly average for a twelve-year period
-at Paradise being 6.78 inches in April and 5.5 inches in May. Summer
-temperatures are high in the daytime, when the sun beats down through
-the rarefied atmosphere, but cool at night when accumulated heat is
-lost through the thin atmospheric blanket. In summer precipitation is
-light, averaging, at Paradise, 3.46 inches in June, .9 inches in July,
-and 3.44 inches in August. In the autumn the temperature, both daily
-and nightly, drops somewhat, and rain and cloudiness are the rule. At
-Paradise the average precipitation in September is 8.29 inches and in
-October 10.02 inches. The winter snows usually arrive by the middle of
-November.
-
-Trees that are characteristic of parts of the Hudsonian Life-zone
-include the alpine fir (_Abies lasiocarpa_), mountain hemlock (_Tsuga
-mertensiana_), Alaska cedar (_Chamaecyparis nootkatensis_) and
-white-barked pine (_Pinus albicaulis_). The following shrubs are listed
-by Jones (1938) as common in the Hudsonian Life-zone on Mt. Rainier:
-_Salix barclayi_, _Salix commutata_, _Juniperus sibirica_, _Alnus
-sinuata_, _Ribes howellii_, _Lutkea pectinata_, _Potentilla fruticosa_,
-_Sorbus occidentalis_, _Spiraea densiflora_, _Pachistima myrsinites_,
-_Arctostaphylos nevadensis_, _Arctostaphylos uva-ursi_, _Cassiope
-mertensiana_, _Cassiope stelleriana_, _Phyllodoce empetriformis_,
-_Rhododendron albiflorum_ and _Gaultheria ovalifolia_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 8. North side of Mount Rainier, 14,408 feet, with
-  Mount Adams at left and Mount St. Helens at right. June 19, 1932.
-  (Photo by 116th Photo Section, Washington National Guard, No.
-  011-36A-116.)]
-
-There are extensive coniferous forests in the Canadian Life-zone, still
-lower on the mountain slopes. This is an area of lesser temperature
-extremes than is the Hudsonian Life-zone. The average annual
-temperature at Longmire, 2761 feet, Mt. Rainier, is 43.8°. The average
-temperature for the winter months, however, is below freezing. In July
-and August the temperatures are high, especially in the daytime. The
-eighteen year average for Longmire during these months is 60.6°. Snow
-is regular but the fall is lighter than in the Hudsonian Life-zone. The
-annual average, over a period of nineteen years, is 184.4 inches at
-Longmire. Precipitation is similar to that in the Hudsonian Life-zone,
-averaging perhaps slightly less.
-
-In the Cascades the typical feature of the Canadian Life-zone is
-the extensive coniferous forest that extends, almost without a
-break, the entire length of the Cascades on both sides of the main
-crest. In addition to Douglas fir, the following trees occur in
-this forest: western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_), amabalis fir
-(_Abies amabalis_), white pine (_Pinus monticola_) and noble fir
-(_Abies nobilis_). Other plants include _Vaccinnium ovalifolium_,
-_Vaccinnium membranaceum_, _Menziesia ferruginea_, _Alnus sinuata_,
-_Acer circinatum_, _Sorbus cascadensis_, _Cornus canadensis_,
-_Clintonia uniflora_, _Stenauthium occidentale_, _Galium oreganum_,
-and _Prenanthes lessingii_. Saprophytes abundant in, if not confined
-to, this zone are listed by Jones as: _Monotropa uniflora_, _Monotropa
-hypopitys_, _Allotropa virguta_, _Newberrya congesta_, _Pterospora
-andromedea_, _Corallorrhiza maculata_, _Corallorrhiza mertensiana_ and
-_Corallorrhiza striata_.
-
-West of the Canadian Life-zone in the western Cascades, the coniferous
-forests merge with the lowland forests of western Washington. To the
-east of the Canadian Life-zone in the eastern Cascades, there is a
-distinct change to a more arid climate and flora. At Leavenworth, 1167
-feet, Chelan County, the annual average precipitation is but 19.5
-inches and at Cle Elum, 1930 feet, but 23.23 inches. Temperatures are
-higher, the annual average of the above two localities being 47.2°
-and 45.4° respectively. The winter months are cold, with the average
-temperature in January and February below freezing. In summer the
-averages in July and August at Leavenworth are 68.8° and 68.0°, with
-the average maximum being 87.5° and 86.1°. Snowfall is heavy, the
-yearly average at Leavenworth being 98.5 inches and at Cle Elum 86.3
-inches. The effect of this more arid climate is seen in the vegetation.
-The dense Douglas fir forest, is replaced by more open forests of
-yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosus_). Groves of oak (_Quercus garryana_)
-are found near streams. The open forests give way to the extensive
-grasslands bordering the desert. The transition of vegetation is
-similar to that occurring in the Yakima Valley Area.
-
-In the Yakima Valley Area, arid conditions prevail. The average yearly
-precipitation at Yakima is 6.67 inches. Only in November, December and
-January may more than one inch of precipitation be expected monthly.
-Snow may be expected in the winter months and the yearly average
-snowfall is 22.1 inches. Winter temperatures are low, the average
-for December and January being but slightly above freezing. Summer
-temperatures are extreme; the July average is 73.1° and the average
-maximum for the same month is 89°. The highest temperature recorded is
-111°.
-
-The open pine forests of the eastern Cascades give way to grasslands.
-Grasses of several species are common but the bunchgrass (_Agropyron
-spicatum_) is most important. Other plants include the primrose
-(_Oenothera pallida_), lupines (_Lupinus_), and _Mertensia_. In
-ravines and near watercourses such shrubs as hawthorn (_Crataegus
-douglasii_), service-berry (_Amelanchier cusickii_, _Amelanchier
-utahensis_), aspen (_Populus tremuloides_), syringa (_Philadelphus
-lewisii_), snowberry (_Symphoricarpos albus_), choke-berry (_Prunus
-melanocarpa_) and elderberry (_Sambucus caerulae_) form thickets.
-Lower in the valley the vegetation is xerophytic, similar to that
-of the Columbian Plateau. Sagebrush (_Artemisiae tridentata_) is
-dominant. Other shrubs include rabbit brush (_Chrysothamnus nauseosus_,
-_Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus_), hop sage (_Grayia spinosa_), black sage
-(_Purshia tridentata_) and greasewood (_Sarcobatus vermiculatus_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 9. Mount Rainier. Washington: Cowlitz Chimneys
-  from base of Dege Peak, July 19, 1933. (Fish and Wildlife Service
-  photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 859.)]
-
-Climatic conditions in the Olympic Mountains are, in general, similar
-to those of the higher Cascade Mountains. There is a limited area of
-Arctic-alpine Life-zone on Mount Olympus. The principal life-zone is
-the Hudsonian. The Canadian merges with the lowland Humid-Transition
-and is difficult to ascertain as a separate zone. In the Hudsonian
-Life-zone the average temperatures are low. Winter climate is bitter
-and the snow lies deep. In the absence of government weather stations
-in the Olympics, detailed descriptions of climatic conditions can
-not be given. Vegetation of the Hudsonian Life-zone of the Olympic
-Mountains is, in general, similar to that of the same life-zone of the
-Cascades (see Jones, 1936, Botanical Survey of the Olympic Peninsula).
-
-The lowlands of western Washington have a cool, humid climate. The
-average annual temperature of the area varies little from 50°. In
-winter the temperature, especially in January and February, commonly
-drops below the freezing point at night. Summer temperatures are
-moderate, rarely reaching 90°. Snowfall is light, averaging about 10
-inches. The prevailing winds are from the west and are moisture-laden.
-They rise over the Olympic Mountains and loose heavy rains along the
-coastal area of the lowlands. The average annual precipitation at La
-Push, Clallam County, is 97.9 inches; at Clearwater, Jefferson County,
-124.98 inches; at Aberdeen, Grays Harbor County, 81.58 inches; at South
-Bend, Pacific County, 83.35 inches. In contrast, the more inland areas
-receive less than half as much precipitation. The yearly average at
-Bellingham is 31.09 inches; at Seattle, 30.07 inches; at Tacoma, 39.53
-inches; at Vancouver, Clark County, 37.24 inches.
-
-The outstanding feature of the vegetation of western Washington is the
-coniferous forest. Previous to the logging activities a dense cover of
-Douglas fir, western hemlock and red cedar spread almost unbroken over
-the area. The openings in the forest and the marshy ravines and river
-valleys supported growths of underbrush and deciduous trees so dense and
-luxuriant as to compare with a tropical jungle. In the dense rain
-forests along the coast, mosses and lichens develop an understory
-vegetation many inches deep and clothe the branches of the forest trees.
-The mild temperature and excessive rainfall cause some species that
-usually are of bush or shrub size to reach the proportions of small
-trees. In some places one can climb twenty feet from the ground in a
-huckleberry tree, the trunk of which is five inches in diameter. The
-coniferous forest is made up of several species of trees. Most important
-among these are the western hemlock (_Tsuga heterophylla_), Douglas fir
-(_Pseudotsuga taxifolia_), and red cedar (_Thuja plicata_). Locally the
-western yew (_Taxus brevifolia_), lodgepole pine (_Pinus contorta_) and
-spruce (_Picea sitchensis_) may be common. Deciduous trees are numerous
-and include several willows (_Salix_ sp.), aspen (_Populus
-tremuloides_), hazel (_Corylus californica_), alder (_Alnus oregona_),
-oak (_Quercus garryana_), broadleaf maple (_Acer macrophyllum_), vine
-maple (_Acer circinatum_), and flowering dogwood (_Cornus nuttallii_).
-Mosses and ferns are abundant. The sword fern (_Polystichum munitum_)
-and bracken (_Pteridium aquilinum_) are especially common. Space
-prevents listing all but a fraction of the typical shrubs but these
-include huckleberry (_Vaccinium parvifolium_, _Vaccinium ovatum_),
-Oregon grape (_Berberis nervosa_), salal (_Gaultheria shallon_), rose
-(_Rosa gymnocarpa_), thimbleberry (_Rubus parviflorus_), salmonberry
-(_Rubus spectabilis_), blackcap raspberry (_Rubus leucodermis_) and wild
-blackberry (_Rubus macropetalus_).
-
-The higher parts of some of the ranges of northeastern Washington are in
-the Hudsonian Life-zone, but most of the mountains are in the Canadian
-Life-zone. The valleys are in the Transition Life-zone. Climatic
-conditions are similar to those of the eastern slopes of the Cascades.
-Winter temperatures are low, the average for December, January and
-February being below freezing. Summer temperatures are high, the July
-average for Colville being 67.2° and the July average maximum being
-87.4°. Vegetation consists principally of coniferous forests in the
-mountains and deciduous woods in the valleys. Among the interesting
-features of the vegetation are the extensive stands of almost pure larch
-(_Larix occidentalis_). In most respects the flora closely resembles
-that of the Blue Mountains.
-
-The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington differ from other ranges
-in Washington in their relative aridity. There are few streams and a
-single river drains the area. There are no government weather stations
-in the Blue Mountains. The winter temperatures are low and the snow deep
-and lasting. Summer temperatures are high and humidity and precipitation
-low. Coniferous forests of the type of arid regions form the principal
-tree cover. Typical plant species include the white fir (_Abies
-grandis_), alpine fir (_Abies lasiocarpa_), larch (_Larix
-occidentalis_), spruce (_Picea columbiana_), and such shrubs as fool
-huckleberry (_Menziesia ferruginea_), _Pachystima myrsinites_, dogwood
-(_Cornus canadensis_), wild current (_Ribes petiolare_), mountain
-mahogany (_Cercocarpus ledifolius_), spirea (_Spiraea_ sp.), lupines
-(_Lupinus_) of several species, maple (_Acer douglasii_), buckbrush
-(_Ceanothus sanguineus_), sticky brush (_Ceanothus velutinus_), and
-huckleberry (_Vaccinium membranaceum_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 10. A "pothole" being crowded by drifting sand,
-  ten miles south of Moses Lake, Washington, March 23, 1940. (Fish and
-  Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 925.)]
-
-The Columbian Plateau and southeastern Washington present desert
-conditions. At Odessa, 1590 feet, Lincoln County, the average annual
-precipitation is only 9.38 inches, and only in the winter may more than
-one inch of precipitation per month be expected. The average temperature
-is 48.5°. In the winter the average is below freezing but in July it is
-71.3°. The average maximum for July is 90° and an extreme of 111° is
-recorded. Walla Walla, 991 feet, has a higher annual precipitation
-(16.66 inches) but higher temperature (yearly average 53.5°, July
-average 75.0°, average July maximum 88.6°, extreme 113°). Winter
-temperatures on the Columbian Plateau are low. The January average at
-Odessa is 25.3° and at Walla Walla 32.4° The average yearly snowfall at
-Odessa is 19.4 inches and at Walla Walla 23.5 inches. Vegetation of the
-Columbian Plateau and southeastern Washington is of the desert type. A
-few pines and junipers grow in favored places. Along streams the
-cottonwood (_Populus hastata_) and willow (_Salix_) of several species
-are common. Most typical are grasses and shrubs such as the bunch grass
-(_Agropyron inerme_, _Agropyron spictatum_), foxtail (_Alopecurus
-aequalis_), cheat grass (_Bromus tectorum_), saltbrush (_Atriplex
-truncata_), greasewood (_Sarcobatus vermiculatus_) mustard (_Arabis_
-sp., _Brassica_ sp.), sagebrush (_Artemisia rigida_, _Artemisia
-tridentata_), rabbit brush (_Chrysothamnus nauseosus_, _Chrysothamnus
-viscidiflorus_) and cactus (_Opuntia polyacantha_). The arid climate of
-the Columbian Plateau affects, to some extent, surrounding areas. Thus
-the Yakima Valley Area, the Columbia Valley, where it borders the
-Plateau, and the Okanogan Valley possess vegetation typical of the
-Columbia Plateau.
-
-
-
-
-LIFE-ZONES AND ECOLOGY
-
-
-The Transition Life-zone is the principal life-zone in Washington. It is
-divisible into three subdivisions: Humid, Arid-timbered and
-Arid-grasslands (Fig. 11) subdivisions. The Humid and Arid-timbered
-subdivisions of the Transition life-zone are closely related in some
-respects but different in others. They are separated by the Cascade
-Mountains. All of the Transition Life-zone west of the Cascades belongs
-to the Humid subdivision and the timbered Transition Life-zone east of
-the Cascades belongs to the Arid-timbered subdivision.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 11. Life-zones of Washington. Arctic-alpine not
-  shaded. A. Hudsonian and Canadian (mapped together). B. Forested
-  Transition (Humid and Arid subdivisions). C. Arid-grasslands of the
-  Transition. D. Upper Sonoran.]
-
-The Arid-grasslands are of minor geographic extent. Although this
-subdivision is relatively distinct as concerns the distribution of
-plants, insects and birds, it is of little importance as concerns the
-distribution of mammals. For the most part, the mammals occupying
-it are more representative of surrounding areas. Large parts of the
-Arid-grasslands have been taken over for agriculture, especially wheat
-raising. Perhaps the greatest extent of the Arid-grasslands existing
-in a natural state is along the eastern Cascade Mountains and along
-the eastern side of the Columbian Plateau. These are truly transition
-areas, situated where the arid pine forests are replaced by open,
-sagebrush desert.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 12. Arctic-alpine Life-zone, Mount Rainier,
-  Washington: Cowlitz Glacier from elevation of 9,500 feet. (Fish and
-  Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer. No. 900.)]
-
-The Upper Sonoran Life-zone includes the desert areas of Washington
-(figure 11 D). Its principal extent is the central Columbian Plateau.
-From the central Columbian Plateau, fingerlike projections of desert
-extend along the principal valleys.
-
-The Arctic-alpine Life-zone occurs in the high Olympic Mountains and on
-the higher peaks of the Cascades. This is shown on the life-zone map,
-Fig. 11, as white, unshaded areas.
-
-The mammalian faunas of the Hudsonian and Canadian life-zones resemble
-each other closely. The boundary between them is too complex to permit
-separating them on a small-scale map. Consequently they are mapped
-together on Fig. 11 as A.
-
-
-THE HUMID SUBDIVISION OF THE TRANSITION LIFE-ZONE
-
-This subdivision is remarkably uniform in composition over western
-Washington. The greatest difference is in precipitation. Rainfall along
-the coast is heavier than that in the interior. Consequently vegetation
-is more dense and luxuriant along the coast.
-
-Four habitats may be distinguished in the Humid subdivision and further
-subdivision is possible. The dominant and most extensive habitat is the
-forest. Dominant mammalian species include: _Peromyscus maniculatus_,
-_Sorex trowbridgii_, _Sorex obscurus_, _Tamiasciurus douglasii_,
-_Clethrionomys californicus_, _Aplodontia rufa_, _Glaucomys sabrinus_
-and _Odocoileus hemionus_. Mammals are scarce and nocturnal forms
-prevail. As a rule, a line of mouse traps set in a forest habitat will
-take principally _Peromyscus maniculatus_ with a few _Sorex trowbridgii_
-and _Sorex obscurus_ and rarely a _Clethrionomys californicus_. In some
-places, especially where the moss is deep, a line of mouse traps will
-catch only shrews.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 13. Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone,
-  Headley's Marsh, five miles east of Granite Falls, Washington, June 4,
-  1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 60.)]
-
-A second important habitat is the deciduous jungle. This differs from
-the forest habitat in that the dominant trees are of the deciduous type
-and in that understory vegetation, such as shrubs and annuals, is dense.
-The jungle habitat occurs in ravines and in valleys of streams and
-rivers and, in general, covers the lower, poorly drained portions of the
-Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. Mammals are abundant and
-varied in the jungle habitat. The deer mouse (_Peromyscus maniculatus_)
-is the most common mammal but a line of mouse traps might also catch:
-_Neurotrichus gibbsii_, _Scapanus orarius_, _Sorex vagrans_, _Microtus
-oregoni_, or _Zapus p. trinotatus_. The mountain beaver, snowshoe
-rabbit, and Townsend chipmunk also occur there.
-
-The prairies form a third habitat. These areas of native grasslands are
-of minor extent but are the principal home of several races of gophers
-and the Townsend mole (_Scapanus townsendii_). Deer and elk also browse
-on the prairies.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 14. Timbered arid subdivision of the Transition
-  Life-zone, Kettle Falls on the Columbia River (now beneath Coulee Dam
-  backwater), Stevens County, Washington, June 15, 1938. (Fish and
-  Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 72.)]
-
-A fourth habitat is the marsh. In it there is here included the sphagnum
-bogs and marshy shores of lakes and streams. This habitat is
-characterized by damp ground, standing water, and dense vegetation.
-Typical mammalian species include the water shrew (_Sorex bendirii_),
-Townsend meadow mouse, muskrat and mink.
-
-Other habitats, such as aerial for the bats and aquatic for the beaver
-and otter, might be listed.
-
-
-THE ARID TIMBERED SUBDIVISION OF THE TRANSITION LIFE-ZONE
-
-In Washington the Arid timbered subdivision of the Transition Life-zone
-is the open, pine forest. Because of the aridity of this habitat,
-marshes and streamside thickets are uncommon, but where habitats of this
-kind do occur they have a fauna distinct from that of other habitats.
-
-The pine forest habitat includes many diurnal species, such as the red
-squirrel, yellow-pine chipmunk, and Columbian ground squirrel. The
-white-tailed deer occurs here and, for most of the year, the mule deer.
-Snowshoe rabbits are usually present. Near rocks the bushy-tailed wood
-rat is common. Mice are scarce, probably because of the open nature of
-the surface of the ground. A night's trapping usually yields only a few
-_Peromyscus maniculatus_.
-
-The mammalian fauna of the marshes and streamside thickets is similar.
-Shrews including _Sorex vagrans_ and _Sorex obscurus_ are uncommon.
-Meadow mice, including _Microtus pennsylvanicus_, _Microtus
-longicaudus_, and more rarely _Microtus montanus_, are taken.
-
-
-THE ARID GRASSLANDS SUBDIVISION OF THE TRANSITION LIFE-ZONE
-
-This subdivision is so much utilized by man where it occupies any
-considerable areas, and is of such a transitional nature elsewhere, that
-it is important for only a few native wild mammals. The sagebrush vole
-(_Lagurus curtatus_) seems to be confined to the arid grasslands. The
-white-tailed jack rabbit is now found principally in the arid
-grasslands, but its confinement there has resulted probably from
-competition with the black-tailed jack rabbit. The montane meadow mouse
-(_Microtus montanus_) is the only common, representative species. Many
-species from the Upper Sonoran Life-zone extend into the arid grasslands
-where conditions are suitable. These include _Reithrodontomys
-megalotis_, _Perognathus parvus_, _Citellus washingtoni_ and _Marmota
-flaviventris_. A few species more typical of the Arid timbered
-subdivision of the Transition Life-zone stray onto the arid grasslands.
-_Citellus columbianus_ and _Microtus longicaudus_ may be included here.
-
-
-THE UPPER SONORAN LIFE-ZONE
-
-The sagebrush desert in Washington is relatively uniform in nature.
-Several different habitats may be distinguished, such as sandy areas,
-open sage, dense sage, stony ground, and talus. Qualitatively, however,
-the mammalian fauna of these areas is surprisingly similar.
-Quantitatively, there are great differences. For example, the
-grasshopper mouse is rare in the open sage areas with hard, claylike
-soil but common on drifted sand. The harvest mouse is common in dense
-sage but rare in open sage or in open, sandy areas. Mammals are abundant
-on the sagebrush desert and typical species include: the black-tailed
-jack rabbit, Nuttall cottontail, Ord kangaroo rat, Great Basin pocket
-mouse, Townsend ground squirrel, Washington ground squirrel.
-
-Marshes are not uncommon on the Columbian Plateau and elsewhere in the
-Upper Sonoran Life-zone in Washington. They do not possess a fauna that
-is strictly Upper Sonoran but instead contain species more typical of
-the Arid-timbered subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. Meadow mice
-found in desert marshes include _Microtus montanus_ and _Microtus
-pennsylvanicus_. The only shrew we have found is _Sorex vagrans_. The
-harvest mouse (_Reithrodontomys megalotis_) is often abundant in
-marshes.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 15. Upper Sonoran Life-zone, sand and basalt
-  cliffs along the east bank of the Columbia River, at Vantage,
-  Washington, 1930. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B.
-  Scheffer, No. 848.)]
-
-
-THE CANADIAN LIFE-ZONE
-
-The Canadian Life-zone is a relatively uniform area in which the forest
-habitat is most important. Talus and swift, cold streams bring some
-typical mammalian species into the Canadian Life-zone from the
-Hudsonian. Mammals are usually common; they are abundant only in the
-upper portion of the Life-zone. Arboreal species and forms adapted to
-life beneath the forest cover are dominant. The Douglas squirrel, red
-squirrel, northern flying squirrel and Townsend chipmunk are typical
-arboreal species. Traps set beneath the trees might catch _Peromyscus
-maniculatus_, _Clethrionomys gapperi_, _Neotoma cinerea_, _Sorex
-obscurus_, or _Sorex trowbridgii_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 16. Canadian Life-zone forest on Mount Rainier,
-  Washington, elevation 2,800 feet, September 14, 1934. Western hemlock,
-  Douglas fir, western red cedar, and grand fir. (Fish and Wildlife
-  Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 325.)]
-
-
-THE HUDSONIAN LIFE-ZONE
-
-In Washington the Hudsonian Life-zone is of greater diversity than any
-other. Frost and steep slopes have formed great masses of talus and, in
-this talus, certain species of mammals, such as _Ochotona princeps_,
-_Marmota caligata_ and _Marmota olympus_ are found. Other species, such
-as the golden-mantled ground squirrels, mountain chipmunk, bushy-tailed
-wood rat, red-backed mouse and long-tailed meadow mouse find the talus
-an ideal home. Glacial action has produced, in the Hudsonian Life-zone,
-numerous level or concave areas that contain small lakes and slow-moving
-streams. Dense, herbaceous vegetation is abundant nearby. Small mammals
-abound and a line of mouse traps will almost certainly catch a few such
-typical species as: _Sorex palustris_, _Sorex obscurus_, _Microtus
-oregoni_, _Microtus richardsoni_, _Microtus longicaudus_ and _Zapus
-princeps_ as well as the ever present _Peromyscus maniculatus_. The
-shrew-mole or heather vole might also be taken, though the latter is
-more apt to be found in nearby heather meadows.
-
-TABLE 1. Distribution of mammals in Washington by Life-Zones. _A._
-Abundant. _C._ Common. _R._ Rare.
-
-    Column headers:
-
-    A: Humid Transition
-    B: Arid-timbered Transition
-    C: Arid-grasslands Transition
-    D: Upper Sonoran
-    E: Canadian
-    F: Hudsonian
-
-  ===========================================+===+===+===+===+===+===
-            SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES.          | A | B | C | D | E | F
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii               |   |   |   |   | ? | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      gibbsii minor                          | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Scapanus townsendii                        | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      orarius orarius                        | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      orarius schefferi                      |   |   |   | C |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      orarius yakimensis                     |   |   |   | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Sorex cinereus cinereus                    |   | R |   |   | R |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      cinereus streatori                     | R |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      merriami merriami                      |   |   |   | R |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      trowbridgii trowbridgii                | A |   |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      trowbridgii destructioni               | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      vagrans vagrans                        | A |   |   |   | R |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      vagrans monticola                      |   | C | C | A | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      obscurus obscurus                      |   |   |   |   | R |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      obscurus setosus                       | C |   |   |   | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      palustris navigator                    |   |   |   |   | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      bendirii bendirii                      | A |   |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      bendirii albiventer                    | C |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Microsorex hoyi washingtoni                |   | R |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Myotis lucifugus carissima                 |   |   | C | C |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      lucifugus alascensis                   | A |   |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      yumanensis sociabilis                  |   |   | C | C |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      yumanensis saturatus                   | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      keenii keenii                          | R |   |   |   | R |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      evotis evotis                          |   | R |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      evotis pacificus                       | R |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      thysanodes thysanodes                  |   |   |   | R |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      volans longicrus                       | C |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      volans interior                        |   | C |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      californicus californicus              |   |   | R | R |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      californicus caurinus                  | A | C |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      subulatus melanorhinus                 |   |   | R | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Lasionycteris noctivagans                  | A | A |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii        | R |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      rafinesquii intermedius                |   | R |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus             |   |   |   | R |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus               | A | A |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Lasiurus cinereus cinereus                 | R | R | R | R |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Antrozous pallidus cantwelli               |   |   | R | R |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Ursus americanus altifrontalis             | A | C |   |   | A | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      americanus cinnamomum                  |   | A |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      chelan                                 |   |   |   |   | R |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Procyon lotor psora                        | A |   |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      lotor excelsus                         |   | R | R | C |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Martes caurina caurina                     |   |   |   |   | A | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      caurina origenes                       |   |   |   |   | A | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      pennanti                               | R |   |   |   | R |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Mustela erminea invicta                    |   | C |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      erminea gulosa                         |   |   |   |   | C | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      erminea murica                         |   | R |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      erminea fallenda                       | R |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      erminea streatori                      | R |   |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      erminea olympica                       | R |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      frenata nevadensis                     |   | C | C | C | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      frenata effera                         |   | A | C | C | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      frenata washingtoni                    |   |   |   |   | C | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      frenata altifrontalis                  | A |   |   |   | C | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      vison energumenos                      | C | C | C | C | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Gulo luscus luteus                         |   |   |   | R | R | R
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Lutra canadensis pacifica                  | C | R | R | R | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Spilogale gracilis saxatilis               |   |   | R | R |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      gracilis latifrons                     | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Mephitis mephitis hudsonica                |   | A |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      mephitis major                         |   |   | R | R |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      mephitis notata                        |   | C | R |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      mephitis spissigrada                   | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Taxidea taxus taxus                        |   | C | C | C | R |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Vulpes fulva cascadensis                   |   |   |   |   |   | R
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Canis latrans lestes                       | C | A | A | A | C | R
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      latrans incolatus                      |   | A | C | C | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      lupus fuscus                           | R | R | R?|   | R |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Felis concolor missoulensis                |   | C |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      concolor oregonensis                   | C | C |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Lynx canadensis                            |   |   |   |   | R |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      rufus fasciatus                        | A |   |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      rufus pallescens                       |   | A | C | C | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Tamias minimus scrutator                   |   |   |   | C |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      minimus grisescens                     |   |   |   | R |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      amoenus caurinus                       |   |   |   |   | A | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      amoenus felix                          |   |   |   |   | A | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      amoenus ludibundus                     |   |   |   |   | A | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      amoenus affinis                        |   | A |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      amoenus canicaudus                     |   | A |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      amoenus luteiventris                   |   | C |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      ruficaudus simulans                    |   | C |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      townsendii townsendii                  | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      townsendii cooperi                     |   | C |   |   | A | R
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Marmota monax petrensis                    |   |   |   |   | R |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      flaviventris avara                     |   | R | C | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      caligata cascadensis                   |   |   |   |   | R | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      olympus                                |   |   |   |   | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Citellus townsendii townsendii             |   |   |   | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      washingtoni                            |   |   | C | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      columbianus columbianus                |   | A | C |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      columbianus ruficaudus                 |   | A |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      beecheyi douglasii                     |   | A |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      lateralis tescorum                     |   |   |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      lateralis connectens                   |   |   |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      saturatus                              |   | C |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni        |   | A |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      hudsonicus streatori                   |   | A |   |   | A | R
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      douglasii douglasii                    | A | A |   |   | A | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Sciurus griseus griseus                    | C | C |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis             | C |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      sabrinus fuliginosus                   |   |   |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      sabrinus columbiensis                  |   | A |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      sabrinus latipes                       |   | A |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      sabrinus bangsi                        |   | R |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Perognathus parvus parvus                  |   |   | C | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      parvus lordi                           |   |   | C | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      parvus columbianus                     |   |   |   | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Dipodomys ordii columbianus                |   |   |   | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Thomomys talpoides devexus                 |   |   |   | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides columbianus                  |   |   |   | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides aequalidens                  |   |   | A |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides wallowa                      |   |   |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides fuscus                       |   | A | C | R | C | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides yakimensis                   |   |   | C | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides shawi                        |   |   |   |   | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides immunis                      |   |   |   |   | A | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides limosus                      |   | C | A |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides douglasii                    | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides glacialis                    | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides tacomensis                   | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides pugetensis                   | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides tumuli                       | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides yelmensis                    | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides couchi                       | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      talpoides melanops                     |   |   |   |   | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Castor canadensis leucodonta               | A | A |   | C | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      canadensis idoneus                     | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus         |   |   |   | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis        |   |   | C | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Peromyscus maniculatus oreas               | A |   |   |   | A | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      maniculatus hollisteri                 | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      maniculatus austerus                   | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      maniculatus rubidus                    | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      maniculatus gambelii                   |   | C | R | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      maniculatus artemisiae                 |   | A | R | R | C | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Neotoma cinerea occidentalis               |   | C | R | A | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      cinerea alticola                       |   | C |   |   | A | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Synaptomys borealis wrangeli               |   |   |   |   |   | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Phenacomys intermedius intermedius         |   |   |   |   | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      intermedius oramontis                  |   |   |   |   | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus            |   | R |   |   | A | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      gapperi idahoensis                     |   | R |   |   | A | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      gapperi nivarius                       |   |   |   |   | A | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      californicus occidentalis              | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris           |   | A | R |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      pennsylvanicus kincaidi                |   |   |   | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      montanus nanus                         |   |   | A | C |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      montanus canescens                     |   | C | A | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      townsendii townsendii                  | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      townsendii pugeti                      | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      longicaudus halli                      |   | A | C | C | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      longicaudus macrurus                   | R |   |   |   | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      richardsoni arvicoloides               |   |   |   |   | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      richardsoni macropus                   |   |   |   |   | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      oregoni oregoni                        | A |   |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis            | A | A |   | C |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      zibethicus occipitalis                 | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Zapus princeps oregonus                    |   |   |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      princeps kootenayensis                 |   |   |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      princeps idahoensis                    |   |   |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      princeps trinotatus                    | A |   |   |   | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Aplodontia rufa rufa                       | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      rufa rainieri                          |   |   |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum              |   | A | R | C | A | R
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      dorsatum nigrescens                    |   | A | R | C | A | R
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Ochotona princeps cuppes                   |   |   |   |   |   | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      princeps fenisex                       |   |   |   |   |   | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      orinceps brunnescens                   |   |   |   |   | C | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Lepus townsendii townsendii                |   |   | C | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      californicus deserticola               |   |   | C | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      americanus washingtonii                | A |   |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      americanus cascadensis                 |   | C |   |   | A | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      americanus pineus                      |   | C |   |   | A | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      americanus columbiensis                |   | A |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii             |   |   |   | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      idahoensis                             |   |   |   | A |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Cervus canadensis roosevelti               | A |   |   |   | A | R
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      canadensis nelsoni                     |   | C |   |   | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Odocoileus virginianus leucurus            | A |   |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      virginianus ochrourus                  |   | A |   |   |   |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      hemionus hemionus                      |   | A |   |   | A | C
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      hemionus columbianus                   | A |   |   |   | C |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Ovis canadensis canadensis                 |   | A | A | A | A | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-      canadensis californiana                |   | A | A | A | A |
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-  Oreamnos americanus americanus             |   |   |   |   |   | A
-  -------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---
-
-
-
-
-GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF WASHINGTON
-
-
-The composition of the mammalian fauna of any area is dependent on
-several factors. These include the composition of the original fauna,
-species which have since invaded the area, and quantitative and
-qualitative changes that have occurred in the area. The latter two
-factors refer to changes in relative numbers or extermination of species
-through environmental changes or competition with other forms and
-evolutionary changes that have occurred in the species making up the
-mammalian fauna.
-
-Our knowledge and understanding of the distribution and history of the
-species of mammals occurring in Washington decreases rapidly as we go
-back in time. The distribution of the modern fauna at the present time
-is fairly well known. The distribution of species 100 years ago is less
-well understood. This is especially true of certain game species and
-carnivores whose distribution has been altered by man. Our knowledge of
-the distribution of mammals in the Pleistocene and earlier times is
-based on fossil skeletons. Such knowledge must necessarily be meager,
-for conditions favorable to fossilization and the preservation of
-fossils until their subsequent discovery by man, were not of common
-occurrence.
-
-In the Cascades and in eastern Washington, the Miocene was a time of
-orogeny and great volcanism. Great flows of lava, 4,000 feet thick in
-the Snake River area (Russell, 1893), emerging from fissures in the
-Snake River area, formed the Columbian Plateau. The Columbian basalt
-slopes inward centripetally from the eastern, northern, and western
-margins of the Columbian Plateau with an average descent of 25 feet to
-the mile (Flint, 1938). The dip of the lava flows results in the
-basalt-marginal course of the Spokane and Columbia rivers today, along
-the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau. The earlier part of the
-Pliocene was a period of erosion and deformation. In the early
-Pleistocene the five great volcanic cones of the Cascades, Mount Baker,
-Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount Adams and Mount St. Helens were
-formed. In eastern Washington a gentle folding of the Miocene lava flows
-occurred. The folding took place slowly and the Columbia River in its
-course along the eastern edge of the Cascades cut through the folds as
-they formed, making a series of water gaps. Farther south, the
-Simcoe-Frenchman Hills anticline seems to have arisen more rapidly and
-the Columbia River was forced eastward before it became impounded and
-rose over the barrier and plunged down, tearing out the great Wallula
-Water Gap (Flint, 1938). This gap is a mile wide, eight miles long and,
-in places, a thousand feet deep. The impounding of the Columbia by the
-Simcoe-Frenchman Hills anticline resulted in a lake several hundred
-miles in area. Sediments deposited in this lake form the Ringold
-formation. The Ringold formation possesses a very early Pleistocene
-mammalian fauna.
-
-The Pleistocene was a time of great change in the mammalian fauna of the
-world. Unfortunately the beautiful glacial sequence revealed in Europe
-and the Mississippi Valley cannot be detected in Washington. In western
-Washington the deposits of the last continental glaciation and fluvial
-deposits of the last interglacial period almost everywhere obscure
-evidence of earlier glaciations. Deposits of an earlier glaciation,
-named Admiralty by Bretz (1913), have been detected in places. Deposits
-of greater age, that may represent a still earlier glaciation, have been
-noted. In eastern Washington the only definite proof of multiple
-glaciation is of one glaciation preceding the last. This is the Spokane
-glaciation of Bretz (1923). That multiple glaciation in the sequence
-reported from the Mississippi Valley affected Washington seems probable.
-The lack of evidence of a complete sequence is negative evidence. In
-western Washington the earliest glacial deposits might be beneath the
-later deposits or they may have been removed or reworked by subsequent
-glaciations, whereas in eastern Washington they may have been removed by
-subsequent glaciation and erosion.
-
-The time interval between the two known glaciations appears to have been
-of greater duration than the Recent. The drift of the earlier period is
-sometimes found covered by the till of the later glaciation, and
-preserved by it. The early material is deeply weathered and all save the
-hardest pebbles and quartzites, for example, are rotten and disintegrate
-at the touch. In contrast, the later deposits are almost unweathered.
-Pebbles are hard, and ring when struck. A zone of leaching and oxidation
-of the finer materials reaches a depth of some 30 inches, below which
-the till is fresh.
-
-Two names are currently applied to the last continental glaciation of
-the state of Washington. That west of the Cascade Mountains, studied and
-described by Bretz (1913), was termed "Vashon." The interglacial cycle
-preceding it was called "Puyallup." The glaciation of eastern Washington
-has been called "Wisconsin," after the Mississippi Valley terminology,
-by several writers. Papers by Flint (1935, 1937) describe and map it.
-
-The Vashon and Wisconsin glaciations probably occupied the same time
-interval, although this has not certainly been established. In the
-present report I have used the term "Vashon-Wisconsin" in speaking of
-the entire period, or the glaciers both east and west of the Cascades
-together. Vashon, alone, is restricted to western Washington and
-Wisconsin to eastern Washington.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 17. Extent of Vashon-Wisconsin ice over
-  Washington. The Wisconsin and Vashon glaciers have been connected
-  through the Mount Rainier section of the Cascades because it is
-  thought that few or no mammalian species lived in the Cascades north
-  of Mount Rainier while the ice was in place. Data generalized from
-  Flint (1937), Bretz (1913), Culver (1936) and other sources.]
-
-The Vashon glaciation seems to have consisted of an ice dome centering
-in Puget Sound (the Puget Glacier of Bretz, 1913) and flooding the
-lowlands from the Olympic Mountains to the Cascade Mountains. The
-southern edge of the Puget Glacier was slightly south of the present
-terminus of Puget Sound. Fingerlike projections of ice were forced up
-valleys of the western Cascades and the northern and eastern Olympics.
-Some of these upward moving fingers of ice met and coalesced with valley
-glaciers descending from the mountains. At the southern edge of the
-glacier, the Black Hills and Porcupine Hills remained above the ice
-although partially surrounded by it.
-
-The Wisconsin glacier, according to Flint (1935), was a great piedmont
-glacier, fed by valley glaciers from the Cascades and Coast Ranges
-to the west and the Rockies to the east. It extended from the Idaho
-boundary to the Cascade Mountains. From the Canadian Boundary it sloped
-down to an approximate elevation of some 6500 feet at Republic and to
-2500 feet on the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau which was the
-southern edge of the glacier. The Kettle River Mountains, in almost
-the center of the glacier, remained a peninsula or driftless area that
-divided the glacier into two lobes. The Pend Oreille, Huckleberry and
-other mountain ranges, formed nunataks, or islands above the ice, at
-the southern part of the glacier.
-
-The behavior of valley glaciers in the northern Cascade Mountains
-during Vashon-Wisconsin time, seems to have been variable. Some
-depression of the snow line, at least in the north, seems probable.
-
-The Vashon Glacier impinged on the eastern, northern and to some extent
-the western, slopes of the Olympic Mountains. Late Pleistocene valley
-glaciers in the Olympics, however, seem to have been inconsequential.
-
-The time of the retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers is a subject
-of special interest to the mammalogist in that it represents time for
-invasion and dispersal of species and in that it represents generations
-of individuals upon which natural selection might act. It is generally
-agreed that a period of approximately ten thousand years has elapsed
-since the retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers from Washington.
-
-Information on the climate of the state of Washington previous to the
-period of the last continental glaciation is understandably meager.
-Bretz (1913) considers the Puyallup period a time of excessive
-precipitation and erosion. Bits of lignite from Puyallup sediments
-seem to be of Douglas fir. Presumably the climate was slightly warmer
-and more humid than it is today. Vegetation possibly consisted of
-coniferous forests.
-
-With the advance of the Vashon ice, mammals north of the ice border
-were all or mostly eliminated. Climatic conditions south of the border
-of the ice probably were strongly affected by it. Remains of mammoths
-have been found in Vashon till. The presence of many non-boreal species
-of mammals in southwestern Washington indicates their persistence
-there and that conditions therefore were not intolerable for them.
-Probably the climate of southwestern Washington was cool and dry. Fir,
-spruce, and Douglas fir may have been the dominant trees. Hansen (1941
-A: 209) found evidence from studies of pollen that coniferous forests
-were growing in west-central Oregon in late glacial time. These pollen
-studies of postglacial peat bogs by Henry P. Hansen give evidence of
-postglacial climatic changes. Hansen points out (1941 B, 1941 C) that
-climatic changes west of the Cascades were probably slight because of
-the influence of the Pacific Ocean. Pollen profiles indicate an early,
-cool, dry climate followed by a warmer one and increasing humidity.
-The present climate may be considered cool and humid. Most of western
-Washington lies in the Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 18. McDowell Lake, Little Pend Oreille Wildlife
-  Refuge, Stevens County, Washington, September 29, 1939. (Fish and
-  Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 730.)]
-
-The pre-Wisconsin climate of eastern Washington is unknown. From
-the loessial nature of the Palouse Soil (Bryan, 1927), a preglacial
-deposit, the area would seem to have been arid, probably a grassland or
-a sagebrush desert. If the fossil fauna discovered at Washtuckna Lake,
-Adams County, is of this period, the forest conditions of the Blue
-Mountains were slightly more extensive than at present. The glacial
-climate of the Columbian Plateau in Wisconsin time was probably cool
-and arid. Pollen studies by Hansen (1939, 1940) indicate increasing
-dryness and warmth since the retreat of the Wisconsin ice. Present-day
-climate on the Columbian Plateau is warm and dry. The plateau is
-principally a sagebrush desert. The glaciated area to the north is
-cooler and more humid, supporting extensive forests of yellow pine and
-other conifers.
-
-
-
-
-THE FAUNAS
-
-
-We have mentioned elsewhere that three different mammalian faunas occur
-in Washington. These may be described as follows.
-
-1. THE GREAT BASIN FAUNA. This fauna is best typified by such genera as
-_Perognathus_ and _Dipodomys_. Species that, at least in Washington,
-are confined to this fauna are:
-
-    _Sorex merriami_                   _Tamias minimus_
-    _Myotis thysanodes_                _Perognathus parvus_
-    _Myotis subulatus_                 _Dipodomys ordii_
-    _Pipistrellus hesperus_            _Onychomys leucogaster_
-    _Antrozous pallidus_               _Reithrodontomys megalotis_
-    _Taxidea taxus_                    _Lagurus curtatus_
-    _Marmota flaviventris_             _Lepus californicus_
-    _Citellus townsendii_              _Sylvilagus nuttallii_
-    _Citellus washingtoni_             _Sylvilagus idahoensis_
-
-The break between the Great Basin Fauna and the other two faunas is
-extremely sharp, probably as a consequence of a sharp break in the
-flora.
-
-2. THE PACIFIC COASTAL FAUNA. The mammals of the humid coastal district
-range from the Fraser River, British Columbia, southward to the
-vicinity of Monterey Bay, California. In Washington typical genera are
-_Aplodontia_, _Neurotrichus_ and _Scapanus_. The following species are
-typical of the Pacific Coastal Fauna in Washington:
-
-    _Neurotrichus gibbsii_             _Tamiasciurus douglasii_
-    _Scapanus townsendii_              _Sciurus griseus_
-    _Sorex trowbridgii_                _Clethrionomys californicus_
-    _Sorex bendirii_                   _Microtus townsendii_
-    _Marmota olympus_                  _Microtus oregoni_
-    _Tamias townsendii_                _Aplodontia rufa_
-
-Some species which range outside this faunal area have strongly marked
-races confined to it. _Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis_ and _Lepus
-americanus washingtonii_ are examples. The Pacific Coastal Fauna is a
-forest fauna. Like the Great Basin Fauna, it reaches its northern limit
-of distribution in Washington and is better represented farther south.
-Unlike the Great Basin Fauna, the break between the Pacific Coastal and
-the surrounding fauna is not sharp, because forests continue into the
-more boreal faunal areas to the north and east. There, some mingling of
-coastal and Rocky Mountain faunas occurs.
-
-3. ROCKY MOUNTAIN FAUNA. If this fauna be thought of as including
-mammals of the Rocky Mountains of the United States, and also those of
-the subarctic faunal area to the east of these mountains in Canada, the
-species in Washington are as follows:
-
-    _Sorex palustris_                  _Synaptomys borealis_
-    _Microsorex hoyi_                  _Phenacomys intermedius_
-    _Lynx canadensis_                  _Clethrionomys gapperi_
-    _Marmota caligata_                 _Microtus richardsoni_
-    _Citellus lateralis_               _Ochotona princeps_
-    _Citellus columbianus_             _Lepus americanus_
-    _Tamias amoenus_                   _Rangifer montanus_
-    _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_          _Oreamnos americanus_
-    _Glaucomys sabrinus_
-
-Of the three, the Great Basin Fauna is the most distinct. Only about
-twenty species which occur within the Great Basin Faunal Area, occur
-also outside of it in one or both of the two other faunal areas. Most
-of these twenty are subspecifically different in the Great Basin Faunal
-Area as contrasted with one or both of the other areas. Each of the
-other two areas has no less than 32 species that are not restricted to
-it.
-
-
-
-
-SPECULATION AS TO EMIGRATIONAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALS
-
-
-The present fauna of the state of Washington was derived in part from
-Asia and in part from native forms. Great changes occurred in early
-Pleistocene through emigration. By the late Pleistocene most of the
-mammals now occurring in the state of Washington were as they are
-today. The greatest changes that seem to have occurred in the late
-Pleistocene are the extinctions of numerous groups, locally or totally.
-Among the carnivores, Matthew (1902: 321) reports remains of the great
-lion, _Felis atrox_, associated with such familiar species as the
-badger, cougar, lynx and mountain goat. The great lion was very similar
-to the modern African lion but was fully a fourth larger. Associated
-with the great lion in the California tar pits are the carnivorous
-short-faced bears (_Tremarctotherium_), as large as the Alaskan
-brown bears; dire wolves (_Aenocyon_), larger than timber wolves;
-and saber-tooth tigers (_Smilodon_). These forms were probably also
-present in Washington in the late Pleistocene. Matthew (_loc. cit._)
-reports remains of the giant beaver, _Castoroides_, from the Silver
-Lake deposit of Oregon. This great beaver, as large as a black bear,
-was doubtless a resident of Washington also. Peccaries, camels, bison,
-horses and giant ground sloths have been recorded from Pleistocene
-deposits of Washington and nearby areas. Of the elephant tribe, the
-mastodon and several species of mammoths were present.
-
-These extinct forms have doubtless exerted some influence on the past
-distribution of mammals in Washington and possibly have had an effect
-on the distribution of members of the living fauna. One species of the
-mammoth, at least, existed in Washington in postglacial time. Remains
-of this form, _Elephas columbi_, have been found in Vashon till.
-
-The three faunas of Washington can be placed in two categories. One is
-Sonoran, essentially a desert type, and occupies the Columbian Plateau.
-The other two are forest faunas, predominantly boreal in complexion,
-and are closely related. The Rocky Mountain Fauna is found in the Blue
-Mountains and in northeastern Washington. The Pacific Coastal Fauna is
-found in western Washington.
-
-The ice sheets of Vashon-Wisconsin time descended southward to southern
-Puget Sound and to the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau. If the
-area of the ice sheet be superimposed on a map of distributional areas
-of Washington, it is seen that the area occupied by the Rocky Mountain
-Fauna in northeastern Washington is eliminated. Thus, at the maximum
-descent of Wisconsin ice, the Rocky Mountain type of mammalian fauna
-was found only in extreme southeastern Washington. No point of contact
-between the forest fauna of the Rocky Mountains and the fauna of the
-Pacific coast exists, anywhere, because desert areas, or at least
-barren plains, lie between them from the border of the glaciers south
-to Mexico. For the entire period, perhaps thousands of years long,
-while the glaciers were in place, the two forest faunas were separated.
-Repeated separation of the faunas by successive glaciations is thought
-to be responsible for many of the differences now existing between them.
-
-Following the retreat of the ice, the Pacific Coastal Fauna extended
-its range northward to the Fraser River and, in part, into the Cascade
-Mountains. The Rocky Mountain Fauna invaded northeastern Washington and
-boreal Canada, including the Pacific Coast north of the Fraser River.
-Certain parts of the Rocky Mountain Fauna also invaded the Cascade
-Mountains.
-
-Inasmuch as the Cascades were invaded by species from both faunas, a
-detailed analysis of the mammals existing there now seems justified.
-Several significant features of the composition of the mammal fauna
-of the Cascades are apparent. First, several species typical of the
-Pacific Coastal Fauna are present, such as _Neurotrichus gibbsii_,
-_Sorex trowbridgii_, _Sorex bendirii_, _Tamias townsendii_, _Microtus
-oregoni_ and _Aplodontia rufa_. Each of these species has no close
-relatives in the Rocky Mountain Fauna and, save perhaps _Sorex
-trowbridgii_, occupies a unique ecological niche and has no counterpart
-in the Rocky Mountain Fauna.
-
-A second group includes species with close relatives in both the Rocky
-Mountain and Pacific Coastal faunas. This group is remarkable in that it
-is composed of either very closely related species or very strongly
-differentiated subspecies in each fauna. For example, the golden-mantled
-ground squirrel (_Citellus saturatus_) of the Cascade Mountains is
-specifically distinct from _Citellus lateralis_. Supposedly the Cascade
-form was isolated in the southern Cascades during Vashon-Wisconsin time.
-The Douglas squirrel (_Tamiasciurus douglasii_) of the Cascades, which
-has a red belly, is the same as the squirrel of the lowlands of western
-Washington but is specifically distinct from the red squirrel
-(_Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_) of the Rocky Mountain Fauna, which has a
-white belly. In the extreme northeastern Cascades the two species come
-together. They do not interbreed but seem to compete, for they do not
-occur together. The flying squirrel (_Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus_)
-of the Cascades is only slightly differentiated from other races of the
-Rocky Mountain Fauna but is much different, as are all Rocky Mountain
-races, from the western Washington subspecies (_Glaucomys s.
-oregonensis_). The red-backed mouse of the Cascades is _Clethrionomys
-gapperi_, a species distinct from _Clethrionomys californicus_ of
-western Washington. The jumping mouse of the Cascades is _Zapus princeps
-trinotatus_, the same race that occurs in western Washington. It is
-quite distinct from, and has previously been considered a species
-separate from, the races of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. The snowshoe
-rabbit of the Cascades is closely related to other races of the Rocky
-Mountain Fauna but is distinct from _L. a. washingtonii_ of western
-Washington. The pika (_Ochotona princeps_) of the Cascades was
-apparently isolated in the southern part of the range during the
-glaciation. After the retreat of the glaciers it extended its range
-northward. Competition between two subspecies has resulted in parallel
-distributions due to relative body size. The two races freely intergrade
-and the differences between them are not so great as in the other forms
-mentioned.
-
-The third group of mammalian species of the Cascades is composed of
-species typical of the Rocky Mountain Fauna such as: _Marmota caligata_,
-_Synaptomys borealis_, and _Orcamnos americanus_. Each has no ecological
-counterpart in the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Each is absent from the
-Cascades of Oregon.
-
-We interpret the mixture of faunas in the Cascades as follows: The
-Vashon-Wisconsin ice sheet was in place for a long period of time,
-longer, probably, than the Recent. During this time, forest mammals of
-the Pacific Coast were isolated from forest mammals farther east by
-glaciers to the north and desert to the east. Changes took place in both
-of the separated forest faunas. Certain species, perhaps, such as the
-mammoth, became extinct. Other forms were exterminated then or at an
-earlier time in one fauna or the other. If _Aplodontia_, _Neurotrichus_
-or _Scapanus_ occurred in the Rocky Mountain faunal area, it lived in an
-inland area of rigorous climate, and disappeared there because it was
-unable to adapt itself to the cold. In the mild climate caused by
-proximity of the ocean, mild even in Vashon-Wisconsin time to judge from
-evidence yielded by study of fossil pollens, primitive forms such as
-moles, the Bendire shrew, and mountain beaver persisted along the coast,
-where there were no boreal conditions. Some alpine forms, such as
-_Marmota olympus_, _Ochotona princeps brunnescens_ and _Citellus
-saturatus_ persisted in the Olympic or Cascade mountains as relic
-species. On the whole, however, the glacial divergence resulted in a
-boreal forest fauna and a temperate forest fauna.
-
-In addition to change in component species, there were evolutionary
-changes in the species themselves. In some these were considerable, as
-shown by the differences between related forms of the two faunas. In
-most species, however, evolutionary changes have resulted in only
-subspecific differences.
-
-Following the retreat of the glaciers and the establishment of
-vegetation on the deglaciated areas, movements of the faunas occurred.
-The Rocky Mountain Fauna spread northward and westward, to northeastern
-Washington and, in Canada to the Pacific, occupying most of the land
-exposed by the glaciers. The Pacific Coastal Fauna spread northward only
-as far as the relatively slight barrier of the Fraser River. The Cascade
-Mountains became a "no-man's land." The pika and golden-mantled ground
-squirrel of the southern Cascades spread northward. Boreal Rocky
-Mountain forms with no ecologic competitors from the Pacific Coastal
-Fauna occupied the Cascades. Also, coastal species with no Rocky
-Mountain competitors occupied the Cascades. Nevertheless, some
-competition between members of the two faunas ultimately occurred, and
-in instances where closely related forms occurred in the two faunas, one
-or the other prevailed in the Cascade Range. For example, the Douglas
-squirrel and big jumping mouse are now established in that range, but
-the relative of each occurring in the Rocky Mountains is present in the
-extreme northeastern Cascades. It is possible that in these two cases,
-the related form occurring in the Rocky Mountains has just entered the
-area and that competition has just begun. With regard to the flying
-squirrel, red-backed mouse and snowshoe rabbit, the more boreal Rocky
-Mountain representatives have definitely displaced the coastal forms.
-
-Certain mass movements of mammals are popularly believed to have
-occurred with the advance of the ice sheets of the Pleistocene. The
-boreal birds and plants on higher peaks of the Cascades and the Sierra
-Nevada of California are thought to represent relics of faunas that
-moved northward. Such mass movements probably did occur and there is
-some evidence of their occurrence in Washington. Probably the
-pre-Wisconsin flora of coastal British Columbia consisted of coniferous
-forest similar to that of western Washington today. If this were the
-case, the mammalian species in British Columbia corresponded closely to
-those of western Washington. An influx of such a fauna into coastal
-Washington would scarcely be evident today if, indeed, it was noticeable
-even then. In eastern Washington, forest species forced southward would
-come upon the barren, inhospitable plains and deserts of the Columbian
-Plateau.
-
-The greater part of the southward moving forms found refuge in the
-Cascade Mountains where, for most of Wisconsin time, they were isolated
-in the southern Cascades. Examples are _Sorex palustris_, _Martes
-caurina_, _Martes pennanti_, _Gulo luscus_, _Vulpes fulva_, _Lynx
-canadensis_, _Tamias amoenus_, _Thomomys talpoides_ (_douglasii_ group),
-_Phenacomys intermedius_, _Microtus richardsoni_ and _Ochotona
-princeps_. In each of these species little or no subspecific variation
-has occurred between the populations in the Cascades of Washington and
-the Cascades of Oregon.
-
-While the ice sheet existed in Washington there may have been relatively
-little movement of the mammalian fauna. There is definite evidence of a
-brief contact between the Rocky Mountain Fauna of the Blue Mountains and
-the fauna of the southern Cascades. For example, the pocket gopher of
-southeastern Washington (_Thomomys talpoides aequalidens_) is most
-closely related to the gopher of the Simcoe Anticline, and the
-long-tailed meadow mouse (_Microtus longicaudus halli_) of the Blue
-Mountains closely resembles the meadow mouse of the Yakima Valley.
-
-Mammals of the Blue Mountains and those of the southern Cascades may
-have come into contact on the Simcoe-Horseheaven Hills Anticline, which
-now stretches 150 miles from the Cascades to the Wallula Water Gap.
-Excepting the easternmost 40 miles, it is timbered. East of the
-Columbia, a continuation of the anticline and other hills reaches to the
-Blue Mountains. Supposedly, in Wisconsin Time, this anticline possessed
-a more humid climate and the habitat was essentially the same as that of
-an alpine meadow today. The forms on the two ends of the anticline that
-are closely related inhabit humid, meadow habitat. In an earlier paper,
-Dalquest and Scheffer (1944: 316) named this connection the Simcoe
-Bridge. Its existence was so strongly indicated by the distribution of
-pocket gophers in Washington that we supposed that the study of many
-other species would show that they crossed this bridge. However, study
-of additional species shows that for them the Simcoe Bridge was of only
-slight importance; there appears to have been but little mingling of the
-fauna of the Blue Mountains and the Cascades by way of the bridge. The
-Columbia River probably acted as an effective barrier to many forms that
-might otherwise have utilized it. The forms that did cross on this
-bridge are species known to be active in winter and to emigrate over
-considerable areas through tunnels under the snow (Davis, 1939: 257).
-The pocket gopher and long-tailed meadow mouse may have crossed the
-Columbia, under a cover of snow, when the river was frozen over. The
-Columbia has frozen over at the Wallula Water Gap in historic times.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 19. Pend Oreille River (or Clark Fork of the
-  Columbia) from a point near Newport, Washington, looking south,
-  June 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B.
-  Scheffer, No. 67.)]
-
-Great movements of mammal species came after the retreat of the
-Vashon-Wisconsin ice. The greatest of these was the spread of the Rocky
-Mountain Fauna northward and eastward to the Pacific. In this process,
-northeastern Washington was inhabited by animals that probably came from
-Idaho and Montana. Some of the species from farther north, as for
-example the caribou, may first have been forced into Idaho and Montana
-by the glaciers. The invasion of northeastern Washington probably was
-not a mass movement of an entire fauna, because invasion seems to be
-still going on. As yet the woodchuck and striped ground squirrel of the
-Pend Oreille Mountains have not crossed the Columbia River, a
-relatively minor barrier in northeastern Washington. The mountains west
-of the Columbia are occupied instead by the yellow-bellied marmot, a
-member of the Great Basin Fauna, and there is no ecologic counterpart in
-these mountains of the golden-mantled ground squirrel.
-
-Also the invasion of the Cascade Mountains by a number of Rocky Mountain
-species may have been an intermittant or gradual movement. The red
-squirrel and Rocky Mountain subspecies of jumping mouse now are present
-in the extreme northeastern Cascades, where they possibly arrived
-relatively recently. The squirrel is competing with the coastal species
-already present and may eventually supplant it. The same may be true of
-the two forms of jumping mouse.
-
-The invasion by the Rocky Mountain Fauna was rapid as compared with that
-of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Evidence of this was presented in an
-earlier paper (Dalquest and Scheffer, 1944: 310), where it was shown
-that the gophers of the _douglasii_ group, isolated during the Vashon
-time in the southern Cascades, made only a few feeble postglacial
-movements and then only when conditions were ideal. In this same time
-the _fuscus_ group of gophers moved from Idaho and virtually surrounded
-the range of the _douglasii_ group. This tendency to immobility seems to
-have been characteristic of every member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna.
-If the retreat of the Vashon and Wisconsin glaciers occurred at the same
-time, both faunas had an equal opportunity to invade the deglaciated
-area. Yet, the Pacific Coastal Fauna actually moved northward along the
-coast only to the Fraser River area, and slightly farther in the
-Cascades.
-
-Possibly the two glaciers retreated at different times. The Wisconsin
-Glacier was a piedmont glacier, fed by valley glaciers to the west and
-east, and may have disappeared when the feeder glaciers dried up. The
-Vashon Glacier was instead an ice cap, supposedly self-supporting much
-in the same manner as is the Greenland Ice Cap, and may have persisted
-longer than the Wisconsin glacier. If it did persist longer it formed a
-barrier to the northward emigration of coastal species of mammals.
-
-Possibly, also, the whole of the Pacific Coastal Fauna possessed an
-inherent sluggishness resulting from their long residence in the uniform
-climate and habitat of the Pacific Coast. Certainly the species show
-today great habitat specialization as compared with species of the Rocky
-Mountain Fauna. Also, there are fewer individual mammals per unit of
-area in western Washington than in northeastern Washington. The
-persistence of the Vashon Glacier, an inherent lack of incentive to
-emigrate, or retention of a favorable environment, may account for the
-relatively small area invaded by the Pacific Coastal Fauna.
-
-The Olympic Mountains, on the Olympic Peninsula, rise above the
-timber-line and are surrounded by forested lowlands which in a sense
-isolates this mountain range. Early workers, notably Elliot, obtained
-specimens of mammals from the Olympics and described numerous races,
-principally, it appears, on the supposition that because the range was
-somewhat isolated it should possess a unique fauna. Subsequent revisions
-of groups of mammals have indicated that most of the names proposed, on
-the basis of specimens from the Olympics, were either invalid or
-pertained to mammals found also in the Cascades.
-
-The mammals of the Olympic Peninsula appear to be divisible into three
-groups. A majority of them fall within the first group, namely coastal
-races possessing wide ranges in the lowlands of western Washington. The
-second group consists of species of the Rocky Mountain Fauna but with
-close relatives in the Cascades. The third group includes but two forms,
-both unique and found only on the Olympic Peninsula.
-
-The first group includes nonalpine forms of the lowlands surrounding the
-Olympic Mountains. For the most part these are identical with races of
-the Puget Sound area. A few are slightly differentiated from the mammals
-of the Puget Sound area but are the same as mammals from southwestern
-Washington. As will be shown later, some differentiation in the Pacific
-Coastal Fauna has occurred. This is thought to be evolution _in situ_,
-rather than the result of mass movements. Many nonalpine Coastal mammals
-occur in alpine habitat in the Olympics.
-
-The second group consists of species of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. Their
-relationship to the mammals of the Cascades is indicated in the two
-parallel columns below.
-
-             OLYMPICS                             CASCADES
-
-  _Sorex palustris navigator_          _Sorex palustris navigator_
-  _Martes caurina caurina_             _Martes caurina caurina_
-  _Martes pennanti_                    _Martes pennanti_
-  _Tamias amoenus caurinus_            _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_
-  _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis_   _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis_
-  _Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius_     _Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus_
-
-Only two of these are racially distinct from their relatives in the
-Cascades. Of these the chipmunk is a plastic species and breaks down
-into many races in Washington. The chipmunks of the Olympics and of Mt.
-Rainier are so similar that Howell (1929: 77) considered them as
-identical and mapped Mount Rainier as an isolated part of the range of
-the Olympic form (see account of _T. a. caurinus_). The relationship of
-the red-backed mice, also, is close, but has been obscured by the usual
-assumption of relationship between _californicus_ (_occidentalis_) and
-_gapperi_. The principal difference between the alpine forms is the
-pallor of _nivarius_. This pallor of mammals in general from the Olympic
-Mountains is noteworthy, but in the red-backed mouse is exceptionally
-noticeable. This pallor is discussed beyond in the paragraphs dealing
-with differentiation. Mention should be made here of _Myotis keenii_.
-This is a species which seems to have extended its range to Washington
-from the north. The power of flight, of course, removes it from
-consideration in attempting to reconstruct routes followed by
-terrestrial mammals.
-
-The route of the pocket gopher (_Thomomys_) in emigrating from the
-Cascades to the Olympics (Dalquest and Scheffer, 1944: 310), was over
-the outwash train of the Mount Rainier Glaciers, especially the
-Nisqualli Glacier, to the extensive outwash aprons of the Vashon Glacier
-around southern Puget Sound, and thence into the Olympic Mountains.
-Under the conditions in early postglacial time this invasion route,
-hereinafter termed the Puget Bridge, around the Pleistocene Lake Russell
-(present Puget Sound), is thought to have been mainly an alpine meadow.
-Indeed, the isolated prairies remaining today are the unforested
-remnants of the outwash aprons (see Dalquest and Scheffer, 1942: 69) and
-possess several species of alpine plants, notably the shooting star,
-camas, and bear grass.
-
-If the Vashon Glacier remained in place considerably longer than the
-Wisconsin Glacier, these Rocky Mountain species may have invaded the
-Cascades from northeastern Washington and travelled around the southern
-edge of the Puget Glacier or of Lake Russell. The close relationship of
-the races involved, however, suggests that the emigration took place
-much more recently. The barriers to such movement even today are slight,
-consisting principally of narrow areas of forest. For the water shrew,
-an almost continuous water habitat still exists, by way of the Nisqualli
-River, streams in the Puget Sound area, and the Satsop River in the
-Olympics. Tree-living forms such as the fisher and marten might easily
-travel the intervening distance today, and, by going along the forests
-north of the Chehalis River, reach the Olympics without crossing more
-than small streams and virtually without descending to the ground.
-Chipmunks and mice probably utilized the prairie or meadow area of the
-Puget Bridge, as did the gophers.
-
-Considering the long existence of the Puget Bridge, it is surprising
-that such forms as the pika, water rat and golden-mantled ground
-squirrel did not cross to the Olympics. These forms are, however,
-species of the higher or eastern slopes of the Cascades.
-
-The third group of Olympic mammals includes the white-bellied water
-shrew and the Olympic marmot, both indigenous forms.
-
-The Bendire water shrew, _Sorex bendirii albiventer_, is not restricted
-to alpine habitat but occurs throughout the Olympic Peninsula. Its
-nearest relative is _S. b. bendirii_ of the rest of western Washington.
-_S. b. albiventer_ differs from _bendirii_ only in possessing a
-partially white ventral surface. We can only conclude that the white
-belly of _albiventer_ is a mutation that the local environment has
-favored and that the characters have, therefore, spread through the
-population on the Olympic Peninsula. Occasional specimens are taken with
-dark bellies characteristic of _bendirii_ (Jackson, 1928: 199).
-
-The Olympic marmot, _Marmota olympus_, specifically distinct, and
-apparently the only preglacial relic species of alpine mammal in the
-Olympics, is most nearly related to _Marmota vancouverensis_ of the
-unglaciated mountains of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Both
-_olympus_ and _vancouverensis_ are close relatives of _Marmota caligata_
-which ranges southward into the Cascades of Washington.
-
-The Columbia River in its course westward through the Cascade Mountains,
-might be expected to act as a highway for the movement of mammals, but
-the extent to which it has done so seems to be slight, at least in
-postglacial time. The pocket gopher of southwestern Washington reached
-the area about Vancouver from the southern Cascades by way of meadows on
-the gravel terraces of Wisconsin glacial drift. No other mammal seems to
-have extended this far. Several Great Basin species, such as the
-cottontail, extend westward in the valley of the Columbia to the
-vicinity of Bingen.
-
-The mammals of western Oregon and southwestern Washington are closely
-similar as are the plants and climate, despite the fact that the broad
-Columbia River courses through the area and did so all through Recent
-and Pleistocene times. Many species would be expected to have crossed
-this barrier by swimming and rafting, and that they did so is indicated
-by the large number of mammals which are identical or very closely
-related on the two sides of the river.
-
-Mammals which seem not to differ on the two sides of the river include:
-
-    _Scapanus townsendii_              _Citellus beecheyi_
-    _Scapanus orarius_                 _Tamias townsendii_
-    _Sorex trowbridgii_                _Sciurus griseus_
-    _Sorex vagrans_                    _Glaucomys sabrinus_
-    _Canis lupus_                      _Castor canadensis_
-    _Felis concolor_                   _Microtus townsendii_
-    _Lynx rufus_                       _Microtus oregoni_
-    _Mephitis mephitis_                _Ondatra zibethicus_
-    _Spilogale gracilis_               _Zapus princeps_
-    _Procyon lotor_                    _Odocoileus hemionus_
-    _Ursus americanus_
-
-The following mammals are subspecifically distinct in western Washington
-and western Oregon:
-
-               WASHINGTON                         OREGON
-
-    _Sorex bendirii bendirii_          _Sorex bendirii palmeri_
-    _Sorex obscurus setosus_           _Sorex obscurus bairdi_
-    _Neotoma cinerea occidentalis_     _Neotoma cinerea fusca_
-    _Peromyscus maniculatus austerus_  _Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus_
-    _Clethrionomys californicus        _Clethrionomys californicus
-        occidentalis_                      californicus_
-    _Microtus longicaudus macrurus_    _Microtus longicaudus abditus_
-    _Aplodontia rufa rufa_             _Aplodontia rufa pacifica_
-
-The following species are found in western Oregon but do not occur in
-western Washington:
-
-    _Vulpes fulva_                     _Phenacomys albipes_
-    _Urocyon cinereoargenteus_         _Microtus canicaudus_
-    _Neotoma fuscipes_                 _Thomomys bulbivorus_
-    _Phenacomys silvicola_             _Lepus californicus_
-    _Phenacomys longicaudus_           _Sylvilagus bachmani_
-
-Several of these mammals which occur south of the river but not north of
-it are common on the south bank, a few miles from favorable but
-uninhabited territory on the north.
-
-Seemingly the pre-Vashon faunas of western Oregon and Washington were
-similar. Some species became extinct in Washington in the course of
-Vashon isolation. Others persisted. The very close relationship of the
-mammals of the first group indicates some crossing of the river. The
-best known of such crossings was that of the Beechey ground squirrel
-which, previous to 1915, was unknown in Washington. In 1915, when there
-was no man-made bridge at White Salmon, it crossed the river and since
-has spread over an area of at least 50 square miles. The distribution of
-the mountain beavers is unusual in that the form in the lowlands of
-Washington is indistinguishable from the subspecies in the Cascades of
-Oregon.
-
-The mammals that are racially distinct on the two sides of the
-Columbia River merit careful scrutiny. The _Peromyscus_ of the two
-sides more closely resemble one another than those of southern Oregon
-resemble those of northern Oregon or than those of southern Washington
-resemble those of northern Washington. For _Peromyscus maniculatus_,
-the Columbia River is simply a convenient boundary for the separation
-of two slightly different races. The Oregon race of the bushy-tailed
-wood rat is a coastal type but the Washington form is the same as that
-of eastern Washington. Seemingly the more eastern race spread to an
-unoccupied habitat in western Washington. Other races that differ on
-the two sides of the Columbia probably developed while separated by the
-river.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 20. Rocky bluff along north bank of the Columbia
-  River near Lyle. Washington. March 20. 1939. Habitat of Beechey ground
-  squirrel and yellow-bellied marmot. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo
-  by Victor B. Scheffer. No. 640.)]
-
-The San Juan Islands now possess a limited mammalian fauna.
-Unfortunately the activities of man have somewhat changed the native
-populations, especially by the introduction of the domestic rabbit
-which is now a serious pest in the islands. The Douglas squirrel,
-present on Blakeley Island, is said to have been introduced and one
-resident claims to have first brought it to the island. Two different
-persons claim credit for introducing the Townsend chipmunk on Orcas
-Island but do not account for its presence on Lopez Island. The three
-mammals most abundant and widely distributed in the islands are _Sorex
-vagrans_, _Peromyscus maniculatus_ and _Microtus townsendii_. These
-species, at least, probably reached the islands at an early time. The
-two last named are now subspecifically distinct from their mainland
-relatives. Other mammals which probably were established before the
-arrival of the white man include the mink, otter, beaver, muskrat,
-raccoon and black-tailed deer.
-
-The Great Basin Fauna of eastern Washington exists as three units, one
-on the Columbian Plateau, another in southeastern Washington and the
-third in the Yakima Valley area. The desert species of the Yakima Valley
-are more closely related to the species of eastern Oregon than they are
-to those of the Columbian Plateau. In a number of respects the Columbian
-Plateau gives indications of age. The ground squirrel, _Citellus
-washingtoni_, is related to, but specifically distinct from _Citellus
-townsendii_ of the Yakima Valley and eastern Oregon. _Perognathus parvus
-lordi_ is a well-marked race, as is _Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi_
-and _Thomomys talpoides devexus_. We suppose that these species were
-present on the Columbian Plateau at least through the Recent and
-probably through all of Wisconsin Time. The loess deposits of eastern
-Washington seem to have been laid down in Wisconsin and Recent times.
-These indicate an arid climate which, although probably cool, was
-probably not so cold as to exterminate these species. On the other hand,
-some species that are now abundant on the Columbian Plateau seem to have
-arrived there relatively recently. The black-tailed jack rabbit, for
-example, was unknown in eastern Washington before 1870 when it appeared
-in Walla Walla County. In 1905 it crossed the Snake River on ice and
-invaded the Columbian Plateau where it rapidly spread over the whole
-area. In January, 1920, it crossed the Columbia in two places and spread
-over the Yakima Valley.
-
-The known facts of this movement were sufficiently impressive to cause
-the author to study rather closely the distribution of mammals in this
-area. The collection of bones from a cave along the Columbia River near
-Vantage, Grant County, on the Columbian Plateau, is especially helpful
-in this respect. This cave was first visited in 1938. It had been the
-habitat of owls, bats, and primitive man. The floor of the cave was
-buried under from one to three feet of bat guano, much of which had
-been hauled away for fertilizer. Here and there we found traces of fire
-and occasional piles of mussel shells. Some arrowheads and one beautiful
-obsidian spear head were found, all buried in guano and about midway
-between the floor and the top of the deposit. Remains of mammals were
-abundant through the bat guano, and apparently had been brought to the
-cave both by man and owls. The jaw of a mountain sheep was found. This
-species was known to be present when the first settlers reached the area
-(Cowan, 1940: 558). The remains of smaller mammals included gopher,
-pocket mouse, muskrat, meadow mouse, deer mouse, coyote and white-tailed
-jack rabbit. No remains of cottontail, black-tailed jack rabbit or
-harvest mouse were found. The absence of the cottontail was especially
-surprising, in that fully thirty skulls of white-tailed jack rabbits
-were noted. The grasshopper mouse (_Onychomys_) was also absent, but
-this species is not common. The two rabbits and the harvest mouse,
-however, are abundant in the area today. The cottontail and harvest
-mouse have only recently been recorded from the Okanogan Valley of
-British Columbia (Cowan and Hatter, 1940: 9). The black-tailed jack
-rabbit has never been taken there.
-
-Apparently then, some species have only recently entered the Upper
-Sonoran Life-zone of eastern Washington. They have, of course, reached
-the state from Oregon. The first step in the invasion probably was the
-occupation of southeastern Washington. No barrier prevents mammals from
-reaching southeastern Washington from eastern Oregon but the Columbia to
-the north and west prevents them from occupying the Yakima Valley, and
-the Snake River prevents them from reaching the Columbian Plateau. The
-kangaroo rat, Great Basin striped skunk and Great Basin spotted skunk
-now are at this stage of invasion. The second stage was the crossing of
-the Columbia River to the Yakima Valley. This has been accomplished by
-the black-tailed jack rabbit and, earlier, by the pocket mouse,
-_Perognathus parvus parvus_, and ground squirrel, _Citellus townsendii_.
-The third stage was the crossing of the Snake River and occupation of
-the Columbian Plateau. The final stage is the crossing of the northern
-Columbia River and occupation of the Okanogan Valley.
-
-
-
-
-SPECULATION AS TO THE LATER DISTRIBUTIONAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALS
-
-
-Whereas it is probable that a few of the species now occurring in
-Washington evolved there, most are immigrants from other areas. The
-success of a given species in any area is dependent on numerous factors
-which may be classified under food, shelter from the elements,
-protection from enemies and safe breeding places. The factors may be of
-an inorganic nature, such as climate, soil and exposure or they may be
-organic, such as vegetation, competition for food and response to
-enemies. Abundance results in population pressure and a tendency for the
-range of a species to expand.
-
-Mammalian populations are dynamic and change in accordance with
-alterations in environment. Because the later geologic history of the
-state of Washington was violent, with resultant changes in climate and
-geography, the mammalian populations and the distribution of the species
-have changed much. With changes in environment, rare species may become
-common; common and widespread species may become rare or extinct;
-species foreign to the area may enter, become established and affect the
-distribution of other forms.
-
-Subspecies are groups of individuals with similar genetic components or
-are groups of microgeographic races. In instances where the phenotypic
-expression of these similar genetic factors, or the "characters," are,
-as a unit, uniformly different from those of animals of the same species
-in another geographic area, it is convenient to give recognition to the
-two kinds by separate subspecific name. Intergradation between two
-geographically adjacent subspecies occurs, directly or where impassable
-barriers separate them, indirectly by way of one or more other
-subspecies. Subspecies of mammals are geographic races, which means that
-to warrant recognition by subspecific name, there must be a logical
-geographic range in addition to morphological characters.
-
-Timofeef-Ressovsky (1932, 1940) advances the theory of harmoniously
-stabilized gene-complexes to account for the persistence of subspecies.
-The persistence of subspecies as genetic units has been best explained,
-I feel, by Sumner (1932: 84-86) who theorizes as follows:
-
-      1. The number of young produced by a subspecies is greater than the
-      carrying capacity of the land they occupy, at least at certain
-      times or in some years.
-
-      2. Population pressure results, with a tendency of individuals to
-      emigrate outwards, to the border of the range of the subspecies,
-      where the population pressure is less.
-
-      3. The outward moving tendency keeps the center of the range of
-      the subspecies genetically "pure."
-
-      4. The peripheral wave continues, as long as favorable habitat is
-      encountered, until an oppositely directed wave of another race is
-      encountered.
-
-      5. Areas of intergradation represent local mingling of genetic
-      factors and do not affect the "pure" individuals of the central
-      part of the range of the subspecies.
-
-Certain aspects of this hypothesis are strongly supported by the
-distribution of mammals in Washington. Witness the rapid invasion of
-_Citellus beecheyi_ and _Lepus californicus_ in Washington, and the
-eastern cottontail in western Washington and the domestic rabbit in the
-San Juan Islands. The volume of the "wave of population pressure" where
-no opposing force is met, is scarcely believable. In seven years the
-eastern cottontails released in southwestern Washington multiplied from
-a maximum of 12 individuals to a minimum of 40,000.
-
-Competition between subspecies where their ranges come into contact
-seems to be exceptional. _Peromyscus maniculatus oreas_ and _P. m.
-austerus_ seem to afford an example of this. However, in a few cases
-subspecies seem to be determined in part by adaptation to restricted
-environments; each race lives only where local conditions favor its
-respective adaptations.
-
-In the pocket gophers, where restricted habitat and fossorial habits
-cause numerous microgeographic races, these microgeographic races may be
-potential subspecies. This is especially true in the Puget Sound area,
-where six races occur in a small area. These races meet all the
-requirements of subspecies and are recognized as such. It should be
-pointed out, however, that these races and probably many other races
-produced by isolation, may represent degenerative mutations of the type
-mentioned by Wright (in Huxley, 1940). The principal differences of such
-races seem to have resulted from the loss of factors of original
-multiple factor series, with resultant homogeneity of the race. Inherent
-variability is another thing that has to be taken into account when
-considering the differentiation of the mammals of Washington into
-subspecies. The pocket gopher is an extremely plastic species,
-especially in Washington, whereas the Douglas squirrel is less so. The
-flying squirrels, the yellow-pine chipmunk and the snowshoe rabbit are
-the other plastic species. These species are not so likely to break up
-into numerous subspecies over all of their ranges as they are in
-Washington where in a small area the topography is highly varied. The
-range of the one subspecies, _Tamias amoenus amoenus_, to the southeast
-of Washington is larger than the combined ranges of all six races
-occurring in Washington but, so far as I can see, the topography and
-environment are no more varied in Washington than in the mentioned area
-to the southeast of it. The range of one subspecies, _Lepus americanus
-americanus_, in Canada is several times larger than the entire state of
-Washington, in which four races are found.
-
-The shrews are poor subjects for a study of differentiation, principally
-because their small size makes it difficult to see morphological
-variations that may be present. The difficulty is increased because
-cranial sutures become ossified at an early age. Although it is
-difficult to evaluate the differentiation in them, there is some. The
-bats, especially the _Myotis_, are less restricted by geographic
-barriers than are terrestial mammals. Nevertheless, obvious
-differentiation exists. The larger predatory mammals and the
-artiodactyls are able to move over large areas, at least in the breeding
-season, but in these animals also, some differentiation has occurred.
-
-The greatest changes, other than the extinctions, to occur in the
-mammalian fauna of Washington since the late Pleistocene, are changes in
-distribution. The interglacial cycle preceding the Vashon-Wisconsin
-glaciation was of far greater duration than the Recent. Presumably the
-mammalian fauna had, from a distributional standpoint, reached a
-relatively stable condition. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice
-destroyed the stability and set parts of the fauna in motion. Probably
-no stability was reached before the ice began to recede, and when it did
-so the previous movements of the various species were, at least in part,
-reversed. Stability has not yet been reached by the mammalian fauna of
-Washington. Great changes have occurred in historic times and other
-changes probably are under way at present.
-
-In the following pages an attempt has been made to interpret the
-probable late Pleistocene and Recent distributional history of the
-species of mammals occurring in Washington. The interpretations are made
-in the light of what is known of the physical history of the state and
-are to be accepted as such rather than as evidence for the conclusions
-made concerning the physical history of the state of Washington and
-adjacent areas.
-
-SCAPANUS TOWNSENDII.--Probably this animal was confined to the Humid
-Transition Life-zone of the Pacific Coast since the Pliocene.
-
-SCAPANUS ORARIUS.--This species probably had a history similar to that
-of _townsendii_ up to the late Pleistocene. It seems slightly more
-adaptable than _townsendii_, and to be able to extend higher into the
-mountains. The distribution of the subspecies _orarius_ is almost
-exactly that of _S. townsendii_. In Oregon, _orarius_ extended eastward
-over the Cascades where the subspecies _schefferi_ developed. Perhaps
-this subspecies developed since the Pleistocene and since that time
-extended along the Columbia River Valley to southeastern Washington. The
-race _yakimensis_, in the Yakima Valley area, is closely related to
-_schefferi_, and seemingly could have been developed from a stock of
-_schefferi_ that migrated westward across the Simcoe Bridge.
-
-NEUROTRICHUS GIBBSII.--The history of _Neurotrichus_ in North America
-was probably similar to that of the two species of _Scapanus_. It
-tolerates environmental differences to about the same degree that
-_Scapanus orarius_ does but occurs much farther south (Monterey County,
-California) than _S. orarius_. This may be because _Neurotrichus_ has no
-counterpart to compete with it in the south, whereas _Scapanus orarius_
-must compete in northern California with the morphologically similar
-_Scapanus latimanus_. _S. orarius_ stops short at this place and _S.
-latimanus_ occupies all the territory to the south.
-
-The shrew-mole of the lowland of Washington (_N. g. minor_) probably
-became distinct from the mountain subspecies (_gibbsii_) in
-Vashon-Wisconsin time.
-
-SOREX CINEREUS.--It is reasonable to suppose that the cinereous shrew
-had a continuous range across the forested area of British Columbia in
-pre-Wisconsin time. Without having been isolated, the dark coastal race
-(_streatori_) may have developed from the wider-ranging inland
-_cinereus_, as a response to the denser, humid, coastal forest-habitat,
-after having been forced southward to Washington by the Vashon
-Glaciation. Since that time it is presumed to have reoccupied the coast
-of British Columbia and southern Alaska. This coastal race might have
-developed in Vashon time, while isolated in southwestern Washington. The
-Cascades are populated by a race of the Rocky Mountain Fauna, _S. c.
-cinereus_, which probably entered the Cascades from northeastern
-Washington or British Columbia in Recent Time. The absence of the
-species in western Oregon, its rarity in western Washington, and its
-abundance farther north suggest a northern origin and northward rather
-than southward postglacial movement. Had the full species _cinereus_
-been a preglacial resident of western Washington we would expect
-_streatori_ or a race related to it to occur in the Cascades.
-
-SOREX MERRIAMI.--The periphery of the range of this member of the Great
-Basin Fauna may have been in southeastern Washington since pre-Wisconsin
-time.
-
-SOREX TROWBRIDGII.--This shrew is a typical Pacific coastal species with
-an extensive range along the Pacific Coast south of Washington. The
-Washington population may have been isolated in southwestern Washington
-during Vashon time or may have crossed the Columbia into Washington from
-western Oregon early in the Recent. Since the retreat of the ice it has
-extended northward to southern British Columbia and eastward to the
-eastern side of the Cascades. Save for crossing the Cascades its
-postglacial movements have been slight, as is typical of Pacific Coastal
-species. The race _destructioni_ probably has been isolated on
-Destruction Island for several thousand years.
-
-SOREX VAGRANS.--This species probably has had a continuous range over
-the western United States since the late Pleistocene. The dark coastal
-race (_vagrans_) probably was differentiated from the paler races of the
-Great Basin in response to the more humid climate along the coast.
-
-SOREX OBSCURUS.--The history of this shrew of alpine predilection
-probably corresponded closely to that of _Sorex cinereus_. The
-derivation of the dark, long-tailed, coastal race (_S. o. setosus_) from
-the smaller, paler, inland race (_obscurus_) probably occurred before
-Vashon-Wisconsin Time. _Sorex o. setosus_ is one of a complex of races
-distributed along the Pacific Coast from Alaska to California.
-
-SOREX PALUSTRIS.--This species has a wide range in North America and
-extends southward in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada Chain to southern
-California. Its extensive range at present in this mountain chain
-suggests that it was resident in the Cascades previous to Wisconsin
-time. Mountain water shrews probably reached the Olympic Mountains from
-the Cascades by way of the Puget Bridge in early Recent Time.
-
-SOREX BENDIRII.--This Pacific Coastal species probably had a history
-very similar to that of _Neurotrichus_ and _Scapanus orarius_.
-
-The difference between the Bendire water shrews of western Washington
-and western Oregon indicates that the Washington population was
-separated from the shrews of western Oregon during Vashon Time. The
-white-bellied race of the Olympic Peninsula is probably of local
-origin.
-
-MICROSOREX HOYI.--The Washington record of this shrew at Loon Lake,
-Stevens County, is in an area where mammals typical of the Rocky
-Mountain Fauna occur.
-
-MYOTIS LUCIFUGUS.--The dark race of this species (_alascensis_) may have
-persisted through the glacial period in southwestern Washington. The
-race _carissima_, of the Great Basin Fauna, may have entered the state
-since the glacial period, from the south, of course. Habitat selection
-determines their range at present.
-
-MYOTIS YUMANENSIS.--The dark, coastal race (_saturatus_) seems to be an
-established member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Unlike _lucifugus_, the
-coastal race is not found east of the Cascades. The race _sociabilis_,
-of the Great Basin, has doubtless entered the desert of eastern
-Washington from eastern Oregon.
-
-MYOTIS KEENII.--The southernmost record station for this north coastal
-species is on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington. It probably developed
-in the humid, northern part of the Pacific Coastal area previous to the
-last Pleistocene glaciation and extended its range to the south in
-Vashon-Wisconsin Time. The range of tolerance in _M. k. keenii_ seems to
-be more restricted than that of _M. lucifugus alascensis_.
-
-MYOTIS EVOTIS.--In Washington, the distribution of this bat is similar
-to that of _Myotis lucifugus_. The dark, forest race probably originated
-in the north-coastal region. The paler race, that developed in the
-southwest, entered eastern Washington from Oregon.
-
-MYOTIS THYSANODES.--In Washington this species has been recorded only in
-the southeastern part where the Great Basin Fauna occurs. It probably
-originated in the southwestern United States, and a point in British
-Columbia a little way north of Washington marks the northern edge of its
-natural range.
-
-MYOTIS VOLANS and MYOTIS CALIFORNICUS.--Remarks made about _Myotis
-lucifugus_ apply also to these two species.
-
-MYOTIS SUBULATUS.--The northwestern periphery of the range of this
-species seems to be in eastern Washington.
-
-LASIONYCTERIS NOCTIVAGANS.--Undifferentiated subspecifically from coast
-to coast, no basis is provided for judging the route by which this
-species entered the state.
-
-PIPISTRELLUS HESPERUS.--The northwestern periphery of the range of this
-bat, also, lies in eastern Washington.
-
-EPTESICUS FUSCUS.--Big brown bats from both eastern and western
-Washington seem to have been derived from the Pacific Coastal race of
-the species. Presumably it extended its range westward across the
-Cascades in early post-Pleistocene Time.
-
-LASIURUS CINEREUS.--No speculation as to the distributional history of
-the hoary bat seems justified at present.
-
-CORYNORHINUS RAFINESQUII.--The dark, coastal race of this bat probably
-persisted in southwestern Washington and western Oregon through Vashon
-Time and moved northward in the Recent. The paler _intermedius_ probably
-invaded eastern Washington from eastern Oregon in the Recent.
-
-ANTROZOUS PALLIDUS.--This species strays into eastern Washington from
-Oregon as part of the Great Basin Fauna.
-
-URSUS AMERICANUS.--The dark, western race of the black bear
-(_altifrontalis_) and the paler, inland race (_cinnamomum_) were
-probably separated by a glacial divergence. The inland race has entered
-northeastern Washington in the Recent with other members of the Rocky
-Mountain Fauna.
-
-URSUS CHELAN, etc.--The apparent past distribution of _chelan_ indicates
-it to have invaded Washington from British Columbia since the
-Pleistocene.
-
-The apparent absence of grizzly bears from the southern Cascades and
-western Washington may indicate their absence from these areas
-immediately before pre-Vashon time, or their extermination in or shortly
-after that period.
-
-PROCYON LOTOR.--The raccoon of western Washington seems to be the
-Pacific Coastal race which occurs also in western Oregon and
-northwestern California. This indicates that the coastal race (_psora_)
-was confined to the coastal area south of Washington during Vashon Time
-and has only recently reinvaded western Washington. It is possible,
-though less likely, that raccoons existed in southwestern Washington
-during Vashon Time but did not develop racial characters, or that the
-Columbia was crossed so frequently that genetic differences were
-dispersed throughout the entire population.
-
-Reasons why the second hypothesis is inadequate are: (1) Raccoons range
-but little north of the state of Washington, both east and west of the
-Cascades. (2) Raccoons of western Washington and the area about San
-Francisco Bay, California, are as much alike as are raccoons from
-southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon. It is thought that
-raccoons, if resident in western Washington since interglacial time,
-would have developed strong racial characters, and the fact that they
-have not indicates that they have entered the state at a relatively
-recent date.
-
-The raccoon of eastern Washington (_excelsus_) is a member of the Great
-Basin Fauna and has probably included southeastern Washington in its
-natural range for a long period of time. The raccoon has not extended
-its normal range into northeastern Washington, although it is seemingly
-ideal raccoon habitat; only an occasional vagrant occurs there. A stock
-of raccoons from which emigrants might come has existed in southeastern
-Washington and the Yakima Valley for some time. The Columbia River might
-serve as a highway by which emigrants could reach northeastern
-Washington.
-
-MARTES CAURINA.--The earlier distributional history of the western
-marten has been postulated by Davis (1939: 131-132), who stated: "When
-the ancestral stock split into the two groups, the one that gave rise to
-_americana_ may have pushed eastward across Canada to the Atlantic
-Coast; the other, giving rise to _caurina_, may have migrated southward
-along the Sierra Nevada-Cascade and Rocky mountains. Perhaps the great
-ice sheet was instrumental in pushing _americana_ eastward and
-separating it geographically from _caurina_." The present occurrence of
-_americana_ in Alaska and British Columbia is thought to have been by
-invasion from the east in postglacial time.
-
-Davis' theory seems basically correct but subject to correction in
-detail. The presence of _caurina_ in the southern Rocky Mountains
-suggests that it is not a Pacific Coastal species in the common sense.
-Had _americana_ occupied northern British Columbia in pre-Wisconsin
-Time, it and not _caurina_ would be expected to occur in the southern
-Rocky Mountains today, for the form found in British Columbia almost
-certainly would have been forced into the Rockies. The range now
-occupied by _caurina_ in the Rocky Mountains is so extensive as to
-suggest that martens could not have migrated into all of it from the
-Pacific Coast since Vashon Time, even had the region been unoccupied by
-any species of marten. The presence of _americana_ in Alaska and British
-Columbia suggests that it arrived in those areas before _caurina_ and
-that had the Rocky Mountains been unoccupied by martens in pre-Wisconsin
-time, _americana_ and not _caurina_ would have reached the Rockies
-first. It appears that _caurina_ occupied much of western North America
-in pre-Wisconsin Time and was forced southward into the southern Rocky
-Mountains and along the Pacific Coast by Vashon-Wisconsin ice.
-
-The separation of _americana_ and _caurina_ may be supposed to have
-occurred before the pre-Vashon-Wisconsin interglacial interval, perhaps
-by a glacier similar to but antedating the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciation.
-
-The martens of western Washington (_Martes caurina caurina_) are a
-coastal race. Those of northeastern Washington belong to a race of the
-Rocky Mountain Fauna, and are referred to _M. c. origenes_. Davis (1939:
-132) refers the martens of Idaho to _Martes caurina caurina_. I have
-compared specimens from Idaho with animals trapped for fur from the
-Pacific Coast proper and feel that the animals from northeastern
-Washington and those from Idaho are more like _origenes_ than _caurina_,
-although perhaps not typical. The animals from the Pacific Coast proper
-are _caurina_ and have darker heads and brown instead of yellow patches
-on the throat.
-
-MARTES PENNANTI.--Fishers are found throughout the Cascade Mountains and
-probably were widely distributed over western North America in
-pre-Wisconsin Time.
-
-MUSTELA ERMINEA.--The distribution of ermines along the coast of
-northern California and in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada of Oregon and
-California indicates, as does their differentiation there, that they
-ranged southward to these areas before and during Vashon-Wisconsin Time.
-
-In immediate pre-Vashon-Wisconsin Time, the dark race _streatori_
-probably occurred in western Washington. The race _murica_ probably
-occurred in the Blue Mountains then, as it does today, but probably
-occurred also in the Cascades of Washington. The descent of the Vashon
-glaciers probably displaced _streatori_ from the northern part of its
-range, at least temporarily. In the Cascades, _murica_ was likewise
-forced southward. Ermines related to the northern _richardsonii_ were
-forced into northern Washington and Idaho by the Wisconsin ice. They
-probably were unable to live on the barren, unglaciated plains of
-eastern Washington but persisted in Idaho.
-
-The ranges of the three forms at the maximum extent of the
-Vashon-Wisconsin may be reconstructed as follows: _streatori_ in
-southwestern Washington; _murica_ in the southern Cascades and the Blue
-Mountains; _invicta_ stock in northern Idaho. While so isolated, the
-ermines of the southern Cascades probably mingled, to a certain extent,
-with _streatori_ and developed the characters that now separate _gulosa_
-from both _murica_ and _streatori_. The intermediate nature of _gulosa_
-has been mentioned by Hall (1945: 85).
-
-The retreat of the ice allowed _streatori_ to move north and _invicta_
-to move north and east into Washington and the northeastern Cascades. To
-a lesser extent, _gulosa_ may have moved north. The poorly-marked race
-_olympica_ probably evolved from _streatori_ in the Recent. It is
-difficult to account for the dark race _fallenda_.
-
-It must have evolved from _streatori_ in the Recent but the origin of
-such a strongly marked race in such a short time is surprising. It might
-be mentioned that a similarly differentiated race of chipmunk, _Eutamias
-amoenus felix_, occupies much the same range.
-
-MUSTELA FRENATA.--The long-tailed weasels of the Pacific Coast behave as
-a plastic group and clearly show the effect of the Vashon-Wisconsin
-Divergence. The range of the coastal race, _altifrontalis_, indicates
-that it was isolated in southwestern Washington during Vashon Time. In
-that period, or shortly after, it extended its range southward but only
-along the extreme, coastal area of Oregon (see Hall, 1936: 101).
-Following the retreat of the ice it extended its range northward to the
-deglaciated area of western Washington.
-
-Also following the retreat of the ice, a Great Basin subspecies
-(_nevadensis_) extended its range northward. This race seems to have
-been more adaptable and successful than other kinds of Great Basin
-mammals, for it extended its range farther northward, eastward and
-westward than most.
-
-A third race, _washingtoni_, was isolated in the southern Cascade
-Mountains during Vashon Time and became differentiated from both
-_altifrontalis_ and _nevadensis_. It is now found in the Cascades from
-central Oregon north to Mount Rainier. It is difficult to see why it did
-not extend its range to include the northern Cascades when the glacial
-ice left, but it did not. Instead _altifrontalis_ entered the northern
-Cascades from the west and _nevadensis_ did the same from the east.
-Weasels obtained in habitats north of Mt. Rainier are intergrades
-between _altifrontalis_ and _nevadensis_.
-
-One is reminded here of the _douglasii_ group of _Thomomys talpoides_ in
-which subspecies did not move north of Mt. Rainier in postglacial time.
-The area north of Mt. Rainier was populated instead by gophers of the
-_fuscus_ group, subspecies of which invaded the area from the east.
-Perhaps Mt. Rainier itself served as a barrier to alpine mammals in the
-immediate post-Pleistocene. Perhaps _Mustela f. washingtoni_ will
-eventually extend its range northward, displacing the
-_altifrontalis-nevadensis_ intergrades from the habitats to which
-_washingtoni_ may be better adapted.
-
-The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington are occupied by a weasel
-(_effera_) that has a more extensive range in eastern Oregon. The range
-of this race has probably not changed materially for a long period of
-time.
-
-One would expect the weasels from extreme northeastern Washington to be
-referable to the race _oribasa_, of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. Instead
-they are intermediate between that race and the Great Basin race,
-_nevadensis_. Apparently _nevadensis_ was so dynamic and adaptable that
-it actually entered the geographic ranges of surrounding races for some
-distance. In view of Sumner's theory for the retention of subspecies,
-one might say that the population pressure of _nevadensis_ on the
-periphery of its range is stronger than the opposing pressure of some
-surrounding races.
-
-MUSTELA VISON.--Pending a review of the minks of North America, little
-can be said concerning their historical distribution in the state of
-Washington. From the general range of the species in western North
-America, one would expect some effect of the Vashon-Wisconsin Divergence
-to be apparent. There is some evidence for this. Minks from Idaho and
-adjacent parts of British Columbia are distinctly less reddish than
-minks from the area about Puget Sound, as noted by Davis (1939: 138).
-
-GULO LUSCUS.--The range of the subspecies _luteus_, peculiar to the
-Cascades and Sierra Nevada suggest that the wolverine may have been
-forced southward in the Cascades and there isolated during Vashon Time.
-The differences separating the southern race from the northern may have
-been developed while the two populations were isolated. The range of the
-wolverine was probably more extensive in glacial and immediate
-postglacial time than at present.
-
-LUTRA CANADENSIS.--The otter of western Washington seems to be a member
-of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Little can be said regarding the
-distributional history of the species in the state, for specimens from
-eastern Washington are not numerous enough to permit of a person
-certainly establishing their systematic position.
-
-SPILOGALE GRACILIS.--The western race of the civet cat (_latifrons_)
-seems to be a coastal race, isolated in southwestern Washington and
-western Oregon during Vashon time. The eastern race, _saxatilis_, is a
-race of the Great Basin Fauna, that has entered the state from Oregon
-and that will probably extend its range to the north.
-
-MEPHITIS MEPHITIS.--Of the four subspecies of skunks occurring in
-Washington, two seem to have been resident in the state during Vashon
-Time. The western race, _spissigrada_, was probably isolated in
-southwestern Washington and extended its range northward, in the
-deglaciated area of western Washington, after the retreat of the ice.
-Another race (_notata_) was probably isolated in the southeastern
-Cascades and adjacent Oregon. _M. m. hudsonica_ of the Rocky Mountain
-Fauna entered the northeastern part of Washington after the ice
-retreated from there. A race of the Great Basin Fauna, _major_, entered
-southeastern Washington from Oregon and may eventually extend its range
-farther north.
-
-It is interesting to note that both of the western races, _spissigrada_
-and _notata_, both of which probably developed in Washington during
-Vashon Time, occupy limited ranges in adjacent Oregon (Bailey, 1936:
-308).
-
-TAXIDEA TAXUS.--This species has probably long been resident on the
-Columbian Plateau and in southeastern Washington. For the early
-distributional history of the species see Hall (1944: 17). Pleistocene
-remains, referable to this race, have been found in Franklin County.
-
-VULPES FULVA.--The red fox of the Cascades was probably isolated there
-during Vashon Time by glacial ice. Its range extends southward in the
-Cascades to Oregon. The fox of eastern Washington is probably a member
-of the Rocky Mountain Fauna that lived in the Blue Mountains of
-southeastern Washington in Wisconsin Time and that emigrated to
-northeastern Washington in Recent Time.
-
-CANIS LATRANS.--The distributional history of the coyote in Washington
-is not clear.
-
-CANIS LUPUS.--The dark wolf (_fuscus_) of western Washington is probably
-a coastal race. The race that may have occurred in northeastern
-Washington probably was an invader from the Rocky Mountain Fauna, and
-the race that possibly occurred in southeastern Washington would be
-assumed to have long been a resident of the area.
-
-FELIS CONCOLOR.--The cougar of western Washington is a coastal race,
-probably developed while isolated in southwestern Washington and western
-Oregon. The cougar of northeastern Washington probably entered the state
-with other Rocky Mountain species, early in the Recent. The cougar of
-the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington has probably long been
-resident there.
-
-LYNX RUFUS.--The bobcat of western Washington seems to be a coastal race
-that was isolated in either southwestern Washington or western Oregon by
-Vashon ice. It has since extended its range into southern British
-Columbia. The bobcat of eastern Washington seems to be a member of the
-Great Basin Fauna that has spread to some forested areas on the
-periphery of the more arid life-zones.
-
-LYNX CANADENSIS.--The lynx is an element of a northern fauna that was
-probably forced southward into the Cascades and Rocky Mountains. Its
-range was probably more extensive, as is indicated by the scattered
-records of its occurrence in Oregon (Bailey, 1936:271).
-
-MARMOTA MONAX.--The woodchuck invaded northeastern Washington in the
-early Recent with the Rocky Mountain Fauna.
-
-MARMOTA FLAVIVENTRIS.--The yellow-bellied marmot is a typical member of
-the faunas of the Great Basin and the southern Rocky Mountains. It has
-doubtless entered southeastern Washington from eastern Oregon at an
-early time. In northeastern Washington, west of the Columbia River, it
-occupies alpine habitat, but it does not occur farther east, where
-_Marmota monax_ is found, or in the Cascades where _Marmota caligata_
-lives.
-
-The yellow-bellied marmots are great wanderers, and commonly are found
-in scattered outcrops far out on the Columbian Plateau. There is even
-one record for western Washington, near Bellingham, Whatcom County. This
-individual must have crossed some low pass in the Cascades from the area
-about Lake Chelan. There are records of eastern Washington birds
-occurring in this same area, so it seems likely that the marmot was a
-natural stray and not an animal that escaped from captivity.
-
-MARMOTA CALIGATA.--The absence of the hoary marmot from the Cascades of
-Oregon, and the presence there of _Marmota flaviventris_, indicates that
-the species did not occur in the southern Cascades of Washington during
-Vashon Time. Presumably the hoary marmot is a member of the fauna of the
-northern Rocky Mountains and entered the Cascades of Washington in the
-Recent, after which it spread widely and rapidly owing to lack of
-competition with any established species of marmot.
-
-MARMOTA OLYMPUS.--This species has probably lived in the Olympic
-Mountains since pre-Vashon Time.
-
-CITELLUS WASHINGTONI.--This ground squirrel has probably lived on the
-Columbian Plateau since before Wisconsin Time.
-
-CITELLUS TOWNSENDII.--The Townsend ground squirrel probably entered the
-Yakima Valley area from Oregon. The differences between it and its
-relatives in Oregon indicate a considerable period of isolation but one
-far shorter than the period during which _washingtoni_ is presumed to
-have been isolated from _townsendii_.
-
-CITELLUS COLUMBIANUS.--The Columbian ground squirrel might have been
-forced southward in the Rocky Mountain area by the Wisconsin glaciation,
-might have lived in southeastern Washington since then, and might have
-invaded northeastern Washington in the Recent with other species of the
-Rocky Mountain Fauna.
-
-CITELLUS BEECHEYI.--This ground squirrel is known to have entered
-Washington about 1915 from Oregon.
-
-CITELLUS SATURATUS.--The mantled ground squirrel of the Cascades
-probably evolved, from the _lateralis_ stock, as a separate species
-while isolated in the southern Cascades during Vashon Time. It is a
-poorly differentiated species and may actually be instead a strongly
-marked subspecies.
-
-CITELLUS LATERALIS.--The golden-mantled ground squirrels of northeastern
-and southeastern Washington are closely similar. It is deduced that
-_connectens_ of southeastern Washington developed the differences that
-characterize it while isolated, from the main stock, in the Blue
-Mountains area of Washington and Oregon.
-
-The race found in extreme northeastern Washington (_tescorum_) probably
-reached that area in relatively recent times. Its range in Washington is
-more restricted than that of several other members of the Rocky Mountain
-Fauna; areas of suitable habitat west of the Columbia River are not
-inhabited by these ground squirrels. Its range in Washington is almost
-exactly that of (_Marmota monax_).
-
-TAMIAS MINIMUS.--The least chipmunk of the Yakima Valley is the same
-race (_scrutator_) as that occupying the Great Basin area of Oregon and
-Nevada. It must have crossed the Columbia in relatively recent times.
-Had it been resident in the isolated Yakima Valley area for any
-considerable period of time, the development of distinctive racial
-characters there would be expected. Perhaps, then, it has not been
-resident there as long as has the Townsend ground squirrel which, though
-closely related to the ground squirrel of eastern Oregon, is racially
-distinct.
-
-The least chipmunk of the Columbian Plateau is thought to be racially
-distinct from its relatives in the Yakima Valley and eastern Oregon.
-Probably it reached the Plateau very early in the Recent. It has
-probably not been separated from the parent stock as long as has the
-ground squirrel (_Citellus washingtoni_) of the plateau. The ground
-squirrel is specifically rather than racially distinct.
-
-TAMIAS AMOENUS.--The distributional picture of the yellow pine chipmunks
-in Washington is complex. (Fig. 81.) Certain habits of these mammals
-doubtless have modified what was probably the original postglacial
-distribution of the species. Chipmunks are diurnal and natural
-selective factors for color possibly operate more strongly on animals
-active by day than on nocturnal animals. Yellow pine chipmunks are
-neither forest nor desert inhabitants. Indeed, dense forests or open
-deserts serve as barriers to their distribution. They prefer brush
-lands, open woods, and other habitats where there is food and cover but
-abundant sunlight. In such habitats they are almost independent of
-altitude, temperature and humidity. They live in the Olympic Mountains
-where rainfall is heavy and humidity high. They live and breed at
-considerable altitudes in the Cascades, even in the crater of Mount
-Rainier, where snow, ice and freezing conditions exist the year around.
-On the other extreme, they occupy the low, open pine forests and brush
-lands at the lower edge of the Arid Transition Life-zone where
-temperatures, in summer, are high and rainfall scarce.
-
-We find in the present distribution of the species in the Cascade-Sierra
-Nevada chain and the Rocky Mountains, indication that the species had a
-wide geographic range over western North America previous to the
-Vashon-Wisconsin glacial interval. Probably the range of the species
-extended in an arc, from the Rocky Mountains across northern Washington
-to the Cascades, around the basaltic plateau desert in eastern
-Washington and Oregon. Presumably the descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin
-glaciers broke this arc into two parallel geographic ranges, the Rocky
-Mountains and the Cascade-Sierra Nevada chain, with a desert area
-between.
-
-Almost every species of forest-dwelling animal had its range separated
-into two parts by the southward movement of the glaciers. Most of these
-forest-dwelling species were composed of relatively homogeneous stocks,
-although the yellow pine chipmunk probably was not. The extensive range
-of tolerance of the yellow pine chipmunk to altitude and climate and its
-unique habitat requirements cause it to meet radically different natural
-selective factors. The predators of the chipmunks near Wenatchee, Chelan
-County, would include: rattlesnake, gopher snake, badger, striped skunk,
-prairie falcon, red-tailed hawk and other predominantly desert-dwelling
-species. The chipmunks at Stevens Pass, in the mountains to the west,
-would have to contend with: marten, black bear, goshawk, bald eagle and
-other alpine predators. At the present time, the chipmunk of the eastern
-Cascades is racially distinct from that of the higher Cascades. Geologic
-and botanical evidence indicates that the Columbian Plateau was a desert
-in pre-Wisconsin Time. We suppose that a transition from alpine
-conditions in the Cascades to desert conditions on the Columbian
-Plateau existed even in pre-Wisconsin Times. We suppose also that the
-chipmunk existed in this transition area and in the Cascades before
-Wisconsin Time and in the southern and southeastern Cascades during
-Wisconsin Time. We further suppose that the differences separating the
-transition area race (_Tamias amoenus affinis_) from the mountain race
-(_T. a. ludibundus_) came about through natural selection and not as a
-result of geographic isolation. The principal difference between the two
-is the paler color of the race in the transition area.
-
-The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers, then, found two races of
-the yellow pine chipmunk in the Cascades. Chipmunks living north of the
-Columbian Plateau, in northern Washington and British Columbia, were
-probably forced southward onto the inhospitable plains of the plateau
-and exterminated. Farther east, north of northeastern Washington,
-chipmunks from the north were probably forced southward to compete with
-resident chipmunks.
-
-The range of _Tamias amoenus luteiventris_ in Washington, Idaho and
-Montana is most unusual (See Howell, 1929; Davis, 1939). From a compact
-range in Montana, two long fingers reach northward and westward. The
-western finger crosses Idaho to end in the Blue Mountains of Oregon and
-Washington. The northern finger crosses northern Idaho, northeastern
-Washington and extends on into southern British Columbia. Between these
-two fingers of the range of _luteiventris_ another race (_canicaudus_)
-is found. This race occupies a more lowland area than does
-_luteiventris_. The range of _luteiventris_ in the northern Rocky
-Mountains is extensive. Presumably this race occupied an area farther
-north in pre-Wisconsin Time and was forced southward to its present
-range by the Wisconsin glaciers. The original population occupying
-extreme eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho was _Tamias amoenus
-canicaudus_. The pre-Wisconsin range of this race might have been more
-extensive. At any rate, _luteiventris_ which was driven southward
-displaced _canicaudus_, or some other race of chipmunk, from much of the
-Rocky Mountains south of the glacier. The northern chipmunks were
-adapted to more boreal conditions and perhaps otherwise better suited to
-environmental conditions of the northern Rocky Mountains. A small
-population of the older established race (_canicaudus_) persisted in
-lowland areas of eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho.
-
-Regarding the range of _canicaudus_, surrounded by the range of
-_luteiventris_ on three sides and faced by desert on the west, Davis
-(1939: 220) writes, "It may be that, of these two races, _luteiventris_
-has a greater range of tolerance to environmental conditions and, thus,
-is able to succeed in areas to which _canicaudus_ is not adapted. This
-inference is supported by the fact that _luteiventris_ occupies a large
-range which is diversified geographically and climatically, whereas
-_canicaudus_ seems to be limited to a much smaller, more nearly uniform
-area." Seemingly _canicaudus_ now exists only in an area ideally suited
-to it, and one where it can successfully compete with the generally more
-adaptable and successful _luteiventris_. The maximum extent of the
-glacial ice, then, found _luteiventris_ the dominant chipmunk in the
-northern Rocky Mountains, with an isolated population of _canicaudus_ in
-eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho.
-
-The topography of the ground moraine exposed by the retreat of the
-Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers was a barrier to many species of mammals. The
-rough, rocky surface with thin soil probably first supported mosses and
-grasses, then brush, and later trees. The earlier stages of plant
-succession on the deglaciated ground probably presented ideal habitat
-for yellow pine chipmunks. Certainly the races immediately adjacent to
-the glaciers extended their ranges farther north than many species. In
-eastern Washington, _T. a. luteiventris_ spread to the northeastern
-corner of the state and on into British Columbia. In the northern
-Cascades, _T. a. affinis_ spread northward and eastward, across the
-Okanogan River, into northeastern Washington as far as the range of
-_luteiventris_. The chipmunk of the higher Cascades (_ludibundus_)
-likewise extended its range northward into British Columbia. In the
-northwestern Cascades of northern Washington and southern British
-Columbia, a richly-colored race, _T. a. felix_, now occupies a limited
-geographic range. This race doubtless originated from _ludibundus_ stock
-but the method of its development is unknown. Perhaps in early
-postglacial time, selective factors developed in chipmunks of the
-western slopes of the Cascade Mountains the rich, dark color of _felix_.
-The ancestral _ludibundus_ may have given rise to a pale race,
-_affinis_, in the arid eastern Cascades and a dark race, _felix_, on the
-humid western slope of the Cascades. This seems improbable for there is
-no trend to darker color on the western border of the range of
-_ludibundus_ south of the range of _felix_, and instead, _affinis_ may
-have given rise to _ludibundus_. A more appealing hypothesis is that a
-local mutation in some _ludibundus_ stock so changed the range of
-tolerance of a portion of the population that it was allowed to enter
-the more dense habitat along the coast north of the Fraser River and,
-there, isolated by habitat selection, it developed the characters of
-_felix_. Population pressure later forced it eastward until the eastern
-border of its range again met the range of the ancestral race,
-_ludibundus_.
-
-The chipmunks of the Olympic Mountains probably reached their present
-range from the Cascades. Their probable path of emigration was westward
-from Mt. Rainier, along the glacial outwash train of Nisqualli Glacier,
-to the moraine and outwash apron of the Vashon Glacier and thence to the
-Olympics. So similar are the chipmunks of Mt. Rainier and the Olympic
-Mountains that Howell (1929) included Mt. Rainier in the range of
-_caurinus_.
-
-Briefly summarized, the probable pre-Vashon-Wisconsin distribution of
-chipmunks of the species _Tamias amoenus_ in Washington was:
-_ludibundus_ in the higher Cascades; _affinis_ in the eastern Cascades;
-_canicaudus_ in eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho; and
-_luteiventris_ in the area north of the range of _canicaudus_. The
-descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice restricted but did not materially
-alter the ranges of _ludibundus_ or _affinis_. On the east,
-_luteiventris_ was forced southward to compete with _canicaudus_ and
-displaced it over a large region, especially in mountainous areas.
-Following the retreat of the ice, _luteiventris_, _affinis_, and
-_ludibundus_ extended their ranges northward over the deglaciated
-territory. A stock of _ludibundus_ that moved westward from Mt. Rainier
-became isolated and gave rise to _caurinus_. In some less obvious
-development, _ludibundus_ stock gave rise to _felix_ north of the Fraser
-River in the Cascades.
-
-TAMIAS RUFICAUDUS.--Until a better understanding of the range of this
-chipmunk and its relation to other _Tamias_ is gained, uncertainty will
-remain concerning its distribution in the past.
-
-TAMIAS TOWNSENDII.--This is a typical coastal species that ranges
-southward, along the coast, to California. The lowland race of western
-Oregon and Washington (_townsendii_) probably occurred no farther north
-than southwestern Washington when the Vashon Glacier was in place.
-Chipmunks of this species in the Cascades and in the southern Olympic
-Mountains probably developed independently the slightly paler color that
-separates _cooperi_ from _townsendii_. The tendency for species of the
-Pacific Coastal Fauna of the Cascades and the Olympic Mountains to be
-paler than their lowland relatives is widespread.
-
-After the retreat of the ice, both races probably moved northward.
-Perhaps because of its alpine adaptations, _cooperi_ has moved farther
-than _townsendii_. Also, _townsendii_, in the lowlands, ranges to the
-Fraser River, a barrier not encountered by _cooperi_.
-
-SCIURUS GRISEUS.--This species of the Pacific Coastal Fauna probably
-entered Washington from Oregon since the retreat of the Vashon Glacier.
-It has probably entered the state in relatively recent times.
-
-TAMIASCIURUS HUDSONICUS.--The two species of red squirrels, _T.
-hudsonicus_ and _T. douglasii_, are specifically distinct and probably
-became differentiated in the Pleistocene when southward moving glaciers
-cut in two the range of the ancestral stock. The morphological
-differences are too great, comparatively, to have occurred during the
-Vashon-Wisconsin Divergence. _T. hudsonicus_ probably occupied a range
-in pre-Wisconsin Time that included the Rocky Mountains and areas to the
-north. Glacial ice probably restricted the range of _hudsonicus_ in
-Wisconsin Time but after the retreat of the ice _hudsonicus_ moved
-northward to reoccupy its former range. It also moved westward across
-northern Washington to the Cascades, where it met the range of
-_douglasii_. Farther north, it moved westward to the Pacific, thus
-occupying an area that, in pre-Vashon time, probably was occupied by
-_douglasii_.
-
-TAMIASCIURUS DOUGLASII.--The Douglas squirrel probably occupied the
-coastal region of Oregon, Washington and British Columbia in pre-Vashon
-Time. The descent of the ice restricted its range to southwestern
-Washington and areas to the south. After the retreat of the ice it moved
-northward somewhat but, like other coastal species, the movement was
-slow. Meanwhile _hudsonicus_ from the Rocky Mountain Fauna, had spread
-to the coast of British Columbia.
-
-GLAUCOMYS SABRINUS.--This flying squirrel is a plastic species. It
-inhabits all of the forested parts of Washington. The distributional
-picture presented by the 5 races (Fig. 92) which occur in Washington is
-complicated. The ranges of 3 of these lie principally outside the state
-of Washington.
-
-The race _oregonensis_ occupies Washington and Oregon west of the
-Cascades; _fuliginosus_ occupies the Cascades of Washington, Oregon and
-southern British Columbia; _columbiensis_ occupies the interior valleys
-of British Columbia and adjoining Washington; _latipes_ occupies the
-northern Rocky Mountains of British Columbia, northern Idaho and extreme
-northeastern Washington; and _bangsi_ occupies the Blue Mountains of
-Washington and Oregon and a wide range in Idaho and eastward.
-
-The differences separating the race _oregonensis_ from other subspecies
-found in Washington are relatively great. This lowland race is smaller
-and richer in color. The other races exhibit slight but relatively
-constant differences. The relatively great difference between
-_oregonensis_ and the other races indicates that _oregonensis_ was
-isolated from the remainder of the species for a considerable time.
-Presumably _oregonensis_ was a strongly differentiated coastal race in
-pre-Vashon Time and occupied most of western Washington and Oregon. The
-descent of the Vashon ice restricted the range of _oregonensis_ to
-southwestern Washington and western Oregon. The descent of the ice
-forced a northern race, _fuliginosus_, southward into the range of
-_oregonensis_. The northern race, adapted to boreal conditions, was able
-to compete successfully with the established _oregonensis_ only in
-mountainous areas. In the Cascade Mountains, _fuliginosus_ extended its
-range southward to southern Oregon.
-
-The descent of the Wisconsin ice in eastern Washington forced the flying
-squirrels of adjacent British Columbia southward into the Rocky
-Mountains. These squirrels were probably closely related to
-_fuliginosus_, or to _bangsi_, which latter race already may have been
-established farther south in the Rocky Mountains. The Blue Mountains of
-southeastern Washington were probably inhabited by _bangsi_ in Wisconsin
-times, or even earlier. The retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers
-allowed the flying squirrels to extend their ranges northward. In
-western Washington _oregonensis_ moved to southern British Columbia. In
-the Cascade Mountains the more boreal _fuliginosus_ moved much farther
-northward and, north of the Okanogan Valley, spread eastward to the
-arid, interior valleys of British Columbia. Subsequent differentiation
-in the population of the arid, interior valleys developed the slightly
-differentiated race _columbiensis_. Farther east, flying squirrels from
-the northern Rocky Mountains moved northward. Northeastern Washington
-and adjacent British Columbia were occupied by _latipes_, derived from
-_bangsi_.
-
-THOMOMYS TALPOIDES.--Views as to the probable historical distribution of
-this plastic group have been presented in an earlier report (Dalquest
-and Scheffer, 1944: 308-333). This may be briefly summarized as follows.
-
-Previous to Vashon-Wisconsin Times, pocket gophers occupied at least the
-Cascade Mountains and the Columbian Plateau of Washington. The race
-occupying the Columbian Plateau, _devexus_, was probably racially
-distinct in pre-Wisconsin time. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin
-glaciers isolated gophers in the southern Cascades. Three racial stocks
-developed there: _shawi_ in the Mount Rainier area; _limosus_ in the
-Columbia River Valley south of the Cascades; and _immunis_ in the
-mountainous area between the other two races. At the maximum extent of
-the Wisconsin ice, gophers from the Columbia River Valley (_limosus_)
-were able to cross the Simcoe Bridge and reach the Blue Mountains. With
-the retreat of the Wisconsin ice, the Simcoe Bridge was closed. Gophers
-isolated in the Blue Mountains developed the racial characters of
-_acqualidens_ and those between the Blue Mountains and the Columbia
-River intergraded with the desert race, _devexus_. These intergrades,
-which have, also, some characters of their own, bear the name
-_columbianus_. Gophers in the southern Cascades (_limosus_) moved
-westward on prairie-like river terraces to Clark County where, isolated,
-they became racially distinct (_douglasii_).
-
-Gophers from the Mount Rainier area (_shawi_) moved westward on glacial
-outwash trains to the extensive outwash aprons of the Vashon glaciers in
-the area about Puget Sound. Here they multiplied and spread to the
-Olympic Mountains. Growth of forest on the original outwash apron broke
-the area into numerous isolated prairies. Gophers in the Olympic
-Mountains (_melanops_) were isolated from those in the area about Puget
-Sound. Six distinct races originated on the isolated prairie
-(_glacialis_, _tacomensis_, _pugetensis_, _yelmensis_, _tumuli_,
-_couchi_).
-
-Following the retreat of the glacial ice from eastern Washington, pocket
-gophers from the Blue Mountains of Oregon (_wallowa_) moved northward
-into Washington and gophers from the Rocky Mountain Fauna of Idaho moved
-onto the deglaciated part of northeastern Washington. From northeastern
-Washington they spread westward to the Cascades and thence southward to
-meet the native gophers of the Cascades in the Yakima Valley Area. No
-racial differentiation in these gophers occurred; all are referable to
-_fuscus_. Where _fuscus_ and the native gophers came together in the
-Yakima Valley, a new race, _yakimensis_, developed.
-
-PEROGNATHUS PARVUS.--Three races of the pocket mouse occur in
-Washington. Two of these (_lordi_ and _columbianus_) occur on the
-Columbian Plateau. Like many desert species that occur on the Columbian
-Plateau, the pocket mice are rather different than their relatives in
-eastern Oregon. Presumably they have been isolated on the plateau since
-before Vashon-Wisconsin Times.
-
-The range of the pocket mouse of southeastern Washington, _Perognathus
-parvus parvus_, is continuous with the range of the race in Oregon.
-This same race occurs in the Yakima Valley, whence it probably arrived
-from Oregon in relatively recent time.
-
-The distribution of pocket mice on the Columbian Plateau, in eastern
-Oregon and in the Yakima Valley resembles that of the least chipmunk in
-those areas. It is also similar to, but of more recent origin than, that
-of the ground squirrels, _Citellus washingtoni_, and _townsendii_.
-
-DIPODOMYS ORDII.--This kangaroo rat enters the desert area of
-southeastern Washington from Oregon. It may be expected eventually to
-cross the Columbia River to the Yakima Valley and the Snake River to the
-Columbian Plateau.
-
-CASTOR CANADENSIS.--Two races of beavers occur in Washington. One, found
-in southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon, is dark with a
-short, wide skull. The other, ranging over most of the state, is paler
-with a longer, narrower skull.
-
-The form now found in southwestern Washington and adjacent Oregon
-(_idoneus_) was probably isolated there by the Vashon glaciation and
-developed its characters while isolated. The other race, _leucodonta_,
-was probably widely spread in Wisconsin Time. Beavers are present in
-Moses Lake, in almost the center of the Columbian Plateau. Beavers might
-well have lived in the streams of melt water that emerged from the
-Wisconsin Glacier. The beavers of western Washington, save those in the
-extreme southwest, are like the beavers of eastern Washington. It seems
-likely that the race _leucodonta_ originated north of the state of
-Washington and was forced southward by the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers.
-This northern race, adapted to boreal conditions, competed with the
-resident coastal race, _idoneus_, and occupied much of its range. The
-distribution of the races of muskrat in Washington closely resembles
-that of the beavers.
-
-ONYCHOMYS LEUCOGASTER.--The desert-dwelling grasshopper mouse has
-doubtless entered eastern Washington and the Yakima Valley from eastern
-Oregon at a relatively recent time.
-
-REITHRODONTOMYS MEGALOTIS.--The harvest mouse, like the grasshopper
-mouse, seems to have entered Washington from Oregon at a relatively
-recent date. Within the last ten years it has extended its range into
-the Okanogan Valley in British Columbia.
-
-PEROMYSCUS MANICULATUS.--Six subspecies of _Peromyscus maniculatus_
-occur in the state of Washington. The geographic range of one of these
-(_rubidus_) lies mainly in the states of California and Oregon and
-includes, so far as is known, a single small island in the Columbia
-River that is politically within the state of Washington. Another
-(_hollisteri_) is restricted to certain islands in northern Puget Sound
-and obviously has become subspecifically differentiated in postglacial
-time. The remaining four subspecies, namely _oreas_, _austerus_,
-_artemisiae_ and _gambelii_, have extensive geographic ranges. These
-subspecies are not confined to their geographic ranges by geographic
-barriers. Deer mice occur in the deep forests and the open desert, on
-high mountains and in low valleys, and are almost everywhere the
-commonest species of mammal present.
-
-The study of several populations of deer mice from any general area
-usually shows small but constant differences between them. Dice (1939:
-21) studied stocks of deer mice from nine localities in southeastern
-Washington and found significant differences between several of them. A
-statistical study of mice from the San Juan islands shows that the
-population of almost every island is different in one or more respects
-from the mice of any other island. Geographically separated populations
-of "wild caught" mice of the subspecies _austerus_, of the mainland,
-were statistically compared and significant differences were found
-between these populations, too. Small, differentiated populations are to
-be found in many parts of the state, and each subspecies appears to be
-an assemblage of such tiny genetic units.
-
-These genetic units probably are the microgeographic races of Debzhansky
-(1937). They have been intensively studied by Sumner (1917 A, B) and
-Dice. An especially important paper by the latter author (1940)
-summarizes much of the available information on speciation in
-_Peromyscus_ and clearly discusses the microgeographic races of
-_Peromyscus_.
-
-The numerous microgeographic races of _Peromyscus maniculatus_ in
-Washington present diverse combinations of characters which could result
-from the random fixation and elimination of genes (Wright. 1932:
-360-362). Such a hypothesis, however, requires at least partial
-isolation of the populations involved. The mechanism of such isolation,
-in such populations of deer mice as we have studied, is not readily
-apparent. Some microgeographic races are not separated by noticeable
-geographic or ecologic barriers and the distance between their ranges is
-not too great to be traversed by a deer mouse. The tendency to remain on
-a home range may have the same effect as isolation would be supposed to
-have.
-
-The work of Murie and Murie (1931: 200-209, 1932: 79) is enlightening in
-this respect. These authors found that mice residing in a locality
-tended to remain in that locality; individuals trapped and marked were
-retaken in the same locality a year later. Individuals released some
-distance from the point of capture remained where released or returned
-to the point of capture. Transported individuals did not spread at
-random. The home instinct was developed in young as well as in old mice.
-Two mice in the gray pelage, four to eight weeks old, returned to their
-home ranges from distances one and two miles away. The authors fix the
-home range of an individual _Peromyscus m. artemisiae_ in Teton County,
-Wyoming, at approximately one hundred yards in diameter.
-
-This home-range instinct is essentially a lack of incentive for
-individual mice to emigrate to new localities where mice of the same
-species are already established. This may partly account for the
-microgeographic races of deer mice in Washington.
-
-Dice (1939: 21) pointed out that, except in color, the differences in
-nine stocks of mice from southeastern Washington could not be correlated
-with environmental factors. We have found this to be true of
-microgeographic races throughout the state of Washington.
-
-Of the four subspecies of deer mice that occupy extensive geographic
-ranges in Washington, one, _oreas_, is a long-tailed form that seems not
-to intergrade with _austerus_, a neighbor in western Washington that has
-a tail of moderate length. These two and _gambelii_, a short-tailed form
-with which _oreas_ intergrades, are easily distinguished. In eastern
-Washington two short-tailed subspecies, _gambelii_ and _artemisiae_, are
-currently recognized. The taxonomic relationships of these two
-subspecies are complex. The subspecies _gambelii_ has an extensive
-geographic range in Oregon and California. These mice, with short tails,
-occur in the Wallula Water Gap of southeastern Washington and on the
-Columbian Plateau. To the west the desert conditions of the Columbian
-Plateau fade into the Transition Life-zone forests of the eastern
-Cascade Mountains. The pale, short-tailed desert mice (_gambelii_)
-gradually change to the dark, long-tailed subspecies, _oreas_, that
-occupies the Cascade Mountains.
-
-North of the Columbian Plateau, in northeastern Washington, the deer
-mice are darker and relatively longer-tailed than on the Columbian
-Plateau. Some populations are distinctly reddish, almost as reddish as
-_oreas_. Although assigned to _artemisiae_, they are almost identical
-with populations of deer mice from the eastern Cascade Mountains, known
-to be intergrades between _oreas_ and _gambelii_. This fact, and the
-presence of surprisingly _oreas_-like characters in some
-microgeographic races in extreme northeastern Washington, may indicate
-that the race called _artemisiae_ is a group of intergrades between
-_gambelii_ and an _oreas_-like mouse that has become extinct.
-
-Intergradation between _gambelii_ and _artemisiae_ is normal and takes
-place gradually where the ranges of the two subspecies meet. The same is
-true of intergradation between _oreas_ and _gambelii_ in the eastern
-Cascade Mountains. West of the Cascade Mountains the range of _oreas_
-meets the range of _austerus_. These two subspecies appear not to
-interbreed in nature, since no intergrades were taken at any of the
-numerous localities in western Washington where the mice were trapped.
-Pure populations of the two subspecies exist within a few miles of each
-other. In the valley of the Skykomish River, in the western Cascades
-Mountains, from the town of Skykomish, King County, to the lowlands to
-the west, only _austerus_ was found. In the coniferous forests of the
-mountains above Skykomish, only _oreas_ was taken. Several pairs, each
-an _oreas_ and an _austerus_ of the other sex, were kept from four to
-six months, and one pair was kept for a year, but they did not
-reproduce. The _oreas_ were from the upper Skykomish Valley and the
-_austerus_ were from Seattle, King County. Along the border of the
-ranges of the two subspecies in the Skykomish River Valley, a definite
-habitat preference was noted. The coniferous forests were occupied by
-_oreas_ and brush or deciduous forests by _austerus_. Within the range
-of _austerus_ and within the range of _oreas_ only one subspecies is
-found whether the habitat be coniferous forest or thickets of alder and
-willow, but where the ranges of the two subspecies meet _austerus_
-occurs only in the thickets of aspen and willow and _oreas_ occurs only
-in the coniferous forest.
-
-The morphological characters that separate _oreas_ from _austerus_,
-namely, larger size, richer color, and longer tail, are all features
-that might be associated with a more arboreal existence in dark,
-coniferous forests. Our observations show that _oreas_ is, to a large
-extent, arboreal. Traps nailed to tree trunks six to eight feet from the
-ground and set for flying squirrels often caught _oreas_ in the
-Skykomish River Valley. On one occasion I walked up a leaning tree trunk
-to set a trap, fifty feet from the ground on the trunk of another tree
-that was upright. An _oreas_ was found in this trap the next morning.
-Svihla (1933: 13) relates how a specimen of _oreas_ that escaped from a
-live trap took refuge in a tree when pursued. We have set numerous traps
-for flying squirrels in the area about Puget Sound. As far as memory and
-field notes serve, we have never taken _austerus_ in these traps. Our
-observations on the habits of _austerus_ are much more abundant than
-those on _oreas_, but for _austerus_ no evidence of arboreal activities
-has been obtained.
-
-There are, then, two subspecies that do not interbreed, each capable of
-existing in any ecologic niche that will support deer mice. Where the
-ranges of the two subspecies come together, they compete. The large
-size, richer color, longer tail, and perhaps arboreal habits of _oreas_
-give it an advantage in coniferous forests. The small size and dark
-color of _austerus_ give it an advantage in other habitats, especially,
-perhaps, in winter, when the deciduous trees have shed their leaves.
-
-The differences separating _austerus_ from _oreas_ would be expected to
-have developed under complete isolation. That _oreas_ developed from
-_austerus_ or _austerus_ from _oreas_ seems impossible. A glance at the
-distribution map (Fig. 107) shows that the range of _austerus_ clearly
-separates the range of _oreas_ into two segments. The range of
-_austerus_ tapers out to the north, east and west. On the south
-_austerus_ intergrades with _rubidus_ from Oregon, a subspecies from
-which it is but slightly differentiated.
-
-The geographic behavior of the four subspecies of deer mice that occupy
-extensive areas in Washington may be summarized as follows: _P. m.
-gambelii_ occupies southeastern Washington and intergrades normally with
-_oreas_ in the eastern Cascade Mountains and with _artemisiae_ at the
-northern edge of the Columbian Plateau; _artemisiae_, occupying
-northeastern Washington, closely resembles populations of mice that are
-known to be intergrades between _oreas_ and _gambelii_ and itself
-intergrades with both _oreas_ and _gambelii_; _oreas_ occupies most of
-western Washington, intergrades with its neighbors _artemisiae_ and
-_gambelii_ to the east, but does not intergrade with _austerus_, its
-morphologically more similar neighbor in the west; _austerus_ occupies a
-range in western Washington that is almost surrounded by the range of
-_oreas_, a subspecies with which it apparently does not interbreed.
-
-The relations of these four subspecies appear to be the result of
-certain great changes in the range of deer mice in the Pacific Northwest
-that occurred during and since the last Pleistocene glaciation. We
-reconstruct these changes as follows. In the Puyallup interglacial
-cycle, just previous to the last (Vashon-Wisconsin) continental
-glaciation, clines, or gradual transitions existed in the ranges of the
-deer mice along the Pacific Coast. The small, dark, short-tailed mice of
-the coastal redwood forests of California and Oregon became gradually
-larger, redder and longer-tailed to the north, climaxing in a large,
-red, long-tailed form in the spruce forests of southern Alaska and
-northern British Columbia. A similar cline existed inland. Small, pale,
-short-tailed mice of the Great Basin became increasingly larger, darker,
-and longer-tailed to the north, reaching a maximum in the spruce forests
-of northern British Columbia.
-
-The development and advance of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice sheet
-exterminated mice over much of British Columbia and the northern United
-States. Long-tailed northern mice were forced southward and contacted
-the southern, short-tailed forms. The preglacial clines were thus
-destroyed.
-
-What might be the southern part of the western cline may be noted in the
-deer mice of western Oregon today. From the southern coast of Oregon the
-mice (_P. m. rubidus_) do become larger, redder and longer-tailed to the
-north. The climax of this cline is now reached in _austerus_, of the
-Puget Sound area of Washington. The cline is not continued farther
-northward because the range of _oreas_ is encountered.
-
-The advance of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice from the north probably forced
-species of mammals southward, ahead of it, including the long-tailed
-northern deer mice which generation by generation encountered
-progressively shorter-tailed forms of resident mice. Perhaps the
-unfamiliar, and certainly the extremely frigid, conditions in the fore
-of the glacier exterminated the short-tailed individuals but favored the
-long-tailed mice, since the latter originally were adapted to a boreal
-environment. The climax of the ice advance found the glaciers just
-within the political limits of the United States and found the
-long-tailed mice spread before the ice front.
-
-In western Washington the Vashon glacier advanced as far south as the
-southern edge of the Puget Sound area. Long-tailed northern mice
-advancing before it reached the Columbia River. This glacially swollen
-stream served as a natural barrier and prevented their southward
-extension. At this time the northern mice had traversed more than half
-the length of the original western cline. The northern mice, originating
-in a boreal habitat a thousand miles away, were unable to interbreed
-with the southern mice and such individuals as might have crossed the
-Columbia River never became established in Oregon. During the existence
-of the glacier in western Washington, the long-tailed northern emigrants
-competed with the resident deer mice of western Washington to the total
-elimination of the resident mice. The retreat of the Vashon Glacier
-from Washington found the northern mice in complete control of that part
-of the state from the Pacific Ocean to the Cascade Mountains.
-
-In eastern Washington the Wisconsin Glacier advanced south to the
-northern edge of the Columbian Plateau. Northern mice advancing before
-it probably did not survive on the treeless plateau but existed in
-forested areas of northern Idaho and driftless areas of northern
-Washington. No natural barriers separated the northern mice from the
-pale, short-tailed forms. The nonuniform topography perhaps allowed more
-mingling of the two types where climatic conditions permitted.
-Intergradation in some places as well as competition and elimination of
-one form or another in other places occurred. Following the withdrawal
-of the Vashon ice and the establishment of soil and forests on the
-deglaciated land, the long-tailed mice of western Washington (_P. m.
-oreas_) apparently spread northward, unhindered by competition, until
-they reached southern Alaska. The deep coniferous forests of western
-Washington presented conditions acceptable to _oreas_ and it persisted
-there despite postglacial changes in climate.
-
-Postglacial changes in climate did, however, permit the dark,
-short-tailed mice (_rubidus_) to cross the Columbia River and to become
-established in suitable habitats, namely the deciduous jungles of the
-river valleys. From these points the mice spread northward through the
-lowlands of western Washington, infiltrating the range of _oreas_,
-competing with it, and driving it from the lowlands. This movement is in
-progress today. By logging and clearing of lands for agriculture man has
-considerably speeded the invasion of the southern mice. Slight
-differentiation of the short-tailed mice north of the Columbia River
-(_austerus_) separates them from their parent race, _rubidus_.
-
-In the dense forests along the Pacific Coast of Washington, _austerus_
-did not become established. This area includes most of the land west of
-Puget Sound. There is a narrow band of _austerus_ that extends along the
-eastern and part of the northern edge of the Olympic Peninsula, where
-they have probably invaded in relatively recent time.
-
-On the Oregon side of the Columbia River the range of _rubidus_ is
-continuous from the Pacific to the Cascades. On the Washington side of
-the river, _oreas_ extends from the Pacific to eastern Wahkiakum County,
-where the range of _austerus_ starts. At the border of the ranges of
-the two subspecies, ecological conditions determine the ranges; _oreas_
-occurs in the Douglas fir and hemlock forests and _austerus_ occurs in
-the jungles of alder and salmonberry in the stream valleys. The range of
-_austerus_ extends from eastern Wahkiakum County east along the
-Columbia, to western Klickitat County. In a north-south strip across the
-Columbia, through the ranges of _rubidus_ in Oregon and _austerus_ in
-Washington, normal intergradation is apparent. By gradual degrees
-_rubidus_ changes to _austerus_. In a north-south strip farther west,
-through the ranges of _rubidus_ and _oreas_, the same transition of the
-Oregon _rubidus_ is seen, namely an approach toward _austerus_. The
-cline is, of course, abruptly terminated by the range of the dissimilar
-_oreas_.
-
-On Puget Island, a small island lying in the Columbia River in western
-Wahkiakum County and politically within the state of Washington (see
-Scheffer, 1942) a population of deer mice occurs that resembles
-_rubidus_ more closely than _austerus_. This island lies in the river
-between the ranges of _rubidus_ and _oreas_. The lack of intergradation
-between these two subspecies has probably kept the Puget Island
-population pure _rubidus_. Puget Island is a junglelike lowland locally
-known as "tideland."
-
-The San Juan Islands of northern Puget Sound were thoroughly glaciated
-in Wisconsin Time and probably were under thousands of feet of ice when
-the Vashon Glacier was at its maximum extent. The subspecies of deer
-mouse occurring there now is _hollisteri_, a race similar to _oreas_ in
-color, body size and cranial characters and probably derived from
-_oreas_. _P. m. hollisteri_ differs from both _oreas_ and _austerus_ in
-its much shorter tail. Shortness of tail is apparently a product of
-insularity in northwest coastal mice. The transition from long-tailed
-mainland mice to short-tailed island mice is shown by Hall (1938A: 461).
-When _oreas_ first occupied the area about Puget Sound (this area is
-occupied by _austerus_ today) some individuals probably reached the San
-Juan Islands soon thereafter. Contact between _oreas_ and _hollisteri_
-is now prevented by the presence of _austerus_ between their ranges. Of
-course, a water barrier separates _austerus_ from _hollisteri_ but
-_austerus_ does occur in pure form on some islands in Puget Sound (not
-on any of the San Juan Islands), for instance, on Whidby Island. One
-wonders why _austerus_ has not established itself on some of the San
-Juan Islands but considering the degree of difference between
-_hollisteri_ and _austerus_, I doubt that the two would interbreed if
-they did occur together.
-
-On Vancouver Island, British Columbia, a short-tailed, _austerus_-type
-of mouse occurs in the lowlands and a long-tailed, _oreas_-type of mouse
-in the mountains. Vancouver Island is a large island (16,400 square
-miles). Apparently a stock of _austerus_ from the mainland reached
-Vancouver Island and were able to find suitable habitat and compete with
-and drive out the established _oreas_ in the manner that they probably
-did in the western Washington lowlands. The large Vancouver Island
-offers far more variety of habitat and opportunity for establishment of
-emigrating mice than do the smaller San Juan Islands, the largest of
-which is Orcas (57 square miles).
-
-Following the withdrawal of the Wisconsin ice from eastern Washington,
-numerous minor movements and adjustments of deer mice seem to have taken
-place. Long-tailed, _oreas_-type of mice were exterminated on the
-Columbian Plateau if, indeed, they ever became established there.
-Long-tailed mice did apparently become established in driftless areas
-and forested areas to the south of the drift border. With the
-establishment of soil and forests on the deglaciated land, the
-short-tailed _gambelii_ and the long-tailed mice became thoroughly
-intermixed. In some areas, especially near the type locality of
-_artemisiae_, the _gambelii_ characters of the mixture predominate at
-the present time. Deer mice from the Okanogan Valley differ from
-_gambelii_ only in slightly larger size and darker color. In other
-areas, notably near Metaline, Pend Oreille County, the _oreas_
-characters of the mixture dominate at the present time. Mice from here
-are large and red and differ from typical _oreas_ in having relatively
-short tails. Other less marked segregations of characters are numerous,
-in Idaho and British Columbia as well as in Washington. Cowan (1937) has
-described _Peromyscus m. alpinus_, isolated in a mountainous area of
-British Columbia. This seems to be a form derived from _oreas_-type
-stock.
-
-With the reëstablishment of soil and forests on the deglaciated land of
-British Columbia north of Washington, a northward extension of the
-_gambelii-oreas_ mixture occurred. Another invasion was taking place at
-this time, however. _Peromyscus m. arcticus_ spread onto the deglaciated
-land from the north or east, ahead of artemisiae (the _gambelii-oreas_
-mixture). This new invader intergraded with _artemisiae_ as well as with
-_oreas_. Further collecting and studies are required in this area before
-the relationships of the three subspecies can be completely understood.
-
-If geographic ranges are assigned to the named subspecies of deer mice
-that occur in Washington, it must, in part, be done arbitrarily. The
-deer mice of the San Juan Islands are all referred to the subspecies
-_hollisteri_. Only Puget Island, Wahkiakum County, is considered to be
-inhabitated by _rubidus_. The boundary between the ranges of _austerus_
-and _oreas_ is sharply defined and further collecting by resident
-naturalists should result in detailed mapping of the boundary.
-
-The ranges and distribution of the deer mice of eastern Washington are
-less clearly defined than those of western Washington. _Peromyscus m.
-gambelii_ exists in its purest state on the Columbian Plateau. Here the
-Columbia River makes a convenient boundary to the west. Pure _Peromyscus
-m. oreas_ exist in the Cascade Mountains. In the area between the
-Columbian Plateau and the Cascades the deer mice are variously
-intermediate between _gambelii_ and _oreas_ and, over most of the area,
-are nearest to _gambelii_. This might be considered a natural area of
-intergradation such as commonly occurs between the ranges of subspecies.
-These intergrades, however, are similar to _Peromyscus m. artemisiae_
-and the area occupied by these intermediates is connected on the north
-with the range of _artemisiae_. Thus Osgood (1909: 61) regards specimens
-from Easton and Wawawai, in the area of intergradation, as _artemisiae_
-or intergrades between _gambelii_ and _artemisiae_. Taylor and Shaw
-(1929: 22) include the entire area of _intergradation_ in the range of
-_artemisiae_. This treatment, although convenient to the student of
-geographic variation, is apt to conceal the evolutionary and historical
-influences. These influences may be appreciated better if the
-intergrades from each locality are referred to the subspecies they most
-closely resemble.
-
-The specimens upon which the name _artemisiae_ was based came from a
-narrow tongue of zonally lower country that extends northward from the
-range of the lighter-colored _gambelii_. As might be expected, topotypes
-are lighter in color than specimens from the north, west and east.
-Nevertheless, the type locality is within a geographic area that is
-occupied principally by a darker race, _artemisiae_, to the north of
-_gambelii_. The topotypes of _artemisiae_ may be considered to be
-intermediate between _gambelii_ and the darker, northern race. Thus the
-name _artemisiae_ becomes available for the mice of the general area in
-question. The mice of the area immediately to the east of the type
-locality, in Washington and presumably in British Columbia and Idaho
-also, are essentially a mixture of the subspecies _gambelii_ and a now
-mostly extinct and unnamed race that probably resembled _oreas_. Local
-variations of populations from within this area are extreme but some
-segregation of color and length of tail has taken place. Mice from
-mountainous areas resemble _oreas_ while mice from the lowlands resemble
-_gambelii_, or, more exactly, mice from coniferous forests resemble
-_oreas_ while mice from other areas resemble _gambelii_.
-
-South of the area of racial mixture in northeastern Washington, in the
-Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington, the deer mice are like
-_gambelii_ except in slightly darker color. Mice from the Blue Mountains
-are darker and browner than _gambelii_, not more reddish. There is no
-indication of adulteration with _oreas_ stock. Since the Blue Mountains
-are a forested area and are far south of the drift border, we suppose
-that deer mice existed there through the last glacial period and that
-their dark color is an adaptation to forest habitat.
-
-Mice similar to those of the Blue Mountains have an extensive range in
-Idaho (Davis 1939: 290). These mice have relatively uniform racial
-characters and constitute a "good" subspecies.
-
-At present the deer mice of northern Washington, southeastern British
-Columbia, northern Idaho, northeastern Oregon, western Montana and
-northwestern Wyoming are called _artemisiae_. The mice of this extensive
-area are, however, of two genetic types: that type with mixed racial
-characters that lives in northeastern Washington and probably also
-farther east along the Wisconsin drift border, and that type that occurs
-farther south in Idaho and seems to constitute a stable subspecies.
-
-The separation of these two types may be desirable. Detailed study of
-the deer mice from the area now assigned to the range of _artemisiae_
-may show that the name _subarcticus_ (_Peromyscus texanus subarcticus_
-Allen, 1899) is applicable to the southern form. The type with mixed
-racial characters must be called _artemisiae_. If the two types are
-eventually separated, the mice from the Blue Mountains of Washington
-will be referable to the southern form.
-
-NEOTOMA CINEREA.--The wood rat found over most of Washington. _Neotoma
-c. occidentalis_, probably entered the state from eastern Oregon early
-in the Recent and spread over most of the state. The wood rat of the
-Blue Mountains (_alticola_) probably developed from _occidentalis_.
-
-A coastal race of the wood rat (_fusca_) occurs in western Oregon. This
-race, if it occurred in western Washington in pre-Vashon Time, was
-eliminated in Vashon Time or subsequently. In Oregon it lives in deep
-forests (Bailey, 1936: 174). In Washington _occidentalis_ occupies but
-a small part of the ecologic niche occupied by _fusca_ in Oregon.
-Elimination of _fusca_ from Washington through competition with
-_occidentalis_ seems highly improbable. Should _fusca_ ever cross the
-Columbia River and become established it would probably spread to a
-considerable part of western Washington.
-
-SYNAPTOMYS BOREALIS.--The lemming mouse seems now to be retreating
-northward and was an arctic species forced southward by the
-Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers. Unlike other alpine species, it seems to be
-unable to exist for long in isolated mountain areas.
-
-PHENACOMYS INTERMEDIUS.--The heather vole, like the lemming mouse,
-probably was forced southward by the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers. In the
-Cascade and Rocky mountains it found suitable habitat and spread
-southward to almost the lower end of the Sierra Nevada in California.
-The Cascade race moved eastward on the Puget Bridge to the Olympic
-Mountains after the retreat of the Vashon ice, and northward in the
-Cascades. Northeastern Washington was reinvaded by the subspecies of the
-Rocky Mountain Fauna.
-
-CLETHRIONOMYS GAPPERI and CALIFORNICUS.--The two species of red-backed
-mouse found in Washington were probably distinct in pre-Vashon Times. At
-the maximum extent of the Vashon ice, _californicus_ was probably found
-in western Oregon and _gapperi_ in the Blue Mountains, where
-_idahoensis_ was developed, and in the southern Cascades
-(_cascadensis_). During or shortly after Vashon Time, _gapperi_ crossed
-the Puget Bridge to become established in the Olympic Mountains. After
-the retreat of the ice, _gapperi_ moved northward and eastward from the
-Cascades and _californicus_ crossed to western Washington from Oregon
-and displaced _gapperi_ from the lowlands.
-
-Hinton (1926: 215) separated the American _Clethrionomys_ into three
-groups, suggesting that Old World counterparts of each group exist.
-Davis (1939: 308) gives an excellent analysis of the emigrational
-history of the American species, and points out the close relationship
-of the Siberian and Arctic-American forms. He suggests that the
-_rutilus_ group invaded Arctic-America from Siberia at the close of the
-last glaciation.
-
-Two other groups are recognized by Davis, who assumes that both arose
-from a common ancestral stock and divided into two stems, one of which
-(_gapperi_ group) followed the main Rocky Mountain course southward and
-worked eastward across Canada while the other (_californicus_ group)
-followed down the Pacific Coast. Davis states, "This southward
-extension of range in America probably took place in the Pleistocene,
-but almost certainly the present southern range of the genus in the West
-was not reached until late in, or after, that period."
-
-Our studies of the _Clethrionomys_ of Washington indicate the essential
-correctness of Davis' conclusions. The separation of the two groups,
-however, probably was caused by southward moving glaciers and the
-separation of the mice into two stocks closely paralleled the divergence
-of other groups, such as that of the snowshoe rabbits. The two groups of
-red-backed mice are more sharply separated than was thought by Davis.
-The intermediate color of the back of _C. g. idahoensis_, mentioned by
-Davis, seems to be merely coincidental. The essential difference in the
-two groups is the sharply marked red band of the _gapperi_ group as
-opposed to the general red area on the dorsal surface of the
-_californicus_ group. _Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius_ has been
-considered a derivative of _occidentalis_ because the range of the
-latter surrounds the Olympic Mountains, where _nivarius_ is found.
-Considering the immediate post-Pleistocene movements of mammals from the
-Cascades to the Olympic Mountains, so clearly illustrated in _Thomomys_,
-_Tamias amoenus_, and _Phenacomys_, a means is indicated by which
-_Clethrionomys_ of the _gapperi_ group might have reached the Olympics.
-The apparent lack of intergradation between _occidentalis_ and
-_nivarius_ gives proof of their relatively distant relationship. _C.
-nivarius_ seems not to have been derived from _occidentalis_, and
-apparently does not belong to the _californicus_ group. It belongs
-instead to the _gapperi_ group, and I consider it to be a subspecies of
-_gapperi_. In no sense is it intermediate between the two groups. The
-other form considered by Davis to be intermediate between the two groups
-is _caurinus_. This mouse has not yet been taken in Washington, although
-it may eventually be found on Point Roberts, on the Fraser River delta.
-Its distribution is paralleled by that of many other mammals that are
-definitely not of the Pacific Coastal Fauna.
-
-The _californicus_ group, I feel, contains only the races of
-_Clethrionomys californicus_, while the _gapperi_ group contains _C.
-gapperi_ and its races, including _caurinus_, and possible other
-species.
-
-Possibly intergradation occurs between _C. californicus occidentalis_
-and _C. gapperi_. Nevertheless, I fail to find evidence of such
-intergradation. I have taken _C. gapperi nivarius_ and _C. californicus
-occidentalis_ within ten miles of each other, but each retained its
-distinctive characters with no evidence of intergradation. In the case
-of _C. gapperi saturatus_ and _C. californicus occidentalis_ the proof
-is less conclusive. In spite of numerous attempts to trap
-_Clethrionomys_ in the area geographically intermediate between their
-ranges, I have taken none. Though common along the coast, _occidentalis_
-becomes progressively scarcer to the east, being rare in the vicinity of
-Seattle and apparently absent from the western base of the Cascades. So
-far as is known, the ranges of _caurinus_ and _occidentalis_ are
-separated by the Fraser River.
-
-MICROTUS PENNSYLVANICUS and MONTANUS.--The Pennsylvania meadow mouse is
-closely related to _Microtus montanus_. Certain races of _montanus_,
-notably those from southern Oregon, California, and northern Nevada,
-closely resemble _pennsylvanicus_ externally and cranially. From the
-central part of its range northward, _montanus_ becomes progressively
-less like _pennsylvanicus_. The races _nanus_ and _canicaudus_ are quite
-different from _pennsylvanicus_ both externally and cranially, and in
-addition the anterior loop of the second molar is less constricted;
-often it is not constricted at all. _Microtus pennsylvanicus_ and
-_Microtus montanus_ occur together over parts of the northern Rocky
-Mountains. Where the two species came together, _pennsylvanicus_ occurs
-with races of _montanus_ that are most unlike it.
-
-_Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi_ closely resembles races of _Microtus
-montanus_ that occur in southern Oregon, California, and Nevada. It is
-larger, darker, and longer-furred than _Microtus pennsylvanicus
-funebris_ from Washington. Seemingly _pennsylvanicus_ and _montanus_
-diverged previous to Vashon-Wisconsin Time. The stock that gave rise to
-_montanus_ spread over the Great Basin while _pennsylvanicus_ ranged
-farther east. Some of the _montanus_ stock worked northward in the Rocky
-Mountains. _Microtus pennsylvanicus_ had meanwhile moved westward to the
-Rocky Mountains. The two stocks met and behaved as full species.
-
-_Microtus pennsylvanicus_ probably occupied northeastern Washington in
-the interglacial cycle preceding the Recent. The advance of the
-Wisconsin ice eliminated most of these mice. The glacier dammed the
-Columbia River and caused it to turn southward from its basalt-marginal
-course and take a path over the Columbian Plateau. Along this glacial
-river a population of _Microtus_ persisted to become _kincaidi_.
-
-While the Wisconsin ice was at its maximum extent, _Microtus montanus_
-from the Blue Mountains crossed the Simcoe Bridge to the Yakima Valley
-and the eastern Cascade Mountains. The closing of the Simcoe Bridge
-isolated these mice, which subsequently became slightly differentiated,
-as _canescens_. Another stock moved westward along the Columbia River to
-western Oregon. This stock is now called _Microtus canicaudus_ but is
-probably racially rather than specifically distinct from _Microtus
-montanus nanus_.
-
-With the retreat of the Wisconsin ice, _montanus_ extended its range
-northward from the Yakima Valley along the eastern Cascade Mountains to
-extreme southern British Columbia. _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris_
-entered northeastern Washington with other elements of the Rocky
-Mountain Fauna.
-
-At present, _pennsylvanicus_ occurs in northeastern Washington while
-_montanus_ is found in southeastern Washington and the eastern Cascade
-Mountains. The Okanogan River Valley separates their ranges. Eventually
-_montanus_ may extend its range to northeastern Washington and
-_pennsylvanicus_ to the Cascades, the two forms occurring together as
-they do in Montana, Idaho and Colorado. The isolation of _kincaidi_ on
-the Columbian Plateau seems complete and the probability of its range
-reaching that of its related species seems slight.
-
-MICROTUS LONGICAUDUS.--The later distributional history of the
-long-tailed meadow mouse is not yet clear.
-
-MICROTUS TOWNSENDII.--This Pacific Coastal species probably lived west
-of the Sierra Nevada-Cascade Mountains since the early Pleistocene. It
-has extended its range northward since the retreat of the Vashon ice and
-has reached some of the islands in Puget Sound and the Strait of
-Georgia. This species seems to be related to _Microtus richardsoni_ but
-the two species probably separated at an early time.
-
-MICROTUS RICHARDSONI.--The water rat of the Cascade Mountains seems to
-be have been forced southward into Washington and Oregon by the descent
-of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers where it became isolated from the water
-rat of the northern Rocky Mountains. After the retreat of the ice, both
-forms have moved northward. Bailey (1900) records _macropus_ from Bonner
-County, Idaho, not far from northeastern Washington but in Washington up
-to this time, _macropus_ has been recorded only from the Blue Mountains
-of the southeastern part of the state.
-
-MICROTUS OREGONI.--The later historical distribution of the creeping
-mouse was probably the same as that of _townsendii_.
-
-LAGURUS CURTATUS.--The distribution of this species of the Great Basin
-Fauna has probably changed little if any since the late Pleistocene.
-
-ONDATRA ZIBETHICUS.--The distribution of the two races of muskrat that
-occur in Washington is almost exactly that of the beavers. Probably one
-form was isolated in southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon
-during Vashon Time and another, more adaptable, race occurred in eastern
-Washington. After the retreat of the ice the adaptable race spread
-widely but the muskrats of the lower Columbia River changed their range
-little or not at all.
-
-APLODONTIA RUFA.--The race of _Aplodontia_ found in the Cascades of
-Washington was probably confined to the southern Cascades in Vashon Time
-and has since spread northward to reoccupy the range as far north as
-southern British Columbia.
-
-The presence of a mountain beaver in western Washington that is
-indistinguishable from the race _rufa_, found in the Cascades of Oregon,
-is most surprising. In Oregon, _pacifica_ occurs in the western lowlands
-and _rufa_ in the mountains to the east. In Washington _rufa_ occurs in
-the western lowlands and _rainieri_ in the mountains to the east.
-
-The offset in range of _rufa_ seems best explained by assuming that all
-of western Washington was once occupied by mountain beavers (_rufa_)
-that spread from the Cascades of Oregon to the Cascades of Washington
-and thence to the western Washington lowlands. This must have occurred
-early in the interglacial cycle preceding the Vashon Glaciation. While
-confined to the southern Cascades, _rainieri_ developed the larger size
-that now separates it from the ancestral _rufa_ that occurs to the west
-and south of it.
-
-ZAPUS PRINCEPS.--The coastal race of the jumping mouse was probably
-distinct from the more inland population before Vashon-Wisconsin Times.
-The differences between them were probably accentuated while the
-Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers separated their ranges. The western race
-(_trinotatus_) was isolated in the southern Cascades and southwestern
-Washington. After the retreat of the glaciers, _trinotatus_ moved
-northward through western Washington and the Cascades into British
-Columbia. The race _kootenayensis_ of the adjacent Rocky Mountains moved
-eastward through northeastern Washington to the Cascades. The race
-_oregonus_, found in the Blue Mountains, has probably been resident
-there since it evolved from the populations to the east.
-
-ERETHIZON DORSATUM.--I have inadequate basis for speculation concerning
-the historical distribution of the porcupine.
-
-OCHOTONA PRINCEPS.--The descent of the Wisconsin ice separated the
-western pikas into two populations. One was confined to the
-Cascade-Sierra Nevada system and another to the Rocky Mountains. Two
-races are now found in the Cascades of Washington. One, _brunnescens_,
-inhabits the higher Cascades and another, _fenisex_, the eastern edge of
-the Cascades. The range of _brunnescens_ extends southward into Oregon
-while the range of _fenisex_ extends farther north in British Columbia
-than does that of _brunnescens_. The principal difference between the
-two races is the smaller size and paler color of _fenisex_. In
-Washington, _fenisex_ occupies a slightly more arid habitat than
-_brunnescens_. Further, _fenisex_ lives in talus principally of basaltic
-rock while _brunnescens_ lives in talus of granitic rock. The basaltic
-talus is more finely fractured, offering smaller crevices in which pikas
-can conceal themselves. The granitic rock, on the other hand, forms
-talus composed of fragments of large size. Freshly fractured granite is
-pale, whitish gray. After weathering, however, it becomes blackish as
-the more soluble, pale feldspars are removed, leaving the black
-hornblend and biotite exposed. Freshly fractured Columbian basalt is
-blackish but, after weathering, becomes rusty, reddish brown.
-
-In Washington the two races maintain their distinctiveness because
-selective factors in the basalt talus of the eastern Cascades favor the
-smaller size and paler color of _fenisex_ while in the higher Cascades,
-selective factors in the granitic batholith favor larger size and darker
-color.
-
-The present range of _brunnescens_ in Oregon indicates that this race
-was the pre-Wisconsin resident of the Cascades of at least southern
-Washington. Probably _fenisex_ evolved in the arid interior of British
-Columbia. In color _fenisex_ is intermediate between the dark
-_brunnescens_ and the pale _cuppes_ of the western spurs of the Rocky
-Mountains. Probably _fenisex_ was forced southward into the eastern
-Cascades by the Wisconsin ice and inhabited the area east of the range
-of _brunnescens_. This eastern area was not occupied by _brunnescens_
-because the basaltic talus was of small size. After the retreat of the
-ice, _fenisex_ (adapted to more arid habitat than _brunnescens_), spread
-northward to the relatively dry valleys of the interior of British
-Columbia.
-
-The distinctness of _brunnescens_ and _fenisex_ is maintained by
-selective factors of the habitats they occupy but the zone of
-intergradation between the two is broad. A tendency towards paleness is
-noticeable in specimens from as far west as the eastern side of Mount
-Rainier.
-
-The pikas in the Rocky Mountain area have given rise to a number of
-races. The pale, small race of northern Idaho, _cuppes_, entered
-northeastern Washington with other members of the Great Basin Fauna
-after the retreat of the ice.
-
-LEPUS TOWNSENDII.--The white-tailed jack rabbit has probably lived on
-the Columbian Plateau ever since or even before the time when the
-Wisconsin ice bordered the plateau on the north.
-
-LEPUS AMERICANUS.--Snowshoe rabbits were probably spread over forested
-parts of Washington in pre-Wisconsin time. A coastal race,
-_washingtonii_, was probably distinct from the remainder of the species
-at an early time. It, and its kindred races _klamathensis_ and
-_tahoensis_, are very different from races derived later from the Rocky
-Mountain Fauna. From this it is deduced that _washingtonii_ was a member
-of the Pacific Coastal Fauna before the advance of the last continental
-glaciers.
-
-The snowshoe rabbits now found in the Cascade Mountains of Washington
-are racially distinct from populations occurring to the north and east,
-but are more closely related to the northern and eastern rabbits than
-they are to _washingtonii_. This race, _cascadensis_, probably lived in
-the area north of the state of Washington in pre-Wisconsin interglacial
-time. The snowshoe rabbit of northeastern Washington was probably a race
-having an extensive range in the Rocky Mountains from which _pineus_ in
-the Blue Mountains developed. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin
-glaciers found _washingtonii_ restricted to western Oregon. It might
-have persisted also in southwestern Washington but, had this been the
-case, we would expect a broader zone of intergradation between
-_washingtonii_ and _cascadensis_ than actually exists.
-
-The glaciers forced _cascadensis_ southward into the Cascades of
-southern Washington. The difference between _washingtonii_ and
-_cascadensis_ and the narrow zone of intergradation between them,
-indicate that the two races were not in contact in pre-Vashon Time. The
-presence in the Cascades of Oregon of a race related to _washingtonii_
-rather than _cascadensis_ also supports this view. The snowshoe rabbits
-of northeastern Washington were probably eliminated from areas where the
-ice was in place. The effect of the glaciers in nearby areas was
-probably less on snowshoe rabbits than upon other species.
-
-Following the retreat of the glaciers, _washingtonii_ reinvaded western
-Washington and spread northward through the lowlands to the Fraser
-River. In the Cascades, _cascadensis_ moved even farther north. _L. a.
-pineus_ of the Rocky Mountain Fauna invaded northeastern Washington from
-adjacent areas to the south. Another race, _columbiensis_, spread from
-the interior valleys of British Columbia to the western part of
-northeastern Washington in probably relatively recent times. The
-post-Wisconsin history of the distribution of this race is uncertain.
-
-LEPUS CALIFORNICUS.--The black-tailed jack rabbit occurs throughout the
-sagebrush areas of eastern Washington, except in the Okanogan Valley. It
-invaded Washington from the south recently (Couch, 1927: 313). The first
-blacktails were thought to have entered Walla Walla County about 1870.
-Here they were checked by the Snake River. About 1905 they crossed the
-Snake River, on ice, and by 1920 had spread over much of the Columbian
-Plateau. In January, 1920, they crossed the Columbia River in two
-places, on ice jams, and by 1927 had spread north and west over the
-sagebrush areas between the Columbia River and the Cascade Mountains.
-When Couch, in 1927, published his account, he predicted that the
-blacktail would eventually spread to the Okanogan Valley. This has not
-yet occurred although it is still to be expected.
-
-It should be noted that the migrational history of the black-tailed jack
-rabbit is known only because the animal is large, spectacular, and
-diurnal, and therefore noticed by resident ranchers, and because the
-facts came to the notice of a competent biologist. Migration of a less
-conspicuous mammal, for example, a mouse, would rarely be detected.
-
-SYLVILAGUS NUTTALLII.--The cottontail might have been resident on the
-Columbian Plateau during Wisconsin Time but probably it invaded, or
-perhaps reinvaded, the Plateau from eastern Oregon in the Recent.
-
-SYLVILAGUS IDAHOENSIS.--Too little is known about this rabbit in
-Washington to hazard a guess as to its recent distributional history.
-
-CERVUS CANADENSIS.--The elk emigrated from Siberia to North America in
-the late Pleistocene but previous, certainly, to Vashon-Wisconsin time.
-Probably the coastal race was distinct from the interior population in
-the preceding interglacial cycle. The descent of the last continental
-glaciers, in Washington, separated the elk of the Pacific Coastal Fauna
-from the Rocky Mountain Fauna. After the retreat of the ice the coastal
-race moved northward to southern British Columbia and the Rocky Mountain
-race moved northward and westward through British Columbia. Northeastern
-Washington was reoccupied by the Rocky Mountain elk.
-
-Remains of elk have been found associated with human artifacts on the
-northern part of the Columbian Plateau. The plateau is poorly suited to
-elk but a few may have persisted there until late historic time. The
-remains may have been brought by Indians from northeastern Washington.
-The remains included teeth and portions of the skull and it seems
-unlikely that these would have been carried any great distance.
-
-ODOCOILEUS HEMIONUS.--The American deer probably evolved in North
-America. In this respect they are unlike the elk, moose and caribou, all
-of which emigrated from Asia to America in the Pleistocene. _Odocoileus
-hemionus_ and _virginianus_ probably diverged from a common stock in the
-Pliocene.
-
-The black-tailed deer was probably a member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna
-at an early time and distinct from the mule deer before the last
-interglacial cycle. Probably the mule deer lived in the eastern Cascades
-and on part of the Columbian Plateau in Wisconsin Time. They occur on
-the plateau in limited numbers at present and their remains have been
-found associated with human artifacts in the Grand Coulee area.
-
-ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS.--The white-tailed deer ranges from the Atlantic
-to the Pacific and from Canada to Mexico. The species was probably
-abundant in the Pacific Northwest in the Pleistocene, perhaps in
-Vashon-Wisconsin time, but has since largely given way to the
-black-tailed and mule deer. The race _O. v. leucurus_ now occupies an
-extremely small range. The accounts of early naturalists indicate that
-it was more abundant and had a wider range 100 years ago. Probably
-_leucurus_ was once an important member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna.
-
-The inland race, _ochrourus_, is a typical member of the Rocky Mountain
-Fauna. It and _leucurus_ were probably derived from a common ancestor in
-the late Pleistocene.
-
-ALCE AMERICANUS.--The moose occurs in Washington as a casual wanderer
-from the Rocky Mountain Fauna to the east.
-
-RANGIFER MONTANUS.--The caribou occurs in northeastern Washington as a
-winter migrant from the north. It was probably of more regular and
-extensive occurrence in the past.
-
-ANTILOCAPRA AMERICANA.--The antelope probably was a casual wanderer to
-southeastern Washington and perhaps to the Columbian Plateau from
-eastern Oregon before white man reached Washington.
-
-BISON BISON.--The buffalo, like the antelope, probably occurred in
-southeastern Washington and on the Columbian Plateau only as a casual
-wanderer from Oregon in postglacial time.
-
-OVIS CANADENSIS.--Mountain sheep reached North America from Asia in the
-Pleistocene. By Vashon-Wisconsin Time they had spread southward, perhaps
-to Mexico. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice in Washington
-presumably separated the _canadensis_ and _californiana_ type of sheep,
-the former being confined to the Rocky Mountain Fauna and the latter to
-the Cascade-Sierra Nevada chain and adjacent parts of the Great Basin.
-
-Mountain sheep probably persisted in the southern Cascades of Washington
-and on the Columbian Plateau during Vashon-Wisconsin times. After the
-retreat of the ice, these sheep (_californiana_) moved northward
-slightly, both in the Cascades and on the Columbian Plateau. Remains of
-sheep are to be found with human artifacts in the Grand Coulee area
-today. When white man first reached the state, sheep existed throughout
-the Cascades and on part of the Columbian Plateau. Only a pitiful
-remnant remains in the extreme northern Cascades.
-
-Mountain sheep of the Rocky Mountain race probably existed in small
-numbers in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington until historic
-times. Sheep from the Blue Mountains or adjacent Idaho invaded
-northeastern Washington shortly after that region was freed from
-Wisconsin ice. These sheep were exterminated shortly after the coming of
-the white man.
-
-OREAMNOS AMERICANUS.--Fossil remains of the mountain goat have been
-discovered at Washtuckna Lake, associated with those of the lion, horse,
-and camel. Probably the mountain goat had an extensive range in
-Washington at the time of a glacial advance previous to the Wisconsin
-glaciation. In Wisconsin Time the mountain goat was confined to the
-southern Cascades. Strangely enough, it seems not to have crossed the
-Columbia River to become established in the Cascades of Oregon. After
-the retreat of the ice it moved northward through the Cascades.
-
-A mountain goat recently taken in northeastern Washington seemingly
-wandered to the area from Idaho.
-
-
-
-
-EXPLANATION OF TREATMENT
-
-
-The order of arrangement of the following accounts is that of Miller
-(1924) with some modifications. For example, the Chiroptera are arranged
-according to Tate (1942), the Sciuridae according to Bryant (1945) and
-the Cetacea according to Scheffer (1942). A few other minor changes are
-included.
-
-Although the principal purpose of this report is to describe and
-interpret the distribution of the various species and races of mammals
-that occur in Washington, a brief description and account of the habits
-of the animals is included. Each species account begins with a
-description, based principally on external characters. This is followed
-by pertinent information regarding the range of the species, its
-relationships within the genus and a brief account of its habits. The
-habits are dealt with in most detail for the species that are of
-greatest economic importance.
-
-The accounts of subspecies are largely technical. The account of the
-type specimen is rather complete. Subspecific diagnoses are brief,
-stating often only the principal racial characters. Standard external
-measurements are usually given for each subspecies. All measurements,
-unless otherwise stated, are in millimeters and weights are in grams.
-Specimens are adult, unless otherwise stated.
-
-No formal list of specimens examined is included. Localities from which
-specimens have been examined are usually shown on the distribution maps
-by solid circles. Open circles indicate localities from which specimens,
-not examined by me, have been recorded by other persons. Most of these
-records are published but a few are based on authentic trappers'
-reports, photographs, or other evidence. Unusual occurrences of animals
-outside their natural ranges are not shown on the maps. Not every record
-from well within the range of a subspecies has been plotted, but care
-has been taken to plot all records of occurrences from peripheral areas.
-
-When more than one race of a species occurs in Washington, specimens
-from localities where the geographic range of one subspecies meets or
-approaches that of another are listed as "marginal occurrences" in the
-paragraph on the distribution of the race to which they are best
-referred. Marginal occurrences are listed from north to south and from
-west to east. The authority for the record, if published, is given. When
-the record is based on specimens examined by the author, the collection
-containing the specimen is indicated as follows:
-
-      (E.S.B.) Ernest S. Booth collection. College Place, Washington.
-
-      (J.M.E.) J. M. Edson collection, Bellingham, Washington.
-
-      (K.U.) University of Kansas, Museum of Natural History, Lawrence,
-      Kansas.
-
-      (M.V.Z.) Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, University of California,
-      Berkeley, California.
-
-      (U.S.N.M.) United States National Museum, Washington, D. C.
-      Specimens from the Biological Surveys Collection are included
-      here.
-
-      (V.B.S.) Victor B. Scheffer collection. United States National
-      Museum, Washington, D. C.
-
-      (W.S.C.) Washington State College, Charles R. Conner Museum,
-      Pullman, Washington.
-
-      (W.S.M.) Washington State Museum, University of Washington,
-      Seattle, Washington.
-
-      (W.W.D.) Walter W. Dalquest collection, Seattle, Washington.
-
-In all, 230 kinds (species and subspecies) of mammals are listed for the
-state of Washington. Of these, 9 kinds (opossum, eastern gray squirrel,
-fox squirrel, 3 kinds of Old World rats, house mouse, nutria, and
-eastern cottontail) have been introduced into Washington from elsewhere.
-The dog of the Indians might be listed as a tenth introduced species.
-The grizzly bear, the sea otter, the wolf, the moose, one race of
-mountain sheep, one race of mountain goat, and, if they ever occurred in
-the state, the pronghorn antelope and bison, are nearly or completely
-extinct in Washington. Mammals other than cetaceans possibly occurring
-in Washington, but of which satisfactory record is lacking, are
-mentioned in a hypothetical list at the end of the accounts of species.
-Of the 220 kinds of native mammals, known to occur in the state, 23 are
-marine (4 pinnipeds, 19 cetaceans). The 197 living, native, land mammals
-include 6 orders, 20 families, 58 genera and 101 full species.
-
-
-
-
-CHECK LIST OF MAMMALS
-
-CLASS MAMMALIA--mammals
-
-
-            Order MARSUPALIA--marsupials
-
-  Family DIDELPHIIDAE--opossums
-    Genus =Didelphis= Linnaeus--opossums
-      _Didelphis virginiana virginiana Kerr_       opossum
-
-
-  Order INSECTIVORA--insectivores
-
-  Family TALPIDAE--moles
-    Genus =Neurotrichus= Gunther--shrew-mole
-      _Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii_ (Baird)    }
-      _Neurotrichus gibbsii minor_ Dalquest     }  Gibbs shrew-mole
-       and Burgner                              }
-
-    Genus =Scapanus= Pomel--western American moles
-      _Scapanus townsendii_ (Bachman)              Townsend mole
-      _Scapanus orarius orarius_ True           }
-      _Scapanus orarius yakimensis_ Dalquest    }  coast mole
-        and Scheffer                            }
-      _Scapanus orarius schefferi_ Jackson      }
-
-  Family SORICIDAE--shrews
-    Genus =Sorex= Linnaeus--long-tailed shrews
-      _Sorex cinereus cinereus_ Kerr            }
-      _Sorex cinereus streatori_ Merriam        }  cinereous shrew
-      _Sorex merriami merriami_ Dobson             Merriam shrew
-      _Sorex trowbridgii trowbridgii_ Baird     }
-      _Sorex trowbridgii destructioni_ Scheffer }  Trowbridge shrew
-        and Dalquest                            }
-      _Sorex vagrans vagrans_ Baird             }
-      _Sorex vagrans monticola_ Merriam         }  wandering shrew
-      _Sorex obscurus obscurus_ Merriam         }
-      _Sorex obscurus setosus_ Elliot           }  dusky shrew
-      _Sorex palustris navigator_ (Baird)          mountain water-shrew
-      _Sorex bendirii bendirii_ (Merriam)       }
-      _Sorex bendirii albiventer_ Merriam       }  Bendire water-shrew
-
-    Genus =Microsorex= Coues--pigmy shrew
-      _Microsorex hoyi washingtoni_ Jackson        pigmy shrew
-
-
-            Order CHIROPTERA--bats
-
-  Family VESPERTILIONIDAE--vespertilionid bats
-    Genus =Myotis= Kaup--mouse-eared bats
-      _Myotis lucifugus carissima_ Thomas       }
-      _Myotis lucifugus alascensis_ Miller      }  big myotis
-      _Myotis yumanensis sociabilis_            }
-        H. W. Grinnell                          }
-      _Myotis yumanensis saturatus_ Miller      }  Yuma myotis
-      _Myotis keenii keenii_ (Merriam)             Keen myotis
-      _Myotis evotis evotis_ (H. Allen)         }  long-eared myotis
-      _Myotis evotis pacificus_ Dalquest        }
-      _Myotis thysanodes thysanodes_ Miller        fringe-tailed myotis
-      _Myotis volans longicrus_ (True)          }  hairy-winged myotis
-      _Myotis volans interior_ Miller           }
-      _Myotis californicus caurinus_ Miller     }  California myotis
-      _Myotis californicus californicus_        }
-       (Audubon and Bachman)                    }
-      _Myotis subulatus melanorhinus_ (Merriam)    small-footed myotis
-
-    Genus =Lasionycteris= Peters--silver-haired bat
-      _Lasionycteris noctivagans_ (Le Conte)       silver-haired bat
-
-    Genus =Corynorhinus= H. Allen--long-eared bats
-      _Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii_     }  long-eared bat
-       (Cooper)                                 }
-      _Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius_    }
-       H. W. Grinnell                           }
-
-    Genus =Pipistrellus= Kaup--pipistrelles
-      _Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus_ (H. Allen)  western pipistrelle
-
-    Genus =Eptesicus= Rafinesque--serotine bats
-      _Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus_ Rhoads        big brown bat
-
-    Genus =Lasiurus= Gray--hairy-tailed bats
-      _Lasiurus cinereus cinereus_ (Beauvois)      hoary bat
-
-    Genus =Antrozous= H. Allen--nyctophiline bats
-      _Antrozous pallidus cantwelli_ Bailey        pallid bat
-
-
-            Order CARNIVORA
-
-  Family URSIDAE--bears
-    Genus =Ursus= Linnaeus--bears
-      _Ursus americanus altifrontalis_ Elliot   }
-      _Ursus americanus cinnamomum_             }  black bear
-       (Audubon and Bachman)                    }
-      _Ursus chelan_ Merriam                       grizzly bear
-
-  Family PROCYONIDAE--raccoons and allies
-    Genus =Procyon= Storr-raccoons
-      _Procyon lotor psora_ Gray                }
-      _Procyon lotor excelsus_ Nelson and       }  raccoon
-       Goldman                                  }
-
-  Family MUSTELIDAE--weasels and allies
-    Genus =Martes= Pinel--martens and fisher
-      _Martes caurina caurina_ (Merriam)        }  western marten
-      _Martes caurina origenes_ (Rhoads)        }
-      _Martes pennanti_ (Erxleben)                 fisher
-
-    Genus =Mustela= Linnaeus--weasels, ferrets and minks
-      _Mustela erminea invicta_ Hall            }
-      _Mustela erminea fallenda_ Hall           }
-      _Mustela erminea olympica_ Hall           }  ermine
-      _Mustela erminea streatori_ (Merriam)     }
-      _Mustela erminea gulosa_ Hall             }
-      _Mustela erminea murica_ (Bangs)          }
-      _Mustela frenata washingtoni_ (Merriam)   }
-      _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_ Hall      }
-      _Mustela frenata effera_ Hall             }  long-tailed weasel
-      _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ Hall         }
-      _Mustela vison energumenos_ (Bangs)          mink
-
-    Genus =Gulo= Pallas--wolverines
-      _Gulo luscus luteus_ Elliot                  wolverine
-
-    Genus =Lutra= Brisson--river otters
-      _Lutra canadensis pacifica_ Rhoads        }
-      _Lutra canadensis vancouverensis_ Goldman }  river otter
-
-    Genus =Enhydra= Fleming--sea otter
-      _Enhydra lutris nereis_ (Merriam)            sea otter
-
-    Genus =Spilogale= Gray--civet cats or spotted skunks
-      _Spilogale gracilis saxatilis_ Merriam    } civet cat or
-      _Spilogale gracilis latifrons_ Merriam    }  spotted skunks
-
-    Genus =Mephitis= Geoffroy and Cuvier--striped skunks
-      _Mephitis mephitis hudsonica_ Richardson  }
-      _Mephitis mephitis major_ (Howell)        }
-      _Mephitis mephitis notata_ (Howell)       }  striped skunk
-      _Mephitis mephitis spissigrada_ Bangs     }
-
-    Genus =Taxidea= Waterhouse--American badger
-      _Taxidea taxus taxus_ (Schreber)             badger
-
-  Family CANIDAE--foxes, coyote, wolves and dogs
-    Genus =Vulpes= Oken--foxes
-      _Vulpes fulva cascadensis_ Merriam           red fox
-
-    Genus =Canis= Linnaeus--coyote, wolves and dogs
-      _Canis latrans testes_ Merriam            }
-      _Canis latrans incolatus_ Hall            }  coyote
-      _Canis lupus fuscus_ Richardson              wolf
-      _Canis familiaris_ Linnaeus                  dog
-
-  Family FELIDAE--cats
-    Genus =Felis= Linnaeus--true cats
-      _Felis concolor oregonensis_ Rafinesque   }  cougar or
-      _Felis concolor missoulensis_ Goldman     }   mountain lion
-
-    Genus =Lynx= Kerr--lynxes and bobcats
-      _Lynx canadensis canadensis_ Kerr            Canadian lynx
-      _Lynx rufus fasciatus_ Rafinesque         }
-      _Lynx rufus pallescens_ Merriam           }  bobcat
-
-
-            Order PINNIPEDIA--seals and walruses
-
-  Family OTARIIDAE--eared seals
-    Genus =Zalophus= Gill--Californian sea lions
-      _Zaluphus californianus_ (Lesson)            California sea lion
-
-    Genus =Eumetopias= Gill--Steller sea lion
-      _Eumetopias jubata_ (Schreber)               Steller sea lion
-
-    Genus =Callorhinus= Gray--Alaska fur seal
-      _Callorhinus ursinus cynocephalus_
-       (Walbaum)                                   Alaska fur seal
-
-  Family PHOCIDAE--hair seals
-    Genus =Phoca= Linnaeus--hair seals
-      _Phoca vitulina richardii_ (Gray)            hair seal
-
-
-            Order RODENTIA--rodents
-
-  Family SCIURIDAE--squirrels and allies
-    Genus =Tamias= Illiger--chipmunks
-      _Tamias minimus scrutator_ (Hall and      }
-       Hatfield)                                }  least chipmunk
-      _Tamias minimus grisescens_ (Howell)      }
-      _Tamias amoenus caurinus_ (Merriam)       }
-      _Tamias amoenus felix_ Rhoads             }
-      _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_ (Hollister)   }
-      _Tamias amoenus affinis_ Allen            }  yellow-pine chipmunk
-      _Tamias amoenus canicaudus_ (Merriam)     }
-      _Tamias amoenus luteiventris_ Allen       }
-      _Tamias ruficaudus simulans_ (Howell)        red-tailed chipmunk
-      _Tamias townsendii townsendii_ Bachman    }
-      _Tamias townsendii cooperi_ Baird         }  Townsend chipmunk
-
-    Genus =Marmota= Blumenbach--marmots
-      _Marmota monax petrensis_ Howell             woodchuck
-      _Marmota flaviventris avara_ (Bangs)         yellow-bellied marmot
-      _Marmota caligata cascadensis_ Howell        hoary marmot
-      _Marmota olympus_ (Merriam)                  Olympic marmot
-
-    Genus =Citellus= Oken--ground squirrels
-      _Citellus townsendii townsendii_ (Bachman)   Townsend ground
-                                                     squirrel
-      _Citellus washingtoni_ Howell                Washington ground
-                                                     squirrel
-      _Citellus columbianus columbianus_ (Ord)  }
-      _Citellus columbianus ruficaudus_ Howell  }  Columbian ground
-                                                     squirrel
-      _Citellus beecheyi douglasii_
-       (Richardson)                                Beechey ground squirrel
-      _Citellus lateralis tescorum_ (Hollister) }
-      _Citellus lateralis connectens_ (Howell)  }  golden-mantled ground
-      _Citellus saturatus_ (Rhoads)             }   squirrel
-
-    Genus =Sciurus= Linnaeus--tree squirrels
-      _Sciurus griseus griseus_ Ord                western gray squirrel
-      _Sciurus carolinensis hypophaeus_ Merriam    eastern gray squirrel
-      _Sciurus niger_ Linnaeus, subsp.?            fox squirrel
-
-    Genus =Tamiasciurus= Trouessart--red squirrels
-      _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori_       }
-       (Allen)                                  }
-      _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni_     }  red squirrel
-       (Bachman)                                }
-      _Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii_        }
-       (Bachman)                                }  Douglas squirrel
-
-    Genus =Glaucomys= Thomas--American flying squirrels
-      _Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis_          }
-       (Bachman)                                }
-      _Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi_ (Rhoads)      }  northern flying
-      _Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis_ Howell  }   squirrel
-      _Glaucomys sabrinus latipes_ Howell       }
-      _Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus_ (Rhoads) }
-
-  Family HETEROMYIDAE--pocket mice, kangaroo mice and kangaroo rats
-    Genus =Perognathus= Weid--pocket mice
-      _Perognathus parvus parvus_ (Peale)       }  great basin pocket
-      _Perognathus parvus lordi_ (Gray)         }   mouse
-      _Perognathus parvus columbianus_ Merriam  }
-
-    Genus =Dipodomys= Gray--kangaroo rats
-      _Dipodomys ordii columbianus_ (Merriam) Ord kangaroo rat
-
-  Family GEOMYIDAE--pocket gophers
-    Genus =Thomomys= Weid--smooth-toothed pocket gophers
-      _Thomomys talpoides devexus_ Hall and     }
-       Dalquest                                 }
-      _Thomomys talpoides columbianus_ Bailey   }
-      _Thomomys talpoides aequalidens_          }
-       Dalquest                                 }
-      _Thomomys talpoides wallowa_ Hall         }
-       and Orr                                  }
-      _Thomomys talpoides fuscus_ Merriam       }
-      _Thomomys talpoides yakimensis_ Hall      }
-       and Dalquest                             }
-      _Thomomys talpoides shawi_ Taylor         }
-      _Thomomys talpoides immunis_ Hall and     }
-       Dalquest                                 }  northern pocket
-      _Thomomys talpoides limosus_ Merriam      }   gopher
-      _Thomomys talpoides douglasii_            }
-       (Richardson)                             }
-      _Thomomys talpoides glacialis_ Dalquest   }
-       and Scheffer                             }
-      _Thomomys talpoides tacomensis_ Taylor    }
-      _Thomomys talpoides pugetensis_ Dalquest  }
-       and Scheffer                             }
-      _Thomomys talpoides tumuli_ Dalquest      }
-       and Scheffer                             }
-      _Thomomys talpoides yelmensis_ Merriam    }
-      _Thomomys talpoides couchi_ Goldman       }
-      _Thomomys talpoides melanops_ Merriam     }
-
-  Family CASTORIDAE--beavers
-    Genus =Castor= Linnaeus--beavers
-      _Castor canadensis leucodonta_ Gray       }
-      _Castor canadensis idoneus_ Jewett and    }  beaver
-       Hall                                     }
-
-  Family MURIDAE--rats and mice
-    Genus =Onychomys= Baird--grasshopper mice
-      _Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus_      }  northern grasshopper
-       Anthony                                  }   mouse
-
-    Genus =Reithrodontomys= Giglioli--American harvest mice
-      _Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis_     }  western harvest
-       (Baird)                                  }   mouse
-
-    Genus =Peromyscus= Gloger--white-footed mice
-      _Peromyscus maniculatus oreas_ Bangs      }
-      _Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri_       }
-       Osgood                                   }
-      _Peromyscus maniculatus austerus_ (Baird) }
-      _Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus_ Osgood   }  deer mouse
-      _Peromyscus maniculatus gambelii_ (Baird) }
-      _Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae_       }
-       (Rhoads)                                 }
-
-    Genus =Neotoma= Say and Ord--wood rats
-      _Neotoma cinerea occidentalis_ Baird      }  bushy-tailed wood rat
-      _Neotoma cinerea alticola_ Hooper         }
-
-    Genus =Synaptomys= Baird--lemming mice
-      _Synaptomys borealis wrangeli_ Merriam       northern lemming mouse
-
-    Genus =Phenacomys= Merriam--heather voles and tree mice
-      _Phenacomys intermedius intermedius_      }
-       Merriam                                  }  heather vole
-      _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis_        }
-       Rhoads                                   }
-
-    Genus =Clethrionomys= Tilesius--red-backed mice
-      _Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus_         }
-       (Rhoads)                                 }
-      _Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis_        }
-       (Merriam)                                }  Gapper red-backed
-      _Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis_       }   mouse
-       Booth                                    }
-      _Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius_          }
-       (Bailey)                                 }
-      _Clethrionomys californicus               }  California red-backed
-       occidentalis_ (Merriam)                  }    mouse
-
-    Genus =Microtus= Schrank--meadow mice
-      _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris_ Dale   }  Pennsylvania meadow
-      _Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi_        }   mouse
-       Dalquest                                 }
-      _Microtus montanus nanus_ (Merriam)       }  montane meadow
-      _Microtus montanus canescens_ Bailey      }   mouse
-      _Microtus townsendii townsendii_          }
-       (Bachman)                                }  Townsend meadow
-      _Microtus townsendii pugeti_ Dalquest     }   mouse
-      _Microtus longicaudus halli_ Ellerman     }  long-tailed meadow
-      _Microtus longicaudus macrurus_ Merriam   }   mouse
-      _Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides_       }
-       (Rhoads)                                 }  water rat
-      _Microtus richardsoni macropus_ (Merriam) }
-      _Microtus oregoni oregoni_ (Bachman)         creeping mouse
-
-    Genus =Lagurus= Gloger--short-tailed voles
-      _Lagurus curtatus pauperrimus_ (Cooper)      sagebrush vole
-
-    Genus =Ondatra= Link--muskrat
-      _Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis_ (Lord)  }
-      _Ondatra zibethicus occipitalis_ (Elliot) }  muskrat
-
-    Genus =Rattus= Fischer--Old World rats
-      _Rattus rattus rattus_ (Linnaeus)         }  roof rat
-      _Rattus rattus alexandrinus_ (Geoffroy)   }
-      _Rattus norvegicus norvegicus_ (Erxleben)    Norway rat
-
-    Genus =Mus= Linnaeus--house mice
-      _Mus musculus_ Linnaeus, subsp.?             house mouse
-
-  Family APLONTIDAE--mountain beaver
-    Genus =Aplodontia= Richardson--mountain beaver
-      _Aplodontia rufa rufa_ (Rafinesque)       }
-      _Aplodontia rufa rainieri_ Merriam        }  mountain beaver
-
-  Family DIPODIDAE--jumping mice and allies
-    Genus =Zapus= Coues--jumping mice
-      _Zapus princeps trinotatus_ Rhoads        }
-      _Zapus princeps kootenayensis_ Anderson   }  big jumping mouse
-      _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ Davis         }
-      _Zapus princeps oregonus_ Preble          }
-
-  Family ERETHIZONTIDAE--American porcupines
-    Genus =Erethizon= Cuvier--North American porcupine
-      _Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum_ Brandt    }  porcupine
-      _Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens_ Allen     }
-
-  Family CHINCHILLIDAE Bennett--chinchillas and allies
-    Genus =Myocastor= Kerr--nutria
-      _Myocastor coypus_ (Molina), subsp.?         nutria
-
-
-            Order LAGOMORPHA--pikas, hares and rabbits
-
-  Family OCHOTONIDAE--pikas
-    Genus =Ochotona= Link--pikas
-      _Ochotona princeps cuppes_ Bangs          }
-      _Ochotona princeps fenisex_ Osgood        }  pika
-      _Ochotona princeps brunnescens_ Howell    }
-
-  Family LEPORIDAE--hares and rabbits
-    Genus =Lepus= Linnaeus--hares
-      _Lepus townsendii townsendii_ Bachman        white-tailed jack
-                                                     rabbit
-      _Lepus americanus washingtonii_ Baird     }
-      _Lepus americanus cascadensis_ Nelson     }  snowshoe rabbit
-      _Lepus americanus pineus_ Dalquest        }
-      _Lepus americanus columbiensis_ Rhoads    }
-      _Lepus californicus deserticola_ Mearns      black-tailed jack
-                                                     rabbit
-
-    Genus =Sylvilagus= Gray--cottontails and allies
-      _Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii_ (Bachman)   Nuttall cottontail
-      _Sylvilagus floridanus_ (Allen), subsp.?     Florida cottontail
-      _Sylvilagus idahoensis_ (Merriam)            pigmy rabbit
-
-
-            Order ARTIODACTYLA--even-toed ungulates
-
-  Family CERVIDAE--deer and allies
-    Genus =Cervus= Linnaeus--American elk or wapiti
-      _Cervus canadensis roosevelti_ Merriam    }  elk or wapiti
-      _Cervus canadensis nelsoni_ Bailey        }
-
-    Genus =Odocoileus= Rafinesque--northern deer
-      _Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus_ Bailey }
-      _Odocoileus virginianus leucurus_         }  white-tailed deer
-       (Douglas)                                }
-      _Odocoileus hemionus hemionus_            }
-       (Rafinesque)                             }  mule deer or
-      _Odocoileus hemionus columbianus_         }   black-tailed deer
-       (Richardson)                             }
-
-    Genus =Alce= Gray--Moose and Old-World elk
-      _Alce americana shirasi_ Nelson              moose
-
-    Genus =Rangifer= Hamilton-Smith--reindeer and caribou
-      _Rangifer arcticus montanus_ Seton-Thompson  caribou
-
-  Family BOVIDAE--cattle, sheep, goats and allies
-    Genus =Bison= Hamilton-Smith--bison
-      _Bison bison oregonus_ Bailey                bison
-
-    Genus =Ovis= Linnaeus--sheep
-      _Ovis canadensis canadensis_ Shaw         }  mountain sheep
-      _Ovis canadensis californiana_ Douglas    }
-
-    Genus =Oreamnos= Rafinesque--mountain goat
-      _Oreamnos americanus americanus_          }  mountain goat
-       (Blainville)                             }
-      _Oreamnos americanus missoulae_ Allen     }
-
-
-            Order CETACEA--whales and porpoises
-
-  Family ZIPHIIDAE--beaked whales
-    Genus =Berardius= Duvernoy--beaked whales
-      _Berardius bairdii_ Stejneger                Baird beaked whale
-
-    Genus =Mesoplodon= Gervais--beaked whales
-      _Mesoplodon stejnegeri_ True                 Stejneger beaked whale
-
-  Family DELPHINIDAE--porpoises
-    Genus =Delphinus= Linnaeus--dolphins
-      _Delphinus bairdii_ Dall                     Baird porpoise
-
-    Genus =Lissodelphis= Gloger--right-whale porpoises
-      _Lissodelphis borealis_ (Peale)           }  northern right-whale
-                                                }   porpoise
-
-    Genus =Lagenorhynchus= Gray--striped porpoises
-      _Lagenorhynchus obliquidens_ Gill            striped porpoise
-
-    Genus =Grampus= Gray--killer whales
-      _Grampus rectipinna_ (Cope)                  Pacific killer
-
-    Genus =Grampidelphis= Iredale and Troughton
-      _Grampidelphis griseus_ (Cuvier)             grampus
-
-    Genus =Globicelphalus= Hamilton--blackfishes
-      _Globicephalus scammonii_ (Cope)             blackfish
-
-    Genus =Phocoena= Cuvier--harbor porpoises
-      _Phocoena vomerina_ (Gill)                   harbor porpoise
-
-    Genus =Phocoenoides= Andrews--Dall porpoises
-      _Phocoenoides dalli_ (True)                  Dall porpoise
-
-  Family PHYSETERIDAE--sperm whales
-    Genus =Physeter= Linnaeus--sperm whale
-      _Physeter catodon_ Linnaeus                  sperm whale
-
-  Family KOGIIDAE--pigmy sperm whale
-    Genus =Kogia= Gray--pigmy sperm whale
-      _Kogia breviceps_ (Blainville)               pigmy sperm whale
-
-  Family RHACHIANECTIDAE--gray whale
-    Genus =Rhachianectes= Cope--gray whale
-      _Rhachianectes glaucus_ (Cope)               gray whale
-
-  Family BALAENOPTERIDAE--finback whales
-    Genus =Balaenoptera= Lacépède--finback whales
-      _Balaenoptera physalus_ (Linnaeus)           finback whale
-      _Balaenoptera borealis_ Lesson               Pollack whale
-      _Balaenoptera acutorostrata_ Lacépède        pike whale
-
-    Genus =Sibbaldus= Gray--blue whale
-      _Sibbaldus musculus_ (Linnaeus)              blue whale
-
-    Genus =Megaptera= Gray--humpbacked whales
-      _Megaptera novaeangliae_ (Borowski)          humpback whale
-
-  Family BALAENIDAE--baleen whales
-    Genus =Eubalaena= Gray--baleen whales
-      _Eubalaena sieboldii_ (Gray)                 Pacific right whale
-
-
-
-
-ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES
-
-
-=Didelphis virginiana virginiana= Kerr
-
-Opossum
-
-     _Didelphis virginiana_ Kerr. Anim. Kingd., p. 193, 1792.
-
-     _Type locality._--Virginia
-
-_Description._--Slightly smaller than a house cat; body in older animals
-heavy and fat; tail long, naked, scaled and prehensile. Ears large,
-naked and black with white tips; muzzle elongate and pointed; color of
-fur variable; overhair usually white and underfur white tipped with
-black; guard hairs long and coarse but underfur soft and dense; forefoot
-with opposable thumb; females with abdominal pouch.
-
-_Remarks._--The opossum has been introduced from the eastern United
-States into California and Oregon and has become well established in
-those states. Recent records from Clear Lake, Skagit County, and South
-Bend, Pacific County, indicate that the opossum is now resident in
-Washington and it may be expected to increase and spread (Scheffer,
-1943). The animals may also enter the area about Walla Walla from
-Oregon. The source of the opossums which have appeared in Washington is
-not yet known.
-
-Of this animal, Dr. Carl Hartman (1923: 347) has written:
-
-"In the popular mind, the generation of no animal is so shrouded in
-mystery as that of the opossum. Throughout the country, among both
-whites and negroes, deeply rooted tradition has it that the opossum
-copulates through the nose and that the female blows the fruit of
-conception into the pouch. Other myths relating to details of the
-reproductive process in this species are current among the people.
-
-"The growth of such legends need not surprise one, however, for the
-early birth of the embryos and the use of the pouch as an incubator
-certainly challenge the imagination. These phenomena attract the
-attention because they are unique, differing from the familiar method
-of rearing the young obtaining among the higher mammals, including man.
-Familiarity breeds contempt; the ordinary ceases to be marvelous. Thus
-on account of its rareness and its 'different' character the opossum,
-our only marsupial, figures in the folklore to a prominent degree."
-
-
-=Neurotrichus gibbsii=
-
-Gibbs shrew-mole
-
-_Description._--The shrew-mole is tiny, possessing a head and body
-2-1/2 to 3 inches long and a tail about 1-1/2 inches in length.
-The body is relatively stout but is less cylindrical than that of
-_Scapanus_. The eyes are nearly buried in the fur. The nose is long
-and pointed. The legs are short and the forefeet wide and powerful.
-The tail is thick, constricted at the base and clothed with short,
-stiff bristles. The fur is short and posteriorly directed. In color the
-shrew-mole is dark slate, almost black.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 21. Gibbs shrew-mole (_Neurotrichus gibbsii
-  minor_), female in captivity; Seattle, Washington, September 12,
-  1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No.
-  719.)]
-
-_Remarks._--Shrew-moles inhabit moist habitats from sea level to 8,000
-feet. They are burrowing mammals and prefer to live in soft earth, free
-of sod. In the lowlands of western Washington, shrew-moles are most
-abundant in damp, shady ravines where the vegetation includes deciduous
-trees and dense underbrush with but little grass. In the mountains,
-shrew-moles are usually found near streams or rock slides, where the
-larger annuals grow densely on soil that is deep, soft, and free of
-turf. Vertically they range from the Humid Transition Life-zone
-through the Canadian, and well into the Hudsonian Life-zone.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 22. Distribution of the Gibbs shrew-mole in
-  Washington. A. _Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii._ B. _Neurotrichus
-  gibbsii minor._]
-
-Shrew-moles are both diurnal and nocturnal. They rest or sleep
-periodically, the length of their rest or sleep being longer when much
-food is eaten, and the intervals between their periods of rest or sleep
-is longer when less food is eaten. Owls and snakes appear to be their
-principal enemies. Predatory mammals eat some shrew-moles, and probably
-kill many that they do not eat. Shrew-moles are completely blind, and
-their long, prehensile nose guides all their activity. Their ordinary
-movements on the surface of the ground are slow and cautious. When
-frightened they break into a scuttling rush which ends beneath a leaf or
-bit of bark where the animal becomes motionless. Shrew-moles, on the
-surface of the ground, make considerable noise. They construct molelike
-burrows, but these are not as extensive or complicated as those of
-moles. The shrew-mole hunts for food in shallow trenches that it makes
-just under the layer of dead leaves and vegetable debris that covers the
-ground in their habitat. The food of the shrew-moles includes
-earthworms, isopods, insect larvae, soft-bodied insects, and other
-animal matter. Some vegetable matter is eaten.
-
-Breeding takes place at all seasons of the year, save perhaps in
-December and January. Embryos vary from one to four. The nest of a
-shrew-mole at Seattle, King County, consisted of a handful of damp
-leaves in a cavity of a rotten, punky, alder stump. The nest contained
-four half-grown young.
-
-
-=Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii= (Baird)
-
-      _Urotrichus gibbsii_ Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 76, 1857.
-
-      _Neurotrichus [sic] gibbsii_ Günther, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pl.
-      42, 1880.
-
-      _Neurotrichus Gibbsii_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):607,
-      1885.
-
-      _Neurotrichus gibbsii_ Bryant, Zoe. 1:359, February, 1891.
-
-      _Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      79:11, December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Naches Pass, 4,500 ft., Pierce County,
-      Washington, by G. Gibbs on July 15, 1854 (see Dalquest and Burgner,
-      1941); type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size relatively large; tail relatively long;
-      foreclaws straight on ventral surface.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two females from Tye, 4,000 ft., Stevens Pass,
-      King County, average: total length, 121.5; length of tail, 45;
-      length of hind foot, 18.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, from British Columbia
-      south, and Destruction Island, Jefferson County. Records of
-      occurrence are Baker Lake (J. M. E.), Tye (M. V. Z.), and Mount
-      Rainier (Mount Rainier Ntl. Park Mus.)
-
-_Remarks._--Shrew-moles are present on Destruction Island, a small
-island in the Pacific off the coast of Jefferson County. These moles are
-large, and are like _gibbsii_. It is thought, however, that this
-resemblance is due to convergent evolution rather than a once-continuous
-range with _gibbsii_. It is significant that a shrew (_Sorex trowbridgii
-destructioni_), the only other native land mammal on the island, differs
-from its mainland counterpart in much the same way as does _Neurotrichus
-g. gibbsii_ from _Neurotrichus g. minor_.
-
-
-=Neurotrichus gibbsii minor= Dalquest and Burgner
-
-      _Neurotrichus gibbsii_ minor Dalquest and Burgner, Murrelet, 22:12,
-      April 30, 1941.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on the University of Washington Campus, Seattle,
-      King County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on May 19, 1940; type in
-      the Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size small; tail short; foreclaws light and
-      weak as compared to those of _gibbsii_, with ventral surfaces
-      curved.
-
-      _Measurements._--Eighty-five specimens (males and females) from
-      Seattle, King County, average: total length, 107.0; length of
-      tail, 35.3; length of hind foot, 15.0.
-
-      _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington. Marginal
-      records are: Mt. Vernon (Jackson, 1915: 97), Cottage Lake (W.W.D.)
-      and Yacolt (M. V.Z.).
-
-
-
-
-Genus =Scapanus= Pomel
-
-Moles
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 23. Coast mole (_Scapanus orarius orarius_) left
-  and Townsend mole (_Scapanus townsendii_) right; Puyallup. Washington,
-  May, 1914. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by T. H. Scheffer, No.
-  B-18637.)]
-
-Moles are of stocky build and have cylindrical, rounded bodies. The eyes
-are tiny, nearly concealed in the fur. They have no external ears. The
-legs are short; the forefeet wide, spadelike, and armed with powerful
-claws. The fur is erect, not posteriorly directed. The color of the fur
-is deep bluish or brownish slate. The short, nearly naked tail is pale
-pink or whitish. Moles of this genus are found only along the Pacific
-Coast of North America from southern Canada south into Baja California.
-
-
-=Scapanus townsendii= (Bachman)
-
-Townsend mole
-
-      _Scalops townsendii_ Bachman. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8
-      (pt. 1):58, 1839.
-
-      _Scapanus tow[n]sendii_ Pomel. Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat., Geneva, 9
-      (ser. 4):247, 1848.
-
-      _Scapanus Townsendii_ True. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1881):607,
-      1885.
-
-      _Type._--Probably obtained at Fort Vancouver. Clark County.
-      Washington, by J. K. Townsend. A cotype was obtained on May 9.
-      1835; type in Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
-
-      _Measurements._--Three males and 6 females from southwestern
-      Washington average, respectively: total length 221, 214; length of
-      tail 51, 46; hind foot 28.3, 26; weight 147, 117 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington. Marginal
-      occurrences are: Sauk (Jackson. 1915: 61); Skykomish (Jackson,
-      1915: 61) and Yacolt (M.V.Z.).
-
-_Remarks._--_Scapanus townsendii_ occurs only in a narrow belt extending
-from southwestern British Columbia to northwestern California. It seems
-to prefer a generally damper habitat than the smaller-sized coast mole,
-although both species are sometimes found in the same locality. The
-larger mole is abundant in the meadows on the flood plains of rivers at
-low elevations, and on the glacial outwash prairies. It is often
-numerous in the fir forests, although its workings and mounds are less
-conspicuous there. The bodies of nine drowned individuals were found in
-a well by an old cabin in dense fir forest near Duvall, King County.
-Townsend moles occasionally occur in the Canadian Life-zone, as at
-Staircase on the north side of Lake Cushman in Mason County where
-workings were observed, but most records are from the Humid division of
-the Transition Life-zone.
-
-The Townsend mole is mainly nocturnal. If ridges of its runways are
-crushed down, they usually remain so throughout the day and are rebuilt
-the following night. Only about ten per cent of the ridges that were
-crushed were rebuilt in the daytime, and most of these were repaired in
-the early morning. The species is almost completely subterranean. Some
-individuals are crushed on highways by cars, showing that these moles
-occasionally travel on the surface of the ground.
-
-Townsend moles throw up numerous mounds, each usually containing about a
-cubic foot of earth. The mounds commonly are built just about as far
-apart as a man can step. The general direction as well as the twists and
-turns of a mole's burrow can usually be determined from the mounds.
-Townsend moles also construct ridges on the surface of the ground by
-pushing up sod in building a tunnel just below the grass roots. Smaller
-ridges are less commonly made by coast moles. More extensive tunnels,
-constructed deeper in the earth, serve as living quarters.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 24. Distribution of the Townsend mole, _Scapanus
-  townsendii_, in Washington.]
-
-According to Wight (1928: 24), Scheffer (1922: 11) and Moore (1933: 39),
-the food of this large mole includes earthworms and ground-inhabiting
-insects, insect larvae, spiders, centipedes, flesh, and small amounts of
-soft vegetation. Scheffer (1922: 10) found that the large mole breeds in
-February and produces from two to four young at a litter, with an
-average of three.
-
-
-=Scapanus orarius=
-
-Coast mole
-
-_Description._--The coast mole is almost identical with the larger mole
-in form of body but is smaller. Head and body are about 5-1/4 and tail
-about 1-1/2 inches in length.
-
-The coast mole occupies all of the territory inhabited by the Townsend
-mole and ranges slightly farther northward, southward and eastward.
-However it does not range east of the boundaries of the three Pacific
-Coast states or British Columbia.
-
-The mounds and workings of the coast mole are smaller than those of the
-Townsend mole and consequently are less noticed. It seems less prone to
-make numerous mounds, a pace apart, than the larger mole, and burrows
-tend to extend deeper in the ground. Upthrust ridges are less commonly
-built by _orarius_ than by _townsendii_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 25. Coast mole (_Scapanus orarius orarius_).
-  Freshly killed; Seattle, Washington, June 9, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife
-  Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 64.)]
-
-Jackson (1915: 62) mentions the possibility of ecologic differences
-between _orarius_ and _townsendii_. There are some differences in
-habitat and habits. The coast mole seems to live deeper in the ground,
-prefers better drained soil, and is less colonial than the Townsend
-mole. These are average differences, however, and the two species
-commonly occur together. Another difference is that the larger mole
-rarely enters the dense deciduous woods, such as the brush-grown alder
-and dogwood jungles along the stream valleys. I have taken the coast
-mole in such localities, and often have found their workings there. The
-surface of a nearby meadow may be dotted with mounds of both species,
-but the larger mole seems not to enter ground that is thickly grown with
-brush. The coast mole ascends to greater altitudes in the Cascade
-Mountains than does the Townsend mole.
-
-Like the larger mole the coast mole feeds principally on earthworms and
-insects (Moore, 1933: 38). On September 29, 1939, in a ravine at
-Seattle, in two baited traps set six inches apart, a creeping mouse
-(_Microtus oregoni_) and a coast mole were found. The mouse had come to
-the bait and been caught. The mole had seemingly emerged from the ground
-through a tunnel a foot away and had been attracted to the body of the
-mouse. It had eaten an area a half inch in diameter and three-quarters
-of an inch deep into the body of the mouse just behind the shoulder,
-when in shifting its position it had become caught in the unsprung trap
-behind it. When found the mole lay dead with its nose inside the body of
-the mouse and its back broken. This is the only case known to me of a
-coast mole appearing voluntarily on the surface of the ground. Never
-have I found coast moles crushed on the highway; several Townsend moles
-so killed have been found.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 26. Distribution of the coast mole in Washington.
-  A. _Scapanus orarius orarius._ B. _Scapanus orarius yakimensis._
-  C. _Scapanus orarius schefferi._]
-
-The coast mole seems to breed very early in the spring. Males with
-swollen testes are found late in January. The young usually number four
-and are born in late March or early April. The breeding season seems to
-be the same as that of _townsendii_ but the number of young to a litter
-may average slightly greater.
-
-
-=Scapanus orarius orarius= True
-
-      _Scapanus orarius_ True. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 19:52, December 21,
-      1896.
-
-      _Scapanus orarius orarius_ Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 38:61,
-      September 30, 1915.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Shoalwater (= Willapa) Bay, Pacific County,
-      Washington, by J. G. Cooper on August 30, 1855; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial Characters._--Color dark bluish; frontal region of skull
-      not inflated.
-
-      _Measurements._--Eight males and two females from Seattle, King
-      County, average, respectively: total length 159, 155; length of
-      tail 33, 31; hind foot 20.7, 20.5; weight 58.5, 55.8.
-
-      _Distribution._--Western Washington. Marginal occurrences are:
-      Skykomish (B.S.C.), Merritt (B.S.C.), Wenatchee (B.S.C.), Lester
-      (Jackson, 1915: 64) and Yacolt (M.V.Z.).
-
-
-=Scapanus orarius yakimensis= Dalquest and Scheffer
-
-      _Scapanus orarius yakimensis_ Dalquest and Scheffer, Murrelet,
-      25:27, September 19, 1944.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained 3/4 mile north of Union Gap, Yakima County,
-      Washington, by J. A. Gray, Jr., on July 3, 1941; type in Museum of
-      Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial Characters._--Color pale, grayish; skull narrow with
-      inflated frontal region.
-
-      _Measurements._--Six specimens (males and females) from Selah,
-      Yakima County, average: total length 164; length of tail 37;
-      length of hind foot 21.5. The type specimen weighed 58 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Yakima Valley area; recorded from the type
-      locality northwestward to Easton (B.S.C.).
-
-
-=Scapanus orarius schefferi= Jackson
-
-      _Scapanus orarius schefferi_ Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 38:63,
-      September 30, 1915.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Walla Walla, Walla Walla County, Washington,
-      by T. H. Scheffer on August 8, 1914; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial Characters._--Large size; pale color; large, wide skull
-      with inflated frontal area.
-
-      _Measurements._--Six topotypes average: total length 159; length
-      of tail 35; hind foot 21.5.
-
-      _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington; recorded from Fort Walla
-      Walla (Jackson, 1915: 64), Walla Walla (Jackson, 1915: 64) and
-      Dayton (M.V.Z.).
-
-
-Genus =Sorex= Linnaeus
-
-Long-tailed shrews
-
-Shrews have tiny eyes, almost concealed in the fur. The body is slim;
-the nose elongate and pointed. The legs are short and the feet small and
-weak. The fur is short but soft and posteriorly directed. The cinereous
-shrew, for example, is about 4 inches in length, of which the tail
-comprises 1-3/4 inches. The upper parts are dark grayish brown and the
-underparts dull gray.
-
-Shrews of the genus _Sorex_ are cosmopolitan in distribution. In North
-America they range from the arctic south to Central America. Three
-subgenera are recognized by Jackson (1928: 27), all three of which are
-represented in the state of Washington. The twelve subspecies present
-occupy numerous habitats, and their ranges include almost all of the
-state.
-
-Jackson pointed out (1928: 1) that "No other group of American mammals
-having a wide distribution, and in many localities an abundance of
-individuals, is so little known to the nonprofessional mammalogist as
-the long-tailed shrews." In Washington, especially in the coastal area
-of western Washington, shrews are widespread and abundant in many
-habitats. In some places they are the most common mammal present. In
-spite of this their presence is often unsuspected by persons that are
-otherwise alert to the animal life around them. This is even more
-surprising when one takes into account the facts that long-tailed shrews
-are diurnal as well as nocturnal and are less apt to detect the presence
-of man than are most other species of mammals.
-
-An important factor making long-tailed shrews inconspicuous is their
-small size, and contributing factors include their rapid movements and
-dull colors. On several occasions the writer, after seeing a long-tailed
-shrew vanish soundlessly under a log or into a patch of dead leaves, was
-left wondering if one actually had been seen or if instead his
-imagination had conjured up an animal from a dust mote or wind-blown
-leaf.
-
-The environment of the long-tailed shrews, except for the water shrews,
-is the zone at the very surface of the earth, just beneath the layer of
-moss, grass, dead leaves, and decaying vegetation. The removal of the
-covering vegetative layer reveals a maze of tiny tunnels, the branchings
-and complexities of which are infinite. Tiny traps baited with oats or
-meat and set in these runways catch the long-tailed shrews that inhabit
-them.
-
-The food of long-tailed shrews is varied. It is principally soft-bodied
-insects, insect pupae, and earthworms. At times a considerable quantity
-of soft vegetation and some seeds are eaten. Recent studies (Moore,
-1940: 1942) have shown that by destroying seeds some shrews may
-adversely affect the reforestation of some coniferous trees. Shrews
-readily eat meat, and often destroy the small mammals, including other
-shrews, taken in the mammal collector's traps.
-
-Hamilton (1940: 485) found that in one species of long-tailed shrew in
-the United States individuals rarely lived more than one year. This
-seems not to be true of at least some of the species found in
-Washington.
-
-Parasites, internal or external, are not commonly found on long-tailed
-shrews. They are regularly eaten by owls and snakes, but most
-carnivorous mammals, though they readily kill them, rarely eat them.
-
-
-=Sorex cinereus= Kerr
-
-Cinereous shrew
-
-The cinereous shrew ranges over most of Alaska, Canada and the northern
-half of the United States. A number of subspecies have been described,
-of which two have been reported from Washington. The cinereous shrew is
-of medium size and difficult to distinguish from the dusky and wandering
-shrews, especially in eastern Washington, without studying the skulls.
-In _cinereus_ the fourth unicuspid tooth is smaller than the third; in
-_vagrans_ and _obscurus_ it is larger. The relatively narrow rostrum of
-_cinereus_ also serves to separate it from the other two species.
-
-The cinereous shrew seems to be less restricted to the vicinity of
-streams and marshes than _Sorex vagrans_, resembling _Sorex obscurus_
-and _Sorex trowbridgii_ in this respect. In Washington it seems to be
-rare and has not been taken by the writer. Published records for _Sorex
-c. cinereus_ indicate that this race is, in Washington, confined to
-mountainous areas. The coastal race, _streatori_, seems to be confined
-to the humid area.
-
-
-=Sorex cinereus cinereus= Kerr
-
-      _Sorex arcticus cinereus_ Kerr. Anim. Kingd., p. 206, 1792.
-
-      _Sorex cinereus cinereus_ Jackson. Jour. Mamm., 6: 56, February 9,
-      1925.
-
-      _Type._--None. Name based on the account of a shrew seen at Fort
-      Severn, Canada, by J. R. Forster in 1772.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Small size and pale color.
-
-      _Measurements._--Seven males and 8 females from Indian Point Lake,
-      British Columbia, average, respectively: total length 99, 95;
-      length of tail 43.5, 42.2; hind foot 12.7, 12.3.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington (Metaline and Loon Lake,
-      Jackson, 1928: 49) and the Cascades from Whatcom Pass (Jackson,
-      1928: 55) southward to Conrad Meadows (Jackson, 1928: 49). There
-      is a specimen in the collection of the California Academy of
-      Sciences, from Mt. Rainier.
-
-_Remarks._--This is the most wide-ranging subspecies of shrew, being
-recorded from Alaska, 10 Canadian provinces and 26 states (Jackson,
-1928: 46-50). In the more northern and eastern parts of its range it is
-sometimes the commonest shrew.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 27. Distribution of the cinereous shrew in
-  Washington. A. _Sorex cinereus cinereus._ B. _Sorex cinereus
-  streatori._]
-
-
-=Sorex cinereus streatori= Merriam
-
-      _Sorex personatus streatori_ Merriam. N. Amer. Fauna, 10:62,
-      December 31. 1895.
-
-      _Sorex cinereus streatori_ Jackson. Jour. Mamm., 6:56. February 9,
-      1925.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Yakutat, Alaska, by C. P. Streator on July 9,
-      1895; type in the United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Larger and darker than _Sorex cinereus
-      cinereus_.
-
-      _Measurements._--Five females from Alta Lake, British Columbia,
-      average: total length 103; length of tail 45; hind foot 12.5.
-
-      _Distribution._--The western part of the northern Cascades
-      (Glacier, Jackson, 1928: 55) and the Olympic Peninsula (Neah Bay
-      south to Cedarville, Jackson, 1928: 55).
-
-_Remarks._--This shrew seems to occupy the same range as _Sorex obscurus
-setosus_ but is rare where _obscurus_ is common.
-
-
-=Sorex merriami merriami= Dobson
-
-Merriam shrew
-
-      _Sorex merriami_ Dobson. Monogr. Insectivora, pt. 3, fasc. 1, pl.
-      23, fig. 6, May, 1890.
-
-      _Sorex merriami merriami_ Benson and Bond. Jour. Mamm., 20: 348,
-      August 14, 1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on Little Bighorn River, about a mile and a half
-      above Fort Custer, Crow Indian Reservation, Montana, by Charles E.
-      Bendire on December 26, 1884; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--Of type: total length 90; length of tail 35; hind
-      foot 11.5 (after Jackson, 1928: 80).
-
-      _Distribution._--A single specimen of this rare shrew is known
-      from Washington. Jackson (1928: 81) states that it "was collected
-      by George G. Cantwell, November 18, 1919, at the entrance to an
-      old badger digging on top of a 'high bunch grass hill' at Starbuck
-      (altitude 645 feet), Columbia County, Wash."
-
-_Description._--Similar to _Sorex cinereus_ but upper parts pale grayish
-and underparts white.
-
-The Merriam shrew has been recorded from but a few localities in the
-western United States. It is one of the rarest of the small mammals
-known to occur in North America. All the known specimens have been found
-in desert areas.
-
-
-=Sorex trowbridgii= Baird
-
-Trowbridge shrew
-
-_Description._--The Trowbridge shrew closely resembles the cinereous
-shrew in body form but possesses a longer tail. The head and body of
-adults measure about 2-1/4 inches and the tail about 2 inches. The
-Trowbridge shrew may be separated from all other small shrews that
-occur in Washington by its dark bluish upper parts and bluish or slaty
-underparts. The tail is distinctly bicolor.
-
-Trowbridge shrews occur from southern British Columbia south to central
-California. Their distribution, to the south, is more extensive than
-that of many members of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. They are forest
-animals, ranging widely over the dry ground beneath the fir forest,
-where they are usually the only shrews present. They are abundant in
-ravines and in some swampy woods when other shrews are absent, but they
-avoid open meadows or marshes. Vertically, they occur from the humid
-division of the Transition Life-zone to the Hudsonian Life-zone.
-
-These little shrews do not live well in captivity and I have learned
-relatively little concerning their habits from live specimens. They
-seem to be slower-moving and less aggressive than the wandering shrew.
-Population studies showed that the Trowbridge shrew is unable to
-compete with the wandering shrew in ravine habitats (Dalquest, 1941A:
-173). The principal food of the Trowbridge shrew includes soft-bodied
-insects and insect pupae.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 28. Distribution of the Merriam and Trowbridge
-  shrews in Washington. A. _Sorex merriami merriami._ B. _Sorex
-  trowbridgii trowbridgii._ C. _Sorex trowbridgii destructioni._]
-
-Moore (1942) has shown that shrews eat the seeds of the Douglas fir
-and may be a serious check on the reproduction of this important tree.
-The Trowbridge shrew is the most abundant shrew in the fir forests and
-probably constitutes the principal shrew that might be classed as a
-pest.
-
-A specimen containing 4 embryos was taken near Shelton, Mason County,
-on April 23, 1937. Males with enlarged, greenish testes were taken in
-April of 1938, 1939 and 1940. Specimens obtained in other months showed
-no indications of breeding.
-
-
-=Sorex trowbridgii trowbridgii= Baird
-
-      _Sorex trowbridgii_ Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt.
-      1):13, 1857.
-
-      _Type._--Two cotypes were obtained at Astoria, Clatsop County,
-      Oregon. The skin of one (the lectotype) was entered in the U. S.
-      National Museum catalogue in July, 1855, and the skull in January,
-      1857. The other was obtained by J. Wayne on July 10, 1855.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Small size and narrow skull.
-
-      _Measurements._--The average measurements of 38 adults from King
-      County, Washington, are: total length 115.3; length of tail 54.4;
-      hind foot 13.4.
-
-      _Distribution._--Forested areas from the Pacific Coast eastward
-      through the Cascades to Stehekin (Jackson, 1928: 96), 2 mi. S.
-      Blewitt Pass (Jackson, 1928: 96) and Satus Pass (M.V.Z.).
-
-
-=Sorex trowbridgii destructioni= Scheffer and Dalquest
-
-      _Sorex trowbridgii destructioni_ Scheffer and Dalquest, Jour.
-      Mamm., 23:334, August 13, 1942.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on Destruction Island, Jefferson County,
-      Washington, by V. B. Scheffer on April 22, 1941; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Large size and wide skull.
-
-      _Measurements._--Thirty topotypes average: total length 122.5;
-      length of tail 56.7; hind foot 14.3; weight 7.5 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from Destruction Island, 35 acres in
-      area, lying 4 miles off the Washington Coast.
-
-
-=Sorex vagrans= Baird
-
-Wandering shrew
-
-_Description._--This species closely resembles the cinereous shrew in
-body form. Its head and body measure about 2-1/4 inches; the tail
-slightly less than 2 inches. In summer the upper parts are reddish brown
-and the underparts gray tinged with brownish. In winter the upper parts
-are more dusky.
-
-Several races of the wandering shrew range over western North America
-from southwestern British Columbia south to southern Mexico. Two races
-occur in the state of Washington.
-
-Marshy areas and damp places are the habitat of the wandering shrew.
-Cattail and tule marshes, sphagnum bogs, and meadows are favored.
-They frequent streams through forests but rarely are taken in places
-away from water. On some of the San Juan Islands, wandering shrews
-were found along the beaches where they were feeding on the amphipods
-that live in the dead seaweed and litter at the high tide line. In a
-favorable habitat, wandering shrews may be the most abundant mammal
-present. Specimens are occasionally taken in 90 per cent or more of a
-mammal collector's traps.
-
-The preference of the wandering shrew for damp areas makes it more
-or less independent of life-zones, for marshy areas, whether in
-Transition, Canadian, or Upper Sonoran life-zones, present comparable
-ecological conditions.
-
-Broadbrooks (1939: 65) found that captives taken at Seattle ate rolled
-oats, apple, fresh or cooked meat, sow bugs, centipedes, earthworms,
-frogs (_Hyla regilla_), a salamander (_Plethodon vehiculum_), and
-small, black slugs (_Arean arean_). Wandering shrews proved incapable
-of destroying snails (_Helisoma occidentalis_) and large slugs. The
-captive shrews kept by Broadbrooks ate an average of 1.3 times their
-own weight in food each day.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 29. Distribution of the wandering shrew in
-  Washington. A. _Sorex vagrans vagrans._ B. _Sorex vagrans monticola._]
-
-The wandering shrew changes from winter to summer pelage in a few days,
-seemingly in the second week of October (Dalquest, 1944: 147). The
-spring molt occurs rapidly but perhaps at a less regular date. Rarely a
-midsummer molt occurs.
-
-The earliest evidence of breeding in a wandering shrew was discovered
-on January 27, 1937. Most adult females taken in February, March, April
-and May were pregnant. Embryos were less often found in summer and
-fall, but one pregnant female was taken in November. Embryos varied in
-number from 3 to 8 with an average of six.
-
-
-=Sorex vagrans vagrans= Baird
-
-      _Sorex vagrans_ Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. 1):15,
-      1857.
-
-      _Sorex suckleyi_ Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. 1):18,
-      1857 (type from Steilacoom Pierce County, Washington).
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Willapa Bay [Shoalwater Bay], Pacific County,
-      Washington, by J. G. Cooper; entered in U. S. Nat. Mus. catalogue
-      on October 23, 1856.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Dark color.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twenty-five males and 25 females from Seattle,
-      King County, average, respectively: total length 110.5, 107;
-      length of tail 44.6, 45; hind foot 12.4, 12.4.
-
-      _Distribution._--This is the common marsh shrew of western
-      Washington and occurs from the Pacific Ocean east to the Cascades
-      at Lake Keechelus (W.S.M.) and 15 mi. NW White Salmon (Jackson,
-      1928: 106).
-
-
-=Sorex vagrans monticola= Merriam
-
-      _Sorex monticolus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 3:43, September 11,
-      1896.
-
-      _Sorex vagrans monticola_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:69, December
-      31, 1895.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on San Francisco Mountain, 1150 ft. altitude,
-      Coconino County, Arizona, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey on August
-      28, 1889; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Pale color.
-
-      _Measurements._--Five males and 5 females from Selah, Yakima
-      County, average, respectively: total length 100, 98.4; length of
-      tail 40.6, 39.2; hind foot 12.2, 12.
-
-      _Distribution._--Eastern Washington. The range of this shrew
-      extends west to Bauerman Ridge (Jackson, 1928: 113), Merritt
-      (W.W.D.) and Maryhill (M.V.Z.).
-
-      _Remarks._--A series of shrews from Moses Lake, Grant County,
-      differs from _monticola_ in larger size and darker color. They
-      agree rather closely with _Sorex r. amoenus_ from California and
-      Nevada. Because they are isolated from that subspecies it seems
-      best to consider them a microgeographic race referable to
-      _monticola_.
-
-
-=Sorex obscurus= Merriam
-
-Dusky shrew
-
-_Description._--The dusky shrew is similar in form of body to the
-cinereous shrew. The length of head and body is about 2-1/4 inches. The
-tail is about 2-1/2 inches. The upper parts are rusty or reddish brown.
-The underparts are brownish gray. The dusky shrew differs from the
-wandering shrew in possessing a slightly longer body and longer tail,
-but in eastern Washington the two species are almost indistinguishable.
-
-Dusky shrews range from northern Alaska to southern New Mexico, and from
-the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Thirteen subspecies are
-recognized by Jackson (1928: 115), of which two occur in Washington.
-
-Records of the dusky shrew are not available from the arid subdivision
-of the Transition or the Upper Sonoran life-zones. It occurs sparingly
-in the humid subdivision of the Transition and is common in the Canadian
-and Hudsonian life-zones.
-
-The habitat of the dusky shrew is varied. Near Seattle, King County,
-several specimens were trapped in marshes where _Sorex vagrans_ was
-abundant. Near Stevens Pass, King County, two were taken in a marsh; two
-others were trapped in a dry, coniferous forest; one was taken in a
-small bed of heather on a barren mountain top; and another was found
-dead in a pan of pancake batter in camp. Two specimens were trapped
-along a small stream at Dewey Lake, Mt. Rainier, Yakima County. Four
-specimens were caught in traps set in a talus slope on a dry hillside at
-the North Fork of the Quinault River, Jefferson County. Three others
-were trapped in dense, rain-forest thickets along the ocean at La Push,
-Jefferson County. These records indicate that the dusky shrew has a
-wider environmental range than other Washington shrews. Despite this
-wide range of tolerance the dusky shrew is common only locally, except
-in the Hudsonian Life-zone.
-
-Little is known of the habits of dusky shrews but they seem to be as
-diurnal as they are nocturnal. At Wolf Bar, North Fork of the Quinault
-River, Jefferson County, a dusky shrew was seen on the packed-earth
-floor of an old trapper's cabin. A hat was carefully dropped over the
-live animal but, when the hat was lifted, the shrew was found dead. In
-an old cabin at Stevens Pass, King County, a dusky shrew was found dead
-one morning in a pan of flapjack batter prepared the evening before. As
-this pan was on a table about three feet from the floor, the shrew must
-have climbed to the table by way of the rough cabin wall, but how the
-animal managed to scale the side of the pan is a mystery.
-
-Slipp (1942: 211) discovered the nest of a dusky shrew between Round
-Pass and Lake George, 4200 feet elevation, in Mt. Rainier National Park,
-on July 25, 1937. The nest was in a rotten fir log 20 inches in
-diameter. The nest, a ball of dry grass the size of a man's fist, had no
-central cavity or passages, the occupants "merely pushed through
-wherever they wished." Seven young shrews were found in and near the
-nest. Though the eyes of the young were still closed, they were able to
-creep about and squeal.
-
-A specimen obtained 5 miles west-southwest of Guler, Skamania County,
-contained 4 embryos on July 10, 1939.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 30. Distribution of the dusky shrew in Washington.
-  A. _Sorex obscurus obscurus._ B. _Sorex obscurus setosus._]
-
-
-=Sorex obscurus obscurus= Merriam
-
-      _Sorex vagrans similis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5: 34, July 30,
-      1891 (not of Hensel, 1855).
-
-      _Sorex obscurus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 10: 72, December 31,
-      1895 (substitute for _similis_ Merriam).
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on Timber Creek, 8,200 ft., Lemhi Mountains,
-      Lemhi County, Idaho, by V. Bailey and B. H. Dutcher on August 26,
-      1890; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Tail relatively short, color pale.
-
-      _Measurements._--Thirteen males and 10 females from Indian-point
-      Lake, British Columbia, average, respectively: total length 105,
-      107; length of tail 45, 46; hind foot 13.3, 13.3.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington west, according to
-      Jackson (1928: 122), to Pasayten River, Stehekin and Wenatchee.
-      Because specimens from Tye, King County, and Mt. Stuart, Easton
-      and Lake Keechelus are clearly referable to _S. o. setosus_, the
-      specimens recorded by Jackson (1928: 122), from Easton and Signal
-      Peak, are mapped in the range of _setosus_.
-
-
-=Sorex obscurus setosus= Elliot
-
-      _Sorex setosus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 32. zoöl. ser.,
-      1:274. March, 1899.
-
-      _Sorex obscurus setosus_ Jackson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington.
-      31:127. November 29, 1918.
-
-      _Sorex obscurus bairdi_ Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 51:140. July 24,
-      1928.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Happy Lake, Clallam County, Washington, by D.
-      G. Elliot on August 18, 1898; type in Field Museum of Natural
-      History.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Tail long, color dark.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twelve males and 17 females from southwestern
-      Washington average, respectively: total length 118, 119; length of
-      tail 53, 53; hind foot 13.8, 13.7; weight 6.6, 5.2 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Western Washington, east through the Cascades to
-      Barron (Jackson, 1928: 137), Cascade River (Jackson 1928: 137) and
-      Satus Pass (W. W. D.).
-
-
-=Sorex palustris navigator= (Baird)
-
-Mountain water shrew
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 31. Distribution of the mountain water shrew.
-  _Sorex palustris navigator_, in Washington.]
-
-      _Neosorex navigator_ Baird, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. I):
-      11, 1857.
-
-      _Sorex (Neosorex) palustris navigator_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna,
-      10:92, December 31, 1895.
-
-      _Sorex palustris navigator_ Stephens, California Mammals, p. 254,
-      June, 1906.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at head of Yakima River, Kittitas County,
-      Washington, by J. G. Cooper on August 31, 1853; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and 4 females from Washington average,
-      respectively: total length 150, 150; length of tail 70, 74; hind
-      foot 18.5, 20; weight?, 11.0 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Mountainous areas of entire state, including the
-      Olympic Mountains, from Elwah (Jackson, 1928: 188) south to
-      Quinault River (Jackson, 1928: 189); the Cascades from Tomyhoi
-      Lake (W. W. D.) south to 15 mi. N. Carson (Jackson, 1928: 189);
-      northeastern Washington from Shovel Creek (W. W. D.) south to
-      Gifford (Jackson, 1928: 189); the Blue Mountains at Godman Springs
-      (M. V. Z.) and Hompeg Falls (M. V. Z.).
-
-_Description._--In general form of body the mountain water shrew
-resembles the cinereous shrew but is perhaps more stocky. It is a large
-shrew, nearly as large as a house mouse. The head and body measure about
-3 inches; the tail also is about 3 inches long. The fur is exceedingly
-soft. The upper parts are blackish in color, lightly frosted with paler
-hairs. The underparts, from throat to vent, are whitish tinged with gray
-or brown. The stiff, curved fringe of bristles on the outer part of the
-hind foot serves as an aid in swimming.
-
-Mountain water shrews range over much of Canada and in mountainous areas
-of the western United States extend south to Arizona. The subspecies
-found in Washington ranges over all of the western United States.
-
-The mountain water shrew is primarily a mammal of the Hudsonian and
-Canadian life-zones. It sometimes descends to the Transition Life-zone
-along clear, cold streams where conditions are similar to those in the
-Canadian Life-zone.
-
-The favored habitats of the mountain water shrew are the clear, cold
-streams of the alpine cirques and gushing streams on the mountain sides.
-In the pools and waterfalls, and among the rocks and mosses that border
-them, the larvae of aquatic insects, upon which the mountain water shrew
-feeds, are abundant. Svihla (1934: 45) observed that the fur of a
-swimming water shrew gathered air bubbles and "it had difficulty in
-forcing its way down to the bottom [of an aquarium]. On reaching the
-bottom it literally stood on its long flexible nose which was thrust
-into the sand and debris, searching for food, its feet kicking rapidly
-in order to maintain this position. A change in direction was brought
-about by a twist of the body. To come to the surface again it merely
-stopped kicking and immediately rose like a cork." The buoyancy of the
-water shrew allows it to float in the water, like a duck. Jackson (1928:
-9) observed a water shrew run across the surface of a small pool. Near
-Stevens Pass a water shrew dashed from under a stone and ran, did not
-swim, across the surface of a small, deep pool to escape in a burrow on
-the other side. According to Jackson, an air bubble held in each foot
-supports the shrew on the surface of the water. A mountain water shrew
-observed at Shovel Creek, Ferry County, was as agile on land as any
-other species of shrew. In summary, water shrews are able to swim, dive,
-float like a duck, and walk on the surface of the water as well as walk
-on land.
-
-The food of the mountain water shrew includes snails, leeches, and the
-larvae of aquatic insects. Mice caught in traps are sometimes eaten by
-water shrews. Svihla (_loc. cit._) found a captive water shrew unable to
-capture pollywogs and minnows kept in the same aquarium.
-
-
-=Sorex bendirii= (Merriam)
-
-Bendire water shrew
-
-_Description._--The Bendire water shrew is similar in form of body to
-the cinereous shrew but possesses a more stocky body which, with the
-head, measures about 3-1/2 inches long; the tail is about 2-3/4 inches
-long. The Bendire water shrew closely resembles also the mountain water
-shrew but has a longer body and shorter tail. The upper parts are
-blackish in color, not lightly frosted with gray hairs. The hind feet
-lack the fringe of stiff, curved bristles characteristic of the mountain
-water shrew. The underparts are black in the race _S. b. bendirii_. In
-the race _albiventer_ the throat is blackish but the abdomen is pale
-gray tinged with brownish.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 32. Distribution of the Bendire water shrew and
-  the pigmy shrew in Washington. A. _Sorex bendirii bendirii._
-  B. _Sorex bendirii albiventer._ C. _Microsorex hoyi washingtoni._]
-
-Bendire water shrews are restricted to the Pacific Coast of North
-America from southern British Columbia to northern California.
-Generally they are found at elevations lower than are mountain water
-shrews. They are typically mammals of the humid division of the
-Transition Life-zone but often occur in the Canadian Life-zone. They
-occupy marshes, swamps, damp ravines, and the banks of slow-moving
-streams. Little is known of their habits, except what has been deduced
-from the circumstances of their capture. They seem less aquatic than the
-mountain water shrew. Near Jackson Guard Station on the Hoh River,
-Jefferson County, one was taken by setting traps on dense beds of water
-cress that floated in a slow-moving stream. The animal must have swum or
-walked on the surface of the mat of vegetation. Near Paradise Lake, King
-County, several were caught in a deep, dark, red cedar swamp. One was
-caught in a marsh nearby. Nothing is known of the food habits of the
-Bendire water shrew.
-
-
-=Sorex bendirii bendirii= (Merriam)
-
-      _Atophyrax bendirii_ Merriam, Trans. Linn. Soc. New York, 2:217,
-      August 28, 1884.
-
-      _Atophyrax Bendirei_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):606,
-      1885.
-
-      _Sorex bendirii_ Dobson, Monog. Insectivora, part 3, fasc. 1, pl.
-      23, 1890.
-
-      _Neosorex bendirii bendirii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:22,
-      December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained approximately 1 mile from Williamson River, 18
-      miles southeast of Fort Klamath, Klamath County, Oregon, by C. C.
-      Bendire on August 1, 1882; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Underparts everywhere sooty black.
-
-      _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females from southwestern
-      Washington average, respectively: total length 163.9, 161.0;
-      length of tail 71.0, 72.6; hind foot 20.5, 20.3; weight 16.8, 14.5
-      grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The southern Cascades and the lowlands of western
-      Washington, exclusive of the Olympic Peninsula. Marginal
-      localities on the west include Mt. Vernon (Jackson, 1928: 196),
-      Bothell (W.S.M.), Renton (M.V.Z.), Puyallup (W.W.D.), Steilacoom
-      (Jackson, 1928: 196) and Oakville (Jackson, 1928: 196).
-
-
-=Sorex bendirii albiventer= Merriam
-
-      _Sorex (Atophyrax) bendirii albiventer_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna,
-      10:97, December 31, 1895.
-
-      _Neosorex bendirii albiventer_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      79:22, December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Sorex bendirii albiventer_ Jackson, N. Amer. Fauna, 51:198, July
-      24, 1928.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Lake Cushman, Mason County, Washington, by C.
-      P. Streator on July 7, 1894; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Area on abdomen whitish.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from near the type locality measures:
-      total length 167; length of tail 69; hind foot 22. One from
-      Potlatch, Mason County, measures 167; 69; 22.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Olympic Peninsula of Washington. Marginal
-      localities on the south are: Potlatch (M.V.Z.) and Lake Quinault
-      (Jackson, 1928: 199).
-
-
-=Microsorex hoyi washingtoni= Jackson
-
-Pigmy shrew
-
-      _Microsorex hoyi washingtoni_ Jackson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      38:125, November 13, 1925.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Loon Lake, Stevens County, Washington, by V.
-      Bailey on September 26, 1897; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--Of type: total length 89; length of tail 27; hind
-      foot 9.
-
-      _Distribution._--In Washington, known only from the type specimen
-      which was "found dead in a trail in dry pine woods" (Jackson,
-      1928: 4).
-
-_Description._--The pigmy shrew is similar in form of body to the
-cinereous shrew but smaller. The head and body are about 1-3/4 inches in
-length; the tail is about 1 inch long. The upper parts are reddish brown
-and the underparts are gray.
-
-These tiny mammals range widely across central Canada and northern
-United States from the Atlantic nearly to the Pacific, and north to
-central Alaska. A single species is known, one race of which occurs in
-Washington. The subspecies is known from but two specimens: the type and
-an individual from Montana (Koford, 1938: 372.)
-
-
-Genus =Myotis= Kaup
-
-Mouse-eared bats
-
-_Description._--The genus _Myotis_ may be separated from all other bats
-that occur in Washington by the presence of 38 teeth (dental formula i.
-2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 3-3/3-3, m. 3-3/3-3 = 38). Their small size
-separates them from all other genera save _Pipistrellus_, from which
-_Myotis_ may be distinguished by the straight, rather than hooked,
-anterior border of the tragus. Species of _Myotis_ found in Washington
-vary considerably in size, but all are less than 100 mm. in total
-length. The upper parts are various shades of brown in color. The ears,
-when laid forward, always extend to the nostrils or beyond.
-
-This genus is one of the most widely ranging groups of Recent mammals.
-It occurs on all continents, including Australia and many of the larger
-islands. Of the 19 American species recognized by Miller and Allen
-(1928), eight occur in the state of Washington. They are low-flying
-forms and as a rule appear relatively late in the evening. Their flight
-is rapid and erratic. They often hunt over the surfaces of streams,
-pools, and lakes. Some kinds hunt in the shade of forest trees and these
-are especially difficult to collect. Others hunt the brushy canyons and
-coulees of the desert areas of eastern Washington.
-
-Grinnell (1918: 241-242) points out that, although bats are not subject
-to isolation by topographic barriers, as most wingless mammals are, they
-may be restricted by ecologic barriers in the same way as are other
-small mammals. This is particularly true of _Myotis_ in Washington. Of
-the eight species in the state, five are represented by one subspecies
-west of the Cascade Mountains and another, paler subspecies in the more
-arid country east of the Cascades.
-
-The mobility of bats makes it difficult to determine their origin and
-migrational history. Five of the _Myotis_ found in Washington seem to
-belong to the Pacific Coastal Fauna, and to have been isolated south of
-the last continental glacier. Complete isolation is unlikely as these
-species occur in the Cascade Mountains as well as in the Pacific Coastal
-Faunal Area, and three occur also in the Blue Mountains of southeastern
-Washington. The differentiation of the Coastal type of _Myotis_ may have
-come about through habitat selection, of the type discussed by Miller
-(1942: 25). One western Washington _Myotis_ (_M. keenii_) seems to
-belong to a northern fauna, and to have extended its range south to
-Washington. All seven species of the desert-living _Myotis_ found in
-eastern Washington have subspecies which seem to have been derived from
-the Great Basin Faunal Area.
-
-
-=Myotis lucifugus= (Le Conte)
-
-Big myotis
-
-_Myotis lucifugus_ is represented by two geographic races in Washington.
-The species ranges across Canada and the United States, from the
-Atlantic to the Pacific and from the northern limit of tree growth to
-southern Mexico.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 33. Distribution of the big myotis in Washington.
-  A. _Myotis lucifugus alascensis._ B. _Myotis lucifugus carissima._]
-
-It usually proves rather difficult to separate _Myotis lucifugus_, on
-the basis of external features, from other species with which it may
-occur. Its large foot (9-10 mm.), short ear (when laid forward not
-extending past nose) and the absence of a keel on the calcar separate it
-from all species except _Myotis yumanensis_. From the latter species,
-_lucifugus_ may be distinguished by the gradually rather than abruptly
-rising forehead, as seen in cleaned skulls, and by more shiny, metallic
-color of fur.
-
-Little is known of the habits of this bat in Washington. It usually
-appears after dusk, and most specimens are shot over ponds or lakes,
-where the reflection of light from the sky on the water allows the
-hunter enough light to sight a gun. A few specimens were collected in
-deep forests. Its flight and feeding habits are not known to differ from
-those of other species with which it was associated, except at the south
-end of Lake Chelan, Chelan County, where two individuals were shot as
-they hovered near the tops of pine trees and seemed to be picking
-insects from the branches. I have never found this bat in its daytime
-retreat.
-
-A specimen taken at Sportman's Lake, San Juan County, held one embryo on
-June 26, 1938.
-
-
-=Myotis lucifugus carissima= Thomas
-
-      _Myotis (Leuconoë) carissima_ Thomas, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 13
-      (ser. 7): 383, May, 1904.
-
-      _Myotis lucifugus carissima_ Cary, N. Amer. Fauna, 42:43, October
-      3, 1917.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Yellowstone Lake, Yellowstone National Park,
-      Wyoming by J. Darling in September, 1903; type in British Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Color pale, rather "brassy" in tone; distal
-      border of interfemoral membrane paler than proximal part.
-
-      _Measurements._--Four specimens from eastern Washington average:
-      total length 77; length of tail 33; hind foot 11; ear 13; height
-      of tragus 7.3.
-
-      _Distribution._--East of the eastern base of the Cascade
-      Mountains, save for the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.
-      Western records are Stehekin (Miller and Allen, 1928: 52) and
-      Vantage (W. W. D.)
-
-
-=Myotis lucifugus alascensis= Miller
-
-      _Myotis lucifugus alascensis_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:63,
-      October 16, 1897.
-
-      _Vespertilio gryphus lucifugus_ Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      43:78, March 14, 1894 (part specimens from Washington).
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Sitka, Alaska, by C. P. Streator on August 5,
-      1895; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Color dark, almost bronze; wing and tail
-      membranes uniformly dark in color.
-
-      _Measurements._--Five specimens from San Juan County, Washington,
-      average: total length 80.9; length of tail 32.1; hind foot 12; ear
-      12; height of tragus 7; weight 5.4 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains
-      west of the Pacific, and the Blue Mountains of southeastern
-      Washington. Marginal occurrences listed by Miller and Allen
-      (1928:49) are Chilliwack River, Lake Wenatchee, and Lyle.
-
-
-
-
-=Myotis yumanensis= (H. Allen)
-
-Yuma myotis
-
-_Description._--The present species closely resembles _Myotis lucifugus_
-and specimens in worn pelage can not be distinguished from that species
-unless the cleaned skulls are examined. In fresh pelage, _yumanensis_ is
-duller than _lucifugus_.
-
-_Myotis yumanensis_ ranges from southern British Columbia to central
-Mexico west of the Mississippi River. Four races are recognized by
-Miller and Allen (1928: 62).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 34. Distribution of the Yuma myotis in Washington.
-  A. _Myotis yumanensis saturatus._ B. _Myotis yumanensis sociabilis._]
-
-The habits of _Myotis yumanensis_ and _Myotis lucifugus_ appear to be
-the same. In Washington the two species are commonly found together. In
-western Washington, _Myotis yumanensis_ seems to be more common than
-_Myotis lucifugus_.
-
-In the San Juan Islands a _yumanensis_ was found hiding in the attic of
-an old cabin on Blakeley Island. A specimen of long-eared bat was taken
-at the same place. Another Yuma myotis was caught behind a door of a
-mill on Blakeley Island (Dalquest, 1940: 4).
-
-This species shares with _Myotis californicus_ the habit of apparently
-drinking salt water.
-
-A specimen obtained at Sportsmans Lake, San Juan County, held one embryo
-on June 27, 1938. One from Peavine Pass, Blakeley Island, San Juan
-County, held one embryo on June 22, 1939.
-
-
-=Myotis yumanensis sociabilis= H. W. Grinnell
-
-      _Myotis yumanensis sociabilis_ H. W. Grinnell, Univ. California
-      Publ. Zoöl., 12:318, December 4, 1914.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at old Fort Tejon, Kern County, California, by J.
-      Grinnell on July 23, 1904; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial character._--Color pale.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and 2 females from Selah, Yakima
-      County, average: total length 78; length of tail 36; hind foot 10;
-      ear 14; height of tragus 7.
-
-      _Distribution._--Eastern Washington generally. Marginal records on
-      the west are: Stehekin (Miller and Allen, 1928: 69), and Selah
-      (W.W.D.).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 35. Distribution of the fringe-tailed myotis and
-  the Keen myotis in Washington. A. _Myotis thysanodes thysanodes._
-  B. _Myotis keenii keenii._]
-
-
-=Myotis yumanensis saturatus= Miller
-
-      _Myotis yumanensis saturatus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:68,
-      October 16, 1897.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Hamilton, Skagit County, Washington, by T. S.
-      Palmer on September 13, 1889; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial character._--Color dark.
-
-      _Measurements._--Eighteen adults of both sexes from San Juan
-      County, Washington, average: Total length 78.2; length of tail
-      34.4; hind foot 10.1; ear 15; height of tragus 7.4; weight 5.9
-      grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains to
-      the Pacific. This is the commonest _Myotis_ found in western
-      Washington. Marginal localities are: Hamilton (Miller and Allen,
-      1928: 71), and Goldendale (Miller and Allen, 1928: 71).
-
-
-=Myotis keenii keenii= (Merriam)
-
-Keen myotis
-
-      _Vespertilio subulatus keenii_ Merriam, Amer. Nat., 29:860,
-      September, 1895.
-
-      _Myotis subulatus keenii_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:77, October
-      16, 1897.
-
-      _Myotis keenii keenii_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      144:104, May 25, 1928.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Masset, Graham Island, Queen Charlotte
-      Islands, British Columbia, by J. H. Keen in 1894; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--Miller and Allen (1928: 109) list the
-      measurements of a male from Sol Duc Hot Springs, Clallam County,
-      and a specimen of unknown sex from Lake Cushman, Jefferson County,
-      as, respectively: total length 89, 87; length of tail 34, 36; hind
-      foot 8.4, 7.4; ear?, 14.6.
-
-      _Distribution._--Only the Olympic Peninsula, where it has been
-      recorded by Miller and Allen (1928: 104) from Sol Duc Hot Springs
-      and Lake Cushman.
-
-_Description._--_Myotis keenii_ is similar, in general, to _Myotis
-lucifugus_ and _Myotis yumanensis_, but the ears are longer and when
-laid forward reach about 4 mm. past the nose rather than ending at the
-nostrils. The foot is of medium size (about 8 mm.) and no keel is
-present on the calcar.
-
-The distribution of this species is given by Miller and Allen (1928:
-101) as "northern North America from the limits of tree growth south in
-the east to South Carolina and Arkansas, and in the west to northwestern
-Washington."
-
-I have not observed this bat in Washington and know nothing of its
-habits. Its distribution is most unusual. Its range seems to lie only in
-the glaciated area of western British Columbia and northern Washington.
-
-
-=Myotis evotis= (H. Allen)
-
-Long-eared myotis
-
-_Description._--The distinguishing feature of _Myotis evotis_ is its
-long ears, which, when laid forward, reach 5 mm. in front of the nose.
-_Myotis thysanodes_ and _Myotis keenii_, other species in which the ears
-are rather long, have the ears ending less than 5 mm. anterior to the
-nose when laid forward. The foot of _Myotis evotis_ is of moderate size
-(8 to 9 mm.).
-
-This species ranges over the western United States, from British
-Columbia to central Mexico. Two subspecies of this interesting bat are
-recognized, both of which occur in Washington.
-
-Though I have hunted for this species of bat in Washington on numerous
-occasions, I have taken no specimens. In the summer of 1939, _Myotis_
-identified as this species because of their large ears, were seen
-flying at midnight in the light of searchlights over Lake Washington
-Canal at Seattle. Mary Greer gave us a specimen which was struck by
-her auto near Baker Lake, Whatcom County. According to Miss Greer,
-the specimen was seen "hovering in the road, like a large moth." The
-time was about midnight. This evidence indicates that the species does
-its hunting late at night, when ordinary methods of hunting bats are
-useless, and may account for the scarcity of specimens from the state.
-Nevertheless, collectors from the California Museum of Vertebrate
-Zoölogy took specimens in the Blue Mountains where the bats flew
-slowly, in rather straight courses, 20 to 25 feet from the ground.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 36. Distribution of the long-eared myotis in
-  Washington. A. _Myotis evotis evotis._ B. _Myotis evotis pacificus._]
-
-This species has not, so far as is known, been taken in Washington in
-its daytime retreat. Daniel Bonell saved two specimens from under slabs
-of loose bark on old, dead snags near Tillamook, Oregon. Davis (1939:
-214) reported them as hiding in the daytime in a cave in Craters of
-the Moon National Monument, Idaho. Whitlow and Hall (1933: 241) report
-specimens found in an old cabin near Pocatello, Idaho, two of them
-containing one embryo each.
-
-
-=Myotis evotis evotis= (H. Allen)
-
-      _Vespertilio evotis_ Allen, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no.
-      165):48, June, 1864.
-
-      _Myotis evotis_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:77, October 16, 1897.
-
-      _Myotis evotis evotis_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      144:114, April 14, 1928.
-
-      _Type._--Description based on a series of specimens, one of which
-      came from Monterey, California. This locality was designated the
-      type locality by Miller (1897: 78).
-
-      _Racial character._--Color pale.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and 2 specimens of unknown sex from the
-      Blue Mountains, Columbia County, average: total length 87; length
-      of tail 40; hind foot 7.5; ear 20; height of tragus 11; weight 5.4
-      grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains area, of southeastern
-      Washington; recorded from South Touchet (Miller and Allen, 1928:
-      116) and Godman Springs (W. S. M.).
-
-_Remarks._--Miller and Allen (1928: 116) record the dark race of _Myotis
-evotis_ from the Blue Mountains. Specimens examined by me are much paler
-than _pacificus_ and most of them are indistinguishable from specimens
-of _evotis_ from California.
-
-
-=Myotis evotis pacificus= Dalquest
-
-      _Vespertilio evotis_ Allen, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no.
-      165):48, June, 1864 (part specimens from Puget Sound).
-
-      _Myotis evotis evotis_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      144:114, May 25, 1928.
-
-      _Myotis evotis pacificus_ Dalquest, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      56:2, February 25, 1943.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained from 3-1/2 miles east and 5 miles north of
-      Yacolt, Clark County, Washington, by John Chattin on August 3,
-      1940; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial character._--Color dark.
-
-      _Measurements._--Five specimens from the type locality average:
-      Total length 85; length of tail 41; hind foot 7.4; ear 19.4;
-      height of tragus 10; weight 5.5 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Western Washington from the Cascade Mountains
-      westward. Marginal occurrences are: Baker Lake (W. W. D.) and
-      Easton (Miller and Allen, 1928: 116).
-
-
-=Myotis thysanodes thysanodes= Miller
-
-Fringe-tailed myotis
-
-      _Myotis thysanodes_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:80, October 16,
-      1897.
-
-      _Myotis thysanodes thysanodes_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus.
-      Bull., 144:126, May 25, 1928.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Old Fort Tejon, Kern County, California, by T.
-      S. Palmer on July 5, 1891; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and 3 females from Vernon, British
-      Columbia, average, respectively: total length 90.5, 82; length of
-      tail 41.5, 37; hind foot 10.5, 10; ear 18.5, 16; height of tragus
-      14, 13.
-
-
-      _Distribution._--In Washington known only from the southeastern
-      border of the state, namely from Dayton (W. S. M.) and Anatone
-      (Miller and Allen, 1928: 127).
-
-_Description._--_Myotis thysanodes_ resembles _Myotis evotis_, but
-differs in larger size, smaller ear (reaching less than 5 mm. past nose
-when laid forward), and in possessing a well developed fringe of hairs
-along the border of the caudal membrane.
-
-This species of bat ranges over western North America from southern
-British Columbia to southern Mexico. Two geographic races are currently
-recognized, only one of which occurs in the United States. This bat is
-not recorded by Davis (1939) as occurring in Idaho and has been found
-only once in Oregon. The only published account of the habits of
-_thysanodes_ seems to be that of Palmer (in Miller, 1897: 84, also
-Grinnell, 1918) who found adults and young of various sizes in company
-with _Myotis yumanensis_ in the attic of an old adobe building near Old
-Fort Tejon, California, in July, 1891. The specimens obtained in
-Washington and British Columbia came from dry areas of pine forest.
-
-
-=Myotis volans= (H. Allen)
-
-Hairy-winged myotis
-
-_Description._--This species, in Washington, may be easily recognized by
-its relatively large size and the presence of a distinct keel on the
-side of the calcar, posterior to the foot.
-
-Four subspecies of _Myotis volans_ are recognized by Miller and Allen
-(1928: 136). These range over western North America from southern Alaska
-to southern Mexico. Two subspecies occur in Washington.
-
-The record stations in Washington for the pale, southern race are all in
-arid places and the dark, coastal race is a forest animal. Most of the
-specimens taken by me (all of the dark race) were in clearings or along
-roads through timber near the crests of hills. They appeared relatively
-late in the evening, after the big-brown and the silver-haired bats had
-been in the air for some time. Often they were taken in company with
-_Myotis lucifugus_ and _Myotis yumanensis_. They were appreciably larger
-than those species and their flight was slower and less erratic. They
-usually flew in relatively straight lines or large circles at from ten
-to forty feet from the ground. At Lake Kapowsin, Pierce County, they
-were attracted by swishing a long pole in the air. At Renton, King
-County, one was shot as it hunted insects at a city street light several
-hours after dark.
-
-
-=Myotis volans longicrus= (True)
-
-      _Vespertilio longicrus_ True, Science, 8:588, 1886.
-
-      _Vespertilio nitidus longicrus_ H. Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      43:103, March 14, 1894.
-
-      _Myotis lucifugus longicrus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:64,
-      October 16, 1897.
-
-      _Myotis longicrus_ Lyon and Osgood, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 62:271,
-      January 28, 1909.
-
-      _Myotis volans longicrus_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      144:140, May 25, 1928.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained in the "vicinity of Puget Sound, Washington" by
-      D. S. Jordan, and catalogued in the U. S. National Museum on
-      December 16, 1886.
-
-      _Racial character._--Color dark.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from 6 miles northeast of Kelso, Cowlitz
-      County, measures: total length 95; length of tail 39; hind foot 8;
-      ear 13; height of tragus 8.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains to
-      the Pacific. Marginal records (from Miller and Allen, 1928: 142)
-      are Oroville, Entiat, and Carson.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 37. Distribution of the hairy-winged myotis in
-  Washington. A. _Myotis volans longicrus._ B. _Myotis volans interior._]
-
-
-=Myotis volans interior= Miller
-
-      _Myotis longicrus_ interior Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      27:211, October 31, 1914.
-
-      _Myotis volans interior_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      144:142, May 25, 1928.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained 5 miles south of Twining, Taos County, New
-      Mexico, by Vernon Bailey on July 23, 1904; type in United States
-      National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Smaller and paler than _Myotis v.
-      longicrus_.
-
-      _Measurements._--Four males and a female from the Blue Mountains,
-      Columbia County, average: total length 93; length of tail 41.5;
-      hind foot?; ear 12; height of tragus 6.3.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from the Blue Mountains area of the
-      southeastern part of the state, from Walla Walla (E. S. B.) east
-      to Anatone (Miller and Allen, 1928: 144).
-
-      _Remarks._--Of 5 specimens available from the Blue Mountains, 4
-      are like _interior_ and 1 is like _longicrus_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 38. Distribution of the California myotis in
-  Washington. A. _Myotis californicus californicus._ B. _Myotis
-  californicus caurinus._]
-
-
-=Myotis californicus= (Audubon and Bachman)
-
-California myotis
-
-_Description._--_Myotis californicus_ may be separated from all _Myotis_
-that occur in Washington, except _Myotis subulatus_, by its small foot
-(about 6 mm.). It is the only small-footed bat found in western
-Washington. In eastern Washington, where _Myotis subulatus_ occurs, the
-cleaned skulls of the two species must be compared before certain
-identification of some specimens is possible. The skull of _M.
-californicus_ possesses a higher cranium and more abruptly rising
-forehead than that of _M. subulatus_.
-
-Four geographic races of this bat recognized by Miller and Allen (1928:
-149) range from southern Alaska southward over western North America to
-southern Mexico. Two subspecies occur in Washington.
-
-_Myotis californicus_, in western Washington, often occurs in company
-with _Myotis yumanensis_, _lucifugus_, and _volans_. In flight it cannot
-be distinguished from _M. yumanensis_ or _M. lucifugus_. Most of our
-specimens were collected over water, for these bats usually fly rather
-late and can be shot most easily where their reflection on the water
-assists the hunter in aiming. They are usually not common, one or two
-being taken at a single locality. This species, like _Myotis
-yumanensis_, seems to drink salt water. On May 9, 1936, a living
-specimen was caught under a loose piece of bark on a dead tree.
-
-
-=Myotis californicus caurinus= Miller
-
-      _Vespertilio nitidus_ H. Allen, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
-      p. 247, 1862 (part of the specimens were from Fort Steilacoom,
-      Pierce Co., Washington).
-
-      _Myotis californicus caurinus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:72,
-      October 16, 1897.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Masset, Graham Island, Queen Charlotte
-      Islands, British Columbia, by J. H. Keen in 1895; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial character._--Color reddish-brown.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 39. Distribution of the small-footed myotis,
-  _Myotis subulatus melanorhinus_, in Washington.]
-
-      _Measurements._--Eight specimens, including both sexes, from the
-      San Juan Islands, San Juan and Skagit counties, average: total
-      length 77.8; length of tail 36.7; hind foot 6.7; ear?; height of
-      tragus 7.6; weight 5.2 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Western Washington east through the northern
-      Cascades to Chelan, Blue Creek and Colville (Miller and Allen,
-      1928: 156) in northeastern Washington, and, farther south, east to
-      Mount Rainier (Miller and Allen, 1928: 156) and Carson (Miller and
-      Allen, 1928: 156).
-
-
-=Myotis californicus californicus= (Audubon and Bachman)
-
-      _Vespertilio californicus_ Audubon and Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat.
-      Sci., Philadelphia, 8 (ser. 1, ser. 1, pt. 2):285, 1842.
-
-      _Myotis californicus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:69, October 16,
-      1897.
-
-      _Type._--None designated. Type locality fixed at Monterey, Monterey
-      County, California, by Miller and Allen (1928: 153).
-
-      _Racial character._--Color pale.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from Crooked River, Crook County,
-      Oregon, measures: Total length 80; length of tail 40; hind foot 7;
-      ear 13; height of tragus 5; weight 3.2 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Recorded only from the eastern part of the state.
-      Westernmost records, according to Miller and Allen (1928: 155)
-      are: Orondo, Goldendale and Lyle.
-
-
-=Myotis subulatus melanorhinus= (Merriam)
-
-Small-footed myotis
-
-      _Vespertilio melanorhinus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 3:46, September
-      11, 1890.
-
-      _Myotis subulatus melanorhinus_ Miller and Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus.
-      Bull., 144:169, May 25, 1928.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on San Francisco Mountain, 8250 ft. elevation,
-      Coconino County, Arizona, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey on August
-      4, 1889; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--Three males and 2 females from eastern Washington
-      average: total length 77; length of tail 37; hind foot 7; ear 15;
-      height of tragus 8. One weighed 5.4 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Desert areas of eastern Washington, including the
-      Columbian Plateau and the lower Columbia River Valley. Marginal
-      records are: 5 mi. S Grand Coulee Dam (W. W. D.) in the north,
-      Wenatchee (W. W. D.) in the northwest, Lyle (W. W. D.) in the
-      southwest, and Bly (Miller and Allen, 1928: 171) in the southeast.
-
-_Description._--_Myotis subulatus_ is closely similar to _Myotis
-californicus_, but is more orange in color and has the skin on the face
-more nearly black. Specimens cannot be identified with certainty until
-the cleaned skulls are examined. The more flattened cranium and less
-abruptly rising forehead separate _Myotis subulatus_ from _M.
-californicus_.
-
-This species is confined to the United States and northern Mexico. Two
-races are recognized by Miller and Allen (1928), of which one occurs in
-Washington. It is the commonest bat in the desert of eastern
-Washington. It lives far from trees on plains and in sandy or rocky
-areas, emerging rather early in the evening. It is not difficult to
-shoot. Its flight is erratic. The animal usually hunts in large,
-irregular circles at 10 to 25 feet from the ground. It has not been
-found in its daytime retreat but may hide in crevices in rocky outcrops.
-Near Vantage, Grant County, individuals were shot as they hung up in a
-concrete underpass to digest food. The stomachs of specimens taken were
-so crammed with the remains of insects that their abdomens were greatly
-distended. The underpass seemed to be only a resting place, not
-inhabited by day. Others were taken when they came to rest in the loft
-of a barn at Selah, Yakima County. They usually did not arrive at the
-barn until an hour after sunset and were still present there at
-midnight.
-
-
-=Lasionycteris noctivagans= (Le Conte)
-
-Silver-haired bat
-
-      _V[espertilio]. noctivagans_ Le Conte, McMurtrie's Cuvier, Anim.
-      Kingd., 1:431, 1831.
-
-      _Vesperugo noctivagans_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885.
-
-      _Lasionycteris noctivagans_ Allen, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 43:105,
-      March 14, 1894.
-
-      _Type._--None designated; described from a specimen obtained in the
-      "eastern United States."
-
-      _Measurements._--Five males from San Juan County, Washington,
-      average: total length 96.2; length of tail 46.4; hind foot 8.5;
-      ear 16; height of tragus 7.2; weight 8.2 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Forested areas of the entire state. This species
-      is migratory and first appears about the middle of May. September
-      15th is the latest recorded occurrence, when one was seen at
-      Seattle, King County. Marginal records are: Sportsmans Lake (W. W.
-      D.), in the northwest; Carson (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9) in the
-      southwest; Pass Creek Pass (W. W. D.) in the northeast; and Bly
-      (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9) in the southeast.
-
-_Remarks._--The chocolate-brown color phase of the silver-haired bat is
-most common east of the Cascade Mountains, while almost all specimens
-from western Washington represent the black phase.
-
-This medium-sized bat is the darkest-colored species living in the
-state, ranging from chocolate-brown to nearly black. Numerous
-white-tipped hairs give the upper parts a frosted appearance. The upper
-surface of the interfemoral membrane is well furred, a character shared
-only with _Lasiurus_. The dental formula (i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p.
-2-2/3-3, m. 3-3/3-3 = 36) is the same as that of _Corynorhinus_. The
-small ears and short tragus immediately distinguish the silver-haired
-bat from the long-eared bat.
-
-The genus _Lasionycteris_ contains but a single species, of which no
-geographic races have been described. It ranges across North America
-from coast to coast and from central Canada southward, in forested
-areas, nearly to Mexico. This species is known to be migratory, and
-southern records probably do not represent breeding individuals.
-
-In Washington these bats have been taken in the Transition, Canadian,
-and Hudsonian life-zones. They were found near clearings in forests of
-open pine woods in the arid section of eastern Washington, near mountain
-hemlock thickets in the high mountains, and in the dense rain-forests of
-the Pacific Coastal area.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 40. Distribution of the silver-haired bat.
-  _Lasionycteris noctivagans_, in Washington.]
-
-The size and flight of the silver-haired bats are distinctive, and after
-some experience it is possible to identify them in the air. It is an
-early flier, usually appearing just after the swallows roost. They fly
-at a considerable height, rarely coming within forty feet of the ground.
-The wings are moved with a "fluttery" motion, and their flight is
-interrupted by frequent short glides. They fly more rapidly than the big
-brown-bats, and twist and dart sideways more frequently. Compared with
-big brown-bats, silver-haired bats are relatively gregarious, and six to
-a dozen individuals were seen in the same area. They generally hunt in
-sweeping circles, from fifty to one hundred yards in diameter. In the
-daytime the silver-haired bats hide beneath slabs of loose bark on dead
-trees. Near Cottage Lake, King County, two individuals were found
-beneath the bark on an old, lightning-blasted stub. The dark color of
-the bats blended with the charred surface of the stub.
-
-This species feeds mainly on forest insects and for this reason is
-probably of considerable value to man. The stomachs of specimens were
-usually crammed with the remains of small, soft-bodied insects.
-
-
-=Corynorhinus rafinesquii= (Lesson)
-
-Long-eared bat
-
-_Description._--Diagnostic characters of the long-eared bat are: medium
-size (total length about 4 inches); dull, grayish-brown color;
-exceptionally long ears (over 1 inch from notch); thin, tissue-like
-membranes; and paired "lumps" on the rostrum. The dental formula is: i.
-2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 2-2/3-3, m. 3-3/3-3 = 36.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 41. Long-eared bat (_Corynorhinus rafinesquii
-  intermedius_), female with young; Boulder Cave, Kittitas County,
-  Washington, July 20, 1928. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by T. H.
-  Scheffer, No. B-33332.)]
-
-Long-eared bats range from southern British Columbia to southern Mexico.
-Three species are listed by Miller (1924: 82), one of which
-(_rafinesquii_) is divisible into five geographic races.
-
-This bat is colonial and is not uncommonly found in caves, mine shafts,
-and darkened attics of old buildings. It is of scattered distribution
-throughout the state. In Washington its distribution in winter is
-unknown. A specimen from Friday Harbor, San Juan County, taken in March,
-1936, indicates that it hibernates in the state. Whitlow and Hall
-(1933: 245) give a detailed account of individuals found hibernating in
-winter near Pocatello, Idaho.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 42. Entrance to Boulder Cave, inhabited by
-  long-eared bats (_Corynorhinus_); Kittitas County, Washington, May 26,
-  1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 56.)]
-
-John K. Townsend (1839: 325) mentions that the "great-eared bat" at the
-forts of the Columbia River district (Fort Vancouver) were protected by
-the "gentlemen of the Hudson's Bay Company for their services in
-destroying the _dermestes_ which abound in their fur establishments."
-Townsend mentions also that the long-eared bats seldom left the
-"storehouses attached to the forts," even at night. My own observations
-are similar, in that at Boulder Cave, Kittitas County, on July 7, 1936,
-when not less than 100 long-eared bats were present in the cave, I
-watched the entrances to the cave until an hour after dark but no bats
-were seen to emerge. All of the specimens available from Washington were
-caught in their daytime hiding place. The number of long-eared bats at
-Boulder Cave has decreased in recent years. On July 12, 1930, bats were
-so abundant that 90 were captured with a single sweep of a butterfly net
-(T. H. Scheffer, 1930: 11). On July 7, 1936, it was estimated that there
-were slightly more than 100 in the cave. On June 11, 1937, the number
-was less, probably about 75.
-
-Little is known of the food habits of the long-eared bat. The stomach of
-a specimen from Blakeley Island, San Juan County, was crammed with the
-remains of insects, including the wing scales of _Lepidoptera_ and the
-wings of small Diptera.
-
-Scheffer noted that the long-eared bats at Boulder Cave were nearly
-ready to give birth to young on July 12, 1930, and were carrying naked
-young a week later. On July 7, 1936, at the same locality, females
-contained nearly full-term embryos.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 43. Distribution of the long-eared bat in
-  Washington. A. _Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii._ B. _Corynorhinus
-  rafinesquii intermedius._]
-
-
-=Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii= (Cooper)
-
-      _Plecotus townsendii_ Cooper, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York, 4:73,
-      November, 1837.
-
-      _Corynorhinus macrotis townsendii_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:53,
-      October 16, 1897.
-
-      _Corynorhinus megalotis townsendii_ G. M. Allen, Bull. Mus. Comp.
-      Zoöl., 60:344, April, 1916.
-
-      _Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus.
-      Bull., 128:82, April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Type._--Probably obtained at Fort Vancouver, Clark County,
-      Washington; type not now in existence.
-
-      _Racial character._--Dark color.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from Blakeley Island, San Juan County,
-      measured: total length 83; length of tail 43; hind foot 8.5; ear
-      37.4; tragus 15.1; weight 10 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Western Washington, from Blakeley Island (W. W.
-      D.) in the north, south to Seattle (W. W. D.) and Fort Vancouver.
-
-
-=Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius= H. W. Grinnell
-
-      _Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius_ H. W. Grinnell, Univ.
-      California Publ. Zoöl., 12:320, December 4, 1914.
-
-      _Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii_ Dalquest, Jour. Mamm.,
-      19:213, May 14, 1938.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Auburn, Placer County, California, by J. C.
-      Hawver on July 31, 1909; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Paler and duller than _townsendii_.
-
-      _Measurements._--One male and 6 females from 15 miles east of
-      Tonasket, Okanogan County, average: total length 96, length of
-      tail 47; hind foot 11; ear 35.5; tragus 14.
-
-      _Distribution._--Scattered localities in the arid subdivision of
-      the Transition Life-zone of eastern Washington, from 15 mi. E
-      Tonasket (W. W. D.) on the north to Boulder Cave (W. W. D.) on the
-      west and Spokane (W. S. C.) on the east.
-
-_Remarks._--Of specimens in the University of Kansas, Museum of Natural
-History, those from Selah (not plotted on distribution map), Yakima
-County, are paler than those from Boulder Cave, Yakima County, but both
-series are paler than specimens from the coast of Oregon.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 44. Distribution of the western pipistrelle,
-  _Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus_, in Washington.]
-
-
-=Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus= (H. Allen)
-
-Western pipistrelle
-
-      _Scotophilus hesperus_ H. Allen, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no.
-      165):43, June, 1864.
-
-      _Vesperugo hesperus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885.
-
-      _Pipistrellus hesperus_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:88, October 16,
-      1897.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Old Fort Yuma, Imperial County, California, by
-      G. H. Thomas; catalogued in U. S. National Museum on October 31,
-      1861.
-
-      _Measurements._--A specimen from Maryhill, Klickitat County,
-      measures: total length 68; length of tail 27; hind foot 7; ear 10;
-      height of tragus 3; weight 4.2 grams. Two males from Vantage,
-      Grant County, average: 68.5; 27.5; 6; 11; 4.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from along the Snake and Columbia
-      rivers of south-central Washington; recorded from Vantage
-      (W.W.D.), south to Maryhill (M.V.Z.), and east to Almota (Taylor
-      and Shaw, 1929: 9).
-
-_Description._--This is the smallest bat found in Washington, its body
-being approximately 1-3/4 inches long and the tail 1-1/4. It may be
-separated from _Myotis_ by the bent tragus and by the possession of 34
-rather than 38 teeth. The dental formula is: i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p.
-2-2/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 34.
-
-The genus _Pipestrellus_ is cosmopolitan in distribution. The few
-records for the single subspecies found in Washington indicate that it
-is a casual, though probably regular, summer visitant from the south.
-
-Two western pipistrelles were shot at Vantage, Grant County, on July 23,
-1937. They flew in slow circles about 50 feet from the ground. No
-breeding records are known from the state.
-
-
-=Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus= Rhoads
-
-Big brown-bat
-
-      _Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
-      Philadelphia, 1901:619, February 6, 1902.
-
-      _Eptesicus fuscus pallidus_ Engels, Amer. Midland Nat., 17:656,
-      May, 1936 (part specimens from Washington).
-
-      _Type._--Obtained near San Bernardino, San Bernardino County,
-      California, by R. B. Herron on May 26, 1893; type in Academy of
-      Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
-
-      _Measurements._--Three males and 5 females from Washington
-      average: total length 117; length of tail 48; hind foot 11.5; ear
-      18.3; height of tragus 9.
-
-      _Distribution._--Forested areas of the entire state of Washington.
-      Marginal localities are San Juan Island (W.W.D.) in the northwest,
-      Carson (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9), in the southwest, Newport
-      (W.W.D.) in the northeast, and Grand Ronde River (Taylor and Shaw,
-      1929: 9) in the southeast.
-
-_Remarks._--Specimens from both eastern and western Washington vary
-greatly in color, and series of specimens from eastern Washington
-average little, if any, paler than series from western Washington.
-Washington specimens most closely resemble specimens from California of
-the race _bernardinus_ and average darker than _pallidus_.
-
-_Description._ The big brown-bat may be distinguished from other bats by
-its large size (about 4-1/2 inches), rich, brown color, and small ears
-(reaching only to nostril when laid forward). It possesses 32 teeth, the
-dental formula being: i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 1-1/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 =
-32.
-
-Bats of the genus _Eptesicus_ are cosmopolitan in distribution. A single
-species occurs in North America, of which Engels (1936) recognizes four
-races in western United States.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 45. Distribution of the big brown-bat, _Eptesicus
-  fuscus bernardinus_, in Washington.]
-
-The big brown-bat appears early in the evening, often before the
-swallows have retired. This, and its large size, makes it relatively
-easy to study. It is principally a forest bat but also is found in towns
-and cities. It is common in Seattle and hunts around street lights and
-about the trees in the city parks. In its more natural habitat it flies
-over trees and clearings. Big brown-bats were repeatedly timed, with a
-car's speedometer, at 17 miles an hour as they flew down a road lined
-with tall trees. This is a greater speed than that at which they
-usually hunt. When the speed of the car was increased the bats dodged
-sideways, around the car. At lesser speeds they pulled ahead and
-escaped.
-
-Big brown-bats are less gregarious, when hunting, than some bats. One or
-two may be found in a small area, the limits of which are definitely
-fixed. We noted this repeatedly near Cottage Lake, King County, where
-the big brown-bats hunted along roads through second-growth conifers.
-The bats patrolled back and forth along a section of a road about a
-quarter of a mile in length. When a bat reached the end of its personal
-territory, it would wheel and return. On six successive trips a bat
-turned, to retrace its course, at points less than 50 feet distant from
-the point of the first turn. When the bat approached the turning point
-on the seventh trip, a bat from the adjoining strip of road approached
-the area. The two animals fluttered about each other with shrill
-squeaks, audible 50 feet away. The fluttering and squeaking continued
-for nearly a minute, after which both bats resumed their hunting.
-Darkness concluded the observations.
-
-On several occasions we stood on a road patrolled by a big brown-bat.
-The bat immediately detected the watcher and fluttered about his head
-and face. Big brown-bats ignore other species of bats hunting on their
-territory. Indeed, such comparatively slow flyers could scarcely drive
-the more speedy bats away.
-
-Two _Eptesicus_, kept in captivity for several weeks, exhibited very
-different personalities. One was shy and sullen. It cowered in the back
-of its cage and attempted to bite when handled. It would eat only small
-quantities of finely scraped liver tendered to it on a spoon. If a bit
-of liver adhered to its face it would shake violently and refuse to eat
-more. When it had eaten its fill, it would seize the spoon in its teeth
-and spill the remaining food. The second specimen was tame and greedy.
-It ate insects, liver, earthworms, and even pieces of flesh. After two
-days in captivity it learned to come to the door of its cage at a
-person's approach and open its mouth, in anticipation of food. If it
-dropped bits of liver on which it was chewing it would descend from the
-top of its cage to retrieve them, squeaking indignantly while doing so.
-It also descended to the floor of the cage to lap water from a dish. It
-habitually hung head downward from the roof of its cage, but reversed
-its position when evacuating urine or feces. Engler (1943: 96)
-discovered that big brown-bats will kill and eat smaller bats, at least
-in captivity.
-
-
-=Lasiurus cinereus cinereus= (Beauvois)
-
-Hoary bat
-
-      _Vespertilio cinereus_ (misspelled _linereus_) Beauvois, Catal.
-      Raisonné Mus. Peale, Philadelphia, 1796:18 (p. 15 of English
-      edition by Peale and Beauvois).
-
-      _Lasiurus cinereus_ H. Allen, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no.
-      165): 21, 1864.
-
-      _Atalapha cinerea_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885.
-
-      _Type._--None designated. Type locality Pennsylvania, probably near
-      Philadelphia.
-
-      _Measurements._--Ten specimens from California average: Total
-      length 130.5; length of tail 54.8; hind foot 10.7; ear 16; height
-      of tragus 9.5; weight (of 3) 20.4 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Recorded from Seattle (W.S.M.) to the north,
-      Westport (W.S.M.) to the west and Pullman (W.S.M.) to the east.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 46. Record stations for the hoary bat, _Lasiurus
-  cinerea_, in Washington.]
-
-_Remarks._--The hoary bat is the largest and most distinctively
-marked kind of bat in the state. Adults are usually more than 5
-inches in total length. The fur is exceptionally long and soft. The
-wing-membranes are thick and leathery. The posterior half of the
-wing-membrane is black; the anterior half is pale. The interfemoral
-membrane is furred. Dorsally the color of the fur is mottled white and
-seal-brown, giving a silvery-gray effect. The ears are short and thick;
-the feet short and wide. The dental formula is: i. 1-1/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1,
-p. 2-2/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 32.
-
-The genus _Lasiurus_ is found in North America, South America, and the
-Hawaiian Islands. _Lasiurus cinereus_ ranges from British Columbia to
-southern South America. Osgood (1943: 53) records two subspecies from
-Chile.
-
-Information on the natural history of the hoary bat is meager. It was
-observed in the Kettle River Mountains, but none was obtained. It flew
-erratically and rapidly and did not appear until darkness had set in.
-At least two were seen above a road through a forest of western larch
-and ponderosa pine. Probably it breeds in the mountains of northeastern
-Washington and in the northern Cascades.
-
-The hoary bat is migratory, leaving the state in August and September,
-rarely lingering until early October. It winters along the coast of
-central and southern California (Dalquest, 1943: 23).
-
-
-=Antrozous pallidus cantwelli= Bailey
-
-Pallid bat
-
-      _Antrozous pallidus cantwelli_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:391,
-      August 29, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Rogersburg, Asotin County, Washington, by G.
-      G. Cantwell on May 28, 1918; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from the south bank of the Columbia River,
-      opposite Fallbridge, Klickitat County, measures: total length 113;
-      length of tail 40; hind foot 14; ear 36; height of tragus 13;
-      weight 19.8 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Recorded only from localities near the Columbia
-      and Snake rivers in eastern Washington; from Wenatchee (W.W.D.)
-      south and east to Bly and Rogersburg (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 9).
-
-_Description._--_Antrozous pallidus_ is more likely to be confused with
-_Corynorhinus_ than with any other kind of bat and can be distinguished
-from _Corynorhinus_ by its larger size (4-1/2 to 5 inches), lighter
-color, thick and leathery membranes, and shorter, wider ears.
-_Antrozous_ lacks the prominent "lumps" on the rostrum, characteristic
-of the long-eared bat. The dental formula is: i. 1-1/2-2, c. 1-1/1-1, p.
-1-1/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 28.
-
-The genus _Antrozous_ is confined to western United States and
-northwestern Mexico. Two species are recognized by Miller (1924: 84).
-One of these (_pallidus_) includes three geographic races. A single race
-is known to occur in Washington.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 47. Distribution of the pallid bat, _Antrozous
-  pallidus cantwelli_, in Washington.]
-
-The pallid bat chooses a crevice in a cliff, cave, or building as its
-daytime hiding place. Like _Corynorhinus_, it is colonial. The basalt
-cliffs of eastern Washington offer such ideal hiding places that pallid
-bats are seldom seen and consequently little is known of their habits.
-In the southwestern United States, pallid bats are more abundant and
-better known. H. W. Grinnell (1918: 355) notes that the floor of a roost
-of pallid bats was strewn each morning with the heads, wings, and legs
-of insects. Most numerous were the remains of the Jerusalem cricket
-(_Stenopelmatus_), a flightless insect that the bats must have secured
-on the ground. Engler (1943: 96) found that in captivity, pallid bats
-would kill and eat smaller bats and lizards confined with them.
-
-Bailey (1936: 392) believes that the young of this bat are born in late
-June and early July. One or two young constitute a litter.
-
-
-=Ursus americanus= Pallas
-
-Black bear
-
-_Description._--The black bear is the largest carnivore found in
-Washington if the grizzly is extinct there. The exact size of the adult
-male black bear is somewhat in question. Few actual weights are on
-record of Washington bears. Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale (1937: 101)
-paid special attention to the maximum weight of black bears in
-California and concluded that few ever exceeded 500 pounds. The total
-length of the largest black bear among specimens from the entire Pacific
-Coastal area, especially from California and Alaska, they give as 5
-feet, 10 inches (_op. cit._, p. 102). It may safely be assumed that few
-individuals ever reach a length of six feet. Females are smaller;
-recorded weights of adults rarely exceed 350 pounds. The largest males
-have hind feet from 10 to 10-1/2 inches in length.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 48. Female black bear (_Ursus americanus
-  altifrontalis_), and two cubs, near Big Four Inn, Mt. Baker National
-  Forest, Washington, July, 1939. (Forest Service photo by R. L.
-  Fromme.)]
-
-The black bear, including its closely related species, the Mexican bear,
-_Ursus machetes_, ranges over Alaska, Canada, the United States and
-northern Mexico. The distinction between the black and grizzly bears has
-been listed under the account of _Ursus chelan_.
-
-The fur of black bears in the Cascade Mountains in the fall is long,
-sleek and glossy but rather stiff. In the spring and early summer the
-fur of animals at Mount Rainier often appeared coarse, wooly and patchy
-or rubbed on older animals. Some smaller bears possessed sleek,
-well-groomed pelts. Bears from the lowland areas are said to possess
-poor pelts because of constant abrasion in the forests. In the fall,
-when the salmon are spawning, the bears are said by trappers to roll in
-decayed fish until they "smell so bad you can't come near them" and
-their fur is matted and "crawling with lice."
-
-It is now known that the cinnamon bear, sometimes called brown bear, is
-merely a color phase of the black bear. The brown phase varies in color
-from a rich, dark reddish brown to a pale cinnamon brown. Cowan (1938:
-204) has recorded the geographic variation in the brown and black coats
-of the bears of British Columbia and, in part, of Washington. On the
-Olympic Peninsula the brown phase is rare. Old residents have told me of
-seeing but a few brown bears in their life. I have seen only black bears
-in the lowlands of western Washington. Cowan (_loc. cit._) lists 1,197
-black and 79 brown bears from Fort Nisqually, Pierce County, between
-1834 and 1852. In the Cascade Mountains the brown phase is not uncommon,
-perhaps one out of five bears seen being brown. In northeastern
-Washington the brown and black phases are about equal in number, and
-some trappers state that the browns are more numerous. Cowan lists 3,813
-black and 2,871 brown bears from Fort Colville between 1826 and 1856.
-
-The black bear occurs in a variety of habitats in Washington. It seems
-to be absent only from the treeless areas of eastern Washington, and is
-most abundant in the Cascade Mountains and Olympic Mountains where food
-is abundant and men are few. It is not uncommon throughout the timbered
-lowlands of northeastern Washington and western Washington, however, and
-shows a surprising ability to exist unnoticed near the larger cities. In
-the dense, junglelike forests of southwestern Washington it is numerous.
-Jackson (1944: 1) estimates that 13,679 black bears live in Washington,
-more than in any other state.
-
-The habits of the black bear have changed greatly where it has come into
-contact with man. At Mount Rainier National Park black bears now ignore
-people, save to beg for food. In the Cascades the bears are wild but so
-seldom see men that in many places they live much as they did hundreds
-of years ago. In the lowlands of western Washington they are in daily
-contact with evidence of man or his guns. As a result they are silent
-and shy, rarely being seen.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 49. Black bear (_Ursus americanus altifrontalis_),
-  in "hibernation," Mt. Baker region, Washington, about 1936. (John E.
-  Candle photo, courtesy "Field and Stream.")]
-
-The black bear in the mountains is active sometimes by day and sometimes
-by night. Probably it is principally nocturnal but active by day only
-when the food obtained at night is insufficient to meet the needs of the
-animal. In the lowlands it is almost completely nocturnal. In the
-mountains it enters upon its winter sleep with the first snows or, if
-the snows are late, when the huckleberries are gone. Ordinarily black
-bears are in "hibernation" by the middle of November. In the lowlands of
-western Washington they are active until after the salmon spawning
-season, and probably do not "hibernate" before the middle of December
-and may not do so at all. In the mountains they emerge from the winter
-sleep in May; in the lowlands they emerge in February or March.
-
-The black bear is omnivorous in the truest sense of the word. Because
-the animal is of large size it requires much nourishment. This is
-obtained by eating large quantities of material with low food value.
-Material eaten passes rapidly through the digestive tract and often only
-easily digested parts seem to be utilized. Feces commonly contain
-complete and undigested berries and seeds or almost undigested pieces of
-apples or other fruit.
-
-The principal food of the black bear in Washington is berries. Many
-species are eaten, but the huckleberry (_Vaccinium_ sp.) is favored.
-Other food items are: _Gaultheria shallon_ (pulpy fruit); Oregon grape,
-_Berberis nervosa_ (flowers and fruit); salmonberry, _Rubus parviflorus_
-(leaves and fruit); leaves of several plants, including _Rubus
-macropetalus_ and other thorny kinds; grass, succulent plants, and
-roots. Insects are eaten and most feces show remains of a few. In June,
-1938, near Cle Elum, Kittitas County, a species of sword-tailed cricket
-fully two inches in length was abundant, and droppings of a bear there
-were composed entirely of the remains of these crickets. Fish,
-especially spawning salmon, are important food. When salmon are spawning
-the bears in the vicinity feed on nothing else. Warm-blooded vertebrates
-probably are eaten but none of the many bear droppings examined by me
-contained remains of birds or mammals. Bennett, English and Watts (1943:
-30) found few mammals to be eaten by bears studied by them in
-Pennsylvania. Locally bears kill pigs and sheep, smash bee-hives and
-raid fruit trees.
-
-The large size and sometimes awkward appearance of black bears combine
-to give a comic note to some of their natural actions. A bear in full
-flight, lumbering along a trail with head swinging from side to side and
-hind feet stretching past the forelegs at each stride, is more apt than
-not to amuse the observer. Near Stevens Pass, a large black bear was
-observed lying on its back in a mud wallow. This was an oval opening in
-the ground in a meadow of heather and huckleberry near a small stream.
-The wallow was approximately 5 feet long, 3 feet deep and 4 feet wide.
-The bear was immersed in muddy water with only its head and feet
-visible. It seemed well content and comfortable, shifting its bulk
-occasionally and waving its paws. When a stray breeze brought to the
-bear the scent of my companion and myself the animal's contentment
-vanished and it hastily made a frantic effort to depart. It had wedged
-itself deeply in the hole, and as it twisted and turned in attempting to
-sit up, waves of water gushed from the wallow. Eventually escaping from
-its wallow, the bear half ran and half rolled to the cover of alders 100
-feet away. This particular wallow had been in use by bears for some
-time, as was attested by old droppings at its edge and by its well-worn
-condition.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 50. Distribution of the black bear in Washington.
-  A. _Ursus americanus altifrontalis._ B. _Ursus americanus cinnamomum._]
-
-The fact that Washington has the largest population of black bears of
-the states in the union is due, largely, I feel, to abundant natural
-cover, food, such as salmon and huckleberries, and an intelligent game
-code. In California and some other states the black bear has been
-considered a fur bearer, to be trapped with steel traps. This is
-permitted in spite of the fact that their pelts bring but a few dollars,
-usually less than ten. Their sale scarcely repays the trapper for his
-labor in preparing the hide. Townsend (1887: 182) remarked on the ease
-with which bears could be trapped in California although in the same
-area they were so shy that they could seldom be shot. As a result of
-trapping, the number of bears in some states has been dangerously
-reduced. In Washington the bear is a game animal, to be hunted with a
-rifle for a few weeks in the fall when the pelt and flesh are at their
-best. As a result bears are numerous and can be hunted with fair chances
-of success.
-
-
-=Ursus americanus altifrontalis= Elliot
-
-      _Ursus altifrontalis_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 80, zoöl.
-      ser. 3:234, June, 1903.
-
-      _Euarctos altifrontalis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:90,
-      April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Ursus americanus americanus_ Taylor and Shaw, Mammals and Birds
-      of Mount Rainier National Park, U. S. Nat. Park Service,
-      Washington, p. 37, 1927.
-
-      _Euarctos americanus altifrontalis_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna,
-      55:321, August 29, 1936.
-
-      _Ursus americanus altifrontalis_ Hall, Univ. California Publ.
-      Zoöl., 30:232, March 2, 1928.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Lake Crescent, Olympic Peninsula, Clallam
-      County, Washington, by D. G. Elliot in 1898; type in Field Museum
-      of Natural History.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Color dark, almost always black instead of
-      brown; skull wide, high and heavy; molar teeth wide and heavy.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains
-      westward to the Pacific. Marginal occurrences are Chelan (W.W.D.)
-      and Signal Peak (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 10).
-
-
-=Ursus americanus cinnamomum= Audubon and Bachman
-
-      _Ursus americanus var. cinnamomum_ Audubon and Bachman, Quadrupeds
-      of North America, 3:125, 1854.
-
-      _Euarctos cinnamomum_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:91, April
-      29, 1924.
-
-      _Euarctos americanus cinnamomum_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:319,
-      August 29, 1936.
-
-      _Ursus americanus cinnamomum_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl.,
-      30:232, March 2, 1928.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained near the mouth of Jim Ford Creek, Lower
-      Clearwater River, western Idaho (Bailey, 1936: 319) by Lewis and
-      Clark on May 31, 1806.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Resembling _altifrontalis_ but skull and
-      molar teeth narrower; color even in black phase paler and browner;
-      brown and black phases of approximately equal incidence.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains of
-      southeastern Washington, occurring westward as far as Republic
-      (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 10).
-
-
-=Ursus chelan= Merriam
-
-Grizzly bear
-
-      _Ursus chelan_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 29:136,
-      September 6, 1916.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained in Township 30 N. Range 16 E. Willamette
-      Meridian, Wenatchee National Forest, Chelan County, Washington, by
-      D. S. Rice on September 1, 1913; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--The skull of the type, an old male, measures:
-      basal length 314; occipito-nasal length 323; palatal length 170;
-      zygomatic breadth 225; interorbital breadth 86.
-
-      _Distribution._--Probably once from the Stevens Pass area north to
-      British Columbia. Possibly still remaining in the mountains
-      between Mount Baker and Lake Chelan.
-
-      _Remarks._--Grizzly bears occurred in the lowlands of Oregon
-      (Bailey, 1936: 324) and California (Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale,
-      1937: 67) but there is no record of their ever having occurred in
-      the lowlands of western Washington.
-
-Bears of the genus _Ursus_ range over Europe, Asia and North America. No
-less than 75 kinds of grizzly and big brown bears are recognized for
-North America by Merriam (1918). They are closely related to the brown
-bears of Asia. The 13 kinds of black bears of North America are now
-thought to belong to but one species, namely _americanus_, and have no
-close relatives in Eurasia.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 51. Probable past distribution of grizzly bears in
-  Washington. A. _Ursus chelan._ B. _Ursus canadensis._ C. _Ursus
-  idahoensis._]
-
-The grizzly is the largest carnivorous mammal in North America. From the
-black bear the grizzly may be distinguished in life by the prominent
-muscular hump on the shoulders. Another feature is the long, slim,
-gently curved claws of the forefoot as compared with the shorter,
-stouter and sharply curved or hooked foreclaws of the black bear. The
-grizzly is much larger than the black bear. Cranially, the grizzly
-differs in possessing a larger skull with lower frontal area, higher,
-more extensive sagittal crest, more posteriorly jutting occipital
-condyles and much longer tooth row. The color of both species is
-variable. Some grizzly bears from Alaska and British Columbia are dark
-brown, almost as black as a black bear. Others are pale cinnamon with
-the longer guard hairs pale gray. Individuals of this frosted appearance
-popularly are known as "silver tips." In Washington, the black bear
-varies in color from glossy black, through various shades of brown to a
-pale cinnamon.
-
-The grizzly bear is extinct over most of Washington. A few may remain in
-remote parts of the northern Cascades, and are regularly listed on the
-game census reports of the Mount Baker National Forest. Nevertheless, I
-have found no one who has seen an undoubted grizzly bear in Washington.
-The type specimen was obtained well up in the Cascade Mountains where
-the animals, like those in British Columbia, feed on roots, berries,
-marmots, pikas and other vegetable and animal life.
-
-
-=Procyon lotor= (Linnaeus)
-
-Raccoon
-
-_Description._--The raccoon is a relatively large carnivore with a
-stout, heavy body. Large adults measure three feet in length and weigh
-up to 20 pounds. The legs are of moderate length. The broad head tapers
-sharply to a pointed muzzle. The ears are erect, broad, low and rounded;
-the tail is long, about one-half the length of the head and body, bushy
-and round; the hind feet are large, flat and naked-soled but the
-forefeet are smaller with long, slim, handlike toes. The color of the
-body is a grizzled gray heavily washed with black on the back and sides.
-A jet-black "mask" across the eyes, sharply outlined by white muzzle and
-forehead, is the most distinctive feature of the head. The tail is
-alternately marked with six or seven black and five or six yellowish
-gray bands. The long, loose guard hairs give the body a shaggy
-appearance. The fur of the wrists is short, smooth, coarse, and directed
-downward.
-
-The raccoon is not an aquatic mammal, yet it is closely associated with
-water, whether it be streams, rivers, lakes or the ocean. The favored
-habitat of the raccoon is the shore line. It is a wader and, if it can
-be considered as specialized for any occupation, it is wading in mud and
-shallow water. Its long toes, naked feet, and short-haired wrists are
-admirable adapted for walking on muddy bottoms or in shallow water. The
-coon is also at home on land. It moves swiftly and silently and when
-chased by dogs can cover miles in a few hours. It is an agile climber
-and lives in dens well up in trees.
-
-The raccoon is almost completely nocturnal. Individuals are occasionally
-seen in the morning or evening, especially, when the tide is low along
-the ocean beach or Puget Sound. Near Fall City, King County, a small
-raccoon was seen eating a crayfish at 3:30 p.m. on a warm, sunny June
-day. In the eastern United States raccoons sleep during much of the
-winter, and probably they do the same in eastern Washington. In western
-Washington they are active most of the winter. Some trappers stated that
-the animals "hole up" in spells of unusually cold weather. Along the
-Tolt River, 10 miles southeast of Duvall, King County, their tracks were
-seen daily in January, 1936, although the temperature fell well below
-freezing each night.
-
-Washington is near the northern limit of the range of the raccoon. The
-animal is reasonably common in western Washington, and ranges well up
-into the Cascade Mountains. The highest altitudinal record available is
-Longmire, Mount Rainier National Park (Taylor and Shaw, 1927). Raccoons
-are not uncommon in southeastern Washington and in the Yakima Valley.
-They follow the Columbia River northward, as shown by tracks at
-Wenatchee on two occasions. The river valleys that flow into the
-Columbia in northeastern Washington seem admirably adapted for raccoons
-but the animal is rare there. Trappers who have lived and trapped in
-northeastern Washington for many years tell of seeing tracks at
-intervals of years along the Okanogan, San Poil, Colville and Kettle
-rivers. Several stated that tracks had been seen more often in recent
-years. Northeastern Washington seems to be the peripheral range of the
-species, occupied at rare intervals by animals wandering north from the
-Columbia River.
-
-The food habits of raccoons are almost as varied as those of black
-bears. Animal matter forms their diet over most of the year; along
-stream courses crayfish, fish, thin-shelled fresh-water mussels, frogs
-(_Hyla_ and _Rana_), and aquatic insects are eaten. Along beaches fish
-brought in by the tide, crustaceans, and mussels (_Mytilus edulis_) are
-taken; small sharks appear not to be eaten. A recently dead dogfish that
-lay on the beach at Whidby Island, Island County, was ringed by the
-tracks of a raccoon but had not been eaten. The shore crabs
-(_Hemigrapsus nudus_ and _Hemigrapsus oregonensis_) are a favored food
-and regular items of diet. The edible crab (_Cancer productus_) is also
-eaten and in the San Juan Islands the porcelain crab (_Petrolisthes
-eriomerus_) was commonly eaten. Small mammals and birds are eaten
-regularly by this race of raccoon in California (Grinnell, Dixon and
-Linsdale, 1937: 157), and the eggs and young of wild birds are sought in
-the spring (_op. cit._: 158). The ability of the raccoon as a climber
-makes it a particular menace to nesting birds. Berries, including
-domestic blackberries and salmonberries, are eaten in quantity when
-available. Apples are dearly loved and the trees and orchards of
-abandoned ranches are regularly visited. The fondness of the raccoon for
-green corn is well known. Insects are present in small quantities in
-most droppings and in the late summer some feces were composed entirely
-of the remains of grasshoppers. Chickens, ducks, young turkeys and eggs
-are stolen and individuals become extremely adept at raiding hen-houses.
-
-At one time, about 1920, the raccoon became scarce in western Washington
-as a result of heavy trapping and high price of the pelts. A closed
-season was strictly enforced until it again became common. The price
-received by the trapper for raw furs of raccoon has since been rather
-low, from two to ten dollars. With fur prices in this range, the number
-of raccoons probably will not be reduced to a dangerously low level by
-trapping, but instead may be expected to furnish a regular winter income
-to the trappers who do trap for it.
-
-Raccoons are known to breed in their first year of life (Pope, 1944:
-91).
-
-
-=Procyon lotor psora= Gray
-
-      _Procyon psora_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 10: 261. December,
-      1842.
-
-      _Procyon psora pacifica_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 16: 107, October
-      28, 1899 (type from Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington).
-
-      _Procyon proteus_ Brass, Aus dem Reiche der Pelze, p. 564, 1911.
-
-      _Procyon lotor pacifica_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R.
-      Conner Mus., no. 2: 10. December, 1929.
-
-      _Procyon lotor psora_ Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale, Fur-bearing
-      Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 137, July
-      22, 1937.
-
-      _Type locality._--Sacramento, Sacramento County, California.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Medium size; dark color; smoothly rounded
-      skull.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from Forks, Clallam County, measures:
-      total length 905; length of tail 355; hind foot 125; ear 50;
-      weight 14-1/2 lbs. A female and 6 males, young animals of the
-      year, taken between November 15 and December 15, average: 772;
-      284; 114; weight (of 3) 8-2/3 lbs.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 52. Distribution of the raccoon in Washington. A.
-  _Procyon lotor psora._ B. _Procyon lotor excelsus._]
-
-      _Distribution._--From the western slope of the Cascade Mountains
-      westward. Marginal occurrences are Lake Keechelus (type locality)
-      and Mount Rainier (Taylor and Shaw, 1927: 45).
-
-      _Remarks._--The range of variation in color and cranial characters
-      of coastal raccoons is large. I am unable to find any character or
-      average difference to separate the raccoons of western Washington
-      from those of northern California.
-
-
-=Procyon lotor excelsus= Nelson and Goldman
-
-      _Procyon lotor excelsus_ Nelson and Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 11:458,
-      November 11, 1930.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on upper Owyhee River, near the mouth of the
-      North Fork in southeastern Oregon by J. W. Fisk on April 15, 1920;
-      type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _psora_ but larger; body paler
-      and grayer; skull larger, heavier and more angular.
-
-      _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, the valleys of the Snake
-      and Yakima rivers and the valley of the Columbia River north to
-      northeastern Washington. Marginal records, from reports of
-      trappers, include the Okanogan River, Okanogan County, Wenatchee,
-      Chelan County, and Selah, Yakima County.
-
-_Remarks._--The assignment of the raccoons of northeastern Washington to
-_excelsus_ is tentative for I have seen no specimens.
-
-
-=Martes caurina= Merriam
-
-Western marten
-
-_Description._--The marten is slightly smaller and slimmer than a house
-cat, and at first glance resembles a large squirrel. The legs are
-longer, the body stouter and the fur more fluffy than those of a mink or
-weasel. Adult males weigh from two to two and a half pounds, and females
-from one and a half to two pounds. Males are slightly more than two feet
-in total length and females about 18 inches, the tail comprising
-one-third or more of the total length. The head is broad and narrows
-rapidly to a sharp muzzle. The ears are large, erect and prominent. The
-feet are large with stout toes and long, sharply curved pinkish-white
-claws. The body and head are rich golden brown, the tail, wrists, feet
-and muzzle being darker.
-
-The western marten ranges from British Columbia southward through Idaho
-and Washington to California. A closely related species, _americana_, is
-found in Alaska, the eastern United States and Canada. Martens and
-fishers may be distinguished from weasels and minks by the presence of
-18 rather than 16 teeth in the upper jaw and 20 instead of 18 teeth in
-the lower jaw.
-
-The western marten is arboreal. Its principal habitat in Washington is
-the Canadian Life-zone forests of the Olympic, Cascade and Blue
-mountains and the various ranges in the northeastern part of the state.
-At one time it ranged near sea level along the densely forested coastal
-belt and may still do so in the more rugged parts of the Willapa Hills.
-
-The marten is both diurnal and nocturnal. In Mount Rainier National Park
-the species has become quite tame and may be seen in the daytime. Many
-of the small mammals upon which it feeds are diurnal, but others are
-nocturnal. The marten is active throughout the year. Trappers report
-that during a storm the marten "holes up in rock slides" where it lives
-on conies and chipmunks until the storm passes. It spends a large part
-of its time in trees, and travels through them for long distances. It
-climbs more skillfully than the tree squirrels upon which it feeds. On
-the ground or on snow the marten travels in bounds, a yard at a leap,
-and its characteristic bounding gait forms tracks that are distinctive
-and easily followed.
-
-Mammals of the weasel family mostly are not gregarious but the marten is
-exceptional in that in the winter it travels in bands of 6 to 10
-animals. Individuals composing these bands are inclined to wander but
-nevertheless the whole band travels in a definite general direction at a
-good rate of speed. Travel-ways or "runs" may be used by more than one
-band, and a run may extend for many miles, perhaps for as many as 50. A
-band of martens may take two weeks to complete the circuit, but usually
-returns to the starting point in less than a week. Most runs are about
-"half-way up the mountain," or midway between the crest of the hill or
-timber-line and the floor of the stream valley below. In summer the
-marten ranges higher; it lives in the trees just below timber-line and
-in the talus slides near timber-line. When the snows are unusually late
-the martens may keep to these higher areas until November.
-
-The food of the marten consists principally of small mammals and
-probably birds; the staple food in winter is the Douglas squirrel. In
-summer they feed on pikas, mantled ground squirrels and chipmunks. Mice,
-also, are eaten. The deer mouse, _Peromyscus maniculatus_, is usually
-abundant about old cabins and is successfully used as bait by trappers.
-Wood rats and flying squirrels are also eaten, the latter being
-especially important in certain areas. The tracks of martens that had
-been following snowshoe rabbits were seen on several occasions but the
-martens had turned off before a kill was made. In every instance the
-rabbit tracks indicated that the animals were hopping leisurely and
-browsing; apparently the tracks were made some time before the marten
-began to follow them.
-
-Martens are inquisitive, and to judge from their tracks in snow they
-investigate almost every object that they pass; a fallen mound of snow,
-branch, bit of moss, log or isolated tree is apt to be visited. Failing
-to find a meal in or around one of these objects, the marten visits the
-next object that catches its eye. Seemingly the animal always is giving
-concentrated attention to some definite object although the attention
-can shift in an instant when a more interesting object comes in to view.
-As a result the trail of a marten in the snow is an intricate affair
-composed of numerous straight lines and sharp turns.
-
-The trapping of martens is specialized work, engaged in by professional
-trappers that follow trap lines many miles in length. Trappers commonly
-have a base cabin and one or two shelters situated a day's march apart,
-The trap-line is set in a circle, requiring one to three days' travel by
-the trapper to complete the circuit.
-
-The standard "set" for marten in the Cascades consists of an opening 8
-to 10 inches wide, 4 inches high and 6 inches deep chopped into the side
-of a dead stub. The hole is cut as high as the trapper can reach. A trap
-is set in the opening and bait is placed in the back of the hole. A
-sapling 1 to 3 inches in diameter inclined at an angle of 45° from the
-ground to the hole completes the set. As the snow deepens, new holes are
-chopped higher up on the stub. Such sets seen in the summer may consist
-of six or seven holes spaced a foot apart. The chips from the holes are
-left lying on the snow and are said to attract the animals. Bait
-commonly consists of flying squirrel, red squirrel or deer mouse.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 53. Distribution of the western marten in
-  Washington. A. _Martes caurina caurina._ B. _Martes caurina origenes._]
-
-The value of the marten's pelt fluctuates from year to year. In recent
-years average pelts have sold at from ten to twenty dollars each. The
-number of individuals taken by a trapper varies with the trapper's skill
-and energy and the location of the trap line. The largest catch made by
-one trapper in a single winter, of which I know, was 300 animals, taken
-near Mt. Adams.
-
-
-=Martes caurina caurina= (Merriam)
-
-      _Mustela caurina_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:27, October 8, 1890.
-
-      _Martes caurina caurina_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:93,
-      December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained near Grays Harbor, Grays Harbor County,
-      Washington, by L. C. Toey on February 4, 1886; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Color dark; throat patch bright orange or
-      brownish.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains westward. Marginal
-      localities are (from Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 10) head of Cascade
-      River, Riverside, Chelan, Easton and Trout Lake. The record from
-      Chelan seems doubtful, and the specimen may have come from
-      somewhere around Lake Chelan, rather than from the town of that
-      name.
-
-_Remarks._--Skulls of martens from many localities in western North
-America were studied in an effort to determine the relationship of the
-eastern pine marten (_Martes americana_) and the western marten. East of
-the Rocky Mountains the ranges of the two species approach closely, but
-each retains distinctive characters, notably the shape of the auditory
-bullae. The two species have not been taken together and the possibility
-of intergradation exists. On the basis of the evidence at hand, the two
-should be regarded as full species until positive proof of
-intergradation is established.
-
-In the absence of sufficient material, the marten of the Cascades is
-referred to _Martes caurina caurina_. Fur graders distinguish between a
-dark "coast marten" and a paler "Cascade marten."
-
-
-=Martes caurina origenes= (Rhoads)
-
-      _Mustela caurina origenes_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. at Sci.
-      Philadelphia, 1902:458, September 30, 1902.
-
-      _Martes caurina origenes_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:93,
-      December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Marvine Lodge, Garfield County, Colorado, by
-      E. T. Seton on September 16, 1901; type in Academy of Natural
-      Sciences of Philadelphia.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Paler than _caurina_ with grayer head and
-      yellow or white rather than deep orange or brown throat patch.
-
-      _Distribution._--Mountainous areas of northeastern Washington and
-      the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. Trappers have
-      reported this marten from the mountains near Republic, Ferry
-      County.
-
-
-=Martes pennanti= (Erxleben)
-
-Fisher
-
-      [_Mustela_] _pennanti_ Erxleben, Syst. Regni. Anim., 1:470, 1777.
-
-      _Martes pennanti pennanti_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:94,
-      December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Mustela canadensis pacifica_ Rhoads, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc.,
-      n.s., 19:435, September, 1898 (type from Lake Keechelus, Kittitas
-      County, Washington).
-
-      _Martes pennanti pacifica_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:94,
-      December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Martes pennanti_ Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, Fur-bearing Mamm.
-      California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 211, July 22,
-      1937.
-
-      _Type locality._--Eastern Canada.
-
-      _Distribution._--Originally forested areas from the eastern base
-      of the Cascades westward and possibly the Blue Mountains of
-      southeastern Washington and the mountains of northeastern
-      Washington; now probably confined to the Cascade and Olympic
-      mountains.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 54. Fisher (_Martes pennanti_). 2-year-old male in
-  captivity; New Westminster, B. C., March 7, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife
-  Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 598.)]
-
-_Remarks._--The fisher is the size of a large cat. In general
-proportions it resembles the marten. Adult males measure about 3-1/2
-feet in length; the tail comprises 16 inches of this. Adult females
-are slightly less than 3 feet in length of which the tail makes up
-approximately 15 inches. Males weigh up to 10 lbs. and females about
-5-1/2 pounds (Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 213). The fisher has
-a slim body, bushy tail, short legs, large feet, and wide, low and
-triangular head. The ears are low, wide, rounded and erect. The fur is
-an ashy, brownish gray in color with an overwash of blackish caused by
-long, dark hairs. The head is slightly paler than the body. The feet,
-rump and tail are darkest. The claws are strong and sharply curved.
-
-The fisher is found in wooded parts of North America, extending
-southward in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada Chain to central California. Its
-near relatives are the martens. It is active all year. Like the marten,
-it is active by day and probably also by night. In spite of absolute
-protection for several years, the fisher is rare in Washington, and
-seems never to have been common. In consequence relatively little is
-known of its habits, and the little that is known has been reported by
-fur-trappers.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 55. Distribution of the fisher, _Martes pennanti_,
-  in Washington.]
-
-The fisher seems not to live in bands as does the marten. Most of the
-actual records of fishers trapped are at higher altitudes but are
-misleading because most trappers agree that the fisher occupied a lower
-zone, altitudinally, than does the marten. There are old records of
-its occurrence near sea level (Scheffer, 1938: 9). The animals are
-usually taken in marten sets or in traps set especially for fishers
-by trappers who find their tracks on their marten trap lines. Since
-marten trappers are almost the only persons who travel in the mountains
-in winter, and since they operate mostly above the areas where fishers
-live, relatively few fishers are reported.
-
-Fishers are said to feed on chipmunks, squirrels, mice, birds and other
-small, warm-blooded animals, and to climb trees and catch squirrels
-in their natural habitat. Also, fishers are said to catch and kill
-martens. Their tracks in the snow resemble the marten's in that the
-hind feet land in the same places as the forefeet; both animals bound
-rather than walk.
-
-The pelt of the fisher commands a high price. The smaller sized,
-females, are the more valuable. The price paid for pelts fluctuates
-widely and has ranged from as low as twelve dollars to as high as one
-hundred dollars in recent years.
-
-In Washington more fishers live in the Olympic Peninsula and the
-northern Cascade Mountains than elsewhere. A few may occur in
-northeastern Washington, the Blue Mountains and the Willapa Hills.
-
-The name _pacifica_ was regarded by Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1937:
-217) as a synonym of _pennanti_.
-
-
-=Mustela erminea= Linnaeus
-
-Ermine
-
-_Description._--Though it is similar in general characters and
-proportions to the long-tailed weasel, the ermine is much smaller and
-has a relatively shorter tail. It is darker and less reddish or
-yellowish in summer. Adult males measure about 10 inches in length, of
-which 3-1/2 inches is the length of the tail. Females measure about 8
-inches and have tails 2 inches long. The upper parts are chocolate
-brown; the underparts are white or pale yellow. Along the coast of
-Washington, the pale color of the underparts is more restricted in the
-ermine than in the long-tailed weasel. The dark brown tail has a black
-tip. Ermines east of the summit of the Cascades become pure white in
-winter, save for the black tail tip. West of the summit of the Cascades
-the winter pelt is similar to the summer pelt but is slightly paler with
-denser underfur.
-
-Ermines in America range from the Arctic southward, in mountainous
-areas, to the southern end of the Sierra Nevada in California, and in
-the Rocky Mountains to northern New Mexico. In Washington they are found
-over the entire state except the arid parts of eastern Washington, where
-only the long-tailed weasel occurs. So far as my observations go, the
-ermine is principally nocturnal in Washington; I have seen only one
-abroad in the daytime. It dashed from a roadside thicket near Glacier,
-Whatcom County, and was crushed beneath the wheels of a car. Taylor and
-Shaw (1927: 53) note several instances of diurnal activity of the
-ermines at Mount Rainier National Park.
-
-The ermine seems to feed principally upon mice. Its small size adapts it
-to entering burrows that larger weasels cannot enter. It probably eats
-chipmunks, birds, and other small, warm-blooded animals. Ermines climb
-readily and are often taken in traps set in trees for martens. Near
-Skykomish, King County, William Hoffman took two ermines in traps set in
-burrows of mountain beavers. The mountain beavers were needed for use as
-bait on his trap line. The traps were reset and later caught mountain
-beavers. Seemingly the ermines were traveling through the burrows,
-perhaps to catch the mice which utilize the burrows as highways, rather
-than to prey upon mountain beavers. It is difficult to see how the tiny
-ermine could kill an adult mountain beaver, which outweighs it many
-times. Should the incisors of the mountain beaver close even once upon
-an ermine it would most certainly be seriously wounded or killed.
-Judging by the forest habitat occupied by the ermine in Washington, one
-might expect its principal food to consist of deer mice (_Peromyscus
-maniculatus_), red-backed mice (_Clethrionomys_) and meadow mice
-(_Microtus_).
-
-In observing the activities and habits of mammals in their natural
-habitat, I have often relied on tracking in fresh snow. Strangely
-enough, tracks of ermines were seldom found, and the few that were seen
-came from beneath a log, bush or wind-fall and disappeared beneath
-similar cover, rarely extending 20 feet on the surface of the snow. The
-larger, long-tailed weasels often traveled for miles on the surface of
-the snow. Possibly the ermines were following the burrows of mice
-through the snow, or perhaps they kept beneath the surface from fear of
-owls. This suggests a reason why ermines are so seldom seen abroad. They
-may be following burrows and runways of mice and seldom come to the
-surface of the ground.
-
-On November 18, 1936, we saw three ermines and two long-tailed weasels
-taken by a trapper on Deception Creek near Stevens Pass, King County.
-All were in the white winter coat. In December, 1938, we obtained two
-ermines at Skykomish, King County, 18 miles west of Stevens Pass. These
-were in the brown winter coat. In that area the break between the brown
-and white winter coat seems to come just west of the main Cascade
-Summit, or at the same point that the break occurs between the brown and
-white winter coats of the long-tailed weasel.
-
-Ermine skins have little value and usually bring from 10 to 35 cents.
-They are saved incidentally by trappers, for it takes but a few moments
-to skin and prepare them. They possess the strong, musk odor so typical
-of the long-tailed weasel.
-
-
-=Mustela erminea invicta= Hall
-
-      _Mustela erminea invicta_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:75, February 27,
-      1945.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Benewah, Benewah County, Idaho, by W. T. Shaw
-      on October 24, 1926; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Largest of the Washington ermines; winter
-      coat entirely white; upper lips white; black of tail more than
-      half length of tail vertebrae.
-
-      _Measurements._--Ten males and 5 females from central Idaho
-      average, respectively (Hall, 1945): total length 291, 255; length
-      of tail 86, 71; hind foot 40, 32. 3.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington and the northeastern
-      Cascades, west to Chilliwack River and Hannegan Pass (Hall, 1945:
-      78).
-
-
-=Mustela erminea fallenda= Hall
-
-      _Mustela erminea fallenda_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:79, February 27,
-      1945.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Huntingdon, British Columbia, by C. H. Young
-      on May 21, 1927; type in National Museum of Canada.
-
-      _Racial characters._-Size large; winter coat usually brown; pale
-      color of underparts much restricted; color of upper parts dark;
-      color of lips variable; tail with more than distal half black.
-
-      _Measurements._--Seven males and 2 females average, respectively
-      (Hall, 1945: 79): total length 278, 232; length of tail 77, 60;
-      hind foot 36.5, 27.
-
-      _Distribution._--The extreme north coast of Washington, from the
-      Canadian boundary south through Whatcom County (Hall, 1945:
-      80-81).
-
-_Remarks._--The range of this ermine is similar to that of the
-yellow-pine chipmunk, _Eutamias amoenus felix_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 56. Distribution of the ermine in Washington. A.
-  _Mustela erminea invicta._ B. _Mustela erminea murica._ C. _Mustela
-  erminea gulosa._ D. _Mustela erminea fallenda._ E. _Mustela erminea
-  streatori._ F. _Mustela erminea olympica._]
-
-
-=Mustela erminea olympica= Hall
-
-      _Mustela erminea olympica_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:81, February 27,
-      1945.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained near head of Sol Duc River, Clallam County,
-      Washington, by V. Bailey, on April 28, 1897; type in United States
-      National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _streatori_ but smaller,
-      especially females.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twelve males and 6 females average, respectively:
-      total length 243, 196; length of tail 65, 52; hind foot 31, 23.4
-      (Hall, 1945: 81).
-
-      _Distribution._--The Olympic Peninsula, extending southeastward to
-      Olympia.
-
-
-=Mustela erminea streatori= (Merriam)
-
-      _Putorius streatori_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:13, June 30. 1896.
-
-      _Mustela streatori streatori_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      79:96, December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Mustela cicognanii streatori_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R.
-      Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929.
-
-      _Mustela erminea streatori_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:76, February 23,
-      1945.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Mount Vernon, Skagit County, Washington, by D.
-      R. Lucky on February 29, 1896; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _fallenda_ but pale color of
-      underparts less restricted; tail with less than distal half black.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and 2 females from extreme southwestern
-      Washington average, respectively: total length 245, 210; length of
-      tail 72, 54; hind foot 31.5, 25.5; ear 17, 14; weight 72.3, 46.
-
-      _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington; north to
-      Skagit County and Whidby Island (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 11),
-      southward and westward to Ilwaco (M.V.Z.) and eastward to Carson
-      (U.S.N.M.).
-
-
-=Mustela erminea gulosa= Hall
-
-      _Mustela erminea gulosa_ Hall, Journ. Mamm., 26:84, February 27,
-      1945.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickatat County, Washington, by
-      P. Schmid on February 3, 1897; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _invicta_ but smaller; winter
-      coat usually white; tail less than one-half black; upper lips
-      white.
-
-      _Measurements._--Five males from Mount Rainier, and 4 females from
-      the Cascade Mountains, average, respectively (Hall, 1945: 84):
-      total length 253, 208; length of tail 76, 54; hind foot 30.2,
-      24.3.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains. Known from Skykomish
-      (W.W.D.) and southward to Mount Adams (Trout Lake, Hall, 1945:
-      85).
-
-
-=Mustela erminea murica= (Bangs)
-
-      _Putorius (Arctogale) muricus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club,
-      1:71, July 31, 1899.
-
-      _Mustela muricus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December
-      31, 1912.
-
-      _Mustela cicognanii lepta_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R.
-      Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929.
-
-      _Mustela cicognanii muricus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:292,
-      August 29, 1936.
-
-      _Mustela erminea murica_ Hall, Jour. Mamm., 26:77, February 27,
-      1945.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Echo, El Dorado County, California, by W. W.
-      Price and E. M. Nutting on July 15, 1897; type in Museum of
-      Comparative Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _invicta_ but smaller and paler.
-
-      _Measurements._--A young female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia
-      County, measured: total length 201; length of tail 46; hind foot
-      24; ear 14; weight 45.8. A female from Butte Creek, Columbia
-      County, measured: 185; 50; 26. A male from Baker Creek, White Pine
-      County, Nevada, measured: 220; 56; 26; 14.5; weight 57.7.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.
-
-      _Remarks._--Two specimens available from the Blue Mountains are
-      darker than typical _murica_.
-
-
-=Mustela frenata= Lichtenstein
-
-Long-tailed Weasel
-
-_Description._--Male long-tailed weasels measure about 16 inches in
-total length of which 6 inches is the length of the tail. Females are
-smaller, measuring about 14 inches in length with a tail 5 inches long.
-The body is long and exceedingly thin. The legs are short and stout with
-rather large feet and strong, curved claws. The tail is well-furred, not
-tapered, but lacks the bushy appearance of the tail of the fisher. The
-head is low, wide at the base and abruptly tapering to the muzzle. The
-ears are erect, low and rounded. The fur is short but dense and rather
-soft. In summer the color of the head, back, sides and outside of the
-legs is brown. The throat, chest, underside of body and insides of legs
-are yellow or orange. In winter they may be entirely white, save for the
-black tip of the tail. The tail is slightly darker than the back in
-summer and possesses a long black tip.
-
-Long-tailed weasels do not hibernate even in the coldest parts of
-Washington. They are active both by day and by night, apparently doing
-their hunting at the time of day or night when they can most easily
-obtain food. In the Cascade Mountains where diurnal mammals such as
-squirrels, chipmunks and pikas are common, weasels are not uncommonly
-seen by day. In the lowlands of western Washington, where they feed on
-more nocturnal mammals, they are seldom seen.
-
-The long-tailed weasel is relatively unspecialized in habits. They climb
-readily and skillfully. They are active on the surface of the ground and
-follow the burrow systems of fossorial animals such as gophers and
-mountain beavers.
-
-Weasels seen in the wild rarely exhibit fear of man but rather are
-curious and apt to watch his actions. Weasels are also often hit by cars
-and the number so killed seems to me to be out of proportion to their
-actual numbers.
-
-In moving on the surface of the ground the weasel arches its back and
-contracts the body until the four feet are rather close together. When
-the long neck and small head are held upright the animal presents a
-surprisingly giraffelike appearance. When climbing, the long, slim body
-has a snakelike appearance. A weasel travels swiftly and erratically in
-a series of bounds and seems always to know where the next hole is
-situated.
-
-The weasel has been accused of killing birds and doubtless does so when
-opportunity presents itself. However, in Washington I have no actual
-evidence of its killing birds other than domestic fowls. At Republic,
-Ferry County, a companion and I saw a weasel enter the burrow of a
-ground squirrel (_Citellus columbianus_). The following day we returned
-to the area. The weasel was not seen but a ground squirrel dashed into
-the hole at our approach. Seemingly the ground squirrel had eluded the
-weasel. At Conconully, Okanogan County, we set a number of gopher traps
-in an alfalfa field. The following morning an adult male long-tailed
-weasel was found in a trap but not a gopher was taken. Near Moses Lake,
-Grant County, an adult male weasel was caught in a gopher trap, but no
-gophers were taken. At Shelton, Mason County, 50 gopher traps were set.
-At daylight the following morning the first trap visited was found to be
-pulled into the burrow. When a gentle tug was given the wire fastening
-the trap, a decisive jerk at the other end showed that the catch was
-alive. If trapped gophers that pull the traps back into their burrows
-are pulled out by main strength, their skins are often torn and damaged.
-Therefore an attempt was made to reach into the burrow and pull back the
-sod. An adult female long-tailed weasel promptly fastened its teeth into
-my forefinger and clung on, bulldog fashion, to be lifted into the air
-with the attached trap swinging. When the left hand was used to force
-the animal to release its grip, it fastened onto the left thumb. With
-right thumb and forefinger I forced it to release its grip, but was
-unable to elude its teeth which again fastened to my right forefinger.
-Only by laying it on the ground and crushing its chest with my foot
-could I free myself from the vicious little beast. No gophers were taken
-in traps set less than 150 feet from where the weasel was trapped. In
-the three instances mentioned above, weasels had seemingly killed all
-the gophers in their immediate vicinity. As regards the gophers near
-Moses Lake, none was found a year later in the area where the weasel was
-taken and only old, abandoned burrows were seen. T. H. Scheffer (1932:
-54) records other instances of the capture of weasels in gopher burrows.
-
-At the northern limits of the city of Seattle, steel traps were set
-for mountain beavers in a rather dense colony of these mammals.
-Well-used burrows indicated that approximately 10 individuals were
-present. The following morning an exceptionally large male weasel was
-found in a trap, but all others were empty. The traps were left out
-for two additional nights but no mountain beavers were taken. A month
-later the colony seemed abandoned and no evidence of recent digging
-was noted. It could only be concluded that the weasel had killed the
-animals comprising the colony. A large mountain beaver weighs three or
-four pounds, which is 6 or 8 times as much as a weasel. Edson (1933:
-76) recounts trapping 7 weasels in burrows of mountain beavers near
-Bellingham, Whatcom County.
-
-Near Forks, Clallam County, a weasel was seen pursuing a young snowshoe
-rabbit (_Lepus americanus washingtonii_) along the edge of a concrete
-highway. As our car approached and passed the animals, they separated,
-the weasel retreating to the cover of horsetail (_Equisetum_) beside
-the road. The car was stopped 50 feet ahead. As we emerged the weasel
-dashed from cover to intercept the rabbit in the center of the road.
-The weasel knocked the rabbit to its side and, placing its feet on the
-rabbit's shoulders, bit fiercely at its neck. It then dashed back to
-the cover of the horsetails. The rabbit stood up, made two hops and
-died. It was approximately two weeks old.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 57. Distribution of the long-tailed weasel in
-  Washington. A. _Mustela frenata washingtoni._ B. _Mustela frenata
-  altifrontalis._ C. _Mustela frenata nevadensis._ D. _Mustela frenata
-effera._]
-
-The pelts of weasels bring the trapper from twenty-five cents to a
-dollar and a half. Only skins in the white winter coat command the
-higher price. They are usually taken in traps set for other animals.
-
-In the western part of the state, long-tailed weasels do not turn white
-in the winter; the back is slightly less reddish than in summer and the
-underparts are pale yellow or white or may be both yellow and white.
-From the summit of the Cascades eastward weasels become white. The
-break in winter color seems to occur slightly west of the main summit
-of the Cascades. Specimens taken by marten trappers at Tye and Scenic,
-near Stevens Pass, were white on November 15, 1936, but specimens from
-Skykomish and Baring, 18 miles to the west, were brown.
-
-The long-tailed weasel possesses a distinctive odor. It results from
-a glandular secretion and, although it has no great carrying power or
-lasting quality, it does affect some persons strongly. It is a heavy,
-rather sickening scent.
-
-The gestation period of _Mustela f. nevadensis_ has been recorded as
-more than 131 days (Hall, 1938B: 250). The gestation period of the
-long-tailed weasel of eastern United States has been recorded as more
-than 70 days. Three to five young are born in a litter, usually four.
-
-
-=Mustela frenata nevadensis= Hall
-
-      _Mustela arizonensis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner
-      Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929.
-
-      _Mustela washingtoni_ Taylor and Shaw, in part, Occ. Pap. Chas. R.
-      Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929.
-
-      _Mustela frenata nevadensis_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington,
-      Publ. 473:91, November 20, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained 3 miles east of Baker, White Pine County, Nevada,
-      by E. R. Hall and W. C. Russell on May 30, 1929; type in Museum of
-      Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size medium; colors pale; back near Brussels
-      Brown in summer, chin white and underparts yellow, rarely orange;
-      color in winter white with black tip on tail.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from Neppel, Grant County, measures: total
-      length 412; length of tail 151; hind foot 43; ear 19. Two males
-      from Yakima, Yakima County, average: 379; 135; 42.5; 21; weight
-      176.5. A female from Ellensburg and one from 4 miles east of
-      Ellensburg, Kittitas County, average: 284; 98; 33; 17.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the high Cascades eastward, save for the
-      Blue Mountains area. Marginal occurrences are Barron (Hall, 1936:
-      93) and Easton (W. W. D.).
-
-      _Remarks._--Specimens from the northern Cascades are intergrades
-      between _nevadensis_ and the form to the west, _altifrontalis_.
-      Specimens from extreme northeastern Washington might be referred
-      to _oribasa_ Bangs as readily as to _nevadensis_.
-
-
-=Mustela frenata effera= Hall
-
-      _Mustela frenata effera_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ.
-      473:93, November 20, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Ironside, Malheur County, Oregon, by H. E.
-      Anthony on September 8, 1912; type in American Museum of Natural
-      History.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _nevadensis_ in color but
-      smaller, with smaller, lighter skull. Color in winter white with
-      black tip on tail.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from Prescott, Walla Walla County,
-      measures: total length 310; length of tail 105; hind foot 34.
-
-      _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake
-      River. Specimens from Walla Walla and Prescott have been examined.
-
-
-=Mustela frenata washingtoni= (Merriam)
-
-      _Putorius washingtoni_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:18, June 30,
-      1896.
-
-      _Mustela washingtoni_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:98,
-      December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Mustela frenata washingtoni_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington,
-      Publ. 473:106, November 20, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Skamania County, Washington, by D.
-      N. Kaegi on December 15, 1895; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Color rich, dark; hind feet free of color of
-      underparts.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from Spray Park, Pierce County, measures:
-      total length 423; length of tail 164; hind foot 52.
-
-      _Distribution._--Higher Cascades from Mt. Rainer (M. V. Z.) south
-      to Mt. Adams (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 11).
-
-
-=Mustela frenata altifrontalis= Hall
-
-      _Mustela saturata_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner
-      Mus., no. 2:11, December, 1929.
-
-      _Mustela frenata altifrontalis_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington,
-      Publ. 473:94, November 20, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Tillamook, Tillamook County, Oregon, by A.
-      Walker on July 10, 1928; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _nevadensis_ but darker above in
-      summer and richer orange beneath; winter color of upper parts dark
-      brown, underparts pale yellow or white.
-
-      _Measurements._--Four males and 2 females from western Washington
-      average, respectively: total length 411.5, 267; length of tail
-      145, 137.5; hind foot 50, 43; ear 26, 21.5; weight 227, 136.7
-      grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains to the Pacific.
-      Marginal occurrences are Rockport (Hall, 1936: 95) and Tye (W. W.
-      D.).
-
-
-=Mustela vison energumenos= (Bangs)
-
-Mink
-
-      _Putorius vison energumenos_ Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,
-      27:5, March, 1896.
-
-      _Mustela vison energumenos_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:101,
-      December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Sumas, British Columbia, by A. C. Brooks on
-      September 23, 1895; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from Seattle, King County, measures: total
-      length 540; length of tail 180; hind foot 66; weight 1 pound, 15
-      ounces.
-
-      _Distribution._--Throughout the state save for the Columbian
-      Plateau; recorded from Neah Bay (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 11) in the
-      northwest, Ilwaco (M.V.Z.) in the southwest, Metaline (W.W.D.) in
-      the northeast, and the Blue Mountains (Dice, 1919: 12) in the
-      southeast.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 58. Distribution of the mink, _Mustela vison
-  energumenos_, in Washington.]
-
-_Description._--Because of the value and lasting popularity of its fur,
-the mink is known to all. Few persons, however, recognize the animal in
-the wild. The mink possesses the long, slim body and short, rather stout
-legs of a weasel but has a more bushy tail. The mink is larger than the
-weasel. Large males weigh up to 3 pounds; females 1-1/2 pounds. Males
-measure about 2 feet in length, of which the tail comprises eight
-inches. Females measure about 20 inches and have tails 7 inches long.
-The color is rich, dark reddish or chocolate brown. The underparts are
-slightly paler than the back. There are usually small white markings on
-the chin, chest or other part of the ventral surface. These markings
-sometimes take the form of narrow white lines.
-
-The mink ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Alaska south
-to Florida, New Mexico and central California. It is active throughout
-the year and is principally, though not exclusively, nocturnal. McMurry
-(1940: 47) records three mink seen at 3:30 p. m. on August 8, 1939, at
-Packwood Lake, Lewis County, one of which was carrying a garter snake
-two feet in length. This mustelid is semiaquatic, living along rivers,
-streams, lakes and salt water and spends most of its time along the
-shore, on muddy or sandy beaches. In this respect it resembles the
-raccoon. Whereas the raccoon spends a part of its time on the land, the
-mink spends a corresponding amount of its time in the water. It is an
-excellent swimmer, able to overtake and capture fish in the water.
-
-In the San Juan Islands minks have forsaken the shoreline and roam over
-the uplands, feeding on the abundant, feral domestic rabbits. I found
-evidence of their presence far inland, miles from water, in grassy and
-bushy wastes; along the beaches their tracks were rarely seen. Along
-Puget Sound, minks spend part of their time on the beaches, feeding on
-dead fish and other marine animal life. These animals, however, seem to
-live along the rivers and streams flowing into the sound. Along the
-ocean coast, some minks seem to live exclusively in the marine shoreline
-habitat.
-
-The mink ascends some distance into the Cascade and Olympic mountains
-along the larger watercourses. There are reliable reports of minks from
-Heart Lake and Lake Dorothy, King County, high in the Cascades. These
-animals were seen in the summer but they may live in higher parts of the
-Cascades, at least about some of the larger lakes throughout the year.
-As far as is known there are no minks on the Columbian Plateau.
-
-The food probably varies with locality. Along the ocean beaches they eat
-dead sea birds, stranded fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. Along Puget
-Sound their tracks are commonly seen following the caked, decaying
-seaweed and debris that collects at the high tide mark. Svihla and
-Svihla (1931: 22) captured a mink that was feeding on the beach of the
-Olympic Peninsula. This individual, in captivity, was able to open and
-feed on clams. Fur trappers report that minks feed on mountain beavers,
-and that the flesh of the mountain beaver is the best bait for
-attracting minks. Along streams and lakes, minks are thought to feed on
-mice, birds, fish, crayfish and thin-shelled, fresh-water mussels. The
-muskrat forms an important item of diet near the larger lakes and
-streams. Muskrats trapped near Seattle were often attacked by minks and
-either eaten or so slashed and torn that their pelts were worth but a
-fraction of what they would bring in an undamaged condition.
-
-The tracks of a mink noted in freshly fallen snow about a garbage dump
-on the shore of Lake Washington, Seattle, indicated that the animal had
-been hunting house rats, which were numerous there. Minks are not
-uncommon in the marshes along Lake Washington near the University of
-Washington campus, Seattle, where I discovered evidence of their preying
-on ducks and coots. The ducks included mallards and green-winged teal,
-species most apt to alight in small pools in the rushes where a mink
-might find cover. I found the fresh tracks of one mink about a
-half-eaten golden tench 8 inches long. The tench is a fish of the sucker
-tribe, introduced into the lake. Tracks of minks are not uncommonly seen
-along rivers and streams under conditions that indicate they were
-hunting crayfish.
-
-The raw pelt of the mink sells usually at from 10 to 20 dollars. The fur
-is in constant demand and fluctuates in price less than most furs. The
-average trapper takes a few minks each year along with his catch of
-muskrats, raccoons, and skunks but some trappers have taken as many as
-100 minks in a winter in areas where the animal is especially numerous.
-
-
-=Gulo luscus luteus= Elliot
-
-Wolverine
-
-      _Gulo luteus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 87, zoöl. ser.
-      3:260, December, 1903.
-
-      _Gulo luscus luteus_ Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale, Fur-bearing
-      Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 251, July
-      22, 1937.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on Mt. Whitney, Tulare County, California, by E.
-      Heller; type in Field Museum of Natural History.
-
-      _Measurements._--The dried skin of a wolverine taken 3 miles south
-      of Riverside, Okanogan County, was 4 feet in length. The animal
-      weighed 40 pounds (Scheffer, 1941: 37).
-
-      _Distribution._--Timber-line region of the Cascades Mountains.
-      From Robinson Creek (Scheffer, 1938: 8) south to Mount Rainier
-      (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12).
-
-      _Remarks._--Specimens from Washington are intermediate in
-      character between _luteus_ and the race inhabiting British
-      Columbia, although available skulls are closer to _luteus_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 59. Wolverine (_Gulo luscus_), mounted specimen,
-  male, trapped by Billy Robinson about 1902 on Billy Robinson Creek,
-  Okanogan County, Washington. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by
-  Victor B. Scheffer, No. 76.)]
-
-_Description._--Large males measure more than three feet in length, of
-which the tail makes up 10 inches; they weigh as much as 50 pounds
-(Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 253). The body is wide and stocky;
-the tail is short; the legs, especially the forelegs, are short, thick
-and powerful; the feet are large and are armed with long, curved claws;
-the head is wide; the jaws are powerful with heavy teeth. The pelage is
-long and rather shaggy. Face, legs, back and terminal portion of the
-tail are dark, blackish brown but the forehead is grayish, contrasting
-with the dark color of face and top of the head. Two broad,
-yellowish-brown bands begin on the side of the shoulders and pass back,
-low on the sides, to the hips where they join across the back and base
-of the tail.
-
-The wolverines, nominally of several species, form a compact group that
-ranges over the boreal regions of the Old and New world. In North
-America they range southward from the Arctic to California and Colorado.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 60. Wolverine (_Gulo luscus_), male, trapped by
-  Reuben R. Lamb, March 22, 1941, three miles south of Riverside,
-  Washington; reported to weigh 40 pounds; dried pelt 3 × 4 feet.
-  (Reuben R. Lamb photo.)]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 61. Distribution of the wolverine, _Gulo luscus
-  luteus_, in Washington.]
-
-The wolverine is adapted to boreal conditions and is most abundant in
-the arctic. In the Cascades it occurs only at or near timber-line.
-Except the wolf and the possibly extinct grizzly bear, the wolverine is
-the rarest carnivore in Washington. Probably it has been rare since the
-retreat of the continental glaciers, for suitable habitat for wolverines
-is not abundant and each animal requires a large area over which to
-range. An unusual record, possibly of a wandering animal, is given by
-Scheffer (1941: 37). This is of an adult male taken in the Okanogan
-Valley 3 miles south of Riverside, Okanogan County, on March 22, 1941.
-
-
-=Lutra canadensis= (Schreber)
-
-River otter
-
-_Description._--The otter has the long body of many mustelids, but is
-specialized for aquatic life. Males are slightly larger than females.
-Large adults measure more than 3-1/2 feet in length, of which the tail
-comprises 18 inches. The largest adults may weigh as much as 25 pounds.
-The body is elongate but rather plump. The forelimbs are small and
-laterally placed. The hind legs are the heavier, and are situated
-posteriorly. The feet are large and webbed for swimming. The tail is
-long, thick at the base and gradually tapering to a narrow tip. The head
-is small and rounded. The ears are tiny and the eyes are of moderate
-size. The upper lips are large, somewhat spaniel-like, and support a
-mustache of stiff vibrissae. The fur is short, dense and soft. The tail
-is sleek with short, posteriorly-directed fur, and is not bushy. The fur
-is rich, dark chocolate brown in color, slightly paler on the animal's
-underparts than on its upper parts.
-
-Otters range over Eurasia, North America and South America. Those
-occurring in North America north of Mexico are thought to belong to a
-single species, _canadensis_. Several species from tropical America may
-eventually be shown to also be races of _canadensis_.
-
-The aquatic habits of the otter allow it to exist in several life-zones,
-in both marine and fresh-water habitats. The principal environment is
-the streams, rivers and lakes of the Transition Life-zone, but along the
-larger rivers, otters range up into the Canadian Life-zone and along the
-Snake and Columbia rivers they enter the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. They
-are active throughout the year. As we have observed them, they are
-principally nocturnal.
-
-Otters are extremely powerful swimmers. Tracks along the North Fork of
-the Tolt River, King County, showed where otters had entered water that
-flowed over a stony bottom at the velocity of rapids. Their occurrence
-in the Tolt, Skykomish and Snoqualmie rivers where these are swift
-mountain streams indicates exceptional swimming ability. After emerging
-from the water, an otter often follows along the shore, sometimes for
-miles.
-
-In the San Juan Islands the otters have taken to a marine existence. In
-the summer of 1938, abundant opportunity offered to observe the otters
-at Thatcher Bay, Blakely Island. Here, in the evening, bats were shot as
-they flew over the calm water of the bay. Specimens killed were
-retrieved by rowing out to them with a dory. For the first two nights
-bats were collected and retrieved without incident. On the third night,
-several of the bats vanished between the time they were killed and the
-time that the boat was launched from the rocky beach. The presence of a
-shark or other large fish was at first suspected, but observation showed
-a group of three or possibly four otters to be the thieves. On
-succeeding nights the animals became bolder. A dead bat became the
-object of a race between otters and collector. They completely ignored
-shouts, dodged stones hurled at them, and stole almost all the bats
-shot. Only a sense of humor and desire to study the animals saved them
-from a load of fine shot. Bat collecting was given up in disgust.
-
-These otters were remarkably seallike in many actions. In swimming their
-heads, shoulders and part of their back were exposed. In resting in the
-water, only the round head remained above the surface. They were never
-seen to float prone on the surface or rest on their backs, as does the
-sea otter. They were noisy swimmers, splashing with paws or heads as
-they dived. Their eyesight was remarkable. Stones the size of a walnut
-were hurled at them from distances as short as 25 feet. All were dodged
-with little effort. In this connection the experience of two trappers
-who caught an otter in the Samamish River near Woodinville, King County,
-is interesting. The trap holding the otter had been attached by a wire 6
-feet long to a pole on the bank. The wire was detached from the pole;
-while one trapper held the wire, the other tried to strike the otter
-with an oar as the boat drifted over deep water. The otter was free to
-swim and dive for the length of the wire and trap chain. It detected,
-and evaded by dodging or diving, every blow directed at it and not until
-the animal tired, a half hour later, could it be killed. The trappers
-then noted that the splashing of oars and otter had nearly filled the
-boat with water. The trappers were exhausted.
-
-The otters of Blakely Island were not unique in occupying a marine
-habitat. At Strawberry Bay, Cypress Island, on July 5, 1938, fishermen
-brought in a "strange animal" caught by them at Black Rock, a tiny bare
-and isolated islet 5 miles to the west. The heavy box holding the animal
-was opened, disclosing a very frightened young otter. Questioned, the
-fishermen stated that four young and one adult had been seen in the
-surf. They had thought the animals a species of seal, and were somewhat
-surprised at being successful in their attempts to catch one. The otter
-was too young to fare for itself and was kept in camp in the hope that
-it might be reared and released. It ate a few fresh herring and
-candlefish and drank some condensed milk. It refused whole salmon and
-sea bass but ate some skinned and boned strips of these fish. It died a
-week after it was captured. This young otter made a ticking sound,
-almost a chirp. A variety of crying and whimpering sounds were also
-made, and when petted it grunted in satisfaction. If surprised or when
-first picked up it gave a deep harsh growl, unexpectedly vicious in
-sound, for such a small animal.
-
-The otters at Blakely Island fed on a great variety of food. The only
-food they were actually seen to eat was candlefish, a slim silvery fish
-6 inches in length. On several occasions an otter was seen swimming with
-the head of a candlefish held fast in its mouth and the fish's body
-extending out in a silvery bow. Many feces of these otters were composed
-entirely of the feathers of grebes and scoters. These birds were
-probably not killed by the otters but died a natural death or were shot
-by men. At that camp scarcely a day passed in which at least one person
-was not seen firing a .22 caliber rifle from a cabin cruiser into the
-flocks of scoters at the mouth of the bay. Dead sea birds were common on
-the shore and doubtless furnished food for otters as they did for crows
-and eagles. The majority of the otter feces examined at Blakely Island
-were composed of the remains of invertebrates. The small mussel
-(_Mytilus edulis_) was most abundant. Crabs formed an important part of
-their diet. Strangely enough the shore crab (_Hemigrapsus nudus_) and
-the porcelain crab (_Petrolisthes eriomerus_) were seldom eaten though
-they were abundant beneath the rocks upon which the feces were found,
-and formed the principal food item of raccoons. These species of
-invertebrates live beneath rocks and the raccoon probably reaches
-beneath the rocks to catch the crabs with its handlike forefeet, as the
-otter is unable to do. The edible crab (_Cancer productus_) and kelp
-crab (_Telmessus cheiragonus_) were most often eaten by otters. Also
-eaten were snails (_Margarites_, _Littorina_), bitter oysters
-(_Pododesmus macroschisma_), unidentified pelecypods, barnacles
-(_Balanus_), one chiton (_Mopalia muscosa_), and once a starfish. The
-invertebrate remains, save for the snails, were crushed and broken.
-
-Fish of many species were abundant in these waters. Salmon were often
-seen leaping near the playing otters. Yet no scales or other remains of
-fish were detected in the feces. Candlefish possess tiny scales that
-could probably be seen by microscopic examination only. As for the
-bird remains, the quantity of feathers consumed is notable. The otters
-apparently do not pluck birds, as do minks. Indeed, of the material
-eaten, the food value by volume seems extraordinarily low. A great
-quantity must be eaten to nourish an animal as large and as active as
-an otter. The number of fecal droppings seen each morning indicates
-that this is the case.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 62. River otter (_Lutra canadensis pacifica_),
-  trapped in Columbia National Forest, Washington, February, 1937.
-  (Adolph Roth photo.)] seems extraordinarily low. A great quantity
-  must be eaten to nourish an animal as large and as active as an
-  otter. The number of fecal droppings seen each morning indicates
-  that this is the case.
-
-The favored food of the otter in fresh water streams and lakes is the
-crayfish. The greater part, perhaps 80 per cent, of otter feces seen in
-the lowlands of western Washington, were composed of crayfish remains.
-Some fish are also eaten and locally otters may do damage among the
-steelhead trout. Even worse, from the fisherman's standpoint, they
-frighten and scatter the schools of steelhead trout. Frogs are eaten, as
-well as the thin-shelled mussels. The feathers of coots were twice seen
-in otter feces near Cottage Lake, King County.
-
-The fur of the otter is dense and beautiful but the skin is rather
-heavy. Changes in styles cause great fluctuation in the value of the
-otter's pelt.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 63. Distribution of the river otter in Washington.
-  Unshaded _Lutra canadensis pacifica_. Shaded _Lutra canadensis
-  vancouverensis_.]
-
-
-=Lutra canadensis pacifica= Rhoads
-
-      _Lutra hudsonica pacifica_ Rhoads, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n.
-      s., 19: 429, September, 1898.
-
-      _Lutra canadensis pacifica_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
-      10: 460, November 10, 1898.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington
-      (altitude 3,000, rather than 8,000 feet as stated in original
-      citation); type in Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
-
-      _Measurements._--An adult male from the Lower Calawah River, near
-      Forks, Clallam County, measured (skinned carcass): total length
-      1205; length of tail 490; weight (entire) 23 pounds. A male from
-      Puget Island, Wahkiakum County, measured (skinned carcass): total
-      length 1250; length of tail 490. A female from Satsop, Grays
-      Harbor County, measured (skinned carcass): total length 1205;
-      length of tail 440. A female from Calawah River near Forks,
-      Clallam County, measured: total length 1062; length of tail 430;
-      hind foot 120; ear 23; weight 14-3/4 pounds.
-
-      _Distribution._--Watercourses throughout the state, scarcer east
-      of the Cascades; recorded at Forks (V. B. S.) in the northwest,
-      Puget Island (V. B. S.) in the southwest, Colville (Taylor and
-      Shaw, 1929: 12) in the northeast, and Touchet (Taylor and Shaw,
-      1929: 12) in the southeast.
-
-
-=Lutra canadensis vancouverensis= Goldman
-
-      _Lutra vancouverensis_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 48:
-      186, November 15, 1935.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Quatsino, Vancouver Island, British Columbia,
-      by H. O. Berg in 1905; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--No adults, referred to this race from
-      Washington, have been examined. Said to have broader skull than
-      _pacifica_.
-
-      _Measurements._--The only available specimen, a young female from
-      Black Rock, San Juan County, measured: total length 792; length of
-      tail 247; hind foot 103; ear 22.
-
-      _Distribution._--The San Juan Islands of northern Puget Sound and
-      adjacent marine waters.
-
-      _Remarks._--The otters of the San Juan Islands are referred to
-      this race on geographical grounds. Numerous islands connect
-      Vancouver Island with the San Juan Islands, and intervening
-      channels are not too wide for otters to swim. Adult material may
-      show that the otters of the San Juan Islands are referable to
-      _pacifica_ or to an undescribed race rather than to
-      _vancouverensis_.
-
-
-=Enhydra lutris nereis= (Merriam)
-
-Sea otter
-
-      _Latax lutris nereis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:
-      159, October 6, 1904.
-
-      _Enhydra lutris nereis_ Grinnell, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl.,
-      21: 316, January 27, 1923.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara Islands, by
-      G. M. McGuire in 1904; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Distribution._--Formerly occurred along the ocean coast of
-      Washington. Now extinct there.
-
-_Description._--Adult sea otters reach a length of six feet. The body is
-stout, long and round; the tail is short, flattened and about a foot in
-length. The legs are short and thick. The hind feet are webbed for
-swimming. The head is rounded with small eyes and ears, and a seallike
-mustache of stiff bristles on the muzzle. The upper lip is thick and
-heavy, drooping over the sides of the mouth in a spaniel-like fashion.
-The fur is long, soft and extremely dense. The color of the body is
-various shades of rich, dark brown. Scattered white hairs often give the
-coat a frosted appearance. The heads of the adults are pale grey,
-occasionally almost white.
-
-The sea otter once ranged from the Gulf of California north along the
-west coast of North America to Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, Siberia and
-Japan. It is now found only in a small area along the coast of
-California and in remote islands of the north Pacific. Once abundant
-along the coast of Washington, it is now completely extinct there.
-
-The habits of sea otters living on the California Coast in the vicinity
-of Carmel have been described by Fisher (1939: 21-36). Available
-information on the sea otter in Washington has been given by Scheffer
-(1940B: 369-388). The search for sea-otter skins influenced the
-exploration and settlement of the northwest. Captain James Cook obtained
-skins of sea otter at Nootka Sound, Vancouver Island, in 1778. The mouth
-of the Columbia River was discovered by Captain Robert Gray on May 11,
-1792, while trading for sea otter skins.
-
-According to Scheffer, the bulk of the sea-otter population on the
-Washington coast was concentrated between the mouth of the Columbia
-River and Point Grenville at the mouth of the Quinault River. The otters
-were found several miles from land in extensive kelp beds. The principal
-food of the sea otter in Washington seems to have been the short-spined
-purple sea urchin (_Strongylocentrotus purpuratus_). The animals were
-social, living in herds of up to 400 individuals. They never came out on
-land, living, sleeping, and bringing forth their young on the kelp beds
-of the open ocean. The single young was born at any month of the year.
-
-
-=Spilogale gracilis= Merriam
-
-Civet cat or spotted skunk
-
-_Description._--The civet cat is slightly less than 18 inches in total
-length, of which the tail constitutes 6 inches. Large, fat animals may
-weigh more than a pound. The body is long and moderately stout, heavier
-than that of the weasel but slimmer than that of the striped skunk. The
-tail is long with long, plumelike fur. The legs are slender and of
-moderate length. The feet are small with long claws. The head is small
-and triangular with low, erect ears and large, bright eyes. The fur is
-short but soft and silky. The ground color of the civet cat is black.
-Wavy lines and spots of white or salmon intercept the black in a complex
-pattern. Variations in color patterns include width of stripes, waviness
-of stripes, and breaking up of the stripes into spots.
-
-_Spilogale_ is restricted to America; it ranges from southern British
-Columbia south into Central America. Several species are now recognized,
-but additional material probably will show intergradation between some
-of them and reduce the number.
-
-The name "spotted skunk" is seldom used by trappers or other persons
-familiar with the animal. Nor is it appropriate, for the distinctive
-color pattern is composed of short stripes. Neither is the term "civet
-cat" appropriate, for the true civet is found in Asia. The name civet
-cat is well established, however, and will doubtless remain in general
-use.
-
-The civet cat is principally a lowland animal, but has been recorded
-from the Nisqually entrance of Mt. Rainier National Park (Brockman,
-1939: 70). Its rather generalized habits allow it to exist in areas that
-will not support larger carnivores or species with specialized food
-habits. It dwells in areas of thickets, brushy tangles or deep woods. In
-southeastern Washington it lives in rocky places as well as in
-river-side thickets of willow and cottonwood. Where conditions are
-suitable it ranges up into the Canadian Life-zone but is most abundant
-in the Transition Life-zone.
-
-The civet cats, in contrast to the striped skunks, are exclusively
-nocturnal. They are active the year around in western Washington but
-move about less in spells of unusually cold weather. We have taken them,
-however, in freezing weather.
-
-In spite of their abundance and wide range, civet cats are known to few
-persons other than trappers, perhaps because of their exclusively
-nocturnal habits. They do occasionally make people aware of themselves
-by taking up residence about old buildings. They are rather noisy at
-times. At the Tolt River, 10 miles southeast of Duvall, King County, we
-were asleep in an old building when a stamping noise from the next room
-awakened us. Investigation revealed a civet cat indulging in a series of
-short, stiff-legged hops. The forefeet were held slightly ahead and six
-or eight hops made. The animal would then relax, turn, and prance off in
-a new direction. The amount of noise made by its feet striking the board
-floor was surprising. The civet cat seemed to enjoy the noise it made,
-and the prancing may have been a method of playing. Trapped civet cats
-have been seen to make a similar but shorter series of hops at the
-trapper's approach, which might have been a warning. In the case
-described, however, the noise of the animal's actions was heard before
-the animal was seen and presumably when it was unaware of human
-presence. The civet cat also makes a drumming noise similar to the
-drumming of a wood rat. This was heard twice from wild animals that did
-not suspect an observer's presence, and once from a captive animal.
-While an animal was drumming I never had the opportunity to watch the
-actions closely enough to describe them. Apparently the drumming is done
-with the forefeet.
-
-The civet cat is said to be a good climber and to do some of its hunting
-in trees. One trapped civet cat climbed to the limit of a trap chain and
-wire in a low bush near Cottage Lake, King County, but, in Washington, I
-have no other evidence of this animal climbing. Near Cottage Lake, we
-took a civet cat in a trap set beneath 2 inches of water at the side of
-a stream. The animal had either been swimming or wading.
-
-Trapped civet cats rarely dig holes near the traps, as striped skunks
-often do. One caught near Ocean Park, Pacific County, did dig a hole
-beneath a log and forced earth and leaves over the entrance. I walked
-within a few feet of the animal in searching for the trap. Not until the
-trap chain was seen did I find the civet cat. None was taken in traps
-set in mountain beaver burrows, although I have caught both striped
-skunks and weasels in such burrows.
-
-Some trappers state that the musk of the civet cat smells different from
-that of the striped skunk. I think the odor is slightly more acrid and
-that it does not carry so far as the skunk musk. The civet cat is far
-more active and nervous than the striped skunk. Whereas the striped
-skunk almost never throws its scent when trapped, the civet cat almost
-invariably does so, apparently when the trap closes about its legs.
-Striped skunks in traps move slowly and steadily but civet cats jump,
-roll and squirm erratically.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 64. Distribution of the civet cat in Washington.
-  A. _Spilogale gracilis latifrons._ B. _Spilogale gracilis saxatilis._]
-
-In the winter of 1934 a large male civet cat was taken near Cottage
-Lake, King County. It had been killed and partially eaten in the trap.
-The ground about the set was torn up, indicating that the civet cat had
-put up a fight. The area for many feet about smelled of skunk musk. The
-body of the civet cat was used for bait and the trap reset. The
-following morning a large male striped skunk was in the trap. Its skin
-bore superficial cuts in several places about its neck and rump, and it
-was doubtless the animal that had killed the civet cat. Under ordinary
-circumstances a striped skunk could scarcely catch the far swifter and
-more agile civet cat. One civet cat in a trap was killed and partly
-eaten by a horned owl. Save for dislodging a few feathers, the civet cat
-seemed to have done little damage to the owl. The thick cover inhabited
-by the civet cat ordinarily protects it from owls. Dead civet cats run
-over by cars on the highway are rarely seen.
-
-The stomach of a specimen from Ocean Park, Pacific County, contained the
-remains of three red-backed mice (_Clethrionomys_ _californicus_). The
-stomachs of most specimens trapped were empty. Mice, birds and insects
-probably constitute the bulk of the food.
-
-Notes on the early life of _Spilogale interrupta_, a species related to
-the one occurring in Washington, have been published by Crabb (1944:
-213-221).
-
-The fur of the civet cat is of little value; in recent years trappers
-have received from fifteen cents to a dollar for large pelts. Because of
-its habit of throwing scent when in the traps, most trappers discard the
-animals without skinning them.
-
-
-=Spilogale gracilis saxatilis= Merriam
-
-      _Spilogale saxatilis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:13, October 8,
-      1890.
-
-      _Spilogale gracilis saxatilis_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 26:23,
-      November 24, 1906.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Provo, Utah County, Utah, by V. Bailey on
-      November 13, 1890; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size small; white areas extensive,
-      especially on tail but white triangle on head small; white areas
-      less often tinged with salmon or orange than _latifrons_.
-
-      _Measurements._--Howell (1906: 32) gives the measurements of a
-      male from Harney, Oregon, and the average of 3 females from Oregon
-      as, respectively: total length 455, 360; length of tail 155, 129;
-      hind foot 50, 40.
-
-      _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, north to Kamiak Butte
-      (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12).
-
-
-=Spilogale gracilis latifrons= Merriam
-
-      _Spilogale phenax latifrons_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:15, October
-      8, 1890.
-
-      _Spilogale olympica_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 32, zoöl.
-      ser. 1:270, March, 1899 (type from Lake Sutherland, Clallam
-      County, Washington).
-
-      _Spilogale phenax olympica_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 26:33,
-      November 24, 1906.
-
-      _Spilogale gracilis latifrons_ Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale,
-      Fur-bearing Mamm. California, Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p.
-      301, July 22, 1937.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Roseburg, Douglas County, Oregon, by T. S.
-      Palmer on July 13, 1889; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Larger than _saxatilis_ with less extensive
-      white markings, especially on tail, but white markings on head
-      larger; white usually tinged with salmon or pale orange.
-
-      _Measurements._--Means for four males, from Pacific County, are
-      total length 411; length of tail 136; hind foot 47.5; ear 27. One
-      weighed 784 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Western Washington from the western edge of the
-      Cascades westward. Marginal records, given by Taylor and Shaw
-      (1929: 12) are Hamilton, on the north; Lake Keechelus, on the
-      east; and Carson, on the south.
-
-      _Remarks._--Comparison of adult specimens of civet cats from
-      western Washington and western Oregon shows no reliable character
-      for recognition of two races. No difference in tail length exists.
-      Narrowness of rostrum was the only diagnostic character found by
-      Howell (1906: 34) to separate _latifrons_ and _olympica_. We have
-      carefully compared civet cats from western Oregon, southwestern
-      Washington and the area about Seattle. Some local variation exists
-      but overlapping is great and specimens from Washington do not have
-      rostra that average narrower than specimens from Oregon.
-
-
-=Mephitis mephitis= (Schreber)
-
-Striped skunk
-
-_Description._--The striped skunk is a heavy-bodied animal about the
-size of a house cat. The legs are of moderate length and stout and the
-hind feet are large. The claws of the forefeet are long, strong and
-curved. The head is small and pointed, with small eyes and ears. The
-tail is long, nearly equal in length to the head and body. The fur is
-long, soft and shiny, and is jet black with sharply contrasting white
-markings. These consist of a narrow stripe on the forehead, a broad band
-on the neck that diverges into two stripes on the back. The two lateral
-stripes fuse on the rump. The tail has long black hairs some of which
-are white at the base.
-
-Striped skunks range over North America from central Canada southward to
-southern Mexico. Two species are recognized by Hall (1936: 64), namely
-_mephitis_ and _macroura_. The latter species is found in Mexico and
-parts of the southwestern United States.
-
-Skunks are principally nocturnal but are sometimes active in the morning
-and evening, especially on cloudy days. They prefer relatively open
-country such as logged-over land, old fields and river-side and
-streamside thickets. Their dens usually consist of old _Aplodontia_
-burrows or burrows which they, themselves, dig under stumps or log jams,
-the floors of old buildings or among rocks. They feed on a variety of
-animals and wild fruit. Along Puget Sound they wander over the beaches
-when the tide is out, eating stranded fish, crustaceans and other marine
-animals. The purple shore crab (_Hemigrapusus nudus_) forms a staple
-article of diet. Along streams and rivers they wander along low, muddy
-banks and sand bars searching for fish, crayfish, insects and insect
-larvae. The larger water beetles (_Dytiscidae_) are often eaten; feces
-are at times composed entirely of their shells. For the most part,
-however, skunks have no regular food habits but eat such insects, small
-mammals, birds or refuse as are available.
-
-The skunk is famous for the musk which it uses as a defensive weapon.
-This highly volatile liquid is ejected from two small, nipplelike ducts
-situated in the edge of the anus. The consistency, color, and distance
-to which the musk can be discharged varies with the amount thrown. The
-first discharge or two is usually a fine, pale yellow spray, which can
-be accurately directed to a distance of 25 feet. The third discharge
-consists of small drops of heavy, bright-yellow liquid that travels an
-arching curve, 5 feet high, reaching a maximum distance of about 10
-feet. Later discharges consist of heavy yellow mucus and can be thrown
-only a few feet. As many as seven or eight discharges are possible.
-Skunk musk is acrid and pungent in order. In quantity or at close range
-it is choking. In small quantities it is not unpleasant. It is extremely
-lasting, sometimes being noticeable for months on clothes or buildings.
-It is soluble in gasoline and clothes may be de-scented by several
-washings in that fluid.
-
-The striped skunk is an even-tempered animal. Its defensive fluid is
-discharged only when it is cornered or attacked. A trapped skunk rarely
-releases musk. A man, by speaking softly and moving slowly, can come
-within a distance of six feet of a trapped skunk. Experienced trappers
-utilize this fact to approach and shoot trapped skunks through the head
-or neck and so produce odorless furs.
-
-The skunk is potentially a source of considerable income to trappers in
-Washington. The value of their furs varies with the demand but large
-prime skins usually bring from $1 to $4. In eastern Washington, where
-trapping for coyotes and other terrestrial mammals is carried on, the
-skunks taken incidentally are an important source of revenue. In western
-Washington they are often abundant but are seldom trapped. The most
-sought pelts in western Washington are the mink, muskrat and raccoon;
-all semiaquatic species. Skunks are rarely taken in traps set for these
-mammals and few trappers bother to set overland trap lines for skunks.
-
-The young of the striped skunk usually number four to six. They are born
-in late May or early June in western Washington; possibly later in
-eastern Washington.
-
-
-=Mephitis mephitis hudsonica= Richardson
-
-      _Mephitis americana_ var. _hudsonica_ Richardson, Fauna
-      Boreali-Americana, 1:55, 1829.
-
-      _Mephitis hudsonica_ Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 26:536,
-      July 31, 1895.
-
-      _Chincha hudsonica_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:24, August 31,
-      1901.
-
-      _Mephitis mephitis hudsonica_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington,
-      Publ. 473:65, November 20, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on the "plains of the Saskatchewan, Canada."
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size moderate; stripes diverging anteriorly
-      on back of neck; tail long with white stripe reaching well out,
-      nearly to tip; zygomatic arches nearly parallel.
-
-      _Measurements._--Howell (1901: 24) gives the average of 3 males
-      from Saskatchewan, Montana and Wyoming, and of 3 females from
-      Montana and Idaho, as, respectively: total length 726, 602; length
-      of tail 268, 250; hind foot 82, 71.
-
-      _Distribution_.--Northeastern Washington and the eastern edge of
-      the northern Cascades, south probably to the Wenatchee Mountains.
-      Recorded west to Oroville (W. W. D.) and Timentwa (W. W. D.) and
-      south to Spokane (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 12).
-
-
-=Mephitis mephitis major= (Howell)
-
-      _Chincha occidentalis major_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:37, August
-      31, 1901.
-
-      _Mephitis mephitis major_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl.,
-      37:2, April 10, 1931.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 65. Distribution of the striped skunk in
-  Washington. A. _Mephitis mephitis hudsonica._ B. _Mephitis mephitis
-  major._ C. _Mephitis mephitis notata._ D. _Mephitis mephitis
-  spissigrada._]
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Fort Klamath, Klamath County, Oregon, by B. L.
-      Cunningham on January 5, 1898; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Slightly larger than _hudsonica_ with white
-      stripes diverging on shoulders rather than neck.
-
-      _Measurements._--A young male from 1 mile north of Burbank, Walla
-      Walla County, measures: total length 474; length of tail 205; hind
-      foot 68; ear 30; weight 815 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake River
-      and east of the Columbia River, occurring west to Burbank (M. V.
-      Z.).
-
-
-=Mephitis mephitis notata= (Howell)
-
-      _Chincha occidentalis notata_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:36, August
-      31, 1901.
-
-      _Mephitis mephitis notata_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ.
-      473:67, November 20, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, south base of Mt. Adams, Klickitat
-      County, Washington, by P. Schmid on March 22, 1897; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _hudsonica_ but larger; stripes
-      narrower, diverging anteriorly on neck or back of head; tail
-      shorter, sometimes without long, white hairs.
-
-      _Measurements._--Howell (1901:37) gives the average of 3 adult
-      males from Trout Lake, Klickitat County, as: total length 633;
-      length of tail 249; hind foot 76.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Columbia River Valley of the southern
-      Cascades from the Wind River east to the Snake River and the
-      Yakima Valley area (trappers' reports).
-
-
-=Mephitis mephitis spissigrada= Bangs
-
-      _Mephitis spissigrada_ Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:31,
-      March 24, 1898.
-
-      _Mephitis foetulenta_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 32, zoöl.
-      ser., 1:269, March, 1899 (type from Laguna, near Port Angeles,
-      Clallam County, Washington).
-
-      _Chincha occidentalis spissigrada_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:35,
-      August 31, 1901.
-
-      _Mephitis mephitis spissigrada_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Publ. 473:67,
-      November 20, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Sumas [prairie], British Columbia, by A.
-      Brooks on September 30, 1895; type in Museum of Comparative
-      Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _hudsonica_ but larger; stripes
-      broader, usually diverging on shoulders; hairs of stripes often
-      cream color or yellowish near base; end of tail usually white.
-
-      _Measurements._--An adult male from 2-1/2 miles southeast of
-      Chinook, Pacific County, measures: total length 578; length of
-      tail 260; hind foot 30. A female from the same place and one from
-      Renton, King County, average: 575; 233; 72; 27.
-
-      _Distribution._--Lowlands of western Washington. This form rarely
-      goes far into the mountains except along the valleys of the larger
-      rivers. Marginal records are Skykomish (W. W. D.) and Washougal
-      River (W. W. D.).
-
-
-=Taxidea taxus taxus= (Schreber)
-
-Badger
-
-      _Ursus taxus_ Schreber, Saugethiere, 3:520, 1778.
-
-      _Taxidea taxus_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 28:524, June, 1894.
-
-      _Taxidea taxus neglecta_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R.
-      Conner Mus., no. 2:12, December, 1929.
-
-      _Taxidea taxus taxus_ Hall, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ.
-      473:78, November 20, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--None. Type locality probably southwest of Hudson Bay
-      (Hall, 1936: 78).
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males from northern Nevada measure,
-      respectively: total length 780, 762; length of tail 113, 150; hind
-      foot 136, 120; ear 55, 54; weight 15, 11 pounds.
-
-      _Distribution._--Of general distribution over open country east of
-      the Cascades. Marginal records are Wauconda (Taylor and Shaw,
-      1929: 12), Chelan (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 13), Goldendale (W. W.
-      D.) and "Divide above Trout Lake" (trapper's photograph).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 66. Badger (_Taxidea taxus taxus_), tame animal in
-  Seattle, Washington. January 29, 1938. Captured at Lakeside, Chelan
-  County, and photographed at approximate age of ten months; subadult
-  male. (Eloise Kuntz photo.)]
-
-_Description._--The badger is the size of a small dog, measuring up to
-32 inches in total length and weighing up to 20 pounds. The body is
-heavy, powerful and remarkably flat and compressed. The tail and legs
-are short. The forelegs are thick and strong, armed with long heavy
-claws for digging. The ears are wide and low. The color of the upper
-parts is a grizzled yellowish brown, not unlike the color of the
-yellow-bellied marmot. The underparts are buffy, often with a white area
-on the abdomen. The legs, feet, top of head, ears, and small areas on
-the cheeks are blackish. Triangular areas about the eyes are buffy. A
-white stripe extends from the nose pad backwards, between the eyes, to
-the shoulders and serves as the best recognition mark.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 67. Distribution of the badger, _Taxidea taxus
-  taxus_, in Washington.]
-
-Badgers are found over central and western United States, Canada and
-northern Mexico. They are commonest on the plains and desert,
-principally because the burrowing mammals upon which they feed are most
-abundant there. The badger is a powerful and rapid digger, being able to
-overtake and capture mice, ground squirrels, and even pocket gophers.
-Perry (1939: 49-53) in her interesting accounts of the habits of a pet
-badger obtained at Lakeside, Chelan County, found the animal powerful
-enough to dig through a concrete floor! Evidence of badger's activities
-are usually seen at any ground squirrel colony in eastern Washington.
-This evidence consists of large holes in the ground. Rarely a horizontal
-tunnel begins at the depth of two to four feet and extends for an
-unknown distance. Earth removed in excavating is heaped beside one or
-both of the narrower sides of the surface opening.
-
-In examining badger workings in ground squirrel colonies I have been
-impressed by the fact that most of the holes ended not more than four or
-five feet from the entrances--perhaps at the places where the ground
-squirrel nests were located, although it may be that the digging of the
-badger so terrified the squirrels that they dashed out in an attempt to
-escape past the badger, before he reached the nests. Kangaroo rats and
-pocket mice often attempt to escape by dashing past a person when he is
-excavating their burrows.
-
-The power of the short, thick and slightly bowed foreleg of the badger
-is tremendous. The claws are stout and fully an inch long. The animal is
-able to break up and remove at a scoop, the baked, claylike loess of the
-Columbian Plateau. Clods of this same material are so firm that only by
-twisting and exerting considerable power was I able to break them. The
-soil a foot beneath the sunbaked crust is softer and more easily worked.
-
-It is difficult to estimate the size of badger populations. In the arid
-land of eastern Washington their diggings may exist almost unchanged for
-many years. Interviews with professional trappers serve to indicate
-their range and numbers as follows: southeastern edge of the Cascades
-and Yakima Valley, not common, rarely straying up into
-mountains--average trapper's catch, only one to three a year; Okanogan
-Valley and northeastern edge of Cascades, not common--average trapper's
-catch is six to ten a year, occasional trappers catching as many as 35;
-Columbia, Kettle River, and other valleys in northeastern Washington,
-uncommon, a few records only; Columbian Plateau, fairly common--average
-professional trapper's yearly catch includes 10 to 20 badgers;
-southeastern Washington, now rare because of overtrapping, formerly
-common.
-
-Trappers state that the badgers taken in northeastern Washington are
-usually classified as "hair badger" by fur buyers and bring only a
-dollar or two. The badgers of the eastern Cascades are "fur" badgers but
-do not bring top prices. The badgers of the Columbian Plateau bring the
-best prices. Seemingly some geographic variation exists among badgers in
-Washington. Those from the more humid areas of northeastern Washington
-and the eastern Cascades are darker and bring poorer prices than the
-paler "silver" badgers of the more open desert areas.
-
-The principal food of the badger in Washington seems to be ground
-squirrels, _Citellus washingtoni_, _townsendii_, _columbianus_, or
-_saturatus_, depending on locality. Pocket mice, gophers, and other
-mammals are also eaten, as are grasshoppers, sword-tailed crickets,
-other insects, and birds.
-
-Young of badgers number 3 to 5 and are born in late April, May, or early
-June.
-
-
-=Vulpes fulva cascadensis= Merriam
-
-Red fox
-
-      _Vulpes cascadensis_ Merriam, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 2:665,
-      December 28, 1900.
-
-      _Vulpes fulvus cascadensis_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:281, August
-      29, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington, by
-      P. Schmid on March 3, 1898; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Skull heavy, narrow; color yellowish.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from Crater Lake, Klamath County, Oregon,
-      measures: total length 1113; length of tail 441; hind foot 180;
-      ear 112; weight 9 pounds.
-
-      _Distribution._--From Trout Lake northward, through the higher
-      Cascades, to Loomis (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 13).
-
-_Description._--The red fox of the Cascades is large and measures about
-4 feet in total length, of which the tail comprises 15 inches. The body
-is slender and doglike; the legs long and slim; the tail thick and
-bushy, and the ears are large and erect. In the red phase the red fox of
-the Cascades is distinctly more yellowish than the red fox of the
-eastern United States; the head is especially yellow. The body has more
-red on the shoulder area than posteriorly, and is darkest on the rump.
-The tail is rather pale with a dusky, not black, area distally and a
-white tip. The ears are dusky. The lower legs and feet are black. The
-throat, chest and underparts are white. The "cross" phase, according to
-Cowan (1938: 202-206), is rather common in the Cascades. In cross foxes
-the color is darker, brown rather than yellowish, and the area from the
-nape of the neck back between the shoulders, including a bar across the
-shoulders, is deep blackish or grayish brown. In a pelt that is
-stretched out a cross is formed by the dark areas. The black and silver
-phases of the red fox are also said by Cowan to be relatively common in
-the Cascades, constituting 48 per cent of the population. Of 3,163 foxes
-traded at Fort Colville, in northeastern Washington, only 19 per cent
-were silver or cross. One fox, trapped in Okanogan County, is said by
-its captor to have been black above and straw colored beneath, with no
-white on the body.
-
-Red foxes range from Alaska and northern Canada well southward into the
-United States. Related forms occur in Eurasia.
-
-The red fox of Washington is an alpine animal, ranging at or slightly
-below timber-line. Here food is abundant in summer and fall but must be
-scarce in winter. In winter its habitat is difficult for man to reach
-and few persons penetrate the dangerous terrain where the fox lives. A
-few professional trappers regularly catch foxes in the Cascades but know
-little of their habits.
-
-The feces of red foxes examined by Taylor and Shaw on Mt. Rainier
-contained remains of insects and berries (Taylor and Shaw, 1927: 43).
-
-The red fox is rare in Washington; it lives in inaccessible territory
-and its fur is not especially valuable. The animal is of relatively
-little economic importance.
-
-The brood den of a red fox found by Livezey and Evendan (1943: 500) near
-Corvallis, Oregon, was two-thirds of the way up a 300-foot hill in a
-strip of oaks (_Quercus garryana_). Well-packed trails led to an
-entrance concealed in poison oak (_Rhus diversiloba_). Remains of a
-turkey, 5 ground squirrels, and a jack rabbit were found near the den.
-The entrance was 8 inches wide and 15 inches high. The tunnel tapered to
-5 inches in diameter and was 47 feet long. Seven pups, 4 males and 3
-females, were found in the den.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 68. Distribution of the red fox in Washington. A.
-  _Vulpes fulva cascadensis._ B. _Vulpes fulva macroura._ (See p. 450.)]
-
-
-=Canis latrans= Say
-
-Coyote
-
-_Description._--The coyote is a large carnivore, about the size and
-general proportions of a small collie dog but with bushier tail, and
-more slender body. Adults measure about four feet in length, of which
-the tail comprises a fourth. Adult males weigh about 30 pounds. The
-color is somewhat variable, yellowish, buffy, or grayish. The muzzle and
-backs of the ears are more reddish, and the legs brown. The tail is
-yellowish gray with a dusky tip. The throat, chest and underparts are
-white.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 69. Coyote (_Canis latrans lestes_), in trap, 5
-  miles southeast of McKenna, Washington, April 10, 1924. (Fish and
-  Wildlife Service photo by G. R. Bach, No. 26901.)]
-
-The coyote ranges from Alaska southward, over western North America, to
-Central America.
-
-At the present time the coyote ranges over almost all of Washington,
-except for the highest parts of the mountains and the dense forest areas
-of western Washington. According to available information it was not
-found about Puget Sound or the Olympic Peninsula until relatively recent
-times. Some old trappers are of the opinion that coyotes did not come
-into western Washington until the timber wolves became rare there. The
-scarcity of the timber wolves seems to coincide with settlement,
-clearing and lumbering. Probably coyotes did not become common in
-western Washington until lumbering provided extensive clearings and open
-areas more suitable to them than forest. Certainly coyotes and wolves
-existed together in eastern Washington.
-
-It is difficult to determine whether coyotes were completely absent from
-western Washington in the early days or simply scarce. The glacial
-prairies of the Puget Sound area provide suitable habitat for coyotes
-and coyotes are abundant there at the present time. If coyotes were
-present at all in western Washington in the early days it is reasonable
-to suppose that they would have been common on the prairies. Yet I was
-told by an old trapper who had lived near Scotts Prairie, Mason County,
-for many years, that he had never seen or _heard_ coyotes there until
-about 1910. Although a coyote might be mistaken for a small wolf, the
-call, as this trapper pointed out, is distinctive.
-
-The principal habitat requirement of the coyote seems to be extensive
-areas of open country. This it finds in the desert area of the Columbian
-Plateau, the open forests of northeastern Washington and the eastern
-Cascades, and in the extensive timbered and burned-over lands in western
-Washington. In summer coyotes range well up into the Hudsonian Life-zone
-of the Cascade and Olympic mountains. Their principal range is lower, in
-the Transition and Upper Sonoran life-zones.
-
-The coyotes are both nocturnal and diurnal. In the vicinity of human
-habitations they are most active at night. In the heat of the day they
-take refuge in brushy areas or small gullies. Many actions of the coyote
-are doglike, and were it not for the large, round, bushy tail, a coyote
-might easily be mistaken for a dog. The tail is carried in a drooped
-position with the tip bowed slightly backwards. When badly frightened
-and running at full speed the tail is stretched out straight behind. The
-ordinary gait is a purposeful trot with the head held erect, the ears
-pricked up, and the legs moving smoothly and effortlessly. Near Moses
-Lake, Grant County, I watched a coyote trot along the side of one of a
-series of small sand dunes. At the report of the small shotgun fired at
-it, the coyote's dignified trot changed to terrified bounds, its feet
-dug into the dune, throwing showers of sand into the air, as it crossed
-several successive dunes in full flight before turning to take advantage
-of the shelter of a draw between two dunes. A coyote chased by an
-automobile attained a speed of 43 miles an hour for a short distance
-(Zimmerman, 1943: 400).
-
-I have not watched a coyote stalk game, but as described to me it creeps
-up to within a few yards of its prey and catches it with a sudden dash.
-In hunting a jack rabbit, the coyote is said to pursue it, taking
-advantage of short cuts, until close enough to seize it.
-
-Better known than the coyote itself is its howl--several doglike barks,
-each successive one of a series shorter and higher pitched, the last one
-ending in a long, drawn-out howl. In the winter of 1936 the coyotes near
-Cottage Lake, King County, were especially vociferous. They ordinarily
-began to howl about 9 p.m., but could be induced to howl earlier by
-imitating their call. Their howling was a signal for all nearby
-ranchers' dogs to howl in reply. In the desert areas of eastern
-Washington I heard coyotes most often just at dusk or at dawn.
-
-The coyote is principally carnivorous, feeding on any mammals and birds
-easy to kill. It willingly eats carrion, even when much decayed. Large
-insects such as grasshoppers and crickets are eaten when they are
-abundant and easily caught. Fruit and berries are eaten when available.
-
-Sperry (1941) reported on the analysis of the contents of 8,339 coyote
-stomachs from various places in the United States, 1,186 of the stomachs
-being from Washington. The following information is from his report on
-all of the 8,339 stomachs: rabbits formed one-third of the food;
-_Microtus_ was found in 7 per cent of the stomachs; _Peromyscus_ in 6
-per cent; _Neotoma_ in 4 per cent. _Reithrodontomys_ were found in 53 of
-the 8,339 stomachs and in insignificant numbers. _Onychomys_ occurred in
-11 of the 8,339 stomachs; _Clethrionomys_ in 8. _Ondatra_ occurred in 8
-of the 8,339. Two muskrats were in stomachs obtained from Washington.
-_Citellus_ (exclusive of _beecheyi_, _lateralis_, and _saturatus_) were
-found in 4 per cent and were locally important; _Citellus beecheyi_
-occurred in 84 stomachs, including 1 from Washington; _Citellus
-lateralis_ and _saturatus_ occurred in 50 stomachs, including 5 from
-Washington. _Marmota_ were found in 1 per cent of the stomachs. They
-were included in stomachs from Washington but the number was not
-reported. _Tamias_ (= _Eutamias_) were found in 43 stomachs from western
-United States and were present in 1 per cent of the 1,186 stomachs from
-Washington. _Sciurus_ and _Tamiasciurus_ occurred in 33 stomachs.
-Included were 3 _Tamiasciurus douglasii_, a _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_,
-and a _Sciurus griseus_ from Washington. _Glaucomys_ occurred in 6
-Washington-taken coyotes, of a total of 11 from the entire United
-States. _Perognathus_ occurred in 3 per cent of the stomachs, and 274
-individuals were represented. They were found in 10 per cent of the
-1,186 Washington stomachs. _Thomomys_ occurred in 4 per cent of the
-stomachs examined and in 7 per cent of the stomachs from Washington.
-_Erethizon_ appeared in 2 per cent of the stomachs (135 records),
-including some from Washington. _Aplodonta_ occurred in only 11
-stomachs, all taken in Washington. Locally, it is concluded, mountain
-beavers are important coyote food. House mice occurred in but five
-stomachs, including 2 from Washington. _Zapus_ did not occur in coyote
-stomachs from Washington. Domestic sheep and goats formed 7 per cent of
-the food of Washington coyotes. Calves occurred in 3 stomachs of coyotes
-from Washington. Pigs occurred in 8. Deer formed 3 per cent, by volume,
-of coyote food in Washington. A part of the stock and deer reported was
-doubtless carrion.
-
-One shrew was found in the stomach of a coyote from Washington, and two
-stomachs contained moles. A house cat was eaten by one Washington
-coyote, and another coyote had eaten a raccoon. Birds occurred in 13 per
-cent of the stomachs examined but formed only a small part by volume.
-Poultry formed one-fourth of this volume. Reptiles formed 0.08 per cent
-of the food eaten by coyotes and occurred in 3 per cent of the stomachs.
-A coyote from Washington had eaten a garter snake. No frogs were found
-in coyote stomachs. A coyote from Washington had eaten a salamander.
-Another had eaten a fish. Insects formed 1.08 per cent of the total food
-eaten by coyotes. Fruit formed 3.63 per cent. Carrion constituted 25.2
-per cent of the total food eaten.
-
-It is extremely difficult to draw conclusions regarding the economic
-value of any species. Much depends on the outlook of the individual, his
-occupation, the locality where the animal occurs and local conditions
-there. Furthermore it is impossible to understand and fairly weigh all
-the factors involved.
-
-Coyotes destroy game and stock. They also eat carrion and destroy sick
-animals, thus preventing the spread of disease. They eat jack rabbits
-which are pests, and snowshoes and cottontails which are game. They eat
-mice, which are a pest in agricultural areas, a benefit on rangelands
-where they destroy weed seeds, and of neutral importance elsewhere. To
-analyze the economic value of the coyote, the economic importance of
-all animals on which it feeds must be considered and the "good" and
-"bad" balanced--a well-nigh impossible task.
-
-In any event, the coyote has been judged and found guilty. Coyotes are
-controlled by poison, trapping, and bounty. In spite of control measures
-the coyote is holding its own in numbers or increasing.
-
-Stimulated in part by the bounty, professional trappers take many
-coyotes each year in Washington. The pelts fluctuate in value from year
-to year but a large, prime skin usually brings from 5 to 10 dollars.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 70. Distribution of the coyote in Washington. A.
-  _Canis latrans lestes._ B. _Canis latrans incolatus._]
-
-
-=Canis latrans lestes= Merriam
-
-      _Canis lestes_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:25, March
-      15, 1897.
-
-      _Canis latrans lestes_ Taylor and Shaw, Mamm. and Birds Mt.
-      Rainier Nat. Park, p. 41, 1927.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained in the Toyabe Mountains near Cloverdale, Nye
-      County, Nevada, by V. Bailey on November 21, 1890; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Frontal region of skull only slightly
-      concave.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from 20 miles south of Ephrata, Grant
-      County, on the Columbian Plateau, measures: total length 1185;
-      length of tail 365; hind foot 198; ear 125; weight 26-1/2 lbs. A
-      female from 10 miles northeast of Goldendale, Klickitat County, in
-      the southern Cascades, measured: 1105; 280; 197; weight 19 lbs. A
-      female from Cashmere, Chelan County, in the northern Cascades,
-      measured: 1209; 410; 210; 131. A female from the middle fork of the
-      Nooksack River, Whatcom County, in western Washington, measured:
-      total length 1185; length of tail 358.
-
-      _Distribution._--Suitable areas of the entire state, except for
-      northeastern Washington.
-
-_Remarks._--Pending a revision of the coyotes, those of western
-Washington are referred to _lestes_.
-
-
-=Canis latrans incolatus= Hall
-
-      _Canis latrans incolatus_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl.,
-      40:369, November 5, 1934.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Isaacs Lake, 3,000 ft. elevation, Bowron Lakes
-      Region, British Columbia, by T. T. and E. B. McCabe on October 23,
-      1928; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _lestes_ but frontal region more
-      concave.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from 20 miles east of Tonasket, Okanogan
-      County, measures: total length 1033; length of tail 291; hind foot
-      163; ear 110.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, west to Okanogan and
-      Conconully (W. W. D.).
-
-      _Remarks._--Several series of coyote skulls from northeastern
-      Washington are more variable than series of _lestes_ from
-      California and _incolatus_ from British Columbia. The "dish-faced"
-      character of _incolatus_ is more strongly represented in some
-      coyotes from northeastern Washington than in topotypes of
-      _incolatus_ but others are more like _lestes_. In average
-      measurements they are nearer _incolatus_.
-
-
-=Canis lupus fuscus= Richardson
-
-Timber Wolf
-
-      _Canis lupus_ var. _fusca_ Richardson, Mammalia, Zoölogy, Captain
-      Beechey's voyage of the Blossom, p. 5, 1839.
-
-      _Lupus gigas_ Townsend, Jour. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, 2:75,
-      November, 1850 (type from near Vancouver, Clark County,
-      Washington).
-
-      _Canis gigas_ Miller, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 59 (no. 15):4, June
-      8, 1912.
-
-      _Canis occidentalis gigas_ Taylor and Shaw, Birds and Mamm. Mt.
-      Rainier Nat. Park, p. 39, 1927.
-
-      _Canis lycaon gigas_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:272, August 29,
-      1936.
-
-      _Type locality._--Banks of the Columbia below The Dalles in Oregon
-      or Washington.
-
-      _Racial characters._--A large, relatively dark colored wolf with
-      wide skull and heavy dentition.
-
-      _Distribution._--Probably occurred from the eastern base of the
-      Cascades westward to the Pacific. Now extinct over most of its
-      range.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 71. Probable past distribution of the wolf in
-  Washington. A. _Canis lupus fuscus._ B. _Canis lupus columbianus._ C.
-  _Canis lupus irremotus._]
-
-_Description._--The wolf is a large carnivore of the general proportions
-of a large collie dog. Wolves closely resemble coyotes but are larger,
-with stouter body, larger feet, thicker muzzle and more massive,
-powerful skull and teeth. The fur of wolves is long and rather stiff.
-In general color of the body they resemble coyotes, but the underparts
-are less white and the legs and feet are more contrastingly reddish.
-
-Wolves of the species _Canis lupus_ range over the northern parts of
-both the Old and New World. In America they are found from the Arctic
-south into Mexico.
-
-Wolves occurred in western, northeastern and southeastern Washington.
-They seem not to have occurred on the Columbian Plateau. Wolves are
-generally associated with the larger, hooved mammals upon which they
-feed. In Washington these probably once included the elk, deer, mountain
-sheep and mountain goat. Hooved animals, except mountain sheep and deer,
-may not have occurred on the Columbian Plateau in historic times, and
-even the deer and sheep probably were scarce. There was probably little
-food for wolves on the Plateau.
-
-The early settlers found wolves to be common and a serious pest. By 1900
-they had nearly disappeared. In the settled parts of western Washington
-they were doubtless exterminated at an early date but it is difficult to
-account for their disappearance on the Olympic Peninsula. To the best of
-my knowledge, two wolves killed on the north fork of the Quinault River
-in 1920, or a few years earlier, were the last ones from that peninsula.
-Previously they were common and I doubt that man killed them all;
-perhaps some introduced disease, such as rabies, brought about their
-extinction.
-
-In the Cascade area they probably still exist in small numbers and in
-remote places. There are said to be some near Mount Adams. They have
-been reported from Mount Rainier as recently as 1920. Trappers state
-that there are a few in the northern Cascades, between Lake Chelan and
-Mount Baker. There are no recent records for southeastern Washington.
-The last wolves killed on the Columbian Plateau were two taken at
-Wahluke, Grant County, on September 17, 1917. Only rumors--no authentic
-reports--of wolves are available from northeastern Washington in recent
-years. The reappearance of the caribou there may attract wolves from
-British Columbia.
-
-Any report of wolves, even from experienced trappers, is open to some
-question. An unusually large coyote often is mistaken for a wolf. A
-large, wild and wolflike dog is even more likely to be mistaken for a
-wolf.
-
-The wolf no longer is an important element in the mammalian fauna of
-Washington and will probably never be so again. The species, like the
-grizzly bear, is nearly extinct in the state.
-
-
-=Canis familiaris= Linnaeus
-
-Dog
-
-      _Canis familiaris_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1:56, 1766.
-
-      _Type locality._--Sweden.
-
-Dogs were present with aboriginal man in Washington, previous to the
-arrival of the white man. For greater detail see Bailey (1936), Suckley
-and Gibbs (1860) and Allen (1920).
-
-
-=Felis concolor= Linnaeus
-
-Cougar or mountain lion
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 72. Cougar or mountain lion (_Felis concolor
-  missoulensis_), skin mounted as a rug; shot on Mill Creek, Pend Oreille
-  County, Washington, February 13, 1935, by Ralph Johnson. Skin now
-  measures: snout to tip of tail 252 cm., span between tips of forepaws
-  157 cm., tail 89 cm.; male. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor
-  B. Scheffer, No. 66.)]
-
-_Description._--The cougar is a large cat and has the general
-proportions of the house cat. Large cougars measure more than seven feet
-in length of which the tail comprises two feet. Large males weigh more
-than 150 pounds. Females are smaller and lighter than males. In color
-the head, back, tail and outside of the legs are reddish brown. The
-throat, underparts and inside of the legs are white. The tip of the
-tail, or area near the tip, is black or blackish.
-
-Cougars, often called mountain lions, pumas and panthers, range from
-Canada to southern South America.
-
-The cougar feeds extensively upon deer and its habits and habitat are
-accordingly specialized. It is active in both winter and summer and
-zonally ranges from the Transition through the Canadian to the Hudsonian
-life-zones.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 73. Cougar or mountain lion (_Felis concolor
-  oregonensis_), adults and young taken by Dewey Schmid in White Salmon
-  Valley, Washington, about December 1, 1937, and January 1, 1938. Two
-  bobcats show at extreme right. (Dewey Schmid photo.)]
-
-The number of deer killed by the average cougar is unknown. Some
-trappers believe that a cougar kills a deer at least every other day
-while others feel that only one a week is taken. Other food is eaten
-when available. Because cougars kill deer, they are incessantly warred
-upon by hunters and sportsmen. Bounties, often generous, have long been
-paid in Washington. Although many cougars are killed each year they are
-still numerous in many areas. So many remote areas in the mountains are
-not easily accessible to man and dogs that the cougar, as a species,
-probably will persist for many years.
-
-A cougar is one of the most secretive animals in the wilds. Rarely are
-individuals seen by man. They are difficult to trap, principally because
-they are such wide-ranging animals and partly because they prefer to
-feed on fresh deer meat and hence are not apt to be attracted to trap
-bait. For these same reasons they are difficult to poison. By using
-poisoned hamburger, a government agent did poison one near Leavenworth,
-Chelan County. The principal method of killing cougar is to hunt them
-with packs of especially trained hounds which pursue the cougar until it
-takes refuge in a tree or other supposed place of safety, where it is
-shot.
-
-A common gait is a swift, smooth trot in which the body is kept low and
-the tail droops with the terminal part bent backwards. A wild cougar
-seen near Leavenworth, Chelan County, traveled with effortless speed
-until fired upon. At the sound of the shot it made two great bounds and
-disappeared into the brush fringing a canyon.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 74. Distribution of the cougar in Washington. A.
-  _Felis concolor oregonensis._ B. _Felis concolor missoulensis._]
-
-Although the cougar is a large and powerful carnivore it almost never
-makes unprovoked attacks upon man. An exception was the cougar that
-partially devoured a thirteen-year old boy near Lake Chelan, Chelan
-County (Finley, 1925: 197-199).
-
-The hunting range of an individual cougar is many miles in extent. These
-ranges are traveled periodically and any particular area may be visited
-regularly every few days. The cougars may travel many miles each night
-in search of deer. Their ranges must overlap to a certain extent for as
-many as 12 have been taken from a single drainage area. Over most of the
-year they are solitary but breeding females may attract several males
-and hunters occasionally capture a female and several males at one
-locality. Breeding occurs in almost any month of the year. The young are
-cared for by the female and follow her for perhaps a year. Young
-individuals have been taken at the same time and in the same locality as
-an adult female and several adult males that supposedly were breeding.
-There are from one to three young in a litter. For the first months of
-their life cougar kittens are spotted. In this they differ from the
-young of the bobcat which are plain or slightly mottled and do not
-become spotted until later in life. Cougar kittens differ further from
-bobcat kittens in possessing a long tail.
-
-The pelage of the cougar is short and of no value as fur although the
-skins often are sold at a good price as trophies when prepared as rugs.
-
-
-=Felis concolor oregonensis= Rafinesque
-
-      _Felix [sic] oregonensis_ Rafinesque, Atlantic Journal, 1:62, 1832.
-
-      _Felis hippolestes olympus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      11:220, July 15, 1897 (type from Lake Cushman, Mason County,
-      Washington).
-
-      _Felis oregonensis_ Stone, Science, n. s., 9:35, January 6, 1899.
-
-      _Felis oregonensis oregonensis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      128:158, April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Felis concolor oregonensis_ Nelson and Goldman, Jour. Mamm.,
-      10:347, November 11, 1929.
-
-      _Type locality._--"Oregon Mountains, or east or west of them."
-
-      _Racial characters._--Light, rounded skull, dark color, extensive
-      black on tip of tail and short, rather coarse fur.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains
-      westward to the Pacific. Marginal records are (trappers'
-      specimens): Ruby, Leavenworth, and Goldendale.
-
-
-=Felis concolor missoulensis= Goldman
-
-      _Felis concolor missoulensis_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 24:229, June 8,
-      1943.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained 10 miles southwest of Missoula, Missoula County,
-      Montana, by R. and C. Thompson, on December 30, 1936; type in
-      United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--A large cougar with heavy, wide skull, pale
-      color and rather long, soft fur.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington west at least to Republic
-      (W.W.D.) and the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.
-
-      _Remarks._--Goldman (1943: 229) states "Between the Rocky
-      Mountains and the Cascade Range _missoulensis_ intergrades with
-      _oregonensis_." My own comparison of specimens reveals differences
-      of considerable magnitude between the cougars of western and
-      northeastern Washington. I suppose that intergradation takes place
-      in a limited area in, and west of, the Okanogan River Valley in
-      Washington.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 75. Canadian lynx, _Lynx canadensis_, male, taken
-  February 16, 1939, on Baldy Mountain, northwest Idaho, by Lloyd
-  Robinson of Sandpoint. (Ross A. Hall photo.)]
-
-
-=Lynx canadensis canadensis= Kerr
-
-Canadian lynx
-
-      _Lynx canadensis_ Kerr, Anim. Kingd., 1: systematic catalogue
-      inserted between pages 32 and 33 (description, p. 157), 1792.
-
-      _Lynx borealis canadensis_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:611,
-      1885.
-
-      _Lynx canadensis canadensis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      128:160, April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Type locality._--Eastern Canada.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from Buttermills Creek, Twisp River,
-      Okanogan County, measured: total length 900; length of tail 95;
-      hind foot 205.
-
-      _Distribution._--Higher parts of the Cascade Mountains, Blue
-      Mountains and mountains of northeastern Washington, recorded from
-      Oroville on the north (W. W. D.) to Mount Adams (Taylor and Shaw,
-      1929: 13) on the south.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 76. Canadian lynx (_Lynx canadensis_), catch of
-  nine, with two coyotes, taken by Lester Fairbrother in hills west of
-  Oroville, Washington, March, 1938. (Lester Fairbrother photo.)]
-
-_Description._--The Canadian lynx weighs about 20 pounds and is catlike
-in general proportions but differs in possessing longer, stouter legs,
-much larger feet, a short tail, tufted ears and long, very soft fur. The
-pelage of the upper parts is soft gray with a slightly yellowish tone;
-the ears and tail are black; and the underparts are gray with indistinct
-black spots. The pelage is shorter and more reddish in summer. Bailey
-(1936: 271) records a maximum weight of 28 pounds.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 77. Distribution of the Canadian lynx, _Lynx
-  canadensis_, in Washington.]
-
-The lynx ranges over the forested parts of North America from the Arctic
-south into the northern United States. It has a restricted range in
-Washington, occurring in the same areas as does the red fox. Although
-the lynx is an important fur bearer in Canada and Alaska, it is
-unimportant in Washington because only a few are trapped each winter.
-Most of the natural range is in the remote and wilder parts of the
-mountains. Here, each of several trappers regularly takes a dozen or
-more each year. Mr. Lester Fairbrother of Oroville, Okanogan County,
-regularly traps lynxes in the northern Cascades. They are taken in
-wooded areas where snowshoe rabbits, their principal food in winter, are
-abundant. In the more accessible parts of the animal's range, such as
-the Blue Mountains and the mountains of northeastern Washington, lynxes
-are rare. As much as sixty dollars each is offered for large skins.
-
-
-=Lynx rufus= (Schreber)
-
-Bobcat
-
-_Description._--The average male bobcat weighs approximately 20 pounds.
-The female is about one-fourth lighter. A bobcat has longer, stouter
-legs and larger feet than a house cat and a short tail. The ears are
-short, with pointed tufts of hair.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 78. Bobcat (_Lynx rufus fasciatus_), two-year-old
-  male captured as a kit near Lyman, Washington, in the spring of 1937,
-  by Earl Scott; photographed March 9, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service
-  photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 588.)]
-
-Bobcats range from southern Canada south to central Mexico. Whereas the
-Canadian lynx occupies the boreal region, the bobcat occupies the
-temperate region. It is thought to be principally nocturnal but is
-occasionally active by day. One that I watched near Lake Samamish, King
-County, when it was unaware of my presence, was decidedly uncatlike as
-it strolled with a smooth but stiff-legged gait on a forest trail, with
-head held up, short tail erect and wagging back and forth with each
-step. The general impression was of a large, extremely long-legged
-animal. There was nothing stealthy in its movements. Another individual
-seen in the same locality on a later date saw me. As it bounded away the
-body was kept low and the legs were bent with the forelegs appearing
-almost bowlegged.
-
-Like many other carnivores, each bobcat has a home range which varies
-with the available food supply. The range may include deep forest, dense
-thickets and open grasslands, but country with considerable
-edge-environment seems to be preferred to dense cover, and rocky areas
-to smooth soil. Perhaps the abundance of mice and wood rats attracts
-bobcats to the rocks, but the cover afforded is also a factor.
-
-The bobcat is almost universally regarded as a predator and the state of
-Washington now offers a bounty on it. The animals doubtless do kill a
-certain amount of game, but kill also other animals which man regards as
-pests because they interfere with reforestation and growing of food
-crops. One of the best natural checks on these pests is the bobcat
-which, in certain areas, does more good than harm. Where doing damage to
-game or livestock bobcats may be eliminated by trapping or hunting with
-dogs.
-
-Trappers report that bobcats have a poor sense of smell but very keen
-sight. They are easily trapped. The fur is soft and handsome but does
-not wear well. Fur buyers designate the large, pale bobcats of eastern
-Washington as lynx cats and reserve the name bobcat for the more reddish
-race of western Washington. Immature and unprime pelts from eastern
-Washington also are classed as "bobcat."
-
-The difference between the pale bobcat of eastern Washington and the
-dark race of western Washington is greater than that which separates
-many subspecies. Dewey Smith of Guler, Klickitat County, showed me skins
-of bobcats taken on his trap-line along the White Salmon River, which
-drains southward to the Columbia, and over into the watershed of the
-Lewis River. Bobcats from the White Salmon River were pale and gray, and
-those from along the Lewis River were more reddish. The difference was
-striking. A very few intermediate skins indicated that interbreeding
-occurs. The geographic variation between the two races is reminiscent of
-that in the snowshoe rabbits of the western Cascades.
-
-
-=Lynx rufus fasciatus= Rafinesque
-
-      _Lynx fasciatus_ Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag., 2:46, November,
-      1817.
-
-      _Lynx fasciatus fasciatus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:160,
-      April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Lynx rufus fasciatus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:269, August 29,
-      1936.
-
-      _Type locality._--Near mouth of the Columbia River on "Netul" River
-      (Lewis and Clark River) near Astoria (Bailey, 1936: 269).
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size moderate; fur short; color distinctly
-      reddish.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from Forks, Clallam County, measured:
-      total length 890; length of tail 190; hind foot 167; ear 80;
-      weight 24-1/2 pounds.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains westward, including
-      the valleys of rivers draining westward in the Cascades. Marginal
-      occurrences are: Skykomish (W. W. D.), Mt. Rainier (Taylor and
-      Shaw, 1927: 60) and headwaters of Lewis River (W. W. D.).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 79. Distribution of the bobcat in Washington. A.
-  _Lynx rufus fasciatus._ B. _Lynx rufus pallescens._]
-
-
-=Lynx rufus pallescens= Merriam
-
-      _Lynx fasciatus pallescens_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 16:104,
-      October 28, 1899.
-
-      _Lynx rufus uinta_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:267, August 29,
-      1936.
-
-      _Lynx rufus pallescens_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:268, August 29,
-      1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington, by
-      D. Kaegi on January 10, 1895; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size large; skull heavy with extensive
-      crests and ridges; fur long and soft; color pale, more grayish and
-      less reddish than in _fasciatus_.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains eastward, including
-      the valleys of rivers in the Cascades which drain southward and
-      eastward. Marginal records of occurrences are Oroville (W. W. D.),
-      Lake Keechelus (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 15) and Trout Lake (W. W.
-      D.).
-
-
-=Zalophus californianus= (Lesson)
-
-California sea lion
-
-      _Otaria californiana_ Lesson, Dict. Class Nat. Hist., 13:420, 1828.
-
-      _Zalophus californianus_ Allen, Monogr. N. Amer. Pinnipeds, U. S.
-      Geol. and Geogr. Surv. Terr., Misc. Publ., 12:276, 1880.
-
-      _Type locality._--California.
-
-      _Distribution._--Rare or casual along the coast of Washington.
-
-_Description._--Adult males are 7 to 8 feet in length and females about
-6 feet. Bulls weigh as much as 1,000 pounds, and females up to 600
-pounds. Both fore and hind limbs are modified for swimming; they are
-flippers directed posteriorly. The body is cylindrical and streamlined,
-the neck thick and the head small. Adult males possess a high sagittal
-crest resulting in a high forehead. Eyes and ears are small. The reddish
-brown pelage is short and coarse. Females are darker than the males.
-
-The California sea lion occurs along the Pacific Coast from Mexico to
-northern California and has been recorded from Oregon (Bailey, 1936:
-332), Washington and British Columbia (Greenwood, Newcombe, and Fraser,
-1918: 1-39). It is of rare or casual occurrence along the coast of
-Washington.
-
-
-=Eumetopias jubata= (Schreber)
-
-Steller sea lion
-
-      _Phoca jubata_ Schreber, Säugthiere, 3:300, 1776.
-
-      _Eumetopias Stelleri_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):607,
-      1885.
-
-      _Eumetopias jubata_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:113,
-      March 15, 1902.
-
-      _Type locality._--North Pacific Ocean.
-
-      _Distribution._--Ocean coast, breeding on small, rocky islets such
-      as the Quillayute Needles.
-
-_Description._--The Steller sea lion resembles the California sea lion
-but is larger. Old bulls are from 10 to 12 feet in length and weigh from
-1,200 to 1,500 pounds, perhaps even a ton. Females are 8 to 9 feet in
-length and may weigh up to 1000 pounds. The female Steller sea lion is
-nearly as large as the male of the California sea lion. The bull Steller
-sea lion lacks the high forehead characteristic of the California sea
-lion, and the body is heavier and stouter, especially in the neck and
-chest. Bulls are distinctly bicolored, the head, neck and chest being
-cinnamon and the rest of the body darker. Females are a uniform dark
-brown color. The Steller sea lion makes a loud, deep roaring sound.
-
-Steller sea lions occur along the coast of Asia south to Japan and the
-coast of North America from the Bering Strait south to central
-California. The range thus meets and overlaps that of the California sea
-lion.
-
-Steller sea lions are splendid swimmers and spend much of their time in
-the surf. They often lie in the water a few yards from where the waves
-pound some jagged cliff, retaining their dangerous position without
-discernible effort. They are curious and will raise their head and neck
-vertically out of the water to observe a passing boat. Much time is
-spent beneath the surface, presumably hunting fish. They sometimes leap
-up out of the water in an arching dive or may simply lower their heads
-beneath the surface and appear several minutes later at another place.
-They may come to the surface with a porpoiselike roll, breathe, and
-again dive. Many of their actions seem inspired by playfulness--a means
-of working off excess energy.
-
-Sea lions haul out on a number of rocky islands along the coast. They
-are slow and clumsy on land. Their rear flippers can be directed forward
-and so give them some assistance in moving about. When startled they are
-able, with much struggling, to move with fair speed to the water. They
-can dive from considerable heights.
-
-The studies of Greenwood, Newcombe and Fraser (1918: 1-39) show that the
-Steller sea lions eat a great variety of marine fish and other sea life.
-Included in their diet are squid, starfish, crabs, clams, mussels,
-salmon, herring, flounder, rock cod, sea bass and dogfish. They seem not
-to be selective in their food habits but eat the food most easily
-available at the time. Unfortunately this is occasionally salmon in nets
-or traps and for this reason fishermen usually kill sea lions on sight.
-The number of sea lions along the coast of Washington has been greatly
-reduced by shooting and dynamiting the animals on their hauling-out
-grounds. There is no doubt that sea lions do occasionally eat salmon,
-especially in traps or nets. They also become entangled in the nets, and
-damage them. On the other hand, investigations of their food habits have
-shown that they do not eat any great number of salmon or other important
-food fishes. They are a relatively harmless and exceedingly interesting
-animal and might well be preserved in numbers exceeding their present
-population.
-
-Until relatively recent times the sea lion was an important source of
-food to the Indians living along the ocean coast. The bones of sea lions
-are often the most numerous vertebrate remains in shell mounds.
-
-The Steller sea lion now breeds only in a few places along the coast of
-Washington. They are polygamous and each of the stronger bulls has eight
-or ten cows in his harem. Fierce battles between bulls are said to take
-place in the breeding season, late in May. A single pup is born after a
-gestation period of about one year. Pups are darker in color than
-adults.
-
-
-=Callorhinus ursinus cynocephalus= (Walbaum)
-
-Alaska fur seal
-
-      _Siren cynocephalus_ Walbaum, Petri Artedi Sueci Genera Pisc., p.
-      560, 1792.
-
-      _Callorhinus ursinus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):607,
-      1885.
-
-      _Callorhinus alascanus_ Jordan and Clark, Fur Seals and Fur Seal
-      Islands of the North Pacific, pt. 3, p. 2, November, 1899.
-
-      _Callotaria ursina cynocephala_ Stejneger, George Wilhelm Steller,
-      Harvard Univ. Press, p. 285, 1936.
-
-      _Type locality._--Pribilof Islands, Alaska.
-
-      _Distribution._--Breeds on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Abundant
-      off the coast of Washington on migration.
-
-_Description._--The difference in the size of male and female fur seals
-is great. Males are about 8 feet in length when fully grown but the
-females are only about 4 feet long. Males weigh up to 700 pounds but
-females only about 100 pounds. In general appearance the fur seal
-resembles the sea lion but the fur is longer, denser and softer. Males
-are very dark brown in color. Females and young are grayish brown. The
-fur seal, like the sea lion, can reverse its hind flippers and use them
-to a certain extent in walking.
-
-The Alaskan fur seal breeds on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. The seals
-emerge from the water to certain favored hauling-out places in May and
-June. They leave the Islands in November to begin their long migration.
-The bulls spend the winter off the coast of Alaska south of the
-Aleutians but the females and young travel south to the ocean off
-California. In the spring they start north, arriving off the coast of
-Washington in February, March and April. Young, rarely adults, are
-washed up on the ocean beaches of Washington (Scheffer, 1939: 43).
-
-The United States Government, by international treaty, manages the fur
-seal herds on a sustained yield basis and pelagic sealing by independent
-hunters is prohibited. Indians are allowed to take the fur seals on
-migration but are subject to certain restrictions. Modern boats,
-outboard motors and guns are prohibited. Indians living on the coast of
-Washington hunt the fur seals from dugout canoes. The weapons are
-double-headed harpoons with long cedar shafts. One harpoon head is at
-the tip of the shaft and the other is on a short fork that projects
-downward and forward at a 30° angle from the main shaft. The harpoon is
-thrown with the aid of hand grips at the end of the shaft. The seal is
-recovered by rawhide lines connected to the harpoon heads. The hunters
-leave shore at dawn and travel ten to twenty miles from land, at which
-distance the seal herds are usually encountered. The hunting is
-dangerous work and is carried on only by skilled and brave men.
-Relatively calm weather is required. The flesh of the seals is eaten
-and the skins sold.
-
-Schultz and Rafn (1936: 13-15) examined the stomachs of 41 fur seals
-taken within 30 miles of La Push, Washington, in March, April and May,
-1930. Food found included squids, shrimps, herring and lampreys.
-
-
-=Phoca vitulina richardii= (Gray)
-
-Hair seal or harbor seal
-
-      _Halicyon richardii_ Gray, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 28, 1864.
-
-      _Phoca richardii_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:491,
-      December 12, 1902.
-
-      _Phoca richardii richardii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      128:164, April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Phoca vitulina richardii_ Doutt, Ann. Carnegie Mus., 29:117, May
-      12, 1942.
-
-      _Type._--Described from a specimen obtained at the Fraser River,
-      British Columbia, probably on March 23, 1861, by C. B. Wood and
-      another obtained by Wood at Queen Charlotte Sound, British
-      Columbia, in 1862 (see Scheffer and Slipp, 1944: 374); type in
-      British Museum of Natural History.
-
-      _Distribution._--Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan De Fuca and the
-      coast of Washington, extending at times up the Columbia River to
-      The Dalles. Has been recorded in Lake Washington, Seattle (Bonham,
-      1942: 76).
-
-_Description._--Adults are about 5 feet in length and weigh up to 250
-pounds; males are approximately a quarter larger than females. The hair
-seals differ from the sea lions and fur seals in a number of respects.
-The body is widest in the midsection rather than in the chest. The neck
-is short and slim. The eyes are large and there are no external ears.
-The hind flippers are not reversible but are permanently directed
-posteriorly. The pelage is short, stiff, and directed posteriorly. The
-ground color is silver gray or yellow; usually it is yellow, blotched
-and marbled with black, dusky or gray.
-
-Hair seals range over the northern Atlantic and Pacific oceans,
-occurring southward along the Pacific Coast of North America to central
-Mexico. Six races are recognized by Doutt (1942: 115).
-
-The hair seal is the common seal in Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan De
-Fuca and on the ocean coast. Scheffer and Slipp (1944: 373) estimate
-that 5,000 live along the coast of Washington. Hair seals are social to
-some degree but are often seen singly. In Puget Sound, where there are
-relatively few hauling-out areas, they rarely leave the water but on the
-ocean coast they emerge to bask on the reefs. On Destruction Island,
-Jefferson County, V. B. Scheffer and I watched a herd of about 20
-animals that lay on a reef exposed by low tide. According to the
-lighthouse keeper the reef was occupied daily by these seals. Scheffer
-and Slipp (_loc. cit._, p. 388) report herds of up to 200 hair seals. In
-Puget Sound 10 to 20 seals seem to be the usual number in a herd, but
-occasionally there are as many as 50.
-
-Hair seals often exhibit curiosity concerning small boats; the seals lie
-in the water with only their round heads above the surface, staring at
-the boat for many minutes. Constant shooting has made them shy and any
-quick movement will cause them to dive; several dived instantly when I
-pointed either a stick or gun at them.
-
-Hair seals are less spectacular than sea lions. When basking on rocks
-the seals are silent. When an observer is yet a long distance away the
-seals raise their small heads and remain on the alert. When they take to
-the water, they travel with a jerking motion. In the water one rarely
-sees more than their heads. When they dive they usually sink below the
-surface, never making the spectacular arching dive so typical of the sea
-lions.
-
-At Useless Bay, Whidby Island, Island County, a herd of five or six hair
-seals was studied in July, 1936. These animals played and slept in the
-shallow water beneath a high, forested bluff and could be watched from
-the bluff above. The seals seemed to gather here in the early afternoon.
-Much of their time was spent sleeping on the surface with the body in a
-bowed position and drifting freely. Occasional waving of the rear
-flippers kept them from drifting away. They played a great deal,
-splashing, diving and swimming in circles or spirals. Occasionally one
-would dive down to swim slowly along just above the bottom. At times one
-would put on a sudden burst of speed, apparently in pursuit of some
-fish, rarely continued for more than 30 or 40 feet after which the seal
-usually rose to the surface to resume play. Never did I see one with a
-fish in its mouth and these pursuits, if pursuits they were, seemed to
-have been prompted more by a spirit of play than by hunger.
-
-A young seal was kept as a pet for several weeks at Friday Harbor, San
-Juan County. It was tame and affectionate but decidedly temperamental.
-It demanded constant attention and whimpered, cried or moaned if left
-alone. It was more active by night than by day and made a characteristic
-mooing cry, which continued at intervals throughout the night. This
-habit led to its eventual disposal. The temper of this young seal was
-shown by its actions when it encountered strands of kelp while swimming.
-If the kelp strands held back its progress it would turn back, seize the
-kelp in its teeth and bite viciously. Never did it attempt to bite
-persons.
-
-The hair seal was generally thought to feed almost exclusively on
-salmon, but the work of Scheffer (1928: 10-16) showed this view to be
-incorrect. Of 14 hair seal stomachs examined, all of which were full,
-only two contained salmon. In a later study (Scheffer and Sperry, 1931:
-214-226), only two of 100 stomachs examined contained salmon. Other food
-items were tomcod, flounder, sculpin, herring, shiner, hake, skate,
-blenny, unidentified fish, squid, octopus, shrimp, crab and starfish. In
-spite of Scheffer's work, hair seals are killed at every opportunity by
-fisherman and boatman. Bounties were paid on their scalps for many
-years, and more than 1,000 bounties were paid for each of several years
-previous to 1930. Their small, round heads bobbing on the waves offer a
-poor target and many seals, after having been fired at, become extremely
-shy. They seem to be holding their own in numbers at the present time.
-
-Scheffer and Slipp (1944: 401) found that the young were born in late
-May along the ocean coast and in June and July in Puget Sound. The young
-seal mentioned as having been kept captive at Friday Harbor was obtained
-from an Indian on July 26, 1938, and was said to be two weeks old at the
-time. The Indian said that he had watched the birth of the young and
-then killed the mother for bounty. On July 28 the young seal weighed
-approximately 20 pounds and was in good health. The seal could swim
-well. It was said to have been born "on the rocks" at Long Island, San
-Juan County. The seal drank milk from a baby's bottle but refused fresh
-scallops, clams and fish of several species. When put into a large,
-screened box sunk in the water it at once investigated the other animals
-in the box. It showed no fear of a large bull cod weighing 50 pounds, or
-of a 20-pound skate and several sharks 5 feet long but seemed to be
-frightened by a large octopus weighing about 30 pounds. In swimming, the
-front flippers were held flat against the body and the actual swimming
-was accomplished by the vertically-held rear flippers and the rapid
-swinging of the hips. Its eyes were very dark brown, almost black, but
-soft and appealing. The bases of the vibrissae were thick and soft. The
-belly was silvery white and unspotted. The sides and back were iron gray
-spotted with dark, bluish gray, the whole overlaid with a silvery tint.
-The claws were long, round, and sharply pointed.
-
-When sleeping, the seal usually lay on its side, occasionally upon its
-back or belly. The front flippers were held tight to its sides but the
-back flippers were held straight back with the digits bent inward at
-right angles and laid so that the right digits were against the left. In
-moving on land the front flippers were folded into fists and used to
-push the animal forward while the body was moved by snakelike motions of
-the hips. It breathed in short gasps.
-
-
-Genus =Tamias= Illiger
-
-Chipmunks
-
-The chipmunks of Asia and western North America have usually been
-separated under the generic name _Eutamias_ from those of the genus
-_Tamias_ of eastern America. Ellerman (1940: 428) placed both in the
-same genus and Bryant (1945: 257-390) reached the same conclusions after
-intensive study of American sciurids. Bryant's treatment is followed
-here. The sciurid genera as they occur in Washington, are listed by
-Bryant as follows: _Tamias_, _Marmota_, _Citellus_, _Sciurus_,
-_Tamiasciurus_, _Glaucomys_. This order, rather than that of Miller
-(1924) is used here. Four species of _Tamias_ are listed for Washington:
-_minimus_ represented by two subspecies; _amoenus_, by six; _ruficaudus_
-by one; and _townsendii_, by two.
-
-Chipmunks from Washington vary in size from less than 8 inches in total
-length to more than 10 inches in total length. Some race of chipmunk
-occurs in almost every part of Washington. Their striped color pattern
-serves as a universal recognition mark. The somewhat similarly striped
-mantled ground squirrel is often mistakenly called chipmunk. The mantled
-ground squirrel is larger than any chipmunk, has but two dark stripes as
-compared with five dark stripes of chipmunks, and has a plain, reddish
-head unlike the distinctly striped head of _Tamias_.
-
-Like most members of the squirrel family, chipmunks are active by day
-and are therefore better known to man than are most of the other kinds
-of small mammals, most of which are nocturnal. The attractive color and
-sprightly actions of chipmunks make them a delightful feature of the
-outdoors. They feed on fruit, seeds, and fungus and eagerly eat food
-that can be begged or stolen from man. They have been known to kill mice
-and they have been accused of destroying nests and eggs of birds. They
-often eat insects and occasionally eat the flesh of mice or other
-chipmunks held in collector's traps.
-
-Chipmunks climb trees and bushes readily but only _townsendii_ can be
-called arboreal, and even it prefers to climb on stumps and dead trunks
-rather than in living trees. All species are fond of climbing about
-rocky outcrops and talus slides.
-
-The call of the chipmunks is a birdlike cheep. In _minimus_ it is shrill
-and uttered rapidly, but it is low-pitched and is uttered by
-_townsendii_ with longer intervals between the notes. The call of
-_amoenus_ is of an intermediate nature.
-
-Young of chipmunks vary in number from four to six. Nests are
-constructed of dry grass and are placed under rocks, logs, and in
-burrows in the ground. There are four pairs of mammae, one pectoral, two
-abdominal, and one inguinal.
-
-
-=Tamias minimus= Bachman
-
-Least chipmunk
-
-_Description._--The least chipmunk is the smallest chipmunk found in
-Washington. The head and body of adults measure about 3-1/2 inches; the
-tail about 3-1/2 inches. Its fur is short and sleek. The dorsal stripe
-is black; the upper pale stripe is buffy gray; the lower dark stripe is
-rich brown; the lower stripe is white. The sides are pale buff and the
-head, rump and thighs are buffy gray. The tail is brownish above,
-yellowish beneath.
-
-_Tamias minimus_ has a wide range, being found from the Cascade-Sierra
-Nevada Chain to the Great Lakes and from northern Canada to central
-Arizona and New Mexico. Two races occur in Washington, both in the
-sagebrush desert area.
-
-Least chipmunks are only locally common in Washington. I have found them
-in areas where the soil was firmly packed and sagebrush the dominant
-vegetation. All were far from water. Two miles west of Vantage, Kittitas
-County, several were found near an old sheep corral, where one took
-shelter in a pile of boards. In my experience, least chipmunks are wary
-and difficult to collect. Many times as I crept silently through the
-sagebrush chipmunk after chipmunk scampered with tail aloft into a hole
-at the base of same sage bush, each far out of gunshot, voicing alarmed
-chirps. The extreme caution of least chipmunks, as compared with other
-species, is doubtless a necessary adaptation to living in an exposed
-situation. The open sagebrush desert is a favored hunting place of hawks
-and eagles; also coyotes, wildcats, and badgers sometimes abound there.
-All these probably find the least chipmunk a suitable food item and only
-the most cautious chipmunk survives to reproduce. The least chipmunk has
-been timed at a speed of 10 miles per hour (Cottam and Williams, 1943:
-262).
-
-The food of the least chipmunk in eastern Washington is almost entirely
-seeds of the annuals that flourish briefly in the spring. Insects
-probably are eaten and one specimen had the remains of two scorpions in
-its stomach.
-
-
-=Tamias minimus scrutator= (Hall and Hatfield)
-
-      _Eutamias minimus pictus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 52:39, November
-      30, 1929.
-
-      _Eutamias minimus scrutator_ Hall and Hatfield, Univ. California
-      Publ. Zoöl., 40:321, February 12, 1934.
-
-      _Tamias minimus scrutator_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living
-      Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 80. Distribution of the least chipmunk in
-  Washington. A. _Tamias minimus scrutator._ B. _Tamias minimus
-  grisescens._]
-
-      _Type._--Obtained near Blanco Mountain, 10500 ft. elevation, Mono
-      County, California, by J. Grinnell on July 28, 1917; type in Museum
-      of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Buffy color; wide dark stripes and narrow
-      pale stripes.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male and a female from Sunnyside, Yakima
-      County, measure respectively; total length 186, 186; length of
-      tail 81, 82; hind foot 31, 31; ear 9, 10.
-
-      _Distribution._--The sagebrush areas west of the Columbia River.
-      Present in scattered and widely separated areas, ranging,
-      according to Howell (1929: 41), north to Ellensburg and south to
-      Wiley City.
-
-      This species is a member of the Great Basin Fauna that entered the
-      state from Oregon. The population in Washington is now isolated
-      north and west of the Columbia River but seems not to differ from
-      least chipmunks from Oregon and Nevada.
-
-
-=Tamias minimus grisescens= (Howell)
-
-      _Eutamias minimus grisescens_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 6:52, February
-      9, 1925.
-
-      _Tamias minimus grisescens_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living
-      Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 431, June 8, 1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Farmer, Douglas County, Washington, by J. A.
-      Loring, on July 31, 1897; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _scrutator_ but smaller; more
-      grayish, less buffy in color, dark stripes narrower and pale
-      stripes wider.
-
-      _Measurements._--Seven topotypes and near topotypes average: Total
-      length 177; length of tail 78.7; hind foot 26.8; ear 10.6.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from the Columbian Plateau. This race
-      is rare and though we hunted for it in localities where specimens
-      have been collected, including the type locality, it was found but
-      twice. Ranchers living in the area know the chipmunk but see
-      individuals only occasionally. Marginal occurrences are Douglas
-      (Howell, 1929: 41), Vantage (V. B. S.) and Pasco (Howell, 1929:
-      41).
-
-_Remarks._--The geographic range of this race is separated from that of
-_scrutator_ by the Columbia River and many miles of country uninhabited
-by chipmunks of this species.
-
-
-=Tamias amoenus= Allen
-
-Yellow-pine chipmunk
-
-_Description._--The yellow-pine chipmunk resembles the least chipmunk
-but is larger. The underside of the tail is more ochraceous, less
-yellowish. The color of the sides varies considerably in the various
-races. The stripes are narrow and sharply delineated, the dorsal one
-being black. Next lower is a grayish stripe, followed by one of brownish
-black. The lower stripe is white. The underparts, in most races, are
-white but in _luteiventris_ are buffy.
-
-The geographic range of the species is west of the Great Plains from
-central British Columbia to central California. There are twelve races,
-six of them occurring in Washington.
-
-The yellow-pine chipmunk is a small animal, being but little larger than
-the least chipmunk, and much smaller than _townsendii_. Externally it
-may be separated from the Townsend chipmunk by its small size, sleek,
-appressed pelage and brighter color. Separation from _minimus_ is more
-difficult but, in the Washington races of _minimus_, the colored fur of
-the underside of the tail is pale yellowish while in _amoenus_ it is
-more ochraceous or buffy. So far as is known, the two species do not
-occur together in Washington.
-
-The yellow-pine chipmunks live in open woods, brushy areas, clearings,
-and rocky outcrops. Suitable conditions are abundant in mountainous
-areas and the distribution of mountain ranges affects the distribution
-of these chipmunks. Where yellow pine forests descend to relatively low
-altitudes, the chipmunks enter the lowlands. Such conditions are
-present in some places along the eastern base of the Cascades, the
-inter-mountain river valleys of northeastern Washington, and along the
-central-eastern border of the state.
-
-Yellow-pine chipmunks are sprightly and active. They seem always to be
-moving restlessly about, running, investigating for food, and watching
-for enemies. They are far tamer than the least chipmunks, usually
-allowing the observer to approach within twenty feet or closer. Some,
-after coaxing, will take food from a person's hand.
-
-Near Stevens Pass, King County, numbers of _Tamias townsendii cooperi_
-and _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_, apparently on good terms, were feeding
-together on blue huckleberries which grew in abundance on an extensive
-snowslide area. The yellow-pine chipmunks had been drawn from
-surrounding open areas by the berries, while the Townsend chipmunks had
-been attracted from the forest by the same food. The nervous movements
-of _amoenus_ contrasted strongly with the more sedate behavior of
-_townsendii_. At the observer's close approach the yellow-pine chipmunks
-went scampering off through the brush and tangles of logs and branches,
-to emerge again and watch from a hundred feet away. The same
-individuals, when repeatedly followed, always remained in sight. Most of
-the Townsend chipmunks, when frightened, ran into the nearest dense
-cover and vanished, not to appear again. A goodly number, perhaps ten
-per cent, climbed high up in fir trees. None of the yellow-pine
-chipmunks took refuge in trees.
-
-The yellow-pine chipmunk is usually found at considerable altitude and
-consequently there is deep snow and bitter cold in winter where it
-lives. Hibernation is probably complete. Seemingly these chipmunks
-depend on stored food rather than on accumulated fat to tide them over
-the winter, for animals collected in autumn are no fatter than those
-taken in the spring. Svihla (1936B: 290) found that _Tamias a.
-canicaudus_, hibernating in captivity at Pullman, Whitman County, awoke
-at intervals to eat stored food. The time of retirement of yellow-pine
-chipmunks for the winter seems to coincide with the coming of winter
-weather. In mid-November of one year, when no snow had yet fallen in the
-Cascades, yellow-pine chipmunks were common near Stevens Pass, although
-their actions were noticeably slow. In another autumn, when the winter
-snows came early, I looked in vain for chipmunks in October where they
-had been common earlier. George C. Cantwell noted a yellow-pine chipmunk
-at Republic, Ferry County, on November 9, 1903, after the ground was
-"well frozen," but apparently free of snow (Howell, 1929: 7). Like
-other species that hibernate, they, at times, seem to become active in
-winter; J. B. Flett reported seeing a yellow-pine chipmunk at Longmire,
-Mt. Rainier, on February 14, 1920, and again on March 31 (Howell, _loc.
-cit._, p. 7). At Deer Park, Clallam County, at timber-line, several
-_Tamias townsendii cooperi_ were active in early April, 1938, but only
-one _Tamias amoenus_ was seen. In the previous June they were abundant
-there and _townsendii_ was scarce.
-
-I have watched these chipmunks eat the berries of the red huckleberry
-(_Vaccinium parvifolium_), salmonberry (_Rubus spectabilis_),
-thimbleberry (_Rubus parviflorus_), devil's club (_Fatsia horrida_), and
-mountain ash (_Sorbus cascadensis_ and _S. occidentalis_). Of these, the
-blue huckleberry (_Vaccinum occidentale_ and _V. membranaceum_) are
-probably the most important to the chipmunks. At Sherman Creek Pass, in
-the Kettle River Mountains, Ferry County, I watched a pika (_Ochotona_)
-busily harvesting wild raspberry plants (_Rubus leucodermis_), and
-laying them in a pile under a rock. A yellow-pine chipmunk waited under
-the rock and ate the ripe berries from each branch as it was laid away.
-
-A brood nest of the yellow-pine chipmunk was discovered by Shaw (1944:
-274) at Hurricane Ridge, Clallam County. The entrance was a hole 1-1/2
-inches in diameter constructed among the grass and alpine flowers of a
-meadow at 6,450 feet elevation. The burrow itself was 2 inches in
-diameter, and had a turning-around pocket 9 inches from the entrance.
-The nest was situated just beneath the sod, 4 feet from the entrance.
-The nest chamber was 7 inches high by 7-1/2 inches in diameter and in
-the shape of a "round-bottomed flask." It was filled snugly with nest
-material composed of a grasslike sedge (_Carex spectabilis_) mixed with
-feathers of the blue grouse. Earth excavated from the nest cavity had
-been forced upwards through the sod in the manner of a mole in forming
-mounds. The single burrow was unbranched. Seven young of about 16 to 18
-days of age were found in the nest.
-
-
-=Tamias amoenus caurinus= (Merriam)
-
-      _Eutamias caurinus_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p.
-      352, October 4, 1898.
-
-      _Eutamias amoenus caurinus_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4,
-      1922.
-
-      _Tamias amoenus caurinus_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living
-      Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at timber-line, head of Sol Duc River, Olympic
-      Mountains, Clallam County, Washington, by C. H. Merriam and Vernon
-      Bailey on August 27, 1897; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Small size and pale color.
-
-      _Measurements._--Seven males and 3 females from Deer Park, Clallam
-      County, average: total length 207.4; length of tail 93.2; hind foot
-      32.5; ear 16.
-
-      _Distribution._--Higher parts of the Olympic Mountains, from Deer
-      Park (W. W. D.) south to head of Dosewallips River (Howell,
-      1929:77).
-
-
-=Tamias amoenus felix= Rhoads
-
-      _Tamias quadrivittatus felix_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 29:941, October,
-      1895.
-
-      _Eutamias quadrivittatus felix_ Miller and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc.
-      Nat. Hist., 30:44, December 27, 1901.
-
-      _Eutamias amoenus felix_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4,
-      1922.
-
-      _Tamias amoenus felix_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living
-      Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 81. Distribution of the yellow-pine chipmunk in
-  Washington. A. _Tamias amoenus luteiventris._ B. _Tamias amoenus
-  canicaudus._ C. _Tamias amoenus affinis._ D. _Tamias amoenus
-  ludibundus._ E. _Tamias amoenus felix._ F. _Tamias amoenus caurinus._]
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Church Mountain, British Columbia, near the
-      United States boundary by Allan Brooks on August 13, 1895; type in
-      Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Large size and rich, dark color.
-
-      _Measurements._--Ten topotypes average: total length 224.7; length
-      of tail 98.8; hind foot 34.1; ear 14.4.
-
-      _Distribution._--The extreme northwestern Cascades, north and west
-      of Mt. Baker.
-
-_Remarks._--This richly-colored coastal race barely enters Washington.
-It is abundant near Goldrun Pass and Tomyhoi Lake, Whatcom County, just
-south of the international boundary.
-
-
-=Tamias amoenus ludibundus= (Hollister)
-
-      _Eutamias ludibundus_ Hollister, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 56 (no.
-      26):1, December 5, 1911.
-
-      _Eutamias amoenus ludibundus_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August
-      4, 1922.
-
-      _Tamias amoenus ludibundus_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living
-      Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Yellowhead Lake, 3,700 ft., British Columbia,
-      by N. Hollister on August 29, 1911; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Moderate size, brownish rump, ochraceous
-      sides.
-
-      _Measurements._--Five males and 4 females from the higher parts of
-      the Cascades average, respectively: total length 210, 217; length
-      of tail 89, 90; hind foot 33, 33; ear 17.4, 16.7; weight 50, 59.7
-      grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The higher Cascade Mountains. Marginal records
-      are: Barron (Howell, 1929:75), Lyman Lake (Howell, 1929:75),
-      Cascade Tunnel (W. W. D.), Mt. Stuart (W. W. D.), Lake Kachees (W.
-      W. D.), Boulder Cave (W. W. D.), and Mt. St. Helens (Howell,
-      1929:75).
-
-      _Remarks._--At the higher altitudes this race seems to be the
-      equivalent of _affinis_. The latter race lives in relatively arid
-      yellow pine forests and _ludibundus_ occupies more moist and
-      varied habitats higher in the mountains.
-
-
-=Tamias amoenus affinis= Allen
-
-      _Tamias quadrivittatus affinis_ Allen, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull.,
-      3:103, June, 1890.
-
-      _Eutamias quadrivittatus affinis_ Miller and Rehn, Proc. Boston
-      Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:44, December 27, 1901.
-
-      _Eutamias amoenus affinis_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4,
-      1922.
-
-      _Tamias amoenus affinis_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living
-      Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Ashcroft, British Columbia, by C. P. Streator
-      on July 3, 1889; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Small size, grayish color including rump,
-      and white underparts.
-
-      _Measurements._--Fourteen males and 7 females from Washington
-      average: total length 201.5; length of tail 86.5; hind foot 31.7;
-      ear 17.2.
-
-      _Distribution._--The eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains.
-      Marginal records on the west are: Bald Mountain (Howell, 1929:73),
-      Mazama (Howell, 1929:73), Hart Lake (Howell, 1929:73), Lake
-      Wenatchee (W. W. D.), 10 mi. S. Dryden (W. W. D.), Blewett Pass
-      (W. W. D.), 10 mi. N. W. Ellensburg (W. W. D.), Wenas Creek (W. W.
-      D.), Mt. Adams (Howell, 1929:73), and Lyle (Howell, 1929:73).
-      Marginal occurrences on the east are: Mt. Chopaka (Howell,
-      1929:73), 20 mi. E. Tonasket (W. W. D.) and Omak Lake (Howell,
-      1929:73).
-
-
-=Tamias amoenus canicaudus= (Merriam)
-
-      _Eutamias canicaudus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 16:77,
-      May 29, 1903.
-
-      _Eutamias amoenus_ canicaudus Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August
-      4, 1922.
-
-      _Tamias amoenus canicaudus_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living
-      Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Spokane, Spokane County, Washington, by C. P.
-      Streator, on April 11, 1891; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Large size, pale color, grayish tail, white
-      or buffy underparts.
-
-      _Measurements._--Thirteen topotypes average: total length 227.2;
-      length of tail 104.4; hind foot 33.7; ear 14.
-
-      _Distribution._--The pine-covered lowlands along the
-      central-eastern border of the state, ranging, according to Howell
-      (1929: 71), from Spokane County south to Pullman.
-
-
-=Tamias amoenus luteiventris= Allen
-
-      _Tamias quadrivittatus luteiventris_ Allen, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.
-      Bull., 3:101, June, 1890.
-
-      _Eutamias quadrivittatus luteiventris_ Miller and Rehn, Proc.
-      Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:44, December 27, 1901.
-
-      _Eutamias amoenus luteiventris_, Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:179,
-      August 4, 1922.
-
-      _Tamias amoenus luteiventris_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living
-      Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Chief Mountain Lake (Waterton Lake), Alberta
-      (3-1/2 mi. N. United States boundary) by Elliott Coues on August
-      24, 1874; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Small size, rich color, buffy underparts.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twelve males and 12 females from the Blue
-      Mountains, Columbia County, average respectively: total length
-      212, 219; length of tail 96.7, 101; hind foot 31.7, 32.5; ear
-      17.3, 18; weight 46.5, 52.8 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington,
-      and the Pend Oreille Mountains of northeastern Washington, west to
-      Eureka, in the Kettle River Mountains, Ferry County (Howell, 1929:
-      69), and south to Newport (W. W. D.).
-
-
-=Tamias ruficaudus simulans= (Howell)
-
-Red-tailed chipmunk
-
-      _Eutamias ruficaudus simulans_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:179, August
-      4, 1922.
-
-      _Tamias ruficaudus simulans_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living
-      Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., p. 434, June 8, 1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Coeur d'Alene, Kootenai County, Idaho, by C.
-      P. Streator on June 1, 1891.
-
-      _Measurements._--Six males and 3 females from northeastern
-      Washington average: total length 234; length of tail 109; hind
-      foot 31.6; ear 18.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, reported from Pend
-      Oreille, Stevens and Ferry counties by Howell (1929: 98).
-
-_Description._--The red-tailed chipmunk closely resembles _Tamias
-amoenus_. From _T. a. luteiventris_ and _T. a. canicaudus_ it differs
-principally in larger size, wider brain case and especially in its pure
-white underparts. From _T. a. affinis_ it differs in richer coloration,
-especially the brownish rather than gray rump. The differences
-separating it from _amoenus_ are slight, and only adult specimens can be
-identified in the field.
-
-According to Howell (1929: 81) this species occurs in northern Idaho,
-western Montana, northeastern Washington, southeastern British Columbia
-and extreme southwestern Alberta. Two subspecies are recognized, only
-one of which occurs in Washington.
-
-A number of large, white-bellied chipmunks have been taken in
-northeastern Washington that answer well to the description of
-_ruficaudus_. Also, there are a number of specimens that I cannot
-definitely identify as either _amoenus_ or _ruficaudus_. Some
-buff-bellied chipmunks from Idaho are as large, and possess brain cases
-as wide, as specimens from Washington unhesitatingly called
-_ruficaudus_, while some white-bellied individuals match _amoenus
-luteiventris_ in all other characters. When all the specimens available
-from Pend Oreille, Stevens and Ferry counties are separated into
-_amoenus_ and _ruficaudus_ and the skulls are examined, it is noticeable
-that all the _ruficaudus_ are old, fully adult animals and that most of
-the _amoenus_ are younger, showing less wear on the teeth. Perhaps the
-buffy underparts are lost with increasing age.
-
-This leads to the suspicion that _ruficaudus_, as applied to chipmunks
-in Washington, is a synonym of _amoenus_. Until considerable material is
-collected in northeastern Washington, showing individual and age
-variation, it seems best to retain the name _ruficaudus_.
-
-Most of the specimens referable to _ruficaudus_ were taken in talus
-slides high in the Pend Oreille Mountains. A smaller series was
-collected at a lower altitude in open pine forests near Pend Oreille
-Lakes, Stevens County. I could detect no difference between _amoenus_
-and _ruficaudus_ in habitat or habits.
-
-
-=Tamias townsendii= Bachman
-
-Townsend chipmunk
-
-_Description._--The Townsend chipmunk is the largest of the chipmunks
-that occur in Washington. Head and body measure about 5-1/2 inches; the
-tail about 4-1/2 inches. The fur of the Townsend chipmunk is more lax
-and less sleek than that of other species. The upper parts are duller
-and darker ochraceous. Stripes are wide and not sharply delineated.
-The dark stripes are deep chestnut or blackish. The upper pale stripe
-is pale buffy gray; the lower is whitish. The tail is blackish frosted
-with white above and rich ochraceous below. Underparts are dull white.
-
-The Townsend chipmunk ranges from the Fraser River in southern British
-Columbia through western Washington and Oregon, to central California.
-Like other members of the Pacific Coastal Fauna which extend southward
-to California, its geographic range extends farther inland to the
-south and geographic variation is greater; 3 races are listed by
-Johnson (1943: 114) in California.
-
-The Townsend chipmunk is the largest and darkest chipmunk in
-Washington. Over much of its range it is the only chipmunk found
-although in some mountainous areas both _townsendii_ and _amoenus_
-occur together. The larger size and richer coloration, especially
-the rich tawny color of the underside of the tail, separate Townsend
-chipmunks from _amoenus_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 82. Townsend chipmunk (_Tamias townsendii
-  cooperi_), captured on Goat Creek, 3,000 feet, western Cascade
-  Mountains near Chinook Pass, Washington, September 16, 1940, by
-  Earl J. Larrison; photographed February 1, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife
-  Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1139.)]
-
-Townsend chipmunks are closely associated with the coniferous forest
-where they live in clearings and tangles of underbrush such as on steep
-hillsides, fire slashings, snowslide areas or mountain glades. Though
-capable of swift movement, they are less nervous and active than other
-chipmunks. Rarely are they as abundant, even locally, as other species,
-and the home range of an individual seems to be larger than that of an
-_amoenus_ or a _minimus_. Rarely are more than two seen in a locality.
-Their more sedentary habits make them less conspicuous than other
-species. In the fall, when berries are dried out and seeds are ripe,
-they are most often seen. The Townsend chipmunk seems to be the most
-arboreal species found in Washington and individuals are not uncommonly
-seen in trees.
-
-The brushy cover inhabited by Townsend chipmunks protects them from
-most hawks while their diurnal habits prevent owls from feeding on
-them. Predatory mammals probably constitute their greatest menace. A
-weasel (_Mustela frenata_) was seen to follow a Townsend chipmunk into
-a pile of timbers near Cottage Lake, King County, and another was seen
-carrying a dead Townsend chipmunk at Stevens Pass, King County. Tracks
-around an area of blood and fur showed where a mink (_Mustela vison_)
-had killed a Townsend chipmunk near Cottage Lake, King County.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 83. Distribution of the Townsend chipmunk in
-  Washington. A. _Tamias townsendii townsendii._ B. _Tamias townsendii
-  cooperi._]
-
-Shaw (1944: 278) discovered the brood nest of a Townsend chipmunk on
-Hurricane Ridge, Clallam County, 4,500 feet elevation. The burrow was in
-a cool, damp area among surface runs of moles (_Scapanus_), and led to
-an underground nest among the roots of a tree. The nest was formed of
-the gray, moss-like lichen (_Usnea_), lined within with sedge leaves
-(_Carex spectabilis_) and covered outside with leaves of the same sedge.
-A turning-about chamber was constructed near the entrance. The burrow
-was single and not branched. Three young, only two or three days old,
-were in the nest.
-
-
-=Tamias townsendii townsendii= Bachman
-
-      _Tamias townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8
-      (pt. 1):68, 1839.
-
-      _Tamias quadrivittatus townsendii_ Allen, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat.
-      Hist., 16:290, 1874.
-
-      _Tamias asiaticus_ var. _townsendii_ Allen, Monog. N. Amer.
-      Rodentia, Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., 11:794, 1877.
-
-      _Eutamias townsendii_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      11:195, July 1, 1897.
-
-      _Type._--Lectotype obtained near the lower mouth of the Willamette
-      River, Multnomah County, Oregon, by J. K. Townsend in 1834; in
-      Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
-
-      _Racial Characters._--Color of sides rich tawny; dark stripes
-      black or dark brown, and pale stripes cinnamon; underside of tail
-      tawny.
-
-      _Measurements._--Fifteen males and 10 females from western
-      Washington average, respectively: total length 254.7, 258.6;
-      length of tail 116, 122; hind foot 36.7, 37.1; ear 20.5, 20.4;
-      weight 72, 81.2 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The humid coastal belt of western Washington,
-      from the western base of the Cascade Mountains to the Pacific,
-      exclusive of the Olympic Mountains. When A. H. Howell revised the
-      chipmunks in 1929, he employed a concept of a subspecies different
-      from the writer's own. The locality records listed by Howell
-      (1929: 109-112) for _Tamias townsendii townsendii_ and _T. t.
-      cooperi_ are not in agreement with Howell's own distribution map
-      (_op. cit._: 107). When the localities listed by Howell are
-      plotted on a map of Washington, the ranges of the two races
-      overlap in some critical areas. Not all of the material examined
-      by Howell was seen by the writer, and, consequently, the ranges
-      shown in Fig. 83 are plotted, in part, on geographic grounds.
-
-      Marginal localities on the east, so plotted, for _T. t.
-      townsendii_, are: Hamilton (U. S. N. M.), 5 mi. E. Monroe (W. W.
-      D.), Redmond (W. W. D.), Roy (U. S. N. M.), and Vancouver (U. S.
-      N. M.).
-
-
-=Tamias townsendii cooperi= Baird
-
-      _Tamias cooperi_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:334,
-      1855.
-
-      _Tamias townsendii_ var. _cooperi_ Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 737,
-      1857.
-
-      _Eutamias cooperi_ Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 50:89, June 27,
-      1907.
-
-      _Eutamias townsendii cooperi_ Howell, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August
-      4, 1922.
-
-      _Type._--Cotypes obtained at Klickitat Pass, 4,500 ft., Skamania
-      County, Washington, by J. S. Cooper in July, 1853; in United States
-      National Museum.
-
-      _Racial Characters._--Similar to _T. t. townsendii_ but paler with
-      pale stripes whitish rather than cinnamon.
-
-      _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females from the Cascades
-      average, respectively: total length 246.4, 246.8; length of tail
-      111.7, 107.6; hind foot 35, 35.4; ear 20, 20; weight 77, 89.9
-      grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The higher and eastern Cascade Mountains and the
-      Olympic Mountains. Marginal localities along the Cascades probably
-      include: Swamp Creek (U. S. N. M.), Index (W. S. C.), North Bend
-      (U. S. N. M.), Mt. St. Helens (U. S. N. M.), and Yacolt (M. V.
-      Z.).
-
-
-=Marmota monax petrensis= Howell
-
-Woodchuck
-
-      _Marmota monax petrensis_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 37:33, April 7,
-      1915.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Revelstoke, British Columbia, by W.
-      Spreadborough on May 12, 1890; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--Howell (1915: 33) gives the measurements of an
-      adult male (the type) as: total length 540; length of tail 127;
-      hind foot 76. An adult female from Barkerville, British Columbia,
-      measured: total length 505; length of tail 125; and hind foot 68.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Pend Oreille Mountains, Pend Oreille County.
-      The woodchuck was seen and positively identified in northeastern
-      Washington but no specimens were collected.
-
-_Description._--The woodchuck is the smallest member of the genus
-_Marmota_ that occurs in Washington. Adults are about 22 inches in
-length, of which the tail comprises 5 inches. The body is stout and
-plump. The legs are short. The ears are low and rounded. The eyes are
-large but not prominent. The fur is rather stiff but dense. The upper
-parts are cinnamon, frosted with white-tipped guard hairs. The
-underparts are tawny. There is no white bar across the nose.
-
-Woodchucks occur from Alaska to Idaho and eastward to the Atlantic,
-extending southward in the eastern United States. Miller (1924: 173-175)
-lists seven subspecies, one of which enters the extreme northeastern
-corner of Washington.
-
-The habits of the eastern woodchuck (_Marmota monax rufescens_) have
-been studied by Hamilton (1934: 85-178), but the northern races are less
-well known. Cowan (1939: 77-79) gives observations on the habits, nests
-and burrows of _Marmota monax canadensis_.
-
-
-=Marmota flaviventris avara= (Bangs)
-
-Yellow-bellied marmot
-
-      _Arctomys flaviventer avarus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club,
-      1:68, July 31, 1899.
-
-      [_Marmota flaviventer_] _avarus_ Trouessart, Catal. Mamm., viv.
-      foss., suppl., p. 344, 1904.
-
-      _Marmota flaviventris avara_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      128:175, April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Okanogan, British Columbia, by A. C. Brooks on
-      July 17, 1897; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from 5 miles north of Entiat, Chelan
-      County, measured: total length 610; length of tail 182; hind foot
-      70; ear 28.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the eastern edge of the Cascade Mountains
-      eastward, except, apparently, extreme northeastern Washington.
-      Marginal records are:
-
-      Okanogan (W. W. D.) in the north, Wenas (W. W. D.) in the west,
-      Pasco (M. V. Z.) in the south, and 14 mi. S. W. Pullman (Howell,
-      1915: 42) in the east.
-
-_Description._--The yellow-bellied marmot is similar to the woodchuck
-but is slightly larger. It is decidedly paler in color, less reddish,
-but possesses white-tipped hairs on the dorsal surface, as does the
-woodchuck. The yellow-bellied marmot also differs from the woodchuck in
-having a distinct white bar on the nose. Its pelage is coarse and rather
-thin.
-
-The yellow-bellied marmot is typically an animal of the basalt talus of
-eastern Washington but occurs in mountainous areas in northeastern
-Washington. These animals are usually found near streams, ponds, lakes,
-or rivers. They wander considerably, however, and are often found far
-from water. Their wandering habits probably account for their presence
-near temporary streams and ponds on the Columbian Plateau. When these
-temporary sources of water dry up in July or early August, the marmots
-go into hibernation. Edson (1935: 68) records a marmot from Bellingham,
-Whatcom County, far west of the usual range of the species.
-
-The "ground hog" is often hunted for sport and sometimes for food. Near
-centers of human population the yellow-bellied marmots are extremely
-shy. Along the highways of the Columbia River on any Sunday in June, it
-is not unusual to see a dozen cars in an hour, moving slowly past a
-talus slide while eager hunters scan the rocks for marmots. In the late
-afternoon, when the marmots leave the protection of the talus slides to
-drink at the river, they fall easy prey to rifles with telescope sights.
-Near cities in eastern Washington yellow-bellied marmots have become
-partially nocturnal.
-
-Couch (1930: 2-6) attempted to excavate several dens of yellow-bellied
-marmots, but decided to leave the task "to some future road-building
-crew." Embryos found by Couch numbered three to six. Couch thought the
-young were born about March 15 in the Snake River area and about April
-15 in the upper Okanogan area. The young appear above ground
-approximately 30 days after birth.
-
-The yellow-bellied marmots enter aestivation from late June to early
-August, depending on the locality and local conditions. They are active
-longer in northeastern Washington. Couch records a yellow-bellied marmot
-seen in Okanogan County on October 10, but regards this as exceptional.
-The marmots near Wenatchee, Chelan County, emerge from their burrows in
-early March (March 5 to 10, from reports of residents in 1937, 1938).
-Couch (1930: 5) gives February 20 to March 15 as the date of
-appearance.
-
-A principal requirement for marmots is the presence of rocks. At Cle
-Elum, Kittitas County, I took a marmot from an alfalfa field where a
-farmer had placed all the surface stones in a loose pile. Fifteen miles
-east of Tonasket, Okanogan County, marmots were living in the stones
-piled by road builders to support the ends of a small bridge. A hundred
-feet away another marmot was living under an abandoned building. A high,
-convenient rock near their burrow serves the yellow-bellied marmots as a
-look-out post. These look-out posts seem, in many cases, to have been
-used by many generations of marmots, for their feces sometimes fill
-nearby crevices to a depth of several feet and cover the look-out rock
-itself. The glacial boulders on the plateau between the Okanogan River
-and Omak Lake, Okanogan County, furnish the best examples of look-out
-posts. These numerous isolated boulders, ten to fifty feet in diameter
-and ten to thirty feet high, each seem to furnish shelter to one or more
-marmots. Well-worn trails lead from the boulders to burrows and feeding
-areas.
-
-The food of the yellow-bellied marmot includes grasses and succulent
-plants found in their habitat. Fondness for alfalfa makes them a serious
-pest in some areas, for their large size enables them to make
-considerable inroads on a field. Natural enemies probably include most
-larger predaceous mammals. Hawks and eagles probably kill their young.
-Near Tonasket, Okanogan County, Robert Dalquest surprised a coyote as it
-ran across a small wash. A shot caused the coyote to drop a half-grown
-marmot which it had been carrying.
-
-
-=Marmota caligata cascadensis= Howell
-
-Hoary marmot
-
-      _Marmota caligata cascadensis_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      27:17, February 2, 1914.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on Mt. Rainier, 6,000 ft., Pierce County,
-      Washington, by A. K. Fisher on August 11, 1897; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--A young adult male from Stevens Pass, King
-      County, measures: total length 773; length of tail 221; hind foot
-      93; ear 27.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, ranging from Mt. Baker (W.
-      W. D.) and Mt. Chopaka (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 15) south to Mt.
-      Adams (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 15).
-
-_Description._--The hoary marmot is the largest of the American marmots;
-adults are 28 inches or more in length, of which the tail makes up about
-8 inches. The pelage is dense and rather woolly. The upper parts are not
-frosted with white-tipped hairs, but are gray washed with blackish. The
-head is blackish with white facial markings, and the shoulders, legs
-and underparts are gray. The tail is dark reddish brown.
-
-Hoary marmots range from Alaska south to Washington and Idaho. Howell
-(1915: 57-67) recognizes seven races of this species.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 84A. Distribution of marmots in Washington. A.
-  _Marmota monax petrensis._ B. _Marmota flaviventris avara._
-  C. _Marmota caligata cascadensis._ D. _Marmota olympus._]
-
-This mammal of the higher altitudes rarely goes below the Hudsonian
-Life-zone. It is most common in the talus slides at the lower edge of
-the Arctic-Alpine Life-zone. Like other marmots, it prefers to live amid
-loose boulders. The steep talus or "scab rock" slides in the glacial
-cirques provide an ideal habitat. The crevices and caves beneath the
-rocks offer concealment for young and adults. A large boulder with a
-flat top is usually selected as a look-out. Well-worn trails lead from
-the talus slides to nearby grassy slopes. When surprised in the open,
-the hoary marmot exhibits a peculiar bounding run, reminiscent of that
-of tree squirrels. The short tail "follows through" in the leaps. In the
-rock slides the hoary marmot is surprisingly agile.
-
-The clear, shrill whistle of the hoary marmot is familiar to all who
-penetrate its haunts. The whistle is remarkably similar to the whistle
-of a person. Locally the hoary marmot is known as "whistler" or "whistle
-pig." Individuals emerge from hibernation early in June; most adults
-retire again by the middle of September. On September 14, 1937, a young
-of the year was shot and few were seen where they had been common in
-June. All were shy. Only one adult was seen.
-
-Large hawks and eagles commonly hunt over the rock slides inhabited by
-marmots, and probably kill very young individuals. Only the larger
-predators such as bear, cougar, wolf, coyote, lynx, and bobcat would be
-expected to kill an adult hoary marmot.
-
-
-=Marmota olympus= (Merriam)
-
-Olympic marmot
-
-      _Arctomys olympus_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p.
-      352, October 4, 1898.
-
-      [_Marmota_] _olympus_ Trouessart, Catal. Mamm., viv. foss. suppl.,
-      p. 344, 1904.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at timber-line, head of Sol Duc River, Clallam
-      County, Washington, by C. H. Merriam, on August 27, 1897; type in
-      United States National Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two small but adult females from Deer Park,
-      Clallam County, measure respectively: total length 758, 691;
-      length of tail 163, 161; hind foot 106, 97; ear 31, 29.
-
-      _Distribution._--This species is confined to the Olympic
-      Mountains.
-
-_Description._--The Olympic marmot closely resembles the hoary marmot,
-and differs in being slightly larger, and reddish or rusty brown where
-the hoary marmot is gray. It lacks the blackish overwash of the hoary
-marmot. The nose is whitish.
-
-Although the Olympic marmot belongs to the hoary marmot group it is a
-distinct species, most closely related to the marmot of the mountains of
-Vancouver Island. Its habits differ but little from those of the hoary
-marmot. It lives in burrows in talus slides and boulder piles near
-timber line. A few burrows are dug beneath logs. Well worn trails lead
-from burrows to feeding grounds on nearby grassy slopes and heather
-meadows. High rocks or logs serve as lookouts. The alarm whistle is
-similar to that of the hoary marmot.
-
-
-=Citellus townsendii townsendii= (Bachman)
-
-Townsend ground squirrel; sage rat
-
-      _Spermophilus townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci.
-      Philadelphia, 8:61, 1839.
-
-      _Spermophilus mollis yakimensis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 12:70, March 24, 1898.
-
-      [_Citellus mollis_] _yakimensis_ Trouessart, Cat. Mamm., Sup., p.
-      339, 1904.
-
-      _Citellus townsendii townsendii_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:60,
-      May 18, 1938.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 84B. Distribution of the Townsend and Washington
-  ground squirrels in Washington. A. _Citellus townsendii townsendii._
-  B. _Citellus washingtoni._]
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on the western bank of the Columbia River "about
-      300 miles above its mouth" (probably near the mouth of the Walla
-      Walla or Touchet river; more exactly, opposite Wallula, in Benton
-      County, Washington) by J. K. Townsend in July, 1836; type in
-      Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
-
-      _Measurements._--Ten adults from Mabton and North Yakima, Yakima
-      County, average: total length 212.2; length of tail 45.7; hind
-      foot 33.9.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Upper Sonoran Life-zone area of the Yakima
-      Valley from Ellensburg (Howell, 1938: 63) south to the Columbia at
-      Kennewick (W. W. D.).
-
-_Remarks._--This race is probably derived from _C. t. mollis_ of Oregon,
-from which it is but slightly differentiated. It was known for many
-years as _Citellus mollis yakimensis_. For use of the name _townsendii_
-see Howell (1938: 62).
-
-The head and body are about 6-1/2 inches long and the tail is about 2
-inches in length. The head is large with low, rounded ears and large
-eyes. The neck is distinctly constricted and the body is plump. Adults
-are "pot-bellied." The legs are short and the feet small. The tail is
-short, round at the base but bushy throughout the rest of its length.
-The pelage is short and rather harsh. In color the upper parts are
-yellowish gray flecked with tiny, pale dots. The underparts are buffy.
-The face, thighs and tail are reddish buff.
-
-Ground squirrels occur in parts of Europe, Asia, and much of western
-North America. Howell (1938: 36-37) recognizes eight subgenera and
-thirty-one species in North America. Three subgenera occur in
-Washington, namely: _Citellus_, the spotted ground squirrels,
-represented by _Citellus townsendii_, _Citellus washingtoni_ and
-_Citellus columbianus_; _Otospermophilus_, the long-tailed ground
-squirrels, represented by _Citellus beecheyi_; and _Callospermophilus_,
-the striped ground squirrels, represented by _Citellus lateralis_ and
-_Citellus saturatus_.
-
-All ground squirrels are diurnal and consequently are familiar to man.
-Most species bear local names and the striped or mantled ground
-squirrels are often mistaken for chipmunks. Some species are destructive
-to crops, especially grain. In addition they harbor sylvatic plague.
-Economically the genus _Citellus_ is of great importance in Washington.
-
-All Washington ground squirrels live in burrows which they construct
-themselves. The life histories of the two striped species are less well
-known than those of the more economically important species. All species
-hibernate. The striped species disappear in October and reappear the
-following March. This can be called true hibernation. The long-tailed
-ground squirrels probably hibernate at high altitudes but aestivate in
-more arid localities. In Washington the Douglas ground squirrel occupies
-an area that is relatively temperate and humid. They may hibernate or
-aestivate, depending on local conditions, or they may remain active all
-year. The spotted ground squirrels disappear in midsummer and sleep
-(aestivate) until the following spring, for in their arid habitat the
-disappearance of green food in late summer and fall makes living
-conditions almost as unfavorable as in winter.
-
-Townsend ground squirrels range from central Washington south to
-southern Nevada and from the Cascade Mountains east to eastern Idaho and
-central Utah. Five races are recognized, only one of which occurs in
-Washington, where it is confined to the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. It
-occupies the sagebrush area, being most common where the sage is in
-scattered clumps separated by grassy areas. Occasionally these squirrels
-occupy extensive grasslands where sage is scarce and in the Yakima area
-may enter pastures and fields. They live in colonies, often with more
-than ten separate burrows to the acre.
-
-Burrows are dug in dusty ground, either near sage bushes or in openings
-among them. Well-worn trails lead from feeding places to openings of
-burrows. Mouths of burrows are usually situated on flat ground and are
-surrounded by a rim of excavated earth four to six inches high. If
-located on a slope, the excavated earth collects as a mound on the lower
-side, and serves as a look-out post for the squirrels. Burrows excavated
-by Scheffer are described by Howell (1938: 5). One reached a depth of
-5-1/4 feet at a point where it branched 11 feet from the entrance. One
-branch led to the nest chamber three feet to the right of the main
-tunnel. The other reached a depth of six feet at a point 14 feet from
-the entrance, then turned upwards at a 70 degree angle and reached the
-surface through a partly obstructed entrance, 12 feet from the original
-entrance. The nest chamber was 6-1/2 inches in diameter and filled with
-a perfectly dry nest of fine grass, partly broken and shredded.
-
-Food consists of soft green vegetation and seeds. Foods listed by Howell
-(1938: 5) include: _Sphaeralida munroana_, _Plantago purshii_, _Bromus
-tectorum_, _Agropyron pauciflorum_, _Oryzopsis hymenoides_, _Norta
-altissima_, _Artemisiae spinescens_, sunflower, alfalfa, wheat, barley,
-potato, beets, carrots, lettuce, and insects (grasshoppers, cicadas). In
-1917, these squirrels were reported to have practically destroyed a
-ten-acre field of beets at White Swan, Yakima County.
-
-Aestivation of older individuals begins in late May and the last young
-disappear in early June. The squirrels appear again in late January,
-before the snow has disappeared (Scheffer, 1941: 272).
-
-The voice of the Townsend ground squirrel is a faint, high pitched
-"pe-eee-ep," of remarkable carrying power for so faint a sound, and
-extremely difficult to trace to its source. Scheffer (in Howell, _op.
-cit._, p. 6) mentions also a chirping sound and a chatter of alarm which
-I have not heard.
-
-Five to seven embryos were found in specimens collected near Yakima.
-Scheffer (1941: 270) found the number of fetuses in 52 pregnant females
-from the Kennewick area to vary from 4 to 16 with an average of 8.6.
-Francis (1922: 5) reported tularemia in this species. They probably
-harbor also sylvatic plague.
-
-
-=Citellus washingtoni= Howell
-
-Washington ground squirrel; sage rat
-
-      _Citellus washingtoni washingtoni_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:69,
-      May 18, 1938.
-
-      _Citellus washingtoni loringi_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:71, May
-      18, 1938 (type from Douglas, Douglas County, Washington).
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Touchet, Walla Walla County, Washington, by C.
-      P. Streator on May 18, 1891; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau and southward into Oregon,
-      ranging from Farmer (Howell, 1938: 71) and Moses Coulee (W. W. D.)
-      south to Wallula (M. V. Z.).
-
-      _Measurements._--Fifteen specimens from the vicinity of the type
-      locality average: total length 229.2; length of tail 50; hind foot
-      35.3. A male from 4 miles west of Pasco, Franklin County, weighed
-      201 grams.
-
-      _Remarks._--_Citellus w. loringi_ allegedly differs from typical
-      _washingtoni_ in smaller size. The specimens collected by us from
-      within the range of _loringi_ are as large as those from farther
-      south. _C. w. loringi_ is regarded as a synonym of _C. w.
-      washingtoni_.
-
-_Description._--The Washington ground squirrel closely resembles the
-Townsend ground squirrel in size and appearance. It differs principally
-in color. The upper parts are brownish gray marked with distinct white
-spots, and the underparts are buffy. The face, thighs and tail are dull
-reddish.
-
-This species is closely related to the Townsend ground squirrel but its
-habitat is more varied. It is most common in areas of low sage bushes
-surrounded by grasslands and on extensive grasslands, but occurs also in
-sandy places, wheat fields, and rocky hillsides. The animals live in
-colonies, in some places 50 or more individuals to the acre. They occur
-also as scattered individuals or small colonies in smaller areas of
-suitable habitat. For example, along the highway from Farmer, Douglas
-County, to Waterville, a distance of 15 miles, a band of natural grass,
-50 feet or less in width, lies between the road and the extensive wheat
-fields beyond. This strip of natural cover possessed about one
-_Citellus_ to each 200 feet along most of its length. The squirrels were
-often seen sitting on rolls of wire drift fence, used to keep snow
-drifts from the road in winter but in summer rolled into bundles 3 feet
-in diameter and left standing at intervals of one each 100 feet. The
-squirrels had constructed their burrow entrances beneath these rolls and
-used the rolls as look-out posts. At my approach they would dodge into
-the rolls of wire and, unless scared, remained in the wire roll. By
-approaching carefully and overturning the rolls I was able to trap and
-capture a good series of living specimens.
-
-Burrows, nests, habits, and food of this species seem identical to those
-of _townsendii_. Aestivation dates seem to be the same (Scheffer, 1941:
-270-279). The hibernation of this species has been discussed in detail
-by Svhila (1939: 6-10). Food species listed by Scheffer at Wallula
-(Howell, 1938: 8) are identical to those of _townsendii_ at Kennewick,
-across the Columbia River (see account of _townsendii_).
-
-Scheffer (1941: 270-279) examined 26 pregnant females of this species
-and found the fetuses to vary from 5 to 11 in number, with an average of
-8.
-
-
-=Citellus columbianus= (Ord)
-
-Columbian ground squirrel
-
-_Description._--The Columbian ground squirrel has the general body
-proportions, large head, large eyes, low, rounded ears, plump body and
-short tail of the Townsend ground squirrel, but is much larger. The head
-and body of an adult measure about 10 inches and the tail about 4
-inches. The upper parts are grayish buff mottled with round white dots.
-The underparts and forefeet are pale ochraceous. The back of the head
-and neck are gray. The face, thighs and tail are reddish.
-
-The Columbian ground squirrel occupies inland mountainous areas from
-central British Columbia to central Oregon and Idaho and from eastern
-Washington and Oregon to western Montana and southwestern Alberta. It is
-closely related to the arctic ground squirrels of the _Citellus parryii_
-group, which are in turn related to the Siberian forms, _buxtoni_ and
-_stejnegeri_.
-
-The habitat of the Columbian ground squirrel is varied but is usually
-more humid than that of the Townsend and Washington ground squirrels.
-The most arid of the lands occupied by them in Washington are the
-grasslands and wheat fields of the Poulouse country and the eastern
-border of the state. In northeastern Washington they live in meadows and
-grasslands in the valleys, in openings in the coniferous forest at
-higher altitudes and in parks and alpine meadows almost to timber-line
-on the mountains. Some individuals were in brushy places or even in
-forests, far from grassy clearings. Near Republic, Ferry County, a
-Columbian ground squirrel was killed as it ran along a log in dense
-larch woods. Its burrows were found in a tangle of brush and fallen
-logs. No clearings, meadow or grassland existed nearby. Narrow bands of
-cleared land beside roads and railroad tracks are extensively used by
-these squirrels. Where small meadows or pastures occur, this species
-lives in dense colonies. If grasslands are extensive it lives in loose
-colonies, often with considerable distances between individual burrow
-systems. In the mountains the squirrels are scattered or live in small
-groups.
-
-Burrows of the Columbian ground squirrel are often constructed in the
-open. Mouths of burrows, especially if the animals are living in
-colonies, usually are marked by a large pile of excavated earth. If,
-however, there is some large object on the surface of the ground, such
-as a stone, stump, or log, the entrance to the burrow is located beside
-this. Such objects are often undermined and made to settle, eventually
-becoming buried. The squirrels live under houses, and the yards of
-abandoned ranch buildings are often infested with them.
-
-The burrows of the Columbian ground squirrel have been described by Shaw
-(1919, 1924B, 1925, A, B, E, 1926) and Bailey (1918: 47). Two types of
-burrows are constructed, summer burrows and hibernation dens. Summer
-burrows are used year after year, perhaps by succeeding generations of
-squirrels. They vary considerably but usually are 3 or 4 inches in
-diameter and possess several entrances. The depth to which the burrow
-descends, as well as the number of forks and subsidiary burrows, depends
-to some extent on the whims of the individual squirrel and the length of
-time the burrow has been occupied. Usually the burrow reaches a depth of
-four feet and two or more branches are present. A turning-about chamber
-is present, not far from the entrance. Here a startled squirrel can turn
-about and watch the entrance and, if the alarm was false, the squirrel
-resumes its activities above ground. Nests are above the level of the
-main burrow system and thus are protected from flooding by rain or
-melting snow. Stored food and excrement are deposited in separate
-compartments. Escape entrances, concealed in grass and weeds, for use in
-case the burrow is invaded, are dug from beneath the surface of the
-ground and thus are unmarked by any telltale mound of earth.
-
-Separate dens are used for aestivation. While the squirrel is in
-aestivation the entrances to the summer burrow are solidly plugged with
-tamped earth. Aestivation dens are short and may or may not communicate
-with the summer burrow. Shaw (1925B: 58) measured 50 such dens and found
-the aestivation cell to average 2 feet 6 inches beneath the surface with
-extreme depths of 6 inches and 4 feet 11 inches. Ordinarily a drainage
-burrow is dug beneath the level of the nest.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 85. Distribution of the Columbian and Beechey
-  ground squirrels in Washington. A. _Citellus columbianus columbianus._
-  B. _Citellus columbianus ruficaudus._ C. _Citellus beecheyi douglasii._]
-
-The time and length of aestivation is variable. Old males enter
-aestivation before the females and young, and emerge earlier in the
-spring. In the lowlands, as about Pullman, Whitman County, the squirrels
-begin to disappear in mid July. In the mountains of northeastern
-Washington they are active until late August. They emerge again in late
-February or early March. Shaw (1925B) mentions that food is occasionally
-stored in aestivation dens of male squirrels. This food is not eaten in
-the winter but in the spring, when the squirrels awaken.
-
-The gestation period was determined by Shaw (1925C: 108) as 24 days. Two
-to five, rarely seven, young are born. The average litter is about 3.5.
-Mating occurs in late March and the young are born about the middle of
-April.
-
-Most green vegetation occurring in its habitat is food for the Columbian
-ground squirrel. Bulbs, seeds, fruit, berries, grain, clover, alfalfa,
-and garden truck are eagerly eaten. The squirrels are especially fond of
-wheat and great damage results from their depredations. In northeastern
-Washington some wheat fields are almost entirely destroyed. Shaw (1925G)
-showed that one squirrel destroyed an average of more than 50 pounds of
-wheat in a season. When populations range as high as ten squirrels to
-the acre, little wheat is left.
-
-In Montana the Columbian ground squirrel is a known reservoir of Rocky
-Mountain spotted fever (Birdseye, 1912: 1-46) while sylvatic plague has
-been reported in this species in Oregon (Meyer, 1936: 965). Control of
-the Columbian ground squirrel by traps, poison, and shooting is only
-locally successful.
-
-
-=Citellus columbianus columbianus= (Ord)
-
-      _Arctomys columbianus_ Ord, Guthrie's Geography, 2d American
-      Edition, 2:292 (description, p. 303), 1815.
-
-      _Spermophilus columbianus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:39, July 30,
-      1891.
-
-      _Citellus columbianus_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 19:536,
-      October 10, 1903.
-
-      _Type._--None designated. Description based on Lewis and Clark's
-      account of animals taken by them between the forks of the
-      Clearwater and Kooskooskie rivers, Idaho.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Smaller size and paler color than in
-      _ruficaudus_.
-
-      _Measurements._--Five females from northeastern Washington
-      average: total length 346; length of tail 77; hind foot 48.6; ear
-      20.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, from 15 mi. E. Tonasket
-      (W. W. D.) east to Pass Creek Pass (U. S. N. M.) and south to
-      Pullman (W. S. C.) along the eastern edge of the state.
-
-
-=Citellus columbianus ruficaudus= Howell
-
-      _Citellus columbianus ruficaudus_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 41:212, December 18, 1928.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Wallowa Lake, Wallowa County, Oregon, by G. G.
-      Cantwell on April 13, 1919; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _Citellus columbianus
-      columbianus_ but tail redder, especially above, and red color
-      everywhere deeper.
-
-      _Distribution._--Restricted to the Blue Mountains of extreme
-      southeastern Washington.
-
-      _Remarks._--This is at best a slightly differentiated race and
-      upon further study, animals assigned to it may prove unworthy of
-      recognition as a distinct subspecies.
-
-
-=Citellus beecheyi douglasii= (Richardson)
-
-Beechey ground squirrel
-
-      _Arctomys? (Spermophilus?) douglasii_ Richardson, Fauna
-      Boreali-Americana, 1:172, 1829.
-
-      _Spermophilus douglasii_ F. Cuvier, Sup. a l'hist. natur. Buffon,
-      1:333, 1831.
-
-      [_Spermophilus grammurus_] var. _douglasii_ Allen, Proc. Boston
-      Soc. Nat. Hist., 16:293, 1874.
-
-      _Citellus v[ariegatus]. douglasii_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus.
-      Publ. 76, zoöl. ser. 3:183, May, 1903.
-
-      _Citellus beecheyi douglasi_ Grinnell, Proc. California Acad.
-      Sci., 3 (ser. 4):345, August 28, 1913.
-
-      _Otospermophilus grammurus douglasii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus.
-      Bull., 128:18, April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Citellus douglasii_ Taylor and Shaw, _Occ._ Papers Chas. R.
-      Conner Mus., no. 2:15, December, 1929.
-
-      _Citellus beecheyi douglasii_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:150, May
-      18, 1938.
-
-      _Type._--None. Description based on a hunter's skin from "Banks of
-      the Columbia," probably near The Dalles, Wasco County, Oregon.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male and 6 females from Klickitat County,
-      average, respectively: total length 469, 480; length of tail 181,
-      198; hind foot 58, 62; ear 26, 26.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Columbia River Valley from Goldendale (W. W.
-      D.) west to the White Salmon River (W. W. D.).
-
-_Remarks._--Ground squirrels have been common on the Oregon side of the
-Columbia River for a long time. The specimen upon which the description
-was based was presumably obtained there in the early 1800's. Yet the
-species did not become established in Washington until 100 years later,
-in about 1915.
-
-The head is large with eyes and ears of moderate size. The body is
-rather stout; thicker than that of a tree squirrel but slimmer than that
-of the Columbian ground squirrel. Head and body are about 11 inches in
-length and the tail is about 7 inches long. The upper parts are dark
-brownish or blackish gray heavily marked with white spots. A triangular
-area at the shoulders is clear black outlined in whitish. The head and
-neck are grayish brown. The underparts are buffy. The tail is gray above
-and buffy beneath.
-
-This species belongs to the subgenus _Otospermophilus_. Externally the
-species _beecheyi_ differs from _Citellus washingtoni_, _townsendii_,
-and _columbianus_, all of which belong to the subgenus _Citellus_, in
-possessing more slender limbs, a longer, thinner body, a rather bushy
-tail that is nearly two-thirds, rather than less than half, the length
-of the body, and larger, more prominent ears. The Beechey ground
-squirrel lacks also the hazel color of nose and thigh that is
-characteristic of the subgenus _Citellus_ in Washington.
-
-_Citellus beecheyi_ ranges from the southern edge of the state of
-Washington southward through western Oregon and California into northern
-Lower California. It is a western coastal species and reaches eastward
-only as far as Nevada. A related species, _Citellus variegatus_, occurs
-farther inland, from Utah, Colorado, and Texas, southward to central
-Mexico. Eight subspecies of _Citellus beecheyi_ are recognized by Howell
-(1938), all but three of which are restricted to California.
-
-At present the Beechey ground squirrel occupies a limited area of
-Washington, which it has invaded in recent years (Scheffer and Dalquest,
-1939: 44). However, it is extending its range and may be expected
-eventually to occupy a considerable part of the state.
-
-The habitat of this ground squirrel is varied. It occupies a more humid
-terrain than do most members of the genus. At the present time it is
-most common in grassy fields and rocky outcrops along the Columbia
-River. It is common also in the open oak groves on the hillsides back
-from the river valley and some individuals were seen near Guler, well up
-on the slopes of Mount Adams. As observed in Washington, its favored
-habitat is about rock outcrops and talus slides near extensive fields or
-grasslands. In California and Oregon, however, it occurs among other
-places, in scattered fields and meadows of the coniferous forests in the
-humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. The range of tolerance of
-the species is such that it might extend its range into much of western
-Washington, including the Puget Sound area. It may be expected to move
-northward through the eastern Cascades.
-
-Because of its limited range and the short time of its establishment,
-the Beechey ground squirrel has been studied little in Washington.
-According to Howell (1938: 28), this race is less prolific and abundant
-than other members of the species. Of the Beechey ground squirrel,
-certainly the subspecies _C. b. douglasii_, is less common, locally and
-over wide areas, in its range in California and Oregon, than are the
-subspecies _C. b. beecheyi_ and _C. b. fisheri_ in California. In
-Washington, on the other hand, _douglasii_ is locally abundant, perhaps
-more so than elsewhere.
-
-The habits of this race in California have been studied by Grinnell and
-Dixon (1919: 595-807). Burrows have been excavated near Eugene, Oregon,
-and the findings published (Edge, 1934: 189-193). Burrows were dug on
-sloping or well-drained ground. Mounds of earth at the entrances were
-usually inconspicuous but well-worn trails led to the burrows. The
-burrows entered the ground at an angle of 35° for about two feet, then
-flattened out horizontally for six feet or more. The burrows were from 1
-to 4 feet deep, usually about 2 feet. Ordinary burrows had a single
-entrance but some older burrows had two or more. Burrows branched
-frequently. Nest chambers were of the shape of a flattened sphere 10
-inches in diameter. Frequently more than one nest was found in a burrow,
-but only one was in use at a time. Some nests were infested with fleas.
-Nests frequently contained food. Most of the burrows observed by me had
-their entrances beside rocks or oak roots. In alfalfa fields near Bingen
-and Lyle, Klickitat County, the burrows were in open fields and the
-entrances were marked by large mounds of earth. In actual diameter the
-burrows seemed smaller than those of _Citellus columbianus_.
-
-Aestivation and hibernation of the ground squirrels in the lower
-Columbia River Valley seem unnecessary, for the climate is temperate and
-humid. It is not established that _douglasii_ hibernates in other parts
-of its range where the climate is mild. Specimens shot at White Salmon
-in early March were lean and gave no evidence of having hibernated.
-
-The Beechey ground squirrel is an excellent climber; I have seen
-individuals in oak trees on a number of occasions. They like to sit on
-fence posts and when alarmed descend head foremost, with speed and
-agility. In running on the ground their movements are more graceful than
-those of _Citellus columbianus_ but are unlike the flowing, bounding run
-of tree squirrels.
-
-Near White Salmon and Lyle, these ground squirrels were eating burr
-clover (_Medicago_), grasses (_Bromus_), and alfalfa. In some places
-they do considerable damage to alfalfa fields. They probably eat acorns
-and are said to eat some insects.
-
-In California the young are born in May and number five to seven.
-
-No disease has been recorded for this subspecies but a related form in
-California (_Citellus b. beecheyi_) is known to harbor plague (Kellogg,
-1935: 857) and tularemia (McCoy, 1911: 53-71).
-
-
-=Citellus lateralis= (Say)
-
-Golden-mantled ground squirrel
-
-_Description._--The head and body measure about 6 inches and the tail
-about 4 inches. The head is large and rounded with eyes and ears of
-moderate size. The body is stouter than that of a chipmunk. The tail is
-long and well furred. Upper parts are buffy gray with one pale stripe
-bordered by two black stripes extending from shoulders to rump, and the
-underparts are buffy. The head and shoulders are tawny. The tail is
-buffy beneath and darker above.
-
-Externally golden-mantled ground squirrels somewhat resemble chipmunks
-but actually are no more closely related to chipmunks than are other
-ground squirrels. They are larger than chipmunks and their stripes
-differ in that there is but one pale stripe on each side bordered with
-black stripes rather than two pale stripes, and in that the stripes end
-at the shoulders rather than continuing on to the face.
-
-These ground squirrels are distributed in mountainous areas of western
-North America from central British Columbia south to central Arizona and
-New Mexico. A closely related species (_Citellus madrensis_) occupies a
-limited area in northern Mexico and another lives in the Cascades of
-Washington. There are two subspecies of _lateralis_ in Washington, each
-with a major part of its range outside of Washington.
-
-This species inhabits mountain clearings, parks and talus slides, where
-it is most common about rocks, stumps, and logs. Its fondness for talus
-slides and outcrops has earned it the common name of "rock squirrel" in
-some places.
-
-Entrances to burrows are usually beside a rock, stump, or root, or are
-concealed under talus slides. A burrow excavated by Hatt (1927) in
-Colorado was three inches in diameter at the entrance and uniformly two
-inches in diameter for the rest of its length. Most of the burrow was 8
-inches beneath the surface. The tunnel branched twice and contained one
-pocket, probably a turning or passing chamber, in addition to the nest.
-"A runway surrounded the nest on three sides, from which there were four
-passages leading in. The nest cavity was 4 inches deep, the nest not
-filling the space available, but occurring more as a mat in the bottom
-of a cup."
-
-The habits of this ground squirrel in Washington are little known. Since
-it occupies areas that are cold and under deep snow in winter, it
-probably hibernates. According to Howell (1938: 32) these animals become
-fat in the fall and must retire for the winter about the middle of
-September.
-
-The food habits of these ground squirrels in Washington are little
-known. In the Pend Oreille Mountains, Pend Oreille County, I found them
-eating the fruit of the western raspberry (_Rubus leucodermis_). Howell
-lists, as food of this species, the seeds of yellow pine and douglas
-fir, serviceberries, other berries and seeds, grain, mushrooms, and
-several kinds of insects.
-
-
-=Citellus lateralis tescorum= (Hollister)
-
-      _Callospermophilus lateralis tescorum_ Hollister, Smithsonian Misc.
-      Coll., 56 (no. 26):2, December 5, 1911.
-
-      _Citellus lateralis tescorum_ Elliot, Check-list Mamm. N. Amer.,
-      Supp., p. 29, 1917.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at the head of Moose Pass Branch, Smoky River,
-      Alberta (near Moose Pass, British Columbia), 7,000 ft., by N.
-      Hollister on August 2, 1911; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Large size, gray color.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille
-      County, measures: total length 257; length of tail 90; hind foot
-      40; ear 14.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from the Pend Oreille Mountains, Pend
-      Oreille County, at Pass Creek Pass (W. W. D.).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 86. Distribution of golden-mantled ground
-  squirrels in Washington. A. _Citellus lateralis tescorum._
-  B. _Citellus lateralis connectens._ C. _Citellus saturatus._]
-
-
-=Citellus lateralis connectens= (Howell)
-
-      _Callospermophilus chrysodeirus connectens_ Howell, Jour. Mamm.,
-      12:161, May 14, 1931.
-
-      _Citellus lateralis connectens_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:205,
-      May 18, 1938.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Homestead, Oregon, by H. H. Sheldon on June 1,
-      1916; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial Characters._--Similar to _C. l. tescorum_ but browner,
-      more buffy and less grayish, mantle brighter, size slightly
-      smaller.
-
-      _Measurements._--Seven males from northeastern Oregon average
-      (Howell, 1938: 206): total length 266; length of tail 92; hind
-      foot 41.7; ear 14.8 (dry). An adult female from Godman Springs,
-      Columbia County, measures: total length 257; length of tail 87;
-      hind foot 37; ear 14.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of extreme southeastern
-      Washington.
-
-      _Remarks._--This race differs markedly from the subspecies that
-      occupies northeastern Washington, but differs but little from
-      _Citellus l. chrysodeirus_ of the Cascades of Oregon.
-
-
-=Citellus saturatus= (Rhoads)
-
-Golden-mantled ground squirrel
-
-      _Tamias lateralis saturatus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
-      Philadelphia, 1895:43, April 9, 1895.
-
-      [_Spermophilus lateralis_] _saturatus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus.
-      Publ. 45, zoöl. ser., 2:83, 1901.
-
-      _Citellus lateralis saturatus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ.
-      105, zoöl. ser., 6:106, 1905.
-
-      _Callospermophilus lateralis saturatus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus.
-      Bull., 79:316, December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Citellus saturatus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:212, May 18, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Lake Keechelus, 3000 ft., Kittitas County,
-      Washington, by A. Rupert, in September, 1893; type in Academy of
-      Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
-
-      _Measurements._--Ten males from the Cascade Mountains average:
-      total length 305; length of tail 110.9; hind foot 46.5; ear 17
-      (dry). The weights of 3 males and 5 females average, respectively:
-      281 grams; 259.4 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The higher and eastern Cascade Mountains from
-      Barron (Howell, 1938: 213) and Bauerman Ridge (Howell, 1938: 213)
-      south to Cleveland (Howell, 1938: 213) and Goldendale (W. W. D.).
-
-_Remarks._--The golden-mantled ground squirrel of the Cascades is
-similar to _Citellus lateralis_ but is larger and duller-colored. Head
-and body are about 8 inches in length and the tail is about 4-1/2 inches
-long. The upper parts are brownish gray with one pale and two dark
-stripes on each side. Head and shoulders are tawny. The underparts are
-dull buffy gray.
-
-_Citellus saturatus_ occupies the Cascade Mountains of Washington and
-southern British Columbia. It inhabits talus slides and clearings. The
-rock embankment of the Great Northern Railroad between the Cascade
-Tunnel and Leavenworth, Chelan County, is a favored habitat and the
-population along the railroad probably averages one squirrel each
-hundred yards. To the east it extends well into the Transition
-Life-zone, being abundant in clearings in the open forest of yellow
-pine. In places its range nearly reaches the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. A
-few miles east of Leavenworth, Chelan County, we found this squirrel in
-chapparal and brush, principally composed of _Ceanothus creneatus_. Here
-the animals were unusually abundant and formed a colony almost as dense
-as colonies of _Citellus washingtoni_.
-
-Entrances of burrows are usually placed beside rocks, stumps or logs.
-In the area near Leavenworth, mentioned above, entrances to burrows
-were in the open or among roots of bushes. The entrances to many
-burrows are doubtless concealed under talus slides. No complete records
-of excavations of burrows are available. One burrow, uncovered by road
-construction operations three miles east of Scenic, Chelan County, was
-dug in the earth-filled cleft of a great granite boulder. The cleft
-was 5 feet wide at the surface of the ground but narrowed until at a
-depth of six feet the stones were in contact. The cleft was at least
-10 yards long. The burrow descended at an angle of 45 degrees, to a
-depth of three feet. Here the construction work had passed the cleft,
-but digging into the almost vertical wall uncovered the nest at the end
-of a horizontal tunnel two feet farther on. It was a matted cup of dry
-grass with two fresh, green fern fronds lying loose in the cup. Two
-divergent burrows emerged on opposite sides of the nest cavity, but a
-fall of the loose, gravelly soil prevented further observation. The
-body of the occupant, crushed and mangled by the steam-shovel scoop,
-was that of a small male.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 87. Golden-mantled ground squirrel (_Citellus
-  saturatus_), captured when young at Tye, Washington, by Earl J.
-  Larrison, June 20, 1940; photographed February 1, 1941. (Fish and
-  Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1139.)]
-
-In spite of their vivacious appearance, these squirrels are rather
-sedentary. When undisturbed they move leisurely over rocks and stumps,
-pausing often, and occasionally sitting on their hindquarters to gaze
-about for minutes at a time. They are good climbers and often ascend
-smooth-barked trees to heights of 20 feet or more. At the approach
-of danger they descend and enter the nearest burrow. In August these
-ground squirrels become exceedingly fat and by late September only a
-few may be seen, basking in the midday sun. These take alarm at the
-slightest excuse. All have usually gone into hibernation by October 15.
-
-The food includes the berries of salal, huckleberry, mountain ash, and
-seeds of lupine. Near Liberty, Kittitas County, a squirrel killed by a
-car had its cheek pouches stuffed with garden peas. The source of its
-loot was doubtless the garden of a farmhouse 100 feet away. Numerous
-individuals are run over by cars, and on many occasions I have found
-other individuals eating the sun-dried flesh of their mates, parents,
-or young. These cannibals are often run over while so engaged, and it
-is not unusual to find two or three dead on a section of pavement 20
-feet in length.
-
-Economically this species is of little importance. Its principal enemies
-probably include hawks, weasels, martens, bobcats and coyotes.
-
-
-=Sciurus griseus griseus= Ord
-
-Western gray squirrel
-
-      _Sciurus griseus_ Ord, Jour. de phys., 87:152, 1818.
-
-      _Sciurus griseus griseus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:222,
-      April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Type._--None. Described from a squirrel seen by Lewis and Clark.
-      Type locality, The Dalles, Wasco County, Oregon.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from midway between Satus Pass and
-      Goldendale, Klickitat County, measured: total length 560; length
-      of tail 264; hind foot 76; weight 897 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Southwestern Washington north to the glacial
-      prairies near Tacoma (W. W. D.); the Columbia River Valley of the
-      southern Cascades; the eastern edge of the Cascades north to Lake
-      Chelan (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 18).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 88. Distribution of the western gray squirrel,
-  _Sciurus griseus_, in Washington.]
-
-_Description._--This is the largest tree squirrel found in Washington.
-The head and body measure about 12 inches, and the tail about 11 inches.
-The body is long and slender. The fur is long and soft, that on the tail
-being exceptionally long. The upper parts are silvery gray and the
-underparts white.
-
-The western gray squirrel is restricted to the region of the Pacific
-Coast and ranges from central Washington south to northern Lower
-California. Three subspecies are recognized, only one of which occurs in
-Washington. Like the red squirrels, the western gray squirrel is
-arboreal. Its favored habitat is the oak woods rather than coniferous
-forest. Its range in Washington is largely regulated by the distribution
-of oaks, especially the garry oak (_Quercus garryana_). Altitudinally it
-ranges from near sea level at Puget Sound to above 2,500 feet elevation
-in the eastern Cascade Mountains. It seems to be restricted to the
-Transition Life-zone.
-
-The habits of the western gray squirrel are modified by its arboreal
-existence. Homes consist of holes in hollow trees or outside nests of
-sticks and twigs. It is extremely active in trees and travels from tree
-to tree on branches that seem scarcely strong enough to bear the weight
-of so large an animal. The oak woods in Washington are usually rather
-open and the trees more scattered than is the case in coniferous
-forests. Consequently gray squirrels must more often descend to the
-ground than Douglas and red squirrels. On the ground, western gray
-squirrels travel in smooth leaps each of two feet or more in length. The
-long tail is held out behind and "follows through" the animal's leaps in
-a remarkable way. The tip of the tail may be descending from the
-previous leap while the animal's fore parts are already at the height of
-a new jump. This results in a "flowing" movement that is extremely
-graceful. The squirrel may stop momentarily to dig in the ground or
-search for an acorn. At such times the tail is immediately switched up,
-over the back.
-
-The western gray squirrel is able to drop unharmed for considerable
-distances. Near Fort Lewis, Pierce County, a gray squirrel was cornered
-in a tall fir tree and an agile friend volunteered to climb the tree.
-The squirrel ascended to the very topmost branches. When only a few feet
-separated them the squirrel leaped far out into the air. Its legs were
-stretched out stiffly, the tail was extended and the body slightly
-arched. It struck the ground with an audible thud and bounced fully 18
-inches. At the height of its bounce, the squirrel's legs began moving
-rapidly, and it struck the ground the second time at a full run.
-
-The principal food is acorns, although the seeds of the Douglas fir and
-probably other conifers are eaten. Four embryos were found by Victor B.
-Scheffer in a specimen from Klickitat County on March 20, 1939.
-
-
-=Sciurus carolinensis hypophaeus= Merriam
-
-Eastern gray squirrel
-
-      _Sciurus carolinensis hypophaeus_ Merriam, Science, 7:351, April
-      16, 1886.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota.
-
-_Description._--Size large, slightly smaller than the western gray
-squirrel; color of upper parts less silvery, more reddish, especially on
-the dorsal area and top of the tail.
-
-_Remarks._--The eastern gray squirrel was introduced at Woodland Park,
-Seattle, in 1925. The original stock (7 pairs) came from Minneapolis,
-Minnesota. It has spread through the nearby woods, around Green Lake,
-Cowan Park, and to the woods on the University of Washington Campus.
-Occasional individuals are found outside the city limits, but the
-species seems not to spread away from the city.
-
-
-=Sciurus niger= Linnaeus subsp?
-
-Fox squirrel
-
-      [_Sciurus_] _niger_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1 (10th ed.):64, 1758.
-
-_Description._--Similar in size and appearance to the eastern gray
-squirrel but upper parts more reddish and underparts reddish orange
-rather than white.
-
-_Remarks._--Occasional fox squirrels are encountered near Seattle where
-they have been introduced from the southeastern United States. The
-source and date of the introduction are unknown.
-
-
-=Tamiasciurus hudsonicus= (Erxleben)
-
-Red squirrel
-
-_Description._--The head and body of the red squirrel measure about
-7-3/4 inches, the tail about 5 inches. It may be recognized by its trim
-body, bushy tail and white underparts. The upper parts are reddish gray,
-reddest on the dorsal area. The red color of the center of the back
-extends to the tail. A black line separates the dark upper parts from
-the white underparts.
-
-Red squirrels range over North America from the northern limit of tree
-growth south through the United States to Tennessee and North Carolina.
-A related species, _douglasii_, is found along the Pacific coast from
-British Columbia to California. The genus _Tamiasciurus_ differs from
-_Sciurus_ of Washington in lacking a penis bone or baculum. There are
-other fundamental differences in anatomy (see Mossman, Lawlah and
-Bradley, 1932: 89-155).
-
-The habitat of the red squirrels is the coniferous forests from which
-they rarely stray. Zonally they range through the Transition and
-Canadian life-zones into the Hudsonian Life-zone. Red squirrels are
-arboreal and most of their habits are modified by arboreal existence.
-They are swift and agile climbers, able to travel from tree to tree on
-slender twigs or by leaping as much as ten feet to span the distance
-from one branch to another. They ascend and descend trees head first.
-They hang by their hind feet, high in the air, to clip the cones of
-conifers. If cornered in a tree they leap far out and, by extending the
-legs and tail stiffly, fall to the ground unharmed by leaps of fifty
-feet or more.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 89. Douglas squirrel (_Tamiasciurus douglasii
-  douglasii_): feeding station with remnants of Douglas fir cone,
-  Longmire, Washington, elevation 2,700 feet, June 25, 1937. (Fish
-  and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 268.)]
-
-The homes of red squirrels are woodpecker holes or other holes in hollow
-trees. More rarely they build outside nests of twigs and branches, about
-two feet in diameter, or add onto old nests of crows or jays. Most nests
-and holes are some distance from the ground but some holes are between
-roots on the ground itself.
-
-The food consists principally of the seeds of coniferous trees,
-especially Douglas fir and various species of pines. Cones are clipped
-when green or just before ripening and are either allowed to fall to the
-ground to be retrieved later or are at once carried to a favored feeding
-place to be consumed. Cones are held between the forepaws while the
-squirrel sits on its hind feet, tail curved up over its back, and
-rapidly clips the cone apart to get the seeds it contains. The cone is
-rotated between the paws and a steady stream of husks drops to the
-ground. Soon only the core is left and this too joins the husks on the
-ground. Favored feeding stations are used continually, perhaps by
-generation after generation of squirrels, and debris from thousands of
-cones accumulates in great piles.
-
-Cones are stored. In the vicinity of a favored feeding place, at times
-virtually every hiding place is filled with green cones. Cones may be
-jammed into cracks or crevices in logs or stumps without effort at
-concealment or may be carefully covered with leaves or dry needles. Many
-are placed in craterlike pits dug in the ground. Most of these pits
-probably are later covered over but many are left open to the weather.
-Hollows in trees are probably also used for storage, as are holes dug
-into the piles of accumulated cone debris beneath feeding stations.
-Other food eaten by squirrels includes hazelnuts, berries, maple seeds,
-and mushrooms. A variety of fruits and seeds are doubtless eaten when
-opportunity offers.
-
-Red squirrels do not hibernate. In the lowlands they are active all
-winter long but are noticeably shy and quiet. In the mountains they
-disappear after the snow falls but tracks may be seen in the snow about
-their dens and occasional individuals are seen. Specimens collected at
-this time are not fat, as would be the case if hibernation had been
-interrupted. Seemingly they stay close to their homes and feed on stored
-food.
-
-The call of the red squirrel is harsher, more metallic, than that of the
-Douglas squirrel. The common call is a rolling "bur-r-r," starting loud
-but fading out entirely in a half minute. A lower-pitched "pauf" is
-uttered at intervals when the squirrel is going about its business. The
-danger cry is a loud "pee-ee," not unlike the call of a red-tailed hawk
-but less shrill. A low pitched "chauf-chauf-chauf," repeated at
-intervals of about two seconds, is occasionally given in the fall of the
-year.
-
-
-=Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori= (Allen)
-
-      _Sciurus hudsonicus streatori_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
-      10:267, July 22, 1898.
-
-      _T[amiasciurus]. h[udsonicus]. streatori_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 49:135, August 22, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Ducks, British Columbia; type in American
-      Museum of Natural History.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _richardsoni_ but smaller and
-      darker, redder above.
-
-      _Measurements._--Seven males from north-central Washington average:
-      total length 330; length of tail 129; hind foot 51; ear 23.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington. Marginal occurrences are
-      (from Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 17): Beaver Creek, Ruby Creek, and
-      head of Lake Chelan.
-
-      _Remarks._--This race reaches Washington from the interior of
-      British Columbia. Intergradation between _hudsonicus streatori_
-      and _h. richardsoni_ takes place over much of northeastern
-      Washington.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 90. Distribution of the red squirrel and Douglas
-  squirrel in Washington. A. _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni._ B.
-  _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori._ C. _Tamiasciurus douglasii
-  douglasii._]
-
-
-=Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni= (Bachman)
-
-
-      _Sciurus richardsoni_ Bachman, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 100,
-      1838.
-
-      _Sciurus hudsonius Richardsoni_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
-      7:595, 1884.
-
-      _Sciurus hudsonicus richardsoni_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.
-      Hist., 10:265, July 22, 1898.
-
-      _Sciurus hudsonicus richardsoni_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      128:211, April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni_ Svihla and Svihla, Murrelet,
-      21:55, December 20, 1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at the head of the Big Lost River, Custer
-      County, Idaho.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Color paler, especially on back.
-
-      _Measurements._--Four males and 4 females average, respectively:
-      total length 339, 339; length of tail 133, 131; hind foot 54, 51;
-      ear 24, 24; weight 256, 266.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.
-
-
-=Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii= (Bachman)
-
-Douglas squirrel
-
-      _Sciurus douglasii_ Bachman, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 99,
-      1838.
-
-      _Sciurus hudsonius Douglasii_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
-      7:595, 1884.
-
-      _Sciurus douglasii douglasii_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      128:212, April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Sciurus douglasii cascadensis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas.
-      R. Conner Mus., no. 2:18, December, 1929.
-
-      _Tamiasciurus douglasii_ Holdenried, Jour. Mamm., 21:406, November
-      14, 1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained near the mouth of the Columbia River by David
-      Douglas.
-
-      _Measurements._--Fifteen males and 10 females from the lowlands of
-      western Washington average, respectively: total length 317, 320;
-      length of tail 121, 126.7; hind foot 50, 49.4; ear 23.2, 22.6;
-      weight 204, 202 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains
-      westward to the Pacific. Marginal occurrences are: Nooksack River
-      (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 18), Lake Wenatchee (W. W. D.) and
-      Wenatchee (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 18).
-
-_Remarks._--Squirrels from the Puget Sound area are slightly less
-intensely colored than specimens from the ocean coast and the Olympic
-Mountains. Those from the higher and eastern Cascade Mountains are
-paler still. When, however, squirrels from the Cascades of Washington
-are compared with individuals of the race inhabiting the Cascades of
-Oregon, it is apparent that the Washington squirrels are nearest to
-_douglasii_. The pale tips of the hairs in the tail of the Oregon race
-are strikingly white while in Washington specimens they are orange or
-yellow.
-
-The Douglas squirrel resembles the red squirrel in size and proportions
-but differs in being dusky olive (less reddish) on the upper parts and
-orange instead of white on the underparts.
-
-Douglas squirrels range from southern British Columbia southward
-to Lower California. They are confined to the Pacific Coastal
-region. Although closely related to _Tamiasciurus hudsonicus_, no
-intergradation with that species has been found.
-
-The rich coloration of the Douglas squirrel matches the background of
-the humid forests it inhabits. It occurs at sea level along the ocean
-coast, the shores of Puget Sound and on some islands in Puget Sound.
-It ranges through the Transition and Canadian life-zones well into the
-Hudsonian.
-
-It makes its home in holes in trees or in nests constructed of conifer
-twigs, needles and bark. Old nests of birds may be modified and taken
-over, but most outside nests seem to have been made entirely by the
-squirrel. Nests are usually placed near the top of denser fir and
-cedar trees. Nests are hemispherical in shape, 12 inches or more in
-diameter, and open on top. The central cup, 4 inches in diameter, is
-lined with strips of inner bark of red cedar coiled but unshredded.
-Nests in holes are usually some distance from the ground, but the
-entrances to some are at ground level.
-
-The habits of the Douglas squirrels vary with the season. In spring
-they are shy. They rarely call and are skillful in keeping branches
-or tree trunks between themselves and persons. In June and July
-they become bolder, calling more frequently and moving about more.
-In September and October they become exceptionally bold. They call
-almost incessantly from late morning until early afternoon, and spend
-considerable time on the ground.
-
-The call notes of the Douglas squirrel are similar to those of the
-red squirrel but are softer, more slurred. The common call is the
-long, trilling "burr," loud at first and becoming gradually softer.
-On hot afternoons in late summer a barking "pauf" note is given. This
-sound is repeated several times at intervals of a minute or so. It
-has remarkable carrying power. The danger signal is a loud, explosive
-"pe-ee." Another common call is a short barking or chirping "bauf" with
-a musical, questioning sound. This is repeated at intervals of a few
-seconds when the presence of danger is suspected. At times it, rather
-than the loud danger signal, is given also when a person is sighted. A
-low chirping note is often given while the squirrel is busily at work.
-This is made while the squirrel is moving about. Other calls described
-are made from a standing or sitting position and are accompanied by a
-jerk or a flick of the tail.
-
-The Douglas squirrel eats seeds of the Douglas fir, seeds of maple,
-hazelnuts, dogwood berries and mushrooms. The berries of forest shrubs,
-such as the red huckleberry, salal and Oregon grape, may also be eaten.
-
-Two broods of young may be born in a year. The first is born in early
-June. Embryos found from June 11 to 28 varied in number from 6 to 8. A
-nursing female was taken as early as June 10, 1938, and one was taken as
-late as October 10, 1938.
-
-Douglas squirrels commonly have a few fleas and 2 to 5 ticks at the
-bases of the ears. No lice, cases of mange, or serious infestations of
-parasites have been seen.
-
-
-=Glaucomys sabrinus= (Shaw)
-
-Northern flying squirrel
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 91. Northern flying squirrel (_Glaucomys
-  sabrinus_), probably from near Seattle, in Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle,
-  Washington, January 28, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by
-  Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1137.)]
-
-_Description._--The northern flying squirrel is slightly smaller than
-the red squirrel (_Tamiasciurus_). The head and body measure about 7
-inches and the tail about 5 inches. The most distinctive feature is
-the loose fold of skin that stretches from the wrist of the foreleg to
-the ankle of the hind leg. The fur is extremely soft and plushlike. It
-is not separated into guard hair and underfur, and because all hairs
-are of approximately the same length, the fur appears extremely sleek.
-The fur of the tail is of the same texture as that on the body but is
-dorso-ventrally compressed. The eyes are large and dark. The color of
-the upper parts varies from reddish brown in some races to brownish
-gray in others. The underparts are buffy gray.
-
-Flying squirrels range over the forested parts of North America from
-Guatemala to Alaska and northern Canada and from the Atlantic to
-the Pacific. A closely related genus (_Pteromys_) occurs in Europe.
-Two species are found in North America. The small _volans_ ranges
-in eastern United States, Mexico, and Guatemala, while the larger
-_sabrinus_ occurs in parts of the western United States, most of
-Canada, and central Alaska. Near the Great Lakes the two species occur
-in the same area, probably in different habitats.
-
-Howell (1918: 16) recognized 18 subspecies of _sabrinus_, five of which
-were recorded in the state of Washington. One of these (_olympicus_)
-proves to be a synonym of an earlier-named subspecies but another form
-(_bangsi_), not recorded for Washington by Howell, has been found in
-the Blue Mountains in the southeastern corner of the state (Taylor and
-Shaw, 1929: 18).
-
-Flying squirrels are strictly arboreal and occur only in woods and
-forests. They prefer areas where trees grow close together and to
-considerable heights. Older woods with dead stubs and hollow trees
-are preferred. They occasionally invade attics of cabins and other
-habitations of man. The old Forestry Building on the University of
-Washington Campus, later the home of the Washington State Museum,
-was inhabited by flying squirrels for many years. Several specimens
-preserved in the Museum prove the poor judgment of the animal in
-choosing a natural history museum as a home.
-
-Relatively little is known of the detailed habits of _Glaucomys
-sabrinus_ although the life history of the eastern _Glaucomys volans_
-has been described. Flying squirrels are active all winter, even in
-the high mountains. They are often caught in traps set for fur bearers
-and, where trapping is an important means of livelihood, they are
-serious pests. Flying squirrels do not actually fly but only glide
-through the air. The loose fold of fur between their limbs is stretched
-by extending the legs. With it the flying squirrel is able to sail 50
-yards or more. The flat tail serves as a rudder and allows the squirrel
-to change direction while in flight. Glides end with an upward swoop,
-allowing the squirrel to alight, head upwards, on a tree trunk slightly
-lower than their starting point.
-
-Unlike other members of the squirrel family, flying squirrels are
-completely nocturnal. They are seen in the daytime only when frightened
-from their retreats. Homes consist principally of old woodpecker holes
-or other cavities in trees. They are said to build outside nests,
-similar to those of tree squirrels, but I have found none of these in
-Washington. The animals can be frightened from their holes by pounding
-on the bases of trees in which their nests are situated. Certain holes
-seem to be preferred nesting places. Near Cottage Lake, King County,
-two flying squirrels were taken from a woodpecker hole in succeeding
-years. Cowan (1936B: 58) discovered remains of 14 nests of flying
-squirrels in a single hollow tree near Alta Lake, British Columbia.
-According to Cowan, hollow trees are used in winter but the young are
-born in outside nests of shredded bark and lichens. The young usually
-number 3 and are born in May and June.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 92. Distribution of flying squirrel in Washington.
-  A. _Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis._ B. _Glaucomys sabrinus
-  fuliginosus._ C. _Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis._ D. _Glaucomys
-  sabrinus latipes._ E. _Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi._]
-
-Only once have I heard the voice of a flying squirrel. Near Dewey Lake,
-Yakima County, the squirrels were unusually abundant in the black
-hemlock and Douglas fir forests of the mountain sides. Here a birdlike
-twittering note caught my attention and occasional dark, sailing shapes
-were glimpsed against the clear sky. Eight traps set in the afternoon
-and visited at 11 p. m. held two flying squirrels. In the morning
-another was in a trap. Seemingly the squirrels are active most of the
-night.
-
-The food consists principally of conifer seeds and probably other nuts,
-seeds, and fruit. They eat the meat bait of traps set for fur bearers
-and probably eat the eggs of birds.
-
-
-=Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis= (Bachman)
-
-      _Pteromys oregonensis_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
-      8:101, 1839.
-
-      _Sciuropterus alpinus oregonensis_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
-      Philadelphia, p. 324, June, 1897.
-
-      _Sciuropterus alpinus olympicus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ.
-      30, zoöl. ser., 1:225, February 1, 1899 (type from Happy Lake,
-      Clallam County, Washington).
-
-      _Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:44,
-      June 13, 1918.
-
-      _Glaucomys sabrinus olympicus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:49, June
-      13, 1918.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained "in pine [= conifer] woods of the Columbia near
-      the sea" by J. K. Townsend in 1839. Probably near St. Helen,
-      Columbia County, Oregon (Rhoads, 1897:324).
-
-      _Racial characters._--Small size, rich color.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from Cottage Lake, King County, measured:
-      total length 287; length of tail 125; hind foot 38. A female from
-      5 miles southeast of Sequim, Clallam County, measured: 303; 133;
-      41; ear 27. A male from Quilcene, Jefferson County, measured: 311;
-      140; 41.
-
-      _Distribution._--Western Washington west of the Cascade Mountains.
-      The locality records for flying squirrels in the northern Cascade
-      Mountains, given by Taylor and Shaw (1929: 18), when plotted on a
-      distribution map, show overlapping of ranges in this area. The
-      ranges of the three races involved have been drawn on the
-      accompanying map (fig. 92) on the basis of geographic probability
-      and are subject to revision because the specimens from this area
-      have not been examined.
-
-      Marginal records that may apply to _G. s. oregonensis_ are, from
-      Taylor and Shaw (1929: 18): Nooksack River, Rockport, North Bend
-      and Skamania.
-
-      _Remarks._--Of all the races occurring in Washington,
-      _oregonensis_ is the most distinct. _Glaucomys s. olympicus_
-      Elliot must be regarded as a synonym of _oregonensis_.
-
-
-=Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi= (Rhoads)
-
-      _Sciuropterus alpinus bangsi_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
-      Philadelphia, p. 321, June, 1897.
-
-      _Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:38, June
-      13, 1918.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained in Idaho County, Idaho, by Harbison and Bargamin
-      on March 8, 1897; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _oregonensis_ but larger and
-      paler throughout.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from Wildcat Spring, Columbia County,
-      measured: total length 333; length of tail 147; hind foot 45; ear
-      29; weight 151 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Found only in the Blue Mountains of extreme
-      southeastern Washington.
-
-
-
-
-=Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis= Howell
-
-      _Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 28:111, May 27, 1915.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Okanogan, British Columbia, by Allan Brooks on
-      May 9, 1898; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Larger than _oregonensis_ and paler. Similar
-      to _bangsi_ but paler, especially beneath, and less reddish above.
-
-      _Measurements._--Howell (1918: 46) gives the average of two
-      subadult topotypes as: total length 313; length of tail 143; hind
-      foot 42.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, probably extending, from
-      records of Taylor and Shaw (1929: 18), west to Mazama and Stehekin
-      and east to Molson.
-
-
-=Glaucomys sabrinus latipes= Howell
-
-      _Glaucomys sabrinus latipes_ Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      28:112, May 27, 1915.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Glacier, British Columbia, by J. A. Loring, on
-      August 13, 1894; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _bangsi_ and _columbiensis_ but
-      with larger feet and grayer color.
-
-      _Measurements._--Howell (1918: 49) gives the average of 10
-      specimens as: total length 342; length of tail 153; hind foot
-      41.5.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Pend Oreille Mountains of extreme
-      northeastern Washington, north (from records of Taylor and Shaw,
-      1929: 18-19, as revised) to Sullivan Lake and south to Loon Lake.
-
-
-=Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus= (Rhoads)
-
-      _Sciuropterus alpinus fuliginosus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
-      Philadelphia, p. 321, June, 1897.
-
-      _Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:47,
-      June 13, 1918.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Martin Station, Kittitas County, Washington,
-      by Allan Rupert in March, 1893; type in Philadelphia Academy of
-      Natural Sciences.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _columbiensis_ but underparts
-      darker and tail paler. Larger and paler than _oregonensis_.
-
-      _Measurements._--Three females from the Cascades average: total
-      length 327; length of tail 145; hind foot 40.7; ear 25.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, according to Taylor and
-      Shaw (1929: 18), as revised here, east to Entiat River and south
-      to Carson.
-
-
-=Perognathus parvus= (Peale)
-
-Great Basin pocket mouse
-
-_Description._--Great Basin pocket mice are slightly larger than house
-mice. The ears are tiny and round; the tail is relatively long, slightly
-longer than the head and body; the forefeet are small but the hind feet
-are large and powerful, more than one-fourth as long as the head and
-body. They have relatively large, fur-lined, external cheek pouches. The
-color of the upper parts varies with the subspecies from blackish
-olive-gray to buffy olive-gray; a line of clear buff or buffy-olive
-extends along the lower part of side, separating the darker color of the
-upper parts from the white underparts; the tail is short-haired,
-blackish above, olive beneath.
-
-Pocket mice of the genus _Perognathus_ range from Mexico northward to
-British Columbia. Only one species, _parvus_, occurs in Washington where
-it is represented by three subspecies. Pocket mice are most common in
-the Upper Sonoran Life-zone in sandy areas dotted with desert shrubs.
-They are found occasionally in dry, grassy places in the Arid Transition
-Life-zone. They may be locally abundant in rocky areas and are often
-trapped high on talus slides, many yards from the nearest soil. Gray
-(1943: 191-193) estimates their numbers on the sagebrush areas of the
-Yakima Valley at 32 per acre. They are completely nocturnal. Their
-ordinary movements are rather slow and specimens studied by the aid of a
-searchlight usually crept quietly into the protection of the nearest
-desert shrub. The trail of a pocket mouse in soft sand may be recognized
-by the distinctive mark left by the dragging tail.
-
-Burrows of pocket mice usually are at the bases of shrubs where tough
-roots furnish protection. They are kept closed during the day by means
-of a plug of fresh earth or sand. Openings may often be recognized by a
-fan-shaped pile of fresh sand before the hole. Burrows excavated were
-usually less than four feet in length and branched from two to four
-times. No nests were found in the burrows but one contained a few fresh
-stalks of desert annuals. The air in the burrows seemed warm and humid.
-
-The pouches of pocket mice from Washington often contain the fresh,
-green tips of desert plants, grass seeds, seeds of plants other than
-grasses, and plant leaves. Because of their occasional great abundance,
-pocket mice may be a menace to agriculture. Fortunately much of their
-habitat is unsuited to farming.
-
-In Washington pocket mice breed in March and April. From 4 to 8 embryos
-were found in pregnant females.
-
-
-=Perognathus parvus parvus= (Peale)
-
-      _Cricetodipus parvus_ Peale, U. S. Explor. Exped., 8 (mamm. and
-      ornith.):53, 1848.
-
-      _Perognathus parvus_ Cassin, U. S. Explor. Exped., 8 (mamm. and
-      ornith.):48, 1858.
-
-      _Perognathus parvus parvus_ Miller, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
-      128:278, April 29, 1924.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 93. Distribution of the Great Basin pocket mouse
-  in Washington. A. _Perognathus parvus parvus._ B. _Perognathus parvus
-  columbianus._ C. _Perognathus parvus lordi._]
-
-      _Type._--Probably obtained in the neighborhood of The Dalles, Wasco
-      County, Oregon.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size small; upper parts brownish-buff washed
-      with blackish or, in gray phase, ashy gray washed with blackish;
-      sides buffy yellow; a buffy spot often present on throat; tail
-      blackish above, olive below; facial markings usually brownish-buff
-      but in older animals indistinct and washed with blackish.
-
-      _Measurements._--Thirty-one males and 19 females from Washington
-      average, respectively: total length 169, 164; length of tail 90,
-      86; hind foot 22.6, 21.8; ear 5, 5.
-
-      _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington south of the Snake River,
-      the area on the north side of the Columbia River in Klickitat
-      County, and the Yakima Valley area as far north as the Vantage,
-      Kittitas County (W. W. D.). Other marginal records are: Kennewick
-      (W. W. D.), Atilla (W. W. D.) and Walla Walla (E. S. B.).
-
-      _Remarks._--Dichromatism seems to be rather common in _Perognathus
-      p. parvus_--so common that Osgood (1900: 35) recognized both a
-      "red" and a "gray" phase. Anderson (1932: 102) found no
-      dichromatism in _P. p. lordi_ in British Columbia. A single
-      specimen from the Grand Coulee at Dry Falls, Grant County, does
-      show dichromatism. It is even more red than the reddest topotypes
-      of _parvus_ examined.
-
-      Seemingly the recessive gene for red is still present in _lordi_,
-      or has mutated anew. When present, the color is deeper and brighter
-      than in the parent population, in keeping with the heavier
-      pigmentation of the race _lordi_.
-
-
-=Perognathus parvus lordi= (Gray)
-
-      _Abromys lordi_ Gray, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 202, 1868.
-
-      _Perognathus lordi_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 1:28, October 25,
-      1889.
-
-      _Perognathus lordi lordi_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:279,
-      April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Perognathus parvus lordi_ Davis, Recent Mamm. of Idaho, p. 266,
-      Caxton Printers, Caldwell, Idaho, April 5, 1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained in southern British Columbia (probably near Lake
-      Osoyoos) by J. K. Lord, probably in 1860.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size large; color of upper parts
-      buffy-olive, washed with blackish; sides buff-olive; facial
-      markings absent or, if present, indistinct and pale olive; tail
-      blackish above, olive below.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twenty-nine males and 10 females average,
-      respectively: total length 175, 171; length of tail 93, 89; hind
-      foot 23.4, 22.9; ear 5.3, 5.1.
-
-      _Distribution._--Okanogan Valley and the Columbian Plateau, except
-      for the southwestern part. Marginal localities are: Vantage, Grant
-      County (W. W. D.), 10 mi. S. Moses Lake (W. W. D.), Washtucna (M.
-      V. Z.) and Pullman (M. V. Z.).
-
-_Remarks._--There are constant differences between _Perognathus parvus
-parvus_ and _Perognathus parvus lordi_. The latter is larger, darker,
-and differs slightly in average cranial measurements. The Snake River,
-the Columbia River, and the Wenatchee Mountains separate the geographic
-ranges of the two subspecies and prevent intergradation between them.
-Nevertheless their close similarity and probable common origin indicate
-that both belong to one species, namely _parvus_.
-
-
-=Perognathus parvus columbianus= Merriam
-
-      _Perognathus columbianus_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
-      Philadelphia, p. 263, September 27, 1894.
-
-      _Perognathus lordi columbianus_, Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 18:40,
-      September 20, 1900.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Pasco, Franklin County, Washington, by Clark
-      P. Streator on May 9, 1891; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size and color as in _lordi_ but skull
-      considerably wider in mastoid region.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twenty-one male and 9 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 173, 168; length of tail 91, 89; hind
-      foot 23.9, 22.8; ear 5, 5.
-
-      _Distribution._--The vicinity of the type locality and the part of
-      the Columbian Plateau north of the Snake and east of the Columbia
-      rivers.
-
-_Remarks._--This race is separated from _parvus_ by river barriers and
-the two do not intergrade. It differs significantly from _lordi_ only in
-the wider mastoid region. No barrier separates the range of _lordi_ from
-that of _parvus_, and the two races intergrade over a wide area (north
-to Moses Lake, east to Washtucna). The race _columbianus_ must have
-originated _in situ_ from _lordi_. The habitat of _columbianus_ seems
-not to differ from that of _parvus_ or _lordi_.
-
-
-=Dipodomys ordii columbianus= (Merriam)
-
-Ord kangaroo rat
-
-      _Perodipus ordi columbianus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      9:115, June 21, 1894.
-
-      _Dipodomys ordii columbianus_ Grinnell, Jour. Mamm., 2:96, May 2,
-      1921.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Umatilla, Umatilla County, Oregon, by C. P.
-      Streator on October 18, 1890; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--Fourteen males and 9 females from Walla Walla
-      County average, respectively: total length 261.5, 248.4; length of
-      tail 137.2, 139.1; hind foot 40.6, 40.8; ear 13.1, 13.0; weight
-      52.1, 49.0 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Western Walla Walla County from the Oregon
-      boundary north to the Snake River and on Blalock Island in the
-      Columbia River, Benton County.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 94. Distribution of the Ord kangaroo rat,
-  _Dipodomys ordii columbianus_, in Washington.]
-
-_Description._--The kangaroo rat with a body about the size of that of a
-chipmunk has an exceptionally large head and large, black eyes. The
-forelegs and forefeet are tiny but the hind feet and legs are large and
-powerful. The hind foot is almost a third as long as the head and body.
-The tail is long, longer than the head and body. Kangaroo rats possess
-fur-lined, external cheek pouches, like those of the pocket mice. The
-upper parts are soft buff in color. The underparts and a stripe on each
-flank are white. The tail is dusky above and below, with white sides; it
-is tufted at the tip.
-
-Kangaroo rats are typical of the desert regions of the southwestern
-United States, where numerous species and subspecies are found. A single
-subspecies of the wide-ranging species _ordii_ occurs into southeastern
-Washington, where it is restricted to sandy areas in the Upper Sonoran
-Life-zone. In the soft, drifted sand along the Columbia River where
-sagebrush and other desert shrubs are low and widely spaced kangaroo
-rats are abundant.
-
-These rats are strictly nocturnal. When individuals are dug from their
-burrows in the daytime they usually hop about in a dazed manner and
-appear to be blinded by sunlight. Near Wallula, Walla Walla County,
-these rats were caught at night with a butterfly net as they stood
-"paralyzed" in the beam of a powerful searchlight. Such night hunting
-was unsuccessful on cloudy or windy nights when kangaroo rats seem not
-to move about.
-
-As might be guessed from their powerful hind legs, kangaroo rats travel
-in bounds. Near Wallula, where we watched them in their natural habitat,
-they traveled, when unfrightened, in slow hops, each hop followed by a
-pause. As they struck the surface of the ground an audible thud could be
-heard for a distance of several feet. After each jump they paused for a
-second or so, perhaps to allow a pursuing enemy to over-run them.
-
-Near Wallula the burrows of kangaroo rats were dug in large mounds of
-wind-blown sand. The burrows entered these natural mounds horizontally
-and branched two or three times. Their average length was about five
-feet. No nests or food stores were discovered although several kangaroo
-rats were caught as they burst from entrances at sides of the mounds.
-All entrances to burrows were plugged with soft sand. The air in the
-burrows seemed warm and humid.
-
-Food found in the cheek pouches of kangaroo rats from Washington
-included the seeds of desert annuals, short sections of sprouts of an
-unidentified plant, grass seeds, and the leaves of the hop-sage.
-
-A female taken March 22, 1939, contained 3 embryos.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides= (Richardson)
-
-Northern pocket gopher
-
-_Description._--The pocket gopher is a fossorial animal, being but
-slightly less adapted to an underground existence than the moles. The
-body is stout, the legs short and the head broad. The tail is short,
-sparsely haired, cylindrical and blunt-ended. The fur is soft and dense.
-The eyes are small and the ears tiny and naked. The incisor teeth are
-external, being separated from the mouth cavity by a furry strip of
-skin. Like the pocket mouse and kangaroo rat, the pocket gopher
-possesses external, fur-lined cheek pouches. The openings of these begin
-just below and posterior to the nostrils, sweep out and down in a
-semicircle, and end at the chin posterior to the base of the lower
-incisors. They extend laterally to the shoulders and easily accommodate
-a fifty-cent piece.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 95. Northern pocket gopher (_Thomomys talpoides
-  yelmensis_), from two miles southwest of Tenino, Washington, January
-  28, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No.
-  1133.)]
-
-The family Geomyidae is composed of eight genera, so similar in
-appearance that the name "pocket gopher" is applied to all of them. The
-family is confined to North and Central America. Three genera occur in
-the United States but only one, _Thomomys_, occurs in Washington.
-_Thomomys_ is restricted to western North America where it ranges from
-central Canada south to the southern edge of the table land of Mexico.
-
-Several hundred kinds of _Thomomys_ have been described and as
-systematic work with this genus has been continued, more and more kinds,
-originally thought to be species, are found to intergrade and to be only
-subspecies. All of the 17 kinds of pocket gophers occurring in
-Washington belong to a single species.
-
-The pocket gopher is principally nocturnal or crepuscular but sometimes
-it is active at midday, especially if the day be dark and cloudy.
-Pocket-gopher activity is indicated by fresh mounds of earth on the
-surface of the ground. Rarely, an observer may see movement of plants as
-the gopher molests the roots of the plants, or even see the head and
-shoulders of an animal that partly emerges from an open burrow. The
-ordinary gopher mound consists of less than a cubic foot of earth. The
-earth is forced up from a single opening and usually is pushed out in
-one direction. In consequence it forms in a fan-shaped pile about the
-opening, and the last load forms a circular plug above and to one side
-of the burrow opening. When so much earth has been forced out of one
-opening that expulsion of additional loads of earth is overly difficult,
-the burrow is extended slightly to one side, or even extended into the
-newly formed mound, and another fan formed. Usually not more than three
-coalesced fans form a mound, but where the soil is exceedingly soft and
-fluffy, hundreds of fans may form a composite mound and the one mound
-may include a cubic yard of earth. Large composite mounds probably are
-formed gradually over a period of weeks or even months.
-
-The earth in a fresh gopher mound is usually "scratched," and gives the
-appearance of having been sieved. Pebbles weighing more than 100 grams
-are included in material ejected from burrows. The entrances to the
-burrows of gophers are usually solidly plugged with earth. The plug may
-be from a few inches to more than a foot in length. At times a burrow
-entrance may appear to be open, but in such cases investigation will
-usually reveal it to be plugged some distance back--sometimes several
-feet.
-
-In contrast to the gopher mounds described above, the mounds of moles
-are not fan-shaped but volcano-shaped. The earth from a mole's burrow is
-forced straight upwards, whence it falls to either side. Later loads are
-pushed up from beneath, raising the entire mound, with the last material
-ejected at the center and bottom. The earth of a fresh mole-mound is not
-of fine texture but instead is "clotted" and, if damp, gives the mound
-a fractured appearance. When mounds are older, perhaps changed by rain
-and sun, their identity as of mole-origin or pocket gopher-origin is
-more difficult to establish. In such cases, if no fresh mounds can be
-found, the observer must rely on the spacing of the mounds. Mole-mounds
-are spaced along a burrow, about as far apart as a man can step. Gopher
-mounds are irregularly spaced, and the course of the burrow cannot be
-traced merely by observing the arrangement of the mounds as can that of
-the mole.
-
-In addition to mounds, gopher burrows have plugged openings where a
-gopher has come to the surface, probably to cut plants. Such entrances
-are marked by a plug of earth several inches long. Mounds and feeding
-entrances of the gopher burrow are usually not constructed in the main
-burrow system itself, but at the ends of lateral burrows of varying
-length. If one traces the burrow back from the mound, a junction with
-the main, better-constructed burrow is found. The junction is usually
-T-shaped, with the lateral burrow at right angles to the main burrow.
-More rarely the junction has a Y-shape.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 96. Giant mounds raised by pocket gophers on Mima
-  Prairie, Thurston County, Washington, July 13, 1941. (Fish and
-  Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 1209.)]
-
-The burrow system of the pocket gopher may be divided into three main
-parts. These are the laterals, just discussed, the main burrow, and the
-deep nesting burrow. The main burrow is a sinuous tube or tunnel at a
-relatively uniform depth, that marks the extent of the gopher's home
-territory. This tunnel may branch, or even intersect. As it is extended
-in one direction, the earth excavated by the gopher may in part be
-thrust into an unused portion of the burrow.
-
-The deep, nesting burrows may be used only in the breeding season. They
-are connected with the main tunnel system but descend to a greater
-depth. Usually they descend into the harder, consolidated layers of soil
-below the zone where plant roots penetrate. Here chambers are
-constructed in which nests and food are stored. Usually a vertical shaft
-is dug in the burrow ahead of the nest to lead rain water away from the
-nest.
-
-In areas where gophers live in a thin layer of soil underlain by a more
-or less impenetrable layer of rock, clay or gravel, it has been
-suggested that they form unique structures known as Mima Mounds. The
-formation of these mounds has been discussed in detail elsewhere
-(Dalquest and Scheffer, 1942: 68-84). At least in the breeding season
-the gophers work mainly and make their nest where the soil is deepest.
-In the vicinity of this nest, considerable mounding and cultivation of
-soil ensues. This stimulates plant growth in the area. Much observation
-indicates that cultivation of earth by gophers stimulates plant growth
-to a greater extent than the depredations of the gopher deplete the
-ensuing growth. Thus the gopher, by cultivation of the soil in the area
-about its burrow, stimulates the growth of vegetation and so increases
-his own food supply. Consequently there is but little incentive for the
-gopher to leave the vicinity of the nest. The gopher does, however,
-construct lateral tunnels into surrounding areas. Earth from these
-lateral tunnels is, in part, thrown to the surface in mounds and in part
-transported back to fill the abandoned burrows near the nest. The earth
-from the burrows about the nest was earlier ejected on the surface.
-Slowly, then, earth is transported from surrounding areas to burrows in
-the vicinity of the original nest. Each succeeding generation finds in
-the vicinity of the original nest, better food and deeper soil, while
-areas surrounding the nest possess thinner soil and less vegetation.
-Over a period of thousands of generations of gophers, large mounds,
-known as Mima Mounds, are formed. Since the removal of earth from the
-surrounding areas and its accumulation in the Mima Mound are chance
-affairs, the contours of the mound are smooth and flowing while the
-contours of the intermound areas are smoothly convex.
-
-The pocket gophers in Washington are economically important. In truck
-and flower gardens they are a pest, especially if the crop be bulb
-plants. In grain fields they are a pest because their mounds cover
-considerable grain and are apt to clog or dull the knife of the mower.
-In fields of young alfalfa they are apt to crop back the plant more
-rapidly than it can grow. Once the alfalfa plant is well established,
-however, the cultivation resulting from activities of gophers, some
-persons believe, stimulates the plant to such an extent that it grows
-larger and healthier in spite of the gopher's feeding on it. In the
-White Salmon Valley, Klickitat County, I examined numerous alfalfa
-fields. The most luxuriant growth was invariably in fields where gophers
-were common. In these fields, the largest plants were those in the
-immediate vicinity of gopher activity. The commensal relation between
-the gopher and alfalfa was understood by many farmers, who forbade us to
-take gophers for specimens from their fields. Several told us that they
-always trapped the gophers from the fields of young alfalfa and from hay
-meadows but encouraged their presence in fields of older alfalfa.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 97. Food cache of northern pocket gopher
-  (_Thomomys talpoides tacomensis_), from chamber four inches below
-  surface of ground, Tacoma, Washington, December 1, 1940. Contents
-  575 grams (about 2 liters) of roots, principally quackgrass,
-  _Agropyron repens_. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor
-  B. Scheffer, No. 1119.)]
-
-Another economic factor is the gopher's removal of certain weeds from
-grazing land. A number of introduced weeds form dense rosettes that
-prevent the growth of grass from several square inches of ground and
-themselves lie so close to the ground as to be unavailable as food to
-grazing stock. These weeds seem to be favored food of gophers which cut
-not only the rosettes but the roots of the weeds as well.
-
-In irrigated parts of eastern Washington the gopher is a serious pest.
-It burrows in the banks of the main ditches, causing cave-ins and
-occasional breaks with resultant water loss. The mounds of gophers fill
-in the smaller channels and divert the streams. Constant attention is
-necessary to keep the ditches free of gopher mounds.
-
-In uncultivated land the gopher is a distinct asset unless the land is
-near enough to cultivated land to serve as a reservoir of pests. In the
-mountains and on the desert the gopher cultivates and keeps the soil
-soft and stimulates the growth of water-retaining vegetation, thus
-preventing rapid run-off and erosion and keeping the flow of springs and
-streams constant. Boulders, logs, and other obstructions are undermined
-and, as a result of gopher activity, in time sink under the surface of
-the ground. Thus a larger surface is available for plant growth. Lastly
-the gopher furnishes an important food source for certain fur-bearing
-mammals and eases the predator pressure on game species.
-
-The subspecies of pocket gopher occupying the Puget Sound area are
-highly restricted in their habitat preference; they occur only on the
-grassy prairies of the glacial outwash aprons. They do not occur in
-woods, brush or even small openings on the borders of the prairies. The
-alpine forms occupy the mountain meadows and are slightly less selective
-in their habits. It should be noted that in western Washington the
-forests are far more open at higher altitudes than at low elevations.
-The races inhabiting the desert are found in open areas, often in sandy
-places. They occur more rarely in areas where the soil is baked and
-claylike, and then usually in the vicinity of springs or watercourses.
-The race _T. t. fuscus_ has a wide range of tolerance as regards
-environmental factors; it occurs near Wenatchee in essentially desert
-conditions, in alpine meadows of northeastern Washington, and in many
-habitats at intermediate elevations. It occurs also in brushy areas and
-is often abundant in open pine forests.
-
-Since the gopher usually has a narrow range of tolerance as regards its
-environmental adaptations, this has resulted in considerably more
-isolation than is the case with other mammals, and has probably
-contributed to the formation of the many subspecies. Within the range of
-almost every race, microgeographic races, or local populations with
-distinctive characters, are found. Many subspecies of _Thomomys_ are
-probably the result of chance fixation of genetic characters already
-present in a more genetically variable ancestral population, and the
-loss of other genetic factors. Such races might be considered
-degenerative (see Dalquest and Scheffer, 1944: 24).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 98. Distribution of the northern pocket gopher in
-  Washington. A. _Thomomys talpoides devexus._ B. _Thomomys talpoides
-  columbianus._ C. _Thomomys talpoides aequalidens._ D. _Thomomys
-  talpoides wallowa._ E. _Thomomys talpoides fuscus._ F. _Thomomys
-  talpoides yakimensis._ G. _Thomomys talpoides shawii._ H. _Thomomys
-  talpoides immunis._ I. _Thomomys talpoides limosus._ J. _Thomomys
-  talpoides douglasii._ K. _Thomomys talpoides pugetensis._ L. _Thomomys
-  talpoides tacomensis._ M. _Thomomys talpoides glacialis._ N. _Thomomys
-  talpoides tumuli._ O. _Thomomys talpoides yelmensis._ P. _Thomomys
-  talpoides couchii._ Q. _Thomomys talpoides melanops._]
-
-The history of the pocket gophers of Washington has been traced
-previously (Dalquest and Scheffer, 1942, 1944). It may be briefly
-summarized as follows: At the close of Vashon-Wisconsin times, gophers
-were found in the southern Cascades, on the Simcoe Bridge, the Columbian
-Plateau, and in southeastern Washington. Following the retreat of the
-ice, the gophers in the Mount Rainier area spread westward on the
-outwash of the Nisqually and perhaps other glaciers to the Vashon
-Outwash about southern Puget Sound and thence to the Olympic Mountains.
-In the southern Cascades, gophers spread westward on glacial terraces of
-the Columbia River to the vicinity of Vancouver, Clark County. The
-establishment and growth of the forests split up the original
-populations, and continued spread of forest has exterminated many units.
-All the races in the lowlands of western Washington face extermination
-as the prairies are reclaimed by forest.
-
-Pocket gophers also invaded northeastern Washington from Idaho and
-spread westward to the Cascades, thence southward until the native
-gophers were encountered north of Mount Rainier and in the Yakima
-Valley. The invading gophers nearly surrounded the Columbian Plateau.
-
-T. H. Scheffer (1938B: 220-224) found the gestation period of the pocket
-gopher to be approximately 28 days. No second brood is raised in
-Washington. Near Kennewick, Yakima County, the young are born from
-February to April. The average number of embryos found in 76 female
-gophers was 6.3. Near Olympia, Thurston County, the young are born from
-March to June. The average number of embryos from 312 females was 5.0.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides devexus= Hall and Dalquest
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides devexus_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:3,
-      April 30, 1939.
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides ericaeus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:243, May
-      15, 1939 (type from Badger Mountains, Douglas County, Washington).
-
-      _Type._--Obtained 1 mile west-southwest of Neppel (now Moses Lake),
-      Grant County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on May 30, 1938; type
-      in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size medium; ears tiny; color of upper parts
-      pale brownish gray; underparts white; postauricular spots dark.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two male and 4 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 184, 184; length of tail 54, 55; hind
-      foot 25, 25; weight 89, 71 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau. Marginal occurrences of
-      the races of pocket gophers occurring in Washington are not listed
-      here because they have recently been placed on record (Dalquest
-      and Scheffer, 1944: 308-333, 423-450).
-
-_Remarks._--This is the smallest and palest race of pocket gopher found
-in Washington.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides columbianus= Bailey
-
-      _Thomomys fuscus columbianus_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      27:117, July 10, 1914.
-
-      _Thomomys columbianus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:106, November
-      15, 1915.
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides columbianus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:234, May
-      15, 1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Touchet, Walla Walla County, Washington, by C.
-      P. Streator on September 10, 1890; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Larger and brighter in color than _devexus_.
-      Near ochraceous orange in color.
-
-      _Measurements._--Five male and three female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 213, 209; length of tail 60, 58; hind
-      foot 29, 28.
-
-      _Distribution._--Walla Walla County, between the Snake River and
-      the Oregon boundary and from the Columbia River east to the
-      Columbia County line.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides aequalidens= Dalquest
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides aequalidens_ Dalquest, Murrelet, 23:3, May 14,
-      1942.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Abel Place, 2,200 ft., 6 miles south-southeast
-      of Dayton, Columbia County, Washington, by S. H. Lyman, on April 6,
-      1934; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Large size, very dark color.
-
-      _Measurements._--The average of four male topotypes and the
-      measurements of one female topotype are, respectively: total
-      length 202, 201; length of tail 57, 59; hind foot 26, 27.
-
-      _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington east of the range of
-      _columbianus_ and north of the higher parts of the Blue Mountains.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides wallowa= Hall and Orr
-
-      _Thomomys quadratus wallowa_ Hall and Orr, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 46:41, March 24, 1933.
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides wallowa_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:234, May 15,
-      1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Catherine Creek, 7 miles east of Telocaset,
-      3,500 ft., Union County, Oregon, by R. T. Orr on June 29, 1932;
-      type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _devexus_ but much darker.
-      Similar (in Washington) to _aequalidens_ but much smaller.
-
-      _Measurements._--Four males and 4 females from Mountain Top and
-      Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia County, average, respectively: total
-      length 191, 180; length of tail 56, 52; hind foot 26, 25.
-
-      _Distribution._--The higher parts of the Blue Mountains.
-
-_Remarks._--Washington specimens referred to this race are intermediate
-between _wallowa_ and _aequalidens_ but are colored like _aequalidens_.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides fuscus= Merriam
-
-      _Thomomys clusius fuscus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:69, July 30,
-      1891.
-
-      _Thomomys myops_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:112,
-      July 19, 1901 (type from Conconnully, Okanogan County,
-      Washington).
-
-      _Thomomys fuscus fuscus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:126, November
-      15, 1915.
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides fuscus_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:4,
-      April 30, 1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at the head of Big Lost River, Custer County,
-      Idaho, by B. H. Dutcher on September 23, 1890; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _devexus_ but upper parts rich
-      tawny in color.
-
-      _Measurements._--Three males and 2 females from Newport, Pend
-      Oreille County, average, respectively: total length 189, 186;
-      length of tail 54, 57; hind foot 27, 26.
-
-      _Distribution._--Along the eastern border of the state to the
-      north of the Snake River, northeastern Washington, and the
-      northeastern Cascades.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides yakimensis= Hall and Dalquest
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides yakimensis_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:4,
-      April 30, 1939.
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides badius_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:242, May 15,
-      1939 (type from Wenatchee, Chelan County, Washington).
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Selah, Yakima County, Washington, by P.
-      Burgner, on November 27, 1938; type in Museum of Vertebrate
-      Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _fuscus_ but more orange, less
-      red.
-
-      _Measurements._--Four male and 3 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 209, 191; length of tail 60, 56; hind
-      foot 27, 26.
-
-      _Distribution._--The eastern edge of the Cascades from the
-      Wenatchee Mountains south to the Simcoe Anticline.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides shawi= Taylor
-
-      _Thomomys douglasii shawi_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      34:121, June 30, 1921.
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides shawi_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:4,
-      April 30, 1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Owyhigh Lakes, Mount Rainier, Pierce County,
-      Washington, by G. G. Cantwell, on August 9, 1919; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--A large, tan-colored pocket gopher, similar
-      to _aequalidens_ but paler.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two male and 7 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 227, 213; length of tail 72, 64; hind
-      foot 32, 30.
-
-      _Distribution._--The higher Cascade Mountains from Mount Rainier
-      southward. Southern limits of range unknown.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides immunis= Hall and Dalquest
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides immunis_ Hall and Dalquest, Murrelet, 20:4,
-      April 30, 1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained 5 miles south of Trout Lake, Klickitat County,
-      Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on July 27, 1937; type in Museum of
-      Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _shawi_ but paler and grayer.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and 2 females from Morrison Springs
-      Ranger Station, Skamania County, average, respectively: total
-      length 211, 212; length of tail 64, 58; hind foot 28, 29.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains from the vicinity of Mount
-      Adams north. The zone of intergradation between _shawi_ and
-      _immunis_ is in the rugged, inaccessible mountains between Mount
-      Rainier and Mount Adams.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides limosus= Merriam
-
-      _Thomomys limosus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:116,
-      July 19, 1901.
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides limosus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May 15,
-      1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at White Salmon, Klickitat County, Washington, by
-      J. A. Loring on June 26, 1897; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _immunis_ but darker with
-      smaller, shorter skull.
-
-      _Measurements._--One male and 13 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 210, 198; length of tail 55, 56; hind
-      foot 30, 28.
-
-      _Distribution._--The lower Columbia River Valley, from the type
-      locality east to the Columbian Plateau.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides douglasii= (Richardson)
-
-      _Geomys douglasii_ Richardson, Fauna Boreali-American, 1:200, 1829.
-
-      _Geomys fuliginosus_ Schinz, Syn. Mamm., 2:136, 1846 (type from
-      "Habitat ad fluvium Columbia").
-
-      _Thomomys douglasii_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:66,
-      April 28, 1893.
-
-      _Thomomys douglasi douglasi_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:116,
-      November 15, 1915.
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides douglasii_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:234, May
-      15, 1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Fort Vancouver (now the city of Vancouver),
-      Clark County, Washington, by David Douglas, probably in 1825.
-      Probably not now in existence.
-
-      _Racial characters._--A medium-sized, yellowish gopher with tiny,
-      pointed ears and very small postauricular patches.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two male and 10 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 227, 213; length of tail 68, 63; hind
-      foot 30, 30; and weight 148, 117 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from Clark County.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides glacialis= Dalquest and Scheffer
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides glacialis_ Dalquest and Scheffer, Proc. Biol.
-      Soc. Washington, 55:97, August 13, 1942.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained 2 miles south of Roy, Pierce County, Washington,
-      by W. W. Dalquest, on December 19, 1941; type in United States
-      National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--A dark, yellowish-brown gopher with
-      orange-tinged underparts.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twenty male and 17 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 225, 220; length of tail 72, 71; hind
-      foot 30, 30; and weight 128, 116 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from Roy Prairie, Pierce County.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides tacomensis= Taylor
-
-      _Thomomys douglasii tacomensis_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 32:169, September 30, 1919.
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides tacomensis_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May
-      15, 1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained 6 miles south of Tacoma, Pierce County,
-      Washington, by G. G. Cantwell on December 24, 1918; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--A large, dark form; rich hazel in color with
-      large, black postauricular patches and ochraceous underparts.
-
-      _Measurements._--Thirteen male and 15 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 224, 196; length of tail 71, 57; hind
-      foot 31, 29; and weight 127, 104 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Restricted to the area about Steilacoom and
-      Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides pugetensis= Dalquest and Scheffer
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides pugetensis_ Dalquest and Scheffer, Proc. Biol.
-      Soc. Washington, 55:96, August 13, 1942.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained 4 miles south of Olympia, Thurston County,
-      Washington, by W. W. Dalquest, on December 31, 1941; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _glacialis_ but underparts not
-      tinged with orange and conspicuous dusky areas present on sides of
-      neck.
-
-      _Measurements._--Fourteen male and 19 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 223, 205; length of tail 62, 59; hind
-      foot 30, 29; and weight 123, 96 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from the type locality.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides tumuli= Dalquest and Scheffer
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides tumuli_ Dalquest and Scheffer, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 55:96, August 13, 1942.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on Rocky Prairie, 7 miles north of Tenino,
-      Thurston County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on January 2, 1942;
-      type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _pugetensis_ but grayer, less
-      yellow.
-
-      _Measurements._--Eleven male and 14 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 225, 216; length of tail 60, 64; hind
-      foot 31, 30; and weight 140, 118 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from the type locality.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides yelmensis= Merriam
-
-      _Thomomys douglasi yelmensis_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      13:21, January 31, 1899.
-
-      _Thomomys douglasii yelmensis_ Taylor, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 32:169, September 30, 1919.
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides yelmensis_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May
-      15, 1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Tenino, Thurston County, Washington, by C. P.
-      Streator on October 24, 1891; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--A rather small, yellowish race with whitish
-      underparts.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twenty-one male and 21 female topotypes average,
-      respectively; total length 213, 202; length of tail 64, 61; hind
-      foot 29, 28; and weight 121, 101 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from Grand Mound Prairie (type
-      locality), Vail Prairie, near Vail, and Rochester Prairie, near
-      Rochester, all in Thurston County.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides couchi= Goldman
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides couchi_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:243, May 15,
-      1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on Scotts Prairie, 4 miles north of Shelton,
-      Mason County, Washington, by L. K. Couch, on June 27, 1922; type in
-      United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--A small race; rich hazel in color.
-
-      _Measurements._--Thirteen male and 9 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 196, 191; length of tail 55, 53; hind
-      foot 27, 27; and weight 87, 79 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from the type locality and from Lost
-      Lake Prairie, near Satsop, Mason County.
-
-
-=Thomomys talpoides melanops= Merriam
-
-      _Thomomys melanops_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:21,
-      January 31, 1899.
-
-      _Thomomys douglasi melanops_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:119,
-      November 15, 1915.
-
-      _Thomomys talpoides melanops_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May
-      15, 1939.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at head of Sol Duc River, Clallam County,
-      Washington, by V. Bailey on August 28, 1897; type in United States
-      National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Most like _shawi_ but smaller, with larger
-      postauricular patches and dusky areas on side of head.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male topotype measures: total length 211;
-      length of tail 67; hind foot 28.
-
-      _Distribution._--Higher Olympic Mountains.
-
-
-=Castor canadensis= Kuhl
-
-Beaver
-
-_Description._--The beaver is the largest rodent occurring in
-Washington. Large individuals weight approximately 50 pounds. They are
-heavily-built, robust animals with large heads and short necks. The
-large, flat, naked tail immediately separates them from all other
-mammals occurring in the state. The forelegs are short and the forefeet
-handlike. The hind legs are long, thick and powerful. The hind feet are
-large and webbed for swimming. The ears are small and the eyes, although
-of moderate size, are not prominent. The incisors are large and
-prominent with a distinct yellow or orange color. The close, dense
-underfur is overlaid with long, lax, rather stiff overfur or guardhairs.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 99. Beaver (_Castor canadensis_). Silvana,
-  Washington, August 15, 1921. (Fish and Wildlife Service by Leo K.
-  Couch, No. B-21912.)]
-
-Beavers are found in Europe, Asia and North America. In America they
-range from Alaska to Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Many
-American subspecies have been described, all thought to belong to a
-single species.
-
-Beavers live in streams and lakes of Washington under diverse climatic
-conditions. They are perhaps most abundant in the western Washington
-lowlands where there are numerous watercourses. In the Cascade
-Mountains they are found well up into the Canadian Life-zone, where the
-streams are swift and clear with stony bottoms. The highest altitudinal
-record known to us is Reflection Lake, Mt. Rainier, 4,861 feet
-(Brockman, 1939: 71). Farther east, in the timbered regions of the
-eastern Cascades and in northeastern Washington, beavers live in deeper,
-more sluggish streams. Abundant beaver signs were noted at the junction
-of the Snake and Columbia rivers where the animals were occupying one of
-the hottest, most desertlike portions of the state. They are found in
-Moses Lake, in the center of the arid Columbian Plateau. Beavers once
-occurred in the San Juan Islands and have recently been reintroduced
-there.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 100. Beaver (_Castor canadensis_): lodge and
-  beaver pond, Elbe, Washington, August 24, 1926. (T. H. Scheffer
-  photo.)]
-
-The part the beaver played in man's exploration of the state of
-Washington is a story in itself. The establishment of Fort Vancouver and
-Fort Spokane and other settlements was principally due to the trade in
-beaver pelts. These forts served as headquarters for Douglas, Suckley,
-Townsend, Nuttall and other early naturalists who contributed so greatly
-to the knowledge of the mammalian fauna of the western United States.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 101. Cottonwood pole carved by beaver, Lake
-  Wenatchee, Washington, May 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo
-  by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 33.)]
-
-Trapping for fur drastically reduced the number of beavers in
-Washington. After trapping was prohibited they were slow in recovering
-and, until about 1930, they were uncommon. After that date they seemed
-to increase rapidly, becoming abundant about 1940. The present system of
-removing beavers only from areas where they are doing damage, and then
-only under strict supervision from the State Department of Game, has
-held their numbers at a high level.
-
-The food of the beaver varies greatly with locality. Along the Columbia
-River, in eastern Washington, cottonwood (_Populus hastata_) and willow
-(_Salix_ sp.) seem to constitute favorite foods. Few other trees grow in
-this arid region. On Puget Island, near the mouth of the Columbia,
-willow, alder (_Alnus oregonus_) and probably other shrubs are eaten. In
-the many streams that run from the western Cascade Mountains to Puget
-Sound, various species of willow seem to be the principal food eaten.
-Some alder, cascara, Douglas fir, red huckleberry and salmonberry are
-eaten. In some streams on the eastern slope of the Cascades, coniferous
-trees, including Douglas fir, yellow pine (_Pinus ponderosa_), and red
-cedar (_Thuja plicata_) are used.
-
-Beaver dams are abundant in certain sections of Washington, notably the
-area between the Cascade Mountains and Puget Sound. Dams several hundred
-feet in length were seen in the valley of Cherry Creek, 7 miles
-northeast of Duvall, King County. However, in most parts of the state
-few dams are built. No dams are necessary in the larger streams and
-lakes while the smaller mountain streams possess a gradient too steep
-for successful damming. Spring floods and high water following rains
-would destroy such dams.
-
-True beaver houses, or lodges, are seldom seen in Washington. In the
-larger streams, rivers and lakes the beavers are "bank beavers," living
-in burrows with underwater entrances. In the mountain streams, log jams
-furnish protection. Great piles of logs and debris accumulate at bends
-of streams in periods of high water. These jams commonly contain large,
-well-anchored key logs and persist for years. Back-cutting by the stream
-often forms deep pools before the jams while the sloping bank opposite
-may support willows and alders. Thus beavers may find a home, food, and
-a protecting pool of deep water at a log jam. In periods of low water,
-and when meandering of the stream causes it to leave the log jam, canals
-are constructed by the beavers to connect the log jam with the stream.
-
-Where dams are built a few lodges may occur. For the most part, however,
-the beavers dig holes in the bank or in small islands that result from
-their dam-building activities. Burrows are occasionally easy to locate
-because of the mud and sticks laid on the ground above. At best these
-sticks form a layer only a few inches thick and are too loosely packed
-to furnish any additional protection. They probably represent a
-concession to the beavers' lodge-building instincts.
-
-The beaver probably breeds in January. A specimen from Cle Elum, taken
-on March 1, contained 4 embryos and one from the Teanaway River near Cle
-Elum held 2 embryos on February 28. One from Swauk Creek, Kittitas
-County, on the eastern slope of the Cascades, had 3 embryos on February
-12. A young beaver was born to a captive animal on May 18. Its mother
-was taken at Soos Creek in southeastern King County. This baby weighed
-884 grams.
-
-The majority of the beavers trapped are small animals, measuring from
-725 to 900 mm. (total length) in February, and weighing from 10 to 20
-pounds. These are kits, probably one and two years old. It is rather
-difficult to divide these animals into two age groups but probably the
-first year young (7 to 11 months old) weigh from 10 to 15 pounds and
-measure between 725 and 800 mm. in total length. Two-year olds (19 to 23
-months) measure from 800 to 925 mm. and weigh from 15 to 25 pounds. They
-measure approximately 1050 mm. the third year, when they become adult,
-and weigh in the neighborhood of 45 pounds. Individuals occasionally
-weigh more than 50 pounds; these are probably old adults.
-
-Damage by beavers is limited. Their dams occasionally flood roads and
-rarely fields. In some parts of eastern Washington, where fruit raising
-is an important industry, an individual beaver may cause considerable
-damage by cutting valuable trees. Ornamental trees may be damaged near
-the larger cities. Beavers living in Lake Washington in almost the
-center of the city of Seattle, caused some damage to ornamental trees on
-the University of Washington Golf Course. Canals and dams in small
-streams and ditches in areas where stock raising is practiced, flood
-stock food and sometimes form mudholes or bogs where stock might be
-trapped. Where individual beavers are doing damage they are trapped and
-killed, or are live-trapped and transported to more favorable habitats.
-In places where any beaver may be potentially dangerous, as in the
-fruit-growing areas of eastern Washington or stock-raising areas in
-western Washington, their numbers should be kept down by continued
-trapping.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 102. Forest road flooded by beavers which built a
-  dam on the upstream (left) side of a bridge; Tronson Creek, Blewett
-  Pass, Wenatchee National Forest, May 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife
-  Service by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 30.)]
-
-Probably the greatest value of beavers lies in the impounding of water
-by their dams. This is especially true in the arid mountains of eastern
-Washington and in the logged-off or burned-over parts of western
-Washington. These ponds prevent erosion, raise the water table and so
-stimulate the growth of vegetation, insure greater regularity of stream
-flow, provide suitable water for trout and muskrats as well as some
-breeding grounds for waterfowl. On burned-over or logged-off land, the
-greatest, and often the only, growth of new conifers is in the vicinity
-of beaver ponds. In the vicinity of beaver dams, rich growths of willows
-and other deciduous vegetation provides food and cover for deer and
-fur-bearing mammals.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 103. Distribution of the beaver in Washington. A.
-  _Castor canadensis leucodonta._ B. _Castor canadensis idoneus._]
-
-Trapping of beaver for their fur at present is not a private enterprise
-but controlled trapping by the state adds to public funds.
-
-
-=Castor canadensis leucodonta= Gray
-
-      _Castor canadensis leucodonta_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4
-      (ser. 4):293, October, 1869.
-
-      _Castor canadensis pacificus_ Rhoads, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc.,
-      19 (n. s.):422, September, 1898 (type from Lake Keechelus,
-      Kittitas County, Washington).
-
-      _Type._--Obtained by Dr. Robert Brown, probably on Vancouver
-      Island, British Columbia.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Large size; reddish color; elongate skull.
-
-      _Distribution._--Found over all but the southwestern corner of the
-      state. The most westward locality from which specimens have been
-      examined is Lake Crescent (U. S. N. M.).
-
-_Remarks._--The good series of beaver skulls available from several
-areas of Washington has led to careful comparison of Washington material
-with specimens from Vancouver Island. Skulls from extreme southwestern
-Washington are small and decidedly short, being referable to the race
-_idoneus_. No satisfactory way of distinguishing between the others
-could be found and all are consequently referred to the earliest named
-form, _leucodonta_.
-
-
-=Castor canadensis idoneus= Jewett and Hall
-
-      _Castor canadensis idoneus_ Jewett and Hall, Jour. Mamm., 21:87,
-      February 15, 1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Foley Creek, tributary to Nehalem River,
-      Tillamook County, Oregon, by C. Leach on December 15, 1914; type in
-      California Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Description._--Similar to _leucodonta_ but smaller, darker, with
-      shorter and wider skull.
-
-      _Distribution._--Lowlands near the mouth of the Columbia River.
-      Specimens from Puget Island (U. S. N. M.) have been examined.
-
-
-=Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus= Anthony
-
-Northern grasshopper mouse
-
-      _Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus_ Anthony, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.
-      Hist., 32: 11, March 7, 1913.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Ironside, Malheur County, Oregon, by H. E.
-      Anthony, in 1912; type in American Museum of Natural History.
-
-      _Measurements._--Nine males and 5 females from Franklin, Benton,
-      and Walla Walla counties, Washington, average, respectively: total
-      length 132.3, 133.0; length of tail 35.8, 35.6; hind foot 19.2,
-      19.6; ear 17.6, 17.6; weight 23.3, 24.1 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, southeastern Washington,
-      and the Yakima Valley, ranging north to Douglas (Taylor and Shaw,
-      1929: 21), west to Yakima (M. V. Z.), east to Asotin (Taylor and
-      Shaw, 1929: 21) and south to Wallula (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 21).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 104. Distribution of the northern grasshopper
-  mouse, _Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus_, in Washington.]
-
-_Description._--A mature grasshopper mouse is slightly larger than a
-house mouse; the head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail about
-1-1/4 inches; it may be recognized by the rather plump body, naked
-ears, short, thick and tapering tail and soft, dense fur. The upper
-parts of adults are buffy. Younger animals are blue-gray above.
-Underparts and tail are white.
-
-Grasshopper mice of two species range over much of northern Mexico and
-the western United States. The species occurring in Washington,
-_leucogaster_, is found from southern Manitoba to northern Mexico, and
-from the Pacific states east to North Dakota. This species is
-characteristic of the Upper Sonoran Life-zone, and usually is associated
-with sagebrush and greasewood. It prefers open areas of sand and avoids
-heavy cover, and seems to be strictly nocturnal. It eats vegetation,
-seeds, insects, or the flesh of other mice. According to Bailey (1936:
-178), grasshopper mice pursue, catch and kill other mice. They hunt by
-scent and follow tracks like a wolf. They make a sound, or "call," like
-a miniature wolf howl. They are said to be rather docile and make
-friends with humans quickly.
-
-On some occasions grasshopper mice are locally abundant, but for the
-most part they are rather uncommon over their range. Usually one is
-taken in about 200 traps set in suitable habitats. They do not
-hibernate; one was caught at Moses Lake, Grant County, on a freezing
-winter night.
-
-The grasshopper mouse is almost always associated with the pocket mouse
-(_Perognathus parvus_), deer-mouse (_Peromyscus maniculatus_), and often
-the harvest mouse (_Reithrodontomys megalotis_). The same snakes, owls,
-and carnivorous mammals that prey on these mice doubtless eat also the
-grasshopper mouse.
-
-R. D. Svihla (1936: 172) determined the gestation period of 3 lactating
-grasshopper mice captured at Lind, Adams County, as 33, 39 and 47 days.
-A non-lactating female gave birth to a litter in 32 days. Young varied
-from 2 to 5 in number and were pink and hairless at birth, with eyes and
-ears closed.
-
-
-=Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis= (Baird)
-
-Western harvest mouse
-
-      _Reithrodon megalotis_ Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 451, 1857.
-
-      _Reithrodontomys megalotis nigrescens_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
-      36:32, June 5, 1914 (type from Payette, Idaho).
-
-      _Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna,
-      55:189, August 29, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained between Janos, Chihuahua, and San Luis Springs,
-      New Mexico, by C. B. R. Kennerly, in 1855; type in United States
-      National Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--Five males and 6 females, showing moderate wear on
-      the third upper molars, from Walla Walla County, average,
-      respectively: total length 141, 137.5; length of tail 71.8, 68.1;
-      hind foot 17.2, 16.7; weight (males only) 10.5 grams. A female, 136
-      mm. long, from Grant County, weighed 9.5 grams. Over the range of
-      _megalotis_ in the United States, males average consistently larger
-      than females in length of the hind foot and consistently less in
-      length of head and body.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, the Upper Sonoran
-      Life-zone area west of the Columbia River and south of the
-      Wenatchee Mountains in Kittitas, Yakima, and Benton counties, the
-      north side of the Columbia River in Klickitat County, and Okanogan
-      County east of the Okanogan River. Marginal localities are:
-      Timentwa (W. W. D.) on the north, Maryhill (M. V. Z.) on the west,
-      Wallula (M. V. Z.) on the south, and Colfax (Taylor and Shaw,
-      1929: 21) on the east.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 105. Distribution of the western harvest mouse,
-  _Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis_, in Washington.]
-
-_Remarks._--Harvest mice from the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho,
-Utah, Nevada, California, Arizona, and New Mexico were examined to
-ascertain the validity of the name _Reithrodontomys megalotis
-nigrescens_ Howell (type from Payette County, Idaho). No cranial
-characters or measurements could be found to separate _nigrescens_ from
-_megalotis_. Specimens from Washington, Oregon, and west-central Idaho,
-within the range ascribed to _nigrescens_, averaged slightly darker in
-color with a more distinct, blackish dorsal line than specimens from New
-Mexico. This difference is slight, and specimens from any one locality
-vary greatly in color. Some Washington specimens are as pale as the
-palest material from New Mexico, and some of the darkest _nigrescens_
-can be matched by specimens of _megalotis_ from Arizona and New Mexico.
-This slight color variant is not worthy of recognition as a distinct
-subspecies, and I agree with Howell (1939: 390) that _nigrescens_ is a
-synonym of _megalotis_.
-
-_Description._--The western harvest mouse is about the size and shape of
-the common house mouse. The length of the tail is approximately equal to
-the length of the head and body. The tail is slim and lightly haired.
-The upper parts are brownish buff lightly washed with blackish. A faint
-but distinct dark dorsal stripe is usually present. The underparts are
-white. From _Mus_ and _Peromyscus_, _Reithrodontomys_ can be
-distinguished by the grooves on the anterior face of the upper incisors
-and the long brown hairs at the bases of the ears.
-
-This genus reaches the extreme northern limit of its distribution in the
-state of Washington, where it ranges to the Canadian border. A single
-subspecies occurs in Washington. The harvest mouse is a resident of the
-Upper Sonoran Life-zone and it is most abundant in dense growths of
-grass, weeds, and other vegetation. Along the Yakima River, near
-Ellensburg, it was abundant in thick, river-side jungle. Near Yakima
-many specimens were taken in a marsh of cattails and tules. In the Grand
-Coulee they live in thick grass. Near Moses Lake several were found in
-their nests in a thick growth of tumbleweed. Harvest mice occur also,
-although never in great numbers, in relatively open areas. At the
-Potholes near Moses Lake, Grant County, a few were caught on sand dunes
-among scattered bushes of sage. They were taken on sagebrush flats in
-several localities. Gray (1943: 191) estimates their numbers in the
-sagebrush area of the Yakima Valley at 5 per acre.
-
-Where harvest mice live in dense vegetation they make small runways and
-food piles similar to those of _Microtus_ but in more open areas they
-leave no perceptible signs. Near Yakima the nest of a harvest mouse was
-found among the roots of an overturned apple tree. This nest was an
-irregular ball composed of fine grasses and shredded bark closed above,
-with a side entrance and a central cavity three inches in diameter. Near
-Moses Lake three nests of harvest mice were discovered on the ground
-under cover of a dense growth of tumbleweed, and six live harvest mice
-were captured in the same area. These nests were cuplike, open above,
-and were composed of dry grasses, bits of weeds, and newspaper. The
-smoothly rounded inner cups measured about three inches in diameter.
-
-Embryos were found in harvest mice in Washington from March to April and
-numbered 3 to 6.
-
-
-=Peromyscus maniculatus= (Wagner)
-
-Deer mouse
-
-_Description._--The deer mouse is slightly larger than the house mouse,
-the head and body measuring from 3-1/2 to 4 inches. The length of the
-tail varies considerably in the several races, ranging from
-approximately 2-1/2 inches in _gambelii_ to 4 inches or more in some
-individuals of _oreas_. The eyes are large and protrude slightly. The
-ears are large, erect and naked. The tail is sparsely furred with short,
-posteriorly directed hairs. The color of the upper parts varies from
-yellowish buff in _gambelii_ to reddish brown in _oreas_ and dusky in
-_austerus_. Young deer mice are gray or bluish gray above. Underparts
-and feet are white. The tail is bicolored, being dusky above and white
-below.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 106. Deer mouse (_Peromyscus maniculatus
-  austerus_), in captivity, Seattle, Washington, September 18, 1939.
-  (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 723.)]
-
-In Washington _Peromyscus_ may be separated from other naked-eared mice
-by ungrooved teeth and slightly tapering, bicolor tail. Nearly every
-part of North America is inhabited by one or more kinds of _Peromyscus_.
-The single species, _maniculatus_, which occurs in Washington, ranges
-from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Arctic to tropical Mexico.
-Osgood (1909: 17) remarks: "... it is probable that a line, or several
-lines, could be drawn from Labrador to Alaska and thence to southern
-Mexico throughout which not a single square mile is not inhabited by
-some form of this species."
-
-Deer mice are the most abundant mice in Washington. They occur at sea
-level on the ocean beaches and above timber-line, even breeding in the
-Arctic-alpine Life-zone. They occur on the islands in Puget Sound, the
-lowland marshes and deciduous thickets of western Washington, the great
-conifer forests, the alpine cirques and mountain parks, and the deserts
-of eastern Washington. Almost everywhere they are the commonest mammal
-encountered. They make their homes in city dwellings, under logs or in
-hollow trees in the forest, in the burrows of larger rodents and, if
-necessary, in burrows of their own construction.
-
-Nests are usually cup-shaped masses of soft material, 4 to 8 inches in
-diameter with central cavities 2 to 3 inches in diameter. Materials
-utilized include dry grass, shredded bark, rope, rags, newspaper, moss,
-cattail fluff, fur, wool, and feathers. One nest discovered in the attic
-of an old building near Coulee City, Grant County, consisted of the
-mummified body of a wood rat (_Neotoma cinerea_). The fur of the arched
-body of the rat formed one side of the nest, while the fur of the far
-side of the body had been plucked to form the remainder. In the
-extensive marshes along Lake Washington, King County, deer mice occupy
-the ball-shaped nests of tule wrens (_Telamtodytes palustris_). These
-are constructed entirely of fragments of cattail leaves and cattail
-fluff and are placed in the cattail rushes about four feet above the wet
-ground of the marsh. Other deer mouse nests were found in an unused
-typewriter, in the pocket of an old coat, in a window frame, under a
-piece of tar paper on the ground, in a cavity in the ground under a
-board, between a ceiling and a loose bit of roofing paper, under rocks
-and logs, in hollows in logs, and in an unused nest of a wood rat. Where
-plant cover is dense, nests are placed on the surface of the ground, as
-under thick growths of tumbleweed (_Salsola_) in eastern Washington.
-
-Deer mice are definitely nocturnal. Of thousands of specimens trapped
-only a few were taken in the daytime. Two of these were taken in a rock
-slide at Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille County, on the same day, and some
-unusual conditions may have incited them to travel in daylight. Deer
-mice are active throughout the winter and their lacy footprints are seen
-on the snow in below-freezing weather. They are mainly terrestial but
-one race (_oreas_) is at least partly arboreal for it is often taken in
-traps set in trees for flying squirrels. One was caught in a trap set 50
-feet from the ground. All are good climbers, and _oreas_ is perhaps the
-best. One was watched as it climbed the rough cedar shake wall of a
-cabin, ran upside-down across three feet of rough ceiling, and
-descended the opposite wall head first. They are equally agile in
-climbing rocks and cliffs.
-
-The ordinary gait of the deer mouse is a steady run. When frightened it
-may leap a distance of one foot or more. When surprised in its nest it
-usually remains in the vicinity, hopping about in confusion, returning
-time after time to the exposed nest.
-
-The food of deer mice consists principally of vegetable material such as
-seeds, nuts, berries, and the soft parts of fleshy plants. Mushrooms and
-lichens are eaten. Insect remains are present in small quantities in
-most stomachs examined. Flesh is also eaten and small mammals caught in
-traps are often eaten by deer mice. Cannibalism appears to be common
-only in captivity.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 107. Distribution of the deer mouse in Washington.
-  A. _Peromyscus maniculatus oreas._ B. _Peromyscus maniculatus
-  austerus._ C. _Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri._ D. _Peromyscus
-  maniculatus gambelii._ E. _Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae._]
-
-Deer mice are often heavily parasitized by tapeworms and roundworms.
-Virtually all of the deer mice taken on Jones Island in the San Juan
-Islands had livers so infected by the eggs of a nematode worm as to be
-swollen to several times their natural size, and had a yellow,
-crystalline appearance. The maggots of parasitic flies often occur in
-the anal and genital region of deer mice, effectively sterilizing some
-individuals.
-
-Predatory snakes, birds, and mammals doubtless kill and eat deer mice.
-Strangely enough, although deer mice may be the commonest mammal in an
-area, the pellets of owls collected in the same area usually contain the
-remains of relatively few deer mice. The impact of owls seems to be
-greatest upon mice, such as _Microtus_, which follow definite runways.
-
-The breeding season of the deer mouse extends over most of the spring
-and summer. Growth and development of the young of _Peromyscus m. oreas_
-have been discussed by A. Svihla (1936A). Embryos found varied in number
-from 2 to 8 with a mean of 4.5.
-
-
-=Peromyscus maniculatus oreas= Bangs
-
-      _Peromyscus oreas_ Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:84, March
-      24, 1898.
-
-      _Peromyscus akeleyi_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30., zoöl.
-      ser., 1:226. February 1, 1899 (type from Elwha River, Olympic
-      Mountains, Washington).
-
-      _Peromyscus maniculatus oreas_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:51,
-      April 17, 1909.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on Church Mountain, 6,500 ft., Mt. Baker Range,
-      near the U. S. boundary, British Columbia, by Allan Brooks on
-      August 29, 1896; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size large; tail more than 50 per cent of
-      total length; color of upper parts reddish.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twenty-five males and 15 females average: total
-      length 202; length of tail 110; hind foot 22.6; ear 18.7.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains west to the Pacific
-      Ocean, save for the Puget Sound area and a narrow band extending
-      southward nearly to the Columbia River. Marginal localities along
-      the west side of Puget Sound are: Deer Park (W.W.D.), Lake Cushman
-      (W.W.D.), and Kelso (M.V.Z.). Marginal localities on the west side
-      of the Cascade Mountains are: Tomyhoi Lake (W.W.D.), Forks of
-      Skykomish River (W.W.D.), North Bend (W.W.D.), Mt. St. Helens
-      (V.B.S.) and Yacolt (M.V.Z.). Marginal localities on the east
-      slope of the Cascade Mountains are: Grouse Creek (W.W.D.), Lake
-      Wenatchee (W.W.D.), Easton (W.W.D.), Morrison Springs Ranger
-      Station (W.W.D.) and Wind River C.C.C. Camp (W.W.D.).
-
-
-=Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri= Osgood
-
-      Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:62,
-      April 17, 1909.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Friday Harbor, San Juan Island, San Juan
-      County, Washington, by N. Hollister on October 23, 1903; type in
-      United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _oreas_ but darker, less reddish,
-      and with much shorter tail. Length of tail about 40 per cent of
-      total length.
-
-      _Measurements._--Populations of deer mice on the various islands
-      vary slightly in average measurements. The average measurements of
-      10 males and 10 females from San Juan Island, 20 males and 15
-      females from Blakeley Island, and 20 males and 15 females from
-      Cypress Island, are respectively: total length 189, 183, 179;
-      length of tail 87, 82, 79; hind foot 22.8, 22, 19.5; ear 19.4,
-      18.7, 19.5; weight 33, 29, 32 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The San Juan Islands, San Juan and Skagit
-      counties, in northern Puget Sound.
-
-
-=Peromyscus maniculatus austerus= (Baird)
-
-      _Hesperomys austerus_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
-      7:336, 1855.
-
-      _Sitomys americanus austerus_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
-      5:192, August 18, 1893.
-
-      _P[eromyscus]., austerus_ Bangs, Amer. Nat., 31:75, January 1,
-      1897.
-
-      _Peromyscus maniculatus austerus_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:63,
-      April 17, 1909.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Old Fort Steilacoom, Pierce County,
-      Washington, by J. G. Suckley, probably on January 20, 1854; type in
-      United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _oreas_ but smaller with
-      relatively shorter tail; tail narrower at base, less sharply
-      bicolor; upper parts duller, browner, less reddish. In _oreas_ the
-      tail is usually more than 100 mm. In _austerus_ the tail is
-      usually less than 90 mm.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twenty-seven males and 23 females from Seattle,
-      King County, average: total length 180.5; length of tail 88.6;
-      hind foot 21; ear 18. The average weight of 15 adults is 21 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Puget Sound area and south to the Columbia
-      River in a narrow band through the lowlands. Marginal localities
-      on the west side of Puget Sound are: Port Angeles (W.W.D.),
-      Bremerton (W.W.D.), 4 miles north of Shelton (W.W.D.), Tenino
-      (W.W.D.) and Mouth of Klama River (M.V.Z.). Marginal localities on
-      the east side of Puget Sound are: Bellingham (W.W.D.), Arlington
-      (W.W.D.), Everett (W.W.D.), 4 miles east of Monroe (W.W.D.), Fall
-      City (W.W.D.), and Vancouver (W.W.D.).
-
-
-=Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus= Osgood
-
-      _Peromyscus oreas rubidus_ Osgood, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      14:193, December 12, 1901.
-
-      _Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:65,
-      April 17, 1909.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Mendocino City, California, by J. A. Loring on
-      November 17, 1897; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Closely similar to _austerus_ but paler with
-      longer skull. Specimens from Washington are almost purplish-brown
-      in appearance.
-
-      _Measurements._--Six males and 2 females from Puget Island,
-      Wahkiakum County, average: total length 177; length of tail 89;
-      hind foot 21.9; ear 18.7.
-
-      _Distribution._--This is the deer mouse of the humid coastal belt
-      of Oregon and California. It enters Washington only at Puget
-      Island, Wahkiakum County, in the Columbia River.
-
-
-=Peromyscus maniculatus gambelii= (Baird)
-
-      _Peromyscus gambelii_ Baird, Mamm. N. Amer., Pacific R. R. Reports,
-      8:464, 1857.
-
-      _Sitomys americanus gambelii_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
-      5:190, August 18, 1893.
-
-      _P[eromyscus]., t[exanus]. gambelii_ Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat.
-      Mus., 18:446, March 25, 1896.
-
-      _Peromyscus maniculatus gambeli_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:67,
-      April 17, 1909.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Monterey, Monterey County, California, by W.
-      P. Trowbridge; skin catalogued on January 4, 1853; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size small; tail short; color pale, varying
-      from buffy gray to rich buff; rarely dark reddish brown.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twenty-five males and 15 females average: total
-      length 160; length of tail 71; hind foot 19.8; ear 17.7.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau. Intergradation with
-      _oreas_ occurs between the Columbia River and the Cascade
-      Mountains. Marginal records on the west are: Chelan (W.W.D.),
-      Leavenworth (W.W.D.), Cle Elum (W.W.D.), Satus Pass (W.W.D.), Lyle
-      (V.B.S.). Marginal localities on the north are: Chelan (W.W.D.), 5
-      miles north of Coulee (W.W.D.), Sprague (V.B.S.) and Steptoe Butte
-      (M.V.Z.).
-
-
-=Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae= (Rhoads)
-
-      _Sitomys americanus artemisiae_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
-      Philadelphia, p. 260, October 23, 1894.
-
-      _Peromyscus texanus artemisiae_ Miller and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc.
-      Nat. Hist., 30:84, December, 1901.
-
-      _Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae_ Osgood, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:58,
-      April 17, 1909.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Ashcroft, British Columbia, by S. N. Rhoads on
-      July 5, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Sciences.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _gambelii_ but darker, more
-      reddish; often with longer tail.
-
-      _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females from northeastern
-      Washington average: total length 167; length of tail 80; hind foot
-      20; ear 17.8.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains of
-      southeastern Washington, extending west, in northeastern
-      Washington, to Conconully (W.W.D.) and south to Duly Lake
-      (W.W.D.).
-
-
-=Neotoma cinerea= Ord
-
-Bushy-tailed wood rat
-
-_Description._--The bushy-tailed wood rat is slightly larger than the
-common Norway or brown rat. The head and body measure about 12-1/2
-inches and the tail about 3-1/2 inches. It resembles the deer mouse in
-general proportions. The ears are large and naked and the black eyes are
-large and protruding. The tail is bushy, squirrel-like. The feet are
-small and have furry soles. The fur is soft and silky. Adults are
-brownish gray above with white underparts and a gray tail. Young
-individuals have blue-gray upper-parts.
-
-Wood rats range over most of North America. They exhibit great
-variation, especially in the southwestern United States. The
-bushy-tailed species occurs in the western United States and Canada.
-Wood rats are notorious for invading buildings in the mountains and in
-the desert. However, their natural habitat is broken rock or talus. This
-habitat preference accounts for their distribution in Washington, for
-talus is common except in the humid subdivision of the Transition
-Life-zone. Wood rats are probably most abundant in the talus slides of
-the Columbian Plateau, especially in the canyon of the Columbia River
-and in Moses and Grand coulees. They are common in all the mountainous
-areas in the state where high altitudes and steep slopes result in the
-accumulation of talus. Wood rats range from sea level to 10,000 feet
-elevation on Mount Rainier and from the Upper Sonoran to the
-Arctic-alpine life-zones. Great horned owls and probably all of the
-carnivores that share the range of the wood rat prey on it to some
-extent. Sperry (1941: 15) lists _Neotoma_ in four per cent of 8,339
-coyote stomachs gathered throughout the United States.
-
-Wood rats in Washington are definitely nocturnal and are rarely seen in
-daylight. On January 10, 1939, however, near Colville, Stevens County, a
-companion and I were sitting on the porch of a deserted shack eating
-lunch. Suddenly a wood rat darted out of the open door into the full
-sunlight and tugged at a can, containing a few drops of tomato juice,
-which one of us was holding in his hand. When the rat looked up and saw
-the human, it hastily retreated. The wood rat has a habit of flattening
-its body tightly against the ground when observed and also of "drumming"
-with its feet when excited. This habit is shared by the snowshoe rabbit
-and the spotted skunk. A captive specimen "drummed" by lifting its back
-feet, alternately, about one-half inch from the surface of a piece of
-wood and striking downward with surprising power. The agility of the
-wood rat was demonstrated near Wallula where we watched a specimen by
-the light of a flashlight as it climbed an almost vertical rock wall,
-taking advantage of small fractures for toe-holds.
-
-Wood rats are far from noiseless in their nocturnal activities. Near
-Moses Coulee, Douglas County, wood rats were heard from a distance of 50
-feet as they scampered back and forth through a concrete culvert under
-the highway.
-
-Many species of wood rats build complicated stick houses in which they
-live. In Washington, elaborate stick houses are sometimes built but are
-usually not occupied. In the attic of an old building near Pend Oreille
-Lakes, Stevens County, two large and complicated houses were discovered.
-These were built of sticks, paper and other debris and measured more
-than three feet in diameter. Three small, cup-shaped nests resembling
-those of a bird, made of soft grasses, moss, and shredded paper were
-found on the attic floor ten feet or more from the stick houses. These
-nests gave every indication of being used, while the piles of sticks
-contained no nests and seemed never to have been occupied. Near Moses
-Lake, Grant County, a wood rat house built in the rafters of an old shed
-was constructed entirely of tumbleweeds (_Salsola pestifer_). This house
-was spherical in shape and measured more than five feet in diameter. It
-appeared to be unoccupied and a wood rat, probably its builder, was
-living under the floor of the shed. Most wood rat houses consist of a
-half-dozen sticks arranged in a crevice in a rock pile or a cave. Wood
-rats were placing fresh material on a house in the Wenatchee National
-Forest on January 17, 1939, when there was two feet of snow on the
-ground and the temperature was hovering around zero. The house measured
-about one cubic yard and consisted of _Ceanothus_ leaves and steins,
-with some twigs of fir (_Abies_). It was built under a bunk in a
-broken-down cabin left by deer hunters.
-
-The collecting habit of the wood rat has gained it the name "pack-rat."
-Taylor (1920A: 91) lists the following materials from a wood rat nest on
-Mt. Rainier: _Nesting material_: rags, leaves, paper, thumb of a glove,
-string, thongs, oakum; _Food_: apple core, onion peel, bacon rind,
-raisins, 10 bars of chocolate, figs, puff balls, bread crust, meat
-scraps, cantaloupe rind, potatoes, dried apricots, lemons, mushrooms,
-beans, peanuts, banana, 15 lumps of sugar; _Miscellaneous_: dime, coffee
-can cover, paraffin from jelly glass, bones, 19 pieces of candles and
-several cakes of soap.
-
-As a rule only one or two wood rats are trapped at a given locality,
-indicating that the species is not gregarious. The presence of wood rats
-in a building, cave, mine tunnel, or talus slide can be detected in
-several ways. The white, mineral-like incrustation formed by the urine
-of many generations of wood rats is usually conspicuous on rocks near
-their homes. A strong musky odor pervades the atmosphere in every
-habitat occupied by wood rats. Wood rat feces, consisting of hard, black
-cylinders one-half inch long and three-sixteenths of an inch in
-diameter, are invariably found scattered on stones or exposed areas of
-ground.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 108. Distribution of the bushy-tailed wood rat in
-  Washington. A. _Neotoma cinerea occidentalis._ B. _Neotoma cinerea
-  alticola._]
-
-The food of the bushy-tailed wood rat is varied and includes insects and
-vegetation. A captive specimen that escaped in the University of
-Washington Zoölogical Laboratories killed and ate a number of lizards.
-
-Embryos found from April 18 to June 14 varied in number from 3 to 5.
-
-
-=Neotoma cinerea occidentalis= Baird
-
-      _Neotoma occidentalis_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
-      p. 335, 1855.
-
-      _Neotoma cinerea occidentalis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:58, July
-      30, 1891.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Shoalwater Bay (Willapa Bay), Pacific County,
-      Washington, by J. G. Cooper, in June, 1854; type in United States
-      National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size large; color of upper parts cinnamon
-      brown.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male and a female from Glade Creek, 1/2 mile
-      north of the Columbia River, Benton County, measure, respectively:
-      total length 425, 395; length of tail 181, 176; hind foot 50, 44;
-      ear 32, 31; weight 532.5, 330.0 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Throughout the state except in the Blue
-      Mountains.
-
-_Remarks._--Specimens from the Olympic Mountains and western Washington
-are slightly duller-colored than specimens from eastern Washington and
-young from western Washington are more bluish, less gray, than young
-individuals from the Columbian Plateau. The specimens from the Columbian
-Plateau show some resemblance to _alticola_. Specimens from northeastern
-Washington are more like typical _occidentalis_.
-
-
-=Neotoma cinerea alticola= Hooper
-
-      _Neotoma cinerca alticola_ Hooper, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl.,
-      42:409, May 17, 1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Parker Creek, 5,500 ft., Warner Mountains,
-      Modoc County, California, by N. B. Stern on June 22, 1916; type in
-      Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _Neotoma c. occidentalis_ but
-      slightly paler, with paler hind feet and narrower sphenopalatine
-      vacuities.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia
-      County, measures: total length 387; length of tail 171; hind foot
-      43; ear 33; weight 330 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake
-      River.
-
-_Remarks._--The only adult specimen available from the Blue Mountains
-shows well the characters attributed to _alticola_.
-
-
-=Synaptomys borealis wrangeli= Merriam
-
-Northern lemming mouse
-
-      _Synaptomys (Mictomys) wrangeli_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 10:63, March 19, 1896.
-
-      _Synaptomys (Mictomys) truei_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 10:62, March 19, 1896 (type from Skagit Valley, Skagit
-      County, Washington).
-
-      _Synaptomys borealis wrangeli_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 50:26, June
-      30, 1927.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Wrangel, Alexander Archipelago, Alaska, by C.
-      P. Streator on September 6, 1895; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial character._--Dark color.
-
-      _Distribution._--The northwestern Cascades, from Mt. Baker
-      northward.
-
-_Remarks._--The relationship of this race to _artemisiae_ remains
-to be worked out.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 109. Distribution of the northern lemming mouse in
-  Washington. A. _Synaptomys borealis wrangeli._ B. Possible range of
-  _Synaptomys borealis artemisiae_.]
-
-_Description._--Lemming mice may be recognized by their short, thick
-bodies, slightly larger than the bodies of the common house mouse
-(_Mus_); short tails, which are less than 20 per cent of their total
-length; small, inconspicuous ears; and grooved upper incisors.
-
-Mice of the genus _Synaptomys_ range over much of boreal North America.
-Two species and eleven races are recognized by Howell (1927B: 9).
-_Synaptomys borealis_ ranges westward across Canada from Labrador to the
-Pacific Coast and from Alaska south to Washington. The lemming mice are
-terrestrial and inhabit runways similar to those of meadow mice
-(_Microtus_). They are alpine in distribution. Shaw (1930: 7-10) found
-them among typical annual herbs in a cold, boggy mountain valley. Other
-than this, nothing is known of the species in Washington. Indeed little
-is known of the life history of any member of the genus.
-
-The lemming mouse possesses four pairs of mammae, two pectoral and two
-inguinal. It is the most primitive of the microtines. It seems to be of
-boreal origin but is not known from the Old World. It was evidently
-forced southward by the Pleistocene glaciers into Washington and is now
-retreating northward in the wake of the ice. The only specimens recorded
-from Washington are from the northern border of the state.
-
-
-=Phenacomys intermedius= Merriam
-
-Heather vole
-
-_Description._--Heather voles are heavy-bodied, short-legged mice,
-closely similar in general appearance to other microtines that occur in
-Washington. Their dull, brownish upper parts, lacking a distinct reddish
-dorsal stripe, separate them from the red-backed mice (_Clethrionomys_)
-and the lack of grooves on their upper incisors separates them from
-_Synaptomys_. Their relatively short tail (30 per cent or less of their
-total length) separates them from most meadow mice (_Microtus_). There
-are no external characters which serve to separate them from all species
-of _Microtus_ and the teeth must be examined certainly to identify
-_Phenacomys_. In _Microtus_ the angles between the cusps of the inner
-and outer sides of the lower molars are of approximately equal depth,
-but in _Phenacomys_ the angles on the inner side of the lower molars are
-at least twice as deep as those of the outer side of the jaw. In
-addition the molars of _Phenacomys_ are rooted while those of _Microtus_
-are not.
-
-The heather voles and their relatives are primitive microtines that
-range through boreal North America including the higher parts of the
-Rocky Mountains and the cool area along the Pacific Coast. Several
-species are included in the genus: an arctic form (_ungava_), a lowland
-Pacific Coastal species (_albipes_), two tree-inhabiting species
-(_longicaudus_ and _silvicola_) and a mountain species (_intermedius_).
-Thus far only _intermedius_ has been found in Washington but further
-search may reveal that one or more of the arboreal species and possibly
-_albipes_ are also present.
-
-Heather voles are alpine animals, seldom occurring below the Hudsonian
-Life-zone. They are rare as compared with most microtines, and are
-seldom taken in traps, even by the experienced collector of small
-mammals. Evidence of their presence is most often found in the dense
-meadows of heather (_Cassiope_ and _Phyllodoce_) high on the mountains.
-Here their feces, runways, and old winter nests are not uncommon, and
-heather voles may be far more abundant than trapping records indicate.
-They are not restricted to the vicinity of heather, however, for one of
-my specimens was taken in a marshy willow thicket near Stevens Pass in
-King County, one in a patch of skunk-cabbage in a grassy glacial cirque
-near Tomyhoi Lake in Whatcom County, and one at the edge of a snowbank
-on a steep hillside at Deer Park, Clallam County. In each of these
-places, however, there were heather meadows within a thousand yards.
-Shaw (1924A: 12-15) also found the heather mouse on "comparatively dry
-hill slopes" and reports that it "rather characteristically occurs in
-such log-tangled areas as former fire zones."
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 110. Distribution of the heather vole in
-  Washington. A. _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis._ B. _Phenacomys
-  intermedius intermedius._]
-
-The winter nests of _Phenacomys intermedius_ are placed on the surface
-of the ground and in the season when occupied are deeply buried under
-the snow. They are spherical or oval in shape, six to eight inches in
-diameter and with a side entrance. One examined by Shaw was "formed of
-white heather twigs, the interstices being filled with leaves of
-huckleberry." It was "lined with finely shredded grass." All those
-examined by me were composed of grass and lichens.
-
-The principal foods of the heather vole seem to be white heather
-(_Cassiope mertensiana_) and huckleberry (_Vaccinium_). Red heather
-(_Phyllodoce empetriformis_) is not eaten. Shaw also lists beargrass
-(_Xerophyllum tenax_) and lousewort (_Pedicularis_) as eaten.
-
-A burrow excavated and figured by Shaw, was slightly more than a yard
-long and contained four young in a nest situated but a few inches from
-one of the three entrances. The nest was made of grass and moss. A
-female taken at Tye, King County, contained 4 embryos on May 28, 1939.
-One taken at Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille County, contained 3 small
-embryos on June 14, 1938.
-
-
-=Phenacomys intermedius intermedius= Merriam
-
-      _Phenacomys intermedius_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 2:32, October 30,
-      1889.
-
-      _Phenacomys intermedius intermedius_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna,
-      48:15, October 12, 1926.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained 20 miles north-northwest of Kamloops, 5,500 ft.
-      elevation, British Columbia, by G. M. Dawson on October 2, 1888;
-      type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size small; color of upper parts brownish
-      gray; skull small.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille
-      County, measured: total length 127; length of tail 29; hind foot
-      17; weight 25 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from extreme northeastern Washington
-      at Pass Creek Pass (W.W.D.) and the Blue Mountains.
-
-
-=Phenacomys intermedius oramontis= Rhoads
-
-      _Phenacomys oramontis_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 29:941, October, 1895.
-
-      _Phenacomys olympicus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zoöl.
-      ser., 1:225, February 1, 1899 (type from Happy Lake, 5,000 ft.,
-      Clallam County, Washington).
-
-      _Microtus (Lagurus) pumilus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30,
-      zoöl. ser., 1:226, February 1, 1899 (type from Happy Lake, 5,000
-      ft., Clallam County, Washington).
-
-      _Phenacomys intermedius olympicus_ Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 48:21,
-      October 12, 1926.
-
-      _Phenacomys intermedius oramontis_ Anderson, Canadian Field Nat.,
-      56:59, June 8, 1942.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on Church Mountain, 6,000 ft., Mt. Baker Range,
-      British Columbia, just north of international boundary, by A. C.
-      Brooks on August 6, 1895; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural
-      Sciences.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _intermedius_ but darker, browner
-      above and deeper gray beneath; skull large and heavy.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from Tye, King County, measures: total
-      length 152; length of tail 40; hind foot 19; ear 12. A female from
-      Tomyhoi Lake, Whatcom County, measures: 170; 45; 20; 15.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Cascade and Olympic mountains, from Tomyhoi
-      Lake (W. W. D.) on the north, to Mt. Adams (Taylor and Shaw,
-      1929:23) on the south.
-
-
-=Clethrionomys gapperi= (Vigors)
-
-Gapper red-backed mouse
-
-_Description._--Red-backed mice are heavy-bodied, short-tailed and
-short-legged mice, similar in general appearance to the meadow mice
-(_Microtus_). Unlike the meadow mice, they possess rooted molars, a
-primitive character. They do not have grooved incisors, like
-_Synaptomys_, or the great difference in the depth of the angles of the
-lower molars that characterizes both _Synaptomys_ and _Phenacomys_.
-Externally _Clethrionomys_ may be recognized by the broad red dorsal
-area from which they obtain their common name. Their sides are grayish
-or dusky and the undersides buffy white.
-
-The red-backed mice, including more than one species, range over the
-boreal parts of the Old and New World. In America they are found in most
-of Alaska, Canada and the northern United States, and extend southward
-in the Rocky Mountains and along the Pacific Coast. The one species
-_Clethrionomys gapperi_ ranges across southern Canada from the Atlantic
-to the Pacific, extending southward in forested areas to New Mexico.
-They usually live in clearings in the forest. In the Pend Oreille
-Mountains _saturatus_ was common in damp, mossy talus slides, along with
-_Microtus longicaudus_ and _Phenacomys intermedius_. The _Clethrionomys_
-outnumbered the two latter species combined by 25 to 1. In nearby
-forest, red-backed mice were scarce but no other microtines were found.
-In the Kettle River Mountains a week later, red-backed mice were rare. A
-single specimen was taken in a damp place in the forest; none was found
-in talus slides. Near Stevens Pass, King County, in the Cascades,
-_cascadensis_ was taken in equal numbers in talus slides and under logs
-in the forest. Near Dewey Lake, Yakima County, in the Cascades, I took
-them only in an extensive grassy meadow. In the Blue Mountains I found
-_idahoensis_ in the dense chaparral, far from forests.
-
-Unlike _Microtus_, red-backed mice do not make runways, although they
-sometimes follow the runways of other mammals.
-
-Taylor (1920B: 92) found red-backed mice breeding on Mount Rainier from
-early July to the middle of September. One female gave birth to four
-young in a nest in his duffle bag.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 111. Distribution of the Gapper and California
-  red-backed mice in Washington. A. _Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus._
-  B. _Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis._ C. _Clethrionomys gapperi
-  nivarius._ D. _Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis._ E. _Clethrionomys
-  californicus occidentalis._]
-
-
-=Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus= (Rhoads)
-
-      _Evotomys gapperi saturatus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
-      Philadelphia, p. 284, October 23, 1894.
-
-      [_Clethrionomys gapperi_] _saturatus_ Whitlow and Hall, Univ.
-      California Publ. Zoöl., 40:265, September 30, 1933.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Nelson, British Columbia, by S. N. Rhoads on
-      August 27, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Sciences.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size small, about 140 mm. in total length;
-      tail short, about one-third of total length; ears large,
-      projecting above fur; color of head and sides gray tinged with
-      yellowish; back with distinct red stripe; underparts whitish
-      tinged with buff.
-
-      _Measurements._--Five males and 10 females from Pass Creek Pass,
-      Pend Oreille County, average: total length 147; length of tail 43;
-      hind foot 18.3; ear 14.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington from Sherman Creek Pass
-      (W. W. D.) on the west to Pass Creek Pass on the east.
-
-
-=Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis= (Merriam)
-
-      _Evotomys idahoensis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:66, July 30, 1891.
-
-      _Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis_ Whitlow and Hall, Univ.
-      California Publ. Zoöl., 40:265, September 30, 1933.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Sawtooth (Alturas) Lake, 7,200 ft., Blaine
-      County, Idaho, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey, on October 4, 1890;
-      type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _saturatus_ but brain case longer
-      and narrower and dorsal area more reddish.
-
-      _Measurements._--Seven males and 6 females from the Blue Mountains
-      average, respectively: total length 138, 142; length of tail 41,
-      41; hind foot 18.7, 19.0; ear 13.6, 13.5; weight 20.5, 22.7 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.
-
-
-=Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis= Booth
-
-      _Evotomys gapperi saturatus_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas. R.
-      Conner Mus., no. 2:23, December, 1929.
-
-      _Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis_ Booth, Murrelet, 26:27, August
-      10, 1945.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained 2 miles south of Blewett Pass, 3,000 ft.
-      elevation, Kittitas County, Washington, by G. G. Cantwell, on
-      October 30, 1921; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Dark and dull with underparts dull buffy.
-
-      _Measurements._--Ten adults from the Cascade Mountains average
-      (Booth, 1945: 27): total length 162; length of tail 50; hind foot
-      19; ear 14.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, according to Booth (_loc.
-      cit._, p. 28), from Hannegan Pass south to Mount Adams. Marginal
-      localities listed are: Swamp Creek, Glacier Peak, McKenna, and Mt.
-      St. Helens. These, and other localities listed by Booth are not
-      plotted on the accompanying distribution map (fig. 111).
-
-
-=Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius= (Bailey)
-
-      _Evotomys nivarius_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:136,
-      May 13, 1897.
-
-      _Evotomys gapperi nivarius_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R.
-      Conner Mus., no. 2:23, 1929.
-
-      _Clethrionomys nivarius_ Svihla, Murrelet, 12:54, May, 1931.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on the northwest slope of Mt. Ellinor, 4,000 ft.
-      elevation, Mason County, Washington, by C. P. Streator, on July 9,
-      1894; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _saturatus_ but paler throughout.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and a female from 1 mile northwest of
-      Lake Cushman, Mason County, average: total length 140; length of
-      tail 42; hind foot 18; ear 13.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Olympic Mountains, from Sol Duc Hot Springs
-      (W.S.M.) south and west at least to Staircase, on Lake Cushman
-      (W.W.D.).
-
-
-=Clethrionomys californicus occidentalis= (Merriam)
-
-California red-backed mouse
-
-      _Evotomys occidentalis_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:25, October 8,
-      1890.
-
-      _Evotomys pygmaeus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p.
-      284, October 23, 1894 (type from mouth of Nisqually River, Pierce
-      County, Washington).
-
-      _Evotomys gapperi occidentalis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas.
-      R. Conner Mus., no. 2:23, 1929.
-
-      _Clethrionomys occidentalis_ Hall, Murrelet, 13:79, September,
-      1932.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Aberdeen, Grays Harbor County, Washington, by
-      T. S. Palmer, on August 16, 1889; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females average: total length
-      137; length of tail 45; hind foot 18; ear 12.3.
-
-      _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington, east at least
-      to Cottage Lake (W. W. D.).
-
-_Remarks._--Specimens from the type locality of _occidentalis_ and other
-places along the ocean coast are larger and brighter in color than
-specimens from farther inland, but the difference appears to me to be
-insufficient to warrant subspecific separation of the two lots.
-
-_Clethrionomys californicus_ resembles _Clethrionomys gapperi_ but is
-darker and duller in color with the red dorsal area more obscured and
-forming less of a stripe. _C. californicus_ is found in the forested
-lowlands of western Washington, Oregon, and northern California, and in
-the Cascades of Oregon. In Washington, it is confined entirely to the
-forest where it is trapped under logs and on the layer of dead needles
-at the bases of conifers. Mice of this species were numerous in the
-forest along the Pacific Coast on the Long Beach Peninsula and at
-Aberdeen, Grays Harbor County. At Lost Lake Prairie, Mason County, at
-the southeastern base of the Olympic Mountains, they were rather scarce,
-but were the only mammals taken in the deep woods. Near Shelton, Mason
-County, at the eastern edge of the Olympic Mountains, a number of
-specimens were taken along with twice as many _Peromyscus maniculatus_.
-At Cottage Lake, King County, near Seattle, they were rare, comprising
-about two per cent of the mammals taken in two weeks' trapping.
-
-Almost nothing was learned of the habits of these mice. They seem to be
-rigidly restricted to a habitat where few plants other than trees grow.
-The stomachs examined contained pasty masses of finely chewed white
-vegetation with occasional gray particles that might have been bits of
-lichens. The mice do not make runways like those of _Microtus_.
-
-
-=Microtus pennsylvanicus= (Ord)
-
-Pennsylvanian meadow mouse
-
-_Description._--The upper parts are dark blackish brown and the
-underparts grayish or whitish. The tail comprises about a fourth of the
-total length and the foot does not exceed 21 mm. These two features
-separate it from most other species of meadow mice. From _Microtus
-oregoni_ it may be separated by its larger size, blackish color and
-well-developed eyes. From _Microtus montanus_ it differs in being
-larger, darker, and in having a closed posterior loop on the innerside
-of the second upper molar.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 112. Pennsylvania meadow mouse (_Microtus
-  pennsylvanicus kincaidi_), from ten miles south of Moses Lake,
-  Washington, April 28, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor
-  B. Scheffer, No. 937.)]
-
-_Microtus pennsylvanicus_ is the most common meadow mouse of the eastern
-United States. It ranges westward through Canada and southward in the
-Rocky Mountains. A number of races occur in this extensive range. In
-northeastern Washington the eastern meadow mouse is locally common,
-being confined to marshes and damp meadows. Well-used runways are made
-through the dense vegetation and piles of feces and blades of grass are
-deposited therein. A number of broods are raised in a season, for young
-of many different ages are taken together in midsummer.
-
-On the Columbian Plateau this mouse lives in marshy areas about lakes
-and potholes. Narrow trails are constructed through the dense
-vegetation. It burrows in damp earth and some occupied burrows are
-half-full of seepage water. Cuttings found in runways show that the mice
-feed on a variety of plants, including sedge (_Carex_). In the Moses
-Lake area the breeding season begins in March. Embryos found March 24,
-1940, varied from 4 to 7 in number. This species is cyclically abundant.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 113. Distribution of the Pennsylvania meadow mouse
-  in Washington. A. _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris._ B. _Microtus
-  pennsylvanicus kincaidi._]
-
-
-=Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris= Dale
-
-      _Microtus pennsylvanicus modestus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:20,
-      June 6, 1900.
-
-      _Microtus drummondii_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:22, June 6, 1900.
-
-      _Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris_ Dale, Jour. Mamm., 21:338,
-      August 13, 1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Coldstream. 1,450 ft., 3-1/2 miles southeast
-      of Vernon. British Columbia, by T. P. Maslin. Jr., on August 2,
-      1937; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size medium; color reddish brown; fur short,
-      harsh; skull small and narrow.
-
-      _Measurements._--Three males from Newport, Pend Oreille County,
-      average: total length 165; length of tail 40; hind foot 20; ear
-      15.3.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington, west to Conconully
-      (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 24) and east to Newport (W. W. D.).
-
-_Remarks._--Specimens from northeastern Washington are larger and
-darker, more reddish and less gray, than _drummondii_. They are larger,
-more reddish, and have relatively narrower skulls, than _modestus_ from
-Colorado and Idaho. They closely resemble _funebris_ from south-central
-British Columbia, and are best referred to that race. Rand (1943: 123)
-considers _funebris_ a synonym of _modestus_ but I feel is incorrect in
-doing so.
-
-
-=Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi= Dalquest
-
-      _Microtus montanus kincaidi_ Dalquest, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      54:145, September 30, 1941.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at The Potholes, 10 miles south of Moses Lake,
-      Grant County, Washington, by W. W. Dalquest on March 24, 1940; type
-      in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Large size; dark blackish color; long fur;
-      wide, angular skull.
-
-      _Measurements._--Six male and 12 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 176.6, 168.0; length of tail 45.1,
-      43.8; hind foot 20.8, 20.3; ear 14.0, 13.4.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, in the Grand Coulee area.
-
-
-=Microtus montanus= (Peale)
-
-Montane meadow mouse
-
-_Description._--Montane meadow mice have short tails, flaring zygomatic
-arches, and heavily ridged skulls. They are small, about 6-1/2 inches
-long, and buffy-gray in color. Their short tails, less than one-third
-the length of head and body, and gray color separate them from all other
-Washington meadow mice.
-
-Montane meadow mice are widely distributed in the southwestern United
-States, where numerous races are found. They occupy damp meadows and
-marshes in the arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone of eastern
-Washington. They seem to require deep, dense cover of grasses, reeds, or
-sedges, near water. They are usually associated with harvest mice
-(_Reithrodontomys megalotis_), wandering shrews (_Sorex vagrans
-monticola_), and muskrats (_Ondatra zibethica_). Hawks and owls are
-their principal enemies, but predatory mammals and snakes probably kill
-many.
-
-Montane meadow mice evidently are both diurnal and nocturnal; specimens
-were taken in the daytime as well as at night, and captives were active
-periodically day and night. Captives were extremely quick in their
-movements. If disturbed they sat up on their haunches and chattered
-indignantly. It was almost impossible to handle them without being
-bitten.
-
-The trails of montane meadow mice are narrower than those of other
-meadow mice, and appear to be used the year around. Burrows are
-numerous where the mice are plentiful. A heap of damp earth marks the
-entrance to each burrow. One nest of _M. m. canescens_ near Lake Chelan,
-Chelan County, was under a log on a small knoll in a marsh. The nest was
-round, about 8 inches in diameter, and was composed of cattails,
-grasses, and moss.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 114. Distribution of the montane and Townsend
-  meadow mice in Washington. A. _Microtus montanus nanus._ B. _Microtus
-  montanus canescens._ C. _Microtus townsendii townsendii._ D. _Microtus
-  townsendii pugeti._]
-
-
-_Microtus montanus nanus_ (Merriam)
-
-      _Arvicola (Mynomes) nanus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:63, July 30,
-      1891.
-
-      _Microtus nanus_ Miller, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:67, April
-      21, 1897.
-
-      _Microtus nanus nanus_ Miller, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 128:409,
-      April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Microtus montanus nanus_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      51:133, August 23, 1938.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained in the Pahsimeroi Mountains, 9,300 ft., Custer
-      County, Idaho, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey on September 16,
-      1890; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size medium; color of upper parts brownish
-      gray; sides paler; underparts grayish white.
-
-      _Measurements._--A large male from Prescott, Walla Walla County,
-      measures: total length 168; length of tail 48; hind foot 20. A
-      female from Prescott, Walla Walla County, and a female from
-      Pullman, Whitman County, average: 133; 31; 18.5.
-
-      _Distribution._--Southeastern Washington, westward as far as 5
-      miles east of Wallula (M.V.Z.).
-
-
-=Microtus montanus canescens= Bailey
-
-      _Microtus nanus canescens_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      12:87, April 30, 1898.
-
-      _Microtus montanus canescens_ Hall, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      51:133, August 23, 1938.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Conconully, Okanogan County, Washington, by J.
-      A. Loring, on September 12, 1897; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size small; color of upper parts pale
-      brownish gray; sides yellowish gray. This race differs from
-      _Microtus m. nanus_ in generally paler, less brownish coloration.
-      It does not differ from _nanus_ in any distinctive cranial
-      features.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two male and 2 female topotypes average,
-      respectively: total length 151, 143; length of tail 35, 33.5; hind
-      foot, 19.5, 19.5. A series of 8 males and 6 females from Selah,
-      Yakima County, average, respectively: total length 151.7, 150.5;
-      length of tail 41.5, 40.1; hind foot 19.7, 18.8; ear 12.8, 13.0;
-      weight 47.2, 36.8 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The eastern foothills of the Cascade Mountains
-      from the British Columbian boundary south, probably to the
-      Columbia River. Recorded east to Benton City (Taylor and Shaw,
-      1929: 24).
-
-_Remarks._--A large series from Selah, Yakima County, is somewhat
-intermediate between _nanus_ and _canescens_. These specimens from south
-of the Wenatchee Mountains are, however, more like _canescens_ in color
-than they are like _nanus_.
-
-Bailey (1900: 32) records a specimen of this race from North Yakima as
-_Microtus canicaudus_.
-
-
-=Microtus townsendii= (Bachman)
-
-Townsend meadow mouse
-
-_Description._--The Townsend meadow mouse is a large-bodied, long-furred
-mouse with a tail of moderate length. Head and body measure about 8
-inches, the tail about 2-1/2 inches. The legs are short and the ears
-scarcely project through the fur on the head. In summer the color is
-dark reddish-brown. The winter color is dark brownish-black. Underparts
-are paler, more grayish brown, than are the upper parts. The tail is
-sparsely haired.
-
-Townsend meadow mice occur west of the Cascade Mountains in California,
-Washington, Oregon, British Columbia, and on some British Columbian and
-Washington islands. The habitats of the two races of the Townsend meadow
-mice found in Washington are wholly in the humid subdivision of the
-Transition Life-zone but vary somewhat in nature. The race _townsendii_
-lives in marshes or damp meadows, under cover of deep, rank vegetation.
-These mice avoid forested areas or dry brush, but sometimes occur in dry
-grass when it is deep enough to conceal them from enemies. The race
-_pugeti_ has been recorded from meadows, salt marshes, driftwood strewn
-on sea-beaches, areas of sparse, dry grass, and piles of rocks.
-
-Townsend meadow mice are as diurnal as they are nocturnal; specimens
-have been trapped at almost all hours of the day and night. Their
-ordinary method of traveling is a slow run. When startled they make a
-dash for the nearest cover, into which they dive headlong. They make
-considerable noise while moving about and often may be heard from
-several feet away. Captives in the laboratory seemed rather dull and
-stupid as compared with other meadow mice.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 115. Runways of Townsend meadow mice (_Microtus
-  townsendii_) worn to grooves in the damp soil at Seattle; May 18,
-  1938; dense cover of cattails has been burned off (W. W. Dalquest
-  photo).]
-
-In the fall, winter, and early spring the Townsend meadow mice keep to
-their runways. These runways are used by successive generations of mice,
-and often are worn into ditches several inches deep. In the late spring
-and summer, when the grass and other vegetation in their habitat is
-tall and rank, offering complete concealment, the runways are abandoned
-and cuttings of rejected food are found scattered over the surface of
-the ground.
-
-The food of the Townsend meadow mice includes the succulent leaves and
-stems of many grasses and annuals. Near Seattle the staple summer food
-is the velvet grass (_Holcus lanatus_), although many other plants,
-including the horsetail (_Equisetum arvense_), are eaten. In winter the
-common cattail is eaten. Couch (1925: 200) found caches of the roots of
-mint (_Mentha canadensis_) stored by this species. As much as 14 quarts
-was found in a single cache.
-
-The cup-shaped nests of Townsend meadow mice near Seattle were below
-ground. Embryos were found from May 4 to May 20 and varied in number
-from 5 to 8 with a mean of 7. In the San Juan Islands the nests of _M.
-t. pugeti_ were under driftwood.
-
-
-=Microtus townsendii townsendii= (Bachman)
-
-      _Arvicola townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
-      8 (pt. 1):60, 1839.
-
-      _Arvicola occidentalis_ Peale, U. S. Expl. Exped., Mammalogy, p.
-      45, 1848 (type from Puget Sound).
-
-      _M[icrotus]. townsendi_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 12:66, July 23,
-      1896.
-
-      _Microtus townsendii townsendii_ Svihla and Svihla, Murrelet,
-      14:40, May, 1933.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on the Columbia River (probably on or near Sauvie
-      Island, Multnomah County, Oregon); type in Philadelphia Academy of
-      Natural Sciences.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size large; skull narrow in interorbital
-      region.
-
-      _Measurements._--Eight males and 5 females from Clark and Pacific
-      counties, southwestern Washington, average, respectively: total
-      length 208.0, 208.4; length of tail 65.7, 66.0; hind foot 26.5,
-      25.4; ear 15.0, 14.6; weight 80.8, 76.7 grams. Thirteen males and
-      9 females from Seattle average, respectively: 211.8, 209.0; 71.2,
-      68.6; 25.7, 26.0; 15.8, 15.4.
-
-      _Distribution._--The lowlands of western Washington from
-      Bellingham (J.M.E.) south to Puget Island (V.B.S.).
-
-
-=Microtus townsendii pugeti= Dalquest
-
-      _Microtus townsendii pugeti_ Dalquest, Murrelet, 21:7, April 1,
-      1940.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Neck Point, northwest corner of Shaw Island,
-      San Juan County, Washington, by D. H. Johnson, on July 10, 1938;
-      type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size small; skull wide in interorbital
-      region, averaging about 4.0 mm. (3.8-4.2); basi-sphenoid truncate
-      posteriorly; upper incisors strongly curved.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and 6 females average: total length
-      182.6; length of tail 50.3; hind foot 23.2; ear 15.0.
-
-      _Distribution._--Found only on the San Juan Islands, San Juan and
-      Skagit counties.
-
-_Remarks._--The islands occupied by this race of mouse were heavily
-glaciated by the last continental glacier (Vashon). Mice of the species
-_townsendii_ apparently migrated to the islands early in the Recent era,
-and under isolation developed the differences which now separate them
-from the mainland population.
-
-
-=Microtus longicaudus= (Merriam)
-
-Long-tailed meadow mouse
-
-_Description._--The several races of this species vary from small to
-large in size. Their bodies are relatively longer and slimmer than those
-of the other meadow mice that occur in Washington. Their most
-distinctive feature is the long tail, only slightly shorter than the
-head and body. Their fur is rather coarse. The color varies from grayish
-brown to dull reddish brown with a brighter brown dorsal stripe. The
-tail is bicolor; black or dark brown above, yellowish below. The
-underparts are whitish gray.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 116. Distribution of the long-tailed meadow mouse
-  in Washington. A. _Microtus longicaudus macrurus._ B. _Microtus
-  longicaudus halli._]
-
-Long-tailed meadow mice are widely distributed over the western United
-States, Canada, and Alaska. In Washington the long-tailed meadow mouse
-has been taken in many habitats. One specimen was taken along a small,
-temporary stream through sagebrush in the Upper Sonoran Life-zone.
-Others were found in marshes and near water in the arid subdivision of
-the Transition Life-zone. In the humid subdivision of the Transition
-Life-zone they are not uncommon in damp areas along the ocean coast, but
-are rather rare in dry, grassy habitats. In the Canadian and Hudsonian
-life-zones they are fairly common in forest-free, grassy places, being
-most abundant near talus slides. Altitudinally they range from sea level
-to 6,000 feet.
-
-Long-tailed meadow mice are rather rare. Several were taken in the
-daytime at Round Top Mountain, Pend Oreille County, and two others were
-taken in daytime two miles south of Tenino, Thurston County. However
-most of the specimens were caught at night.
-
-Long-tailed meadow mice do not, at least ordinarily, make trails as do
-other meadow mice. Specimens are usually taken unexpectedly, and
-intensive trapping in the area where a specimen or two is taken rarely
-yields additional individuals.
-
-Two specimens taken in the Cascade Mountains in September were pregnant;
-one contained two embryos and the other four.
-
-
-=Microtus longicaudus halli= Ellerman
-
-      _Microtus mordax angustus_ Hall, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl.,
-      37:13, April 10, 1931 (not of Thomas, 1908).
-
-      _Microtus longicaudus angustus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 19:491,
-      November 14, 1938.
-
-      _Microtus mordax halli_ Ellerman, Fam. and Genera of Living
-      Rodents, British Mus. Nat. Hist., 2:603, March 21, 1941 (new name
-      for _Microtus mordax angustus_ Hall).
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Godman Springs, 5,700 ft., Blue Mountains,
-      Columbia County, Washington, by S. H. Lyman, on September 1, 1927;
-      type in Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size small; color of sides pale grayish
-      brown; brown dorsal stripe conspicuous; tail relatively short.
-
-      _Measurements._--Four males and 5 females from eastern Washington
-      average, respectively: total length 164.8, 166.6; length of tail
-      55.8, 55.8; hind foot 22.0, 21.4.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the Blue Mountains of southeastern
-      Washington north, along the eastern edge of the state, to British
-      Columbia, and thence west, north of the Columbia River, to the
-      Cascades, and south along the eastern edge of the Cascades to the
-      Wenatchee Mountains. Marginal occurrences are: Pasayten River
-      (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 24), Hart Lake (Taylor and Shaw, 1929:
-      24), Blewett Pass (W.W.D.), Boulder Cave (W.W.D.), and Satus Pass
-      (W.W.D.).
-
-_Remarks._--Four specimens from Satus Pass, Klickitat County, are
-somewhat intermediate between this race and _macrurus_, and indicate
-that _halli_ crossed the Columbia River when an alpine meadow land
-extended from the Simcoe Anticline to southeastern Washington.
-
-One specimen from Selah, Yakima County, is colored somewhat like
-_halli_, and is smaller than _macrurus_. Possibly the _halli_ type of
-meadow mouse spread northward to the Yakima Valley. This specimen was
-taken in the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. A specimen from the Arid
-Transition Zone at Naches, Yakima County (taken in almost Canadian
-Life-zone habitat), is like _macrurus-halli_ intergrades from the higher
-Cascade Mountains.
-
-
-=Microtus longicaudus macrurus= Merriam
-
-      _Microtus macrurus_ Merriam, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p.
-      353, October 4, 1898.
-
-      _Microtus mordax macrurus_ Dice, Murrelet, 13:49, May, 1932.
-
-      _Microtus longicaudus macrurus_ Goldman, Jour. Mamm., 19:491,
-      November 14, 1938.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Lake Cushman, Mason County, Washington, by C.
-      P. Streator on June 26, 1894; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size large; tail relatively long, almost as
-      long as head and body; color of upper parts dull brown; dorsal
-      stripe obscure; underparts gray.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and 4 females from the Olympic
-      Mountains and the coast of Washington, average, respectively:
-      total length 212.5, 220.5; length of tail 82.5, 86.8; hind foot
-      25.5, 24.7; ear 15.0, 13.7.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Olympic Mountains, the coast region of
-      western Washington, and the Cascade Mountains, save in the
-      southeastern part. Marginal occurrences are: Sauk (Taylor and
-      Shaw, 1929: 24), Tye (W.W.D.), Naches River (W.W.D.), and Wind
-      River (W.W.D.).
-
-_Remarks._--Specimens from the Cascade Mountains are referred to
-_macrurus_ but are intermediate between that race and _halli_.
-
-
-=Microtus richardsoni= (De Kay)
-
-Water rat
-
-_Description._--This is the largest meadow mouse found in Washington. It
-is too large to be called a mouse and the term water rat, applied to it
-by Merriam, suits it well. It is the only Washington microtine measuring
-more than 8 inches in total length. The upper parts are dark, reddish
-brown in color; the underparts are grayish brown. The tail comprises
-about one-third of the total length.
-
-This species of meadow mouse ranges from Canada south to Colorado in the
-Rocky Mountains and in the Cascades south into Oregon. The water rats
-are strictly alpine animals, occurring about streams, marshes and damp
-meadows. In the Cascade Mountains they are most common in the glacial
-cirques where tiny streams flow through grassy meadows to plunge over
-the lip of the cirque on a rocky course of cascades to the valley below.
-Here their broad trails occur along the stream banks, commonly entering
-the water where it is swift. These trails are well-worn roads, usually
-about four inches wide but often wider. The burrows of the water rat are
-about three inches in diameter and are constructed with no effort at
-concealment; large mounds of earth mark their entrances. Freshly dug
-burrows are so abundant that it seems likely more are dug than are
-actually inhabited. Burrows are often dug beneath rocks.
-
-The water rat is mainly nocturnal but not uncommonly is seen in the
-daytime. Twice I cornered a water rat away from its burrow and each time
-it escaped by swimming. The rats swam with great speed but with much
-splashing. One dived under the surface of a small pool and disappeared.
-Stones along the bank were pulled out until the rat was captured in a
-small chamber at the end of a burrow. The burrow entered the bank at the
-base of a large stone six inches beneath the surface. This burrow
-resembled a miniature muskrat burrow and apparently had been dug when
-the rat was under water.
-
-Like _Phenacomys_, the water rat constructs sub-snow nests on the
-surface of the ground. These are recognizable by their large size and by
-piles of ovoid droppings a quarter of an inch in length. These nests are
-loosely built and fall apart soon after the snow melts.
-
-The water rat is sometimes a pest to the mammal collector for they
-spring mouse traps set for other mammals without becoming caught. At
-times the greater part of an entire trap line was thus rendered
-ineffective by these mammals. Fully adult animals are uncommon in
-collections for a rat trap or steel trap is needed to take them and
-these items, when packed on back up mountains to water-rat habitat, are
-usually set for still larger animals. Racey (Racey and Cowan, 1935: H27)
-recounting his difficulty in securing specimens when no suitable traps
-were at hand, writes: "Killed one with my hands, shot another, and a
-third was stunned by a mouse trap."
-
-Taylor and Shaw (1927: 76) list food eaten by the water rat on Mount
-Rainier as the avalanche lily, dogtooth violet, _Ligusticum purpureum_,
-_Valeriana sitchensis_, _Polygonum bistortoides_, _Petasites frigida_,
-_Phyllodoce empetriformis_, _Potentilla flabellifolia_, _Aster_ sp.,
-grass, wild clover, conifer seeds, two kinds of blueberry (_Vacinnium_)
-and _Xerophyllum tenax_. Racey and Cowan (1935) list foods eaten in the
-Cascades of southern British Columbia as _Lupinus polyphyllus_, _Senecio
-balsamitae_, _Pedicularis bractiosa_ and _Arnica alpinus_.
-
-A female from Dewey Lake, Yakima County, contained 4 embryos on
-September 1, 1940. One from Tye, King County, had 2 embryos on September
-8, 1940.
-
-
-=Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides= (Rhoads)
-
-      _Aulacomys arvicoloides_ Rhoads, Amer. Nat., 28:182, February,
-      1894.
-
-      _Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:62,
-      June 6, 1900.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington,
-      by A. Rupert in September, 1893. Rhoads gives the altitude as 8,000
-      ft. This apparently is an error, for the elevation of the lake is
-      2,458 ft. and the summit of Snoqualmie Pass, to the west, is 3,100
-      ft. Probably 3,000 ft. was intended; type in Philadelphia Academy
-      of Natural Sciences.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size large; color of upper parts dark
-      reddish brown; underparts paler.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 117. Distribution of the water rat in Washington.
-  A. _Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides._ B. _Microtus richardsoni
-  macropus._]
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from Tomyhoi Lake, Whatcom County,
-      measured: total length 242; length of tail 68; hind foot 27; ear
-      17. A female from Tye, King County, measured: 257; 83; 26; 17.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, from Tomyhoi Lake (W.W.D.)
-      south to Potato Hill (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 25).
-
-
-=Microtus richardsoni macropus= (Merriam)
-
-      _Arvicola (Mynomes) macropus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:60, July
-      30, 1891.
-
-      _Microtus richardsoni macropus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:61,
-      June 6, 1900.
-
-      _Microtus richardsonii macropus_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Pap. Chas.
-      R. Conner Mus., no. 2:25, December, 1929.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained in the Pashimeroi Mountains, 9,700 ft., Custer
-      County, Idaho, by C. H. Merriam and V. Bailey in 1890; type in
-      United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _arvicoloides_ but slightly
-      smaller and redder.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia
-      County, measures: total length 228; length of tail 73; hind foot
-      25; ear 14.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.
-
-
-=Microtus oregoni oregoni= (Bachman)
-
-Creeping mouse
-
-      _Arvicola oregoni_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
-      8:60, 1839.
-
-      _Microtus oregoni_ Miller, N. Amer. Fauna, 12:9, July 23, 1896.
-
-      _Microtus morosus_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zoöl.
-      ser., 1:227, February 1, 1899 (type from Boulder Lake, 5,000 ft.,
-      Clallam County, Washington).
-
-      _Microtus oregoni oregoni_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:227,
-      December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Microtus oregoni cantwelli_ Taylor, Jour. Mamm., 1:180, August
-      24, 1920 (type from Glacier Basin, 5,935 ft., Mt. Rainier, Pierce
-      County, Washington).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 118. Distribution of the creeping mouse, _Microtus
-  oregoni oregoni_, in Washington.]
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Astoria, Clatsop County, Oregon, by J. K.
-      Townsend in 1836; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
-
-      _Measurements._--Ten males and 10 females from southwestern
-      Washington, average, respectively: total length 133, 126; length
-      of tail 35, 32; hind foot 16.9, 16.7; ear 9.8, 9.7; weight 19.3,
-      19.1 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains, the Olympic Mountains, and
-      the lowlands of western Washington.
-
-_Remarks._--A large series of topotypes of _Microtus o. oregoni_ in the
-California Museum of Vertebrate Zoölogy, and the rather large series
-from Cowlitz County, Washington, show a wide range of variation in
-color, size, and cranial characters. Specimens from the Cascade and
-Olympic Mountains seem to average a bit paler than topotypes of
-_oregoni_, but are not worthy of recognition as distinct races. Too few
-topotypes of _Microtus o. serpens_ from British Columbia are available
-to judge the status of that race with any certainty, but specimens from
-northwestern Washington are certainly _oregoni_.
-
-_Description._--The creeping mouse is a small species of general
-microtine form. The head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail
-about 1-1/2 inches. The ears are small and the eyes tiny, nearly buried
-in the fur. The fur is short and rather rough. It does not lie back
-smoothly, thereby giving a woolly appearance. The upper parts are
-reddish or grayish brown and the underparts are grayish white. The
-nondescript appearance suggests a young rather than adult mouse.
-
-The creeping mouse (subgenus _Chilotus_) is restricted to the Pacific
-Coast and ranges from British Columbia to California. In Washington it
-occupies almost every conceivable "mouse" habitat in its range,
-including wet marshes, damp ravines, dry forest, damp, mossy forest,
-meadows, alpine meadows and fields of short grass. It is rare in all but
-the latter habitat. In fields of short or dry grass it is often
-abundant. In the Cascade Mountains it was in relatively dry places along
-streams or rock slides. Altitudinally it ranges from sea level to at
-least 6,000 feet, and from the Humid Transition well into the Hudsonian
-life-zones.
-
-Creeping mice construct tiny tunnels among the grass roots and seldom
-venture out of them. In suitable habitat the surface of the ground
-beneath the grass is a maze of these tunnels, which cross, intersect,
-and divide in a complex network. An observer standing in a field
-occupied by creeping mice can scarcely conceive of the extent and
-perfection of the tiny tunnel system at his feet.
-
-Creeping mice lived but a day or two in captivity. Save for the bits of
-grass blades left in their runways, little is known of their food or
-other life habits. Their nests are round balls of dry grasses placed in
-cavities under logs. None of the many examined possessed a lining of
-softer materials. Embryos found in pregnant females from April 10 to May
-18 numbered from 2 to 4.
-
-
-=Lagurus curtatus pauperrimus= (Cooper)
-
-Sagebrush vole
-
-      _Arvicola pauperrima_ Cooper, Amer. Nat., 2:535, December, 1868.
-
-      _Arvicola pauperrimus_ Merriam, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:64, July 30,
-      1891.
-
-      _L[agurus]. pauperrimus_ Thomas, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8,
-      9:401, April, 1912.
-
-      _Microtus pauperrimus_ Bailey, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:214, August 29,
-      1936.
-
-      _Lemmiscus pauperrimus_ Davis, Recent Mamm. Idaho, Caxton
-      Printers, p. 327, April 5, 1939.
-
-      _Lemmiscus curtatus pauperrimus_ Goldman, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 54:70, July 31, 1941.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on the "Plains of the Columbia" near the Snake
-      River, southwestern Washington by J. G. Cooper on October 9, 1860.
-      Probably from the Bunchgrass Hills near Wallula (Old Fort Walla
-      Walla), Walla Walla County: type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Measurements._--Bailey (1900: 69) gives the average of 3 adults
-      from the vicinity of Antelope, Oregon, as: total length 115;
-      length of tail 20; hind foot 16.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known in Washington only from the type and a
-      specimen from Badger Mountains, 8 miles southwest of Waterville
-      (Taylor and Shaw, 1929: 25).
-
-_Remarks._--This rare vole is the smallest microtine rodent in
-Washington. The head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail about
-1 inch. The upper parts are grayish or yellowish brown and the
-underparts grayish. The upper incisors are not grooved and the inner and
-outer angles of the molars are about equal in length.
-
-Mice of the genus _Lagurus_ occur in Siberia and in prairie areas of the
-northwestern United States and Canada. The sagebrush vole inhabits the
-Upper Sonoran Life-zone. It prefers upland areas of low sagebrush with
-sparse grass. Poorly formed runways and small piles of feces indicate
-its presence. The type of _Lagurus pauperrimus_ was obtained in
-southwestern Washington 80 years ago, and a single additional record has
-since been obtained. Nothing is known of its habits in Washington. The
-life history of related forms has been reported on by Hall (1928:
-201-204) from Nevada and Moore (1943: 188-191) from Oregon.
-
-Davis (1939: 326) raised the subgenus _Lemmiscus_ Thomas (for American
-forms) to generic rank and Goldman (1941: 69) accepted this usage.
-Comparison of the Siberian and American species reveals but three
-impressive differences: the dorsal stripe of the Siberian mice, the
-greater development of prisms in the molars of the American species, and
-the presence of cement in the angles of the molars of the Siberian
-specimens and its lack in the American. These differences seem to be of
-no more than subgeneric value. Goldman (1941: 69) showed that all
-American _Lagurus_ belong to a single species.
-
-
-=Ondatra zibethicus= (Linnaeus)
-
-Muskrat
-
-_Description._--The muskrat is a large aquatic rodent. Head and body
-measure about 14 inches; the tail about 10 inches. The body is plump and
-the head small. Eyes and ears are relatively small. The forefeet are
-small and handlike with furred wrists. The hind feet are large with
-webbed toes and naked wrists. The tail is narrow, constricted at the
-base and flattened vertically. It is scaled and possesses scattered,
-stiff hairs. The underfur is dense and soft. The guard hair is stiff and
-shiny. The upper parts are rich, dark brown. The underparts are gray
-washed with cinnamon.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 119. Muskrat (_Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis_),
-  male, Lake Washington, Seattle, October 13, 1939; weight 906 grams on
-  November 4, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B.
-  Scheffer, No. 736.)]
-
-Muskrats are found in Canada and the United States. They are lowland
-animals, rarely ranging into the Canadian Life-zone. Their aquatic
-habitat makes them relatively independent of temperature, and
-consequently they occur in both the Transition and Upper Sonoran
-life-zones.
-
-The muskrat is well adapted to aquatic life. The toes of the large hind
-feet are webbed at the base, the hind feet are turned slightly outward,
-a fringe of stiff bristles at the rear edge of each foot furnishes
-additional aid in swimming, and the laterally compressed tail makes it
-an efficient rudder. In the water the surface of the fur flattens down
-to entrap air in the dense underfur, keeping the body dry.
-
-The typical habitat of the muskrat is slow-moving water or still water,
-such as in lakes, ponds, marshes and sluggish rivers and streams.
-Muskrats occur commonly, though not in large numbers, in more swiftly
-moving streams. In Puget Sound and the San Juan Islands they occupy a
-marine habitat.
-
-In the extensive marshes along Lake Washington, King County, muskrats
-are abundant. They occupy sluggish water, often water polluted by
-garbage and sewage. In these marshes, banks suitable for the
-construction of burrows are absent and houses are made of cattail stalks
-and leaves. The food of these marsh-living muskrats consists principally
-of cattail and other marsh vegetation.
-
-In contrast to the marsh-occupying muskrats, muskrats along the open,
-marsh-free shores of the lake live in deep clear water where waves lap
-the shore. These muskrats live exclusively in burrows dug in the banks
-and feed upon fresh-water mussels.
-
-In still greater contrast were muskrats living 20 miles away, near
-Cottage Lake, King County. Here we found them in small clear streams, 4
-to 10 feet wide. Depth of the water varied from a few inches to three
-feet. The streams flowed through meadows, pastures and junglelike,
-deciduous woods. Muskrats were slightly more common along wooded
-stretches than in open areas. Some were trapped where the streams flowed
-at high velocity over shallow, gravel bottoms. The animals lived in
-burrows and fed upon fresh-water mussels and a variety of plants.
-
-Near Richmond Beach, Snohomish County, muskrats took up residence in a
-small tidal pool along Puget Sound. The nearest fresh water stream large
-enough to support a muskrat was two miles away. Two muskrats were
-trapped here. Investigation of a tidal pool a mile to the north
-disclosed unmistakable muskrat signs. Traps set in the culvert
-connecting the pool with Puget Sound at high tide took several
-specimens. Study showed that the muskrats were not living in the pool
-but among the large boulders forming the breakwater for the Great
-Northern Railroad, along the sound itself. They were feeding on marine
-mussels (_Mytilus_). These mussels lived in the salt water of the sound,
-not in the tidal pool.
-
-At Peavine Pass, Blakely Island, in the San Juan Islands, muskrats were
-living in the swift tidal current and deep, marine waters. Several were
-seen in late afternoon. All were swimming parallel to the shore about 50
-feet out. Here also they fed on _Mytilus_, but their homes were not
-discovered. Certainly they were not living in the tidal pool at Flat
-Point, a half-mile away.
-
-In the interior of Blakely Island a colony of muskrats was discovered
-living in a marsh of about one acre. In the rainy season the ground of
-the marsh was covered with less than one inch of water. Residents said
-that in the dry season springs kept the ground moist. Muskrats were
-living in burrows whose entrances descended at a 45-degree angle and
-were filled with water. The ground about some occupied burrows was dry,
-the only water visible being in the burrow itself. A variety of marsh
-vegetation provided food.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 120. Distribution of the muskrat in Washington.
-  A. _Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis._ B. _Ondatra zibethicus
-  occipitalis._]
-
-Burrows of muskrats always have entrances under water. Usually they
-enter a vertical bank 6 to 15 inches below water line and occasionally 3
-feet below it. About half the burrows excavated near Lake Washington,
-King County, had a single entrance. About 40 per cent had double or
-triple entrances situated 2 to 3 feet apart and converging within a yard
-to a single burrow. About 10 per cent had double burrows more than 3
-feet in length. Burrows were from 5 to 8 inches in diameter. Nest
-chambers were from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, spherical, and from 6 to
-30 feet from the burrow entrance. The nests themselves were bulky, loose
-masses of cattail leaves. Embryos found in late February and early
-March numbered 4 to 8.
-
-Because it is abundant, widely spread and easy to trap, the muskrat is
-one of the most important fur bearers in the state. The fur is
-relatively stable in value. In recent years the average skin has brought
-the trapper slightly less than a dollar. Muskrat flesh is eaten and sold
-on the market in the eastern United States but has never been popular in
-Washington. The muskrat does little damage to agriculture, most
-complaints arising from its burrows which interfere with irrigation
-ditches.
-
-
-=Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis= (Lord)
-
-      _Fiber osoyoosensis_ Lord, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 97, 1863.
-
-      _F[iber]. z[ibethicus]. osoyoosensis_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 23:1, February 2, 1910.
-
-      _Ondatra zibethica osoyoosensis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      79:231, December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Osoyoose Lake, British Columbia, on British
-      Columbia-Washington boundary at head of Okanogan River, by J. K.
-      Lord, in 1861 or 1862.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Color of the upper parts rich, dark brown.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and a female from Seattle, King County,
-      average and measure respectively: total length 565, 555; length of
-      tail 262, 257; hind foot 80.5, 79; weight 2 pounds 13 ounces and 2
-      pounds 3 ounces.
-
-      _Distribution._--Eastern Washington generally and all but the
-      southern part of western Washington. Specimens from as far
-      southwest as Tenino (W.W.D.) are typical of _osoyoosensis_.
-
-
-=Ondatra zibethicus occipitalis= (Elliot)
-
-      _Fiber occipitalis_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 74, zoöl.
-      ser., 3:162, April, 1903.
-
-      _Ondatra zibethica occipitalis_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      79:231, December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Florence, Lane County, Oregon, by E. Heller,
-      in 1901; type in Chicago Natural History Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _osoyoosensis_ but redder; fur
-      shorter and interpterygoid spaces of skull narrower.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from Chinook, Pacific County, measures:
-      total length 580; length of tail 248; hind foot 78; ear 21; weight
-      863 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The southwestern corner of the state, extending
-      north to Aberdeen (V.B.S.) and east to Cathlamet (V.B.S.).
-
-
-=Rattus rattus= (Linnaeus)
-
-Roof rat
-
-_Description._--Size large, total length approximately 400 mm.; tail
-long, naked, comprising 50 per cent or more of total length; color sooty
-black or brown; in brown phase, whitish beneath.
-
-The roof rat became established in Central America some 350 years ago,
-and entered the United States (English Colonies) late in the seventeenth
-century. Subsequent to the introduction of the Norway rat the roof rat
-decreased in numbers and is now found only in restricted areas.
-
-
-=Rattus rattus rattus= (Linnaeus)
-
-      _[Mus] rattus_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1 (ed. 10):61, 1758.
-
-      _Rattus rattus_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:126,
-      June 6, 1916.
-
-      _Type._--From Uppsala, Sweden.
-
-_Remarks._--In Washington I have taken specimens of the roof rat in the
-San Juan Islands and in the coniferous forests on the west slope of the
-Cascades. In the latter area it seems to be widely spread and to live in
-the wild.
-
-
-=Rattus rattus alexandrinus= (Geoffroy)
-
-      _Mus alexandrinus_ Geoffroy, Catal. Mam. du Mus. Nat. d'Hist. Nat.
-      Paris, p. 192, 1803.
-
-      _R[attus]. rattus alexandrinus_ Hinton, Jour. Bombay Nat. Hist.
-      Soc., 26:63, December 20, 1918.
-
-      _Type._--From Alexandria, Egypt.
-
-_Remarks._--This subspecies seems to be rare in Washington. My specimens
-are all from small, isolated islands in the San Juan group. All were
-taken in the vicinity of human habitations. _R. r. alexandrinus_
-resembles _R. r. rattus_, differing only in brown color of upper parts.
-
-
-=Rattus norvegicus norvegicus= (Erxleben)
-
-Norway rat
-
-      _[Mus] norvegicus_ Erxleben, Syst. Regni Anim., 1:381, 1777.
-
-      _Rattus norvegicus_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      29:126, June 6, 1916.
-
-      _Type._--From Norway.
-
-      _Description._--Larger, heavier-bodied and coarser-furred than the
-      black rat or roof rat with shorter, heavier tail. The tail is less
-      than 50 per cent of the total length. The color of the back is
-      dull, reddish brown, the sides are paler and the underparts are
-      dirty gray.
-
-_Remarks._--The Norway rat was absent from the Pacific Coast of the
-United States before 1851. It probably reached the coast slightly after
-that date. It is common about all large cities in Washington. In the
-western part of the state it lives along streams and marshes under feral
-conditions.
-
-
-=Mus musculus= Linnaeus, subsp?
-
-House mouse
-
-      _[Mus] musculus_ Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1 (ed. 10):62, 1758.
-
-_Description._--Size small; tail about 50 per cent of total length,
-naked; ears small, about 12 mm. in height; upper incisors not grooved;
-color of upper parts reddish or grayish brown; underparts brown or gray.
-
-_Remarks._--The house mouse became established in North America soon
-after its settlement by Europeans. It is now common throughout the state
-of Washington, principally near human habitations, but often lives in
-the wild.
-
-Races of the house mouse have been dealt with by Schwartz and Schwartz
-(1943: 59-72), and by Nichols (1944: 82-89), but lack of adequate
-material prevents subspecific identification of house mice from
-Washington at this time.
-
-
-=Aplodontia rufa= (Rafinesque)
-
-Mountain beaver
-
-_Description._--The mountain beaver is a stout-bodied animal about 14
-inches in length, with a tiny tail that is almost invisible externally.
-The head is large, wide and low with small eyes, small ears and long
-vibrissae. The legs are short and heavy, but the forefeet are small and
-handlike; the hind feet are large and powerful. The claws of both
-forefeet and hind feet are long and strong. The pelage is short, coarse
-and rough. The upper parts are dark reddish brown and the underparts are
-grayish brown. The feet are pink.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 121. Mountain beaver (_Aplodontia rufa rufa_),
-  Seattle, Washington, March 19, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo
-  by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 919.)]
-
-Mountain beavers are confined to the Pacific Coast and range from
-southern British Columbia to central California. The genus contains a
-single species of which Taylor (1918) recognized nine races. The
-principal habitat of the mountain beaver is clearings at the edge of
-coniferous forests. The animals are most abundant near springs, streams
-and damp places, although they are not aquatic. The tangled jungles of
-deciduous trees and shrubs that grow in the ravines and stream valleys
-of the Puget Sound area present optimum habitat. They occur also on
-hillsides, on logged-off land and along roadside clearings. In the
-mountains they occur in thickets and forests, always, in our experience,
-near streams.
-
-The most conspicuous evidence of the presence of mountain beavers is
-their burrows. These are large tunnels, four to eight inches in
-diameter. To each set of tunnels there are numerous entrances, some
-partly concealed in brush or beside logs or stumps, and some are in the
-open. Those in the open are less used as entrances than as places for
-receiving the loose earth which the animals excavate. A pile may contain
-nearly a cubic yard of earth and stones. Many of the burrows are
-shallow, and cave-ins are common. Breaks in the roof of a burrow are not
-repaired, although debris is removed from the burrow itself. The burrows
-seem not to be constructed according to a system, but are extended to
-take in whatever brush, logs or other cover is available. They are
-commonly dug through damp or muddy soil. Small streams flow through some
-burrows. Such partly flooded runs seem to be favored by the animals.
-
-The nest of a mountain beaver excavated by Scheffer (1929: 15), under
-the roots of a fallen tree, was oval in shape, twenty inches high and 13
-inches wide. The nest was protected from flooding by a basal chamber, or
-basin, six inches beneath the nest. Two drainage tunnels lead away from
-this basal chamber. The nest was composed of the leaves and stems of
-bracken laced together with grass and fine twigs. Two other nests
-examined by Scheffer measured 17 by 18 inches and 19 by 17 inches. Both
-were about two feet beneath the surface.
-
-Around Puget Sound the mountain beavers mate in early March. The young
-number two to three, rarely four, per litter and are born in early
-April.
-
-Mountain beavers enter water readily but wade rather than swim. They are
-rather noisy, splashing in water and breaking twigs or rustling leaves
-on the ground. They climb bushes and saplings, clipping off branches for
-food as they ascend. According to Scheffer (1929: 15) they leave the
-stubs of branches attached to the trunk to facilitate their descent.
-Twice a mountain beaver was found several feet up in a sapling. In both
-saplings the animal had clipped the branches close to the trunk and was
-desperately reaching with its hind feet for missing branches. When the
-observer came near, one animal squealed, tumbled to the ground, and
-scurried frantically to its burrow.
-
-Although principally nocturnal, mountain beavers are not infrequently
-active by day, especially in the fall. At this season they harvest food
-and spread it on logs to dry. The cured hay is removed to their burrows
-for nesting material and food. In winter mountain beavers are more
-restricted in habits and are rarely seen by day. Presumably they feed on
-stored food at this time but they forage somewhat. In winter they eat
-such evergreen shrubs as salal (_Gaultheria shallon_) and Oregon grape
-(_Berberis nervosa_). They eat also the bark of trees, especially that
-of the willow (_Salix_). Under cover of snow, in the mountains, they
-burrow to some extent and pack excavated earth in snow burrows. The
-melting of the snow in the spring reveals the earth core, six to eight
-inches in diameter and two to four feet long. Several such earth cores
-were forked, showing that part of the earth had been pushed into a
-branching burrow.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 122. Distribution of the mountain beaver in
-  Washington. A. _Aplodontia rufa rufa._ B. _Aplodontia rufa rainieri._]
-
-The mountain beaver holds its food in its forefeet, squirrel-like, when
-it eats. Its food consists of the leaves and bark of woody plants and
-entire herbs, including roots. The mountain beaver is the only mammal so
-far as known that eats the bracken fern. It feeds on the branches of
-coniferous trees, including Douglas fir, red cedar, and hemlock. Such
-thorny species as the blackberry, blackcap and devil's club are eaten.
-The odiferous skunk cabbage and the stinging nettle are on its bill of
-fare. A list of its food would include most plants found in its habitat,
-and we know of no species that it refuses as food.
-
-The mountain beaver is more of a nuisance than a pest. In most of its
-range there is but little farming although where crops are raised the
-mountain beaver may do some damage. It undermines roads and trails and
-defiles springs and streams. Control is simple for the animals readily
-enter steel traps set in their burrows.
-
-
-=Aplodontia rufa rufa= (Rafinesque)
-
-      _Anisonyx? rufa_ Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag., 2:45, November,
-      1817.
-
-      _Haplodon rufus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):596, 1885.
-
-      _Aplodontia rufa_ Merriam, Ann. New York Acad. Sci., 3:316, May,
-      1886.
-
-      _Aplodontia olympica_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:20,
-      January 31, 1899 (type from Lake Quiniault, Grays Harbor County,
-      Washington).
-
-      _Aplodontia rufa grisea_ Taylor, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl.,
-      12:497, May 6, 1916 (type from Renton, King County, Washington).
-
-      _Aplodontia rufa rufa_ Taylor, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl.,
-      12:497, May 6, 1916.
-
-      _Type._--None. Based on a description by Lewis and Clark. Taylor
-      (1918: 455) regarded as typical specimens collected at "Marmot,
-      Clackamas County, Oregon (western slope of Mount Hood, not far from
-      the Columbia River)."
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size small; skull small.
-
-      _Measurements._--Eight males and 7 females, from the area about
-      Puget Sound, average, respectively: total length 343, 338; length
-      of tail 37.5, 33.5; hind foot 57.8, 56; ear 25, 24.5; weight 1342,
-      1300 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Western Washington, between Puget Sound and the
-      Cascade Mountains and southward. Marginal localities are:
-      Bellingham (U.S.N.M.), Sauk (U.S.N.M.), Forks of Skykomish River
-      (W.W.D.), North Bend (U.S.N.M.), and mouth of Klama River
-      (M.V.Z.).
-
-_Remarks._--Individual variation in mountain beavers is considerable.
-Two weakly defined races are recognized in Washington.
-
-
-=Aplodontia rufa rainieri= Merriam
-
-      _Aplodontia major rainieri_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      13:21, January 31, 1899.
-
-      _[Haplodontia rufa] raineri_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 45,
-      zoöl. ser., 2:112, 1901.
-
-      _[Aplodontia rufa] raineri_ Trouessart, Catal. Mamm., viv. foss.,
-      suppl. p. 348, 1904.
-
-      _Aplodontia rufa columbiana_ Taylor, Univ. California Publ. Zoöl.,
-      12:499, 1916 (type from Hope, British Columbia).
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Paradise Creek, 5, 200 ft., Mount Rainier,
-      Pierce County, Washington, by V. Bailey on August 6, 1897; type in
-      United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _rufa_ but larger with larger
-      skull.
-
-      _Measurements._--Three males and a female from Tye, King County,
-      average and measure respectively: total length 352, 340; length of
-      tail 35, 40; hind foot 60, 59; ear 24, 19.
-
-      _Distribution._--The higher Cascade Mountains from the Columbia
-      River northward to the Canadian boundary. Marginal localities are:
-      Canyon Creek (U.S.N.M.), Cascade Pass (U.S.N.M.), Tye (W.W.D.),
-      Mt. Rainier (U.S.N.M.), Mt. St. Helens (U.S.N.M.), and Yacolt
-      (M.V.Z.).
-
-_Remarks._--Intergradation between _rufa_ and _raineri_ is seen in
-specimens from the area between Stevens Pass and Skykomish, King County.
-
-
-
-
-=Zapus princeps= Allen
-
-Big jumping mouse
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 123. Big jumping mouse (_Zapus princeps
-  trinotatus_) in hibernation. Puyallup, Washington, January 30, 1939.
-  (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 576.)]
-
-_Description._--The big jumping mouse is a medium-sized mouse, slightly
-larger than the house mouse, with an exceptionally long, tapering tail.
-Head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail about 5 inches. The
-body is slender with a small head, small eyes and small, naked ears. The
-forefeet are small and handlike but the hind feet are large with long,
-powerful legs. The long, naked tail is smoothly tapering to a narrow
-point. The fur is short, posteriorly directed, stiff and bristlelike.
-The dorsal area is dusky, the sides are orange or yellow, and the
-underparts are creamy white. Each upper incisor tooth has a groove on
-its anterior face.
-
-Jumping mice are boreal mammals occurring in wooded regions ranging from
-the Arctic region southward to North Carolina, New Mexico and
-California. Jumping mice are of rather general distribution in
-Washington, being only locally common. They are partial to damp, boggy
-areas but avoid true swamps. They occur in clearings in the forests in
-the Puget Sound area and in meadows in river bottoms and in jungles in
-ravines. They reach their greatest abundance in the boggy meadows and
-glacial cirques of the mountains and spread out from such areas to
-seemingly less favored habitat on dryer slopes and heather meadows.
-Unlike many species, they do not seem to inhabit talus slides. They are
-entirely absent from the eastern Washington desert.
-
-Sometimes the jumping mouse walks on all four feet but the ordinary
-means of progression is by short hops on the hind feet alone. When
-startled they travel in great bounds, covering six feet or more at a
-jump. When jumping they make considerable noise, swishing or rustling
-through the grass and landing with an audible thud. The long tail serves
-as a balancing organ. A specimen whose tail had been lost was reported
-by Svihla and Svihla (1933: 133) to turn somersaults in the air and
-invariably to land on its back rather than its feet.
-
-Jumping mice become very fat and hibernate in middle summer or early
-fall. In the lowlands they disappear by late July but in the mountains
-they remain active until the middle of September. They spend the winter
-in nests of grass several feet beneath the surface. A hibernating
-individual figured by Flahaut (1939: 17) was curled in a ball, head down
-with the tail wrapped completely around the greatest circumference of
-the ball.
-
-Near Seattle the principal food of the jumping mouse was the velvet
-grass (_Holchus lanatus_), and the seeds of grasses and the broad-leaved
-dock. The fruit of the blackberry (_Rubus macropetalus_) is eaten and
-occasional individuals are seen with the chin stained a deep purple from
-the juice.
-
-The new-born young of the jumping mouse were reported by Svihla and
-Svihla (1933: 132) to average 0.8 grams in weight. They are pink,
-hairless, lacking even the facial vibrissae, with eyes closed and ears
-folded.
-
-
-=Zapus princeps trinotatus= Rhoads
-
-      _Zapus trinotatus_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
-      1894, p. 421, January 15, 1895.
-
-      _Zapus imperator_ Elliot, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zoöl. ser.,
-      1:228, February 1, 1899 (type from Sieg's Ranch, Elwha River,
-      Olympic Mountains, Clallam County, Washington).
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on Lulu Island, mouth of Fraser River, British
-      Columbia, by S. N. Rhoads on May 31, 1892; type in Philadelphia
-      Academy of Natural Sciences.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _oregonus_ but brighter; sides
-      orange; underparts creamy white; buffy area often present on chest.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twenty males and 15 females from western
-      Washington average, respectively: total length 230, 233; length of
-      tail 140, 140; hind foot 33, 32.8; ear 14.9, 16.3; weight 23.7,
-      25.7 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Western Washington and the Cascade Mountains,
-      east in the northern Cascades at least to Tomyhoi Lake (W.W.D.).
-
-_Remarks._--Actual intergrades between _trinotatus_ and _kootenayensis_
-have not been examined but the differences separating the two forms are
-of the degree that usually distinguish subspecies. Since _trinotatus_
-occurs in the high Cascades as far east as Mount Baker, at least, and
-_kootenayensis_ probably occurs in the northeastern Cascades, the two
-forms doubtless come together in the rugged, inaccessible area between
-these two localities. Further collecting will probably show a narrow
-zone of intergradation in extreme western Okanogan County.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 124. Distribution of the big jumping mouse in
-  Washington. A. _Zapus princeps oregonus._ B. _Zapus princeps
-  idahoensis._ C. _Zapus princeps kootenayensis._ D. _Zapus princeps
-  trinotatus._]
-
-
-=Zapus princeps kootenayensis= Anderson
-
-      _Zapus princeps kootenayensis_ Anderson, Ann. Rept. Nat. Mus.
-      Canada for 1931, p. 108, November 24. 1932.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on Green Mountain, 6,000 ft., 10 miles north of
-      Rossland, West Kootenay District, British Columbia, by R. M.
-      Anderson, on July 18, 1929; type in National Museum of Canada.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _oregonus_ but paler; yellow more
-      faded.
-
-      _Measurements._--Twenty females, including 15 topotypes, average
-      (Anderson, 1932: 109): total length 245; length of tail 140; hind
-      foot 30.5.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington. Specimens from Sullivan
-      Lake (E.S.B.) have been examined.
-
-
-=Zapus princeps idahoensis= Davis
-
-      _Zapus princeps idahoensis_ Davis, Jour. Mamm., 15:221, August 10,
-      1934.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained 5 miles east of Warm Lake, 7,000 feet elevation,
-      Valley County, Idaho, by W. B. Davis; type in Museum of Vertebrate
-      Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _kootenayensis_ but brighter in
-      color, more ochraceous. Similar to _oregonus_ but paler, more
-      yellowish.
-
-      _Measurements._--Davis (1939:339) gives the measurements of six
-      adult topotypes as: total length 240; length of tail 144; hind
-      foot 31.
-
-      _Distribution._--A single specimen in the Charles R. Conner Museum
-      from Kamiak Butte, Whitman County, is referable to this race.
-
-
-=Zapus princeps oregonus= Preble
-
-      _Zapus princeps oregonus_ Preble, N. Amer. Fauna. 15:24, August 8,
-      1899.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Elgin, Union County, Oregon, by E. A. Preble,
-      on May 29, 1896; type in United States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Small size, pale color.
-
-      _Measurements._--Three males and 3 females from the Blue Mountains
-      average, respectively: total length 233, 234; length of tail 138,
-      139; hind foot 31.8, 31.8; ear 16, 16; weight 29, 33 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.
-
-
-
-
-=Erethizon dorsatum= (Linnaeus)
-
-Porcupine
-
-_Description._--The porcupine is one of the largest rodents found in
-Washington, being exceeded in size only by the beaver. Its body is heavy
-and stocky, its legs short, its tail long and thick and its eyes small.
-It is best known for the modified hairs, or quills, of its tail and
-dorsal area. These vary in greatest diameter from one-sixteenth to
-three-sixteenths of an inch and from three-quarters of an inch to five
-inches in length. They are ivory-white with black tips. In addition to
-quills, the porcupine possesses wooly, black underfur and long, banded
-guard hair. The bands of the guard hairs are black and yellow, varying
-in width. Commonly they are of a single color, black, yellow or brown.
-
-Porcupines range over virtually all wooded parts of North America north
-of Mexico, in and above the Transition Life-zone. The Canadian
-porcupines have been studied by Anderson and Rand (1943A) and
-intergradation between the eastern _dorsatum_ and the western
-_epixanthum_ has been shown.
-
-The porcupines are commonly considered to be forest animals. However,
-they are rather rare in the denser coniferous forests. In the more open
-areas on the Cascade Mountains, especially on the eastern slopes, they
-are not uncommon. They are rather common in the coniferous forests of
-northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains. They seem to be rather
-common also in desert areas at the southern edge of the Columbian
-Plateau.
-
-The huge incisors of the porcupine are adapted to feeding on bark. They
-do feed on bark to a certain extent in Washington, but it is my
-observation that more herbs and bushes are eaten than bark. In areas
-where porcupines are common, trees are commonly girdled, usually close
-to the top. Trees girdled in this manner in the Kettle River Mountains
-included western larch, ponderosa pine, and grand fir. The tops of some
-trees were killed.
-
-The ordinary walking gait of the porcupine is a slow deliberate walk in
-which he appears to waddle somewhat. They can increase their speed to a
-slow trot. They are slow, deliberate climbers, ascending and descending
-trees with head upward. They are able also to climb rocks and cliffs,
-sometimes being seen on the tops of large boulders.
-
-Despite their large size, porcupines are not commonly seen. They are
-mainly nocturnal and, in the daytime, find concealment high in the
-branches of some conifer or a cave between the rocks in a talus slide.
-
-While encamped near Sherman Creek Pass in the Kettle River Mountains my
-companion and I heard a crunching of gravel from the road fifty feet
-away. We listened intently, wondering what person would be abroad in the
-mountains at midnight. In the vicinity of our car, concealed from our
-view by trees, the noise stopped, to be followed a few minutes later by
-a rasping and clattering that could be heard far away. We raced to the
-car to discover a large porcupine crouched on the running board by a
-pile of "pick-up" antlers of the white-tailed deer left there by us. The
-"porkie" had been chewing on these, heedless of the noise made by the
-loose antlers clashing against the metal side of the car.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 125. Distribution of the porcupine, _Erethizon
-  epixanthum_ in Washington. Boundaries between ranges of subspecies are
-  uncertain.]
-
-In Washington the single young is born late in May or early in June.
-There are two pairs of mammae, both pectoral, of which only the anterior
-are functional.
-
-
-=Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum= Brandt
-
-      _Erethizon epixanthus_ Brandt, Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St.
-      Pétersbourg, ser. 6, 3 (Sci. Nat. vol. =1=): 390, 1835.
-
-      _Erethizon dorsatus epixanthus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
-      7:600, 1885.
-
-      _Erethizon epixanthum epixanthum_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      128:437, April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum_ Anderson and Rand, Canadian Jour.
-      Research, 21:293, September 24, 1943.
-
-      _Type._--None. Type locality California.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size large, total length of adults
-      approximately 30 inches; tail long (nearly one-third of total
-      length), thick, heavy and spiny; body stout; legs short; claws
-      long and curved; ears and eyes small; body spines short, thick and
-      most abundant on posterior part of back, longer and more slender
-      on sides and shoulders; guard hairs of shoulders and sides long,
-      almost concealing spines; fur of underparts shorter; color
-      variable, brown, black or yellow. In winter the fur is longer and
-      woolly, concealing spines.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau and the Blue Mountains.
-
-_Remarks._--Anderson and Rand (1943A: 295) ascribe two races to
-Washington. With inadequate material myself to verify this ascription. I
-think it probable that the northern forest porcupine and the Great Basin
-animal are racially different. In consequence the available names,
-_nigrescens_ and _epixanthum_, are here applied, pending a revision of
-the entire genus.
-
-
-=Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens= Allen
-
-      _Erethizon epixanthus nigrescens_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat.
-      Hist., 19:558, October 10, 1903.
-
-      _Erethizon epixanthum nigrescens_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      128:437, April 29, 1924.
-
-      _Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens_ Anderson and Rand, Canadian Jour.
-      Research, 21:293, September 24, 1943.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on the Shesley River, British Columbia, by M. P.
-      Anderson on August 23, 1902; type in American Museum of Natural
-      History.
-
-      _Measurements._--A female from Sherman Creek Pass, Ferry County,
-      measured: total length 770; length of tail 250; hind foot 95; ear
-      37. A female from Tye, King County, measured: 930; 280; 125;
-      weight 20 pounds.
-
-      _Distribution._--Forested parts of the state, exclusive of the
-      Blue Mountains.
-
-_Remarks._--Porcupines are extremely rare west of the Cascades but are
-occasionally reported from as far west as the Olympic Peninsula.
-
-
-=Myocastor coypus= (Molina) subsp?
-
-Coypu, nutria
-
-      _Mus coypus_ Molina, Sagg. Stor. Nat. Chili, p. 287, 1782.
-
-      _Myocastor coypus_ Kerr, Anim. Kingd., p. 225, 1792.
-
-      _Type locality._--Chile.
-
-_Description._--Size large, slightly smaller than a beaver; color rich,
-reddish brown; tail long, round; hind feet webbed for swimming.
-
-_Remarks._--The nutria, a native of South America, has been brought to
-the United States and raised commercially on "fur farms." The species
-has become established in the wild in several localities in western
-Washington and at the Colville Indian Reservation in northeastern
-Washington. For further details see Larrison (1943).
-
-
-=Ochotona princeps= (Richardson)
-
-Pika or cony
-
-_Description._--The pika is of guinea-pig size, with a short, chunky
-body about 200 mm. in length. The tail is represented externally merely
-by a tuft of white fur. The short, wide head has large, circular ears,
-large black eyes, and long whiskers. The legs are short and the soles of
-the feet are furred. The color of the Washington races varies from
-grayish-yellow to dark reddish brown. Like rabbits, all pikas have two
-pairs of upper incisors. The second pair, located just in back of the
-first, is small and delicate.
-
-_Ochotona_ is a wide-ranging genus with many more species in Asia and
-extreme eastern Europe than in North America. Three races of the species
-_princeps_ occur in the state of Washington, where they are confined to
-the Cascade, Kettle River, and Pend Oreille Mountains. The ranges of all
-three races extend northward into British Columbia; one (_brunnescens_)
-occurs also in Oregon, and one (_cuppes_) in Idaho.
-
-In Washington pikas live only in talus slides and rock piles, where they
-find refuge from most of the carnivores that prey on small mammals.
-Their distribution in the state seems to be regulated by the
-distribution of talus slides, and areas free of talus act as effective
-barriers to pikas. They are abundant throughout the Cascades but are
-absent from the Olympic Mountains although conditions there are well
-suited to them. Probably the lowlands of western Washington which, owing
-to moderate temperature and low relief, have little talus and exposed
-rock, serve as a barrier. The Columbian Plateau is also free of pikas.
-This may be due to the relative scarcity of talus as compared with
-mountainous areas, and the fact that much of the talus on the Plateau is
-composed of fragments of basalt too small to afford the shelter needed
-by pikas. The aridity of the Columbian Plateau may contribute to the
-absence of pikas, although this seems unlikely in view of the fact that
-they occur on arid lands in Nevada and elsewhere.
-
-Altitudinally, pikas range from 300 feet, in Clark County, to 6,000 feet
-on Mt. Rainier, Pierce County, and on Round Top Mountain, Pend Oreille
-County. They occur from the arid subdivision of the Transition
-Life-zone, at Milk Creek, Kittitas County, to the upper edge of the
-Hudsonian Life-zone, at Glacier Basin, Mt. Rainier. Generally speaking,
-they are mammals of the mountains.
-
-Common enemies of the pikas are the weasel (_Mustela frenata_), marten
-(_Martes caurina_), and hawks of several species. Pikas are active by
-day, especially in the early morning. Their call note is a short "eek!"
-which carries a long distance. This squeaking note is often heard
-throughout the night when rain threatens their drying hay.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 126. Distribution of the pika in Washington. A.
-  _Ochotona princeps brunnescens._ B. _Ochotona princeps fenisex._ C.
-  _Ochotona princeps cuppes._]
-
-Vegetation used as food, either for immediate consumption or for winter
-use, includes almost all grasses, vines, shrubs, and trees available
-near the pika's home. The subalpine lupines are especially favored. Even
-such a thorny growth as the devil's club (_Oplopanax horridum_) is
-eaten. Heather (_Phyllodoce, Cassiope_) has not been found in any of the
-numerous hay piles examined, even when it is the commonest plant in the
-vicinity. Large bundles of plants are carried in the pika's mouth. The
-forefeet do not assist in transporting the load. If intended for
-immediate consumption, the plants are deposited on one of last year's
-hay piles and are eaten at leisure. The eating habits of the pika are
-rabbitlike. A large leaf is seized at the tip and drawn into the mouth
-with rapid chewing motions without assistance from the forefeet. Plants
-destined to become hay are carefully spread out and exposed to the sun.
-In cloudy or rainy weather the exposed plants are gathered and stored
-under large rocks, to be reëxposed for curing when the weather improves.
-Large hay piles often include more than fifty pounds of perfectly cured
-grasses, annuals, bushes and evergreens.
-
-No record of embryos is available for Washington pikas, but a male with
-enlarged testes was taken at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, on March
-22, 1940. Half-grown young of _fenisex_ were taken at Sawtooth Mountain,
-Skamania County, on July 13, 1939, and of _brunnescens_ at Slate Creek,
-Whatcom County, on August 16, 1937. Nearly full-grown young of _fenisex_
-are reported taken at Bald Mountain, head of Ashnola River, Okanogan
-County, on September 16, 1920. Young _cuppes_ of several sizes were
-taken at Sherman Creek Pass, Ferry County, on September 11, 1938. The
-breeding season possibly extends from March to August with a tendency to
-be earlier at lower elevations.
-
-
-=Ochotona princeps cuppes= Bangs
-
-      _Ochotona cuppes_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:40, June
-      5, 1899.
-
-      _Ochotona princeps cuppes_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:27,
-      August 21, 1924.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained by Allan Brooks at the Monashee Divide, 4,000
-      feet, Gold Range, British Columbia, on August 2, 1897; type in
-      Museum of Comparative Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Smallest and palest of the Washington pikas;
-      total length less than 8 inches; color of upper parts
-      grayish-yellow, grayest on posterior third of back; underparts
-      pale buff; skull small, but with relatively wide zygomatic and
-      interorbital regions.
-
-      _Measurements._--Eight males and 3 females from Round Top
-      Mountain, Pend Oreille County, average, respectively: total length
-      183.5, 181.5; hind foot 30.7, 31.0; ear 22.4, 23.7; one adult male
-      from the same locality weighed 141.6 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--This pika has been found at Round Top Mountain
-      (W.W.D.) and Pass Creek Pass (W.W.D.) in northeastern Washington.
-
-
-=Ochotona princeps fenisex= Osgood
-
-      _Lagomys minimus_ Lord, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 98, 1863 (not
-      of Schinz, 1821).
-
-      _Ochotona minimus_ Bangs, Proc. New England Zoöl. Club, 1:39, June
-      5, 1899.
-
-      _Ochotona fenisex_ Osgood, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:80,
-      March 22, 1913 (substitute for _minimus_ Lord).
-
-      _Ochotona princeps fenisex_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:28,
-      August 21, 1924.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained by J. K. Lord at "Ptarmigan Hill," near head of
-      Ashnola River, Cascade Range, British Columbia, in early fall of
-      1860 (?); type in British Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size and color intermediate between
-      _brunnescens_ and _cuppes_; length about 8 inches; color of upper
-      parts near Pinkish Cinnamon, becoming gray on posterior third of
-      back; underparts washed with buff; skull of medium size and
-      proportions.
-
-      _Measurements._--Nine males and 5 females from Okanogan and Chelan
-      counties average, respectively: total length 190.0, 197.4; hind
-      foot 31.1, 32.8; ear 21.6, 22.0.
-
-      _Distribution._--Specimens referable to this race occur from the
-      British Columbian boundary south, through the eastern Cascade
-      Mountains. Along the western border of its range, _fenisex_
-      becomes larger and darker, merging into the race _brunnescens_.
-      Marginal records are: Hidden Lakes (U.S.N.M.), Lyman Lake
-      (U.S.N.M.), Mt. Stuart (W.W.D.), Easton (U.S.N.M.), Mt. Aix
-      (U.S.N.M.), Steamboat Mt. (M.V.Z.).
-
-
-=Ochotona princeps brunnescens= Howell
-
-      _Ochotona fenisex brunnescens_ A. H. Howell, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 32:108, May 20, 1919.
-
-      _Ochotona princeps brunnescens_ A. H. Howell, N. Amer. Fauna.
-      47:31, August 21, 1924.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained by George G. Cantwell at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas
-      County, Washington, on August 23, 1917; type in United States
-      National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Largest and darkest of the three races of
-      Washington pikas; total length 8 inches or more; color of upper
-      parts rich cinnamon, heavily washed with blackish; posterior part
-      of back slightly paler; underparts buffy cinnamon; skull large and
-      heavy with wide zygomatic arches but relatively narrow
-      interorbital region and relatively narrow across maxillary tooth
-      rows.
-
-      _Measurements._--Eight males and 9 females from within three miles
-      of Stevens Pass, King and Chelan counties, average, respectively:
-      total length 201.8, 208.3; hind foot 33.3, 33.0; ear 22.3, 22.6.
-      The average weights of 4 males and 3 females from 3 mi. S E Tumtum
-      Mountain, Clark County, are 178.0 and 174.3 grams, respectively.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the British Columbia boundary south to the
-      Columbia River and from the western Cascades east to the area of
-      intergradation with _fenisex_. Marginal occurrences are: Whatcom
-      Pass (U.S.N.M.), Stevens Pass (W.W.D.), Keechelus (U.S.N.M.),
-      Cowlitz Pass (U.S.N.M.), Tumtum Mountain (M.V.Z.).
-
-
-=Lepus townsendii townsendii= Bachman
-
-White-tailed jack rabbit
-
-      _Lepus townsendii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8
-      (pt. 1):90, pl. 2, 1839.
-
-      _Lepus campestris townsendi_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      17:132, July 14, 1904.
-
-      _Lepus townsendii townsendii_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 28:70, March 12, 1915.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained by J. K. Townsend at old Fort Walla Walla
-      (present town of Wallula), Walla Walla County, Washington; type in
-      Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from Miller's Island, Klickitat County, in
-      the Columbia River, measured: total length 564; length of tail
-      117; hind foot 156; ear 110; weight 337.5 grams.
-
-      _Distribution._--Previously found over the grasslands of eastern
-      Washington. Now restricted and scarce except in the Okanogan
-      Valley.
-
-_Remarks._--The white-tailed jack rabbit is the largest rabbit in the
-state, adults measuring 24 or more inches in length. The long legs and
-long ears accentuate the impression of large size. Its body is more
-bulky than that of its relative, the black-tailed jack rabbit. In summer
-the pelage of the upper parts is dark gray and in winter it is white
-over nearly the entire body.
-
-The white-tailed jack rabbit occurs from southern Saskatchewan south to
-extreme northern New Mexico, and from eastern Washington east to
-Wisconsin. A single race occurs in Washington. In eastern Washington
-"whitetails" favor the hilly, bunchgrass territory of the arid
-subdivision of the Transition and Upper Sonoran life-zones. In winter
-they descend to the lower sagebrush valleys.
-
-The principal enemies of the white-tailed jack rabbit are the eagle,
-coyote, and bobcat. Of 1,186 stomachs of coyotes from Washington, Sperry
-(1941: 11) found that 27 percent contained rabbits, including jack
-rabbits, snowshoe hares, and cottontails.
-
-In the daytime, white-tailed jack rabbits hide in forms which consist of
-shallow holes dug at the bases of bushes or beside rocks. They feed in
-the morning, evening, and in the night along wide, well-defined trails
-through the bunchgrass. If startled from their forms they dash off in
-bounding, erratic leaps, skimming away until lost to sight. A whitetail
-has been timed at a speed of 34 miles per hour (Cottam and Williams,
-1943: 262).
-
-The early explorers and settlers found the white-tailed jack rabbits
-abundant in eastern Washington. With the invasion and spread of the
-black-tailed jack rabbit, and the reduction of native bunchgrass through
-overgrazing by livestock, the whitetail has become rare. In several
-years of field work on the Columbian Plateau, I saw none. Near Wallula,
-the type locality, residents had not seen whitetails for years, but
-thought there might be a few left "back in the hills." There are thought
-to be a few left near Ellensburg and Yakima.
-
-Only in the Okanogan Valley are the whitetails holding their own; they
-are reasonably common there. In winter they come down from the hills on
-to the sagebrush flats along the Okanogan River in Okanogan County. In
-January it is not unusual to see as many as five in a day's drive. When,
-as will most certainly occur, the black-tailed jack rabbit enters the
-Okanogan Valley, the splendid whitetail may be expected to disappear
-from Washington.
-
-Because this species has been so reduced in numbers, no distributional
-map has been included. Taylor and Shaw (1929: 28) give its range as:
-"north to Oroville, east to Pullman, south to Asotin, Walla Walla, and
-Kennewick, and west to Lake Chelan (Manson), Yakima Valley, and
-Klickitat County." This range is similar to that of the Nuttall
-Cottontail (Fig. 129).
-
-
-=Lepus americanus= Erxleben
-
-Snowshoe rabbit
-
-_Description._--The appearance, size, and proportions of the snowshoe
-rabbit are similar to those of the Belgian hare. The body is about 16
-inches in length, the ears are midway in size between those of the
-cottontail and the jack rabbit, and the feet are relatively long and the
-tail is short. In summer the color of the upper parts is reddish brown,
-varying with the subspecies. The winter pelage of _Lepus a.
-washingtonii_ is a slightly paler brown than the summer coat. In the
-other three races in Washington the winter coat is entirely white,
-except for the dusky borders of the ears.
-
-Snowshoe rabbits occur in Alaska, Canada, and the northern United
-States, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They are absent in desert or
-prairie regions but range far southward in the United States in
-mountainous areas. They are found throughout Washington, except on the
-Columbian Plateau and in the Okanogan River Valley. None of the four
-races found in Washington is restricted exclusively to the state.
-Snowshoe rabbits live only in wooded areas. Their habitat varies from
-dense, impenetrable rain-forests along the ocean to the alpine parks,
-dotted with trees, of the Hudsonian Life-zone. They occur in humid and
-arid subdivisions of the Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian life-zones.
-Altitudinally they range from sea level to 6,000 feet (Mt. Rainier).
-
-Enemies of the snowshoe rabbit include the coyote, bobcat, lynx,
-long-tailed weasel, and great horned owl.
-
-Snowshoe rabbits are largely nocturnal or crepuscular in habit. They are
-secretive and slip away quietly at the least threat of danger. Persons
-often live for years in localities where snowshoe rabbits are abundant
-without seeing a live individual. Those that are seen ordinarily have
-been startled from their forms at midday, or surprised while feeding on
-clover along a highway in the early morning. More commonly they are seen
-crossing a road in the lights of an automobile. Tracks, easily found
-after a fresh snowfall, give some indication of their numbers in any
-locality.
-
-Little information is available on the fluctuations of numbers of
-snowshoe rabbits in Washington. Floyd Thornton, a trapper living at
-Forks, Clallam County, states that they were numerous in 1924, scarce in
-1930-31, and fairly common in 1938-39. More rabbits are seen shortly
-after the breeding season than at other times of the year. From April
-8-10, 1941, I saw none on a highway extending about 100 miles along the
-west coast of the Olympic Peninsula, but on June 4-5 here counted 3 dead
-on the road and saw 3 running across it. One was about one-third grown
-and another two-thirds grown.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 127. Distribution of the snowshoe hare in
-  Washington. A. _Lepus americanus washingtonii._ B. _Lepus americanus
-  cascadensis._ C. _Lepus americanus columbiensis._ D. _Lepus americanus
-  pineus._]
-
-The snowshoe rabbits are classed as game animals in Washington but few
-people hunt them. Their winter food includes buds and needles of
-hemlock, Douglas fir, and probably other evergreens. Annuals, grasses,
-and shrubs, as well as Douglas fir needles, are eaten in the summer.
-Snowshoe rabbits do some damage by eating the bark of trees and the
-boughs of newly planted evergreens. Together with rodents they are
-responsible for serious damage to plantations of Douglas fir and hemlock
-on the Olympic Peninsula.
-
-At least in summer, they are heavily parasitized by fleas and ticks and
-may in addition carry tularemia, or rabbit fever.
-
-Scheffer (1933: 77-78) found that the young were born from May 5 to July
-4 in the Puget Sound area and that there were from 2 to 5, usually 5 per
-litter.
-
-
-=Lepus americanus washingtonii= Baird
-
-      _Lepus washingtonii_ Baird, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
-      7:333, 1855.
-
-      [_Lepus americanus_] var. _Washingtoni_ J. A. Allen, Proc. Boston
-      Soc. Nat. Hist., 17:434, February 17, 1875.
-
-      _Lepus americanus Washingtoni_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:601,
-      1885.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained by G. Suckley at Steilacoom, Pierce County,
-      Washington, on April 1, 1854; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size small for a snowshoe rabbit; color of
-      upper parts dark, in summer between Sayal Brown and Cinnamon, in
-      winter slightly paler, near Pale Cinnamon Buff (capitalized color
-      terms in the accounts of the lagomorphs are after Ridgway, Color
-      Standards and Color Nomenclature, Washington, D. C., 1912);
-      underparts white; soles of feet usually stained yellowish,
-      brownish, or blackish.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and 6 females from the Olympic
-      Peninsula average, respectively: total length 407, 402.5; hind
-      foot 114, 119. Weight of a 408 mm. male from the same locality
-      2-1/4 lbs.
-
-      _Distribution._--This snowshoe rabbit occupies the humid
-      subdivision of the Transition Life-zone of western Washington from
-      the British Columbian boundary south to the Columbia River.
-      Marginal occurrences are (from Dalquest, 1942: 175): Mt. Vernon,
-      Paradise Lake, Lake Kapowsin, and White Salmon.
-
-
-=Lepus americanus cascadensis= Nelson
-
-      _Lepus bairdi cascadensis_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      20:87, December 11, 1907.
-
-      _Lepus americanus cascadensis_ Racey and Cowan, Ann. Rept.
-      Provincial Mus. British Columbia, p. H 18, 1935.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained by W. C. Colt near Hope, British Columbia, on
-      June 12, 1894; type in Museum of Comparative Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size medium for a snowshoe rabbit; color of
-      upper parts in summer near Orange Cinnamon; head paler, sharply
-      marked off from body; underparts white. Color in winter: entire
-      body pure white except for dusky borders of ears and eyelids.
-
-      _Measurements._--Three males and 5 females from Kittitas County,
-      Washington, average, respectively: total length 405, 440; hind
-      foot 124, 133.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Cascade Mountains from the British Columbia
-      boundary south to Mount Adams. Marginal occurrences are: Skykomish
-      (Dalquest, 1942: 177), Vance (Dalquest, 1942: 177) and 7 mi. W
-      Guler (W.W.D.).
-
-
-=Lepus americanus pineus= Dalquest
-
-      _Lepus americanus pineus_ Dalquest, Jour. Mamm., 23:178, May 14,
-      1942.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained by P. G. Putnam at Cedar Mountain (now Moscow
-      Mountain), Latah County, Idaho, on May 29, 1921; type in University
-      of Michigan, Museum of Zoölogy.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size small for a snowshoe rabbit; in summer,
-      upper parts Cinnamon Brown, with sides slightly paler and rump
-      patch blackish; color of the head between Sayal Brown and
-      Cinnamon; hips Light Olivaceous Buff; chest-band light Cinnamon;
-      ears blackish, often edged with white. In winter the color of the
-      entire body is white, save for the dusky edges of the ears and the
-      blackish eyelids. The color of the underfur in winter is usually
-      Pale Pinkish Cinnamon, rarely Light Vinaceous Cinnamon or Orange
-      Cinnamon, with the basal portion slaty.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and 5 females, from northeastern
-      Washington, average, respectively: total length 419, 439; hind foot
-      138.5, 138. The average measurements of 3 males and 7 females from
-      the Blue Mountains are: 407, 422; 128, 131.
-
-      _Distribution._--The pine forests of the arid subdivision of the
-      Transition Life-zone along the eastern border of Washington, in
-      the Blue Mountains, and in the forested parts of northeastern
-      Washington as far west as the Kettle River Range. Western records
-      of occurrence are (Dalquest, 1942: 179): Deep Lake, Colville,
-      Calispel Peak.
-
-
-=Lepus americanus columbiensis= Rhoads
-
-      _Lepus americanus columbiensis_ Rhoads, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
-      Philadelphia, p. 242, June, 1895.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained by S. N. Rhoads at Vernon, British Columbia, on
-      July 29, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Size large; color in summer: upper parts
-      near Cinnamon Brown, sides and head slightly paler; top of tail
-      and small rump-patch blackish; chest-band pale Cinnamon Brown;
-      hips light Ochraceous Buff; chin and belly white.
-
-      _Measurements._--A male from Molson, Okanogan County, measures:
-      total length 435; length of tail 150. A male and a female from
-      Danville, Ferry County, measure, respectively: 460, 430; 150, 142.
-
-      _Distribution._--Only a small part of the range of this rabbit
-      lies within the state of Washington; the greater part is in
-      British Columbia. In Washington it occupies the timbered areas
-      north of the Columbia River, east of the Okanogan River, and west
-      of the Kettle River Range. Records are (Dalquest, 1942: 182):
-      Molson, Danville and Republic. In the 1942 paper, the latter
-      locality was erroneously listed under _pineus_.
-
-
-=Lepus californicus deserticola= Mearns
-
-Black-tailed jack rabbit
-
-      _Lepus texianus deserticola_ Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 18:564,
-      June 24, 1896.
-
-      _Lepus texianus wallawalla_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      17:137, July 14, 1904 (type from Touchet, Walla Walla County,
-      Washington).
-
-      _Lepus californicus deserticola_ Nelson, N. Amer. Fauna, 29:137,
-      August 31, 1909.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at western edge of Colorado desert, Imperial
-      County, California; type in American Museum of Natural History.
-
-      _Measurements._--Three males and 4 females from Union Gap, Yakima
-      County, average, respectively: total length 538, 539; length of
-      tail 72, 71; hind foot 128, 124; ear 120, 124. Two females from
-      the same locality weighed 5 and 6-1/2 pounds, respectively.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, southeastern Washington,
-      and the Yakima Valley area. The northernmost locality record is
-      Moses Coulee (W.W.D.).
-
-_Remarks._--The blacktail is the commonest jack rabbit of the West. It
-is larger than the domestic rabbit and its enormous ears, long, gangling
-legs, and bounding gait make it appear even larger than it really is.
-Its iron-gray color, black tail and black ear tips match its sagebrush
-habitat.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 128. Distribution of the black-tailed jack rabbit,
-  _Lepus californicus deserticola_, in Washington.]
-
-Black-tailed jack rabbits reach the northern limit of their distribution
-on the Columbian Plateau of eastern Washington. They extend from
-Washington south to the Valley of Mexico and from the Pacific Coast east
-to Missouri (Nelson, 1909: 127). About 20 races are recognized, of which
-only one is native to Washington.
-
-The blacktail is restricted to the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. Seldom is it
-found far from sagebrush (_Artemisia_) and rabbitbrush (_Chrysothamus_).
-It is well adapted to desert life, and is able to withstand the bitterly
-cold winters and hot, dry summers of eastern Washington. Blacktails are
-active in the evening, night, morning, and cooler parts of the day. In
-the daytime they crouch in forms consisting of shallow depressions at
-the bases of shrubs.
-
-Blacktails eat the twigs and leaves of sagebrush, rabbitbrush, other
-desert shrubs, and grasses. They are particularly fond of alfalfa and
-cultivated crops, of which they destroy great quantities. They are
-serious pests during periodic years of abundance. Some measure of their
-abundance may be gained by counting the bodies of jack rabbits killed by
-cars on well-traveled highways through sagebrush areas. In years of
-abundance these may number 50 to 100 per mile, while in years of
-scarcity these may number only one or two.
-
-Black-tailed jack rabbits are susceptible to numerous parasites and
-diseases including tularemia. Diseased rabbits are especially noticeable
-during years of abundance. Jack rabbits are almost never used as food
-although many are shot for sport or to protect crops.
-
-The black-tailed jack rabbit is a swift runner. Cottam and Williams
-(1943: 263) timed 6 individuals while running under varying conditions.
-Full speeds for 50 to 300 yards varied from 27 to 38 miles per hour. The
-maximum speed was attained by two individuals, each for 100 yards.
-
-Embryos found in March numbered 4, 5 and 6.
-
-
-=Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii= (Bachman)
-
-Nuttall cottontail
-
-      _Lepus nuttallii_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
-      7:345, 1837.
-
-      _Lepus artemisia_ Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,
-      8:94, 1839 (type from Wallula, Walla Walla County, Washington).
-
-      [_Lepus sylvaticus_] var. _Nuttallii_ Allen, Proc. Boston Soc.
-      Nat. Hist., 17:434, February 17, 1875.
-
-      _Lepus sylvaticus Nuttalli_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:601,
-      1885.
-
-      _Sylvilagus (Sylvilagus) nuttallii_ Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,
-      45 (no. 1456):336, June 15, 1904.
-
-      _Sylvilagus nuttalli_ Nelson, N. A. Fauna, 29:201, August 31,
-      1909.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained near mouth of Malheur River, Malheur County,
-      Oregon. by T. Nuttall in August, 1834; type in Philadelphia Academy
-      of Natural Sciences.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two males and 4 females from Moses Lake, Grant
-      County, average, respectively: total length 355, 348; length of
-      tail 33, 35; hind foot 83, 83; ear 63.5, 60.
-
-      _Distribution._--The Columbian Plateau, Okanogan Valley, Yakima
-      Valley and Columbia Valley in southeastern Washington; in general,
-      the sagebrush area of eastern Washington; north in the Okanogan
-      River Valley to Oroville and in the Columbia Valley to Kettle
-      Falls (W.W.D., records not all shown on map).
-
-
-_Remarks._--Nuttall cottontails are small, grayish-brown rabbits with
-relatively short, rounded ears and short legs. Their small size and
-small ears, which lack black tips, distinguish them from jack rabbits
-where the two occur together.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 129. Distribution of the Nuttall cottontail.
-  _Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii_, in Washington.]
-
-The genus _Sylvilagus_ is found in both North and South America. The
-species _nuttallii_, with three subspecies, is restricted to the western
-part of the United States. It ranges from southern Canada south to
-central New Mexico and from western South Dakota west to the Cascades. A
-single race occurs in Washington. Nuttall cottontails depend on cover
-for concealment from enemies. They frequent thick stands of tall
-sagebrush, riparian thickets, or rocky coulees. Seldom are they
-encountered in the open. In the sand-dune areas near Moses Lake
-cottontails were abundant in the dense, thorny thickets about potholes
-and in areas of tall sagebrush. They are especially common near the
-talus at the bases of the walls of Grand Coulee, and Moses Coulee where
-they do not hesitate to enter crevices in rock slides for protection.
-Indeed, cottontails are abundant everywhere within their range in the
-state of Washington, where suitable cover and food are present. They
-seem to be confined to the Upper Sonoran Life-zone.
-
-Cottontails are most active at night, as is attested by the number
-killed then by automobiles on highways. The greatest number are seen by
-observers in the morning and evening but it is not unusual to see an
-animal feeding at midday. When startled they dash for the nearest
-thicket or pile of rocks with their tiny white tails erect. They travel
-in relatively straight lines and do not dash from side to side in flight
-as do jack rabbits. They sometimes seek concealment by "freezing"
-motionlessly in plain sight. When feeding undisturbed they travel by
-slow hops.
-
-The trails of cottontails are characteristic of thickets in sagebrush
-country. The trails are narrow, less than four inches wide, and often
-enter thickets of strong, thorny growths which can scarcely be
-penetrated by man. Near Okanogan Lake the trails of cottontails were
-found among greasewood bushes on hard-packed gravel. Trails are usually
-most abundant in thickets near water. Permanent trails are not made
-through low sagebrush or over sandy areas where the animals prefer to
-pick their way when traveling from one clump of cover to another.
-
-Nuttall cottontails probably eat many desert grasses, annuals, and
-shrubs; observation indicates that sagebrush (_Artemisiae tridentata_)
-and rabbit brush (_Chrysothamnus nauseosus_) are particularly important
-as food.
-
-The young of cottontails in Washington seem to vary from one to four per
-litter and are born between April and June.
-
-
-=Sylvilagus floridanus= (Allen) subsp.?
-
-Florida cottontail
-
-      _Lepus sylvaticus floridanus_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
-      3:160, October 8, 1890.
-
-      _Sylvilagus floridanus_ Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 45 (no.
-      1456):322, June 15, 1904.
-
-_Description._--Slightly larger than the sagebrush cottontail; smaller
-than the snowshoe rabbit; ears small; color of upper parts pinkish
-cinnamon-brown; sides pale grayish-cinnamon; underparts white; nape of
-neck cinnamon; chest band paler cinnamon; tail brown above, white
-beneath; forefeet and sides of hind feet cinnamon.
-
-_Remarks._--The Florida cottontail is not native to the state of
-Washington but has been introduced at several localities. It is
-spreading rapidly at the present time. Points of introduction include
-Pullman, Whitman County (1926-1927); Battleground, Clark County (1933);
-Auburn, King County (1927); and Whidby Island, Island County (1931). At
-least two subspecies (_mearnsi_, _alacer_) have been introduced and a
-third (_similis_) may have been introduced.
-
-For further information on introduced cottontails see Dalquest (1941B:
-408-411).
-
-
-
-
-=Sylvilagus idahoensis= (Merriam)
-
-Pigmy rabbit
-
-      _Lepus idahoensis_ Merriam. N. Amer. Fauna, 5:75, July 30, 1891.
-
-      _Brachylagus idahoensis_ Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 45 (no.
-      1456):323, June 15, 1904.
-
-      _Sylvilagus idahoensis_ Grinnell, Dixon and Linsdale, Univ.
-      California Publ. Zoöl., 35:553, October 10, 1930.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained in the Pahsimeroi Valley, Custer County, Idaho,
-      by V. Bailey and B. H. Dutcher on September 16, 1890; type in
-       United States National Museum.
-
-      _Distribution._--Known only from the central part of the Columbian
-      Plateau.
-
-_Description._--The pigmy rabbit is a tiny species, differing from the
-cottontail in smaller size, paler, grayer color, shorter ears and
-smaller legs.
-
-The pigmy rabbit is restricted to the Great Basin region. No subspecies
-has been described. It is rare and of local occurrence in Washington,
-having been recorded only from the central part of the Columbian
-Plateau. Orr (1940), who studied the species in California, found them
-only in stands of tall, dense sage (_Artemisiae tridentata_). It is a
-burrowing form, not straying far from its hole.
-
-
-
-
-=Cervus canadensis= (Erxleben)
-
-Elk or wapiti
-
-_Description._--The elk, next to the moose, is our largest deer. The
-legs of the elk are slender. The tail is a short, pointed stub a few
-inches long. The neck is thick in proportion to the head. Both males and
-females possess the canine teeth familiar as "elk tooth charms." Only
-the males possess antlers. These are huge, slender beams that curve up,
-out and back with the basal tine or "dog killer" and four to six points
-on each antler. The antlers are deciduous and are shed annually. The
-body is grayish or tan in color. The head, neck, chest and legs are
-rich, dark brown, strongly contrasting with the paler body. The
-distinctive rump patch is pale tan or white.
-
-In the past the elk was found over most of the forested areas of
-Washington. Lumbering, agriculture and settlement as well as excessive
-hunting removed it from parts of eastern Washington and all except the
-most inaccessible parts of the lowlands of western Washington. Only in
-the Cascade and Olympic Mountains and the coastal strip between the
-Columbia River and the Olympic Mountains, did the elk survive in
-appreciable numbers. Conservationists and a more enlightened game policy
-began to protect the elk at the turn of the century. It was already too
-late to save the species in eastern Washington, where it seems never to
-have been truly abundant and where relatively open country afforded
-little protection from the high-powered rifle. In the dense, rugged
-forests of western Washington a sizable number remained on the Olympic
-Peninsula and these, under protection, increased to their present
-numbers. The dense, tangled forests of the southwestern coastal area and
-the western Cascades lack conditions suitable to support truly large elk
-herds. These areas probably now have as large an elk population as can
-safely be supported and fed.
-
-The elk of eastern Washington had disappeared or nearly disappeared by
-1910. The race originally occurring there was the Rocky Mountain form;
-it has been reintroduced from Montana and Wyoming into northeastern
-Washington and the Blue Mountains area. These plantings have not been
-very successful. Introduced in the eastern Cascades, however, the Rocky
-Mountain elk thrived and increased on what was probably once the
-peripheral range of the coastal elk.
-
-The habits of the elk are best known from the herds in the Olympic
-Mountains and on the Rattlesnake Game Refuge in the eastern Cascade
-Mountains. Here the animals are numerous and relatively tame. Their
-habits seem to differ somewhat in the forests of the lowlands from
-those of the animals in the higher Olympics where the topography and
-climate are very different.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 130. Elk or wapiti (_Cervus canadensis nelsoni_),
-  Banff, Alberta, October, 1939. (G. A. Thomas photo.)]
-
-The elk is a social animal, gathering in herds over most of the year.
-The old males leave the herds in the spring but seem to stay in small
-bands while their antlers are growing. In the Olympic Mountains, herds
-of 100 or more animals have been seen. In the lowlands there are
-ordinarily from five to ten in a herd.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 131. Group of elk or wapiti (_Cervus canadensis
-  nelsoni_), Banff, Alberta, October 10, 1939. (G. A. Thomas photo.)]
-
-The elk is a browsing animal, feeding on twigs and leaves of deciduous
-trees, shrubs and evergreens. In spring and summer it eats grasses and
-succulent annuals, but in winter twigs and needles of evergreens,
-perennial ferns, dry grass and even moss is utilized. To a certain
-extent the elk are migratory, ascending to the open meadows of the
-Hudsonian Life-zone in the early summer and returning to the dense
-forests of the Transition and lower Canadian Life-zones with the winter
-snows. The lowland elk make no such migrations, merely leaving the
-riverbottom jungles when the leaves are off the deciduous plants
-growing there, and live in the coniferous timber.
-
-In the forests the elk is capable of swift and almost silent movement.
-It is an eerie experience to trail a herd of elk through a dense forest
-in a winter rain, knowing that a number of the large animals are within
-a few feet, moving swiftly but silently away. When a herd is feeding and
-does not suspect the presence of an observer, the animals rustle
-branches, break twigs, snort and wheeze as they breathe.
-
-The antlers of the males are shed in March. The bulls retire from the
-herd until the new horns are well grown, in late August or September.
-Breeding takes place in September or October and the young are born the
-following April or May.
-
-
-=Cervus canadensis roosevelti= Merriam
-
-      _Cervus roosevelti_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:272,
-      December 17, 1897.
-
-      _Cervus canadensis occidentalis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers
-      Chas. R. Conner Mus., 2:29, December, 1929.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on Mount Elaine, Mason County, Washington, by H.
-      and C. Emmet on October 4, 1897; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--A large, dark elk with short, heavy antlers.
-
-      _Measurements._--The type measured, in the flesh (Bailey,
-      1936:81): total length 2,490; tail 80; ear (dry) 208.
-
-      _Distribution._--From the Cascade Mountains westward; possibly
-      occurred formerly in the eastern Cascades, and perhaps still
-      present there, in places, or mixed with introduced _nelsoni_.
-
-      _Remarks._--For use of the name _roosevelti_ rather than
-      _occidentalis_ see Bailey (1936:81).
-
-
-=Cervus canadensis nelsoni= Bailey
-
-      _Cervus canadensis canadensis_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas.
-      R. Conner Mus., 2:29, December, 1929.
-
-      _Cervus canadensis nelsoni_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Sec. Washington,
-      48:188, November 15, 1935.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, by J.
-      Pitcher; died in captivity on September 21, 1904; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Description._--Smaller and paler than _roosevelti_ with longer,
-      slimmer antlers.
-
-      _Distribution._--Formerly occurred in northeastern Washington and
-      the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. Since then
-      exterminated and reintroduced to both areas from the Rocky
-      Mountains. Also introduced and established in the eastern
-      Cascades.
-
-
-
-
-=Odocoileus virginianus= (Boddaert)
-
-White-tailed deer
-
-_Description._--The white-tailed deer differs from the black-tailed and
-mule deer in several anatomical details. The tail is long, wide, and
-when the animal is frightened is carried upright with the long, white
-hair of the underside spread out. The antlers of the buck are not of a
-biramous system of branching but instead consist of a main beam which
-curves sharply out and forward, remaining low. All subsidiary tines,
-save the basal one, emerge from the dorsal side of the main beam. The
-basal tine is usually a spurlike point arising vertically from the main
-beam not far from the base of the antler. In exceptional specimens the
-basal tine is large and divided into several points. The body of the
-"whitetail" is more smoothly rounded, and more graceful, than that of
-the mule deer.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 132. White-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus
-  leucurus_), doe at least nine years old, kept as a pet by Mrs. Jack
-  Hovis, Puget Island, Washington, December 16, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife
-  Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 750.)]
-
-White-tailed deer range from Canada south to Panama and from the
-Atlantic to the Pacific. Their range is much more extensive to the east
-and south than that of the "blacktail" and mule deer. In western
-Washington the whitetail occupies a limited habitat near the mouth of
-the Columbia River. Its geographic range was probably somewhat greater
-in the past. Its habitat includes the low, damp, marshy islands and
-floodplain of the Columbia. Blacktail range in the wooded hills
-surrounding the whitetail's range but rarely enter it to compete with
-the whitetail (Scheffer, 1940A: 282).
-
-In northeastern Washington the whitetail shows the same tendency to
-occupy low, marshy areas and valleys. The habitat preference of the
-whitetail in northeastern Washington is less exact than in western
-Washington, for the species ranges up from the valleys into the forests
-of larch and cottonwood of the Transition Life-zone. Its habitat
-includes denser forest and brushy areas. Rarely does it occur in the
-open type of forest occupied by the mule deer.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 133. White-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus
-  ochrourus_): fawn kept as a pet by L. E. Borud, Ione, Washington, June
-  13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No.
-  69.)]
-
-In Washington the whitetail is not an important game animal. The race
-occurring in western Washington is characterized by small size and small
-antlers. Further, its total population is estimated at but 400 to 900
-individuals. The whitetail of northeastern Washington is larger and
-possesses larger antlers. Indeed, some antlers from Ferry County are the
-largest antlers of whitetail that I have ever seen. Nevertheless, the
-whitetail of northeastern Washington is smaller than the mule deer and
-far less common. The habitat is dense and difficult to traverse. The
-animal is shy and silent, fleeing soundlessly when approached. For these
-reasons most hunters in northeastern Washington prefer to hunt the mule
-deer.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 134. White-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus
-  ochrourus_): left antler found on ground at Park Rapids, Pend Oreille
-  County, Washington, October 1, 1937. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo
-  by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 756.)]
-
-
-=Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus= Bailey
-
-      _Odocoileus virginianus macrourus_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers
-      Chas. R. Conner Mus., 2:30, December, 1929.
-
-      _Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 45:43, April 2, 1932.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 135. White-tailed deer (_Odocoileus virginianus
-  leucurus_), antlers of large buck killed in the fall of 1939 at
-  Cathlamet, Washington, by Paul Lewis. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo
-  by Victor B. Scheffer. No. 752.)]
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Coolin, south end of Priest Lake, Bonner
-      County, Idaho, by F. Lemmer on December 27, 1908; type in United
-      States National Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--A large, pale white tail with large, low
-      antlers and distinctive cranial features.
-
-      _Measurements._--The type, an adult male, measures (Bailey, 1936.
-      p. 43): total length 1,752; tail 265; hind foot 483; ear (dry)
-      120.
-
-      _Distribution._--Northeastern Washington. Probably once occurred
-      in southeastern Washington.
-
-
-=Odocoileus virginianus leucurus= (Douglas)
-
-      _Cervus leucurus_ Douglas, Zoöl. Jour., 4:330, 1829.
-
-      _Odocoileus leucurus_ Thompson, Forest and Stream, 51:286, October
-      8, 1898.
-
-      _Odocoileus virginianus leucurus_ Lydekker, Cat. Ung. Mamm.
-      British Mus., 4:162, 1915.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained on the North Umpqua River, Oregon, by David
-      Douglas on October 17, 1826; type originally, and perhaps still, in
-      British Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--A small, handsome whitetail with slender,
-      erect antlers and brownish or grayish color.
-
-      _Measurements._--A young adult female from 1 mile south of
-      Skamokawa, Wahkiakum County, measured: total length 1,545; length
-      of tail 250; hind foot 458; ear 143; weight 88 pounds.
-
-      _Distribution._--Previously occurred over much of southwestern
-      Washington; now confined to the banks and islands of the Columbia
-      River in Wahkiakum County.
-
-
-
-
-=Odocoileus hemionus= (Rafinesque)
-
-Mule deer and black-tailed deer
-
-_Description._--The mule and black-tailed deer are among deer of medium
-to large size. Adult mule deer may weigh up to 400 pounds while some
-fully adult blacktail bucks may weigh as little as 100 pounds. The body
-is heavily muscled, the legs long and the tail only about 6 inches in
-length. The ears are long, from 6 to 8 inches from notch to tip. The
-head is long and the male has well-developed antlers. The first antlers
-are almost straight spikes. Those of the second year are bent slightly
-outward and forward and are equally or subequally forked with the
-anterior branch usually the stouter. In the third year the
-anteriolateral curvature is more pronounced and one or both of the forks
-again fork. In succeeding years forks are larger and more numerous but
-the essential biramous arrangement of forking is maintained. The
-"blacktail" and mule deer are strongly marked races. The blacktail
-differs from the mule deer in: smaller size; darker color, especially on
-face and tail; tail dark brown above with dark tip rather than whitish
-with black tip; tail haired beneath, not naked for half its length;
-antlers smaller and lighter; and skull and teeth smaller.
-
-Mule deer and black-tailed deer range over western North America from
-southeastern Alaska southward into northern Mexico. They inhabit
-forested parts of the state of Washington. Blacktails occupy the San
-Juan Islands, the islands in Puget Sound, the Olympic Mountains, the
-lowlands of western Washington, and the Cascade Mountains. Mule deer
-occupy the Cascades, including their eastern slope, northeastern and
-southeastern Washington and parts of the Columbian Plateau. Over this
-large range there is considerable local geographic variation.
-
-Jackson (1944: 1-56) estimated that 109,600 blacktail and 175,725 mule
-deer live in Washington. Thus Washington is second only to California
-in number of blacktail and ranks fifth in number of mule deer.
-
-Individual variation over the range of the mule deer is considerable
-but no trends of variation are distinguishable. Mule deer from the
-Blue Mountains, northeastern Washington and the eastern Cascades are
-essentially similar.
-
-There is geographic variation as well as great individual variation
-in the black-tailed deer of Washington. The deer of the San Juan
-Islands and the islands of Puget Sound are smaller and darker than
-those of the mainland and possess smaller, lighter antlers. The deer
-of Whidby Island are sometimes contemptuously referred to by residents
-as jackrabbit deer. Fully grown bucks on the Islands weigh in the
-neighborhood of 100 pounds, rarely exceeding 150 pounds, whereas bucks
-on the mainland commonly weigh more than 150 pounds dressed.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 136. Mule deer (_Odocoileus hemionus hemionus_),
-  subadult male from Okanogan County, Washington, raised in captivity;
-  photographed June 29, 1938, on Hurricane Ridge, Olympic National Park.
-  (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. Scheffer, No. 99.)]
-
-The dividing line between the ranges of the black-tailed and mule deer
-in general is the summit of the Cascade Mountains. In summer the two
-races come together and doubtless mingle in the Cascades but as fall
-approaches they migrate. The mule deer moves eastward to the yellow-pine
-areas on the lower slopes while the blacktails descend westward to the
-denser Douglas fir and hemlock forests on the western flanks of the
-Cascades. In the breeding season the two races are separated. However,
-as shown by Cowan (1936A: 219), in the Pemberton Valley, British
-Columbia, the two forms occur together during the breeding season and
-intergradation occurs there. Intergradation occurs also in the Lake
-Wenatchee area of Chelan County. Observation of hunters' specimens
-showed some undoubted intergrades among the more abundant, typical mule
-deer.
-
-Both the mule deer and blacktail have a characteristic bounding gait,
-unlike the smooth run of the white-tailed deer. The tail is usually held
-down, rarely erect. When not frightened they move with dainty steps,
-making little noise.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 137. Black-tailed deer (_Odocoileus hemionus
-  columbianus_), buck resting at midday, Van Trump Park, Mt. Rainier,
-  Washington, August, 1931. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor
-  B. Scheffer, No. 260.)]
-
-The black-tailed deer in certain areas is more nocturnal than diurnal.
-They feed principally in the early morning and evening. In the Olympic
-Mountains, on the North Fork of the Quinault River, in July, 1937,
-blacktails were watched feeding and playing until midnight. Also in
-December, 1939, deer, near the forks of the Skykomish River, were moving
-about, browsing as late as 11 p. m. while a light snow was falling. In
-the San Juan Islands, in the summer of 1939, deer were observed feeding
-at all hours of the day.
-
-The blacktail lives in some of the most dense jungle areas of western
-Washington. On Whidby Island and some of the San Juan Islands the brush
-and vines grow so densely that a man can scarcely penetrate them. Were
-it not for the deer trails, formed by generations of deer, our small
-mammal investigations would have been far more difficult. The blacktail
-lives also in the dense forests where fir, hemlock and cedars grow to
-heights of more than 150 feet. Here lack of light allows only ferns and
-moss to form an understory vegetation. These forests often clothe the
-steep glacial hills and the trails of the deer on such hills show them
-to be adept climbers. Deer trails generally avoid fallen trees and other
-obstacles. When startled, however, a stump, fence or log is easily
-leaped by a blacktail. Often they are in small bands of 6 to 10
-individuals, but almost as often are solitary, or in pairs.
-
-The habitat of the mule deer is generally more open than that of the
-blacktail. In the summer, it may occupy rough and rugged country; in the
-higher Cascades individuals were found in the rocky and brushy country
-and in open glades and meadows. Farther east they were in the open
-yellow-pine forests where extensive grassy slopes, free of trees,
-existed. In some parts of northeastern Washington they lived in the
-larch and lodgepole pine forests almost dense enough to be "blacktail
-country." In the Okanogan Valley and on the northwestern corner of the
-Columbia Plateau mule deer lived in open prairie country where a few
-cottonwoods and willows were the only trees.
-
-The mule deer seem more social than the blacktail. In the late summer
-they gather in bands of 10 to 20 or more. In winter, under pressure of
-hunger, they gather in herds and raid haystacks and pastures. Farmers in
-the Methow Valley, Okanogan County, report herds of 200 to 400 mule deer
-about a single haystack.
-
-The mule deer and blacktail are the principal game mammals of the state
-of Washington. Thousands of hunters enter the woods each year in search
-of a buck. Eastern Washington is the favored hunting grounds for that is
-the home of the mule deer, the larger size of which makes it a more
-desirable trophy. Also the open country which it inhabits makes hunting
-more productive. Sums spent on equipment, gasoline and hunting licenses
-are tremendous but the feeling is that the return in recreational value
-and venison are worth the cost. A few casualties result each year among
-the army of deer hunters.
-
-
-=Odocoileus hemionus hemionus= (Rafinesque)
-
-      _Cervus hemionus_ Rafinesque, Amer. Month. Mag., 1:436, October,
-      1817.
-
-      _Cariacus macrotis_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:592, 1885.
-
-      _Odocoileus hemionus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      12:100, April 30, 1898.
-
-      _Odocoileus hemionus macrotis_ Bailey, National Geographic, 20:64,
-      1932.
-
-      _Type locality._--Vicinity of Big Sioux River, South Dakota.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Large size, pale color.
-
-      _Measurements._--Two adult males from Stay-a-while Spring,
-      Columbia County, measure respectively: total length 1,751, 1,559;
-      length of tail 172, 205; hind foot 515, 485; ear 210, 211; length
-      of metatarsal gland 150, 135.
-
-      _Distribution._--Summit of Cascades eastward, in forested areas,
-      exact limits not certainly known.
-
-
-=Odocoileus hemionus columbianus= (Richardson)
-
-      _Cervus macrotis_ var. _columbiana_ Richardson, Fauna
-      Boreali-Americana, 1:257, 1829.
-
-      _Cariacus columbianus_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):592,
-      1885.
-
-      _Cervus columbianus_ Baird, U. S. Pacific R. R. Exp. and Surveys,
-      p. 659, 1857.
-
-      _Eucervus columbianus_ Gray, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 18 (ser.
-      3):338, 1866.
-
-      _Odocoileus columbianus_ Merriam, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      12:100, April 30, 1898.
-
-      _Odocoileus columbianus columbianus_ Swarth, Univ. California
-      Publ. Zoöl., 10:85, February 13, 1912.
-
-      _Odocoileus hemionus columbianus_ Cowan, California Fish and Game,
-      22:215, July, 1936.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Cape Disappointment, Pacific County,
-      Washington, by Lewis and Clark on November 19, 1805 (Cowan, 1936A:
-      218).
-
-      _Racial characters._--Small size, dark color.
-
-      _Distribution._--Summit of Cascades westward, including islands in
-      Puget Sound and San Juan Islands; exact limits of range uncertain.
-
-
-=Alce americana shirasi= Nelson
-
-Moose
-
-      _Alces americanus shirasi_ Nelson, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington,
-      27:72, April 25, 1914.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained near the Snake River, Lincoln County, Wyoming, by
-      J. Shire on December 11, 1913; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Distribution._--Casual wanderer into northeastern Washington from
-      Canada.
-
-_Remarks._--The moose is the largest North American deer. Its large size
-and huge, palmate antlers serve to separate it from any other member of
-the deer tribe.
-
-Moose range from northern United States to central Canada and Alaska.
-The European elk and the American moose are subspecies of the same
-species. The moose is of only casual occurrence in Washington. The
-latest authentic record for Washington is a bull that wandered southward
-and westward from Canada until it was killed on an Indian reservation in
-Ferry County. Other moose are reported to have wandered into
-northeastern Washington from Canada in past years.
-
-Dice (1919) was told that moose once occurred in the Blue Mountains of
-southeastern Washington but there is no confirmation of this report.
-
-
-=Rangifer arcticus montanus= Seton-Thompson
-
-Caribou
-
-      _Rangifer montanus_ Seton-Thompson, Ottawa Naturalist, 13:129-30,
-      August, 1899.
-
-      _Rangifer arcticus montanus_ Jacobi, Erganzungsband, Zoöl. Anz.,
-      96:92, November, 1931.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained near Revelstoke, Selkirk Range, British Columbia.
-
-      _Distribution._--Rare or casual along the Canadian boundary in
-      northeastern Washington.
-
-_Remarks._--The caribou is a rather stout-bodied deer with large hoofs,
-short, rounded muzzle and long, erect, flattened antlers.
-
-Caribou and their relatives, the reindeer, range over Arctic Europe,
-Asia, Greenland and America. In North America they range from the
-Atlantic to the Pacific and from the northern border of the United
-States northward into the Arctic. The caribou was, until recent years, a
-regular winter resident in small numbers in northeastern Washington near
-the Canadian Boundary. Their wintering grounds in Washington were said
-to have been destroyed by fire in 1915 and the species has appeared in
-the state only casually since then. Two were killed in 1940 by hunters
-who thought they were deer. Caribou are protected by law in Washington.
-
-
-=Bison bison oregonus= Bailey
-
-Bison
-
-      _Bison bison bison_ Taylor and Shaw, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner
-      Mus., 2:31, December, 1929.
-
-      _Bison bison oregonus_ Bailey, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 45:48,
-      April 2, 1932.
-
-      _Type._--Skull and skeleton picked up at Malheur Lake, Oregon, by
-      G. M. Benson in November, 1931; type in United States National
-      Museum.
-
-      _Distribution._--Perhaps casual in eastern Washington before
-      coming of the white man.
-
-_Remarks._--Bison, or buffalo, occurred in southeastern Oregon but
-disappeared before white men reached the country (Bailey, 1936: 57).
-Gibbs (1860: 138) was told by an Indian hunter in 1853 that a lost bull
-had been killed in the Grand Coulee (state of Washington) 25 years
-before but that "this was an extraordinary occurrence, perhaps before
-unknown." In the days before horses reached the Indian tribes of eastern
-Washington and Oregon, wandering bison from herds in Oregon probably
-strayed into Washington, in somewhat the manner that the moose today
-stray in from Canada.
-
-
-=Ovis canadensis= Shaw
-
-Mountain sheep
-
-_Description._--The mountain sheep is the size of a small deer. The
-horns of the males are massive spirals. Those of the females are
-smaller, curve upward and backward, rarely forming a semicircle. The
-horns are permanent structures, enlarged each year by growth at the
-base. Growth is irregular, probably as the result of seasonal
-reproductive activities. As a result the horns are "ringed" with
-concentric ridges. The color of the upper parts is dark, grayish brown.
-The face is paler, yellowish brown. The outer sides of the legs are dark
-brown. The rump, abdomen, and insides of legs are white.
-
-Mountain sheep of the genus _Ovis_ are abundantly represented in Asia.
-Two species occur in North America, _Ovis dalli_ in Alaska, and _Ovis
-canadensis_ in western North America. They range from Alaska south to
-northern Mexico.
-
-In the past the mountain sheep inhabited most of the eastern Cascade
-Mountains, the Blue Mountains, Pend Oreille Mountains, and the cliffs of
-the Columbia River Valley in eastern Washington. They occurred on the
-eastern or Columbian Plateau side of the river and therefore probably
-occupied the cliffs of Moses Coulee and the Grand Coulee. Their habitat
-seems thus to have included rocky areas from the Upper Sonoran to the
-Hudsonian life-zones. At the present time they are extinct over most of
-their range. A small band still remains in the extreme northeastern
-Cascades near Mount Chopaka.
-
-Little has been published concerning the habits of the mountain sheep in
-Washington. In caves along the Columbia River in Grant County, bones of
-sheep are found in association with stone arrowheads and other human
-artifacts. Presumably the sheep were killed and eaten by the Indians.
-
-The history of the mountain sheep in North America is outlined by Cowan
-(1940: 506). The genus is thought to have crossed from Asia to America
-by the land bridge now under Bering Strait in the early Pleistocene and
-spread southward through the Rockies. The advance of the glacial ice
-forced them farther southward and the southern (_canadensis_) sheep were
-separated from their relatives farther north. The present differences
-between the Rocky Mountain and western sheep seem to have resulted from
-separation by glaciers during Wisconsin Time.
-
-
-=Ovis canadensis canadensis= Shaw
-
-      _Ovis canadensis_ Shaw, Nat. Misc., vol. 15, text to pl. 610, about
-      December, 1803.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained in the mountains on Bow River; W. B. Davis (1939:
-      377) gives Dew River near Exshaw, Alberta.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Large size; heavy, closely coiled horns.
-
-      _Measurements._--Cowan (1940: 533) gives the measurements of a
-      fully adult (6-year old) ram from Colorado as: total length 1,953;
-      length of tail 127; hind foot 394; ear (dry) 63.
-
-      _Distribution._--Now extinct in Washington. Cowan (_op. cit._:
-      535) refers to this race as the sheep that formerly occurred in
-      the Blue Mountains. This view seems logical but I feel that the
-      sheep formerly occurring in the Pend Oreille Mountains of extreme
-      northeastern Washington should, on the basis of geographic
-      probability, also be referred to _canadensis_.
-
-
-=Ovis canadensis californiana= Douglas
-
-      _Ovis californianus_ Douglas, Zoöl. Jour., 4:332, 1829.
-
-      _Ovis californica_ Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1:272,
-      1829.
-
-      _Ovis californiana_ Biddulph, Proc. Zoöl. Soc. London, p. 683,
-      1885.
-
-      _Ovis canadensis californiana_ Lydekker, The Sheep and its
-      Cousins, p. 288, 1912.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained from near Mount Adams, Yakima County, Washington,
-      by D. Douglas on August 27, 1826; type in British Museum.
-
-      _Racial characters._--Similar to _canadensis_ but smaller with
-      more slender, spreading horns and horn tips less blunt.
-
-      _Measurements._--Cowan (1940: 545) gives the measurements of a
-      ram, five years old, from Owens Valley, California, as: total
-      length, 1,582; length of tail, 110; hind foot, 240.
-
-      _Distribution._--Formerly occupied the eastern Cascades, the
-      valley of the Columbia and possibly the cliffs bordering Moses
-      Coulee and The Grand Coulee. Now it is found only near Mt. Chopaka
-      in the extreme northeastern Cascades.
-
-
-=Oreamnos americanus= (Blainville)
-
-Mountain goat
-
-_Description._--The mountain goat is of deer-size, with a stout body and
-a pronounced hump on the shoulders. The legs are short but the hoofs are
-large with large dewclaws. The neck is short and thick. The head is
-large and goatlike in appearance. The tail is tiny. The horns are slim,
-round and curve up and slightly backwards. They are hollow and are
-permanent structures, added to each year. The body is snow white,
-consisting of long, soft wool, which is longer and coarser on forelegs,
-neck and chin than on the body. Males have a distinct beard.
-
-Mountain goats range from Washington and Idaho north to Alaska. Their
-nearest relatives are the Old-World antelopes, especially the alpine
-species of Europe and Asia.
-
-The mountain goat is an animal of the high mountains. Their habitat is
-the bare-rock cliffs and rock-strewn slopes of the Arctic-alpine and
-Hudsonian Life-zones. Where extensive, open rocky areas occur they
-descend to the Canadian Life-zone. Even in winter they keep to the high
-cliffs where steep slopes and strong winds keep the snow from the plants
-on which they feed.
-
-Mountain goats are considered a game animal in Canada and Idaho. The
-species has been protected in Washington for many years. As a result
-they are common, although not present in numbers sufficient to withstand
-hunting. The high country which they occupy is unsuited to any of man's
-domestic animals and no reason is apparent at present why the mountain
-goat should not be protected and conserved for many years.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 138. Mountain goat (_Oreamnos americanus
-  americanus_), old female, Lake Chelan, Washington, March 6, 1937.
-  (Forest Service photo by Oliver T. Edwards, No. 348491.)]
-
-In spite of the protection accorded them, the mountain goat has not
-become tame. In driving over Stevens Pass, King County, one can, with
-the aid of glasses, usually pick out one or more mountain goats on
-nearby mountains. Nevertheless, I have never seen one within 100 yards
-of a highway, nor heard of one being killed by cars on a highway.
-
-The mountain goat does not, as a rule, allow close approach by man. At
-Goat Basin, Deception Creek, King County, circumstances are particularly
-favorable for goats and several are usually to be seen. While studying
-them on several occasions, I was never able to get truly close to them.
-On the few occasions when I came upon a band unexpectedly, they rapidly
-went over the mountain or up the nearest cliff.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 139. Group of mountain goats (_Oreamnos americanus
-  americanus_), northern Cascade Mountains, Washington. (Forest Service
-  photo, No. 348490.)]
-
-When unfrightened, these mountain goats spent much time standing, or
-lying with forefeet folded under them, looking into space. For such
-large animals they seemed to spend little time feeding. At intervals of
-about five minutes they plucked the ferns or other plants that grew in
-abundance on ledges or in tiny crevices in the cliffs. Some animals did
-browse for several minutes at a time. They seemed rather particular as
-to their food, plucking only one or two stems from a clump of
-vegetation.
-
-The ordinary movements of the mountain goats are deliberate. They rarely
-move more than a few feet at a time. They climb with sure-footed ease
-but usually slowly. In climbing, the forelegs are spread and the knees
-are bent. The animal moves as if it were climbing steps. The greatest
-action is in the knee joints. If surprised in the open they run with a
-smoother gait, the legs moving from the shoulder and hip. If near a
-cliff they climb rapidly, jumping when necessary, and rarely stop while
-in sight. Evidence of the presence of mountain goats is usually seen in
-the form of tufts and strands of wool. Their wool becomes caught in
-bushes and rough rocks and seemingly pulls out easily.
-
-The range of the mountain goat in Washington includes the entire Cascade
-range from Mt. Adams and Mt. Saint Helens north to the Canadian
-boundary. They extend west to Mt. Baker, Mt. Higgins and Mt. Index and
-east to Lake Chelan and, in the Wenatchee Range, east of Mt. Stuart,
-perhaps almost to the Columbia River.
-
-Dice (1919: 21) was told that mountain goats once occurred in the Blue
-Mountains of southeastern Washington. We know of no suitable goat
-country in the Blue Mountains of Washington and feel that the report was
-probably based on an erroneous identification.
-
-There is a single record, supported by specimen, of a mountain goat from
-northeastern Washington. This individual probably wandered into
-Washington from northern Idaho, Montana, or adjacent British Columbia.
-
-
-=Oreamnos americanus americanus= (Blainville)
-
-      _Ovis montanus_ Ord, Guthrie's Geol., 2d Amer. Ed., p. 292, 1815
-      (preoccupied).
-
-      _R[upicapra]. americana_ Blainville, Bull. Sci. Soc. Philomath,
-      Paris, p. 80, 1816.
-
-      _Mazama dorsata_ Rafinesque, Amer. Month. Mag., 2:44, 1817 (new
-      name for _Ovis montanus_ Ord).
-
-      _Mazama montana_ True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):592, 1885.
-
-      _Oreamnos montanus_ Merriam, Science, n. s., 1:19, 1895.
-
-      _Oreamnos montanus montanus_ Miller, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull.,
-      79:398, December 31, 1912.
-
-      _Oreamnos americanus americanus_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 25:186, December 24, 1912.
-
-      _Type._--None. Descriptions all based on _Ovis montanus_ Ord who,
-      in turn, based his description on the account of skins seen by
-      Lewis and Clark on the Columbia River of Washington or Oregon. As
-      the mountain goat is not known to have ever occurred in Oregon in
-      Recent times, the type locality is probably near Mt. Adams,
-      Washington, the point where goats come nearest the Columbia.
-
-      _Measurements._--The measurements of a large male killed "west of
-      North Yakima" were reported by A. S. Harmer as: 8 feet 3 inches
-      from tip of nose to tip of tail; horns 10 inches; weight 507
-      pounds (Outdoor Life, 1915: 459).
-
-      _Distribution._--Throughout the higher Cascade Mountains.
-
-
-=Oreamnos americanus missoulae= Allen
-
-      _Oreamnos montanus missoulae_ Allen, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
-      20:20, February 10, 1904.
-
-      _Oreamnos americanus missoulae_ Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc.
-      Washington, 25:186, December 24, 1912.
-
-      _Type._--Obtained at Missoula, Missoula County, Montana; type in
-      American Museum of Natural History.
-
-      _Distribution._--A single record for northeastern Washington.
-      Seemingly a rare wanderer from outside the state.
-
-
-ORDER CETACEA
-
-Whales and porpoises
-
-Because Victor B. Scheffer and John W. Slipp have in preparation a
-detailed account of Cetaceans properly ascribable to Washington, members
-of this order here are not treated in as much detail as are other native
-mammals.
-
-
-=Berardius bairdii= Stejneger
-
-Baird beaked whale
-
-_Description._--Length about 40 feet; mandibles elongate, "beak-like";
-one or two large teeth at tip of lower jaw; dorsal fin small and
-situated posteriorly; color black but abdomen occasionally grayish.
-
-_Remarks._--This rare whale is known from a few specimens recorded from
-Alaska south to California.
-
-
-=Mesoplodon stejnegeri= True
-
-Stejneger beaked whale
-
-_Description._--Similar to the previous species in proportions but
-smaller; length about 17 feet. Differs in possessing one large flat tusk
-in lower jaw.
-
-_Remarks._--Known only from a specimen from Alaska and another from the
-coast of Oregon.
-
-
-=Delphinus bairdii= Dall
-
-Dolphin
-
-_Description._--A slender porpoise about 6 or 7 feet long; long, narrow
-beak with 80-120 conical teeth; color above black tinged with greenish;
-sides gray; belly and throat white.
-
-_Remarks._--Recorded from California and probably ranges into Washington
-in off-shore waters.
-
-
-=Lissodelphis borealis= (Peale)
-
-Right whale porpoise
-
-_Description._--A small, beaked porpoise lacking a dorsal fin; color
-black with narrow white area from breast to tail; length about 4 feet.
-
-_Remarks._--A rare species described from waters 500 miles off the mouth
-of the Columbia River.
-
-
-=Lagenorhynchus obliquidens= Gill
-
-Striped porpoise
-
-_Description._--Length about 7 feet; beak not prominent; 44-46 conical
-teeth in each jaw; anterior edge of dorsal fin curved; color of upper
-parts greenish black; sides with one white or gray stripe posteriorly;
-underparts white.
-
-_Remarks._--This is the common porpoise in the Straits of Juan De Fuca
-from about the vicinity of Port Townsend to the ocean and in immediate
-off-shore waters. One specimen was obtained 100 miles off Grays Harbor.
-Rarely seen in Puget Sound.
-
-
-=Grampus rectipinna= (Cope)
-
-Killer whale
-
-_Description._--A large porpoise, 20-30 feet in length; dorsal fin high
-and nearly straight; teeth large, conical, 12 above, 13 below; color
-black above with white patch on side anteriorly.
-
-_Remarks._--The killer is common in Puget Sound and off the ocean coast.
-Both the killer and the true blackfish are locally termed "blackfish."
-
-
-=Grampidelphis griseus= (Cuvier)
-
-Grampus
-
-_Description._--A round-headed porpoise about 10 feet in length; dorsal
-fin high and narrow; 4 to 6 teeth in each jaw; color black, occasionally
-with white head or with body mottled with white and gray.
-
-_Remarks._--An off-shore species, probably not uncommon off the coast of
-Washington at times.
-
-
-=Globicephalus scammonii= (Cope)
-
-Blackfish
-
-_Description._--A large, stout-bodied, round-headed porpoise about 20
-feet in length. Teeth large; 8-10 in lower jaw; 10-12 in upper jaw.
-Color black. Differs from the killer whale in possessing a low, long
-dorsal fin rather than a high, erect one.
-
-_Remarks._--The blackfish is a colonial species, often common in Puget
-Sound. It is frequently confused with the killer whale.
-
-
-=Phocoena vomerina= (Gill)
-
-Harbor porpoise
-
-_Description._--A small, stout-bodied porpoise with a rounded head.
-Length 5 to 6 feet. Teeth small, slightly flattened; about 25 above, 24
-below; color blackish or brownish to liver color.
-
-_Remarks._--Small schools of harbor porpoises are common in Puget Sound,
-among the San Juan Islands, and in the Straits of Juan De Fuca. This is
-the commonest inshore porpoise but, because of its smaller size, is less
-well known to most persons than are the blackfish and killer whale.
-
-
-=Phocoenoides dalli= (True)
-
-Dall porpoise
-
-_Description._--A small porpoise, about 6 feet in length, with pointed
-head and moderately stout body. Teeth small, 23 above and 27 below.
-Color greenish black with flanks or posterior sides white.
-
-_Remarks._--A rare off-shore species.
-
-
-=Physeter catodon= Linnaeus
-
-Sperm whale
-
-_Description._--A toothed whale about 60 feet long; head enormous,
-squarish; teeth conical, 50 or fewer in lower jaw.
-
-_Remarks._--Occurs off the coast of Washington and rarely enters the
-Straits of Juan De Fuca.
-
-
-=Kogia breviceps= (Blainville)
-
-Pigmy sperm whale
-
-_Description._--Similar to the sperm whale in proportions but less than
-10 feet in length.
-
-_Remarks._--A rare species whose habits are little known. The available
-information concerning this species in the Atlantic has been summarized
-by Allen (1941).
-
-
-=Rhachianectes glaucus= (Cope)
-
-Gray whale
-
-_Description._--A relatively slender whale, about 40 feet in length;
-dorsal fin absent; baleen short, yellow in color; color of body mottled
-gray or blackish.
-
-_Remarks._--The gray whale was once abundant and occurred off the coast
-of Washington in spring and summer migrations. Hunted until now rare.
-
-
-=Balaenoptera physalus= (Linnaeus)
-
-Finback whale
-
-_Description._--A relatively slender whale, up to 82 feet in length;
-dorsal fin far posterior, prominent; baleen in two slabs, well
-developed, about two feet in length and gray in color; color of body
-blackish or brownish above, white below.
-
-_Remarks._--Recorded off-shore.
-
-
-=Balaenoptera borealis= Lesson
-
-Sei or Pollack whale
-
-_Description._--Similar to the finback whale but dorsal fin larger;
-baleen dark; body dark blue or brownish; belly with restricted white
-area.
-
-_Remarks._--Recorded off-shore.
-
-
-=Balaenoptera acutorostrata= Lacépède
-
-Pike whale
-
-_Description._--A small whalebone whale, about 30 feet in length; body
-slender; head pointed; pectoral fin well developed and prominent; baleen
-short, white; color black above, white beneath.
-
-_Remarks._--A rare species that has been recorded from Washington.
-
-
-=Sibbaldus musculus= (Linnaeus)
-
-Blue whale or sulphur-bottom whale
-
-_Description._--Largest of the whales; length up to 100 feet; body
-slender; head flat above, rounded beneath; dorsal fin slender but
-prominent; baleen in two series, heavy and black; belly with numerous
-longitudinal ridges; color bluish black above, yellow beneath.
-
-_Remarks._--Probably uncommon off-shore.
-
-
-=Megaptera novaeangliae= (Borowski)
-
-Humpback whale
-
-_Description._--A medium-sized, stout-bodied whale up to 54 feet in
-length; dorsal fin low, not prominent; head flat above, rounded beneath;
-prominent "hump" at back of head; belly with numerous longitudinal
-ridges; baleen small; color blackish or grayish above, paler below; body
-characteristically blotched with patches of whitish barnacles.
-
-_Remarks._--The humpback is the commonest whale off the coast of
-Washington, often coming into northern Puget Sound.
-
-
-=Eubalaena sieboldii= (Gray)
-
-Pacific right whale
-
-_Description._--A large whale, 60-70 feet in length, with enormous,
-rounded head; dorsal fin absent; belly lacking longitudinal ridges;
-baleen blackish, 8 feet in length; color uniformly blackish.
-
-_Remarks._--A much hunted species now probably rare off shore.
-
-
-
-
-HYPOTHETICAL LIST
-
-MAMMALS OTHER THAN CETACEANS POSSIBLY OCCURRING IN WASHINGTON OF WHICH
-SATISFACTORY RECORD IS LACKING
-
-      1. _Ursus canadensis_ Merriam, grizzly bear.--This species has been
-      recorded from Kootenay Lake, British Columbia, 30 miles northeast
-      from the northeastern corner of the state of Washington and may
-      have occurred in northeastern Washington.
-
-      2. _Ursus idahoensis_ Merriam, grizzly bear.--Recorded by Merriam
-      (1918: 54) from the Wallowa Mountains, Oregon. This form may have
-      occurred in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.
-
-      3. _Vulpes fulva macroura_ Baird, red fox.--Reported from the Blue
-      Mountains and northeastern Washington; no specimen recorded.
-
-      4. _Canis lupus columbianus_ Goldman, wolf.--Possibly occurred in
-      northeastern Washington in historic time, and perhaps is
-      occasionally still found there.
-
-      5. _Canis lupus irremotus_ Goldman, wolf.--Perhaps once occurred
-      in southeastern Washington.
-
-      6. _Mirounga angustirostris_ (Gill), sea elephant.--May occur as a
-      casual wanderer off the coast of Washington. The home of this
-      species is Lower California but a dead specimen was washed upon
-      the shore of Prince of Wales Island, Alaska (Willett, 1943: 500).
-
-      7. _Perognathus parvus laingi_ Anderson, Great Basin pocket
-      mouse.--Probably present in the mountains east of Lake Osoyoos in
-      Washington, but no specimens have yet been collected.
-
-      8. _Synaptomys borealis artemisiae_ Anderson, northern lemming
-      mouse.--Probably present in the Cascades of northern Okanogan
-      County but no specimens have yet been obtained.
-
-      9. _Antilocapra americana_ (Ord) subsp?, pronghorned
-      antelope.--This species is restricted to North America and once
-      ranged over much of the plains region of the western part of the
-      continent. Taylor and Shaw (1929: 31) included the antelope in
-      their list of Washington mammals with the statement "Now
-      extirpated within State; the former range of the pronghorn
-      included much of the plains country of eastern Washington." So far
-      as known to me, there is no record by any of the early explorers
-      of antelope killed or seen in what is now Washington. No bones of
-      antelope have been discovered in caves in eastern Washington.
-      Ogden (1909: 339) mentions an antelope killed in Oregon a day's
-      journey south of The Dalles. This record is fairly close to
-      Washington and indicates that antelope might have occurred at
-      least in southeastern Washington in historic times.
-
-
-
-
-ADDENDA
-
-
-  1. The antelope (_Antilocapra americana_) has been introduced into the
-  Yakima Valley by the state of Washington, Department of Game.
-
-  2. The elephant seal (_Mirounga angustirostris_) has been discovered off
-  the coast of Washington (Seattle _Times_, April 15, 1947, p. 3).
-
-  3. The yellow-pine chipmunk of the Blue Mountains has been described as
-  a new subspecies, _Eutamias [Tamias] amoenus albiventris_ Booth,
-  Murrelet, 28 (no. 1):7, 1947. Type locality Wickiup Spring, 23 miles
-  west of Anatone, Asotin-Garfield County boundary.
-
-
-
-
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-
-
-      _Transmitted August 14, 1947._
-
-
-
-
-INDEX
-
-
-  Abromys lordi, 299
-
-  Accounts of species, 121
-
-  acutorostrata, Balaenoptera, 413
-
-  addenda, 416
-
-  aequalidens, Thomomys talpoides, 310
-
-  affinis,
-    Eutamias amoenus, 257
-    Tamias amoenus, 257
-
-  akeleyi, Peromyscus, 330
-
-  alascanus, Callorhinus, 246
-
-  alascensis, Myotis lucifugus, 148
-
-  Alaska fur seal, 246
-
-  albiventer,
-    Neosorex bendirii, 144
-    Sorex bendirii, 144
-
-  albiventris, Tamias amoenus, 416
-
-  Alce,
-    americana, 403
-    shirasi, 403
-
-  Alces,
-    americanus, 403
-    shirasi, 403
-
-  alexandrinus,
-    Mus, 364
-    Rattus rattus, 364
-
-  alpinus, Sciuropterus, 295
-
-  alticola, Neotoma cinerea, 336
-
-  altifrontalis,
-    Euarctos, 176
-    Mustela frenata, 198
-    Ursus, 176
-
-  americana,
-    Alce, 403
-    Antilocapra, 415, 416
-    Martes, 186
-    Mephitis, 217
-    Rupicapra, 409
-
-  americanus,
-    Euarctos, 176
-    Lepus, 382
-    Oreamnos, 406
-    Sitomys, 331
-    Ursus, 171
-
-  amoenus,
-    Eutamias, 255
-    Tamias, 253
-
-  angustirostris, Mirounga, 415, 416
-
-  angustus, Microtus, 353
-
-  Anisonyx rufa, 369
-
-  antelope, 415, 416
-
-  Antilocapra americana, 415, 416
-
-  Antrozous,
-    cantwelli, 169
-    pallidus, 169
-
-  Aplodontia,
-    columbiana, 369
-    grisea, 369
-    olympica, 369
-    raineri, 369
-    rainieri, 369
-    rufa, 366
-
-  Arctic-alpine Life-zone, 33
-
-  arcticus,
-    Rangifer, 404
-    Sorex, 132
-
-  Arctomys,
-    avarus, 263
-    columbianus, 275
-    douglasii, 276
-    flaviventer, 263
-    olympus, 267
-
-  Arean arean, 137
-
-  arizonensis, Mustela, 197
-
-  artemisia, Lepus, 387
-
-  artemisiae,
-    Peromyscus maniculatus, 332
-    Sitomys americanus, 332
-    Synaptomys borealis, 415
-
-  Artiodactyla, 118
-
-  Arvicola,
-    macropus, 356
-    nanus, 348
-    occidentalis, 351
-    oregoni, 357
-    pauperrimus, 359
-    townsendii, 351
-
-  arvicoloides,
-    Aulacomys, 356
-    Microtus, 356
-
-  asiaticus, Tamias, 262
-
-  Atophyrax bendirii, 144
-
-  Aulacomys arvicoloides, 356
-
-  austerus,
-    Hesperomys, 331
-    Peromyscus, 331
-    Sitomys americanus, 331
-
-  avara, Marmota flaviventris, 263
-
-  avarus, Arctomys flaviventer, 263
-
-
-  badger, 220
-
-  badius, Thomomys talpoides, 311
-
-  Baird beaked whale, 410
-
-  bairdi,
-    Lepus, 384
-    Sorex obscurus, 140
-
-  bairdii,
-    Berardius, 410
-    Delphinus, 410
-
-  Balaenoptera,
-    acutorostrata, 413
-    borealis, 413
-    physalus, 413
-
-  Balanus, 207
-
-  bangsi,
-    Glaucomys sabrinus, 295
-    Sciuropterus alpinus, 295
-
-  bat,
-    big-brown, 165
-    hoary, 168
-    long-eared, 161
-    pallid, 170
-    silvery-haired, 159
-
-  bats, mouse-eared, 146
-
-  beaked whale,
-    Baird, 410
-    Stejneger, 410
-
-  bear,
-    black, 170
-    grizzly, 176, 415
-
-  beaver, 315
-    mountain, 366
-
-  Beechey ground squirrel, 276
-
-  Bendirei, Atophyrax, 144
-
-  bendirii,
-    Atophyrax, 144
-    Sorex, 144
-    Neosorex, 144
-
-  Berardius bairdii, 410
-
-  bernardinus, Eptesicus fuscus, 165
-
-  bibliography, 417
-
-  big,
-    brown bat, 417
-    jumping mouse, 370
-    myotis, 147
-
-  Bison,
-    bison, 404
-    oregonus, 404
-
-  bison, Bison, 404
-
-  black bear, 171
-
-  blackfish, 411
-
-  black tailed,
-    deer, 399
-    jack rabbit, 385
-
-  blue whale, 413
-
-  bobcat, 241
-
-  borealis,
-    Balaenoptera, 413
-    Lissodelphis, 410
-    Lynx, 239
-    Synaptomys, 337
-
-  Brachylagus idahoensis, 390
-
-  breviceps, Kogia, 412
-
-  brown bat, big, 165
-
-  brunnescens, Ochotona princeps, 380
-
-  bushy-tailed wood rat, 333
-
-
-  California,
-    myotis, 156
-    red-backed mouse, 344
-    sea lion, 244
-
-  californiana, Ovis, 406
-
-  californianus,
-    Otaria, 244
-    Ovis, 406
-    Zalophus, 244
-
-  californicus,
-    Clethrionomys, 344
-    Lepus, 385
-    Myotis, 156
-    Vespertilio, 158
-
-  Callorhinus,
-    alascanus, 246
-    cynocephalus, 246
-    ursinus, 246
-
-  Callospermophilus,
-    chrysodeirus, 280
-    connectens, 280
-    lateralis, 279
-    saturatus, 281
-    tescorum, 279
-
-  Callotaria ursina cynocephala, 246
-
-  campestris, Lepus, 380
-
-  canadensis,
-    Castor, 315
-    Cervus, 391
-    Lutra, 205
-    Lynx, 239
-    Mustela, 187
-    Ovis, 405
-
-  Canadian,
-    Life-zone, 37
-    lynx, 239
-
-  Cancer productus, 180, 207
-
-  canescens, Microtus montanus, 349
-
-  canicaudus,
-    Eutamias amoenus, 257
-    Tamias amoenus, 257
-
-  Canis,
-    columbianus, 415
-    familiaris, 234
-    fuscus, 232
-    gigas, 232
-    incolatus, 231
-    irremotus, 415
-    latrans, 226
-    lestes, 226
-    lupus, 232
-    lycaon, 232
-    occidentalis, 232
-
-  cantwelli,
-    Antrozous pallidus, 169
-    Microtus oregoni, 357
-
-  Cariacus,
-    hemionus, 403
-    macrotis, 403
-
-  caribou, 404
-
-  carissima, Myotis lucifugus, 148
-
-  Carnivora, 113
-
-  carolinensis, Sciurus, 286
-
-  cascadensis,
-    Clethrionomys gapperi, 343
-    Lepus americanus, 384
-    Sciurus, 290
-    Vulpes, 224
-
-  Castor,
-    canadensis, 315
-    idoneus, 322
-    pacificus, 322
-    leucodonta, 322
-
-  cat, civet, 212
-
-  catodon, Physeter, 412
-
-  caurina,
-    Martes, 183
-    Mustela, 186
-
-  caurinus,
-    Eutamias, 255
-    Myotis californicus, 157
-    Tamias amoenus, 255
-
-  Cervus,
-    canadensis, 391
-    columbianus, 403
-    hemionus, 403
-    leucurus, 398
-    macrotis, 403
-    nelsoni, 394
-    occidentalis, 394
-    roosevelti, 394
-
-  Cetacea, 410
-
-  Check List, 112
-
-  cheiragonus, Telmessus, 207
-
-  chelan, Ursus, 176
-
-  Chincha,
-    hudsonica, 217
-    major, 218
-    occidentalis, 219
-    spissigrada, 219
-
-  chipmunk,
-    least, 251
-    red-tailed, 258
-    Townsend, 259
-    Yellow-pine, 253, 416
-
-  Chipmunks, 250
-
-  Chiroptera, 112
-
-  cicognanii, Mustela, 193
-
-  cinerea,
-    Atalapha, 168
-    Neotoma, 333
-
-  cinereus,
-    Lasiurus, 168
-    Sorex, 132
-    Vespertilio, 168
-
-  cinnamomum,
-    Euarctos, 176
-    Ursus, 176
-
-  Citellus,
-    beecheyi, 276
-    columbianus, 272
-    connectens, 280
-    douglasii, 276
-    lateralis, 278
-    loringi, 271
-    mollis, 268
-    ruficaudus, 275
-    saturatus, 281
-    tescorum, 279
-    townsendii, 268
-    washingtoni, 271
-    yakimensis, 268
-
-  civet cat, 212
-
-  Clethrionomys,
-    californicus, 344
-    cascadensis, 343
-    gapperi, 341
-    idahoensis, 342
-    nivarius, 343
-    occidentalis, 344
-    saturatus, 342
-
-  Climate and vegetation, 20
-
-  clusius, Thomomys, 310
-
-  Columbian ground squirrel, 272
-
-  columbianus,
-    Arctomys, 275
-    Canis lupus, 415
-    Cariacus, 403
-    Cervus, 403
-    Citellus, 272
-    Eucervus, 403
-    Odocoileus, 403
-    Perognathus, 299
-    Spermophilus, 275
-    Thomomys, 310
-
-  columbiensis,
-    Glaucomys sabrinus, 296
-    Lepus americanus, 385
-
-  concolor, Felis, 234
-
-  connectens,
-    Callospermophilus chrysodeirus, 280
-    Citellus lateralis, 280
-
-  cony, 377
-
-  cooperi,
-    Eutamias, 262
-    Tamias, 262
-
-  coots, 209
-
-  Corynorhinus,
-    macrotis, 163
-    megalotis, 163
-    intermedius, 164
-    rafinesquii, 161
-    townsendii, 163
-
-  cottontail,
-    Florida, 389
-    Nuttall, 387
-
-  couchi, Thomomys talpoides, 314
-
-  cougar, 234
-
-  coyote, 226
-
-  coypu, 376
-
-  crayfish, 209, 216
-
-  creeping mouse, 357
-
-  curtatus,
-    Lagurus, 359
-    Lemmiscus, 359
-
-  cuppes, Ochotona, 379
-
-  cynocephala, Callotaria, 246
-
-  cynocephalus,
-    Callorhinus, 246
-    Siren, 246
-
-
-  Dall porpoise, 412
-
-  dalli, Phocenoides, 412
-
-  deer,
-    black-tailed, 399
-    mouse, 327
-    mule, 399
-    white-tailed, 395
-
-  Delphinus bairdii, 410
-
-  dermestes, 162
-
-  deserticola, Lepus californicus, 385
-
-  destructioni, Sorex trowbridgii, 136
-
-  devexus, Thomomys talpoides, 309
-
-  Didelphis virginiana, 121
-
-  Dipodomys,
-    columbianus, 300
-    ordii, 300
-
-  Distributional,
-    areas, 20
-    history, 68
-
-  dog, 234
-
-  dolphin, 410
-
-  dorsata, Mazama, 409
-
-  dorsatum, Erethizon, 374
-
-  Douglas squirrel, 290
-
-  douglasii,
-    Arctomys, 276
-    Citellus, 276
-    Geomys, 312
-    Otospermophilus grammurus, 276
-    Sciurus, 290
-    Spermophilus, 276
-    Tamiasciurus, 290
-    Thomomys, 312
-
-  drummondii, Microtus, 346
-
-  Dytiscidae, 216
-
-
-  Ecology, Life-zones and, 32
-
-  edulis, Mytilus, 180, 207
-
-  effera, Mustela frenata, 198
-
-  elk, 391
-
-  Emmigrational history, 54
-
-  energumenos,
-    Mustela vison, 199
-    Putorius vison, 199
-
-  Enhydra lutris nereis, 211
-
-  epixanthum, Erethizon, 376
-
-  Eptesicus,
-    bernardinus, 165
-    fuscus, 165
-    pallidus, 165
-
-  Erethizon,
-    dorsatum, 374
-    epixanthum, 376
-    epixanthus, 376
-    nigrescens, 376
-
-  ericacus, Thomomys talpoides, 309
-
-  eriomerus, Petrolisthes, 180, 207
-
-  ermine, 191
-
-  erminea, Mustela, 190
-
-  Euarctos,
-    altifrontalis, 176
-    americanus, 176
-    cinnamomum, 176
-
-  Eubalaena sieboldii, 414
-
-  Eumetopias,
-    jubata, 244
-    stelleri, 244
-
-  Eutamias,
-    affinis, 257
-    albiventris, 416
-    amoenus, 255
-    canicaudus, 257
-    caurinus, 255
-    cooperi, 262
-    felix, 262
-    grisescens, 253
-    ludibundus, 257
-    luteiventris, 258
-    minimus, 252
-    pictus, 252
-    quadrivittatus, 256
-    ruficaudus, 258
-    scrutator, 252
-    simulans, 258
-    townsendii, 258
-
-  evotis,
-    Myotis, 151
-    Vespertilio, 153
-
-  Evotomys,
-    gapperi, 342
-    idahoensis, 342
-    nivarius, 343
-    occidentalis, 344
-    pygmaeus, 344
-    saturatus, 342
-
-  excelsus, Procyon lotor, 182
-
-
-  fallenda, Mustela erminea, 191
-
-  familiaris, Canis, 234
-
-  fasciatus, Lynx, 243
-
-  Faunas,
-    Great Basin, 32
-    Pacific Coastal, 52
-    Rocky Mountain, 53
-
-  Felis,
-    concolor, 234
-    hippolestes, 237
-    olympus, 237
-    oregonensis, 237
-    missoulensis, 237
-
-  felix,
-    Eutamias amoenus, 256
-    Tamias amoenus, 256
-
-  fenisex, Ochotona, 379
-
-  Fiber,
-    occipitalis, 363
-    osoyoosensis, 363
-    zibethicus, 363
-
-  finback whale, 413
-
-  fisher, 187
-
-  flaviventris, Marmota, 263
-
-  Florida cottontail, 389
-
-  floridanus,
-    Lepus sylvaticus, 389
-    Sylvilagus, 389
-
-  flying squirrel, northern, 292
-
-  foetulenta, Mephitis, 219
-
-  fox,
-    red, 224
-    squirrel, 286
-
-  frenata, Mustela, 194
-
-  fringe-tailed myotis, 153
-
-  fuliginosus,
-    Geomys, 312
-    Glaucomys sabrinus, 296
-
-  fulva, Vulpes, 224
-
-  funebris, Microtus pennsylvanicus, 346
-
-  fur seal, 246
-
-  fuscogriseus, Onychomys leucogaster, 323
-
-  fuscus,
-    Canis lupus, 232
-    Eptesicus, 165
-    Thomomys, 310
-
-
-  gambelii,
-    Hesperomys, 331
-    Peromyscus maniculatus, 331
-    Sitomys americanus, 331
-
-  gapperi,
-    Clethrionomys, 341
-    Evotomys, 342
-
-  Gapper red-backed mouse, 341
-
-  Geologic history, 46
-
-  Geomys,
-    douglasii, 312
-    fuliginosus, 312
-
-  gibbsii,
-    Neurotrichus, 124, 122
-    Urotrichus, 124
-
-  gigas,
-    Canis, 232
-    Lupus, 232
-
-  glacialis, Thomomys talpoides, 312
-
-  Glaciation, 47
-
-  Glaucomys,
-    bangsi, 295
-    columbiensis, 296
-    fuliginosus, 296
-    latipes, 296
-    olympicus, 295
-    oregonensis, 295
-    sabrinus, 292
-
-  glaucus, Rhachianectes, 412
-
-  Globicephalus scammonii, 411
-
-  goat, mountain, 406
-
-  Golden-mantled ground squirrel, 278, 281
-
-  gopher, northern pocket, 302
-
-  gracilis, Spilogale, 212
-
-  grammurus,
-    Otospermophilus, 276
-    Spermophilus, 276
-
-  Grampidelphis griseus, 411
-
-  Grampus rectipinna, 411
-
-  grampus, 411
-
-  grasshopper mouse, northern, 323
-
-  gray squirrel,
-    eastern, 286
-    western, 284
-
-  gray whale, 412
-
-  Great Basin pocket mouse, 297
-
-  grisea, Aplodontia rufa, 369
-
-  grisescens,
-    Eutamias minimus, 253
-    Tamias minimus, 253
-
-  griseus,
-    Grampidelphis, 411
-    Sciurus, 284
-
-  ground squirrel,
-    Beechey, 276
-    Columbian, 272
-    golden-mantled, 278, 281
-    Townsend, 268
-    Washington, 271
-
-  gryphus, Vespertilio, 148
-
-  gulosa, Mustela erminea, 193
-
-
-  hair seal, 247
-
-  hairy-winged myotis, 154
-
-  halli, Microtus longicaudus, 353
-
-  Haplodon rufus, 369
-
-  Haplodontia,
-    raineri, 369
-    rufa, 369
-
-  harbor,
-    porpoise, 412
-    seal, 247
-
-  harvest mouse, western, 324
-
-  heather vole, 338
-
-  Helisoma occidentalis, 137
-
-  Hemigrapsus,
-    oregonensis, 180
-    nudus, 180, 207, 216
-
-  hemionus,
-    Cervus, 403
-    Odocoileus, 403
-
-  Hesperomys,
-    austerus, 331
-    gambelii, 331
-
-  hesperus,
-    Pipistrellus, 165
-    Scotophilus, 165
-    Vespertilio, 165
-
-  hippolestes, Felis, 237
-
-  hoary marmot, 265
-
-  hollisteri, Peromyscus maniculatus, 330
-
-  house mouse, 365
-
-  hoyi, Microsorex, 145
-
-  Hudsonian Life-zone, 39
-
-  hudsonica,
-    Chincha, 217
-    Lutra, 210
-    Mephitis, 217
-
-  hudsonicus,
-    Sciurus, 288
-    Tamiasciurus, 286
-
-  humpback whale, 413
-
-  Hyla, 180
-    regilla, 137
-
-  hypophaeus, Sciurus carolinensis, 286
-
-  hypothetical list, 415
-
-
-  idahoensis,
-    Brachylagus, 390
-    Clethrionomys gapperi, 342
-    Evotomys, 342
-    Lepus, 390
-    Sylvilagus, 390
-    Zapus princeps, 373
-
-  idoneus, Castor canadensis, 322
-
-  immunis, Thomomys talpoides, 311
-
-  imperator, Zapus, 372
-
-  incolatus, Canis latrans, 231
-
-  Insectivora, 112
-
-  interior, Myotis volans, 155
-
-  intermedius,
-    Corynorhinus rafinesquii, 164
-    Phenacomys, 338
-
-  invicta, Mustela erminea, 191
-
-  irremotus, Canis lupus, 415
-
-
-  jack rabbit,
-    black-tailed, 385
-    white-tailed, 380
-
-  jubata,
-    Eumetopias, 244
-    Phoca, 244
-
-  jumping mouse, big, 370
-
-
-  kangaroo rat, Ord, 300
-
-  Keen myotis, 151
-
-  keenii,
-    Myotis, 151
-    Vespertilio, 151
-
-  killer whale, 411
-
-  kincaidi, Microtus pennsylvanicus, 347
-
-  Kogia breviceps, 412
-
-  kootenayensis, Zapus princeps, 373
-
-
-  Lagenorhynchus obliquidens, 411
-
-  Lagomorpha, 118
-
-  Lagomys minimus, 379
-
-  Lagurus,
-    curtatus, 359
-    pauperrimus, 359
-
-  laingi, Perognathus parvus, 415
-
-  Lasionycteris noctivagans, 159
-
-  Latax lutris nereis, 211
-
-  lateralis,
-    Callospermophilus, 279
-    Citellus, 278
-    Spermophilus, 281
-    Tamias, 281
-
-  latifrons, Spilogale, 215
-
-  latipes, Glaucomys sabrinus, 296
-
-  latrans, Canis, 226
-
-  lemming mouse, northern, 337
-
-  Lemmiscus,
-    curtatus, 359
-    pauperrimus, 359
-
-  lepta, Mustela cicognanii, 193
-
-  Lepus,
-    americanus, 382
-    artemisia, 387
-    bairdi, 384
-    californicus, 385
-    campestris, 380
-    cascadensis, 384
-    columbiensis, 385
-    deserticola, 385
-    floridanus, 389
-    nuttallii, 387
-    pineus, 384
-    sylvaticus, 387
-    texianus, 385
-    townsendii, 380
-
-  lestes, Canis, 230
-
-  leucodonta, Castor canadensis, 322
-
-  leucogaster, Onychomys, 323
-
-  leucurus,
-    Cervus, 398
-    Odocoileus, 398
-
-  Life-zones and ecology, 32
-
-  limosus, Thomomys, 312
-
-  lion, mountain, 234
-
-  Lissodelphis borealis, 410
-
-  Littorina, 207
-
-  long-eared myotis, 151
-
-  long-tailed,
-    meadow mouse, 352
-    shrews, 131
-    weasel, 194
-
-  longicaudus, Microtus, 352
-
-  longicrus,
-    Myotis, 155
-    Vespertilio, 155
-
-  lordi,
-    Abromys, 299
-    Perognathus, 299
-
-  loringi, Citellus washingtoni, 271
-
-  lotor, Procyon, 179
-
-  ludibundus,
-    Eutamias, 257
-    Tamias amoenus, 257
-
-  lucifugus,
-    Gryphus, 148
-    Myotis, 148
-    Vespertilio, 148
-
-  Lupus gigas, 232
-
-  lupus, Canis, 232
-
-  luteiventris,
-    Eutamias amoenus, 258
-    Tamias amoenus, 258
-
-  Lutra,
-    canadensis, 205
-    hudsonica, 210
-    pacifica, 210
-    vancouverensis, 210
-
-  lutris,
-    Enhydra, 211
-    Latax, 211
-
-  lycaon, Canis, 232
-
-  Lynx,
-    borealis, 239
-    canadensis, 239
-    fasciatus, 243
-    pallescens, 243
-    rufus, 241
-    uinta, 243
-
-  lynx, Canadian, 239
-
-
-  machetes, Ursus, 171
-
-  macropus,
-    Arvicola, 356
-    Microtus, 356
-    Mynomes, 356
-
-  macroschisma, Pododesmus, 207
-
-  macrotis,
-    Cariacus, 403
-    Cervus, 403
-    Corynorhinus, 163
-    Odocoileus hemionus, 403
-
-  macroura, Vulpes fulva, 415
-
-  macrurus, Microtus, 354
-
-  major,
-    Chincha occidentalis, 218
-    Mephitis mephitis, 218
-
-  maniculatus, Peromyscus, 327
-
-  Margarites, 207
-
-  marmot,
-    hoary, 265
-    Olympic, 267
-    yellow-bellied, 263
-
-  Marmota,
-    avara, 263
-    flaviventris, 263
-    monax, 263
-    olympus, 267
-    petrensis, 263
-
-  Marsupalia, 112
-
-  marten, western, 183
-
-  Martes,
-    americana, 186
-    caurina, 183
-    origenes, 186
-    pacifica, 187
-    pennanti, 187
-
-  Mazama,
-    dorsata, 409
-    montana, 409
-
-  megalotis,
-    Corynorhinus, 163
-    Reithrodon, 324
-    Reithrodontomys, 324
-
-  Megaptera novaeangliae, 413
-
-  melanops, Thomomys, 314
-
-  melanorhinus,
-    Myotis, 158
-    Vespertilio, 158
-
-  Mephitis,
-    americana, 217
-    foetulenta, 219
-    hudsonica, 217
-    major, 218
-    mephitis, 216
-    notata, 219
-    spissigrada, 219
-
-  mephitis, Mephitis, 216
-
-  merriami, Sorex, 134
-
-  Mesoplodon stejnegeri, 410
-
-  Microsorex,
-    hoyi, 145
-    washingtoni, 145
-
-  Microtus,
-    angustus, 353
-    arvicoloides, 356
-    canescens, 349
-    cantwelli, 357
-    drummondii, 346
-    funebris, 346
-    halli, 353
-    kincaidi, 347
-    longicaudus, 352
-    macropus, 356
-    macrurus, 354
-    modestus, 346
-    montanus, 347
-    mordax, 353
-    morosus, 357
-    nanus, 348
-    oregoni, 357
-    pauperrimus, 359
-    pennsylvanicus, 345
-    pugeti, 351
-    richardsonii, 354
-    townsendii, 349
-
-  minimus,
-    Eutamias, 252
-    Ochotona, 379
-    Lagomys, 379
-    Tamias, 251
-
-  minor, Neurotrichus, 124
-
-  Mirounga angustirostris, 415, 416
-
-  missoulae, Oreamnos americanus, 409
-
-  missoulensis, Felis concolor, 237
-
-  modestus, Microtus pennsylvanicus, 346
-
-  mole, 125
-    coast, 127
-    Gibbs shrew-, 122
-    shrew-, 122
-    Townsend, 126
-
-  mollis,
-    Citellus, 268
-    Spermophilus, 268
-
-  monax, Marmota, 263
-
-  montana, Mazama, 409
-
-  Montane meadow mouse, 347
-
-  montanus,
-    Microtus, 347
-    Oreamnos, 409
-    Rangifer, 404
-
-  monticola, Sorex vagrans, 138
-
-  monticolus, Sorex, 138
-
-  moose, 403
-
-  Mopalia muscosa, 207
-
-  mordax, Microtus, 353
-
-  morosus, Microtus, 357
-
-  mountain,
-    beaver, 366
-    goat, 406
-    lion, 234
-    sheep, 405
-
-  mouse,
-    big jumping, 370
-    California red-backed, 344
-    creeping, 357
-    deer, 327
-    Gapper red-backed, 341
-    grasshopper, northern, 323
-    Great Basin pocket, 297
-    harvest, western, 324
-    house, 365
-    jumping, big, 370
-    lemming, northern, 337
-    long-tailed meadow, 352
-    meadow, 345
-    montane meadow, 347
-    northern grasshopper, 323
-    northern lemming, 337
-    Pennsylvania meadow, 345
-    pocket, Great Basin, 297
-    red-backed, California, 344
-    red-backed, Gapper, 341
-    Townsend meadow, 349
-    western harvest, 324
-
-  mouse-eared bats, 146
-
-  mule deer, 399
-
-  murica, Mustela erminea, 193
-
-  muricus,
-    Mustela, 193
-    Putorius, 193
-
-  Mus,
-    alexandrinus, 364
-    musculus, 365
-    norvegicus, 365
-    rattus, 364
-
-  muscosa, Mopalia, 207
-
-  musculus,
-    Mus, 365
-    Sibbaldus, 413
-
-  muskrat, 360
-
-  Mustela,
-    altifrontalis, 198
-    arizonensis, 197
-    canadensis, 187
-    caurina, 186
-    cicognanii, 193
-    effera, 190
-    energumenos, 199
-    erminea, 198
-    fallenda, 191
-    frenata, 194
-    gulosa, 193
-    invicta, 191
-    lepta, 193
-    murica, 193
-    nevadensis, 197
-    olympica, 192
-    origenes, 186
-    pacifica, 187
-    pennanti, 187
-    saturata, 198
-    streatori, 193
-    washingtoni, 198
-
-  Mynomes,
-    macropus, 356
-    nanus, 348
-
-  myops, Thomomys, 310
-
-  Myotis, 146
-    big, 147
-    California, 156
-    californicus, 156
-    carissima, 148
-    caurinus, 157
-    evotis, 151
-    fringe-tailed, 153
-    hairy-winged, 154
-    interior, 155
-    Keen, 151
-    keenii, 151
-    long-eared, 151
-    longicrus, 155
-    lucifugus, 147
-    melanorhinus, 158
-    pacificus, 153
-    saturatus, 150
-    sociabilis, 150
-    small-footed, 158
-    subulatus, 158
-    thysanodes, 153
-    volans, 154
-    Yuma, 149
-    yumanensis, 149
-
-  Mytilus edulis, 180, 207
-
-
-  nanus,
-    Arvicola, 348
-    Microtus, 348
-
-  navigator,
-    Neosorex, 141
-    Sorex palustris, 141
-
-  neglecta, Taxidea taxus, 220
-
-  nelsoni, Cervus canadensis, 394
-
-  Neosorex,
-    albiventer, 144
-    bendirii, 144
-    navigator, 141
-
-  Neotoma,
-    alticola, 336
-    cinerea, 333
-    occidentalis, 336
-
-  nereis,
-    Enhydra lutris, 211
-    Latax lutris, 211
-
-  Neurotrichus,
-    gibbsii, 124
-    minor, 124
-
-  nevadensis, Mustela frenata, 197
-
-  niger, Sciurus, 286
-
-  nigrescens,
-    Erethizon dorsatum, 376
-    Reithrodontomys megalotis, 324
-
-  nitidus, Vespertilio, 155, 157
-
-  nivarius,
-    Clethrionomys gapperi, 343
-    Evotomys, 343
-
-  noctivagans,
-    Lasionycteris, 159
-    Vespertilio, 159
-    Vesperugo, 159
-
-  northern,
-    flying squirrel, 292
-    grasshopper mouse, 323
-    lemming mouse, 337
-    pocket gopher, 302
-
-  norvegicus,
-    Mus, 365
-    Rattus, 365
-
-  Norway rat, 365
-
-  notata, Mephitis mephitis, 219
-
-  novaeangliae, Megaptera, 413
-
-  nudus, Hemigrapsus, 180, 207, 216
-
-  nutria, 376
-
-  Nuttall cottontail, 387
-
-  nuttallii,
-    Lepus, 387
-    Sylvilagus, 387
-
-
-  obliquidens, Lagenorhynchus, 411
-
-  obscurus, Sorex, 138
-
-  occidentalis,
-    Arvicola, 351
-    Canis, 232
-    Cervus canadensis, 394
-    Chincha, 219
-    Clethrionomys californicus, 344
-    Evotomys, 344
-    Helisoma, 137
-    Neotoma, 336
-
-  occipitalis,
-    Fiber, 363
-    Ondatra zibethicus, 363
-
-  Ochotona,
-    brunnescens, 380
-    cuppes, 379
-    fenisex, 379
-    minimus, 379
-    princeps, 377
-
-  ochrourus, Odocoileus virginianus, 398
-
-  Odocoileus,
-    columbianus, 403
-    hemionus, 399
-    leucurus, 398
-    macrotis, 403
-    ochrourus, 398
-    virginianus, 398
-
-  Olympic marmot, 267
-
-  olympica,
-    Aplodontia, 369
-    Mustela erminea, 192
-    Spilogale, 215
-
-  olympicus,
-    Glaucomys sabrinus, 295
-    Phenacomys, 340
-    Sciuropterus alpinus, 295
-
-  olympus,
-    Felis, 237
-    Marmota, 267
-
-  Ondatra,
-    occipitalis, 363
-    osoyoosensis, 363
-    zibethicus, 360
-
-  Onychomys,
-    fuscogriseus, 323
-    leucogaster, 323
-
-  opossum, 121
-
-  oramontis, Phenacomys, 340
-
-  orarius, Scapanus, 127
-
-  Ord kangaroo rat, 300
-
-  ordii,
-    Dipodomys, 300
-    Perodipus, 300
-
-  Oreamnos,
-    americanus, 409
-    missoulae, 409
-    montanus, 409
-
-  oreas, Peromyscus, 330
-
-  oregonensis,
-    Felis, 237
-    Glaucomys sabrinus, 295
-    Hemigrapsus, 180
-    Pteromys, 295
-    Sciuropterus alpinus, 295
-
-  oregoni,
-    Arvicola, 357
-    Microtus, 357
-
-  oregonus,
-    Bison, 404
-    Zapus princeps, 373
-
-  origenes, Martes caurina, 186
-
-  osoyoosensis,
-    Fiber, 363
-    Ondatra, 363
-
-  Otaria californianus, 244
-
-  otter,
-    river, 205
-    sea, 211
-
-  Ovis,
-    californiana, 406
-    canadensis, 405
-
-
-  Pacific right whale, 414
-
-  pacifica,
-    Lutra hudsonica, 210
-    Martes pennanti, 187
-    Mustela canadensis, 187
-    Procyon lotor, 181
-
-  pacificus,
-    Castor canadensis, 322
-    Myotis evotis, 153
-
-  pallescens, Lynx, 243
-
-  pallidus,
-    Antrozous, 169
-    Eptesicus fuscus, 165
-
-  palustris, Sorex, 140
-
-  panther, 235
-
-  parvus,
-    Cricetodops, 298
-    Perognathus, 297
-
-  pauperrimus,
-    Arvicola, 359
-    Lagurus, 359
-    Lemmiscus, 359
-    Microtus, 359
-
-  pennanti,
-    Martes, 187
-    Mustela, 187
-
-  Pennsylvanian meadow mouse, 345
-
-  pennsylvanicus, Microtus, 345
-
-  Perodipus,
-    columbianus, 300
-    ordii, 300
-
-  Perognathus,
-    columbianus, 299
-    laingi, 415
-    lordi, 299
-    parvus, 297
-
-  Peromyscus,
-    akeleyi, 330
-    americanus, 331
-    artemisiae, 332
-    austerus, 331
-    gambelii, 331
-    hollisteri, 330
-    maniculatus, 327
-    oreas, 330
-    rubidus, 331
-    texianus, 331
-
-  personatus, Sorex, 133
-
-  petrensis, Marmota monax, 263
-
-  Petrolisthes eriomerus, 180, 207
-
-  Phenacomys,
-    intermedius, 338
-    oramontis, 340
-    olympicus, 340
-
-  Phoca,
-    jubata, 244
-    richardii, 247
-    vitulina, 247
-
-  Phocena vomerina, 412
-
-  Phocenoides dalli, 412
-
-  physalus, Balaenoptera, 413
-
-  Physeter catodon, 412
-
-  Physiographic provinces, 16
-
-  pictus, Eutamias minimus, 252
-
-  pigmy,
-    rabbit, 390
-    sperm whale, 412
-
-  pika, 377
-
-  pike whale, 413
-
-  pineus, Lepus americanus, 384
-
-  Pinnipedia, 114
-
-  pipistrelle, western, 165
-
-  Pipistrellus hesperus, 165
-
-  pocket,
-    gopher, northern, 302
-    mouse, Great Basin, 297
-
-  Podedesmus macroschisma, 207
-
-  Plecotus townsendii, 163
-
-  Plethodon vehiculum, 137
-
-  Pollack whale, 413
-
-  porcupine, 374
-
-  porpoise,
-    Dall, 412
-    harbor, 412
-    right whale, 410
-    striped, 411
-
-  porpoises, 410
-
-  princeps,
-    Ochotona, 377
-    Zapus, 371
-
-  Procyon,
-    excelsus, 182
-    lotor, 179
-    pacifica, 181
-    proteus, 181
-    psora, 181
-
-  productus, Cancer, 180, 207
-
-  pronghorned antelope, 415
-
-  proteus, Procyon, 181
-
-  psora, Procyon, 181
-
-  Pteromys oregonensis, 295
-
-  pugetensis, Thomomys talpoides, 312
-
-  pugeti, Microtus townsendii, 351
-
-  puma, 235
-
-  pygmacus, Evotomys, 344
-
-
-  quadratus, Thomomys, 310
-
-  quadrivittatus,
-    Eutamias, 256
-    Tamias, 256
-
-
-  rabbit,
-    black-tailed jack, 385
-    jack, 380
-    pigmy, 390
-    snowshoe, 382
-    white-tailed jack, 380
-
-  raccoon, 179
-
-  rafinesquii, Carynorhinus, 161
-
-  raineri,
-    Aplodontia, 369
-    Haplodontia, 369
-
-  rainieri, Aplodontia rufa, 369
-
-  Rana, 180
-
-  Rangifer,
-    arcticus, 404
-    montanus, 404
-
-  rat,
-    bushy-tailed wood, 333
-    kangaroo, Ord, 300
-    Norway, 365
-    Ord kangaroo, 300
-    roof, 364
-    sage, 271
-    water, 354
-    wood, bushy-tailed, 333
-
-  Rattus,
-    alexandrinus, 364
-    norvegicus, 365
-    rattus, 364
-
-  rattus,
-    Mus, 364
-    Rattus, 364
-
-  rectipinna, Grampus, 411
-
-  red-backed mouse,
-    California, 344
-    Gapper, 341
-
-  red,
-    fox, 224
-    squirrel, 286
-
-  regilla, Hyla, 137
-
-  Reithrodon megalotis, 324
-
-  Reithrodontomys,
-    megalotis, 324
-    nigrescens, 324
-
-  richardii,
-    Halicyon, 247
-    Phoca, 247
-
-  richardsonii,
-    Microtus, 354
-    Sciurus, 289
-    Tamiasciurus, 289
-
-  right,
-    whale, Pacific, 414
-    whale porpoise, 410
-
-  river otter, 205
-
-  Rhachianectes glaucus, 412
-
-  Rodentia, 115
-
-  roof rat, 364
-
-  roosevelti, Cervus, 394
-
-  rubidus, Peromyscus maniculatus, 331
-
-  rufa,
-    Aplodontia, 366
-    Anisonyx, 369
-    Haplodon, 369
-
-  ruficaudus,
-    Citellus columbianus, 275
-    Eutamias, 258
-    Tamias, 258
-
-  rufus,
-    Haplodon, 369
-    Lynx, 241
-
-  Rupicapra americana, 409
-
-
-  sabrinus, Glaucomys, 292
-
-  sage rat, 271
-
-  sagebrush vole, 359
-
-  saturata, Mustela, 198
-
-  saturatus,
-    Callospermophilus lateralis, 281
-    Citellus, 281
-    Clethrionomys gapperi, 342
-    Evotomys gapperi, 342
-    Myotis yumanensis, 150
-    Spermophilus, 281
-    Tamias, 281
-
-  saxatilis, Spilogale, 215
-
-  Scalops townsendii, 126
-
-  scammonii, Globicephalus, 411
-
-  Scapanus, 125
-    orarius, 127
-    schefferi, 130
-    townsendii, 126
-    yakimensis, 130
-
-  schefferi, Scapanus orarius, 130
-
-  Sciuropterus,
-    alpinus, 295
-    bangsi, 295
-    olympicus, 295
-    oregonensis, 295
-
-  Sciurus,
-    cascadensis, 290
-    carolinensis, 286
-    douglasii, 290
-    griseus, 284
-    hudsonicus, 288
-    hypophaeus, 286
-    niger, 286
-    richardsonii, 289
-    streatori, 290
-
-  Scotophilus hesperus, 165
-
-  scrutator,
-    Eutamias minimus, 252
-    Tamias minimus, 252
-
-  sea lion,
-    California, 244
-    Steller, 244
-
-  sea otter, 211
-
-  seal,
-    Alaska fur, 246
-    fur, Alaska, 246
-    hair, 247
-    harbor, 247
-
-  Sei whale, 413
-
-  setosus, 140
-
-  shawi, Thomomys talpoides, 311
-
-  sheep, mountain, 405
-
-  shirasi, Alce americanus, 403
-
-  shrew,
-    Bendire, 143
-    cinereous, 132
-    dusky, 138
-    long-tailed, 131
-    -mole, 122
-    Merriam, 134
-    mountain, 141
-    pigmy, 145
-    Trowbridge, 134
-    wandering, 136
-    water, 141, 143
-
-  shrew-mole, Gibbs, 122
-
-  shrews, long-tailed, 131
-
-  Sibbaldus musculus, 413
-
-  sieboldii, Eubalaena, 414
-
-  silvery-haired bat, 159
-
-  similis, Sorex vagrans, 140
-
-  simulans,
-    Eutamias ruficaudus, 258
-    Tamias ruficaudus, 258
-
-  Siren cynocephalus, 246
-
-  Sitomys,
-    americanus, 331
-    artemisiae, 332
-    austerus, 331
-    gambelii, 331
-
-  skunk,
-    spotted, 212
-    striped, 216
-
-  small-footed myotis, 158
-
-  snowshoe rabbit, 382
-
-  sociabilis, Myotis yumanensis, 150
-
-  sorex, 131,
-    albiventer, 144
-    areticus, 132
-    bairdi, 140
-    bendirei, 144
-    bendirii, 144
-    cinereus, 132
-    destructioni, 136
-    merriami, 134
-    monticola, 138
-    monticolus, 138
-    navigator, 141
-    obscurus, 138
-    palustris, 141
-    personatus, 133
-    setosus, 140
-    similis, 140
-    streatori, 133
-    suckleyi, 138
-    trowbridgii, 134
-    vagrans, 136
-
-  sperm whale, 412
-
-  Spermophilus,
-    columbianus, 275
-    douglasii, 276
-    grammurus, 276
-    lateralis, 281
-    mollis, 268
-    saturatus, 281
-    townsendii, 268
-
-  Spilogale,
-    gracilis, 212
-    latifrons, 215
-    olympica, 215
-    saxatilis, 215
-
-  spissigrada,
-    Chincha occidentalis, 219
-    Mephitis, 219
-
-  spotted skunk, 212
-
-  squirrel,
-    Beechey ground, 276
-    Columbian ground, 272
-    Douglas, 290
-    eastern gray, 286
-    flying, northern, 292
-    fox, 286
-    golden-mantled ground, 278, 281
-    gray, eastern, 286
-    gray, western, 284
-    northern flying, 292
-    red, 286
-    Townsend ground, 268
-    Washington ground, 271
-    western gray, 284
-
-  steelhead trout, 209
-
-  Stejneger beaked whale, 410
-
-  stejnegeri, Mesoplodon, 410
-
-  Steller sea lion, 244
-
-  Stenopalmatus, 170
-
-  streatori,
-    Mustela, 193
-    Putorius, 193
-    Sciurus, 288
-    Sorex cinereus, 133
-    Tamiasciurus, 288
-
-  striped,
-    porpoise, 411
-    skunk, 216
-
-  subulatus,
-    Myotis, 151, 158
-    Vespertilio, 151
-
-  suckleyi, Sorex, 138
-
-  sulphur-bottom whale, 413
-
-  sylvaticus, Lepus, 387
-
-  Sylvilagus,
-    floridanus, 389
-    idahoensis, 390
-    nuttallii, 387
-
-  Synaptomys,
-    artemisiae, 415
-    borealis, 337
-    truei, 337
-    wrangeli, 337
-
-
-  tacomensis, Thomomys talpoides, 312
-
-  talpoides, Thomomys, 302
-
-  Tamias,
-    affinis, 257
-    albiventris, 416
-    amoenus, 253
-    asiaticus, 262
-    canicaudus, 257
-    caurinus, 255
-    cooperi, 262
-    felix, 256
-    grisescens, 253
-    lateralis, 281
-    ludibundus, 257
-    luteiventris, 258
-    minimus, 251
-    quadrivittatus, 256
-    ruficaudus, 258
-    saturatus, 281
-    scrutator, 252
-    simulans, 258
-    townsendii, 258
-
-  Tamiasciurus,
-    douglasii, 290
-    hudsonicus, 286
-    richardsonii, 289
-    streatori, 290
-
-  Taxidea,
-    neglecta, 220
-    taxus, 220
-
-  taxus,
-    Taxidea, 220
-    Ursus, 220
-
-  Telmessus cheiragonus, 207
-
-  tescorum,
-    Callospermophilus lateralis, 279
-    Citellus lateralis, 279
-
-  texanus, Peromyscus, 331
-
-  texianus, Lepus, 385
-
-  Thomomys,
-    aequalidens, 310
-    badius, 311
-    clusius, 310
-    columbianus, 310
-    couchi, 314
-    devexus, 309
-    douglasii, 312
-    ericaeus, 309
-    fuscus, 310
-    glacialis, 312
-    immunis, 311
-    limosus, 312
-    melanops, 314
-    myops, 310
-    pugetensis, 312
-    quadratus, 310
-    shawi, 311
-    tacomensis, 312
-    talpoides, 302
-    tumuli, 313
-    wallowa, 310
-    yakimensis, 311
-    yelmensis, 313
-
-  thysanodes, Myotis, 153
-
-  timber wolf, 232
-
-  Townsend,
-    ground squirrel, 268
-    meadow mouse, 349
-
-  townsendii,
-    Arvicola, 351
-    Citellus, 268
-    Corynorhinus, 163
-    Corynorhinus rafinesquii, 163
-    Eutamias, 262
-    Lepus, 380
-    Microtus, 349
-    Plecotus, 163
-    Scalops, 126
-    Scapanus, 125
-    Spermophilus, 268
-    Tamias, 259
-
-  Transition Life-zone, 32
-
-  trinotatus, Zapus, 372
-
-  trout, steelhead, 209
-
-  trowbridgii, Sorex, 134
-
-  truei, Synaptomys, 337
-
-  tumuli, Thomomys talpoides, 313
-
-
-  uinta, Lynx, 243
-
-  Upper Sonoran Life-zone, 36
-
-  Urotrichus, gibbsii, 124
-
-  ursina, Callotaria, 246
-
-  ursinus, Callorhinus, 246
-
-  Ursus,
-    altifrontalis, 176
-    americanus, 176
-    canadensis, 415
-    cinnamomum, 176
-    chelan, 176
-    idahoensis, 415
-    machetes, 171
-    taxus, 220
-
-
-  vagrans, Sorex, 136
-
-  vancouverensis, Lutra, 210
-
-  Vegetation, Climate and, 25
-
-  vehiculum, Plethodon, 137
-
-  Vespertilio,
-    californicus, 158
-    cinereus, 168
-    evotis, 153
-    gryphus, 148
-    hesperus, 165
-    keenii, 151
-    lucifugus, 155
-    longicrus, 148
-    nitidus, 155, 157
-    noctivagans, 159
-    subulatus, 151
-
-  Vesperugo,
-    hesperus, 165
-    noctivagans, 159
-
-  virginiana, Didelphis, 121
-
-  virginianus, Odocoileus, 398
-
-  vitulina, Phoca, 247
-
-  volans, Myotis, 154
-
-  vole,
-    heather, 338
-    sagebrush, 359
-
-  vomerina, Phocena, 412
-
-  Vulpes,
-    cascadensis, 224
-    fulva, 224
-    macroura, 415
-
-
-  wallowa, Thomomys talpoides, 310
-
-  wallawalla, Lepus texianus, 385
-
-  wapiti, 391
-
-  Washington ground squirrel, 271
-
-  washingtoni,
-    Citellus, 271
-    Microsorex hoyi, 145
-    Mustela, 198
-    Putorius, 198
-
-  washingtonii, Lepus, 384
-
-  water rat, 354
-
-  weasel, long-tailed, 194
-
-  western,
-    gray squirrel, 284
-    harvest mouse, 324
-    pipistrelle, 165
-
-  whale,
-    Baird beaked, 410
-    blue, 413
-    finback, 413
-    gray, 412
-    humpback, 413
-    killer, 411
-    Pacific right, 414
-    pigmy sperm, 412
-    pike, 413
-    Pollack, 413
-    Sei, 413
-    sperm, 412
-    sulphur-bottom, 413
-    Stejneger beaked, 410
-
-  whales, 410
-
-  white-tailed,
-    deer, 395
-    jack rabbit, 380
-
-  wolf, timber, 232
-
-  woodchuck, 263
-
-  wood rat, bushy-tailed, 333
-
-  wrangeli, Synaptomys, 337
-
-
-  yakimensis,
-    Citellus mollis, 268
-    Scapanus orarius, 130
-    Thomomys talpoides, 311
-
-  yellow-bellied marmot, 263
-
-  yelmensis, Thomomys talpoides, 313
-
-  Yuma myotis, 149
-
-  yumanensis, Myotis, 149
-
-
-  Zalophus californianus, 244
-
-  Zapus,
-    idahoensis, 373
-    imperator, 372
-    kootenayensis, 373
-    oregonus, 363
-    princeps, 371
-    trinotatus, 372
-
-  zibethicus,
-    Fiber, 363
-    Ondatra, 360
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber's notes:
-
-Bold text marked as  = ... =
-
-Italic text marked as  _ ... _
-
-Legend for column headers (TABLE 1) inserted.
-
-Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected, but other
-variations in spelling and punctuation remain unchanged.
-
-
-
-
-
-End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Mammals of Washington, Volume 2, by 
-Walter Woelber Dalquest
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-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Mammals of Washington, Volume 2, by 
-Walter Woelber Dalquest
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Mammals of Washington, Volume 2
-       University of Kansas Publications Museum of Natural History
-
-Author: Walter Woelber Dalquest
-
-Editor: E. Raymond Hall
-        Donald F. Hoffmeister
-
-Release Date: November 23, 2016 [EBook #53582]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON, VOLUME 2 ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Matthias Grammel, Joseph Cooper,
-The Internet Archives for some images and the Online
-Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a></span></p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span></p>
-<p class="pmb3" />
-
-
-<h1>MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON</h1>
-
-<p class="center font08">BY</p>
-
-<p class="center font10 pmb3">WALTER W. DALQUEST</p>
-
-<p class="center font10">University of Kansas Publications</p>
-<p class="center font12">Museum of Natural History</p>
-
-<p class="center font08 pmb3">
-Vol. 2, pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text<br />
-
-April 9, 1948</p>
-
-<p class="center font10">UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS<br />
-<span class="font08">LAWRENCE</span></p>
-
-<p class="center font08 pmb3">1948</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii">&nbsp;</a></span></p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
-<p class="pmb3" />
-
-<p class="center font20 pmb3">MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a></span></p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a></span></p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>
-<p class="pmb3" />
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="frontispiece"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_007.jpg" alt="" /><br />
-  <span class="caption"><span class="font08">
-    Mount Rainier from Indian Henry's Hunting Ground, July, 1934. (Fish
-    and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>. No. 864.)
-  <br />
-  </span></span>
-</div>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
-<p class="pmb3" />
-
-
-<p class="center font20 pmb3">MAMMALS OF WASHINGTON</p>
-
-<p class="center font08 pmb1">BY</p>
-
-<p class="center font10">WALTER W. DALQUEST</p>
-
-<p class="center font08 pmb3">(Contribution from the Museum of Natural History, University of Kansas)</p>
-
-<p class="p3 center font11">University of Kansas Publications</p>
-<p class="center font11">Museum of Natural History</p>
-
-<p class="center font08 pmb3">
-Volume 2, pp. 1-444, 140 figures in text<br />
-
-<span class="smcap">April</span> 9, 1948</p>
-
-<p class="center font10">UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS</p>
-<p class="center font08 smcap">Lawrence</p>
-
-<p class="center font08 pmb2">1948</p>
-
-<p class="center font08 pmb3">(7)</p>
-
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="center font08 pmb1">
-<span class="smcap">University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History</span></p>
-
-<p class="center font10 pmb1">
-Editors: E. Raymond <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and Donald F. Hoffmeister</p>
-
-<p class="center font08">Volume 2, pp. 1-444. 140 figures in text</p>
-
-<p class="center font08 pmb3">April 9, 1948</p>
-<p class="pmb3" />
-
-<p class="center font09 pmb3"><span class="smcap">University of Kansas</span><br />
-Lawrence, Kansas</p>
-<p class="pmb3" />
-
-<p class="center font07">Printed by<br />
-Ferd Voiland Jr., State Printer<br />
-Topeka, Kansas<br />
-1948</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
-<img src="images/tb_001.jpg" alt="tb_001" />
-</div>
-
-<p class="center font08 pmb3">21-1993</p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2>
-
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" summary="table of contents">
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="top"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="top"><span class="font07">PAGE</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Introduction</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Physiographic Provinces of the State</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Distributional Areas</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Climate and Vegetation</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Life-zones and Ecology</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Geologic History of Washington</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      The Faunas</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Speculation as to Emigrational History of the Mammals</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Speculation as to the Later Distributional History of the
-      Mammals</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Explanation of Treatment</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Check List of Mammals</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Accounts of Species and Subspecies</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Addenda</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_416">416</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Bibliography</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_417">417</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">
-      Index</span></span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_430">430</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<p class="pmb3" />
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="ILLUSTRATIONS">ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
-
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" summary="table of contents">
-  <tr>
-    <td align="center" valign="top" colspan="3">
-      <span class="font10"><span class="smcap">Topography</span></span><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="top"><span class="font08">FIGURE</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="top"><span class="font08">PAGE</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Mount Rainier from Indian Henrys</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#frontispiece"><i>frontispiece</i></a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">1.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Cascade Mountains at Canadian Boundary</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">2.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Columbia River one mile south of Kellers Ferry</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">4.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Cascade Mountains in Chelan National Forest</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">5.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Mount Rainier, Yakima Park</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">6.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Columbia River in Stevens County</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">7.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Blue Mountains, Washington</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">8.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      North Side of Mount Rainier</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">9.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Mount Rainier: Cowlitz Chimneys</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">10.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      A "pothole" crowded by drifting sand</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">12.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Arctic-Alpine Life-zone on Mount Rainier</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">13.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">14.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Timbered, arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">15.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Upper Sonoran Life-zone</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">16.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Canadian Life-zone</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">18.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      McDowell Lake. Little Pend Oreille Wildlife Refuge</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">19.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Pend Oreille River near Newport</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">20.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Rocky bluff along north bank of the Columbia River</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="center" valign="top" colspan="3">
-      <span class="font10"><br /><span class="smcap">Mammals</span></span><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="top"><span class="font08">FIGURE</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="top"><span class="font08">PAGE</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">21.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#p_Gibbs">Gibbs</a> shrew-mole</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">23.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Coast mole and Townsend mole</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">25.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Coast mole</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">41.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Long-eared bat: female with young</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">42.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Boulder Cave: habitat of long-eared bats</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">48.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Female black bear and two cubs</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">49.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Black bear in &quot;hibernation&quot;</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">54.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Fisher</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">59.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Wolverine</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">60.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Wolverine: dried pelt</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">62.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      River otter</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">66.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Badger</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">69.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Coyote</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">72.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Cougar or mountain lion: skin</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">73.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Cougar or mountain lion: pelts</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">75.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Canadian lynx</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_238">238</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">76.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Trapper's catch of nine Canadian lynx</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">78.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Bobcat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">82.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Townsend chipmunk</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">87.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Golden-mantled ground squirrel</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">89.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Feeding station of Douglas squirrel</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">91.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Northern flying squirrel</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">95.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Northern pocket gopher</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">96.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Giant mounds formed by pocket gophers</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
-      <span class="font08">97.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Food cache of northern pocket gopher</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_306">306</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">99.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Beaver</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">100.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Beaver lodge and pond</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">101.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Cottonwood pole carved by beaver</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">102.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Road flooded by beavers</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">106.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Deer mouse</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">112.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Pennsylvania meadow mouse</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">115.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Runways of Townsend meadow mice</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_350">350</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">119.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Muskrat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_360">360</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">121.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Mountain beaver</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_366">366</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">123.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Big jumping mouse in hibernation</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_370">370</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">130.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Elk</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_392">392</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">131.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Group of elk</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_393">393</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">132.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      White-tailed deer</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_395">395</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">133.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      White-tailed deer: fawn</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_396">396</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">134.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Left antler of white-tailed deer</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_397">397</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">135.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Antlers of white-tailed deer</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_398">398</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">136.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Mule deer</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_400">400</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">137.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Black-tailed deer</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_401">401</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">138.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Mountain goat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_407">407</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">139.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Group of mountain goats </span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_408">408</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="center" valign="top" colspan="3">
-      <span class="font10"><br /><span class="smcap">Distribution Maps</span></span><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">3.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Mammalian distributional areas </span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">11.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Life-zones of Washington </span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">17.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Extent of Vashon-Wisconsin ice </span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">22.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#p_Gibbs">Gibbs</a> shrew-mole</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">24.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Townsend mole </span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">26.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Coast mole </span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">27.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Cinereous shrew </span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">28.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Merriam shrew and Trowbridge shrew </span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">29.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Wandering shrew </span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">30.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Dusky shrew</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">31.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Mountain water shrew</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">32.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Bendire water shrew and pigmy shrew</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">33.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Big myotis</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">34.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Yuma myotis</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">35.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Fringe-tailed myotis and Keen myotis</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">36.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Long-eared myotis</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">37.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Hairy-winged myotis</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">38.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      California myotis</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">39.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Small-footed myotis</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">40.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Silver-haired bat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">43.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Long-eared bat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">44.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Western pipistrelle</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">45.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Big-brown bat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">46.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Hoary bat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">47.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Pallid bat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">50.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Black bear</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">51.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Grizzly bears</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
-      <span class="font08">52.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Raccoon</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">53.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Western marten</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">55.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Fisher</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">56.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Ermine</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">57.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Long-tailed weasel</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">58.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Mink</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">61.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Wolverine</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">63.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      River otter</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">64.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Civet cat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">65.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Striped skunk</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">67.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Badger</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">68.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Red fox</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">70.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Coyote</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">71.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Wolf</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">74.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Cougar</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">77.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Canadian lynx</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_240">240</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">79.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Bobcat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">80.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Least chipmunk</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">81.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Yellow-pine chipmunk</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_256">256</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">83.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Townsend chipmunk</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_261">261</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">84A.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Marmots</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_266">266</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">84B.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Townsend and Washington ground squirrels</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">85.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Columbian and Beechey ground squirrels</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">86.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Golden-mantled ground squirrels</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">88.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Western gray squirrel</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_284">284</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">90.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Red and Douglas squirrels</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">92.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Northern flying squirrel</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">93.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Great Basin pocket mouse</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">94.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Ord kangaroo rat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">98.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Northern pocket gopher</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">103.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Beaver</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_321">321</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">104.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Northern grasshopper mouse</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">105.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Western harvest mouse</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">107.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Deer mouse</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_329">329</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">108.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Bushy-tailed wood rat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">109.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Northern lemming mouse</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">110.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Heather vole</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">111.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Gapper and California red-backed mice</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_342">342</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">113.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Pennsylvania meadow mouse</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_346">346</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">114.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Montane and Townsend meadow mice</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_348">348</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">116.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Long-tailed meadow mouse</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">117.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Water rat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_356">356</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">118.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Creeping mouse</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_357">357</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">120.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Muskrat</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_362">362</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">122.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Mountain beaver</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_368">368</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">124.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Big jumping mouse</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_372">372</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">125.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Porcupine</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_375">375</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">126.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Pika</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_378">378</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">127.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Snowshoe rabbit</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">128.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Black-tailed jack rabbit</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">129.</span></td>
-    <td align="left" valign="bottom"><span class="font08">
-      Nuttall cottontail</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="font08"><a href="#Page_388">388</a></span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<p class="pmb3" />
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2>
-
-
-<p>Mammals of Washington are of especial interest to the naturalist
-because many of them are recent immigrants; much of Washington
-was buried under thick glacial ice until relatively recently and
-many of the mammals, therefore, have inhabited the area only since
-the ice disappeared. The evolution or development of certain subspecies,
-in Washington, has certainly occurred within the last few
-thousand years. To be able thus to date such evolutionary changes
-as have occurred is of course a matter both of importance and interest
-to zo&ouml;logists. The evolutionary changes in several species are
-relatively great. In color, for example, the bobcat in the humid
-coastal area of western Washington is notable for its dark coloration,
-whereas in the more arid area of southeastern Washington
-it is remarkably pale and of a different subspecies. Within the
-limits of the state of Washington, elevations ranging from sea level
-to more than 14,000 feet occur. Since different elevations have their
-characteristic mammals, more kinds are found in Washington than
-in other areas of corresponding size that lack such topographic diversity.
-Expressed in terms of the life-zone concept, Washington
-includes faunas ranging from the Upper Sonoran Life-zone to those
-of the Arctic-Alpine Life-zone.</p>
-
-<p>The basis for a study of the mammals of Washington was laid
-in 1929 by W. P. <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and W. T. <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> in the "Provisional List
-of the Land Mammals of the state of Washington." <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>'s "Mammals
-and Life Zones of Oregon" and "The Recent Mammals of
-Idaho" by W. B. <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a> deal with the habits and distribution of
-mammals in the areas bordering Washington on the south and east,
-and were very useful in the organization of the present report.</p>
-
-<p>The study was first planned from the taxonomic and ecologic
-point of view. Such a study, of necessity, involves the classification
-and distribution of the forms concerned. Classification has required
-more work than any other part of the study and has been, in a
-sense, the nucleus of the study. Nevertheless, as the report began
-to take form it was recognized that the part dealing with classification
-and other purely technical aspects of the paper probably
-would be uninteresting to the average reader. Therefore it was felt
-that a greater impetus to the study of the mammals of Washington
-would be given by reducing the taxonomic accounts to the minimum
-and dealing principally with the problems of distribution.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>As originally planned, the present report was to be of joint authorship
-by Dr. Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> of the United States Fish and
-Wildlife Service, Seattle, and the writer. The press of other work
-prevented Dr. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> from devoting as much time as he had
-planned to the project. He has, however, contributed his field
-notes, specimens, and photographs, and in many other ways assisted
-in the project.</p>
-
-<p>Field work on mammals of Washington was carried out by the
-writer from 1936 to 1940 but a decision to prepare a complete report
-was not reached until 1938. Intensive field work was done between
-1938 and 1940. In August, 1941, the author took up residence
-at Berkeley, California. Drafting of the manuscript was begun
-at that time as a student under Professor E. Raymond <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>.
-War conditions and the press of other work delayed completion.
-Subsequently, the manuscript was put in final form at the University
-of Kansas.</p>
-
-<p>Many persons in addition to Dr. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> have given assistance
-in the course of this work. Dr. E. Raymond <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, in particular,
-encouraged the project and gave assistance in various ways including
-critical attention to the manuscript. I am indebted also to Dr.
-Trevor Kincaid and Mrs. Martha <a href="#p_Flahaut">Flahaut</a> of the University of
-Washington, Dr. Seth B. Benson and Dr. Alden H. <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> of the
-University of California, Dr. H. H. T. <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a> of the U. S. Fish
-and Wildlife Service, Dr. George E. Hudson of the Charles R. Conner
-Museum, Mr. Burton Lauckhart of the State of Washington
-Department of Game, and Mr. Ernest <a href="#p_Booth">Booth</a> of Walla Walla College.
-Mrs. Peggy B. <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> typed and edited the several preliminary
-drafts of the manuscript and aided in the laboratory and
-field work. Thanks are due also to many others, including game
-protectors, hunters and trappers, who have given assistance. The
-names of some of them are mentioned in the following pages.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb3">Approximately ten thousand specimens of mammals were used.
-In decreasing order, according to the number of specimens studied
-from Washington, the following collections are to be mentioned:
-materials obtained principally from southern Washington in the
-years 1939 to 1942 as a result of the interest of Miss Annie M.
-Alexander and Dr. E. Raymond <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>; these materials are in the
-University of California Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy. The
-writer's own collection which at one time numbered 2,500 specimens
-was the second source. The residue, the part not destroyed by fire
-at the writer's home in the spring of 1942, in Seattle, now is in the
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
-Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy at the University of California
-and the Museum of Natural History at the University of Kansas.
-The other collections are those of the Biological Surveys of the
-United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the Washington State
-Museum at Seattle, the Charles R. Conner Museum at Washington
-State College, and the Museum of Natural History at the University
-of Kansas. In the latter collection are some materials obtained
-nearly half a century ago by the late L. L. Dyche, some recently
-taken specimens added by reason of the provision for work of this
-kind by the University of Kansas Endowment Association and, as
-noted above, a part of the author's original collection. Selected
-specimens from several other collections have been used and these
-are indicated in the text when particular reference is made to the
-specimens. Most of the specimens studied were conventional study
-skins with skulls. In some instances skeletons, skins alone, skulls
-alone, or entire animals preserved in alcohol have been used.</p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="PHYSIOGRAPHIC_PROVINCES_OF_THE_STATE">PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF THE STATE</h2>
-
-
-<p>The state of Washington was divided into seven physiographic
-provinces by <a href="#p_Culver">Culver</a> (1936). <a href="#p_Culver">Culver</a> points out that the physiography,
-though complicated in detail, is basically simple.</p>
-
-<p>The state, including Puget Sound and other inland waters, is
-nearly rectangular in shape and is 69,127 square miles in area. Its
-western boundary is the Pacific Ocean. Politically, it is bounded
-on the north by the United States-Canadian Boundary (49° north
-lat.), on the east by the state of Idaho, and on the south by the state
-of Oregon.</p>
-
-<p>The Cascade Mountain Range, or Cascade Mountains Province,
-runs from the northern to the southern boundary and divides the
-state into two sections, of which the eastern is slightly the larger.
-The mountain range trends approximately 10° east of north and
-continues uninterruptedly into British Columbia, but on the south
-the Columbia River separates the Washington Cascades from the
-Cascades of Oregon. Near the northern border of the state the
-range is wide, extending from the Mount Baker Range on the west
-to Mount Chopaka, 100 miles to the east. In the central part of
-the state it is more compact, being some 60 miles wide in the vicinity
-of Mount Rainier. Farther south it expands to approximately 100
-miles.</p>
-
-<p>The Cascades of Washington possess five great volcanic cones.
-These are Mount Baker (10,750 feet elevation) on the north, Glacier
-Peak (10,436 feet) in the north-central part, Mount Rainier (14,408
-feet) in the central area, and Mount Adams (12,326 feet) and
-Mount St. Helens (9,697 feet) on the south. Excluding these volcanic
-peaks, the crests of the Cascades have a relatively uniform
-level descending from an average of 8,000 feet at the north to 5,000
-feet at the south. Ranges jutting southeastwardly from the north-central
-Cascades parallel elongate intermontane valleys. These
-include the Entiat and Wenatchee mountains. The latter range
-reaches the Columbia River and forms an important barrier to
-mammalian movements.</p>
-
-<p>There is an extensive area of anticlinal ridges extending from the
-southern Cascades to the Columbia River. This area includes the
-Horse Heaven and other hills. Most of it is drained by the Yakima
-River and is termed, in this report, the Yakima Valley Area.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_1"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_018.jpg" alt="Fig. 1." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>&nbsp;
-    Cascade Mountains at Canadian boundary, looking west along
-    boundary trail. Monument 100 in foreground, headwaters of Ashnola River in
-    broad valley at right. (Forest Service photo, No. 4328.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The Puget Sound Trough, or Puget Sound Province, is immediately
-west of and parallel to the Cascade Mountains. It is part of
-a structural downwarp that extends southward into Oregon. Most
-of the area is below 1,000 feet elevation, and much of the northern
-part is below sea level and therefore flooded by the marine waters
-of Puget Sound. The most prominent feature of this area is Puget
-Sound. This is a glacially-carved and drowned river valley, studded
-with islands, peninsulas, fjords and bays that all possess a general
-north-south orientation resulting from the direction of ice movement.
-Puget Sound is connected with the Pacific Ocean by the Strait of
-Juan De Fuca, a wide channel separating the state of Washington
-and Vancouver Island.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The San Juan Islands represent the glaciated remnants of mountains
-that, in preglacial time, may have connected the mountains
-on Vancouver Island with the Cascades of Washington. The San
-Juan Islands lie at the junction of Puget Sound, the Strait of
-Georgia, and the Strait of Juan De Fuca. As a result of a boundary
-dispute and subsequent arbitration, the islands were apportioned,
-on the basis of the deepest channel separating them, between Canada
-and the United States. The American portion includes more than
-400 islands. These vary in size from mere rocks above high tide
-to Orcas Island, 60 square miles in area.</p>
-
-<p>The Olympic Peninsula, or Olympic Province, lies between Puget
-Sound and the Pacific Ocean. The Strait of Juan De Fuca separates
-this peninsula from Vancouver Island on the north. In the south
-the valley of the Chehalis River is a convenient boundary for the
-province. The central portion of the peninsula is occupied by the
-Olympic Mountain Range. This range is nearly oblong in shape,
-measuring some 70 miles east to west by 45 miles north to south.
-The mountains are extremely rough and jagged. They rise from
-sea level to above 6,000 feet. The highest peak, Mount Olympus,
-is 8,150 feet in elevation.</p>
-
-<p>South of the Olympic Province and west of the Puget Sound
-Trough is an area of low, rough hills. <a href="#p_Culver">Culver</a> called it the Willapa
-Hills Province.</p>
-
-<p>The northern third of the land east of the Cascade Mountains,
-or northeastern Washington, is termed the Okanogan Highland
-Province by <a href="#p_Culver">Culver</a>. Its southern boundary is set at the east-west
-flow of the Spokane and Columbia rivers. The outstanding
-physiographic feature of this area is its division into north-south
-trending areas of lowland with intervening highlands and mountain
-ranges. The rivers are, from east to west, the Clark Fork, Colville,
-Columbia, Kettle, San Poil and Okanogan. Not all intervening
-highlands are separately designated as mountains. Among these
-named are the Pend Oreille, Huckleberry, Kettle River, and
-Okanogan ranges.</p>
-
-<p>The part of eastern Washington south of the Okanogan Highland
-Province, save the extreme southeastern corner of the state, constitutes
-the Columbia Lava Province. This is an extensive, relatively
-level plateau that lies mainly below 2,000 feet elevation. The
-plateau consists of gently folded lava flows that reach a depth of
-4,000 feet in some places (<a href="#p_Russell">Russell</a>, 1893) and slope inward from the
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
-east, north, and, in part, the west (<a href="#p_Flint">Flint</a>, 1938). These horizontal
-layers of basalt are extremely resistant to erosion by other than
-large rivers. Two great gashes cross the Plateau diagonally from
-the northeast to the southwest; these are Moses Coulee and the
-Grand Coulee. These old coulees are the former valleys of the
-Columbia River, and were formed at the time when the course of
-the river was successively blocked by the advance of Pleistocene ice.
-The Snake River crosses the southern edge of the Columbia Lava
-Province and separates the plateau proper from an area of similar
-land to the southward.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_2"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_020.jpg" alt="Fig. 2." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>&nbsp;
-    Columbia River one mile west of Kellers Ferry, Washington, elevation
-    1,060 feet, April 16, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor
-    B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 933.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p class="p2 pmb3">The Blue Mountains Province is an area of relatively small extent
-in the extreme southeastern corner of the state of Washington.
-There, the province concerned constitutes, as it were, a northward
-extension of the Blue Mountains of Oregon. The mountains rise to
-only 5,000 feet elevation in the Washington part of the Blue Mountains
-Province.</p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="DISTRIBUTIONAL_AREAS">DISTRIBUTIONAL AREAS</h2>
-
-
-<p>The physiographic provinces are areas of land form. The form
-of the land has a considerable effect on the temperature, humidity,
-drainage, weathering, soil, and other non-organic features that combine
-to produce the various life-zones and influence the distribution
-of mammals. One might therefore expect a close correlation
-of mammalian distributional areas with physiographic provinces.
-Although there is a correlation, it is not exact because the distribution
-of mammals is influenced also by certain other factors.
-Among these are historical factors and isolation by geographic barriers.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_3"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_021.jpg" alt="Fig. 3." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>&nbsp;
-    Mammalian distributional areas of Washington. A. Western Washington.
-    B. Cascade Mountains. C. Northeastern Washington. D. Blue
-    Mountains. E. Southeastern Washington. F. Yakima Valley. G. Columbian
-    Plateau.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The Cascade Mountains Province of <a href="#p_Culver">Culver</a> includes the Yakima
-Valley Area. This province contains two completely different mammalian
-distributional areas. The higher mountains possess a boreal,
-alpine fauna; the Cascade Range itself is called the Cascade Area
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
-in this report. The Yakima Valley Area possesses a desert fauna
-derived from the desert of eastern Oregon.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The land west of the Cascades is separated into three physiographic
-provinces, the Puget Sound, Willapa Hills, and Olympic
-Mountains Province. The differences between the mammalian
-faunas of the Puget Sound and Willapa Hills provinces are slight.
-The Olympic Mountains possess a few species not found in the
-lower areas. The similarities of the faunas of the three provinces
-far outnumber their differences, and it seems best to consider them
-subdivisions of one distributional area.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_4"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_022.jpg" alt="Fig. 4." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>&nbsp;
-    Cascade Mountains in Chelan National Forest, looking southwest at
-    Straight Ridge; Cataract Creek (Methow watershed) at left. (Forest Service
-    photo. No. 4260.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The Okanogan Highland Province extends, from a physiographic
-point of view, west of the Okanogan River Valley. This valley,
-however, is a fairly efficient barrier to mammals. Thus the part of
-the state east of the Okanogan Valley and north of the east-west
-flow of the Spokane and Columbia rivers may be called the Northeastern
-Washington Distributional Area.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The Columbia Lava Province includes the land both north and
-south of the Snake River. Since the Snake River serves as a barrier
-to some species, it seems better to term the area north of the Snake
-River the Columbian Plateau Area and that to the south the
-Southeastern Washington Distributional Area.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The Blue Mountains Province and the Blue Mountains Distributional
-Area are the same.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_5"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_023.jpg" alt="Fig. 5." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>&nbsp;
-    Yakima Park (or Sunrise Park), elevation 6,000 feet, Mount Rainier,
-    August 29, 1932. (Photo by 116th Photo Section, Washington National Guard,
-    No. 014-36A-116.)</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_6"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_024.jpg" alt="Fig. 6." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>&nbsp;
-    Columbia River at Hunters Ferry, Stevens County, Washington,
-    April 15, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>. No.
-    932.)</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_7"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_025.jpg" alt="Fig. 7." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>&nbsp;
-    Blue Mountains, Umatilla National Forest, Washington, looking
-    north-northeast across Al Williams Ridge to Tucannon River; 1933. (Forest
-    Service photo, No. 4437.)</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="2" class="tdl" cellpadding="1" summary="Physiographic Provinces">
-  <tr>
-    <td align="center" valign="top" colspan="3">
-      <span class="font10">
-        <span class="smcap">Physiographic Provinces
-        </span>
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="top" colspan="2">
-      <span class="font10">
-        <span class="smcap">Distributional Areas
-        </span>
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="middle" colspan="3"><span class="font08">Cascade Mountains</span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="middle"><span class="font08">{<br />{</span></td>
-    <td valign="middle"><span class="font08">
-      Cascade Mountains<br />
-      Yakima Valley</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="middle"><span class="font08">
-      Puget Sound<br />
-      Willapa Hills<br />
-      Olympic Mountains</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="middle"><span class="font08">}<br />}<br />}</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="middle"><span class="font08">Western Washington</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="middle"><span class="font08">Okanogan Highlands</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="middle"><span class="font08">Northeastern Washington</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="middle"><span class="font08">Columbia Lava</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="middle"><span class="font08">{<br />{</span></td>
-    <td valign="middle"><span class="font08">
-      Columbian Plateau<br />
-      Southeastern Washington</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="middle"><span class="font08">Blue Mountains</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="right" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="middle"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="middle"><span class="font08">Blue Mountains</span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="CLIMATE_AND_VEGETATION">CLIMATE AND VEGETATION</h2>
-
-
-<p>The life-zone theory of plant and animal distribution was proposed by
-<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> (1892). <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>'s life-zones have been severely criticized by many
-authors, especially because an error was made in computing some of the data
-on temperature. However, zonation of vegetation and animals is obvious in
-Washington, and the life-zone concept has been employed in Washington by
-numerous botanists and zo&ouml;logists. Among them are: <a href="#p_Piper">Piper</a> (1906), <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>
-and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1927), Jones (1936, 1938) and <a href="#p_StJohn">St. John</a> (1937).</p>
-
-<p>The higher parts of the Cascade Mountains are in the Arctic-alpine Life-zone.
-This is the area of wind-swept ridges, living glaciers, and permanent
-snow fields.</p>
-
-<p>Trees are absent but a few shrubs are present; these include: <i>Juniperus
-sibirica</i>, <i>Salix cascadensis</i>, <i>Salix nivalis</i>, <i>Gaultheria humifusa</i>, <i>Empetrum
-nigrum</i>, and the heathers, <i>Phyllodoce glanduliflora</i>, <i>Cassiope mertensiana</i> and
-<i>Cassiope stelleriana</i>. Jones (1938) lists a total of 98 species of plants from the
-Arctic-alpine Life-zone of Mount Rainier. Many of these plants are most
-abundant in the next life-zone lower, and are of but incidental occurrence in
-the Arctic-alpine Life-zone. No mammalian species is resident but individuals
-of several species regularly visit and occasionally breed there.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Below the Arctic-alpine the Hudsonian Life-zone stretches the entire length
-of the Cascades. Temperatures are low, especially in winter; then the thermometer
-does not rise above zero for weeks at a time. The average annual
-temperature at Paradise, 5500 feet, Mt. Rainier, is 38.6° (all temperatures
-given here are in degrees Fahrenheit). Snowfall is heavy. The average yearly
-snowfall, for four years, at Mt. Baker Lodge, at 4200 feet elevation, Whatcom
-County, was 478 inches; at Goat Lake, 2900 feet, Snohomish County, 261
-inches; Tye, Stevens Pass, 3010 feet, King County, 398 inches; Paradise, 5500
-feet, Mt. Rainier, 587 inches. The deepest snow recorded at Paradise was 27
-feet, 2 inches on April 2, 1917. Following the spring thaws the mountain
-passes are opened to travel, usually in April or May, although nightly temperatures
-in April and May are still below zero. Spring precipitation is heavy,
-the monthly average for a twelve-year period at Paradise being 6.78 inches in
-April and 5.5 inches in May. Summer temperatures are high in the daytime,
-when the sun beats down through the rarefied atmosphere, but cool at night
-when accumulated heat is lost through the thin atmospheric blanket. In
-summer precipitation is light, averaging, at Paradise, 3.46 inches in June, .9
-inches in July, and 3.44 inches in August. In the autumn the temperature,
-both daily and nightly, drops somewhat, and rain and cloudiness are the rule.
-At Paradise the average precipitation in September is 8.29 inches and in
-October 10.02 inches. The winter snows usually arrive by the middle of
-November.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_8"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_027.jpg" alt="Fig. 8." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>&nbsp;
-    North side of Mount Rainier, 14,408 feet, with Mount Adams at left and Mount St. Helens at right. June 19,
-    1932. (Photo by 116th Photo Section, Washington National Guard, No. 011-36A-116.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p2">Trees that are characteristic of parts of the Hudsonian Life-zone include the
-alpine fir (<i>Abies lasiocarpa</i>), mountain hemlock (<i>Tsuga mertensiana</i>), Alaska
-cedar (<i>Chamaecyparis nootkatensis</i>) and white-barked pine (<i>Pinus albicaulis</i>).
-The following shrubs are listed by Jones (1938) as common in the Hudsonian
-Life-zone on Mt. Rainier: <i>Salix barclayi</i>, <i>Salix commutata</i>, <i>Juniperus sibirica</i>,
-<i>Alnus sinuata</i>, <i>Ribes howellii</i>, <i>Lutkea pectinata</i>, <i>Potentilla fruticosa</i>, <i>Sorbus
-occidentalis</i>, <i>Spiraea densiflora</i>, <i>Pachistima myrsinites</i>, <i>Arctostaphylos nevadensis</i>,
-<i>Arctostaphylos uva-ursi</i>, <i>Cassiope mertensiana</i>, <i>Cassiope stelleriana</i>,
-<i>Phyllodoce empetriformis</i>, <i>Rhododendron albiflorum</i> and <i>Gaultheria ovalifolia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>There are extensive coniferous forests in the Canadian Life-zone, still lower
-on the mountain slopes. This is an area of lesser temperature extremes than
-is the Hudsonian Life-zone. The average annual temperature at Longmire,
-2761 feet, Mt. Rainier, is 43.8°. The average temperature for the winter
-months, however, is below freezing. In July and August the temperatures
-are high, especially in the daytime. The eighteen year average for Longmire
-during these months is 60.6°. Snow is regular but the fall is lighter than in
-the Hudsonian Life-zone. The annual average, over a period of nineteen
-years, is 184.4 inches at Longmire. Precipitation is similar to that in the
-Hudsonian Life-zone, averaging perhaps slightly less.</p>
-
-<p>In the Cascades the typical feature of the Canadian Life-zone is the extensive
-coniferous forest that extends, almost without a break, the entire
-length of the Cascades on both sides of the main crest. In addition to Douglas
-fir, the following trees occur in this forest: western hemlock (<i>Tsuga heterophylla</i>),
-amabalis fir (<i>Abies amabalis</i>), white pine (<i>Pinus monticola</i>) and
-noble fir (<i>Abies nobilis</i>). Other plants include <i>Vaccinnium ovalifolium</i>, <i>Vaccinnium
-membranaceum</i>, <i>Menziesia ferruginea</i>, <i>Alnus sinuata</i>, <i>Acer circinatum</i>,
-<i>Sorbus cascadensis</i>, <i>Cornus canadensis</i>, <i>Clintonia uniflora</i>, <i>Stenauthium occidentale</i>,
-<i>Galium oreganum</i>, and <i>Prenanthes lessingii</i>. Saprophytes abundant
-in, if not confined to, this zone are listed by Jones as: <i>Monotropa uniflora</i>,
-<i>Monotropa hypopitys</i>, <i>Allotropa virguta</i>, <i>Newberrya congesta</i>, <i>Pterospora andromedea</i>,
-<i>Corallorrhiza maculata</i>, <i>Corallorrhiza mertensiana</i> and <i>Corallorrhiza
-striata</i>.</p>
-
-<p>West of the Canadian Life-zone in the western Cascades, the coniferous
-forests merge with the lowland forests of western Washington. To the east
-of the Canadian Life-zone in the eastern Cascades, there is a distinct change
-to a more arid climate and flora. At Leavenworth, 1167 feet, Chelan County,
-the annual average precipitation is but 19.5 inches and at Cle Elum, 1930 feet,
-but 23.23 inches. Temperatures are higher, the annual average of the above
-two localities being 47.2° and 45.4° respectively. The winter months are cold,
-with the average temperature in January and February below freezing. In
-summer the averages in July and August at Leavenworth are 68.8° and 68.0°,
-with the average maximum being 87.5° and 86.1°. Snowfall is heavy, the
-yearly average at Leavenworth being 98.5 inches and at Cle Elum 86.3 inches.
-The effect of this more arid climate is seen in the vegetation. The dense
-Douglas fir forest, is replaced by more open forests of yellow pine (<i>Pinus
-ponderosus</i>). Groves of oak (<i>Quercus garryana</i>) are found near streams. The
-open forests give way to the extensive grasslands bordering the desert. The
-transition of vegetation is similar to that occurring in the Yakima Valley Area.</p>
-
-<p>In the Yakima Valley Area, arid conditions prevail. The average yearly
-precipitation at Yakima is 6.67 inches. Only in November, December and
-January may more than one inch of precipitation be expected monthly.
-Snow may be expected in the winter months and the yearly average snowfall
-is 22.1 inches. Winter temperatures are low, the average for December and
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
-January being but slightly above freezing. Summer temperatures are extreme;
-the July average is 73.1° and the average maximum for the same
-month is 89°. The highest temperature recorded is 111°.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The open pine forests of the eastern Cascades give way to grasslands.
-Grasses of several species are common but the bunchgrass (<i>Agropyron spicatum</i>)
-is most important. Other plants include the primrose (<i>Oenothera pallida</i>),
-lupines (<i>Lupinus</i>), and <i>Mertensia</i>. In ravines and near watercourses such
-shrubs as hawthorn (<i>Crataegus douglasii</i>), service-berry (<i>Amelanchier cusickii</i>,
-<i>Amelanchier utahensis</i>), aspen (<i>Populus tremuloides</i>), syringa (<i>Philadelphus
-lewisii</i>), snowberry (<i>Symphoricarpos albus</i>), choke-berry (<i>Prunus melanocarpa</i>)
-and elderberry (<i>Sambucus caerulae</i>) form thickets. Lower in the valley the
-vegetation is xerophytic, similar to that of the Columbian Plateau. Sagebrush
-(<i>Artemisiae tridentata</i>) is dominant. Other shrubs include rabbit
-brush (<i>Chrysothamnus nauseosus</i>, <i>Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus</i>), hop sage
-(<i>Grayia spinosa</i>), black sage (<i>Purshia tridentata</i>) and greasewood (<i>Sarcobatus
-vermiculatus</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_9"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_029.jpg" alt="Fig. 9." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>&nbsp;
-    Mount Rainier. Washington: Cowlitz Chimneys from base of Dege
-    Peak, July 19, 1933. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>,
-    No. 859.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Climatic conditions in the Olympic Mountains are, in general, similar to
-those of the higher Cascade Mountains. There is a limited area of Arctic-alpine
-Life-zone on Mount Olympus. The principal life-zone is the Hudsonian.
-The Canadian merges with the lowland Humid-Transition and is difficult to
-ascertain as a separate zone. In the Hudsonian Life-zone the average temperatures
-are low. Winter climate is bitter and the snow lies deep. In the
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
-absence of government weather stations in the Olympics, detailed descriptions
-of climatic conditions can not be given. Vegetation of the Hudsonian Life-zone
-of the Olympic Mountains is, in general, similar to that of the same life-zone
-of the Cascades (see Jones, 1936, Botanical Survey of the Olympic Peninsula).</p>
-
-<p>The lowlands of western Washington have a cool, humid climate. The
-average annual temperature of the area varies little from 50°. In winter the
-temperature, especially in January and February, commonly drops below the
-freezing point at night. Summer temperatures are moderate, rarely reaching
-90°. Snowfall is light, averaging about 10 inches. The prevailing winds are
-from the west and are moisture-laden. They rise over the Olympic Mountains
-and loose heavy rains along the coastal area of the lowlands. The average
-annual precipitation at La Push, Clallam County, is 97.9 inches; at Clearwater,
-Jefferson County, 124.98 inches; at Aberdeen, Grays Harbor County, 81.58
-inches; at South Bend, Pacific County, 83.35 inches. In contrast, the more
-inland areas receive less than half as much precipitation. The yearly average
-at Bellingham is 31.09 inches; at Seattle, 30.07 inches; at Tacoma, 39.53
-inches; at Vancouver, Clark County, 37.24 inches.</p>
-
-<p>The outstanding feature of the vegetation of western Washington is the
-coniferous forest. Previous to the logging activities a dense cover of Douglas
-fir, western hemlock and red cedar spread almost unbroken over the area. The
-openings in the forest and the marshy ravines and river valleys supported
-growths of underbrush and deciduous trees so dense and luxuriant as to compare
-with a tropical jungle. In the dense rain forests along the coast, mosses
-and lichens develop an understory vegetation many inches deep and clothe
-the branches of the forest trees. The mild temperature and excessive rainfall
-cause some species that usually are of bush or shrub size to reach the
-proportions of small trees. In some places one can climb twenty feet from
-the ground in a huckleberry tree, the trunk of which is five inches in diameter.
-The coniferous forest is made up of several species of trees. Most important
-among these are the western hemlock (<i>Tsuga heterophylla</i>), Douglas fir
-(<i>Pseudotsuga taxifolia</i>), and red cedar (<i>Thuja plicata</i>). Locally the western
-yew (<i>Taxus brevifolia</i>), lodgepole pine (<i>Pinus contorta</i>) and spruce (<i>Picea
-sitchensis</i>) may be common. Deciduous trees are numerous and include several
-willows (<i>Salix</i> sp.), aspen (<i>Populus tremuloides</i>), hazel (<i>Corylus californica</i>),
-alder (<i>Alnus oregona</i>), oak (<i>Quercus garryana</i>), broadleaf maple (<i>Acer
-macrophyllum</i>), vine maple (<i>Acer circinatum</i>), and flowering dogwood (<i>Cornus
-nuttallii</i>). Mosses and ferns are abundant. The sword fern (<i>Polystichum
-munitum</i>) and bracken (<i>Pteridium aquilinum</i>) are especially common. Space
-prevents listing all but a fraction of the typical shrubs but these include huckleberry
-(<i>Vaccinium parvifolium</i>, <i>Vaccinium ovatum</i>), Oregon grape (<i>Berberis
-nervosa</i>), salal (<i>Gaultheria shallon</i>), rose (<i>Rosa gymnocarpa</i>), thimbleberry
-(<i>Rubus parviflorus</i>), salmonberry (<i>Rubus spectabilis</i>), blackcap raspberry
-(<i>Rubus leucodermis</i>) and wild blackberry (<i>Rubus macropetalus</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The higher parts of some of the ranges of northeastern Washington are in
-the Hudsonian Life-zone, but most of the mountains are in the Canadian Life-zone.
-The valleys are in the Transition Life-zone. Climatic conditions are
-similar to those of the eastern slopes of the Cascades. Winter temperatures
-are low, the average for December, January and February being below freezing.
-Summer temperatures are high, the July average for Colville being 67.2°
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
-and the July average maximum being 87.4°. Vegetation consists principally
-of coniferous forests in the mountains and deciduous woods in the valleys.
-Among the interesting features of the vegetation are the extensive stands of
-almost pure larch (<i>Larix occidentalis</i>). In most respects the flora closely
-resembles that of the Blue Mountains.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington differ from other ranges
-in Washington in their relative aridity. There are few streams and a single
-river drains the area. There are no government weather stations in the Blue
-Mountains. The winter temperatures are low and the snow deep and lasting.
-Summer temperatures are high and humidity and precipitation low. Coniferous
-forests of the type of arid regions form the principal tree cover. Typical
-plant species include the white fir (<i>Abies grandis</i>), alpine fir (<i>Abies lasiocarpa</i>),
-larch (<i>Larix occidentalis</i>), spruce (<i>Picea columbiana</i>), and such shrubs as fool
-huckleberry (<i>Menziesia ferruginea</i>), <i>Pachystima myrsinites</i>, dogwood (<i>Cornus
-canadensis</i>), wild current (<i>Ribes petiolare</i>), mountain mahogany (<i>Cercocarpus
-ledifolius</i>), spirea (<i>Spiraea</i> sp.), lupines (<i>Lupinus</i>) of several species,
-maple (<i>Acer douglasii</i>), buckbrush (<i>Ceanothus sanguineus</i>), sticky brush
-(<i>Ceanothus velutinus</i>), and huckleberry (<i>Vaccinium membranaceum</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_10"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_031.jpg" alt="Fig. 10." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>&nbsp;
-    A "pothole" being crowded by drifting sand, ten miles south of
-    Moses Lake, Washington, March 23, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo
-    by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 925.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb3">The Columbian Plateau and southeastern Washington present desert conditions.
-At Odessa, 1590 feet, Lincoln County, the average annual precipitation
-is only 9.38 inches, and only in the winter may more than one inch of
-precipitation per month be expected. The average temperature is 48.5°. In
-the winter the average is below freezing but in July it is 71.3°. The average
-maximum for July is 90° and an extreme of 111° is recorded. Walla Walla,
-991 feet, has a higher annual precipitation (16.66 inches) but higher temperature
-(yearly average 53.5°, July average 75.0°, average July maximum 88.6°,
-extreme 113°). Winter temperatures on the Columbian Plateau are low. The
-January average at Odessa is 25.3° and at Walla Walla 32.4° The average
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
-yearly snowfall at Odessa is 19.4 inches and at Walla Walla 23.5 inches. Vegetation
-of the Columbian Plateau and southeastern Washington is of the desert
-type. A few pines and junipers grow in favored places. Along streams the
-cottonwood (<i>Populus hastata</i>) and willow (<i>Salix</i>) of several species are common.
-Most typical are grasses and shrubs such as the bunch grass (<i>Agropyron
-inerme</i>, <i>Agropyron spictatum</i>), foxtail (<i>Alopecurus aequalis</i>), cheat grass
-(<i>Bromus tectorum</i>), saltbrush (<i>Atriplex truncata</i>), greasewood (<i>Sarcobatus
-vermiculatus</i>) mustard (<i>Arabis</i> sp., <i>Brassica</i> sp.), sagebrush (<i>Artemisia rigida</i>,
-<i>Artemisia tridentata</i>), rabbit brush (<i>Chrysothamnus nauseosus</i>, <i>Chrysothamnus
-viscidiflorus</i>) and cactus (<i>Opuntia polyacantha</i>). The arid climate of the
-Columbian Plateau affects, to some extent, surrounding areas. Thus the
-Yakima Valley Area, the Columbia Valley, where it borders the Plateau, and
-the Okanogan Valley possess vegetation typical of the Columbia Plateau.</p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="LIFE-ZONES_AND_ECOLOGY">LIFE-ZONES AND ECOLOGY</h2>
-
-
-<p class="pmb1">The Transition Life-zone is the principal life-zone in Washington.
-It is divisible into three subdivisions: Humid, Arid-timbered
-and Arid-grasslands (Fig. 11) subdivisions. The Humid and Arid-timbered
-subdivisions of the Transition life-zone are closely related
-in some respects but different in others. They are separated by the
-Cascade Mountains. All of the Transition Life-zone west of the
-Cascades belongs to the Humid subdivision and the timbered Transition
-Life-zone east of the Cascades belongs to the Arid-timbered
-subdivision.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_11"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_033.jpg" alt="Fig. 11." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>&nbsp;
-    Life-zones of Washington. Arctic-alpine not shaded. A. Hudsonian
-    and Canadian (mapped together). B. Forested Transition (Humid
-    and Arid subdivisions). C. Arid-grasslands of the Transition. D. Upper
-    Sonoran.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb1">The Arid-grasslands are of minor geographic extent. Although
-this subdivision is relatively distinct as concerns the distribution
-of plants, insects and birds, it is of little importance as concerns
-the distribution of mammals. For the most part, the mammals
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
-occupying it are more representative of surrounding areas. Large
-parts of the Arid-grasslands have been taken over for agriculture,
-especially wheat raising. Perhaps the greatest extent of the Arid-grasslands
-existing in a natural state is along the eastern Cascade
-Mountains and along the eastern side of the Columbian Plateau.
-These are truly transition areas, situated where the arid pine forests
-are replaced by open, sagebrush desert.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_12"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_034.jpg" alt="Fig. 12." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>&nbsp;
-    Arctic-alpine Life-zone, Mount Rainier, Washington: Cowlitz
-    Glacier from elevation of 9,500 feet. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor
-    B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>. No. 900.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The Upper Sonoran Life-zone includes the desert areas of Washington
-(figure 11 D). Its principal extent is the central Columbian
-Plateau. From the central Columbian Plateau, fingerlike projections
-of desert extend along the principal valleys.</p>
-
-<p>The Arctic-alpine Life-zone occurs in the high Olympic Mountains
-and on the higher peaks of the Cascades. This is shown on the life-zone
-map, Fig. 11, as white, unshaded areas.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The mammalian faunas of the Hudsonian and Canadian life-zones
-resemble each other closely. The boundary between them is
-too complex to permit separating them on a small-scale map.
-Consequently they are mapped together on Fig. 11 as A.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Humid Subdivision of the Transition Life-zone</span></h3>
-
-<p>This subdivision is remarkably uniform in composition over
-western Washington. The greatest difference is in precipitation.
-Rainfall along the coast is heavier than that in the interior. Consequently
-vegetation is more dense and luxuriant along the coast.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Four habitats may be distinguished in the Humid subdivision
-and further subdivision is possible. The dominant and most extensive
-habitat is the forest. Dominant mammalian species include:
-<i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>, <i>Sorex trowbridgii</i>, <i>Sorex obscurus</i>, <i>Tamiasciurus
-douglasii</i>, <i>Clethrionomys californicus</i>, <i>Aplodontia rufa</i>,
-<i>Glaucomys sabrinus</i> and <i>Odocoileus hemionus</i>. Mammals are scarce
-and nocturnal forms prevail. As a rule, a line of mouse traps set in
-a forest habitat will take principally <i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i> with
-a few <i>Sorex trowbridgii</i> and <i>Sorex obscurus</i> and rarely a <i>Clethrionomys
-californicus</i>. In some places, especially where the moss
-is deep, a line of mouse traps will catch only shrews.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_13"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_035.jpg" alt="Fig. 13." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>&nbsp;
-    Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone, Headley's Marsh,
-    five miles east of Granite Falls, Washington, June 4, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife
-    Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 60.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">A second important habitat is the deciduous jungle. This differs
-from the forest habitat in that the dominant trees are of the deciduous
-type and in that understory vegetation, such as shrubs and
-annuals, is dense. The jungle habitat occurs in ravines and in valleys
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
-of streams and rivers and, in general, covers the lower, poorly
-drained portions of the Humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone.
-Mammals are abundant and varied in the jungle habitat.
-The deer mouse (<i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>) is the most common
-mammal but a line of mouse traps might also catch: <i>Neurotrichus
-gibbsii</i>, <i>Scapanus orarius</i>, <i>Sorex vagrans</i>, <i>Microtus oregoni</i>, or <i>Zapus
-p. trinotatus</i>. The mountain beaver, snowshoe rabbit, and Townsend
-chipmunk also occur there.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The prairies form a third habitat. These areas of native grasslands
-are of minor extent but are the principal home of several races
-of gophers and the Townsend mole (<i>Scapanus townsendii</i>). Deer
-and elk also browse on the prairies.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_14"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_036.jpg" alt="Fig. 14." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>&nbsp;
-    Timbered arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone, Kettle
-    Falls on the Columbia River (now beneath Coulee Dam backwater), Stevens
-    County, Washington, June 15, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor
-    B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 72.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">A fourth habitat is the marsh. In it there is here included the
-sphagnum bogs and marshy shores of lakes and streams. This
-habitat is characterized by damp ground, standing water, and dense
-vegetation. Typical mammalian species include the water shrew
-(<i>Sorex bendirii</i>), Townsend meadow mouse, muskrat and mink.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Other habitats, such as aerial for the bats and aquatic for the
-beaver and otter, might be listed.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Arid Timbered Subdivision of the Transition Life-zone</span></h3>
-
-<p>In Washington the Arid timbered subdivision of the Transition
-Life-zone is the open, pine forest. Because of the aridity of this
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
-habitat, marshes and streamside thickets are uncommon, but where
-habitats of this kind do occur they have a fauna distinct from that
-of other habitats.</p>
-
-<p>The pine forest habitat includes many diurnal species, such as the
-red squirrel, yellow-pine chipmunk, and Columbian ground squirrel.
-The white-tailed deer occurs here and, for most of the year, the
-mule deer. Snowshoe rabbits are usually present. Near rocks the
-bushy-tailed wood rat is common. Mice are scarce, probably because
-of the open nature of the surface of the ground. A night's
-trapping usually yields only a few <i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The mammalian fauna of the marshes and streamside thickets is
-similar. Shrews including <i>Sorex vagrans</i> and <i>Sorex obscurus</i> are
-uncommon. Meadow mice, including <i>Microtus pennsylvanicus</i>, <i>Microtus
-longicaudus</i>, and more rarely <i>Microtus montanus</i>, are taken.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Arid Grasslands Subdivision of the Transition Life-zone</span></h3>
-
-<p class="pmb2">This subdivision is so much utilized by man where it occupies
-any considerable areas, and is of such a transitional nature elsewhere,
-that it is important for only a few native wild mammals. The
-sagebrush vole (<i>Lagurus curtatus</i>) seems to be confined to the arid
-grasslands. The white-tailed jack rabbit is now found principally
-in the arid grasslands, but its confinement there has resulted probably
-from competition with the black-tailed jack rabbit. The montane
-meadow mouse (<i>Microtus montanus</i>) is the only common,
-representative species. Many species from the Upper Sonoran Life-zone
-extend into the arid grasslands where conditions are suitable.
-These include <i>Reithrodontomys megalotis</i>, <i>Perognathus parvus</i>, <i>Citellus
-washingtoni</i> and <i>Marmota flaviventris</i>. A few species more
-typical of the Arid timbered subdivision of the Transition Life-zone
-stray onto the arid grasslands. <i>Citellus columbianus</i> and <i>Microtus
-longicaudus</i> may be included here.</p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Upper Sonoran Life-zone</span></h3>
-
-<p>The sagebrush desert in Washington is relatively uniform in nature.
-Several different habitats may be distinguished, such as sandy
-areas, open sage, dense sage, stony ground, and talus. Qualitatively,
-however, the mammalian fauna of these areas is surprisingly similar.
-Quantitatively, there are great differences. For example, the grasshopper
-mouse is rare in the open sage areas with hard, claylike soil
-but common on drifted sand. The harvest mouse is common in
-dense sage but rare in open sage or in open, sandy areas. Mammals
-are abundant on the sagebrush desert and typical species include:
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
-the black-tailed jack rabbit, Nuttall cottontail, Ord kangaroo rat,
-Great Basin pocket mouse, Townsend ground squirrel, Washington
-ground squirrel.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Marshes are not uncommon on the Columbian Plateau and elsewhere
-in the Upper Sonoran Life-zone in Washington. They do not
-possess a fauna that is strictly Upper Sonoran but instead contain
-species more typical of the Arid-timbered subdivision of the Transition
-Life-zone. Meadow mice found in desert marshes include
-<i>Microtus montanus</i> and <i>Microtus pennsylvanicus</i>. The only shrew
-we have found is <i>Sorex vagrans</i>. The harvest mouse (<i>Reithrodontomys
-megalotis</i>) is often abundant in marshes.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_15"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_038.jpg" alt="Fig. 15." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>&nbsp;
-    Upper Sonoran Life-zone, sand and basalt cliffs along the east bank
-    of the Columbia River, at Vantage, Washington, 1930. (Fish and Wildlife
-    Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 848.)</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Canadian Life-zone</span></h3>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The Canadian Life-zone is a relatively uniform area in which
-the forest habitat is most important. Talus and swift, cold streams
-bring some typical mammalian species into the Canadian Life-zone
-from the Hudsonian. Mammals are usually common; they are
-abundant only in the upper portion of the Life-zone. Arboreal
-species and forms adapted to life beneath the forest cover are dominant.
-The Douglas squirrel, red squirrel, northern flying squirrel
-and Townsend chipmunk are typical arboreal species. Traps set
-beneath the trees might catch <i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>, <i>Clethrionomys
-gapperi</i>, <i>Neotoma cinerea</i>, <i>Sorex obscurus</i>, or <i>Sorex trowbridgii</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_16"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_039.jpg" alt="Fig. 16." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>&nbsp;
-    Canadian Life-zone forest on Mount Rainier, Washington, elevation
-    2,800 feet, September 14, 1934. Western hemlock, Douglas fir, western red
-    cedar, and grand fir. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>,
-    No. 325.)</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3><span class="smcap">The Hudsonian Life-zone</span></h3>
-
-<p class="pmb3">In Washington the Hudsonian Life-zone is of greater diversity
-than any other. Frost and steep slopes have formed great masses
-of talus and, in this talus, certain species of mammals, such as
-<i>Ochotona princeps</i>, <i>Marmota caligata</i> and <i>Marmota olympus</i> are
-found. Other species, such as the golden-mantled ground squirrels,
-mountain chipmunk, bushy-tailed wood rat, red-backed mouse and
-long-tailed meadow mouse find the talus an ideal home. Glacial action
-has produced, in the Hudsonian Life-zone, numerous level or
-concave areas that contain small lakes and slow-moving streams.
-Dense, herbaceous vegetation is abundant nearby. Small mammals
-abound and a line of mouse traps will almost certainly catch a few
-such typical species as: <i>Sorex palustris</i>, <i>Sorex obscurus</i>, <i>Microtus
-oregoni</i>, <i>Microtus richardsoni</i>, <i>Microtus longicaudus</i> and <i>Zapus
-princeps</i> as well as the ever present <i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>. The
-shrew-mole or heather vole might also be taken, though the latter
-is more apt to be found in nearby heather meadows.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3><a id="Table_1"></a>
-<span class="smcap">Table 1.</span> Distribution of mammals in Washington by Life-Zones.<br />
-<i>A.</i> Abundant. <i>C.</i> Common. <i>R.</i> Rare.</h3>
-
-<p class="pmb1" />
-
-<table border="1" cellspacing="0" class="tdl" summary="Distribution of mammals in Washington by Life-Zones">
-  <tr>
-    <td><small><span class="smcap">Species and Subspecies.</span></small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>Humid<br />Transition</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>Arid-timbered<br />Transition</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>Arid-<br />grasslands<br />Transition</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>Upper<br />Sonoran</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>Canadian</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>Hudsonian</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>?</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>gibbsii minor</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Scapanus townsendii</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>?</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>orarius orarius</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>orarius schefferi</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>orarius yakimensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Sorex cinereus cinereus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>cinereus streatori</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>merriami merriami</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>trowbridgii trowbridgii</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>trowbridgii destructioni</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>vagrans vagrans</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>vagrans monticola</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>obscurus obscurus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>obscurus setosus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>palustris navigator</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>bendirii bendirii</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>bendirii albiventer</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Microsorex hoyi washingtoni</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Myotis lucifugus carissima</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>lucifugus alascensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>yumanensis sociabilis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>yumanensis saturatus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>keenii keenii</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>evotis evotis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>evotis pacificus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>thysanodes thysanodes</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>volans longicrus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>volans interior</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>californicus californicus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>californicus caurinus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>subulatus melanorhinus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Lasionycteris noctivagans</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>rafinesquii intermedius</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
-        <small>Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Lasiurus cinereus cinereus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Antrozous pallidus cantwelli</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Ursus americanus altifrontalis</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>americanus cinnamomum</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>chelan</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Procyon lotor psora</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>lotor excelsus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Martes caurina caurina</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>caurina origenes</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>pennanti</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Mustela erminea invicta</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>erminea gulosa</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>erminea murica</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>erminea fallenda</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>erminea streatori</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>erminea olympica</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>frenata nevadensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>frenata effera</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>frenata washingtoni</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>frenata altifrontalis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>vison energumenos</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Gulo luscus luteus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Lutra canadensis pacifica</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Spilogale gracilis saxatilis</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>gracilis latifrons</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Mephitis mephitis hudsonica</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>mephitis major</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>mephitis notata</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>mephitis spissigrada</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Taxidea taxus taxus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Vulpes fulva cascadensis</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
-        <small>Canis latrans lestes</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>latrans incolatus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>lupus fuscus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R?</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Felis concolor missoulensis</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>concolor oregonensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Lynx canadensis</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>rufus fasciatus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>rufus pallescens</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Tamias minimus scrutator</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>minimus grisescens</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>amoenus caurinus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>amoenus felix</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>amoenus ludibundus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>amoenus affinis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>amoenus canicaudus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>amoenus luteiventris</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>ruficaudus simulans</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>townsendii townsendii</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>townsendii cooperi</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Marmota monax petrensis</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>flaviventris avara</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>caligata cascadensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>olympus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Citellus townsendii townsendii</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>washingtoni</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>columbianus columbianus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>columbianus ruficaudus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>beecheyi douglasii</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>lateralis tescorum</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>lateralis connectens</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>saturatus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>hudsonicus streatori</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>douglasii douglasii</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Sciurus griseus griseus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
-        <small>Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>sabrinus fuliginosus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>sabrinus columbiensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>sabrinus latipes</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>sabrinus bangsi</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Perognathus parvus parvus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>parvus lordi</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>parvus columbianus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Dipodomys ordii columbianus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Thomomys talpoides devexus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides columbianus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides aequalidens</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides wallowa</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides fuscus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides yakimensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides shawi</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides immunis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides limosus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides douglasii</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides glacialis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides tacomensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides pugetensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides tumuli</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides yelmensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides couchi</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>talpoides melanops</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Castor canadensis leucodonta</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>canadensis idoneus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Peromyscus maniculatus oreas</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>maniculatus hollisteri</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>maniculatus austerus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>maniculatus rubidus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>maniculatus gambelii</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>maniculatus artemisiae</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
-        <small>Neotoma cinerea occidentalis</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>cinerea alticola</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Synaptomys borealis wrangeli</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Phenacomys intermedius intermedius</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>intermedius oramontis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>gapperi idahoensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>gapperi nivarius</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>californicus occidentalis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>pennsylvanicus kincaidi</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>montanus nanus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>montanus canescens</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>townsendii townsendii</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>townsendii pugeti</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>longicaudus halli</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>longicaudus macrurus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>richardsoni arvicoloides</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>richardsoni macropus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>oregoni oregoni</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>zibethicus occipitalis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Zapus princeps oregonus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>princeps kootenayensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>princeps idahoensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>princeps trinotatus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Aplodontia rufa rufa</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>rufa rainieri</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>dorsatum nigrescens</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Ochotona princeps cuppes</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>princeps fenisex</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>orinceps brunnescens</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Lepus townsendii townsendii</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>californicus deserticola</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>americanus washingtonii</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
-        <small>americanus cascadensis</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>americanus pineus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>americanus columbiensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>idahoensis</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Cervus canadensis roosevelti</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>R</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>canadensis nelsoni</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Odocoileus virginianus leucurus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>virginianus ochrourus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>hemionus hemionus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>hemionus columbianus</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>C</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Ovis canadensis canadensis</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><p class="p_2"><small>canadensis californiana</small></p></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><small>Oreamnos americanus americanus</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>&nbsp;</small></td>
-    <td align="center"><small>A</small></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<p class="pmb3" />
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="GEOLOGIC_HISTORY_OF_WASHINGTON">GEOLOGIC HISTORY OF WASHINGTON</h2>
-
-
-<p>The composition of the mammalian fauna of any area is dependent
-on several factors. These include the composition of the original
-fauna, species which have since invaded the area, and quantitative
-and qualitative changes that have occurred in the area. The latter
-two factors refer to changes in relative numbers or extermination
-of species through environmental changes or competition with other
-forms and evolutionary changes that have occurred in the species
-making up the mammalian fauna.</p>
-
-<p>Our knowledge and understanding of the distribution and history
-of the species of mammals occurring in Washington decreases rapidly
-as we go back in time. The distribution of the modern fauna at the
-present time is fairly well known. The distribution of species 100
-years ago is less well understood. This is especially true of certain
-game species and carnivores whose distribution has been altered by
-man. Our knowledge of the distribution of mammals in the Pleistocene
-and earlier times is based on fossil skeletons. Such knowledge
-must necessarily be meager, for conditions favorable to fossilization
-and the preservation of fossils until their subsequent
-discovery by man, were not of common occurrence.</p>
-
-<p>In the Cascades and in eastern Washington, the Miocene was
-a time of orogeny and great volcanism. Great flows of lava, 4,000
-feet thick in the Snake River area (<a href="#p_Russell">Russell</a>, 1893), emerging from
-fissures in the Snake River area, formed the Columbian Plateau.
-The Columbian basalt slopes inward centripetally from the eastern,
-northern, and western margins of the Columbian Plateau with an
-average descent of 25 feet to the mile (<a href="#p_Flint">Flint</a>, 1938). The dip of the
-lava flows results in the basalt-marginal course of the Spokane
-and Columbia rivers today, along the northern edge of the Columbian
-Plateau. The earlier part of the Pliocene was a period of
-erosion and deformation. In the early Pleistocene the five great
-volcanic cones of the Cascades, Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount
-Rainier, Mount Adams and Mount St. Helens were formed. In
-eastern Washington a gentle folding of the Miocene lava flows
-occurred. The folding took place slowly and the Columbia River
-in its course along the eastern edge of the Cascades cut through
-the folds as they formed, making a series of water gaps. Farther
-south, the Simcoe-Frenchman Hills anticline seems to have arisen
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
-more rapidly and the Columbia River was forced eastward before
-it became impounded and rose over the barrier and plunged down,
-tearing out the great Wallula Water Gap (<a href="#p_Flint">Flint</a>, 1938). This gap is
-a mile wide, eight miles long and, in places, a thousand feet
-deep. The impounding of the Columbia by the Simcoe-Frenchman
-Hills anticline resulted in a lake several hundred miles in area.
-Sediments deposited in this lake form the Ringold formation. The
-Ringold formation possesses a very early Pleistocene mammalian
-fauna.</p>
-
-<p>The Pleistocene was a time of great change in the mammalian
-fauna of the world. Unfortunately the beautiful glacial sequence
-revealed in Europe and the Mississippi Valley cannot be detected in
-Washington. In western Washington the deposits of the last continental
-glaciation and fluvial deposits of the last interglacial period
-almost everywhere obscure evidence of earlier glaciations. Deposits
-of an earlier glaciation, named Admiralty by <a href="#p_Bretz">Bretz</a> (1913), have
-been detected in places. Deposits of greater age, that may represent
-a still earlier glaciation, have been noted. In eastern Washington
-the only definite proof of multiple glaciation is of one glaciation
-preceding the last. This is the Spokane glaciation of <a href="#p_Bretz">Bretz</a>
-(1923). That multiple glaciation in the sequence reported from the
-Mississippi Valley affected Washington seems probable. The lack
-of evidence of a complete sequence is negative evidence. In
-western Washington the earliest glacial deposits might be beneath
-the later deposits or they may have been removed or reworked
-by subsequent glaciations, whereas in eastern Washington they
-may have been removed by subsequent glaciation and erosion.</p>
-
-<p>The time interval between the two known glaciations appears to
-have been of greater duration than the Recent. The drift of the
-earlier period is sometimes found covered by the till of the later
-glaciation, and preserved by it. The early material is deeply weathered
-and all save the hardest pebbles and quartzites, for example,
-are rotten and disintegrate at the touch. In contrast, the later deposits
-are almost unweathered. Pebbles are hard, and ring when
-struck. A zone of leaching and oxidation of the finer materials
-reaches a depth of some 30 inches, below which the till is fresh.</p>
-
-<p>Two names are currently applied to the last continental glaciation
-of the state of Washington. That west of the Cascade Mountains,
-studied and described by <a href="#p_Bretz">Bretz</a> (1913), was termed "Vashon." The
-interglacial cycle preceding it was called "Puyallup." The glaciation
-of eastern Washington has been called "Wisconsin," after the Mississippi
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
-Valley terminology, by several writers. Papers by <a href="#p_Flint">Flint</a>
-(1935, 1937) describe and map it.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The Vashon and Wisconsin glaciations probably occupied the
-same time interval, although this has not certainly been established.
-In the present report I have used the term "Vashon-Wisconsin" in
-speaking of the entire period, or the glaciers both east and west of
-the Cascades together. Vashon, alone, is restricted to western Washington
-and Wisconsin to eastern Washington.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_17"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_049.jpg" alt="Fig. 17." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>&nbsp;
-    Extent of Vashon-Wisconsin ice over Washington. The Wisconsin
-    and Vashon glaciers have been connected through the Mount Rainier section
-    of the Cascades because it is thought that few or no mammalian species lived
-    in the Cascades north of Mount Rainier while the ice was in place. Data
-    generalized from <a href="#p_Flint">Flint</a> (1937), <a href="#p_Bretz">Bretz</a> (1913), <a href="#p_Culver">Culver</a> (1936) and other sources.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p class="p2">The Vashon glaciation seems to have consisted of an ice dome
-centering in Puget Sound (the Puget Glacier of <a href="#p_Bretz">Bretz</a>, 1913) and
-flooding the lowlands from the Olympic Mountains to the Cascade
-Mountains. The southern edge of the Puget Glacier was slightly
-south of the present terminus of Puget Sound. Fingerlike projections
-of ice were forced up valleys of the western Cascades and the
-northern and eastern Olympics. Some of these upward moving
-fingers of ice met and coalesced with valley glaciers descending from
-the mountains. At the southern edge of the glacier, the Black Hills
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
-and Porcupine Hills remained above the ice although partially surrounded
-by it.</p>
-
-<p>The Wisconsin glacier, according to <a href="#p_Flint">Flint</a> (1935), was a great
-piedmont glacier, fed by valley glaciers from the Cascades and
-Coast Ranges to the west and the Rockies to the east. It extended
-from the Idaho boundary to the Cascade Mountains. From the
-Canadian Boundary it sloped down to an approximate elevation of
-some 6500 feet at Republic and to 2500 feet on the northern edge
-of the Columbian Plateau which was the southern edge of the glacier.
-The Kettle River Mountains, in almost the center of the glacier,
-remained a peninsula or driftless area that divided the glacier into
-two lobes. The Pend Oreille, Huckleberry and other mountain
-ranges, formed nunataks, or islands above the ice, at the southern
-part of the glacier.</p>
-
-<p>The behavior of valley glaciers in the northern Cascade Mountains
-during Vashon-Wisconsin time, seems to have been variable.
-Some depression of the snow line, at least in the north, seems
-probable.</p>
-
-<p>The Vashon Glacier impinged on the eastern, northern and to
-some extent the western, slopes of the Olympic Mountains. Late
-Pleistocene valley glaciers in the Olympics, however, seem to have
-been inconsequential.</p>
-
-<p>The time of the retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers is a
-subject of special interest to the mammalogist in that it represents
-time for invasion and dispersal of species and in that it represents
-generations of individuals upon which natural selection might act.
-It is generally agreed that a period of approximately ten thousand
-years has elapsed since the retreat of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers
-from Washington.</p>
-
-<p>Information on the climate of the state of Washington previous to
-the period of the last continental glaciation is understandably
-meager. <a href="#p_Bretz">Bretz</a> (1913) considers the Puyallup period a time of excessive
-precipitation and erosion. Bits of lignite from Puyallup
-sediments seem to be of Douglas fir. Presumably the climate was
-slightly warmer and more humid than it is today. Vegetation
-possibly consisted of coniferous forests.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">With the advance of the Vashon ice, mammals north of the ice
-border were all or mostly eliminated. Climatic conditions south
-of the border of the ice probably were strongly affected by it. Remains
-of mammoths have been found in Vashon till. The presence
-of many non-boreal species of mammals in southwestern Washington
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
-indicates their persistence there and that conditions therefore
-were not intolerable for them. Probably the climate of southwestern
-Washington was cool and dry. Fir, spruce, and Douglas
-fir may have been the dominant trees. Hansen (1941 A: 209) found
-evidence from studies of pollen that coniferous forests were growing
-in west-central Oregon in late glacial time. These pollen studies
-of postglacial peat bogs by Henry P. Hansen give evidence of
-postglacial climatic changes. Hansen points out (1941 B, 1941 C)
-that climatic changes west of the Cascades were probably slight
-because of the influence of the Pacific Ocean. Pollen profiles indicate
-an early, cool, dry climate followed by a warmer one and
-increasing humidity. The present climate may be considered cool
-and humid. Most of western Washington lies in the Humid subdivision
-of the Transition Life-zone.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_18"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_051.jpg" alt="Fig. 18." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>&nbsp;
-    McDowell Lake, Little Pend Oreille Wildlife Refuge, Stevens
-    County, Washington, September 29, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo
-    by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 730.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb3">The pre-Wisconsin climate of eastern Washington is unknown.
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
-From the loessial nature of the Palouse Soil (<a href="#p_Bryan">Bryan</a>, 1927), a preglacial
-deposit, the area would seem to have been arid, probably
-a grassland or a sagebrush desert. If the fossil fauna discovered at
-Washtuckna Lake, Adams County, is of this period, the forest
-conditions of the Blue Mountains were slightly more extensive than
-at present. The glacial climate of the Columbian Plateau in Wisconsin
-time was probably cool and arid. Pollen studies by Hansen
-(1939, 1940) indicate increasing dryness and warmth since the
-retreat of the Wisconsin ice. Present-day climate on the Columbian
-Plateau is warm and dry. The plateau is principally a sagebrush
-desert. The glaciated area to the north is cooler and more humid,
-supporting extensive forests of yellow pine and other conifers.</p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="THE_FAUNAS">THE FAUNAS</h2>
-
-
-<p>We have mentioned elsewhere that three different mammalian
-faunas occur in Washington. These may be described as follows.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">1. <span class="smcap">The Great Basin Fauna.</span> This fauna is best typified by
-such genera as <i>Perognathus</i> and <i>Dipodomys</i>. Species that, at least
-in Washington, are confined to this fauna are:</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" class="tdl" summary="The Great Basin Fauna">
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sorex merriami</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Tamias minimus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Myotis thysanodes</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Perognathus parvus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Myotis subulatus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Dipodomys ordii</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Pipistrellus hesperus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Onychomys leucogaster</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Antrozous pallidus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Reithrodontomys megalotis</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Taxidea taxus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Lagurus curtatus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Marmota flaviventris</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Lepus californicus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Citellus townsendii</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sylvilagus nuttallii</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Citellus washingtoni</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sylvilagus idahoensis</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="p2">The break between the Great Basin Fauna and the other two
-faunas is extremely sharp, probably as a consequence of a sharp
-break in the flora.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">2. <span class="smcap">The Pacific Coastal Fauna.</span> The mammals of the humid
-coastal district range from the Fraser River, British Columbia,
-southward to the vicinity of Monterey Bay, California. In Washington
-typical genera are <i>Aplodontia</i>, <i>Neurotrichus</i> and <i>Scapanus</i>.
-The following species are typical of the Pacific Coastal Fauna in
-Washington:</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" class="tdl" summary="The Pacific Coastal Fauna">
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Neurotrichus gibbsii</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Tamiasciurus douglasii</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Scapanus townsendii</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sciurus griseus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sorex trowbridgii</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Clethrionomys californicus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sorex bendirii</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Microtus townsendii</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Marmota olympus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Microtus oregoni</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Tamias townsendii</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Aplodontia rufa</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="p1 pmb2">Some species which range outside this faunal area have strongly
-marked races confined to it. <i>Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis</i> and
-<i>Lepus americanus washingtonii</i> are examples. The Pacific Coastal
-Fauna is a forest fauna. Like the Great Basin Fauna, it reaches
-its northern limit of distribution in Washington and is better represented
-farther south. Unlike the Great Basin Fauna, the break
-between the Pacific Coastal and the surrounding fauna is not sharp,
-because forests continue into the more boreal faunal areas to the
-north and east. There, some mingling of coastal and Rocky Mountain
-faunas occurs.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">3. <span class="smcap">Rocky Mountain Fauna.</span> If this fauna be thought of as including
-mammals of the Rocky Mountains of the United States, and
-also those of the subarctic faunal area to the east of these mountains
-in Canada, the species in Washington are as follows:</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" class="tdl" summary="Table 7">
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sorex palustris</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Synaptomys borealis</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Microsorex hoyi</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Phenacomys intermedius</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Lynx canadensis</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Clethrionomys gapperi</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Marmota caligata</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Microtus richardsoni</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Citellus lateralis</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Ochotona princeps</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Citellus columbianus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Lepus americanus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Tamias amoenus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Rangifer montanus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Oreamnos americanus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Glaucomys sabrinus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb3">Of the three, the Great Basin Fauna is the most distinct. Only
-about twenty species which occur within the Great Basin Faunal
-Area, occur also outside of it in one or both of the two other faunal
-areas. Most of these twenty are subspecifically different in the
-Great Basin Faunal Area as contrasted with one or both of the other
-areas. Each of the other two areas has no less than 32 species that
-are not restricted to it.</p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="SPECULATION_AS_TO_EMIGRATIONAL">SPECULATION AS TO EMIGRATIONAL<br />
-HISTORY OF THE MAMMALS</h2>
-
-
-<p>The present fauna of the state of Washington was derived in part
-from Asia and in part from native forms. Great changes occurred
-in early Pleistocene through emigration. By the late Pleistocene
-most of the mammals now occurring in the state of Washington were
-as they are today. The greatest changes that seem to have occurred
-in the late Pleistocene are the extinctions of numerous groups,
-locally or totally. Among the carnivores, <a href="#p_Matthew">Matthew</a> (1902: 321)
-reports remains of the great lion, <i>Felis atrox</i>, associated with such
-familiar species as the badger, cougar, lynx and mountain goat. The
-great lion was very similar to the modern African lion but was fully
-a fourth larger. Associated with the great lion in the California
-tar pits are the carnivorous short-faced bears (<i>Tremarctotherium</i>),
-as large as the Alaskan brown bears; dire wolves (<i>Aenocyon</i>),
-larger than timber wolves; and saber-tooth tigers (<i>Smilodon</i>). These
-forms were probably also present in Washington in the late Pleistocene.
-<a href="#p_Matthew">Matthew</a> (<i>loc. cit.</i>) reports remains of the giant beaver,
-<i>Castoroides</i>, from the Silver Lake deposit of Oregon. This great
-beaver, as large as a black bear, was doubtless a resident of Washington
-also. Peccaries, camels, bison, horses and giant ground sloths
-have been recorded from Pleistocene deposits of Washington and
-nearby areas. Of the elephant tribe, the mastodon and several
-species of mammoths were present.</p>
-
-<p>These extinct forms have doubtless exerted some influence on the
-past distribution of mammals in Washington and possibly have had
-an effect on the distribution of members of the living fauna. One
-species of the mammoth, at least, existed in Washington in postglacial
-time. Remains of this form, <i>Elephas columbi</i>, have been
-found in Vashon till.</p>
-
-<p>The three faunas of Washington can be placed in two categories.
-One is Sonoran, essentially a desert type, and occupies the Columbian
-Plateau. The other two are forest faunas, predominantly
-boreal in complexion, and are closely related. The Rocky Mountain
-Fauna is found in the Blue Mountains and in northeastern
-Washington. The Pacific Coastal Fauna is found in western Washington.</p>
-
-<p>The ice sheets of Vashon-Wisconsin time descended southward
-to southern Puget Sound and to the northern edge of the Columbian
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
-Plateau. If the area of the ice sheet be superimposed on a map of
-distributional areas of Washington, it is seen that the area occupied
-by the Rocky Mountain Fauna in northeastern Washington is eliminated.
-Thus, at the maximum descent of Wisconsin ice, the Rocky
-Mountain type of mammalian fauna was found only in extreme
-southeastern Washington. No point of contact between the forest
-fauna of the Rocky Mountains and the fauna of the Pacific coast
-exists, anywhere, because desert areas, or at least barren plains, lie
-between them from the border of the glaciers south to Mexico. For
-the entire period, perhaps thousands of years long, while the glaciers
-were in place, the two forest faunas were separated. Repeated separation
-of the faunas by successive glaciations is thought to be responsible
-for many of the differences now existing between them.</p>
-
-<p>Following the retreat of the ice, the Pacific Coastal Fauna extended
-its range northward to the Fraser River and, in part, into
-the Cascade Mountains. The Rocky Mountain Fauna invaded
-northeastern Washington and boreal Canada, including the Pacific
-Coast north of the Fraser River. Certain parts of the Rocky Mountain
-Fauna also invaded the Cascade Mountains.</p>
-
-<p>Inasmuch as the Cascades were invaded by species from both
-faunas, a detailed analysis of the mammals existing there now seems
-justified. Several significant features of the composition of the
-mammal fauna of the Cascades are apparent. First, several species
-typical of the Pacific Coastal Fauna are present, such as <i>Neurotrichus
-gibbsii</i>, <i>Sorex trowbridgii</i>, <i>Sorex bendirii</i>, <i>Tamias townsendii</i>, <i>Microtus
-oregoni</i> and <i>Aplodontia rufa</i>. Each of these species has no
-close relatives in the Rocky Mountain Fauna and, save perhaps
-<i>Sorex trowbridgii</i>, occupies a unique ecological niche and has no
-counterpart in the Rocky Mountain Fauna.</p>
-
-<p>A second group includes species with close relatives in both the
-Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coastal faunas. This group is remarkable
-in that it is composed of either very closely related species
-or very strongly differentiated subspecies in each fauna. For example,
-the golden-mantled ground squirrel (<i>Citellus saturatus</i>) of
-the Cascade Mountains is specifically distinct from <i>Citellus lateralis</i>.
-Supposedly the Cascade form was isolated in the southern Cascades
-during Vashon-Wisconsin time. The Douglas squirrel (<i>Tamiasciurus
-douglasii</i>) of the Cascades, which has a red belly, is the same
-as the squirrel of the lowlands of western Washington but is specifically
-distinct from the red squirrel (<i>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus</i>) of
-the Rocky Mountain Fauna, which has a white belly. In the extreme
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
-northeastern Cascades the two species come together. They do not
-interbreed but seem to compete, for they do not occur together. The
-flying squirrel (<i>Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus</i>) of the Cascades is
-only slightly differentiated from other races of the Rocky Mountain
-Fauna but is much different, as are all Rocky Mountain races, from
-the western Washington subspecies (<i>Glaucomys s. oregonensis</i>). The
-red-backed mouse of the Cascades is <i>Clethrionomys gapperi</i>, a
-species distinct from <i>Clethrionomys californicus</i> of western Washington.
-The jumping mouse of the Cascades is <i>Zapus princeps
-trinotatus</i>, the same race that occurs in western Washington. It
-is quite distinct from, and has previously been considered a species
-separate from, the races of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. The snowshoe
-rabbit of the Cascades is closely related to other races of the
-Rocky Mountain Fauna but is distinct from <i>L. a. washingtonii</i> of
-western Washington. The pika (<i>Ochotona princeps</i>) of the Cascades
-was apparently isolated in the southern part of the range during
-the glaciation. After the retreat of the glaciers it extended its range
-northward. Competition between two subspecies has resulted in
-parallel distributions due to relative body size. The two races freely
-intergrade and the differences between them are not so great as in
-the other forms mentioned.</p>
-
-<p>The third group of mammalian species of the Cascades is composed
-of species typical of the Rocky Mountain Fauna such as:
-<i>Marmota caligata</i>, <i>Synaptomys borealis</i>, and <i>Orcamnos americanus</i>.
-Each has no ecological counterpart in the Pacific Coastal Fauna.
-Each is absent from the Cascades of Oregon.</p>
-
-<p>We interpret the mixture of faunas in the Cascades as follows:
-The Vashon-Wisconsin ice sheet was in place for a long period of
-time, longer, probably, than the Recent. During this time, forest
-mammals of the Pacific Coast were isolated from forest mammals
-farther east by glaciers to the north and desert to the east. Changes
-took place in both of the separated forest faunas. Certain species,
-perhaps, such as the mammoth, became extinct. Other forms were
-exterminated then or at an earlier time in one fauna or the other.
-If <i>Aplodontia</i>, <i>Neurotrichus</i> or <i>Scapanus</i> occurred in the Rocky
-Mountain faunal area, it lived in an inland area of rigorous climate,
-and disappeared there because it was unable to adapt itself to the
-cold. In the mild climate caused by proximity of the ocean, mild
-even in Vashon-Wisconsin time to judge from evidence yielded by
-study of fossil pollens, primitive forms such as moles, the Bendire
-shrew, and mountain beaver persisted along the coast, where there
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
-were no boreal conditions. Some alpine forms, such as <i>Marmota
-olympus</i>, <i>Ochotona princeps brunnescens</i> and <i>Citellus saturatus</i> persisted
-in the Olympic or Cascade mountains as relic species. On the
-whole, however, the glacial divergence resulted in a boreal forest
-fauna and a temperate forest fauna.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to change in component species, there were evolutionary
-changes in the species themselves. In some these were considerable,
-as shown by the differences between related forms of the
-two faunas. In most species, however, evolutionary changes have
-resulted in only subspecific differences.</p>
-
-<p>Following the retreat of the glaciers and the establishment of
-vegetation on the deglaciated areas, movements of the faunas occurred.
-The Rocky Mountain Fauna spread northward and westward,
-to northeastern Washington and, in Canada to the Pacific,
-occupying most of the land exposed by the glaciers. The Pacific
-Coastal Fauna spread northward only as far as the relatively slight
-barrier of the Fraser River. The Cascade Mountains became a
-"no-man's land." The pika and golden-mantled ground squirrel
-of the southern Cascades spread northward. Boreal Rocky Mountain
-forms with no ecologic competitors from the Pacific Coastal
-Fauna occupied the Cascades. Also, coastal species with no Rocky
-Mountain competitors occupied the Cascades. Nevertheless, some
-competition between members of the two faunas ultimately occurred,
-and in instances where closely related forms occurred in
-the two faunas, one or the other prevailed in the Cascade Range.
-For example, the Douglas squirrel and big jumping mouse are now
-established in that range, but the relative of each occurring in
-the Rocky Mountains is present in the extreme northeastern Cascades.
-It is possible that in these two cases, the related form occurring
-in the Rocky Mountains has just entered the area and that
-competition has just begun. With regard to the flying squirrel,
-red-backed mouse and snowshoe rabbit, the more boreal Rocky
-Mountain representatives have definitely displaced the coastal
-forms.</p>
-
-<p>Certain mass movements of mammals are popularly believed to
-have occurred with the advance of the ice sheets of the Pleistocene.
-The boreal birds and plants on higher peaks of the Cascades and
-the Sierra Nevada of California are thought to represent relics of
-faunas that moved northward. Such mass movements probably
-did occur and there is some evidence of their occurrence in Washington.
-Probably the pre-Wisconsin flora of coastal British Columbia
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
-consisted of coniferous forest similar to that of western Washington
-today. If this were the case, the mammalian species in
-British Columbia corresponded closely to those of western Washington.
-An influx of such a fauna into coastal Washington would
-scarcely be evident today if, indeed, it was noticeable even then. In
-eastern Washington, forest species forced southward would come
-upon the barren, inhospitable plains and deserts of the Columbian
-Plateau.</p>
-
-<p>The greater part of the southward moving forms found refuge
-in the Cascade Mountains where, for most of Wisconsin time, they
-were isolated in the southern Cascades. Examples are <i>Sorex palustris</i>,
-<i>Martes caurina</i>, <i>Martes pennanti</i>, <i>Gulo luscus</i>, <i>Vulpes fulva</i>,
-<i>Lynx canadensis</i>, <i>Tamias amoenus</i>, <i>Thomomys talpoides</i> (<i>douglasii</i>
-group), <i>Phenacomys intermedius</i>, <i>Microtus richardsoni</i> and <i>Ochotona
-princeps</i>. In each of these species little or no subspecific variation
-has occurred between the populations in the Cascades of Washington
-and the Cascades of Oregon.</p>
-
-<p>While the ice sheet existed in Washington there may have been
-relatively little movement of the mammalian fauna. There is definite
-evidence of a brief contact between the Rocky Mountain Fauna
-of the Blue Mountains and the fauna of the southern Cascades. For
-example, the pocket gopher of southeastern Washington (<i>Thomomys
-talpoides aequalidens</i>) is most closely related to the gopher of the
-Simcoe Anticline, and the long-tailed meadow mouse (<i>Microtus
-longicaudus halli</i>) of the Blue Mountains closely resembles the
-meadow mouse of the Yakima Valley.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Mammals of the Blue Mountains and those of the southern Cascades
-may have come into contact on the Simcoe-Horseheaven Hills
-Anticline, which now stretches 150 miles from the Cascades to the
-Wallula Water Gap. Excepting the easternmost 40 miles, it is
-timbered. East of the Columbia, a continuation of the anticline
-and other hills reaches to the Blue Mountains. Supposedly, in Wisconsin
-Time, this anticline possessed a more humid climate and
-the habitat was essentially the same as that of an alpine meadow
-today. The forms on the two ends of the anticline that are closely
-related inhabit humid, meadow habitat. In an earlier paper, <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>
-and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1944: 316) named this connection the Simcoe
-Bridge. Its existence was so strongly indicated by the distribution
-of pocket gophers in Washington that we supposed that the study
-of many other species would show that they crossed this bridge.
-However, study of additional species shows that for them the Simcoe
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
-Bridge was of only slight importance; there appears to have
-been but little mingling of the fauna of the Blue Mountains and
-the Cascades by way of the bridge. The Columbia River probably
-acted as an effective barrier to many forms that might otherwise
-have utilized it. The forms that did cross on this bridge are species
-known to be active in winter and to emigrate over considerable
-areas through tunnels under the snow (<a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>, 1939: 257). The
-pocket gopher and long-tailed meadow mouse may have crossed
-the Columbia, under a cover of snow, when the river was frozen
-over. The Columbia has frozen over at the Wallula Water Gap in
-historic times.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_19"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_060.jpg" alt="Fig. 19." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>&nbsp;
-    Pend Oreille River (or Clark Fork of the Columbia) from a point
-    near Newport, Washington, looking south, June 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife
-    Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 67.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Great movements of mammal species came after the retreat of
-the Vashon-Wisconsin ice. The greatest of these was the spread
-of the Rocky Mountain Fauna northward and eastward to the
-Pacific. In this process, northeastern Washington was inhabited
-by animals that probably came from Idaho and Montana. Some
-of the species from farther north, as for example the caribou, may
-first have been forced into Idaho and Montana by the glaciers. The
-invasion of northeastern Washington probably was not a mass
-movement of an entire fauna, because invasion seems to be still
-going on. As yet the woodchuck and striped ground squirrel of the
-Pend Oreille Mountains have not crossed the Columbia River, a
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
-relatively minor barrier in northeastern Washington. The mountains
-west of the Columbia are occupied instead by the yellow-bellied
-marmot, a member of the Great Basin Fauna, and there is
-no ecologic counterpart in these mountains of the golden-mantled
-ground squirrel.</p>
-
-<p>Also the invasion of the Cascade Mountains by a number of
-Rocky Mountain species may have been an intermittant or gradual
-movement. The red squirrel and Rocky Mountain subspecies of
-jumping mouse now are present in the extreme northeastern Cascades,
-where they possibly arrived relatively recently. The squirrel
-is competing with the coastal species already present and may
-eventually supplant it. The same may be true of the two forms
-of jumping mouse.</p>
-
-<p>The invasion by the Rocky Mountain Fauna was rapid as compared
-with that of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Evidence of this
-was presented in an earlier paper (<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1944:
-310), where it was shown that the gophers of the <i>douglasii</i> group,
-isolated during the Vashon time in the southern Cascades, made
-only a few feeble postglacial movements and then only when conditions
-were ideal. In this same time the <i>fuscus</i> group of gophers
-moved from Idaho and virtually surrounded the range of the
-<i>douglasii</i> group. This tendency to immobility seems to have been
-characteristic of every member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. If
-the retreat of the Vashon and Wisconsin glaciers occurred at the
-same time, both faunas had an equal opportunity to invade the deglaciated
-area. Yet, the Pacific Coastal Fauna actually moved
-northward along the coast only to the Fraser River area, and slightly
-farther in the Cascades.</p>
-
-<p>Possibly the two glaciers retreated at different times. The Wisconsin
-Glacier was a piedmont glacier, fed by valley glaciers to
-the west and east, and may have disappeared when the feeder
-glaciers dried up. The Vashon Glacier was instead an ice cap,
-supposedly self-supporting much in the same manner as is the
-Greenland Ice Cap, and may have persisted longer than the Wisconsin
-glacier. If it did persist longer it formed a barrier to the
-northward emigration of coastal species of mammals.</p>
-
-<p>Possibly, also, the whole of the Pacific Coastal Fauna possessed
-an inherent sluggishness resulting from their long residence in the
-uniform climate and habitat of the Pacific Coast. Certainly the
-species show today great habitat specialization as compared with
-species of the Rocky Mountain Fauna. Also, there are fewer
-individual mammals per unit of area in western Washington than
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
-in northeastern Washington. The persistence of the Vashon Glacier,
-an inherent lack of incentive to emigrate, or retention of a favorable
-environment, may account for the relatively small area invaded by
-the Pacific Coastal Fauna.</p>
-
-<p>The Olympic Mountains, on the Olympic Peninsula, rise above
-the timber-line and are surrounded by forested lowlands which in a
-sense isolates this mountain range. Early workers, notably <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>,
-obtained specimens of mammals from the Olympics and described
-numerous races, principally, it appears, on the supposition that because
-the range was somewhat isolated it should possess a unique
-fauna. Subsequent revisions of groups of mammals have indicated
-that most of the names proposed, on the basis of specimens from the
-Olympics, were either invalid or pertained to mammals found also
-in the Cascades.</p>
-
-<p>The mammals of the Olympic Peninsula appear to be divisible
-into three groups. A majority of them fall within the first group,
-namely coastal races possessing wide ranges in the lowlands of
-western Washington. The second group consists of species of the
-Rocky Mountain Fauna but with close relatives in the Cascades.
-The third group includes but two forms, both unique and found only
-on the Olympic Peninsula.</p>
-
-<p>The first group includes nonalpine forms of the lowlands surrounding
-the Olympic Mountains. For the most part these are
-identical with races of the Puget Sound area. A few are slightly
-differentiated from the mammals of the Puget Sound area but are
-the same as mammals from southwestern Washington. As will be
-shown later, some differentiation in the Pacific Coastal Fauna has
-occurred. This is thought to be evolution <i>in situ</i>, rather than the
-result of mass movements. Many nonalpine Coastal mammals
-occur in alpine habitat in the Olympics.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The second group consists of species of the Rocky Mountain
-Fauna. Their relationship to the mammals of the Cascades is indicated
-in the two parallel columns below.</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" class="tdl" summary="species of the Rocky Mountain Fauna">
-  <tr>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Olympics</span></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Cascades</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sorex palustris navigator</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sorex palustris navigator</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Martes caurina caurina</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Martes caurina caurina</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Martes pennanti</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Martes pennanti</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Tamias amoenus caurinus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Tamias amoenus ludibundus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Phenacomys intermedius oramontis</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Phenacomys intermedius oramontis</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="p1">Only two of these are racially distinct from their relatives in the
-Cascades. Of these the chipmunk is a plastic species and breaks
-down into many races in Washington. The chipmunks of the
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
-Olympics and of Mt. Rainier are so similar that <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1929: 77)
-considered them as identical and mapped Mount Rainier as an
-isolated part of the range of the Olympic form (see account of <i>T. a.
-caurinus</i>). The relationship of the red-backed mice, also, is close,
-but has been obscured by the usual assumption of relationship between
-<i>californicus</i> (<i>occidentalis</i>) and <i>gapperi</i>. The principal difference
-between the alpine forms is the pallor of <i>nivarius</i>. This
-pallor of mammals in general from the Olympic Mountains is noteworthy,
-but in the red-backed mouse is exceptionally noticeable.
-This pallor is discussed beyond in the paragraphs dealing with differentiation.
-Mention should be made here of <i>Myotis keenii</i>. This
-is a species which seems to have extended its range to Washington
-from the north. The power of flight, of course, removes it from
-consideration in attempting to reconstruct routes followed by terrestrial
-mammals.</p>
-
-<p>The route of the pocket gopher (<i>Thomomys</i>) in emigrating from
-the Cascades to the Olympics (<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1944: 310),
-was over the outwash train of the Mount Rainier Glaciers, especially
-the Nisqualli Glacier, to the extensive outwash aprons of the Vashon
-Glacier around southern Puget Sound, and thence into the Olympic
-Mountains. Under the conditions in early postglacial time this
-invasion route, hereinafter termed the Puget Bridge, around the
-Pleistocene Lake Russell (present Puget Sound), is thought to have
-been mainly an alpine meadow. Indeed, the isolated prairies remaining
-today are the unforested remnants of the outwash aprons
-(see <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1942: 69) and possess several species
-of alpine plants, notably the shooting star, camas, and bear grass.</p>
-
-<p>If the Vashon Glacier remained in place considerably longer than
-the Wisconsin Glacier, these Rocky Mountain species may have
-invaded the Cascades from northeastern Washington and travelled
-around the southern edge of the Puget Glacier or of Lake Russell.
-The close relationship of the races involved, however, suggests that
-the emigration took place much more recently. The barriers to
-such movement even today are slight, consisting principally of narrow
-areas of forest. For the water shrew, an almost continuous
-water habitat still exists, by way of the Nisqualli River, streams
-in the Puget Sound area, and the Satsop River in the Olympics.
-Tree-living forms such as the fisher and marten might easily travel
-the intervening distance today, and, by going along the forests north
-of the Chehalis River, reach the Olympics without crossing more
-than small streams and virtually without descending to the ground.
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
-Chipmunks and mice probably utilized the prairie or meadow area
-of the Puget Bridge, as did the gophers.</p>
-
-<p>Considering the long existence of the Puget Bridge, it is surprising
-that such forms as the pika, water rat and golden-mantled
-ground squirrel did not cross to the Olympics. These forms are,
-however, species of the higher or eastern slopes of the Cascades.</p>
-
-<p>The third group of Olympic mammals includes the white-bellied
-water shrew and the Olympic marmot, both indigenous forms.</p>
-
-<p>The Bendire water shrew, <i>Sorex bendirii albiventer</i>, is not restricted
-to alpine habitat but occurs throughout the Olympic Peninsula.
-Its nearest relative is <i>S. b. bendirii</i> of the rest of western
-Washington. <i>S. b. albiventer</i> differs from <i>bendirii</i> only in possessing
-a partially white ventral surface. We can only conclude that
-the white belly of <i>albiventer</i> is a mutation that the local environment
-has favored and that the characters have, therefore, spread
-through the population on the Olympic Peninsula. Occasional specimens
-are taken with dark bellies characteristic of <i>bendirii</i> (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>,
-1928: 199).</p>
-
-<p>The Olympic marmot, <i>Marmota olympus</i>, specifically distinct,
-and apparently the only preglacial relic species of alpine mammal
-in the Olympics, is most nearly related to <i>Marmota vancouverensis</i>
-of the unglaciated mountains of Vancouver Island, British Columbia.
-Both <i>olympus</i> and <i>vancouverensis</i> are close relatives of <i>Marmota
-caligata</i> which ranges southward into the Cascades of Washington.</p>
-
-<p>The Columbia River in its course westward through the Cascade
-Mountains, might be expected to act as a highway for the movement
-of mammals, but the extent to which it has done so seems to be
-slight, at least in postglacial time. The pocket gopher of southwestern
-Washington reached the area about Vancouver from the
-southern Cascades by way of meadows on the gravel terraces of
-Wisconsin glacial drift. No other mammal seems to have extended
-this far. Several Great Basin species, such as the cottontail, extend
-westward in the valley of the Columbia to the vicinity of Bingen.</p>
-
-<p>The mammals of western Oregon and southwestern Washington
-are closely similar as are the plants and climate, despite the fact
-that the broad Columbia River courses through the area and did
-so all through Recent and Pleistocene times. Many species would
-be expected to have crossed this barrier by swimming and rafting,
-and that they did so is indicated by the large number of mammals
-which are identical or very closely related on the two sides of the
-river.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Mammals which seem not to differ on the two sides of the river
-include:</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" class="tdl" summary="Mammals of Oregon">
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Scapanus townsendii</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Citellus beecheyi</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Scapanus orarius</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Tamias townsendii</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sorex trowbridgii</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sciurus griseus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sorex vagrans</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Glaucomys sabrinus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Canis lupus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Castor canadensis</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Felis concolor</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Microtus townsendii</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Lynx rufus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Microtus oregoni</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Mephitis mephitis</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Ondatra zibethicus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Spilogale gracilis</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Zapus princeps</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Procyon lotor</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Odocoileus hemionus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Ursus americanus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>&nbsp;</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="p1 pmb1">The following mammals are subspecifically distinct in western
-Washington and western Oregon:</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1" class="tdl" summary="Distinct mammals, western WA and OR">
-  <tr>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Washington</span></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Oregon</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sorex bendirii bendirii</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sorex bendirii palmeri</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sorex obscurus setosus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sorex obscurus bairdi</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Neotoma cinerea occidentalis</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Neotoma cinerea fusca</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Peromyscus maniculatus austerus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Clethrionomys californicus occidentalis</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Clethrionomys californicus californicus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Microtus longicaudus macrurus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Microtus longicaudus abditus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Aplodontia rufa rufa</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Aplodontia rufa pacifica</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="p1 pmb1">The following species are found in western Oregon but do not
-occur in western Washington:</p>
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" class="tdl" summary="Species ONLY in western OR">
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Vulpes fulva</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Phenacomys albipes</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Urocyon cinereoargenteus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Microtus canicaudus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Neotoma fuscipes</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Thomomys bulbivorus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Phenacomys silvicola</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Lepus californicus</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Phenacomys longicaudus</i></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><i>Sylvilagus bachmani</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="p1">Several of these mammals which occur south of the river but not
-north of it are common on the south bank, a few miles from favorable
-but uninhabited territory on the north.</p>
-
-<p>Seemingly the pre-Vashon faunas of western Oregon and Washington
-were similar. Some species became extinct in Washington in
-the course of Vashon isolation. Others persisted. The very close
-relationship of the mammals of the first group indicates some crossing
-of the river. The best known of such crossings was that of the
-Beechey ground squirrel which, previous to 1915, was unknown in
-Washington. In 1915, when there was no man-made bridge at
-White Salmon, it crossed the river and since has spread over an
-area of at least 50 square miles. The distribution of the mountain
-beavers is unusual in that the form in the lowlands of Washington
-is indistinguishable from the subspecies in the Cascades of Oregon.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The mammals that are racially distinct on the two sides of the
-Columbia River merit careful scrutiny. The <i>Peromyscus</i> of the
-two sides more closely resemble one another than those of southern
-Oregon resemble those of northern Oregon or than those of southern
-Washington resemble those of northern Washington. For <i>Peromyscus
-maniculatus</i>, the Columbia River is simply a convenient
-boundary for the separation of two slightly different races. The
-Oregon race of the bushy-tailed wood rat is a coastal type but the
-Washington form is the same as that of eastern Washington. Seemingly
-the more eastern race spread to an unoccupied habitat in
-western Washington. Other races that differ on the two sides of
-the Columbia probably developed while separated by the river.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_20"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_066.jpg" alt="Fig. 20." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>&nbsp;
-    Rocky bluff along north bank of the Columbia River near Lyle.
-    Washington. March 20. 1939. Habitat of Beechey ground squirrel and yellow-bellied
-    marmot. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>.
-    No. 640.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The San Juan Islands now possess a limited mammalian fauna.
-Unfortunately the activities of man have somewhat changed the
-native populations, especially by the introduction of the domestic
-rabbit which is now a serious pest in the islands. The Douglas
-squirrel, present on Blakeley Island, is said to have been introduced
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
-and one resident claims to have first brought it to the island. Two
-different persons claim credit for introducing the Townsend chipmunk
-on Orcas Island but do not account for its presence on Lopez
-Island. The three mammals most abundant and widely distributed
-in the islands are <i>Sorex vagrans</i>, <i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i> and <i>Microtus
-townsendii</i>. These species, at least, probably reached the
-islands at an early time. The two last named are now subspecifically
-distinct from their mainland relatives. Other mammals which
-probably were established before the arrival of the white man include
-the mink, otter, beaver, muskrat, raccoon and black-tailed
-deer.</p>
-
-<p>The Great Basin Fauna of eastern Washington exists as three
-units, one on the Columbian Plateau, another in southeastern Washington
-and the third in the Yakima Valley area. The desert species
-of the Yakima Valley are more closely related to the species of
-eastern Oregon than they are to those of the Columbian Plateau.
-In a number of respects the Columbian Plateau gives indications of
-age. The ground squirrel, <i>Citellus washingtoni</i>, is related to, but
-specifically distinct from <i>Citellus townsendii</i> of the Yakima Valley
-and eastern Oregon. <i>Perognathus parvus lordi</i> is a well-marked race,
-as is <i>Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi</i> and <i>Thomomys talpoides
-devexus</i>. We suppose that these species were present on the Columbian
-Plateau at least through the Recent and probably through all of
-Wisconsin Time. The loess deposits of eastern Washington seem
-to have been laid down in Wisconsin and Recent times. These
-indicate an arid climate which, although probably cool, was probably
-not so cold as to exterminate these species. On the other hand,
-some species that are now abundant on the Columbian Plateau seem
-to have arrived there relatively recently. The black-tailed jack
-rabbit, for example, was unknown in eastern Washington before
-1870 when it appeared in Walla Walla County. In 1905 it crossed
-the Snake River on ice and invaded the Columbian Plateau where
-it rapidly spread over the whole area. In January, 1920, it crossed
-the Columbia in two places and spread over the Yakima Valley.</p>
-
-<p>The known facts of this movement were sufficiently impressive
-to cause the author to study rather closely the distribution of mammals
-in this area. The collection of bones from a cave along the
-Columbia River near Vantage, Grant County, on the Columbian
-Plateau, is especially helpful in this respect. This cave was first
-visited in 1938. It had been the habitat of owls, bats, and primitive
-man. The floor of the cave was buried under from one to three
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
-feet of bat guano, much of which had been hauled away for fertilizer.
-Here and there we found traces of fire and occasional piles
-of mussel shells. Some arrowheads and one beautiful obsidian
-spear head were found, all buried in guano and about midway between
-the floor and the top of the deposit. Remains of mammals
-were abundant through the bat guano, and apparently had been
-brought to the cave both by man and owls. The jaw of a mountain
-sheep was found. This species was known to be present when
-the first settlers reached the area (<a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a>, 1940: 558). The remains
-of smaller mammals included gopher, pocket mouse, muskrat,
-meadow mouse, deer mouse, coyote and white-tailed jack rabbit.
-No remains of cottontail, black-tailed jack rabbit or harvest mouse
-were found. The absence of the cottontail was especially surprising,
-in that fully thirty skulls of white-tailed jack rabbits were
-noted. The grasshopper mouse (<i>Onychomys</i>) was also absent,
-but this species is not common. The two rabbits and the harvest
-mouse, however, are abundant in the area today. The cottontail
-and harvest mouse have only recently been recorded from the
-Okanogan Valley of British Columbia (<a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> and Hatter, 1940: 9).
-The black-tailed jack rabbit has never been taken there.</p>
-
-<p>Apparently then, some species have only recently entered the
-Upper Sonoran Life-zone of eastern Washington. They have, of
-course, reached the state from Oregon. The first step in the invasion
-probably was the occupation of southeastern Washington. No
-barrier prevents mammals from reaching southeastern Washington
-from eastern Oregon but the Columbia to the north and west prevents
-them from occupying the Yakima Valley, and the Snake River
-prevents them from reaching the Columbian Plateau. The kangaroo
-rat, Great Basin striped skunk and Great Basin spotted skunk now
-are at this stage of invasion. The second stage was the crossing
-of the Columbia River to the Yakima Valley. This has been accomplished
-by the black-tailed jack rabbit and, earlier, by the
-pocket mouse, <i>Perognathus parvus parvus</i>, and ground squirrel,
-<i>Citellus townsendii</i>. The third stage was the crossing of the Snake
-River and occupation of the Columbian Plateau. The final stage
-is the crossing of the northern Columbia River and occupation of
-the Okanogan Valley.</p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break">SPECULATION AS TO THE LATER DISTRIBUTIONAL<br />
-HISTORY OF THE MAMMALS</h2>
-
-
-<p>Whereas it is probable that a few of the species now occurring in
-Washington evolved there, most are immigrants from other areas.
-The success of a given species in any area is dependent on numerous
-factors which may be classified under food, shelter from the elements,
-protection from enemies and safe breeding places. The factors
-may be of an inorganic nature, such as climate, soil and exposure
-or they may be organic, such as vegetation, competition for
-food and response to enemies. Abundance results in population
-pressure and a tendency for the range of a species to expand.</p>
-
-<p>Mammalian populations are dynamic and change in accordance
-with alterations in environment. Because the later geologic history
-of the state of Washington was violent, with resultant changes in
-climate and geography, the mammalian populations and the distribution
-of the species have changed much. With changes in environment,
-rare species may become common; common and widespread
-species may become rare or extinct; species foreign to the
-area may enter, become established and affect the distribution of
-other forms.</p>
-
-<p>Subspecies are groups of individuals with similar genetic components
-or are groups of microgeographic races. In instances where
-the phenotypic expression of these similar genetic factors, or the
-"characters," are, as a unit, uniformly different from those of animals
-of the same species in another geographic area, it is convenient
-to give recognition to the two kinds by separate subspecific name.
-Intergradation between two geographically adjacent subspecies occurs,
-directly or where impassable barriers separate them, indirectly
-by way of one or more other subspecies. Subspecies of mammals
-are geographic races, which means that to warrant recognition by
-subspecific name, there must be a logical geographic range in addition
-to morphological characters.</p>
-
-<p>Timofeef-Ressovsky (1932, 1940) advances the theory of harmoniously
-stabilized gene-complexes to account for the persistence
-of subspecies. The persistence of subspecies as genetic units has
-been best explained, I feel, by <a href="#p_Sumner">Sumner</a> (1932: 84-86) who theorizes
-as follows:</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-<p>1. The number of young produced by a subspecies is greater than the
-carrying capacity of the land they occupy, at least at certain times or in some
-years.</p>
-</blockquote>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p>
-
-<blockquote>
-<p>2. Population pressure results, with a tendency of individuals to emigrate
-outwards, to the border of the range of the subspecies, where the population
-pressure is less.</p>
-
-<p>3. The outward moving tendency keeps the center of the range of the subspecies
-genetically "pure."</p>
-
-<p>4. The peripheral wave continues, as long as favorable habitat is encountered,
-until an oppositely directed wave of another race is encountered.</p>
-
-<p>5. Areas of intergradation represent local mingling of genetic factors and
-do not affect the "pure" individuals of the central part of the range of the
-subspecies.</p>
-</blockquote>
-
-<p>Certain aspects of this hypothesis are strongly supported by the
-distribution of mammals in Washington. Witness the rapid invasion
-of <i>Citellus beecheyi</i> and <i>Lepus californicus</i> in Washington,
-and the eastern cottontail in western Washington and the domestic
-rabbit in the San Juan Islands. The volume of the "wave of population
-pressure" where no opposing force is met, is scarcely believable.
-In seven years the eastern cottontails released in southwestern
-Washington multiplied from a maximum of 12 individuals to a
-minimum of 40,000.</p>
-
-<p>Competition between subspecies where their ranges come into
-contact seems to be exceptional. <i>Peromyscus maniculatus oreas</i>
-and <i>P. m. austerus</i> seem to afford an example of this. However,
-in a few cases subspecies seem to be determined in part by adaptation
-to restricted environments; each race lives only where local conditions
-favor its respective adaptations.</p>
-
-<p>In the pocket gophers, where restricted habitat and fossorial habits
-cause numerous microgeographic races, these microgeographic races
-may be potential subspecies. This is especially true in the Puget
-Sound area, where six races occur in a small area. These races
-meet all the requirements of subspecies and are recognized as such.
-It should be pointed out, however, that these races and probably
-many other races produced by isolation, may represent degenerative
-mutations of the type mentioned by <a href="#p_Wright">Wright</a> (in <a href="#p_Huxley">Huxley</a>, 1940).
-The principal differences of such races seem to have resulted from
-the loss of factors of original multiple factor series, with resultant
-homogeneity of the race. Inherent variability is another thing
-that has to be taken into account when considering the differentiation
-of the mammals of Washington into subspecies. The pocket
-gopher is an extremely plastic species, especially in Washington,
-whereas the Douglas squirrel is less so. The flying squirrels, the
-yellow-pine chipmunk and the snowshoe rabbit are the other plastic
-species. These species are not so likely to break up into numerous
-subspecies over all of their ranges as they are in Washington where
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
-in a small area the topography is highly varied. The range of the
-one subspecies, <i>Tamias amoenus amoenus</i>, to the southeast of Washington
-is larger than the combined ranges of all six races occurring
-in Washington but, so far as I can see, the topography and environment
-are no more varied in Washington than in the mentioned
-area to the southeast of it. The range of one subspecies, <i>Lepus
-americanus americanus</i>, in Canada is several times larger than the
-entire state of Washington, in which four races are found.</p>
-
-<p>The shrews are poor subjects for a study of differentiation, principally
-because their small size makes it difficult to see morphological
-variations that may be present. The difficulty is increased because
-cranial sutures become ossified at an early age. Although it is
-difficult to evaluate the differentiation in them, there is some. The
-bats, especially the <i>Myotis</i>, are less restricted by geographic barriers
-than are terrestial mammals. Nevertheless, obvious differentiation
-exists. The larger predatory mammals and the artiodactyls are
-able to move over large areas, at least in the breeding season, but
-in these animals also, some differentiation has occurred.</p>
-
-<p>The greatest changes, other than the extinctions, to occur in the
-mammalian fauna of Washington since the late Pleistocene, are
-changes in distribution. The interglacial cycle preceding the Vashon-Wisconsin
-glaciation was of far greater duration than the Recent.
-Presumably the mammalian fauna had, from a distributional standpoint,
-reached a relatively stable condition. The descent of the
-Vashon-Wisconsin ice destroyed the stability and set parts of the
-fauna in motion. Probably no stability was reached before the
-ice began to recede, and when it did so the previous movements of
-the various species were, at least in part, reversed. Stability has
-not yet been reached by the mammalian fauna of Washington.
-Great changes have occurred in historic times and other changes
-probably are under way at present.</p>
-
-<p>In the following pages an attempt has been made to interpret the
-probable late Pleistocene and Recent distributional history of the
-species of mammals occurring in Washington. The interpretations
-are made in the light of what is known of the physical history of the
-state and are to be accepted as such rather than as evidence for
-the conclusions made concerning the physical history of the state
-of Washington and adjacent areas.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Scapanus townsendii.</span>&mdash;Probably this animal was confined to
-the Humid Transition Life-zone of the Pacific Coast since the
-Pliocene.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Scapanus orarius.</span>&mdash;This species probably had a history similar
-to that of <i>townsendii</i> up to the late Pleistocene. It seems slightly
-more adaptable than <i>townsendii</i>, and to be able to extend higher into
-the mountains. The distribution of the subspecies <i>orarius</i> is almost
-exactly that of <i>S. townsendii</i>. In Oregon, <i>orarius</i> extended eastward
-over the Cascades where the subspecies <i>schefferi</i> developed. Perhaps
-this subspecies developed since the Pleistocene and since that time
-extended along the Columbia River Valley to southeastern Washington.
-The race <i>yakimensis</i>, in the Yakima Valley area, is closely
-related to <i>schefferi</i>, and seemingly could have been developed from
-a stock of <i>schefferi</i> that migrated westward across the Simcoe Bridge.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Neurotrichus gibbsii.</span>&mdash;The history of <i>Neurotrichus</i> in North
-America was probably similar to that of the two species of <i>Scapanus</i>.
-It tolerates environmental differences to about the same
-degree that <i>Scapanus orarius</i> does but occurs much farther south
-(Monterey County, California) than <i>S. orarius</i>. This may be because
-<i>Neurotrichus</i> has no counterpart to compete with it in the
-south, whereas <i>Scapanus orarius</i> must compete in northern California
-with the morphologically similar <i>Scapanus latimanus</i>. <i>S.
-orarius</i> stops short at this place and <i>S. latimanus</i> occupies all the
-territory to the south.</p>
-
-<p>The shrew-mole of the lowland of Washington (<i>N. g. minor</i>)
-probably became distinct from the mountain subspecies (<i>gibbsii</i>) in
-Vashon-Wisconsin time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sorex cinereus.</span>&mdash;It is reasonable to suppose that the cinereous
-shrew had a continuous range across the forested area of British
-Columbia in pre-Wisconsin time. Without having been isolated,
-the dark coastal race (<i>streatori</i>) may have developed from the
-wider-ranging inland <i>cinereus</i>, as a response to the denser, humid,
-coastal forest-habitat, after having been forced southward to Washington
-by the Vashon Glaciation. Since that time it is presumed to
-have reoccupied the coast of British Columbia and southern Alaska.
-This coastal race might have developed in Vashon time, while isolated
-in southwestern Washington. The Cascades are populated by
-a race of the Rocky Mountain Fauna, <i>S. c. cinereus</i>, which probably
-entered the Cascades from northeastern Washington or British Columbia
-in Recent Time. The absence of the species in western
-Oregon, its rarity in western Washington, and its abundance farther
-north suggest a northern origin and northward rather than southward
-postglacial movement. Had the full species <i>cinereus</i> been a
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
-preglacial resident of western Washington we would expect <i>streatori</i>
-or a race related to it to occur in the Cascades.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sorex merriami.</span>&mdash;The periphery of the range of this member
-of the Great Basin Fauna may have been in southeastern Washington
-since pre-Wisconsin time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sorex trowbridgii.</span>&mdash;This shrew is a typical Pacific coastal species
-with an extensive range along the Pacific Coast south of Washington.
-The Washington population may have been isolated in
-southwestern Washington during Vashon time or may have crossed
-the Columbia into Washington from western Oregon early in the
-Recent. Since the retreat of the ice it has extended northward to
-southern British Columbia and eastward to the eastern side of the
-Cascades. Save for crossing the Cascades its postglacial movements
-have been slight, as is typical of Pacific Coastal species. The
-race <i>destructioni</i> probably has been isolated on Destruction Island
-for several thousand years.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sorex vagrans.</span>&mdash;This species probably has had a continuous
-range over the western United States since the late Pleistocene.
-The dark coastal race (<i>vagrans</i>) probably was differentiated from
-the paler races of the Great Basin in response to the more humid
-climate along the coast.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sorex obscurus.</span>&mdash;The history of this shrew of alpine predilection
-probably corresponded closely to that of <i>Sorex cinereus</i>. The derivation
-of the dark, long-tailed, coastal race (<i>S. o. setosus</i>) from the
-smaller, paler, inland race (<i>obscurus</i>) probably occurred before
-Vashon-Wisconsin Time. <i>Sorex o. setosus</i> is one of a complex of
-races distributed along the Pacific Coast from Alaska to California.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sorex palustris.</span>&mdash;This species has a wide range in North America
-and extends southward in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada Chain to
-southern California. Its extensive range at present in this mountain
-chain suggests that it was resident in the Cascades previous to
-Wisconsin time. Mountain water shrews probably reached the
-Olympic Mountains from the Cascades by way of the Puget
-Bridge in early Recent Time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sorex bendirii.</span>&mdash;This Pacific Coastal species probably had a
-history very similar to that of <i>Neurotrichus</i> and <i>Scapanus orarius</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The difference between the Bendire water shrews of western
-Washington and western Oregon indicates that the Washington population
-was separated from the shrews of western Oregon during
-Vashon Time. The white-bellied race of the Olympic Peninsula
-is probably of local origin.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Microsorex hoyi.</span>&mdash;The Washington record of this shrew at
-Loon Lake, Stevens County, is in an area where mammals typical
-of the Rocky Mountain Fauna occur.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Myotis lucifugus.</span>&mdash;The dark race of this species (<i>alascensis</i>)
-may have persisted through the glacial period in southwestern
-Washington. The race <i>carissima</i>, of the Great Basin Fauna, may
-have entered the state since the glacial period, from the south, of
-course. Habitat selection determines their range at present.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Myotis yumanensis.</span>&mdash;The dark, coastal race (<i>saturatus</i>) seems
-to be an established member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Unlike
-<i>lucifugus</i>, the coastal race is not found east of the Cascades. The
-race <i>sociabilis</i>, of the Great Basin, has doubtless entered the desert
-of eastern Washington from eastern Oregon.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Myotis keenii.</span>&mdash;The southernmost record station for this north
-coastal species is on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington. It
-probably developed in the humid, northern part of the Pacific
-Coastal area previous to the last Pleistocene glaciation and extended
-its range to the south in Vashon-Wisconsin Time. The
-range of tolerance in <i>M. k. keenii</i> seems to be more restricted than
-that of <i>M. lucifugus alascensis</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Myotis evotis.</span>&mdash;In Washington, the distribution of this bat is
-similar to that of <i>Myotis lucifugus</i>. The dark, forest race probably
-originated in the north-coastal region. The paler race, that developed
-in the southwest, entered eastern Washington from Oregon.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Myotis thysanodes.</span>&mdash;In Washington this species has been recorded
-only in the southeastern part where the Great Basin Fauna
-occurs. It probably originated in the southwestern United States,
-and a point in British Columbia a little way north of Washington
-marks the northern edge of its natural range.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Myotis volans</span> and <span class="smcap">Myotis californicus</span>.&mdash;Remarks made
-about <i>Myotis lucifugus</i> apply also to these two species.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Myotis subulatus.</span>&mdash;The northwestern periphery of the range of
-this species seems to be in eastern Washington.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lasionycteris noctivagans.</span>&mdash;Undifferentiated subspecifically
-from coast to coast, no basis is provided for judging the route by
-which this species entered the state.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pipistrellus hesperus.</span>&mdash;The northwestern periphery of the
-range of this bat, also, lies in eastern Washington.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Eptesicus fuscus.</span>&mdash;Big brown bats from both eastern and
-western Washington seem to have been derived from the Pacific
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
-Coastal race of the species. Presumably it extended its range westward
-across the Cascades in early post-Pleistocene Time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lasiurus cinereus.</span>&mdash;No speculation as to the distributional history
-of the hoary bat seems justified at present.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Corynorhinus rafinesquii.</span>&mdash;The dark, coastal race of this bat
-probably persisted in southwestern Washington and western Oregon
-through Vashon Time and moved northward in the Recent. The
-paler <i>intermedius</i> probably invaded eastern Washington from
-eastern Oregon in the Recent.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Antrozous pallidus.</span>&mdash;This species strays into eastern Washington
-from Oregon as part of the Great Basin Fauna.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ursus americanus.</span>&mdash;The dark, western race of the black bear
-(<i>altifrontalis</i>) and the paler, inland race (<i>cinnamomum</i>) were probably
-separated by a glacial divergence. The inland race has
-entered northeastern Washington in the Recent with other members
-of the Rocky Mountain Fauna.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ursus chelan</span>, etc.&mdash;The apparent past distribution of <i>chelan</i> indicates
-it to have invaded Washington from British Columbia since
-the Pleistocene.</p>
-
-<p>The apparent absence of grizzly bears from the southern Cascades
-and western Washington may indicate their absence from these
-areas immediately before pre-Vashon time, or their extermination
-in or shortly after that period.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Procyon lotor.</span>&mdash;The raccoon of western Washington seems to
-be the Pacific Coastal race which occurs also in western Oregon and
-northwestern California. This indicates that the coastal race
-(<i>psora</i>) was confined to the coastal area south of Washington during
-Vashon Time and has only recently reinvaded western Washington.
-It is possible, though less likely, that raccoons existed in southwestern
-Washington during Vashon Time but did not develop racial
-characters, or that the Columbia was crossed so frequently that
-genetic differences were dispersed throughout the entire population.</p>
-
-<p>Reasons why the second hypothesis is inadequate are: (1) Raccoons
-range but little north of the state of Washington, both east
-and west of the Cascades. (2) Raccoons of western Washington
-and the area about San Francisco Bay, California, are as much
-alike as are raccoons from southwestern Washington and northwestern
-Oregon. It is thought that raccoons, if resident in western
-Washington since interglacial time, would have developed strong
-racial characters, and the fact that they have not indicates that
-they have entered the state at a relatively recent date.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The raccoon of eastern Washington (<i>excelsus</i>) is a member of the
-Great Basin Fauna and has probably included southeastern Washington
-in its natural range for a long period of time. The raccoon
-has not extended its normal range into northeastern Washington,
-although it is seemingly ideal raccoon habitat; only an occasional
-vagrant occurs there. A stock of raccoons from which emigrants
-might come has existed in southeastern Washington and the Yakima
-Valley for some time. The Columbia River might serve as a highway
-by which emigrants could reach northeastern Washington.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Martes caurina.</span>&mdash;The earlier distributional history of the western
-marten has been postulated by <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a> (1939: 131-132), who
-stated: "When the ancestral stock split into the two groups, the
-one that gave rise to <i>americana</i> may have pushed eastward across
-Canada to the Atlantic Coast; the other, giving rise to <i>caurina</i>, may
-have migrated southward along the Sierra Nevada-Cascade and
-Rocky mountains. Perhaps the great ice sheet was instrumental in
-pushing <i>americana</i> eastward and separating it geographically from
-<i>caurina</i>." The present occurrence of <i>americana</i> in Alaska and
-British Columbia is thought to have been by invasion from the east
-in postglacial time.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>' theory seems basically correct but subject to correction
-in detail. The presence of <i>caurina</i> in the southern Rocky Mountains
-suggests that it is not a Pacific Coastal species in the common
-sense. Had <i>americana</i> occupied northern British Columbia in pre-Wisconsin
-Time, it and not <i>caurina</i> would be expected to occur in
-the southern Rocky Mountains today, for the form found in British
-Columbia almost certainly would have been forced into the Rockies.
-The range now occupied by <i>caurina</i> in the Rocky Mountains is so
-extensive as to suggest that martens could not have migrated into
-all of it from the Pacific Coast since Vashon Time, even had the
-region been unoccupied by any species of marten. The presence of
-<i>americana</i> in Alaska and British Columbia suggests that it arrived
-in those areas before <i>caurina</i> and that had the Rocky Mountains
-been unoccupied by martens in pre-Wisconsin time, <i>americana</i> and
-not <i>caurina</i> would have reached the Rockies first. It appears that
-<i>caurina</i> occupied much of western North America in pre-Wisconsin
-Time and was forced southward into the southern Rocky Mountains
-and along the Pacific Coast by Vashon-Wisconsin ice.</p>
-
-<p>The separation of <i>americana</i> and <i>caurina</i> may be supposed to
-have occurred before the pre-Vashon-Wisconsin interglacial interval,
-perhaps by a glacier similar to but antedating the Vashon-Wisconsin
-glaciation.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The martens of western Washington (<i>Martes caurina caurina</i>) are
-a coastal race. Those of northeastern Washington belong to a race
-of the Rocky Mountain Fauna, and are referred to <i>M. c. origenes</i>.
-<a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a> (1939: 132) refers the martens of Idaho to <i>Martes caurina
-caurina</i>. I have compared specimens from Idaho with animals
-trapped for fur from the Pacific Coast proper and feel that the animals
-from northeastern Washington and those from Idaho are more
-like <i>origenes</i> than <i>caurina</i>, although perhaps not typical. The animals
-from the Pacific Coast proper are <i>caurina</i> and have darker
-heads and brown instead of yellow patches on the throat.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Martes pennanti.</span>&mdash;Fishers are found throughout the Cascade
-Mountains and probably were widely distributed over western North
-America in pre-Wisconsin Time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Mustela erminea.</span>&mdash;The distribution of ermines along the coast
-of northern California and in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada of Oregon
-and California indicates, as does their differentiation there, that
-they ranged southward to these areas before and during Vashon-Wisconsin
-Time.</p>
-
-<p>In immediate pre-Vashon-Wisconsin Time, the dark race <i>streatori</i>
-probably occurred in western Washington. The race <i>murica</i> probably
-occurred in the Blue Mountains then, as it does today, but
-probably occurred also in the Cascades of Washington. The descent
-of the Vashon glaciers probably displaced <i>streatori</i> from the northern
-part of its range, at least temporarily. In the Cascades, <i>murica</i> was
-likewise forced southward. Ermines related to the northern <i>richardsonii</i>
-were forced into northern Washington and Idaho by the Wisconsin
-ice. They probably were unable to live on the barren, unglaciated
-plains of eastern Washington but persisted in Idaho.</p>
-
-<p>The ranges of the three forms at the maximum extent of the
-Vashon-Wisconsin may be reconstructed as follows: <i>streatori</i> in
-southwestern Washington; <i>murica</i> in the southern Cascades and the
-Blue Mountains; <i>invicta</i> stock in northern Idaho. While so isolated,
-the ermines of the southern Cascades probably mingled, to a
-certain extent, with <i>streatori</i> and developed the characters that
-now separate <i>gulosa</i> from both <i>murica</i> and <i>streatori</i>. The intermediate
-nature of <i>gulosa</i> has been mentioned by <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> (1945: 85).</p>
-
-<p>The retreat of the ice allowed <i>streatori</i> to move north and <i>invicta</i>
-to move north and east into Washington and the northeastern
-Cascades. To a lesser extent, <i>gulosa</i> may have moved north. The
-poorly-marked race <i>olympica</i> probably evolved from <i>streatori</i> in
-the Recent. It is difficult to account for the dark race <i>fallenda</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>It must have evolved from <i>streatori</i> in the Recent but the origin
-of such a strongly marked race in such a short time is surprising.
-It might be mentioned that a similarly differentiated race of chipmunk,
-<i>Eutamias amoenus felix</i>, occupies much the same range.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Mustela frenata.</span>&mdash;The long-tailed weasels of the Pacific Coast
-behave as a plastic group and clearly show the effect of the Vashon-Wisconsin
-Divergence. The range of the coastal race, <i>altifrontalis</i>,
-indicates that it was isolated in southwestern Washington during
-Vashon Time. In that period, or shortly after, it extended its range
-southward but only along the extreme, coastal area of Oregon (see
-<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, 1936: 101). Following the retreat of the ice it extended its
-range northward to the deglaciated area of western Washington.</p>
-
-<p>Also following the retreat of the ice, a Great Basin subspecies
-(<i>nevadensis</i>) extended its range northward. This race seems to
-have been more adaptable and successful than other kinds of Great
-Basin mammals, for it extended its range farther northward, eastward
-and westward than most.</p>
-
-<p>A third race, <i>washingtoni</i>, was isolated in the southern Cascade
-Mountains during Vashon Time and became differentiated from
-both <i>altifrontalis</i> and <i>nevadensis</i>. It is now found in the Cascades
-from central Oregon north to Mount Rainier. It is difficult to see
-why it did not extend its range to include the northern Cascades
-when the glacial ice left, but it did not. Instead <i>altifrontalis</i> entered
-the northern Cascades from the west and <i>nevadensis</i> did the
-same from the east. Weasels obtained in habitats north of Mt.
-Rainier are intergrades between <i>altifrontalis</i> and <i>nevadensis</i>.</p>
-
-<p>One is reminded here of the <i>douglasii</i> group of <i>Thomomys talpoides</i>
-in which subspecies did not move north of Mt. Rainier in postglacial
-time. The area north of Mt. Rainier was populated instead
-by gophers of the <i>fuscus</i> group, subspecies of which invaded the
-area from the east. Perhaps Mt. Rainier itself served as a barrier
-to alpine mammals in the immediate post-Pleistocene. Perhaps
-<i>Mustela f. washingtoni</i> will eventually extend its range northward,
-displacing the <i>altifrontalis-nevadensis</i> intergrades from the habitats
-to which <i>washingtoni</i> may be better adapted.</p>
-
-<p>The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington are occupied
-by a weasel (<i>effera</i>) that has a more extensive range in eastern
-Oregon. The range of this race has probably not changed materially
-for a long period of time.</p>
-
-<p>One would expect the weasels from extreme northeastern Washington
-to be referable to the race <i>oribasa</i>, of the Rocky Mountain
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
-Fauna. Instead they are intermediate between that race and the
-Great Basin race, <i>nevadensis</i>. Apparently <i>nevadensis</i> was so dynamic
-and adaptable that it actually entered the geographic ranges
-of surrounding races for some distance. In view of <a href="#p_Sumner">Sumner</a>'s theory
-for the retention of subspecies, one might say that the population
-pressure of <i>nevadensis</i> on the periphery of its range is stronger than
-the opposing pressure of some surrounding races.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Mustela vison.</span>&mdash;Pending a review of the minks of North
-America, little can be said concerning their historical distribution
-in the state of Washington. From the general range of the species
-in western North America, one would expect some effect of the
-Vashon-Wisconsin Divergence to be apparent. There is some evidence
-for this. Minks from Idaho and adjacent parts of British Columbia
-are distinctly less reddish than minks from the area about
-Puget Sound, as noted by <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a> (1939: 138).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Gulo luscus.</span>&mdash;The range of the subspecies <i>luteus</i>, peculiar to
-the Cascades and Sierra Nevada suggest that the wolverine may
-have been forced southward in the Cascades and there isolated during
-Vashon Time. The differences separating the southern race from
-the northern may have been developed while the two populations
-were isolated. The range of the wolverine was probably more extensive
-in glacial and immediate postglacial time than at present.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lutra canadensis.</span>&mdash;The otter of western Washington seems to
-be a member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna. Little can be said regarding
-the distributional history of the species in the state, for
-specimens from eastern Washington are not numerous enough to
-permit of a person certainly establishing their systematic position.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Spilogale gracilis.</span>&mdash;The western race of the civet cat (<i>latifrons</i>)
-seems to be a coastal race, isolated in southwestern Washington
-and western Oregon during Vashon time. The eastern race, <i>saxatilis</i>,
-is a race of the Great Basin Fauna, that has entered the state
-from Oregon and that will probably extend its range to the north.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Mephitis mephitis.</span>&mdash;Of the four subspecies of skunks occurring
-in Washington, two seem to have been resident in the state
-during Vashon Time. The western race, <i>spissigrada</i>, was probably
-isolated in southwestern Washington and extended its range northward,
-in the deglaciated area of western Washington, after the
-retreat of the ice. Another race (<i>notata</i>) was probably isolated
-in the southeastern Cascades and adjacent Oregon. <i>M. m. hudsonica</i>
-of the Rocky Mountain Fauna entered the northeastern
-part of Washington after the ice retreated from there. A race of
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
-the Great Basin Fauna, <i>major</i>, entered southeastern Washington
-from Oregon and may eventually extend its range farther north.</p>
-
-<p>It is interesting to note that both of the western races, <i>spissigrada</i>
-and <i>notata</i>, both of which probably developed in Washington
-during Vashon Time, occupy limited ranges in adjacent Oregon
-(<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, 1936: 308).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Taxidea taxus.</span>&mdash;This species has probably long been resident
-on the Columbian Plateau and in southeastern Washington. For
-the early distributional history of the species see <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> (1944: 17).
-Pleistocene remains, referable to this race, have been found in
-Franklin County.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Vulpes fulva.</span>&mdash;The red fox of the Cascades was probably
-isolated there during Vashon Time by glacial ice. Its range extends
-southward in the Cascades to Oregon. The fox of eastern
-Washington is probably a member of the Rocky Mountain Fauna
-that lived in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington in
-Wisconsin Time and that emigrated to northeastern Washington
-in Recent Time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Canis latrans.</span>&mdash;The distributional history of the coyote in
-Washington is not clear.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Canis lupus.</span>&mdash;The dark wolf (<i>fuscus</i>) of western Washington
-is probably a coastal race. The race that may have occurred in
-northeastern Washington probably was an invader from the Rocky
-Mountain Fauna, and the race that possibly occurred in southeastern
-Washington would be assumed to have long been a resident
-of the area.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Felis concolor.</span>&mdash;The cougar of western Washington is a
-coastal race, probably developed while isolated in southwestern
-Washington and western Oregon. The cougar of northeastern
-Washington probably entered the state with other Rocky Mountain
-species, early in the Recent. The cougar of the Blue Mountains
-of southeastern Washington has probably long been resident there.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lynx rufus.</span>&mdash;The bobcat of western Washington seems to be
-a coastal race that was isolated in either southwestern Washington
-or western Oregon by Vashon ice. It has since extended its range
-into southern British Columbia. The bobcat of eastern Washington
-seems to be a member of the Great Basin Fauna that has
-spread to some forested areas on the periphery of the more arid
-life-zones.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lynx canadensis.</span>&mdash;The lynx is an element of a northern fauna
-that was probably forced southward into the Cascades and Rocky
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
-Mountains. Its range was probably more extensive, as is indicated
-by the scattered records of its occurrence in Oregon (<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>,
-1936:271).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Marmota monax.</span>&mdash;The woodchuck invaded northeastern Washington
-in the early Recent with the Rocky Mountain Fauna.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Marmota flaviventris.</span>&mdash;The yellow-bellied marmot is a typical
-member of the faunas of the Great Basin and the southern Rocky
-Mountains. It has doubtless entered southeastern Washington
-from eastern Oregon at an early time. In northeastern Washington,
-west of the Columbia River, it occupies alpine habitat, but it does
-not occur farther east, where <i>Marmota monax</i> is found, or in the
-Cascades where <i>Marmota caligata</i> lives.</p>
-
-<p>The yellow-bellied marmots are great wanderers, and commonly
-are found in scattered outcrops far out on the Columbian Plateau.
-There is even one record for western Washington, near Bellingham,
-Whatcom County. This individual must have crossed some low
-pass in the Cascades from the area about Lake Chelan. There are
-records of eastern Washington birds occurring in this same area, so
-it seems likely that the marmot was a natural stray and not an
-animal that escaped from captivity.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Marmota caligata.</span>&mdash;The absence of the hoary marmot from the
-Cascades of Oregon, and the presence there of <i>Marmota flaviventris</i>,
-indicates that the species did not occur in the southern Cascades
-of Washington during Vashon Time. Presumably the hoary marmot
-is a member of the fauna of the northern Rocky Mountains and
-entered the Cascades of Washington in the Recent, after which it
-spread widely and rapidly owing to lack of competition with any
-established species of marmot.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Marmota olympus.</span>&mdash;This species has probably lived in the
-Olympic Mountains since pre-Vashon Time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Citellus washingtoni.</span>&mdash;This ground squirrel has probably
-lived on the Columbian Plateau since before Wisconsin Time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Citellus townsendii.</span>&mdash;The Townsend ground squirrel probably
-entered the Yakima Valley area from Oregon. The differences between
-it and its relatives in Oregon indicate a considerable period
-of isolation but one far shorter than the period during which <i>washingtoni</i>
-is presumed to have been isolated from <i>townsendii</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Citellus columbianus.</span>&mdash;The Columbian ground squirrel might
-have been forced southward in the Rocky Mountain area by the Wisconsin
-glaciation, might have lived in southeastern Washington since
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
-then, and might have invaded northeastern Washington in the
-Recent with other species of the Rocky Mountain Fauna.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Citellus beecheyi.</span>&mdash;This ground squirrel is known to have entered
-Washington about 1915 from Oregon.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Citellus saturatus.</span>&mdash;The mantled ground squirrel of the Cascades
-probably evolved, from the <i>lateralis</i> stock, as a separate
-species while isolated in the southern Cascades during Vashon Time.
-It is a poorly differentiated species and may actually be instead a
-strongly marked subspecies.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Citellus lateralis.</span>&mdash;The golden-mantled ground squirrels of
-northeastern and southeastern Washington are closely similar. It
-is deduced that <i>connectens</i> of southeastern Washington developed
-the differences that characterize it while isolated, from the main
-stock, in the Blue Mountains area of Washington and Oregon.</p>
-
-<p>The race found in extreme northeastern Washington (<i>tescorum</i>)
-probably reached that area in relatively recent times. Its range in
-Washington is more restricted than that of several other members of
-the Rocky Mountain Fauna; areas of suitable habitat west of the
-Columbia River are not inhabited by these ground squirrels. Its
-range in Washington is almost exactly that of (<i>Marmota monax</i>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Tamias minimus.</span>&mdash;The least chipmunk of the Yakima Valley
-is the same race (<i>scrutator</i>) as that occupying the Great Basin area
-of Oregon and Nevada. It must have crossed the Columbia in relatively
-recent times. Had it been resident in the isolated Yakima
-Valley area for any considerable period of time, the development
-of distinctive racial characters there would be expected. Perhaps,
-then, it has not been resident there as long as has the Townsend
-ground squirrel which, though closely related to the ground squirrel
-of eastern Oregon, is racially distinct.</p>
-
-<p>The least chipmunk of the Columbian Plateau is thought to be
-racially distinct from its relatives in the Yakima Valley and eastern
-Oregon. Probably it reached the Plateau very early in the
-Recent. It has probably not been separated from the parent stock
-as long as has the ground squirrel (<i>Citellus washingtoni</i>) of the
-plateau. The ground squirrel is specifically rather than racially
-distinct.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Tamias amoenus.</span>&mdash;The distributional picture of the yellow pine
-chipmunks in Washington is complex. (Fig. 81.) Certain habits
-of these mammals doubtless have modified what was probably the
-original postglacial distribution of the species. Chipmunks are
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
-diurnal and natural selective factors for color possibly operate more
-strongly on animals active by day than on nocturnal animals. Yellow
-pine chipmunks are neither forest nor desert inhabitants. Indeed,
-dense forests or open deserts serve as barriers to their distribution.
-They prefer brush lands, open woods, and other habitats
-where there is food and cover but abundant sunlight. In such habitats
-they are almost independent of altitude, temperature and humidity.
-They live in the Olympic Mountains where rainfall is
-heavy and humidity high. They live and breed at considerable
-altitudes in the Cascades, even in the crater of Mount Rainier, where
-snow, ice and freezing conditions exist the year around. On the
-other extreme, they occupy the low, open pine forests and brush
-lands at the lower edge of the Arid Transition Life-zone where temperatures,
-in summer, are high and rainfall scarce.</p>
-
-<p>We find in the present distribution of the species in the Cascade-Sierra
-Nevada chain and the Rocky Mountains, indication that the
-species had a wide geographic range over western North America
-previous to the Vashon-Wisconsin glacial interval. Probably the
-range of the species extended in an arc, from the Rocky Mountains
-across northern Washington to the Cascades, around the basaltic
-plateau desert in eastern Washington and Oregon. Presumably the
-descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers broke this arc into two
-parallel geographic ranges, the Rocky Mountains and the Cascade-Sierra
-Nevada chain, with a desert area between.</p>
-
-<p>Almost every species of forest-dwelling animal had its range separated
-into two parts by the southward movement of the glaciers.
-Most of these forest-dwelling species were composed of relatively
-homogeneous stocks, although the yellow pine chipmunk probably
-was not. The extensive range of tolerance of the yellow pine chipmunk
-to altitude and climate and its unique habitat requirements
-cause it to meet radically different natural selective factors. The
-predators of the chipmunks near Wenatchee, Chelan County, would
-include: rattlesnake, gopher snake, badger, striped skunk, prairie
-falcon, red-tailed hawk and other predominantly desert-dwelling
-species. The chipmunks at Stevens Pass, in the mountains to the
-west, would have to contend with: marten, black bear, goshawk,
-bald eagle and other alpine predators. At the present time, the
-chipmunk of the eastern Cascades is racially distinct from that of
-the higher Cascades. Geologic and botanical evidence indicates
-that the Columbian Plateau was a desert in pre-Wisconsin Time.
-We suppose that a transition from alpine conditions in the Cascades
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
-to desert conditions on the Columbian Plateau existed even in pre-Wisconsin
-Times. We suppose also that the chipmunk existed in
-this transition area and in the Cascades before Wisconsin Time and
-in the southern and southeastern Cascades during Wisconsin Time.
-We further suppose that the differences separating the transition
-area race (<i>Tamias amoenus affinis</i>) from the mountain race (<i>T. a.
-ludibundus</i>) came about through natural selection and not as a result
-of geographic isolation. The principal difference between the
-two is the paler color of the race in the transition area.</p>
-
-<p>The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers, then, found two
-races of the yellow pine chipmunk in the Cascades. Chipmunks
-living north of the Columbian Plateau, in northern Washington and
-British Columbia, were probably forced southward onto the inhospitable
-plains of the plateau and exterminated. Farther east, north of
-northeastern Washington, chipmunks from the north were probably
-forced southward to compete with resident chipmunks.</p>
-
-<p>The range of <i>Tamias amoenus luteiventris</i> in Washington, Idaho
-and Montana is most unusual (See <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1929; <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>, 1939). From
-a compact range in Montana, two long fingers reach northward and
-westward. The western finger crosses Idaho to end in the Blue
-Mountains of Oregon and Washington. The northern finger crosses
-northern Idaho, northeastern Washington and extends on into southern
-British Columbia. Between these two fingers of the range of
-<i>luteiventris</i> another race (<i>canicaudus</i>) is found. This race occupies
-a more lowland area than does <i>luteiventris</i>. The range of <i>luteiventris</i>
-in the northern Rocky Mountains is extensive. Presumably
-this race occupied an area farther north in pre-Wisconsin Time and
-was forced southward to its present range by the Wisconsin glaciers.
-The original population occupying extreme eastern Washington and
-adjacent Idaho was <i>Tamias amoenus canicaudus</i>. The pre-Wisconsin
-range of this race might have been more extensive. At any
-rate, <i>luteiventris</i> which was driven southward displaced <i>canicaudus</i>,
-or some other race of chipmunk, from much of the Rocky Mountains
-south of the glacier. The northern chipmunks were adapted to more
-boreal conditions and perhaps otherwise better suited to environmental
-conditions of the northern Rocky Mountains. A small population
-of the older established race (<i>canicaudus</i>) persisted in lowland
-areas of eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho.</p>
-
-<p>Regarding the range of <i>canicaudus</i>, surrounded by the range of
-<i>luteiventris</i> on three sides and faced by desert on the west, <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>
-(1939: 220) writes, "It may be that, of these two races, <i>luteiventris</i>
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
-has a greater range of tolerance to environmental conditions and,
-thus, is able to succeed in areas to which <i>canicaudus</i> is not adapted.
-This inference is supported by the fact that <i>luteiventris</i> occupies a
-large range which is diversified geographically and climatically,
-whereas <i>canicaudus</i> seems to be limited to a much smaller, more
-nearly uniform area." Seemingly <i>canicaudus</i> now exists only in an
-area ideally suited to it, and one where it can successfully compete
-with the generally more adaptable and successful <i>luteiventris</i>. The
-maximum extent of the glacial ice, then, found <i>luteiventris</i> the dominant
-chipmunk in the northern Rocky Mountains, with an isolated
-population of <i>canicaudus</i> in eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho.</p>
-
-<p>The topography of the ground moraine exposed by the retreat of
-the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers was a barrier to many species of
-mammals. The rough, rocky surface with thin soil probably first
-supported mosses and grasses, then brush, and later trees. The
-earlier stages of plant succession on the deglaciated ground probably
-presented ideal habitat for yellow pine chipmunks. Certainly the
-races immediately adjacent to the glaciers extended their ranges
-farther north than many species. In eastern Washington, <i>T. a.
-luteiventris</i> spread to the northeastern corner of the state and on
-into British Columbia. In the northern Cascades, <i>T. a. affinis</i> spread
-northward and eastward, across the Okanogan River, into northeastern
-Washington as far as the range of <i>luteiventris</i>. The chipmunk
-of the higher Cascades (<i>ludibundus</i>) likewise extended its
-range northward into British Columbia. In the northwestern
-Cascades of northern Washington and southern British Columbia,
-a richly-colored race, <i>T. a. felix</i>, now occupies a limited geographic
-range. This race doubtless originated from <i>ludibundus</i> stock but
-the method of its development is unknown. Perhaps in early postglacial
-time, selective factors developed in chipmunks of the western
-slopes of the Cascade Mountains the rich, dark color of <i>felix</i>. The
-ancestral <i>ludibundus</i> may have given rise to a pale race, <i>affinis</i>,
-in the arid eastern Cascades and a dark race, <i>felix</i>, on the
-humid western slope of the Cascades. This seems improbable for
-there is no trend to darker color on the western border of the range
-of <i>ludibundus</i> south of the range of <i>felix</i>, and instead, <i>affinis</i> may
-have given rise to <i>ludibundus</i>. A more appealing hypothesis is that
-a local mutation in some <i>ludibundus</i> stock so changed the range of
-tolerance of a portion of the population that it was allowed to enter
-the more dense habitat along the coast north of the Fraser River and,
-there, isolated by habitat selection, it developed the characters of
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
-<i>felix</i>. Population pressure later forced it eastward until the eastern
-border of its range again met the range of the ancestral race,
-<i>ludibundus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The chipmunks of the Olympic Mountains probably reached their
-present range from the Cascades. Their probable path of emigration
-was westward from Mt. Rainier, along the glacial outwash train of
-Nisqualli Glacier, to the moraine and outwash apron of the Vashon
-Glacier and thence to the Olympics. So similar are the chipmunks
-of Mt. Rainier and the Olympic Mountains that <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1929) included
-Mt. Rainier in the range of <i>caurinus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Briefly summarized, the probable pre-Vashon-Wisconsin distribution
-of chipmunks of the species <i>Tamias amoenus</i> in Washington was:
-<i>ludibundus</i> in the higher Cascades; <i>affinis</i> in the eastern Cascades;
-<i>canicaudus</i> in eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho; and <i>luteiventris</i>
-in the area north of the range of <i>canicaudus</i>. The descent of
-the Vashon-Wisconsin ice restricted but did not materially alter the
-ranges of <i>ludibundus</i> or <i>affinis</i>. On the east, <i>luteiventris</i> was forced
-southward to compete with <i>canicaudus</i> and displaced it over a large
-region, especially in mountainous areas. Following the retreat of
-the ice, <i>luteiventris</i>, <i>affinis</i>, and <i>ludibundus</i> extended their ranges
-northward over the deglaciated territory. A stock of <i>ludibundus</i>
-that moved westward from Mt. Rainier became isolated and gave
-rise to <i>caurinus</i>. In some less obvious development, <i>ludibundus</i>
-stock gave rise to <i>felix</i> north of the Fraser River in the Cascades.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Tamias ruficaudus.</span>&mdash;Until a better understanding of the range
-of this chipmunk and its relation to other <i>Tamias</i> is gained, uncertainty
-will remain concerning its distribution in the past.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Tamias townsendii.</span>&mdash;This is a typical coastal species that ranges
-southward, along the coast, to California. The lowland race of
-western Oregon and Washington (<i>townsendii</i>) probably occurred no
-farther north than southwestern Washington when the Vashon
-Glacier was in place. Chipmunks of this species in the Cascades
-and in the southern Olympic Mountains probably developed independently
-the slightly paler color that separates <i>cooperi</i> from <i>townsendii</i>.
-The tendency for species of the Pacific Coastal Fauna of
-the Cascades and the Olympic Mountains to be paler than their
-lowland relatives is widespread.</p>
-
-<p>After the retreat of the ice, both races probably moved northward.
-Perhaps because of its alpine adaptations, <i>cooperi</i> has moved farther
-than <i>townsendii</i>. Also, <i>townsendii</i>, in the lowlands, ranges to the
-Fraser River, a barrier not encountered by <i>cooperi</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sciurus griseus.</span>&mdash;This species of the Pacific Coastal Fauna
-probably entered Washington from Oregon since the retreat of the
-Vashon Glacier. It has probably entered the state in relatively recent
-times.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Tamiasciurus hudsonicus.</span>&mdash;The two species of red squirrels,
-<i>T. hudsonicus</i> and <i>T. douglasii</i>, are specifically distinct and probably
-became differentiated in the Pleistocene when southward moving
-glaciers cut in two the range of the ancestral stock. The morphological
-differences are too great, comparatively, to have occurred
-during the Vashon-Wisconsin Divergence. <i>T. hudsonicus</i> probably
-occupied a range in pre-Wisconsin Time that included the Rocky
-Mountains and areas to the north. Glacial ice probably restricted
-the range of <i>hudsonicus</i> in Wisconsin Time but after the retreat of
-the ice <i>hudsonicus</i> moved northward to reoccupy its former range.
-It also moved westward across northern Washington to the Cascades,
-where it met the range of <i>douglasii</i>. Farther north, it moved westward
-to the Pacific, thus occupying an area that, in pre-Vashon
-time, probably was occupied by <i>douglasii</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Tamiasciurus douglasii.</span>&mdash;The Douglas squirrel probably occupied
-the coastal region of Oregon, Washington and British Columbia
-in pre-Vashon Time. The descent of the ice restricted its range
-to southwestern Washington and areas to the south. After the retreat
-of the ice it moved northward somewhat but, like other coastal
-species, the movement was slow. Meanwhile <i>hudsonicus</i> from the
-Rocky Mountain Fauna, had spread to the coast of British Columbia.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Glaucomys sabrinus.</span>&mdash;This flying squirrel is a plastic species.
-It inhabits all of the forested parts of Washington. The distributional
-picture presented by the 5 races (Fig. 92) which occur in
-Washington is complicated. The ranges of 3 of these lie principally
-outside the state of Washington.</p>
-
-<p>The race <i>oregonensis</i> occupies Washington and Oregon west of
-the Cascades; <i>fuliginosus</i> occupies the Cascades of Washington,
-Oregon and southern British Columbia; <i>columbiensis</i> occupies the
-interior valleys of British Columbia and adjoining Washington;
-<i>latipes</i> occupies the northern Rocky Mountains of British Columbia,
-northern Idaho and extreme northeastern Washington; and <i>bangsi</i>
-occupies the Blue Mountains of Washington and Oregon and a wide
-range in Idaho and eastward.</p>
-
-<p>The differences separating the race <i>oregonensis</i> from other subspecies
-found in Washington are relatively great. This lowland
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
-race is smaller and richer in color. The other races exhibit slight
-but relatively constant differences. The relatively great difference
-between <i>oregonensis</i> and the other races indicates that <i>oregonensis</i>
-was isolated from the remainder of the species for a considerable
-time. Presumably <i>oregonensis</i> was a strongly differentiated coastal
-race in pre-Vashon Time and occupied most of western Washington
-and Oregon. The descent of the Vashon ice restricted the range of
-<i>oregonensis</i> to southwestern Washington and western Oregon. The
-descent of the ice forced a northern race, <i>fuliginosus</i>, southward
-into the range of <i>oregonensis</i>. The northern race, adapted
-to boreal conditions, was able to compete successfully with the established
-<i>oregonensis</i> only in mountainous areas. In the Cascade
-Mountains, <i>fuliginosus</i> extended its range southward to southern
-Oregon.</p>
-
-<p>The descent of the Wisconsin ice in eastern Washington forced
-the flying squirrels of adjacent British Columbia southward into
-the Rocky Mountains. These squirrels were probably closely related
-to <i>fuliginosus</i>, or to <i>bangsi</i>, which latter race already may have
-been established farther south in the Rocky Mountains. The Blue
-Mountains of southeastern Washington were probably inhabited by
-<i>bangsi</i> in Wisconsin times, or even earlier. The retreat of the
-Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers allowed the flying squirrels to extend
-their ranges northward. In western Washington <i>oregonensis</i> moved
-to southern British Columbia. In the Cascade Mountains the more
-boreal <i>fuliginosus</i> moved much farther northward and, north of the
-Okanogan Valley, spread eastward to the arid, interior valleys of
-British Columbia. Subsequent differentiation in the population of
-the arid, interior valleys developed the slightly differentiated race
-<i>columbiensis</i>. Farther east, flying squirrels from the northern Rocky
-Mountains moved northward. Northeastern Washington and adjacent
-British Columbia were occupied by <i>latipes</i>, derived from
-<i>bangsi</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Thomomys talpoides.</span>&mdash;Views as to the probable historical distribution
-of this plastic group have been presented in an earlier
-report (<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1944: 308-333). This may be briefly
-summarized as follows.</p>
-
-<p>Previous to Vashon-Wisconsin Times, pocket gophers occupied at
-least the Cascade Mountains and the Columbian Plateau of Washington.
-The race occupying the Columbian Plateau, <i>devexus</i>, was
-probably racially distinct in pre-Wisconsin time. The descent of
-the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers isolated gophers in the southern
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
-Cascades. Three racial stocks developed there: <i>shawi</i> in the
-Mount Rainier area; <i>limosus</i> in the Columbia River Valley south
-of the Cascades; and <i>immunis</i> in the mountainous area between the
-other two races. At the maximum extent of the Wisconsin ice,
-gophers from the Columbia River Valley (<i>limosus</i>) were able to
-cross the Simcoe Bridge and reach the Blue Mountains. With the
-retreat of the Wisconsin ice, the Simcoe Bridge was closed. Gophers
-isolated in the Blue Mountains developed the racial characters of
-<i>acqualidens</i> and those between the Blue Mountains and the Columbia
-River intergraded with the desert race, <i>devexus</i>. These intergrades,
-which have, also, some characters of their own, bear the
-name <i>columbianus</i>. Gophers in the southern Cascades (<i>limosus</i>)
-moved westward on prairie-like river terraces to Clark County where,
-isolated, they became racially distinct (<i>douglasii</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Gophers from the Mount Rainier area (<i>shawi</i>) moved westward
-on glacial outwash trains to the extensive outwash aprons of the
-Vashon glaciers in the area about Puget Sound. Here they multiplied
-and spread to the Olympic Mountains. Growth of forest on
-the original outwash apron broke the area into numerous isolated
-prairies. Gophers in the Olympic Mountains (<i>melanops</i>) were isolated
-from those in the area about Puget Sound. Six distinct races
-originated on the isolated prairie (<i>glacialis</i>, <i>tacomensis</i>, <i>pugetensis</i>,
-<i>yelmensis</i>, <i>tumuli</i>, <i>couchi</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Following the retreat of the glacial ice from eastern Washington,
-pocket gophers from the Blue Mountains of Oregon (<i>wallowa</i>)
-moved northward into Washington and gophers from the Rocky
-Mountain Fauna of Idaho moved onto the deglaciated part of northeastern
-Washington. From northeastern Washington they spread
-westward to the Cascades and thence southward to meet the native
-gophers of the Cascades in the Yakima Valley Area. No racial
-differentiation in these gophers occurred; all are referable to <i>fuscus</i>.
-Where <i>fuscus</i> and the native gophers came together in the Yakima
-Valley, a new race, <i>yakimensis</i>, developed.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Perognathus parvus.</span>&mdash;Three races of the pocket mouse occur
-in Washington. Two of these (<i>lordi</i> and <i>columbianus</i>) occur on the
-Columbian Plateau. Like many desert species that occur on the
-Columbian Plateau, the pocket mice are rather different than their
-relatives in eastern Oregon. Presumably they have been isolated
-on the plateau since before Vashon-Wisconsin Times.</p>
-
-<p>The range of the pocket mouse of southeastern Washington,
-<i>Perognathus parvus parvus</i>, is continuous with the range of the race
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
-in Oregon. This same race occurs in the Yakima Valley, whence
-it probably arrived from Oregon in relatively recent time.</p>
-
-<p>The distribution of pocket mice on the Columbian Plateau, in
-eastern Oregon and in the Yakima Valley resembles that of the
-least chipmunk in those areas. It is also similar to, but of more
-recent origin than, that of the ground squirrels, <i>Citellus washingtoni</i>,
-and <i>townsendii</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Dipodomys ordii.</span>&mdash;This kangaroo rat enters the desert area of
-southeastern Washington from Oregon. It may be expected eventually
-to cross the Columbia River to the Yakima Valley and the
-Snake River to the Columbian Plateau.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Castor canadensis.</span>&mdash;Two races of beavers occur in Washington.
-One, found in southwestern Washington and northwestern Oregon,
-is dark with a short, wide skull. The other, ranging over most of
-the state, is paler with a longer, narrower skull.</p>
-
-<p>The form now found in southwestern Washington and adjacent
-Oregon (<i>idoneus</i>) was probably isolated there by the Vashon glaciation
-and developed its characters while isolated. The other race,
-<i>leucodonta</i>, was probably widely spread in Wisconsin Time. Beavers
-are present in Moses Lake, in almost the center of the Columbian
-Plateau. Beavers might well have lived in the streams of melt
-water that emerged from the Wisconsin Glacier. The beavers of
-western Washington, save those in the extreme southwest, are like
-the beavers of eastern Washington. It seems likely that the
-race <i>leucodonta</i> originated north of the state of Washington and
-was forced southward by the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers. This
-northern race, adapted to boreal conditions, competed with the
-resident coastal race, <i>idoneus</i>, and occupied much of its range.
-The distribution of the races of muskrat in Washington closely resembles
-that of the beavers.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Onychomys leucogaster.</span>&mdash;The desert-dwelling grasshopper
-mouse has doubtless entered eastern Washington and the Yakima
-Valley from eastern Oregon at a relatively recent time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Reithrodontomys megalotis.</span>&mdash;The harvest mouse, like the
-grasshopper mouse, seems to have entered Washington from Oregon
-at a relatively recent date. Within the last ten years it has extended
-its range into the Okanogan Valley in British Columbia.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Peromyscus maniculatus.</span>&mdash;Six subspecies of <i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>
-occur in the state of Washington. The geographic range
-of one of these (<i>rubidus</i>) lies mainly in the states of California and
-Oregon and includes, so far as is known, a single small island in
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
-the Columbia River that is politically within the state of Washington.
-Another (<i>hollisteri</i>) is restricted to certain islands in northern
-Puget Sound and obviously has become subspecifically differentiated
-in postglacial time. The remaining four subspecies,
-namely <i>oreas</i>, <i>austerus</i>, <i>artemisiae</i> and <i>gambelii</i>, have extensive
-geographic ranges. These subspecies are not confined to their geographic
-ranges by geographic barriers. Deer mice occur in the deep
-forests and the open desert, on high mountains and in low valleys,
-and are almost everywhere the commonest species of mammal
-present.</p>
-
-<p>The study of several populations of deer mice from any general
-area usually shows small but constant differences between them.
-<a href="#p_Dice">Dice</a> (1939: 21) studied stocks of deer mice from nine localities in
-southeastern Washington and found significant differences between
-several of them. A statistical study of mice from the San Juan
-islands shows that the population of almost every island is different
-in one or more respects from the mice of any other island. Geographically
-separated populations of "wild caught" mice of the subspecies
-<i>austerus</i>, of the mainland, were statistically compared and
-significant differences were found between these populations, too.
-Small, differentiated populations are to be found in many parts
-of the state, and each subspecies appears to be an assemblage of
-such tiny genetic units.</p>
-
-<p>These genetic units probably are the microgeographic races of
-Debzhansky (1937). They have been intensively studied by <a href="#p_Sumner">Sumner</a>
-(1917 A, B) and <a href="#p_Dice">Dice</a>. An especially important paper by the
-latter author (1940) summarizes much of the available information
-on speciation in <i>Peromyscus</i> and clearly discusses the microgeographic
-races of <i>Peromyscus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The numerous microgeographic races of <i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>
-in Washington present diverse combinations of characters which
-could result from the random fixation and elimination of genes
-(<a href="#p_Wright">Wright</a>. 1932: 360-362). Such a hypothesis, however, requires at
-least partial isolation of the populations involved. The mechanism
-of such isolation, in such populations of deer mice as we have
-studied, is not readily apparent. Some microgeographic races are
-not separated by noticeable geographic or ecologic barriers and
-the distance between their ranges is not too great to be traversed
-by a deer mouse. The tendency to remain on a home range may
-have the same effect as isolation would be supposed to have.</p>
-
-<p>The work of <a href="#p_Murie">Murie</a> and <a href="#p_Murie">Murie</a> (1931: 200-209, 1932: 79) is enlightening
-in this respect. These authors found that mice residing
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
-in a locality tended to remain in that locality; individuals trapped
-and marked were retaken in the same locality a year later. Individuals
-released some distance from the point of capture remained
-where released or returned to the point of capture. Transported
-individuals did not spread at random. The home instinct was developed
-in young as well as in old mice. Two mice in the gray
-pelage, four to eight weeks old, returned to their home ranges
-from distances one and two miles away. The authors fix the home
-range of an individual <i>Peromyscus m. artemisiae</i> in Teton County,
-Wyoming, at approximately one hundred yards in diameter.</p>
-
-<p>This home-range instinct is essentially a lack of incentive for
-individual mice to emigrate to new localities where mice of the
-same species are already established. This may partly account
-for the microgeographic races of deer mice in Washington.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Dice">Dice</a> (1939: 21) pointed out that, except in color, the differences
-in nine stocks of mice from southeastern Washington could not be
-correlated with environmental factors. We have found this to
-be true of microgeographic races throughout the state of Washington.</p>
-
-<p>Of the four subspecies of deer mice that occupy extensive geographic
-ranges in Washington, one, <i>oreas</i>, is a long-tailed form
-that seems not to intergrade with <i>austerus</i>, a neighbor in western
-Washington that has a tail of moderate length. These two and
-<i>gambelii</i>, a short-tailed form with which <i>oreas</i> intergrades, are
-easily distinguished. In eastern Washington two short-tailed subspecies,
-<i>gambelii</i> and <i>artemisiae</i>, are currently recognized. The
-taxonomic relationships of these two subspecies are complex. The
-subspecies <i>gambelii</i> has an extensive geographic range in Oregon
-and California. These mice, with short tails, occur in the Wallula
-Water Gap of southeastern Washington and on the Columbian
-Plateau. To the west the desert conditions of the Columbian
-Plateau fade into the Transition Life-zone forests of the eastern
-Cascade Mountains. The pale, short-tailed desert mice (<i>gambelii</i>)
-gradually change to the dark, long-tailed subspecies, <i>oreas</i>, that
-occupies the Cascade Mountains.</p>
-
-<p>North of the Columbian Plateau, in northeastern Washington, the
-deer mice are darker and relatively longer-tailed than on the Columbian
-Plateau. Some populations are distinctly reddish, almost as
-reddish as <i>oreas</i>. Although assigned to <i>artemisiae</i>, they are almost
-identical with populations of deer mice from the eastern Cascade
-Mountains, known to be intergrades between <i>oreas</i> and <i>gambelii</i>.
-This fact, and the presence of surprisingly <i>oreas</i>-like characters in
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
-some microgeographic races in extreme northeastern Washington,
-may indicate that the race called <i>artemisiae</i> is a group of intergrades
-between <i>gambelii</i> and an <i>oreas</i>-like mouse that has become extinct.</p>
-
-<p>Intergradation between <i>gambelii</i> and <i>artemisiae</i> is normal and
-takes place gradually where the ranges of the two subspecies meet.
-The same is true of intergradation between <i>oreas</i> and <i>gambelii</i> in
-the eastern Cascade Mountains. West of the Cascade Mountains
-the range of <i>oreas</i> meets the range of <i>austerus</i>. These two subspecies
-appear not to interbreed in nature, since no intergrades were
-taken at any of the numerous localities in western Washington where
-the mice were trapped. Pure populations of the two subspecies
-exist within a few miles of each other. In the valley of the Skykomish
-River, in the western Cascades Mountains, from the town
-of Skykomish, King County, to the lowlands to the west, only
-<i>austerus</i> was found. In the coniferous forests of the mountains
-above Skykomish, only <i>oreas</i> was taken. Several pairs, each an
-<i>oreas</i> and an <i>austerus</i> of the other sex, were kept from four to six
-months, and one pair was kept for a year, but they did not reproduce.
-The <i>oreas</i> were from the upper Skykomish Valley and the
-<i>austerus</i> were from Seattle, King County. Along the border of the
-ranges of the two subspecies in the Skykomish River Valley, a
-definite habitat preference was noted. The coniferous forests were
-occupied by <i>oreas</i> and brush or deciduous forests by <i>austerus</i>.
-Within the range of <i>austerus</i> and within the range of <i>oreas</i> only one
-subspecies is found whether the habitat be coniferous forest or
-thickets of alder and willow, but where the ranges of the two subspecies
-meet <i>austerus</i> occurs only in the thickets of aspen and willow
-and <i>oreas</i> occurs only in the coniferous forest.</p>
-
-<p>The morphological characters that separate <i>oreas</i> from <i>austerus</i>,
-namely, larger size, richer color, and longer tail, are all features that
-might be associated with a more arboreal existence in dark, coniferous
-forests. Our observations show that <i>oreas</i> is, to a large extent,
-arboreal. Traps nailed to tree trunks six to eight feet from the
-ground and set for flying squirrels often caught <i>oreas</i> in the Skykomish
-River Valley. On one occasion I walked up a leaning
-tree trunk to set a trap, fifty feet from the ground on the trunk
-of another tree that was upright. An <i>oreas</i> was found in this trap
-the next morning. <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> (1933: 13) relates how a specimen of
-<i>oreas</i> that escaped from a live trap took refuge in a tree when pursued.
-We have set numerous traps for flying squirrels in the area
-about Puget Sound. As far as memory and field notes serve, we
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
-have never taken <i>austerus</i> in these traps. Our observations on the
-habits of <i>austerus</i> are much more abundant than those on <i>oreas</i>,
-but for <i>austerus</i> no evidence of arboreal activities has been obtained.</p>
-
-<p>There are, then, two subspecies that do not interbreed, each capable
-of existing in any ecologic niche that will support deer mice.
-Where the ranges of the two subspecies come together, they compete.
-The large size, richer color, longer tail, and perhaps arboreal habits
-of <i>oreas</i> give it an advantage in coniferous forests. The small size
-and dark color of <i>austerus</i> give it an advantage in other habitats,
-especially, perhaps, in winter, when the deciduous trees have shed
-their leaves.</p>
-
-<p>The differences separating <i>austerus</i> from <i>oreas</i> would be expected
-to have developed under complete isolation. That <i>oreas</i> developed
-from <i>austerus</i> or <i>austerus</i> from <i>oreas</i> seems impossible. A glance
-at the distribution map (Fig. 107) shows that the range of <i>austerus</i>
-clearly separates the range of <i>oreas</i> into two segments. The range
-of <i>austerus</i> tapers out to the north, east and west. On the south
-<i>austerus</i> intergrades with <i>rubidus</i> from Oregon, a subspecies from
-which it is but slightly differentiated.</p>
-
-<p>The geographic behavior of the four subspecies of deer mice that
-occupy extensive areas in Washington may be summarized as follows:
-<i>P. m. gambelii</i> occupies southeastern Washington and intergrades
-normally with <i>oreas</i> in the eastern Cascade Mountains and
-with <i>artemisiae</i> at the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau;
-<i>artemisiae</i>, occupying northeastern Washington, closely resembles
-populations of mice that are known to be intergrades between <i>oreas</i>
-and <i>gambelii</i> and itself intergrades with both <i>oreas</i> and <i>gambelii</i>;
-<i>oreas</i> occupies most of western Washington, intergrades with its
-neighbors <i>artemisiae</i> and <i>gambelii</i> to the east, but does not intergrade
-with <i>austerus</i>, its morphologically more similar neighbor in
-the west; <i>austerus</i> occupies a range in western Washington that is
-almost surrounded by the range of <i>oreas</i>, a subspecies with which it
-apparently does not interbreed.</p>
-
-<p>The relations of these four subspecies appear to be the result of
-certain great changes in the range of deer mice in the Pacific Northwest
-that occurred during and since the last Pleistocene glaciation.
-We reconstruct these changes as follows. In the Puyallup interglacial
-cycle, just previous to the last (Vashon-Wisconsin) continental
-glaciation, clines, or gradual transitions existed in the ranges of
-the deer mice along the Pacific Coast. The small, dark, short-tailed
-mice of the coastal redwood forests of California and Oregon
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
-became gradually larger, redder and longer-tailed to the north,
-climaxing in a large, red, long-tailed form in the spruce forests of
-southern Alaska and northern British Columbia. A similar cline
-existed inland. Small, pale, short-tailed mice of the Great Basin
-became increasingly larger, darker, and longer-tailed to the north,
-reaching a maximum in the spruce forests of northern British Columbia.</p>
-
-<p>The development and advance of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice sheet
-exterminated mice over much of British Columbia and the northern
-United States. Long-tailed northern mice were forced southward
-and contacted the southern, short-tailed forms. The preglacial clines
-were thus destroyed.</p>
-
-<p>What might be the southern part of the western cline may be noted
-in the deer mice of western Oregon today. From the southern coast
-of Oregon the mice (<i>P. m. rubidus</i>) do become larger, redder and
-longer-tailed to the north. The climax of this cline is now reached
-in <i>austerus</i>, of the Puget Sound area of Washington. The cline is not
-continued farther northward because the range of <i>oreas</i> is encountered.</p>
-
-<p>The advance of the Vashon-Wisconsin ice from the north probably
-forced species of mammals southward, ahead of it, including
-the long-tailed northern deer mice which generation by generation
-encountered progressively shorter-tailed forms of resident mice.
-Perhaps the unfamiliar, and certainly the extremely frigid, conditions
-in the fore of the glacier exterminated the short-tailed individuals
-but favored the long-tailed mice, since the latter originally
-were adapted to a boreal environment. The climax of the ice advance
-found the glaciers just within the political limits of the United
-States and found the long-tailed mice spread before the ice front.</p>
-
-<p>In western Washington the Vashon glacier advanced as far south
-as the southern edge of the Puget Sound area. Long-tailed northern
-mice advancing before it reached the Columbia River. This glacially
-swollen stream served as a natural barrier and prevented their
-southward extension. At this time the northern mice had traversed
-more than half the length of the original western cline. The northern
-mice, originating in a boreal habitat a thousand miles away,
-were unable to interbreed with the southern mice and such individuals
-as might have crossed the Columbia River never became
-established in Oregon. During the existence of the glacier in
-western Washington, the long-tailed northern emigrants competed
-with the resident deer mice of western Washington to the total elimination
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
-of the resident mice. The retreat of the Vashon Glacier
-from Washington found the northern mice in complete control of
-that part of the state from the Pacific Ocean to the Cascade Mountains.</p>
-
-<p>In eastern Washington the Wisconsin Glacier advanced south to
-the northern edge of the Columbian Plateau. Northern mice advancing
-before it probably did not survive on the treeless plateau
-but existed in forested areas of northern Idaho and driftless areas
-of northern Washington. No natural barriers separated the northern
-mice from the pale, short-tailed forms. The nonuniform topography
-perhaps allowed more mingling of the two types where climatic
-conditions permitted. Intergradation in some places as well
-as competition and elimination of one form or another in other places
-occurred. Following the withdrawal of the Vashon ice and the establishment
-of soil and forests on the deglaciated land, the long-tailed
-mice of western Washington (<i>P. m. oreas</i>) apparently spread
-northward, unhindered by competition, until they reached southern
-Alaska. The deep coniferous forests of western Washington presented
-conditions acceptable to <i>oreas</i> and it persisted there despite
-postglacial changes in climate.</p>
-
-<p>Postglacial changes in climate did, however, permit the dark,
-short-tailed mice (<i>rubidus</i>) to cross the Columbia River and to become
-established in suitable habitats, namely the deciduous jungles
-of the river valleys. From these points the mice spread northward
-through the lowlands of western Washington, infiltrating the range
-of <i>oreas</i>, competing with it, and driving it from the lowlands. This
-movement is in progress today. By logging and clearing of lands
-for agriculture man has considerably speeded the invasion of the
-southern mice. Slight differentiation of the short-tailed mice north
-of the Columbia River (<i>austerus</i>) separates them from their parent
-race, <i>rubidus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In the dense forests along the Pacific Coast of Washington, <i>austerus</i>
-did not become established. This area includes most of the
-land west of Puget Sound. There is a narrow band of <i>austerus</i>
-that extends along the eastern and part of the northern edge of the
-Olympic Peninsula, where they have probably invaded in relatively
-recent time.</p>
-
-<p>On the Oregon side of the Columbia River the range of <i>rubidus</i>
-is continuous from the Pacific to the Cascades. On the Washington
-side of the river, <i>oreas</i> extends from the Pacific to eastern Wahkiakum
-County, where the range of <i>austerus</i> starts. At the border of
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
-the ranges of the two subspecies, ecological conditions determine
-the ranges; <i>oreas</i> occurs in the Douglas fir and hemlock forests and
-<i>austerus</i> occurs in the jungles of alder and salmonberry in the
-stream valleys. The range of <i>austerus</i> extends from eastern Wahkiakum
-County east along the Columbia, to western Klickitat
-County. In a north-south strip across the Columbia, through the
-ranges of <i>rubidus</i> in Oregon and <i>austerus</i> in Washington, normal
-intergradation is apparent. By gradual degrees <i>rubidus</i> changes to
-<i>austerus</i>. In a north-south strip farther west, through the ranges of
-<i>rubidus</i> and <i>oreas</i>, the same transition of the Oregon <i>rubidus</i> is seen,
-namely an approach toward <i>austerus</i>. The cline is, of course,
-abruptly terminated by the range of the dissimilar <i>oreas</i>.</p>
-
-<p>On Puget Island, a small island lying in the Columbia River in
-western Wahkiakum County and politically within the state of
-Washington (see <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1942) a population of deer mice occurs
-that resembles <i>rubidus</i> more closely than <i>austerus</i>. This island lies
-in the river between the ranges of <i>rubidus</i> and <i>oreas</i>. The lack of
-intergradation between these two subspecies has probably kept the
-Puget Island population pure <i>rubidus</i>. Puget Island is a junglelike
-lowland locally known as "tideland."</p>
-
-<p>The San Juan Islands of northern Puget Sound were thoroughly
-glaciated in Wisconsin Time and probably were under thousands of
-feet of ice when the Vashon Glacier was at its maximum extent. The
-subspecies of deer mouse occurring there now is <i>hollisteri</i>, a race
-similar to <i>oreas</i> in color, body size and cranial characters and probably
-derived from <i>oreas</i>. <i>P. m. hollisteri</i> differs from both <i>oreas</i> and
-<i>austerus</i> in its much shorter tail. Shortness of tail is apparently
-a product of insularity in northwest coastal mice. The transition
-from long-tailed mainland mice to short-tailed island mice is shown
-by <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> (1938A: 461). When <i>oreas</i> first occupied the area about
-Puget Sound (this area is occupied by <i>austerus</i> today) some individuals
-probably reached the San Juan Islands soon thereafter.
-Contact between <i>oreas</i> and <i>hollisteri</i> is now prevented by the presence
-of <i>austerus</i> between their ranges. Of course, a water barrier
-separates <i>austerus</i> from <i>hollisteri</i> but <i>austerus</i> does occur in pure
-form on some islands in Puget Sound (not on any of the San Juan
-Islands), for instance, on Whidby Island. One wonders why <i>austerus</i>
-has not established itself on some of the San Juan Islands but
-considering the degree of difference between <i>hollisteri</i> and <i>austerus</i>,
-I doubt that the two would interbreed if they did occur together.</p>
-
-<p>On Vancouver Island, British Columbia, a short-tailed, <i>austerus</i>-type
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
-of mouse occurs in the lowlands and a long-tailed, <i>oreas</i>-type
-of mouse in the mountains. Vancouver Island is a large island
-(16,400 square miles). Apparently a stock of <i>austerus</i> from the
-mainland reached Vancouver Island and were able to find suitable
-habitat and compete with and drive out the established <i>oreas</i> in the
-manner that they probably did in the western Washington lowlands.
-The large Vancouver Island offers far more variety of habitat and
-opportunity for establishment of emigrating mice than do the
-smaller San Juan Islands, the largest of which is Orcas (57 square
-miles).</p>
-
-<p>Following the withdrawal of the Wisconsin ice from eastern
-Washington, numerous minor movements and adjustments of deer
-mice seem to have taken place. Long-tailed, <i>oreas</i>-type of mice
-were exterminated on the Columbian Plateau if, indeed, they ever
-became established there. Long-tailed mice did apparently become
-established in driftless areas and forested areas to the south of the
-drift border. With the establishment of soil and forests on the deglaciated
-land, the short-tailed <i>gambelii</i> and the long-tailed mice
-became thoroughly intermixed. In some areas, especially near the
-type locality of <i>artemisiae</i>, the <i>gambelii</i> characters of the mixture
-predominate at the present time. Deer mice from the Okanogan
-Valley differ from <i>gambelii</i> only in slightly larger size and darker
-color. In other areas, notably near Metaline, Pend Oreille County,
-the <i>oreas</i> characters of the mixture dominate at the present time.
-Mice from here are large and red and differ from typical <i>oreas</i> in
-having relatively short tails. Other less marked segregations of
-characters are numerous, in Idaho and British Columbia as well as
-in Washington. <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> (1937) has described <i>Peromyscus m. alpinus</i>,
-isolated in a mountainous area of British Columbia. This
-seems to be a form derived from <i>oreas</i>-type stock.</p>
-
-<p>With the re&euml;stablishment of soil and forests on the deglaciated
-land of British Columbia north of Washington, a northward extension
-of the <i>gambelii-oreas</i> mixture occurred. Another invasion
-was taking place at this time, however. <i>Peromyscus m. arcticus</i>
-spread onto the deglaciated land from the north or east, ahead of
-artemisiae (the <i>gambelii-oreas</i> mixture). This new invader intergraded
-with <i>artemisiae</i> as well as with <i>oreas</i>. Further collecting and
-studies are required in this area before the relationships of the three
-subspecies can be completely understood.</p>
-
-<p>If geographic ranges are assigned to the named subspecies of deer
-mice that occur in Washington, it must, in part, be done arbitrarily.
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
-The deer mice of the San Juan Islands are all referred to the subspecies
-<i>hollisteri</i>. Only Puget Island, Wahkiakum County, is considered
-to be inhabitated by <i>rubidus</i>. The boundary between the
-ranges of <i>austerus</i> and <i>oreas</i> is sharply defined and further collecting
-by resident naturalists should result in detailed mapping
-of the boundary.</p>
-
-<p>The ranges and distribution of the deer mice of eastern Washington
-are less clearly defined than those of western Washington.
-<i>Peromyscus m. gambelii</i> exists in its purest state on the Columbian
-Plateau. Here the Columbia River makes a convenient boundary
-to the west. Pure <i>Peromyscus m. oreas</i> exist in the Cascade Mountains.
-In the area between the Columbian Plateau and the Cascades
-the deer mice are variously intermediate between <i>gambelii</i> and <i>oreas</i>
-and, over most of the area, are nearest to <i>gambelii</i>. This might
-be considered a natural area of intergradation such as commonly
-occurs between the ranges of subspecies. These intergrades, however,
-are similar to <i>Peromyscus m. artemisiae</i> and the area occupied
-by these intermediates is connected on the north with the range
-of <i>artemisiae</i>. Thus <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a> (1909: 61) regards specimens from
-Easton and Wawawai, in the area of intergradation, as <i>artemisiae</i>
-or intergrades between <i>gambelii</i> and <i>artemisiae</i>. <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>
-(1929: 22) include the entire area of <i>intergradation</i> in the range of
-<i>artemisiae</i>. This treatment, although convenient to the student
-of geographic variation, is apt to conceal the evolutionary and
-historical influences. These influences may be appreciated better if
-the intergrades from each locality are referred to the subspecies they
-most closely resemble.</p>
-
-<p>The specimens upon which the name <i>artemisiae</i> was based came
-from a narrow tongue of zonally lower country that extends northward
-from the range of the lighter-colored <i>gambelii</i>. As might be
-expected, topotypes are lighter in color than specimens from the
-north, west and east. Nevertheless, the type locality is within a
-geographic area that is occupied principally by a darker race,
-<i>artemisiae</i>, to the north of <i>gambelii</i>. The topotypes of <i>artemisiae</i>
-may be considered to be intermediate between <i>gambelii</i> and the
-darker, northern race. Thus the name <i>artemisiae</i> becomes available
-for the mice of the general area in question. The mice of the
-area immediately to the east of the type locality, in Washington and
-presumably in British Columbia and Idaho also, are essentially a
-mixture of the subspecies <i>gambelii</i> and a now mostly extinct and
-unnamed race that probably resembled <i>oreas</i>. Local variations
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
-of populations from within this area are extreme but some segregation
-of color and length of tail has taken place. Mice from mountainous
-areas resemble <i>oreas</i> while mice from the lowlands resemble <i>gambelii</i>,
-or, more exactly, mice from coniferous forests resemble <i>oreas</i> while
-mice from other areas resemble <i>gambelii</i>.</p>
-
-<p>South of the area of racial mixture in northeastern Washington,
-in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington, the deer
-mice are like <i>gambelii</i> except in slightly darker color. Mice from
-the Blue Mountains are darker and browner than <i>gambelii</i>, not more
-reddish. There is no indication of adulteration with <i>oreas</i> stock.
-Since the Blue Mountains are a forested area and are far south of the
-drift border, we suppose that deer mice existed there through the
-last glacial period and that their dark color is an adaptation to forest
-habitat.</p>
-
-<p>Mice similar to those of the Blue Mountains have an extensive
-range in Idaho (<a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a> 1939: 290). These mice have relatively
-uniform racial characters and constitute a "good" subspecies.</p>
-
-<p>At present the deer mice of northern Washington, southeastern
-British Columbia, northern Idaho, northeastern Oregon, western
-Montana and northwestern Wyoming are called <i>artemisiae</i>. The
-mice of this extensive area are, however, of two genetic types: that
-type with mixed racial characters that lives in northeastern Washington
-and probably also farther east along the Wisconsin drift border,
-and that type that occurs farther south in Idaho and seems to constitute
-a stable subspecies.</p>
-
-<p>The separation of these two types may be desirable. Detailed
-study of the deer mice from the area now assigned to the range of
-<i>artemisiae</i> may show that the name <i>subarcticus</i> (<i>Peromyscus texanus
-subarcticus</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, 1899) is applicable to the southern form. The
-type with mixed racial characters must be called <i>artemisiae</i>. If the
-two types are eventually separated, the mice from the Blue Mountains
-of Washington will be referable to the southern form.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Neotoma cinerea</span>.&mdash;The wood rat found over most of Washington.
-<i>Neotoma c. occidentalis</i>, probably entered the state from eastern
-Oregon early in the Recent and spread over most of the state. The
-wood rat of the Blue Mountains (<i>alticola</i>) probably developed from
-<i>occidentalis</i>.</p>
-
-<p>A coastal race of the wood rat (<i>fusca</i>) occurs in western Oregon.
-This race, if it occurred in western Washington in pre-Vashon Time,
-was eliminated in Vashon Time or subsequently. In Oregon it lives in
-deep forests (<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, 1936: 174). In Washington <i>occidentalis</i> occupies
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
-but a small part of the ecologic niche occupied by <i>fusca</i> in Oregon.
-Elimination of <i>fusca</i> from Washington through competition with
-<i>occidentalis</i> seems highly improbable. Should <i>fusca</i> ever cross the
-Columbia River and become established it would probably spread
-to a considerable part of western Washington.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Synaptomys borealis.</span>&mdash;The lemming mouse seems now to be
-retreating northward and was an arctic species forced southward
-by the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers. Unlike other alpine species, it
-seems to be unable to exist for long in isolated mountain areas.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Phenacomys intermedius.</span>&mdash;The heather vole, like the lemming
-mouse, probably was forced southward by the Vashon-Wisconsin
-glaciers. In the Cascade and Rocky mountains it found suitable
-habitat and spread southward to almost the lower end of the Sierra
-Nevada in California. The Cascade race moved eastward on the
-Puget Bridge to the Olympic Mountains after the retreat of the
-Vashon ice, and northward in the Cascades. Northeastern Washington
-was reinvaded by the subspecies of the Rocky Mountain
-Fauna.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Clethrionomys gapperi</span> and <span class="smcap">CALIFORNICUS</span>.&mdash;The two species of
-red-backed mouse found in Washington were probably distinct in
-pre-Vashon Times. At the maximum extent of the Vashon ice,
-<i>californicus</i> was probably found in western Oregon and <i>gapperi</i> in
-the Blue Mountains, where <i>idahoensis</i> was developed, and in the
-southern Cascades (<i>cascadensis</i>). During or shortly after Vashon
-Time, <i>gapperi</i> crossed the Puget Bridge to become established in
-the Olympic Mountains. After the retreat of the ice, <i>gapperi</i> moved
-northward and eastward from the Cascades and <i>californicus</i> crossed
-to western Washington from Oregon and displaced <i>gapperi</i> from the
-lowlands.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Hinton">Hinton</a> (1926: 215) separated the American <i>Clethrionomys</i> into
-three groups, suggesting that Old World counterparts of each group
-exist. <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a> (1939: 308) gives an excellent analysis of the emigrational
-history of the American species, and points out the close relationship
-of the Siberian and Arctic-American forms. He suggests
-that the <i>rutilus</i> group invaded Arctic-America from Siberia at the
-close of the last glaciation.</p>
-
-<p>Two other groups are recognized by <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>, who assumes that
-both arose from a common ancestral stock and divided into two
-stems, one of which (<i>gapperi</i> group) followed the main Rocky Mountain
-course southward and worked eastward across Canada while
-the other (<i>californicus</i> group) followed down the Pacific Coast.
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
-<a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a> states, "This southward extension of range in America probably
-took place in the Pleistocene, but almost certainly the present
-southern range of the genus in the West was not reached until late
-in, or after, that period."</p>
-
-<p>Our studies of the <i>Clethrionomys</i> of Washington indicate the
-essential correctness of <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>' conclusions. The separation of the
-two groups, however, probably was caused by southward moving
-glaciers and the separation of the mice into two stocks closely
-paralleled the divergence of other groups, such as that of the snowshoe
-rabbits. The two groups of red-backed mice are more sharply
-separated than was thought by <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>. The intermediate color of
-the back of <i>C. g. idahoensis</i>, mentioned by <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>, seems to be merely
-coincidental. The essential difference in the two groups is the
-sharply marked red band of the <i>gapperi</i> group as opposed to the
-general red area on the dorsal surface of the <i>californicus</i> group.
-<i>Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius</i> has been considered a derivative of
-<i>occidentalis</i> because the range of the latter surrounds the Olympic
-Mountains, where <i>nivarius</i> is found. Considering the immediate
-post-Pleistocene movements of mammals from the Cascades to the
-Olympic Mountains, so clearly illustrated in <i>Thomomys</i>, <i>Tamias
-amoenus</i>, and <i>Phenacomys</i>, a means is indicated by which <i>Clethrionomys</i>
-of the <i>gapperi</i> group might have reached the Olympics.
-The apparent lack of intergradation between <i>occidentalis</i> and
-<i>nivarius</i> gives proof of their relatively distant relationship. <i>C.
-nivarius</i> seems not to have been derived from <i>occidentalis</i>, and
-apparently does not belong to the <i>californicus</i> group. It belongs
-instead to the <i>gapperi</i> group, and I consider it to be a subspecies of
-<i>gapperi</i>. In no sense is it intermediate between the two groups. The
-other form considered by <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a> to be intermediate between the
-two groups is <i>caurinus</i>. This mouse has not yet been taken in Washington,
-although it may eventually be found on Point Roberts, on
-the Fraser River delta. Its distribution is paralleled by that of
-many other mammals that are definitely not of the Pacific Coastal
-Fauna.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>californicus</i> group, I feel, contains only the races of <i>Clethrionomys
-californicus</i>, while the <i>gapperi</i> group contains <i>C. gapperi</i>
-and its races, including <i>caurinus</i>, and possible other species.</p>
-
-<p>Possibly intergradation occurs between <i>C. californicus occidentalis</i>
-and <i>C. gapperi</i>. Nevertheless, I fail to find evidence of such intergradation.
-I have taken <i>C. gapperi nivarius</i> and <i>C. californicus
-occidentalis</i> within ten miles of each other, but each retained its
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
-distinctive characters with no evidence of intergradation. In the
-case of <i>C. gapperi saturatus</i> and <i>C. californicus occidentalis</i> the
-proof is less conclusive. In spite of numerous attempts to trap
-<i>Clethrionomys</i> in the area geographically intermediate between their
-ranges, I have taken none. Though common along the coast, <i>occidentalis</i>
-becomes progressively scarcer to the east, being rare in the
-vicinity of Seattle and apparently absent from the western base of
-the Cascades. So far as is known, the ranges of <i>caurinus</i> and <i>occidentalis</i>
-are separated by the Fraser River.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Microtus pennsylvanicus</span> and <span class="smcap">MONTANUS</span>.&mdash;The Pennsylvania
-meadow mouse is closely related to <i>Microtus montanus</i>. Certain
-races of <i>montanus</i>, notably those from southern Oregon, California,
-and northern Nevada, closely resemble <i>pennsylvanicus</i> externally
-and cranially. From the central part of its range northward, <i>montanus</i>
-becomes progressively less like <i>pennsylvanicus</i>. The races
-<i>nanus</i> and <i>canicaudus</i> are quite different from <i>pennsylvanicus</i> both
-externally and cranially, and in addition the anterior loop of the
-second molar is less constricted; often it is not constricted at all.
-<i>Microtus pennsylvanicus</i> and <i>Microtus montanus</i> occur together over
-parts of the northern Rocky Mountains. Where the two species
-came together, <i>pennsylvanicus</i> occurs with races of <i>montanus</i> that
-are most unlike it.</p>
-
-<p><i>Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi</i> closely resembles races of <i>Microtus
-montanus</i> that occur in southern Oregon, California, and Nevada.
-It is larger, darker, and longer-furred than <i>Microtus pennsylvanicus
-funebris</i> from Washington. Seemingly <i>pennsylvanicus</i> and
-<i>montanus</i> diverged previous to Vashon-Wisconsin Time. The stock
-that gave rise to <i>montanus</i> spread over the Great Basin while <i>pennsylvanicus</i>
-ranged farther east. Some of the <i>montanus</i> stock worked
-northward in the Rocky Mountains. <i>Microtus pennsylvanicus</i> had
-meanwhile moved westward to the Rocky Mountains. The two
-stocks met and behaved as full species.</p>
-
-<p><i>Microtus pennsylvanicus</i> probably occupied northeastern Washington
-in the interglacial cycle preceding the Recent. The advance
-of the Wisconsin ice eliminated most of these mice. The glacier
-dammed the Columbia River and caused it to turn southward from
-its basalt-marginal course and take a path over the Columbian
-Plateau. Along this glacial river a population of <i>Microtus</i> persisted
-to become <i>kincaidi</i>.</p>
-
-<p>While the Wisconsin ice was at its maximum extent, <i>Microtus
-montanus</i> from the Blue Mountains crossed the Simcoe Bridge to the
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
-Yakima Valley and the eastern Cascade Mountains. The closing
-of the Simcoe Bridge isolated these mice, which subsequently became
-slightly differentiated, as <i>canescens</i>. Another stock moved westward
-along the Columbia River to western Oregon. This stock is now
-called <i>Microtus canicaudus</i> but is probably racially rather than
-specifically distinct from <i>Microtus montanus nanus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>With the retreat of the Wisconsin ice, <i>montanus</i> extended its
-range northward from the Yakima Valley along the eastern Cascade
-Mountains to extreme southern British Columbia. <i>Microtus
-pennsylvanicus funebris</i> entered northeastern Washington with other
-elements of the Rocky Mountain Fauna.</p>
-
-<p>At present, <i>pennsylvanicus</i> occurs in northeastern Washington
-while <i>montanus</i> is found in southeastern Washington and the eastern
-Cascade Mountains. The Okanogan River Valley separates their
-ranges. Eventually <i>montanus</i> may extend its range to northeastern
-Washington and <i>pennsylvanicus</i> to the Cascades, the two forms occurring
-together as they do in Montana, Idaho and Colorado. The
-isolation of <i>kincaidi</i> on the Columbian Plateau seems complete and
-the probability of its range reaching that of its related species seems
-slight.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Microtus longicaudus.</span>&mdash;The later distributional history of the
-long-tailed meadow mouse is not yet clear.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Microtus townsendii.</span>&mdash;This Pacific Coastal species probably
-lived west of the Sierra Nevada-Cascade Mountains since the early
-Pleistocene. It has extended its range northward since the retreat
-of the Vashon ice and has reached some of the islands in Puget
-Sound and the Strait of Georgia. This species seems to be related
-to <i>Microtus richardsoni</i> but the two species probably separated at
-an early time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Microtus richardsoni.</span>&mdash;The water rat of the Cascade Mountains
-seems to be have been forced southward into Washington and
-Oregon by the descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers where it
-became isolated from the water rat of the northern Rocky Mountains.
-After the retreat of the ice, both forms have moved northward.
-<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> (1900) records <i>macropus</i> from Bonner County, Idaho,
-not far from northeastern Washington but in Washington up to this
-time, <i>macropus</i> has been recorded only from the Blue Mountains of
-the southeastern part of the state.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Microtus oregoni.</span>&mdash;The later historical distribution of the
-creeping mouse was probably the same as that of <i>townsendii</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lagurus curtatus.</span>&mdash;The distribution of this species of the Great
-Basin Fauna has probably changed little if any since the late Pleistocene.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ondatra zibethicus.</span>&mdash;The distribution of the two races of muskrat
-that occur in Washington is almost exactly that of the beavers.
-Probably one form was isolated in southwestern Washington and
-northwestern Oregon during Vashon Time and another, more adaptable,
-race occurred in eastern Washington. After the retreat of
-the ice the adaptable race spread widely but the muskrats of the
-lower Columbia River changed their range little or not at all.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Aplodontia rufa.</span>&mdash;The race of <i>Aplodontia</i> found in the Cascades
-of Washington was probably confined to the southern Cascades in
-Vashon Time and has since spread northward to reoccupy the range
-as far north as southern British Columbia.</p>
-
-<p>The presence of a mountain beaver in western Washington that
-is indistinguishable from the race <i>rufa</i>, found in the Cascades of
-Oregon, is most surprising. In Oregon, <i>pacifica</i> occurs in the western
-lowlands and <i>rufa</i> in the mountains to the east. In Washington
-<i>rufa</i> occurs in the western lowlands and <i>rainieri</i> in the mountains to
-the east.</p>
-
-<p>The offset in range of <i>rufa</i> seems best explained by assuming
-that all of western Washington was once occupied by mountain
-beavers (<i>rufa</i>) that spread from the Cascades of Oregon to the
-Cascades of Washington and thence to the western Washington
-lowlands. This must have occurred early in the interglacial cycle
-preceding the Vashon Glaciation. While confined to the southern
-Cascades, <i>rainieri</i> developed the larger size that now separates it
-from the ancestral <i>rufa</i> that occurs to the west and south of it.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Zapus princeps.</span>&mdash;The coastal race of the jumping mouse was
-probably distinct from the more inland population before Vashon-Wisconsin
-Times. The differences between them were probably
-accentuated while the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers separated their
-ranges. The western race (<i>trinotatus</i>) was isolated in the southern
-Cascades and southwestern Washington. After the retreat of the
-glaciers, <i>trinotatus</i> moved northward through western Washington
-and the Cascades into British Columbia. The race <i>kootenayensis</i>
-of the adjacent Rocky Mountains moved eastward through northeastern
-Washington to the Cascades. The race <i>oregonus</i>, found in
-the Blue Mountains, has probably been resident there since it
-evolved from the populations to the east.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Erethizon dorsatum.</span>&mdash;I have inadequate basis for speculation
-concerning the historical distribution of the porcupine.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ochotona princeps.</span>&mdash;The descent of the Wisconsin ice separated
-the western pikas into two populations. One was confined to the
-Cascade-Sierra Nevada system and another to the Rocky Mountains.
-Two races are now found in the Cascades of Washington.
-One, <i>brunnescens</i>, inhabits the higher Cascades and another, <i>fenisex</i>,
-the eastern edge of the Cascades. The range of <i>brunnescens</i> extends
-southward into Oregon while the range of <i>fenisex</i> extends farther
-north in British Columbia than does that of <i>brunnescens</i>. The
-principal difference between the two races is the smaller size and
-paler color of <i>fenisex</i>. In Washington, <i>fenisex</i> occupies a slightly
-more arid habitat than <i>brunnescens</i>. Further, <i>fenisex</i> lives in talus
-principally of basaltic rock while <i>brunnescens</i> lives in talus of
-granitic rock. The basaltic talus is more finely fractured, offering
-smaller crevices in which pikas can conceal themselves. The granitic
-rock, on the other hand, forms talus composed of fragments of large
-size. Freshly fractured granite is pale, whitish gray. After weathering,
-however, it becomes blackish as the more soluble, pale feldspars
-are removed, leaving the black hornblend and biotite exposed.
-Freshly fractured Columbian basalt is blackish but, after weathering,
-becomes rusty, reddish brown.</p>
-
-<p>In Washington the two races maintain their distinctiveness because
-selective factors in the basalt talus of the eastern Cascades
-favor the smaller size and paler color of <i>fenisex</i> while in the higher
-Cascades, selective factors in the granitic batholith favor larger
-size and darker color.</p>
-
-<p>The present range of <i>brunnescens</i> in Oregon indicates that this
-race was the pre-Wisconsin resident of the Cascades of at least
-southern Washington. Probably <i>fenisex</i> evolved in the arid interior
-of British Columbia. In color <i>fenisex</i> is intermediate between the
-dark <i>brunnescens</i> and the pale <i>cuppes</i> of the western spurs of the
-Rocky Mountains. Probably <i>fenisex</i> was forced southward into
-the eastern Cascades by the Wisconsin ice and inhabited the area
-east of the range of <i>brunnescens</i>. This eastern area was not occupied
-by <i>brunnescens</i> because the basaltic talus was of small size.
-After the retreat of the ice, <i>fenisex</i> (adapted to more arid habitat than
-<i>brunnescens</i>), spread northward to the relatively dry valleys of the
-interior of British Columbia.</p>
-
-<p>The distinctness of <i>brunnescens</i> and <i>fenisex</i> is maintained by selective
-factors of the habitats they occupy but the zone of intergradation
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
-between the two is broad. A tendency towards paleness
-is noticeable in specimens from as far west as the eastern side of
-Mount Rainier.</p>
-
-<p>The pikas in the Rocky Mountain area have given rise to a number
-of races. The pale, small race of northern Idaho, <i>cuppes</i>, entered
-northeastern Washington with other members of the Great
-Basin Fauna after the retreat of the ice.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lepus townsendii.</span>&mdash;The white-tailed jack rabbit has probably
-lived on the Columbian Plateau ever since or even before the time
-when the Wisconsin ice bordered the plateau on the north.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lepus americanus.</span>&mdash;Snowshoe rabbits were probably spread over
-forested parts of Washington in pre-Wisconsin time. A coastal race,
-<i>washingtonii</i>, was probably distinct from the remainder of the
-species at an early time. It, and its kindred races <i>klamathensis</i> and
-<i>tahoensis</i>, are very different from races derived later from the Rocky
-Mountain Fauna. From this it is deduced that <i>washingtonii</i> was a
-member of the Pacific Coastal Fauna before the advance of the last
-continental glaciers.</p>
-
-<p>The snowshoe rabbits now found in the Cascade Mountains of
-Washington are racially distinct from populations occurring to the
-north and east, but are more closely related to the northern and
-eastern rabbits than they are to <i>washingtonii</i>. This race, <i>cascadensis</i>,
-probably lived in the area north of the state of Washington in pre-Wisconsin
-interglacial time. The snowshoe rabbit of northeastern
-Washington was probably a race having an extensive range in the
-Rocky Mountains from which <i>pineus</i> in the Blue Mountains developed.
-The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin glaciers found <i>washingtonii</i>
-restricted to western Oregon. It might have persisted also
-in southwestern Washington but, had this been the case, we would
-expect a broader zone of intergradation between <i>washingtonii</i> and
-<i>cascadensis</i> than actually exists.</p>
-
-<p>The glaciers forced <i>cascadensis</i> southward into the Cascades of
-southern Washington. The difference between <i>washingtonii</i> and
-<i>cascadensis</i> and the narrow zone of intergradation between them,
-indicate that the two races were not in contact in pre-Vashon Time.
-The presence in the Cascades of Oregon of a race related to <i>washingtonii</i>
-rather than <i>cascadensis</i> also supports this view. The snowshoe
-rabbits of northeastern Washington were probably eliminated
-from areas where the ice was in place. The effect of the glaciers
-in nearby areas was probably less on snowshoe rabbits than upon
-other species.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Following the retreat of the glaciers, <i>washingtonii</i> reinvaded western
-Washington and spread northward through the lowlands to the
-Fraser River. In the Cascades, <i>cascadensis</i> moved even farther
-north. <i>L. a. pineus</i> of the Rocky Mountain Fauna invaded northeastern
-Washington from adjacent areas to the south. Another
-race, <i>columbiensis</i>, spread from the interior valleys of British Columbia
-to the western part of northeastern Washington in probably
-relatively recent times. The post-Wisconsin history of the distribution
-of this race is uncertain.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Lepus californicus.</span>&mdash;The black-tailed jack rabbit occurs
-throughout the sagebrush areas of eastern Washington, except in the
-Okanogan Valley. It invaded Washington from the south recently
-(<a href="#p_Couch">Couch</a>, 1927: 313). The first blacktails were thought to have
-entered Walla Walla County about 1870. Here they were checked
-by the Snake River. About 1905 they crossed the Snake River, on
-ice, and by 1920 had spread over much of the Columbian Plateau.
-In January, 1920, they crossed the Columbia River in two places,
-on ice jams, and by 1927 had spread north and west over the sagebrush
-areas between the Columbia River and the Cascade Mountains.
-When <a href="#p_Couch">Couch</a>, in 1927, published his account, he predicted
-that the blacktail would eventually spread to the Okanogan Valley.
-This has not yet occurred although it is still to be expected.</p>
-
-<p>It should be noted that the migrational history of the black-tailed
-jack rabbit is known only because the animal is large, spectacular,
-and diurnal, and therefore noticed by resident ranchers,
-and because the facts came to the notice of a competent biologist.
-Migration of a less conspicuous mammal, for example, a mouse,
-would rarely be detected.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sylvilagus nuttallii.</span>&mdash;The cottontail might have been resident
-on the Columbian Plateau during Wisconsin Time but probably it
-invaded, or perhaps reinvaded, the Plateau from eastern Oregon
-in the Recent.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sylvilagus idahoensis.</span>&mdash;Too little is known about this rabbit
-in Washington to hazard a guess as to its recent distributional history.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Cervus canadensis.</span>&mdash;The elk emigrated from Siberia to North
-America in the late Pleistocene but previous, certainly, to Vashon-Wisconsin
-time. Probably the coastal race was distinct from the
-interior population in the preceding interglacial cycle. The descent
-of the last continental glaciers, in Washington, separated the elk
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
-of the Pacific Coastal Fauna from the Rocky Mountain Fauna.
-After the retreat of the ice the coastal race moved northward to
-southern British Columbia and the Rocky Mountain race moved
-northward and westward through British Columbia. Northeastern
-Washington was reoccupied by the Rocky Mountain elk.</p>
-
-<p>Remains of elk have been found associated with human artifacts
-on the northern part of the Columbian Plateau. The plateau is
-poorly suited to elk but a few may have persisted there until late
-historic time. The remains may have been brought by Indians
-from northeastern Washington. The remains included teeth and
-portions of the skull and it seems unlikely that these would have
-been carried any great distance.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Odocoileus hemionus.</span>&mdash;The American deer probably evolved
-in North America. In this respect they are unlike the elk, moose
-and caribou, all of which emigrated from Asia to America in the
-Pleistocene. <i>Odocoileus hemionus</i> and <i>virginianus</i> probably diverged
-from a common stock in the Pliocene.</p>
-
-<p>The black-tailed deer was probably a member of the Pacific
-Coastal Fauna at an early time and distinct from the mule deer
-before the last interglacial cycle. Probably the mule deer lived in
-the eastern Cascades and on part of the Columbian Plateau in Wisconsin
-Time. They occur on the plateau in limited numbers at
-present and their remains have been found associated with human
-artifacts in the Grand Coulee area.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Odocoileus virginianus.</span>&mdash;The white-tailed deer ranges from the
-Atlantic to the Pacific and from Canada to Mexico. The species
-was probably abundant in the Pacific Northwest in the Pleistocene,
-perhaps in Vashon-Wisconsin time, but has since largely given way
-to the black-tailed and mule deer. The race <i>O. v. leucurus</i> now occupies
-an extremely small range. The accounts of early naturalists
-indicate that it was more abundant and had a wider range 100 years
-ago. Probably <i>leucurus</i> was once an important member of the Pacific
-Coastal Fauna.</p>
-
-<p>The inland race, <i>ochrourus</i>, is a typical member of the Rocky
-Mountain Fauna. It and <i>leucurus</i> were probably derived from a
-common ancestor in the late Pleistocene.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Alce americanus.</span>&mdash;The moose occurs in Washington as a casual
-wanderer from the Rocky Mountain Fauna to the east.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Rangifer montanus.</span>&mdash;The caribou occurs in northeastern Washington
-as a winter migrant from the north. It was probably of more
-regular and extensive occurrence in the past.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Antilocapra americana.</span>&mdash;The antelope probably was a casual
-wanderer to southeastern Washington and perhaps to the Columbian
-Plateau from eastern Oregon before white man reached Washington.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Bison bison.</span>&mdash;The buffalo, like the antelope, probably occurred
-in southeastern Washington and on the Columbian Plateau only as
-a casual wanderer from Oregon in postglacial time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Ovis canadensis.</span>&mdash;Mountain sheep reached North America from
-Asia in the Pleistocene. By Vashon-Wisconsin Time they had
-spread southward, perhaps to Mexico. The descent of the Vashon-Wisconsin
-ice in Washington presumably separated the <i>canadensis</i>
-and <i>californiana</i> type of sheep, the former being confined to the
-Rocky Mountain Fauna and the latter to the Cascade-Sierra Nevada
-chain and adjacent parts of the Great Basin.</p>
-
-<p>Mountain sheep probably persisted in the southern Cascades of
-Washington and on the Columbian Plateau during Vashon-Wisconsin
-times. After the retreat of the ice, these sheep (<i>californiana</i>)
-moved northward slightly, both in the Cascades and on the Columbian
-Plateau. Remains of sheep are to be found with human artifacts
-in the Grand Coulee area today. When white man first reached
-the state, sheep existed throughout the Cascades and on part of the
-Columbian Plateau. Only a pitiful remnant remains in the extreme
-northern Cascades.</p>
-
-<p>Mountain sheep of the Rocky Mountain race probably existed in
-small numbers in the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington
-until historic times. Sheep from the Blue Mountains or adjacent
-Idaho invaded northeastern Washington shortly after that region
-was freed from Wisconsin ice. These sheep were exterminated
-shortly after the coming of the white man.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Oreamnos americanus.</span>&mdash;Fossil remains of the mountain goat
-have been discovered at Washtuckna Lake, associated with those
-of the lion, horse, and camel. Probably the mountain goat had an
-extensive range in Washington at the time of a glacial advance previous
-to the Wisconsin glaciation. In Wisconsin Time the mountain
-goat was confined to the southern Cascades. Strangely enough, it
-seems not to have crossed the Columbia River to become established
-in the Cascades of Oregon. After the retreat of the ice it moved
-northward through the Cascades.</p>
-
-<p>A mountain goat recently taken in northeastern Washington
-seemingly wandered to the area from Idaho.</p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="EXPLANATION_OF_TREATMENT">EXPLANATION OF TREATMENT</h2>
-
-
-<p>The order of arrangement of the following accounts is that of <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> (1924)
-with some modifications. For example, the Chiroptera are arranged according
-to <a href="#p_Tate">Tate</a> (1942), the Sciuridae according to <a href="#p_Bryant">Bryant</a> (1945) and the Cetacea according
-to <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1942). A few other minor changes are included.</p>
-
-<p>Although the principal purpose of this report is to describe and interpret
-the distribution of the various species and races of mammals that occur in
-Washington, a brief description and account of the habits of the animals is
-included. Each species account begins with a description, based principally on
-external characters. This is followed by pertinent information regarding the
-range of the species, its relationships within the genus and a brief account of
-its habits. The habits are dealt with in most detail for the species that are
-of greatest economic importance.</p>
-
-<p>The accounts of subspecies are largely technical. The account of the type
-specimen is rather complete. Subspecific diagnoses are brief, stating often only
-the principal racial characters. Standard external measurements are usually
-given for each subspecies. All measurements, unless otherwise stated, are in
-millimeters and weights are in grams. Specimens are adult, unless otherwise
-stated.</p>
-
-<p>No formal list of specimens examined is included. Localities from which
-specimens have been examined are usually shown on the distribution maps
-by solid circles. Open circles indicate localities from which specimens, not
-examined by me, have been recorded by other persons. Most of these records
-are published but a few are based on authentic trappers' reports, photographs,
-or other evidence. Unusual occurrences of animals outside their natural ranges
-are not shown on the maps. Not every record from well within the range
-of a subspecies has been plotted, but care has been taken to plot all records
-of occurrences from peripheral areas.</p>
-
-<p>When more than one race of a species occurs in Washington, specimens
-from localities where the geographic range of one subspecies meets or approaches
-that of another are listed as "marginal occurrences" in the paragraph
-on the distribution of the race to which they are best referred. Marginal occurrences
-are listed from north to south and from west to east. The authority
-for the record, if published, is given. When the record is based on specimens
-examined by the author, the collection containing the specimen is indicated
-as follows:</p>
-
-<blockquote>
-<p>(E.S.B.) Ernest S. <a href="#p_Booth">Booth</a> collection. College Place, Washington.</p>
-
-<p>(J.M.E.) J. M. <a href="#p_Edson">Edson</a> collection, Bellingham, Washington.</p>
-
-<p>(K.U.) University of Kansas, Museum of Natural History, Lawrence, Kansas.</p>
-
-<p>(M.V.Z.) Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy, University of California, Berkeley,
-California.</p>
-
-<p>(U.S.N.M.) United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. Specimens
-from the Biological Surveys Collection are included here.</p>
-
-<p>(V.B.S.) Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> collection. United States National Museum, Washington,
-D. C.</p>
-</blockquote>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p>
-
-<blockquote>
-<p>(W.S.C.) Washington State College, Charles R. Conner Museum, Pullman,
-Washington.</p>
-
-<p>(W.S.M.) Washington State Museum, University of Washington, Seattle,
-Washington.</p>
-
-<p>(W.W.D.) Walter W. <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> collection, Seattle, Washington.</p>
-</blockquote>
-
-<p class="p1 pmb3">In all, 230 kinds (species and subspecies) of mammals are listed
-for the state of Washington. Of these, 9 kinds (opossum, eastern
-gray squirrel, fox squirrel, 3 kinds of Old World rats, house mouse,
-nutria, and eastern cottontail) have been introduced into Washington
-from elsewhere. The dog of the Indians might be listed as
-a tenth introduced species. The grizzly bear, the sea otter, the wolf,
-the moose, one race of mountain sheep, one race of mountain goat,
-and, if they ever occurred in the state, the pronghorn antelope and
-bison, are nearly or completely extinct in Washington. Mammals
-other than cetaceans possibly occurring in Washington, but of which
-satisfactory record is lacking, are mentioned in a hypothetical list
-at the end of the accounts of species. Of the 220 kinds of native
-mammals, known to occur in the state, 23 are marine (4 pinnipeds,
-19 cetaceans). The 197 living, native, land mammals include 6 orders,
-20 families, 58 genera and 101 full species.</p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="CHECK_LIST_OF_MAMMALS">CHECK LIST OF MAMMALS</h2>
-
-
-<h3>CLASS MAMMALIA&mdash;mammals</h3>
-
-
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" class="tdl" summary="CHECK LIST OF MAMMALS">
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" colspan="4"><span class="font12">Order MARSUPALIA&mdash;marsupials</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Didelphiidae</span>&mdash;opossums</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Didelphis</b> Linnaeus&mdash;opossums</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_121"><i>Didelphis virginiana virginiana Kerr</i></a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">opossum</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" colspan="4"><span class="font12">Order INSECTIVORA&mdash;insectivores</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Talpidae</span>&mdash;moles</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Neurotrichus</b> Gunther&mdash;shrew-mole</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_124"><i>Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii</i></a> (<a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08"><a href="#p_Gibbs">Gibbs</a> shrew-mole</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_124"><i>Neurotrichus gibbsii minor</i></a> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Burgner</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="top"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Scapanus</b> Pomel&mdash;western American moles</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_126"><i>Scapanus townsendii</i> (Bachman)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Townsend mole</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_130"><i>Scapanus orarius orarius</i> True</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="3"><span class="font08">coast mole</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_130"><i>Scapanus orarius yakimensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_130"><i>Scapanus orarius schefferi</i></a> <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Soricidae</span>&mdash;shrews</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Sorex</b> Linnaeus&mdash;long-tailed shrews</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_132"><i>Sorex cinereus cinereus</i> Kerr</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">cinereous shrew</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_133"><i>Sorex cinereus streatori</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_134"><i>Sorex merriami merriami</i> Dobson</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> shrew</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_136"><i>Sorex trowbridgii trowbridgii</i></a> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">Trowbridge shrew</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_136"><i>Sorex trowbridgii destructioni</i></a> <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_138"><i>Sorex vagrans vagrans</i></a> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">wandering shrew</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_138"><i>Sorex vagrans monticola</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_140"><i>Sorex obscurus obscurus</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">dusky shrew</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_141"><i>Sorex obscurus setosus</i></a> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_141"><i>Sorex palustris navigator</i></a> (<a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">mountain water-shrew</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_144"><i>Sorex bendirii bendirii</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">Bendire water-shrew</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_144"><i>Sorex bendirii albiventer</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Microsorex</b> Coues&mdash;pigmy shrew</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_145"><i>Microsorex hoyi washingtoni</i></a> <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
-    <td><span class="font08">pigmy shrew</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" colspan="4"><span class="font12">Order CHIROPTERA&mdash;bats</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Vespertilionidae</span>&mdash;vespertilionid bats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Myotis</b> Kaup&mdash;mouse-eared bats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_148"><i>Myotis lucifugus carissima</i> Thomas</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">big myotis</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_148"><i>Myotis lucifugus alascensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_150"><i>Myotis yumanensis sociabilis</i></a> H. W. <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">Yuma myotis</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_150"><i>Myotis yumanensis saturatus</i></a> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
-      &nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_151"><i>Myotis keenii keenii</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Keen myotis</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_153"><i>Myotis evotis evotis</i></a> (H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">long-eared myotis</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_153"><i>Myotis evotis pacificus</i></a> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_153"><i>Myotis thysanodes thysanodes</i></a> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">fringe-tailed myotis</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_155"><i>Myotis volans longicrus</i> (True)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">hairy-winged myotis</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_155"><i>Myotis volans interior</i></a> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_157"><i>Myotis californicus caurinus</i></a> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2" valign="top"><span class="font08"><br />California myotis</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_158"><i>Myotis californicus californicus</i> (Audubon and Bachman)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="top"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_158"><i>Myotis subulatus melanorhinus</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">small-footed myotis</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Lasionycteris</b> Peters&mdash;silver-haired bat</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_159"><i>Lasionycteris noctivagans</i> (Le Conte)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">silver-haired bat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Corynorhinus</b> H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>&mdash;long-eared bats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_163"><i>Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii</i> (Cooper)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">long-eared bat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_164"><i>Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius</i></a> H. W. <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="top"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Pipistrellus</b> Kaup&mdash;pipistrelles</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_165"><i>Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus</i></a> (H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">western pipistrelle</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Eptesicus</b> Rafinesque&mdash;serotine bats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_165"><i>Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus</i></a> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">big brown bat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Lasiurus</b> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>&mdash;hairy-tailed bats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_168"><i>Lasiurus cinereus cinereus</i> (Beauvois)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">hoary bat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Antrozous</b> H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>&mdash;nyctophiline bats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_169"><i>Antrozous pallidus cantwelli</i></a> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">pallid bat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" colspan="4"><span class="font12">Order CARNIVORA</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Ursidae</span>&mdash;bears</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Ursus</b> Linnaeus&mdash;bears</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_176"><i>Ursus americanus altifrontalis</i></a> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td valign="top" rowspan="2"><span class="font08"><br />black bear</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_176"><i>Ursus americanus cinnamomum</i> (Audubon and Bachman)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="top"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_176"><i>Ursus chelan</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">grizzly bear</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Procyonidae</span>&mdash;raccoons and allies</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Procyon</b> Storr&mdash;raccoons</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_181"><i>Procyon lotor psora</i></a> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td valign="top" rowspan="2"><span class="font08">raccoon</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_182"><i>Procyon lotor excelsus</i></a> <a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a> and <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="top"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Mustelidae</span>&mdash;weasels and allies</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Martes</b> Pinel&mdash;martens and fisher</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_186"><i>Martes caurina caurina</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">western marten</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_186"><i>Martes caurina origenes</i></a> (<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center" valign="top"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_187"><i>Martes pennanti</i> (Erxleben)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">fisher</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Mustela</b> Linnaeus&mdash;weasels, ferrets and minks</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_191"><i>Mustela erminea invicta</i></a> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="6"><span class="font08">ermine</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_191"><i>Mustela erminea fallenda</i></a> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_192"><i>Mustela erminea olympica</i></a> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_193"><i>Mustela erminea streatori</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_193"><i>Mustela erminea gulosa</i></a> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_193"><i>Mustela erminea murica</i> (Bangs)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
-        <span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_198"><i>Mustela frenata washingtoni</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="4"><span class="font08">long-tailed weasel</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_198"><i>Mustela frenata altifrontalis</i></a> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_198"><i>Mustela frenata effera</i></a> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_197"><i>Mustela frenata nevadensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_199"><i>Mustela vison energumenos</i> (Bangs)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">mink</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Gulo</b> Pallas&mdash;wolverines</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_202"><i>Gulo luscus luteus</i></a> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">wolverine</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Lutra</b> Brisson&mdash;river otters</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_210"><i>Lutra canadensis pacifica</i></a> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">river otter</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_210"><i>Lutra canadensis vancouverensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Enhydra</b> Fleming&mdash;sea otter</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_211"><i>Enhydra lutris nereis</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">sea otter</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Spilogale</b> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>&mdash;civet cats or spotted skunks</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_215"><i>Spilogale gracilis saxatilis</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">civet cat or spotted skunks</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_215"><i>Spilogale gracilis latifrons</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Mephitis</b> Geoffroy and Cuvier&mdash;striped skunks</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_217"><i>Mephitis mephitis hudsonica</i> Richardson</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="4"><span class="font08">striped skunk</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_218"><i>Mephitis mephitis major</i></a> (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_219"><i>Mephitis mephitis notata</i></a> (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_219"><i>Mephitis mephitis spissigrada</i> Bangs</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Taxidea</b> Waterhouse&mdash;American badger</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_220"><i>Taxidea taxus taxus</i> (Schreber)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">badger</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Canidae</span>&mdash;foxes, coyote, wolves and dogs</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><small>&nbsp;</small></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Vulpes</b> Oken&mdash;foxes</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_224"><i>Vulpes fulva cascadensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">red fox</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><small>&nbsp;</small></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Canis</b> Linnaeus&mdash;coyote, wolves and dogs</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_230"><i>Canis latrans testes</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">coyote</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_231"><i>Canis latrans incolatus</i></a> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><small>&nbsp;</small></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_232"><i>Canis lupus fuscus</i> Richardson</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">wolf</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><small>&nbsp;</small></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_234"><i>Canis familiaris</i> Linnaeus</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">dog</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Felidae</span>&mdash;cats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><small>&nbsp;</small></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Felis</b> Linnaeus&mdash;true cats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_237"><i>Felis concolor oregonensis</i> Rafinesque</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">cougar or mountain lion</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_237"><i>Felis concolor missoulensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><small>&nbsp;</small></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Lynx</b> Kerr&mdash;lynxes and bobcats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_239"><i>Lynx canadensis canadensis</i> Kerr</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Canadian lynx</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><small>&nbsp;</small></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_243"><i>Lynx rufus fasciatus</i> Rafinesque</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">bobcat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_243"><i>Lynx rufus pallescens</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" colspan="4"><span class="font12">Order PINNIPEDIA&mdash;seals and walruses</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Otariidae</span>&mdash;eared seals</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Zalophus</b> Gill&mdash;Californian sea lions</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_244"><i>Zaluphus californianus</i> (Lesson)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">California sea lion</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Eumetopias</b> Gill&mdash;Steller sea lion</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_244"><i>Eumetopias jubata</i> (Schreber)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Steller sea lion</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Callorhinus</b> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>&mdash;Alaska fur seal</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_246"><i>Callorhinus ursinus cynocephalus</i> (Walbaum)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Alaska fur seal</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Phocidae</span>&mdash;hair seals</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Phoca</b> Linnaeus&mdash;hair seals</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_247"><i>Phoca vitulina richardii</i></a> (<a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">hair seal</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" colspan="4"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
-        <span class="font12">Order RODENTIA&mdash;rodents</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Sciuridae</span>&mdash;squirrels and allies</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Tamias</b> Illiger&mdash;chipmunks</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_252"><i>Tamias minimus scrutator</i></a> (<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and Hatfield)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">least chipmunk</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_253"><i>Tamias minimus grisescens</i></a> (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_255"><i>Tamias amoenus caurinus</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="6"><span class="font08">yellow-pine chipmunk</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_256"><i>Tamias amoenus felix</i></a> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_257"><i>Tamias amoenus ludibundus</i> (Hollister)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_257"><i>Tamias amoenus affinis</i></a> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_257"><i>Tamias amoenus canicaudus</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_258"><i>Tamias amoenus luteiventris</i></a> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_258"><i>Tamias ruficaudus simulans</i></a> (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">red-tailed chipmunk</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_262"><i>Tamias townsendii townsendii</i> Bachman</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">Townsend chipmunk</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_262"><i>Tamias townsendii cooperi</i></a> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Marmota</b> Blumenbach&mdash;marmots</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_263"><i>Marmota monax petrensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">woodchuck</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_263"><i>Marmota flaviventris avara</i> (Bangs)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">yellow-bellied marmot</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_265"><i>Marmota caligata cascadensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">hoary marmot</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_267"><i>Marmota olympus</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Olympic marmot</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Citellus</b> Oken&mdash;ground squirrels</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_268"><i>Citellus townsendii townsendii</i> (Bachman)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Townsend ground squirrel</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_271"><i>Citellus washingtoni</i></a> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Washington ground squirrel</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_275"><i>Citellus columbianus columbianus</i> (Ord)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">Columbian ground squirrel</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_275"><i>Citellus columbianus ruficaudus</i></a> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_276"><i>Citellus beecheyi douglasii</i> (Richardson)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Beechey ground squirrel</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_279"><i>Citellus lateralis tescorum</i> (Hollister)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="3"><span class="font08">golden-mantled ground squirrel</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_280"><i>Citellus lateralis connectens</i></a> (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_281"><i>Citellus saturatus</i></a> (<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Sciurus</b> Linnaeus&mdash;tree squirrels</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_284"><i>Sciurus griseus griseus</i> Ord</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">western gray squirrel</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_286"><i>Sciurus carolinensis hypophaeus</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">eastern gray squirrel</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_286"><i>Sciurus niger</i> Linnaeus, subsp.?</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">fox squirrel</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Tamiasciurus</b> Trouessart&mdash;red squirrels</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_288"><i>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori</i></a> (<a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">red squirrel</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_289"><i>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni</i> (Bachman)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_290"><i>Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii</i> (Bachman)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Douglas squirrel</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Glaucomys</b> Thomas&mdash;American flying squirrels</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_295"><i>Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis</i> (Bachman)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="5"><span class="font08">northern flying squirrel</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_295"><i>Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi</i></a> (<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_296"><i>Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_296"><i>Glaucomys sabrinus latipes</i></a> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_296"><i>Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus</i></a> (<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Heteromyidae</span>&mdash;pocket mice, kangaroo mice and kangaroo rats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Perognathus</b> Weid&mdash;pocket mice</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_298"><i>Perognathus parvus parvus</i> (Peale)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="3"><span class="font08">great basin pocket mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_299"><i>Perognathus parvus lordi</i></a> (<a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_299"><i>Perognathus parvus columbianus</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
-        <span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Dipodomys</b> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>&mdash;kangaroo rats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_300"><i>Dipodomys ordii columbianus</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Ord kangaroo rat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Geomyidae</span>&mdash;pocket gophers</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Thomomys</b> Weid&mdash;smooth-toothed pocket gophers</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_309"><i>Thomomys talpoides devexus</i></a> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="17"><span class="font08">northern pocket gopher</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_310"><i>Thomomys talpoides columbianus</i></a> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_310"><i>Thomomys talpoides aequalidens</i></a> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_310"><i>Thomomys talpoides wallowa</i></a> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Orr">Orr</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_310"><i>Thomomys talpoides fuscus</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_311"><i>Thomomys talpoides yakimensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_311"><i>Thomomys talpoides shawi</i></a> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_311"><i>Thomomys talpoides immunis</i></a> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_312"><i>Thomomys talpoides limosus</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_312"><i>Thomomys talpoides douglasii</i> (Richardson)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_312"><i>Thomomys talpoides glacialis</i></a> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_312"><i>Thomomys talpoides tacomensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_313"><i>Thomomys talpoides pugetensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_313"><i>Thomomys talpoides tumuli</i></a> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_313"><i>Thomomys talpoides yelmensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_314"><i>Thomomys talpoides couchi</i></a> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_314"><i>Thomomys talpoides melanops</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Castoridae</span>&mdash;beavers</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Castor</b> Linnaeus&mdash;beavers</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_322"><i>Castor canadensis leucodonta</i></a> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">beaver</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_322"><i>Castor canadensis idoneus</i></a> Jewett and <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Muridae</span>&mdash;rats and mice</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Onychomys</b> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>&mdash;grasshopper mice</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_323"><i>Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus</i> Anthony</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
-    <td><span class="font08">northern grasshopper mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Reithrodontomys</b> Giglioli&mdash;American harvest mice</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_324"><i>Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis</i></a> (<a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
-    <td><span class="font08">western harvest mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Peromyscus</b> Gloger&mdash;white-footed mice</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_330"><i>Peromyscus maniculatus oreas</i> Bangs</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="6"><span class="font08">deer mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_330"><i>Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri</i></a> <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_331"><i>Peromyscus maniculatus austerus</i></a> (<a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_331"><i>Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus</i></a> <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_331"><i>Peromyscus maniculatus gambelii</i></a> (<a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_332"><i>Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae</i></a> (<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Neotoma</b> Say and Ord&mdash;wood rats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_336"><i>Neotoma cinerea occidentalis</i></a> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">bushy-tailed wood rat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_336"><i>Neotoma cinerea alticola</i> Hooper</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
-        <span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Synaptomys</b> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>&mdash;lemming mice</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_337"><i>Synaptomys borealis wrangeli</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
-    <td><span class="font08">northern lemming mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Phenacomys</b> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>&mdash;heather voles and tree mice</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_340"><i>Phenacomys intermedius intermedius</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">heather vole</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_340"><i>Phenacomys intermedius oramontis</i></a> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Clethrionomys</b> Tilesius&mdash;red-backed mice</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_342"><i>Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus</i></a> (<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="4"><span class="font08">Gapper red-backed mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_342"><i>Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_343"><i>Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Booth">Booth</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_343"><i>Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius</i></a> (<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_344"><i>Clethrionomys californicus occidentalis</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
-    <td><span class="font08">California red-backed mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Microtus</b> Schrank&mdash;meadow mice</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_346"><i>Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris</i></a> <a href="#p_Dale">Dale</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">Pennsylvania meadow mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_347"><i>Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi</i></a> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_348"><i>Microtus montanus nanus</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">montane meadow mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_349"><i>Microtus montanus canescens</i></a> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_351"><i>Microtus townsendii townsendii</i> (Bachman)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">Townsend meadow mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_351"><i>Microtus townsendii pugeti</i></a> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_353"><i>Microtus longicaudus halli</i></a> <a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">long-tailed meadow mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_354"><i>Microtus longicaudus macrurus</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_356"><i>Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides</i></a> (<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">water rat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_356"><i>Microtus richardsoni macropus</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_357"><i>Microtus oregoni oregoni</i> (Bachman)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">creeping mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Lagurus</b> Gloger&mdash;short-tailed voles</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_359"><i>Lagurus curtatus pauperrimus</i> (Cooper)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">sagebrush vole</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Ondatra</b> Link&mdash;muskrat</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_363"><i>Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis</i> (Lord)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">muskrat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_363"><i>Ondatra zibethicus occipitalis</i></a> (<a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Rattus</b> Fischer&mdash;Old World rats</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_364"><i>Rattus rattus rattus</i> (Linnaeus)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">roof rat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_364"><i>Rattus rattus alexandrinus</i> (Geoffroy)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_365"><i>Rattus norvegicus norvegicus</i> (Erxleben)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Norway rat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Mus</b> Linnaeus&mdash;house mice</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_365"><i>Mus musculus</i> Linnaeus, subsp.?</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">house mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Aplontidae</span>&mdash;mountain beaver</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Aplodontia</b> Richardson&mdash;mountain beaver</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_369"><i>Aplodontia rufa rufa</i> (Rafinesque)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">mountain beaver</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_369"><i>Aplodontia rufa rainieri</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Dipodidae</span>&mdash;jumping mice and allies</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Zapus</b> Coues&mdash;jumping mice</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_371"><i>Zapus princeps trinotatus</i></a> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="4"><span class="font08">big jumping mouse</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_373"><i>Zapus princeps kootenayensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_373"><i>Zapus princeps idahoensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_373"><i>Zapus princeps oregonus</i> Preble</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
-        <span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Erethizontidae</span>&mdash;American porcupines</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Erethizon</b> Cuvier&mdash;North American porcupine</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_375"><i>Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum</i> Brandt</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">porcupine</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_376"><i>Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens</i></a> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Chinchillidae</span> <a href="#p_Bennett">Bennett</a>&mdash;chinchillas and allies</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Myocastor</b> Kerr&mdash;nutria</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_376"><i>Myocastor coypus</i> (Molina), subsp.?</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">nutria</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" colspan="4"><span class="font12">Order LAGOMORPHA&mdash;pikas, hares and rabbits</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Ochotonidae</span>&mdash;pikas</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Ochotona</b> Link&mdash;pikas</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_379"><i>Ochotona princeps cuppes</i> Bangs</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="3"><span class="font08">pika</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_379"><i>Ochotona princeps fenisex</i></a> <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_380"><i>Ochotona princeps brunnescens</i></a> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Leporidae</span>&mdash;hares and rabbits</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Lepus</b> Linnaeus&mdash;hares</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_380"><i>Lepus townsendii townsendii</i> Bachman</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">white-tailed jack rabbit</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_384"><i>Lepus americanus washingtonii</i></a> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="4"><span class="font08">snowshoe rabbit</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_384"><i>Lepus americanus cascadensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_384"><i>Lepus americanus pineus</i></a> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_385"><i>Lepus americanus columbiensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_385"><i>Lepus californicus deserticola</i> Mearns</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">black-tailed jack rabbit</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Sylvilagus</b> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>&mdash;cottontails and allies</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_387"><i>Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii</i> (Bachman)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Nuttall cottontail</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_389"><i>Sylvilagus floridanus</i></a> (<a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>), subsp.?</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Florida cottontail</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_390"><i>Sylvilagus idahoensis</i></a> (<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">pigmy rabbit</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" colspan="4"><span class="font12">Order ARTIODACTYLA&mdash;even-toed ungulates</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Cervidae</span>&mdash;deer and allies</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Cervus</b> Linnaeus&mdash;American elk or wapiti</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_394"><i>Cervus canadensis roosevelti</i></a> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">elk or wapiti</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_394"><i>Cervus canadensis nelsoni</i></a> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Odocoileus</b> Rafinesque&mdash;northern deer</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_398"><i>Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus</i></a> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">white-tailed deer</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_398"><i>Odocoileus virginianus leucurus</i> (Douglas)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_403"><i>Odocoileus hemionus hemionus</i> (Rafinesque)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">mule deer or black-tailed deer</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_403"><i>Odocoileus hemionus columbianus</i> (Richardson)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Alce</b> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>&mdash;Moose and Old-World elk</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_403"><i>Alce americana shirasi</i></a> <a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">moose</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Rangifer</b> Hamilton-Smith&mdash;reindeer and caribou</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_404"><i>Rangifer arcticus montanus</i> Seton-Thompson</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">caribou</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Bovidae</span>&mdash;cattle, sheep, goats and allies</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Bison</b> Hamilton-Smith&mdash;bison</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_404"><i>Bison bison oregonus</i></a> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">bison</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
-        <span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Ovis</b> Linnaeus&mdash;sheep</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_406"><i>Ovis canadensis canadensis</i></a> <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">mountain sheep</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_406"><i>Ovis canadensis californiana</i> Douglas</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Oreamnos</b> Rafinesque&mdash;mountain goat</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_409"><i>Oreamnos americanus americanus</i> (Blainville)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-    <td rowspan="2"><span class="font08">mountain goat</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_409"><i>Oreamnos americanus missoulae</i></a> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">}</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td align="center" colspan="4"><span class="font12">Order CETACEA&mdash;whales and porpoises</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Ziphiidae</span>&mdash;beaked whales</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Berardius</b> Duvernoy&mdash;beaked whales</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_410"><i>Berardius bairdii</i> Stejneger</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a> beaked whale</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Mesoplodon</b> Gervais&mdash;beaked whales</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_410"><i>Mesoplodon stejnegeri</i> True</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Stejneger beaked whale</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Delphinidae</span>&mdash;porpoises</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Delphinus</b> Linnaeus&mdash;dolphins</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_410"><i>Delphinus bairdii</i> Dall</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08"><a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a> porpoise</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Lissodelphis</b> Gloger&mdash;right-whale porpoises</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_410"><i>Lissodelphis borealis</i> (Peale)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">northern right-whale porpoise</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Lagenorhynchus</b> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>&mdash;striped porpoises</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_411"><i>Lagenorhynchus obliquidens</i> Gill</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">striped porpoise</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Grampus</b> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>&mdash;killer whales</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_411"><i>Grampus rectipinna</i> (Cope)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Pacific killer</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Grampidelphis</b> Iredale and Troughton</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_411"><i>Grampidelphis griseus</i> (Cuvier)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">grampus</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Globicelphalus</b> <a href="#p_Hamilton">Hamilton</a>&mdash;blackfishes</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_411"><i>Globicephalus scammonii</i> (Cope)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">blackfish</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Phocoena</b> Cuvier&mdash;harbor porpoises</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_412"><i>Phocoena vomerina</i> (Gill)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">harbor porpoise</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Phocoenoides</b> Andrews&mdash;Dall porpoises</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_412"><i>Phocoenoides dalli</i> (True)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Dall porpoise</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Physeteridae</span>&mdash;sperm whales</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Physeter</b> Linnaeus&mdash;sperm whale</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_412"><i>Physeter catodon</i> Linnaeus</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">sperm whale</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Kogiidae</span>&mdash;pigmy sperm whale</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Kogia</b> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>&mdash;pigmy sperm whale</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_412"><i>Kogia breviceps</i> (Blainville)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">pigmy sperm whale</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Rhachianectidae</span>&mdash;gray whale</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Rhachianectes</b> Cope&mdash;gray whale</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_412"><i>Rhachianectes glaucus</i> (Cope)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">gray whale</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Balaenopteridae</span>&mdash;finback whales</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Balaenoptera</b> Lac&eacute;p&egrave;de&mdash;finback whales</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_413"><i>Balaenoptera physalus</i> (Linnaeus)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">finback whale</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_413"><i>Balaenoptera borealis</i> Lesson</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Pollack whale</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_413"><i>Balaenoptera acutorostrata</i> Lac&eacute;p&egrave;de</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">pike whale</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
-        <span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Sibbaldus</b> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>&mdash;blue whale</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_413"><i>Sibbaldus musculus</i> (Linnaeus)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">blue whale</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Megaptera</b> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>&mdash;humpbacked whales</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_413"><i>Megaptera novaeangliae</i> (Borowski)</a></span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">humpback whale</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font10">
-      Family <span class="smcap">Balaenidae</span>&mdash;baleen whales</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr><td align="center" colspan="5"><span class="font07">&nbsp;</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font10">
-      Genus <b>Eubalaena</b> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>&mdash;baleen whales</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="2"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">
-      <a href="#Page_414"><i>Eubalaena sieboldii</i></a> (<a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>)</span></td>
-    <td align="center"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td><span class="font08">Pacific right whale</span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-<p class="pmb3" />
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break">ACCOUNTS OF SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES</h2>
-
-
-<h3>Didelphis virginiana virginiana&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Kerr</span><br />
-
-<br /><span class="hx2">Opossum</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08"><i>Didelphis virginiana</i> Kerr. Anim. Kingd., p. 193, 1792.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;Virginia</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Slightly smaller than a house cat; body in older
-animals heavy and fat; tail long, naked, scaled and prehensile. Ears
-large, naked and black with white tips; muzzle elongate and pointed;
-color of fur variable; overhair usually white and underfur white
-tipped with black; guard hairs long and coarse but underfur soft and
-dense; forefoot with opposable thumb; females with abdominal
-pouch.</p>
-
-<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The opossum has been introduced from the eastern
-United States into California and Oregon and has become well
-established in those states. Recent records from Clear Lake, Skagit
-County, and South Bend, Pacific County, indicate that the opossum
-is now resident in Washington and it may be expected to increase
-and spread (<a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1943). The animals may also enter the area
-about Walla Walla from Oregon. The source of the opossums which
-have appeared in Washington is not yet known.</p>
-
-<p>Of this animal, Dr. Carl <a href="#p_Hartman">Hartman</a> (1923: 347) has written:</p>
-
-<p>"In the popular mind, the generation of no animal is so shrouded
-in mystery as that of the opossum. Throughout the country, among
-both whites and negroes, deeply rooted tradition has it that the
-opossum copulates through the nose and that the female blows the
-fruit of conception into the pouch. Other myths relating to details
-of the reproductive process in this species are current among the
-people.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">"The growth of such legends need not surprise one, however, for
-the early birth of the embryos and the use of the pouch as an
-incubator certainly challenge the imagination. These phenomena
-attract the attention because they are unique, differing from the
-familiar method of rearing the young obtaining among the higher
-mammals, including man. Familiarity breeds contempt; the ordinary
-ceases to be marvelous. Thus on account of its rareness and its
-'different' character the opossum, our only marsupial, figures in the
-folklore to a prominent degree."</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Neurotrichus gibbsii</h3>
-
-<h4><a href="#p_Gibbs">Gibbs</a> shrew-mole</h4>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The shrew-mole is tiny, possessing a head and body
-2-1/2 to 3 inches long and a tail about 1-1/2 inches in length. The body
-is relatively stout but is less cylindrical than that of <i>Scapanus</i>. The
-eyes are nearly buried in the fur. The nose is long and pointed.
-The legs are short and the forefeet wide and powerful. The tail is
-thick, constricted at the base and clothed with short, stiff bristles.
-The fur is short and posteriorly directed. In color the shrew-mole is
-dark slate, almost black.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_21"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_123.jpg" alt="Fig. 21." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>&nbsp;
-    <a href="#p_Gibbs">Gibbs</a> shrew-mole (<i>Neurotrichus gibbsii minor</i>), female in captivity;
-    Seattle, Washington, September 12, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by
-    Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 719.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Shrew-moles inhabit moist habitats from sea level to
-8,000 feet. They are burrowing mammals and prefer to live in soft
-earth, free of sod. In the lowlands of western Washington, shrew-moles
-are most abundant in damp, shady ravines where the vegetation includes
-deciduous trees and dense underbrush with but little grass.
-In the mountains, shrew-moles are usually found near streams or
-rock slides, where the larger annuals grow densely on soil that is
-deep, soft, and free of turf. Vertically they range from the Humid
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
-Transition Life-zone through the Canadian, and well into the Hudsonian
-Life-zone.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_22"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_124.jpg" alt="Fig. 22." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the <a href="#p_Gibbs">Gibbs</a> shrew-mole in Washington. A. <i>Neurotrichus
-    gibbsii gibbsii.</i> B. <i>Neurotrichus gibbsii minor.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Shrew-moles are both diurnal and nocturnal. They rest or sleep
-periodically, the length of their rest or sleep being longer when much
-food is eaten, and the intervals between their periods of rest or sleep
-is longer when less food is eaten. Owls and snakes appear to be
-their principal enemies. Predatory mammals eat some shrew-moles,
-and probably kill many that they do not eat. Shrew-moles are
-completely blind, and their long, prehensile nose guides all their
-activity. Their ordinary movements on the surface of the ground
-are slow and cautious. When frightened they break into a scuttling
-rush which ends beneath a leaf or bit of bark where the animal becomes
-motionless. Shrew-moles, on the surface of the ground, make
-considerable noise. They construct molelike burrows, but these are
-not as extensive or complicated as those of moles. The shrew-mole
-hunts for food in shallow trenches that it makes just under the layer
-of dead leaves and vegetable debris that covers the ground in their
-habitat. The food of the shrew-moles includes earthworms, isopods,
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
-insect larvae, soft-bodied insects, and other animal matter. Some
-vegetable matter is eaten.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Breeding takes place at all seasons of the year, save perhaps in
-December and January. Embryos vary from one to four. The nest
-of a shrew-mole at Seattle, King County, consisted of a handful of
-damp leaves in a cavity of a rotten, punky, alder stump. The nest
-contained four half-grown young.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>)</span></h4>
-
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Urotrichus gibbsii</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 76, 1857.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Neurotrichus [sic] gibbsii</i> G&uuml;nther, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pl. 42, 1880.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Neurotrichus Gibbsii</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):607, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Neurotrichus gibbsii</i> <a href="#p_Bryant">Bryant</a>, Zoe. 1:359, February, 1891.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Neurotrichus gibbsii gibbsii</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:11, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Naches Pass, 4,500 ft., Pierce County, Washington,
-by G. <a href="#p_Gibbs">Gibbs</a> on July 15, 1854 (see <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Burgner</a>, 1941); type in
-United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size relatively large; tail relatively long; foreclaws
-straight on ventral surface.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two females from Tye, 4,000 ft., Stevens Pass, King
-County, average: total length, 121.5; length of tail, 45; length of hind foot, 18.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Cascade Mountains, from British Columbia south, and
-Destruction Island, Jefferson County. Records of occurrence are Baker Lake
-(J. M. E.), Tye (M. V. Z.), and Mount Rainier (Mount Rainier Ntl. Park
-Mus.)</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Shrew-moles are present on Destruction Island, a
-small island in the Pacific off the coast of Jefferson County. These
-moles are large, and are like <i>gibbsii</i>. It is thought, however, that
-this resemblance is due to convergent evolution rather than a once-continuous
-range with <i>gibbsii</i>. It is significant that a shrew (<i>Sorex
-trowbridgii destructioni</i>), the only other native land mammal on the
-island, differs from its mainland counterpart in much the same way
-as does <i>Neurotrichus g. gibbsii</i> from <i>Neurotrichus g. minor</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Neurotrichus gibbsii minor&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Burgner</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Neurotrichus gibbsii</i> minor <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Burgner</a>, Murrelet, 22:12, April 30, 1941.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on the University of Washington Campus, Seattle, King
-County, Washington, by W. W. <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> on May 19, 1940; type in the
-Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size small; tail short; foreclaws light and weak as compared
-to those of <i>gibbsii</i>, with ventral surfaces curved.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Eighty-five specimens (males and females) from Seattle,
-King County, average: total length, 107.0; length of tail, 35.3; length of
-hind foot, 15.0.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The lowlands of western Washington. Marginal records are:
-Mt. Vernon (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1915: 97), Cottage Lake (W.W.D.) and Yacolt (M.
-V.Z.).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Genus <b>Scapanus</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Pomel</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Moles</span></h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_23"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_126.jpg" alt="Fig. 23." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>&nbsp;
-    Coast mole (<i>Scapanus orarius orarius</i>) left
-    and Townsend mole (<i>Scapanus townsendii</i>) right; Puyallup.
-    Washington, May, 1914. (Fish and Wildlife Service
-    photo by T. H. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. B-18637.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb2">Moles are of stocky build and have cylindrical, rounded bodies.
-The eyes are tiny, nearly concealed in the fur. They have no external
-ears. The legs are short; the forefeet wide, spadelike, and
-armed with powerful claws. The fur is erect, not posteriorly directed.
-The color of the fur is deep bluish or brownish slate. The
-short, nearly naked tail is pale pink or whitish. Moles of this genus
-are found only along the Pacific Coast of North America from
-southern Canada south into Baja California.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Scapanus townsendii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Bachman)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Townsend mole</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Scalops townsendii</i> Bachman. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 (pt. 1):58, 1839.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Scapanus tow[n]sendii</i> Pomel. Arch. Sci. Phys. Nat., Geneva, 9 (ser. 4):247, 1848.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Scapanus Townsendii</i> True. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1881):607, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Probably obtained at Fort Vancouver. Clark County. Washington,
-by J. K. <a href="#p_Townsend">Townsend</a>. A cotype was obtained on May 9. 1835; type in Academy
-of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Three males and 6 females from southwestern Washington
-average, respectively: total length 221, 214; length of tail 51, 46; hind foot
-28.3, 26; weight 147, 117 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The lowlands of western Washington. Marginal occurrences
-are: Sauk (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>. 1915: 61); Skykomish (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1915: 61) and Yacolt
-(M.V.Z.).</p>
-
-<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;<i>Scapanus townsendii</i> occurs only in a narrow belt extending
-from southwestern British Columbia to northwestern California.
-It seems to prefer a generally damper habitat than the
-smaller-sized coast mole, although both species are sometimes found
-in the same locality. The larger mole is abundant in the meadows
-on the flood plains of rivers at low elevations, and on the glacial
-outwash prairies. It is often numerous in the fir forests, although
-its workings and mounds are less conspicuous there. The bodies of
-nine drowned individuals were found in a well by an old cabin in
-dense fir forest near Duvall, King County. Townsend moles occasionally
-occur in the Canadian Life-zone, as at Staircase on the
-north side of Lake Cushman in Mason County where workings were
-observed, but most records are from the Humid division of the
-Transition Life-zone.</p>
-
-<p>The Townsend mole is mainly nocturnal. If ridges of its runways
-are crushed down, they usually remain so throughout the day and
-are rebuilt the following night. Only about ten per cent of the ridges
-that were crushed were rebuilt in the daytime, and most of these
-were repaired in the early morning. The species is almost completely
-subterranean. Some individuals are crushed on highways
-by cars, showing that these moles occasionally travel on the surface
-of the ground.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Townsend moles throw up numerous mounds, each usually containing
-about a cubic foot of earth. The mounds commonly are
-built just about as far apart as a man can step. The general direction
-as well as the twists and turns of a mole's burrow can usually
-be determined from the mounds. Townsend moles also construct
-ridges on the surface of the ground by pushing up sod in building a
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
-tunnel just below the grass roots. Smaller ridges are less commonly
-made by coast moles. More extensive tunnels, constructed deeper
-in the earth, serve as living quarters.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_24"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_128.jpg" alt="Fig. 24." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the Townsend mole, <i>Scapanus townsendii</i>, in
-    Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb2">According to <a href="#p_Wight">Wight</a> (1928: 24), <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1922: 11) and <a href="#p_Moore">Moore</a>
-(1933: 39), the food of this large mole includes earthworms and
-ground-inhabiting insects, insect larvae, spiders, centipedes, flesh,
-and small amounts of soft vegetation. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1922: 10) found
-that the large mole breeds in February and produces from two to
-four young at a litter, with an average of three.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Scapanus orarius<br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Coast mole</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The coast mole is almost identical with the larger
-mole in form of body but is smaller. Head and body are about
-5-1/4 and tail about 1-1/2 inches in length.</p>
-
-<p>The coast mole occupies all of the territory inhabited by the
-Townsend mole and ranges slightly farther northward, southward
-and eastward. However it does not range east of the boundaries
-of the three Pacific Coast states or British Columbia.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The mounds and workings of the coast mole are smaller than
-those of the Townsend mole and consequently are less noticed. It
-seems less prone to make numerous mounds, a pace apart, than the
-larger mole, and burrows tend to extend deeper in the ground. Upthrust
-ridges are less commonly built by <i>orarius</i> than by <i>townsendii</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_25"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_129.jpg" alt="Fig. 25." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>&nbsp;
-    Coast mole (<i>Scapanus orarius orarius</i>). Freshly killed; Seattle,
-    Washington, June 9, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B.
-    <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 64.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2"><a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a> (1915: 62) mentions the possibility of ecologic differences
-between <i>orarius</i> and <i>townsendii</i>. There are some differences
-in habitat and habits. The coast mole seems to live deeper in the
-ground, prefers better drained soil, and is less colonial than the
-Townsend mole. These are average differences, however, and the
-two species commonly occur together. Another difference is that
-the larger mole rarely enters the dense deciduous woods, such as
-the brush-grown alder and dogwood jungles along the stream valleys.
-I have taken the coast mole in such localities, and often have
-found their workings there. The surface of a nearby meadow may
-be dotted with mounds of both species, but the larger mole seems
-not to enter ground that is thickly grown with brush. The coast
-mole ascends to greater altitudes in the Cascade Mountains than
-does the Townsend mole.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Like the larger mole the coast mole feeds principally on earthworms
-and insects (<a href="#p_Moore">Moore</a>, 1933: 38). On September 29, 1939, in
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
-a ravine at Seattle, in two baited traps set six inches apart, a creeping
-mouse (<i>Microtus oregoni</i>) and a coast mole were found. The
-mouse had come to the bait and been caught. The mole had seemingly
-emerged from the ground through a tunnel a foot away and
-had been attracted to the body of the mouse. It had eaten an area a
-half inch in diameter and three-quarters of an inch deep into the
-body of the mouse just behind the shoulder, when in shifting its
-position it had become caught in the unsprung trap behind it. When
-found the mole lay dead with its nose inside the body of the mouse
-and its back broken. This is the only case known to me of a coast
-mole appearing voluntarily on the surface of the ground. Never
-have I found coast moles crushed on the highway; several Townsend
-moles so killed have been found.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_26"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_130.jpg" alt="Fig. 26." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the coast mole in Washington. A. <i>Scapanus orarius
-    orarius.</i> B. <i>Scapanus orarius yakimensis.</i> C. <i>Scapanus orarius schefferi.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb2">The coast mole seems to breed very early in the spring. Males
-with swollen testes are found late in January. The young usually
-number four and are born in late March or early April. The breeding
-season seems to be the same as that of <i>townsendii</i> but the number
-of young to a litter may average slightly greater.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Scapanus orarius orarius&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">True</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Scapanus orarius</i> True. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 19:52, December 21, 1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Scapanus orarius orarius</i> <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 38:61, September 30, 1915.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Shoalwater (= Willapa) Bay, Pacific County, Washington,
-by J. G. Cooper on August 30, 1855; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial Characters.</i>&mdash;Color dark bluish; frontal region of skull not inflated.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Eight males and two females from Seattle, King County,
-average, respectively: total length 159, 155; length of tail 33, 31; hind foot
-20.7, 20.5; weight 58.5, 55.8.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Western Washington. Marginal occurrences are: Skykomish
-(B.S.C.), Merritt (B.S.C.), Wenatchee (B.S.C.), Lester (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1915: 64)
-and Yacolt (M.V.Z.).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Scapanus orarius yakimensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Scapanus orarius yakimensis</i> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, Murrelet, 25:27, September 19, 1944.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained 3/4 mile north of Union Gap, Yakima County, Washington,
-by J. A. <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>, Jr., on July 3, 1941; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial Characters.</i>&mdash;Color pale, grayish; skull narrow with inflated frontal
-region.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Six specimens (males and females) from Selah, Yakima
-County, average: total length 164; length of tail 37; length of hind foot 21.5.
-The type specimen weighed 58 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Yakima Valley area; recorded from the type locality
-northwestward to Easton (B.S.C.).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Scapanus orarius schefferi&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Scapanus orarius schefferi</i> <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 38:63, September 30, 1915.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Walla Walla, Walla Walla County, Washington, by T.
-H. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> on August 8, 1914; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial Characters.</i>&mdash;Large size; pale color; large, wide skull with inflated
-frontal area.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Six topotypes average: total length 159; length of tail 35;
-hind foot 21.5.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Southeastern Washington; recorded from Fort Walla Walla
-(<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1915: 64), Walla Walla (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1915: 64) and Dayton (M.V.Z.).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Genus <b>Sorex</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Linnaeus</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Long-tailed shrews</span></h3>
-
-<p>Shrews have tiny eyes, almost concealed in the fur. The body is
-slim; the nose elongate and pointed. The legs are short and the feet
-small and weak. The fur is short but soft and posteriorly directed.
-The cinereous shrew, for example, is about 4 inches in length, of
-which the tail comprises 1-3/4 inches. The upper parts are dark
-grayish brown and the underparts dull gray.</p>
-
-<p>Shrews of the genus <i>Sorex</i> are cosmopolitan in distribution. In
-North America they range from the arctic south to Central America.
-Three subgenera are recognized by <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a> (1928: 27), all three of
-which are represented in the state of Washington. The twelve subspecies
-present occupy numerous habitats, and their ranges include
-almost all of the state.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a> pointed out (1928: 1) that "No other group of American
-mammals having a wide distribution, and in many localities
-an abundance of individuals, is so little known to the nonprofessional
-mammalogist as the long-tailed shrews." In Washington,
-especially in the coastal area of western Washington,
-shrews are widespread and abundant in many habitats. In some
-places they are the most common mammal present. In spite of this
-their presence is often unsuspected by persons that are otherwise
-alert to the animal life around them. This is even more surprising
-when one takes into account the facts that long-tailed shrews are
-diurnal as well as nocturnal and are less apt to detect the presence
-of man than are most other species of mammals.</p>
-
-<p>An important factor making long-tailed shrews inconspicuous is
-their small size, and contributing factors include their rapid movements
-and dull colors. On several occasions the writer, after seeing
-a long-tailed shrew vanish soundlessly under a log or into a patch of
-dead leaves, was left wondering if one actually had been seen or if
-instead his imagination had conjured up an animal from a dust mote
-or wind-blown leaf.</p>
-
-<p>The environment of the long-tailed shrews, except for the water
-shrews, is the zone at the very surface of the earth, just beneath the
-layer of moss, grass, dead leaves, and decaying vegetation. The
-removal of the covering vegetative layer reveals a maze of tiny
-tunnels, the branchings and complexities of which are infinite. Tiny
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
-traps baited with oats or meat and set in these runways catch the
-long-tailed shrews that inhabit them.</p>
-
-<p>The food of long-tailed shrews is varied. It is principally soft-bodied
-insects, insect pupae, and earthworms. At times a considerable
-quantity of soft vegetation and some seeds are eaten. Recent
-studies (<a href="#p_Moore">Moore</a>, 1940: 1942) have shown that by destroying seeds
-some shrews may adversely affect the reforestation of some coniferous
-trees. Shrews readily eat meat, and often destroy the small
-mammals, including other shrews, taken in the mammal collector's
-traps.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Hamilton">Hamilton</a> (1940: 485) found that in one species of long-tailed
-shrew in the United States individuals rarely lived more than one
-year. This seems not to be true of at least some of the species found
-in Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Parasites, internal or external, are not commonly found on long-tailed
-shrews. They are regularly eaten by owls and snakes, but
-most carnivorous mammals, though they readily kill them, rarely
-eat them.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Sorex cinereus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Kerr</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Cinereous shrew</span></h3>
-
-<p>The cinereous shrew ranges over most of Alaska, Canada and the
-northern half of the United States. A number of subspecies have
-been described, of which two have been reported from Washington.
-The cinereous shrew is of medium size and difficult to distinguish
-from the dusky and wandering shrews, especially in eastern
-Washington, without studying the skulls. In <i>cinereus</i> the fourth
-unicuspid tooth is smaller than the third; in <i>vagrans</i> and <i>obscurus</i>
-it is larger. The relatively narrow rostrum of <i>cinereus</i> also serves
-to separate it from the other two species.</p>
-
-<p>The cinereous shrew seems to be less restricted to the vicinity of
-streams and marshes than <i>Sorex vagrans</i>, resembling <i>Sorex obscurus</i>
-and <i>Sorex trowbridgii</i> in this respect. In Washington it seems to
-be rare and has not been taken by the writer. Published records
-for <i>Sorex c. cinereus</i> indicate that this race is, in Washington, confined
-to mountainous areas. The coastal race, <i>streatori</i>, seems to be
-confined to the humid area.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Sorex cinereus cinereus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Kerr</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex arcticus cinereus</i> Kerr. Anim. Kingd., p. 206, 1792.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex cinereus cinereus</i> Jackson. Jour. Mamm., 6: 56, February 9, 1925.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;None. Name based on the account of a shrew seen at Fort Severn,
-Canada, by J. R. Forster in 1772.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Small size and pale color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Seven males and 8 females from Indian Point Lake, British
-Columbia, average, respectively: total length 99, 95; length of tail 43.5, 42.2;
-hind foot 12.7, 12.3.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington (Metaline and Loon Lake, <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>,
-1928: 49) and the Cascades from Whatcom Pass (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 55) southward
-to Conrad Meadows (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 49). There is a specimen in the
-collection of the California Academy of Sciences, from Mt. Rainier.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This is the most wide-ranging subspecies of shrew, being recorded
-from Alaska, 10 Canadian provinces and 26 states (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928:
-46-50). In the more northern and eastern parts of its range it is sometimes
-the commonest shrew.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_27"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_134.jpg" alt="Fig. 27." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the cinereous shrew in Washington. A. <i>Sorex cinereus
-    cinereus.</i> B. <i>Sorex cinereus streatori.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Sorex cinereus streatori&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex personatus streatori</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>. N. Amer. Fauna, 10:62, December 31. 1895.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex cinereus streatori</i> <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>. Jour. Mamm., 6:56. February 9, 1925.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Yakutat, Alaska, by C. P. Streator on July 9, 1895;
-type in the United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Larger and darker than <i>Sorex cinereus cinereus</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Five females from Alta Lake, British Columbia, average:
-total length 103; length of tail 45; hind foot 12.5.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The western part of the northern Cascades (Glacier, <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>,
-1928: 55) and the Olympic Peninsula (Neah Bay south to Cedarville, <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>,
-1928: 55).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This shrew seems to occupy the same range as <i>Sorex obscurus
-setosus</i> but is rare where <i>obscurus</i> is common.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Sorex merriami merriami&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Dobson</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> shrew</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex merriami</i> Dobson. Monogr. Insectivora, pt. 3, fasc. 1, pl. 23, fig. 6, May, 1890.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex merriami merriami</i> Benson and Bond. Jour. Mamm., 20: 348, August 14, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on Little Bighorn River, about a mile and a half above
-Fort Custer, Crow Indian Reservation, Montana, by Charles E. Bendire on
-December 26, 1884; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Of type: total length 90; length of tail 35; hind foot 11.5
-(after <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 80).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;A single specimen of this rare shrew is known from Washington.
-<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a> (1928: 81) states that it "was collected by George G. Cantwell,
-November 18, 1919, at the entrance to an old badger digging on top of a
-'high bunch grass hill' at Starbuck (altitude 645 feet), Columbia County,
-Wash."</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>Sorex cinereus</i> but upper parts pale grayish
-and underparts white.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> shrew has been recorded from but a few localities in
-the western United States. It is one of the rarest of the small mammals
-known to occur in North America. All the known specimens
-have been found in desert areas.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Sorex trowbridgii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Trowbridge shrew</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The Trowbridge shrew closely resembles the cinereous
-shrew in body form but possesses a longer tail. The head and
-body of adults measure about 2-1/4 inches and the tail about 2 inches.
-The Trowbridge shrew may be separated from all other small shrews
-that occur in Washington by its dark bluish upper parts and bluish
-or slaty underparts. The tail is distinctly bicolor.</p>
-
-<p>Trowbridge shrews occur from southern British Columbia south
-to central California. Their distribution, to the south, is more
-extensive than that of many members of the Pacific Coastal Fauna.
-They are forest animals, ranging widely over the dry ground beneath
-the fir forest, where they are usually the only shrews present.
-They are abundant in ravines and in some swampy woods when
-other shrews are absent, but they avoid open meadows or marshes.
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
-Vertically, they occur from the humid division of the Transition
-Life-zone to the Hudsonian Life-zone.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">These little shrews do not live well in captivity and I have learned
-relatively little concerning their habits from live specimens. They
-seem to be slower-moving and less aggressive than the wandering
-shrew. Population studies showed that the Trowbridge shrew is
-unable to compete with the wandering shrew in ravine habitats
-(<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, 1941A: 173). The principal food of the Trowbridge
-shrew includes soft-bodied insects and insect pupae.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_28"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_136.jpg" alt="Fig. 28." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> and Trowbridge shrews in Washington.
-    A. <i>Sorex merriami merriami.</i> B. <i>Sorex trowbridgii trowbridgii.</i> C.
-    <i>Sorex trowbridgii destructioni.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2"><a href="#p_Moore">Moore</a> (1942) has shown that shrews eat the seeds of the Douglas
-fir and may be a serious check on the reproduction of this important
-tree. The Trowbridge shrew is the most abundant shrew in the fir
-forests and probably constitutes the principal shrew that might be
-classed as a pest.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">A specimen containing 4 embryos was taken near Shelton, Mason
-County, on April 23, 1937. Males with enlarged, greenish testes
-were taken in April of 1938, 1939 and 1940. Specimens obtained
-in other months showed no indications of breeding.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Sorex trowbridgii trowbridgii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex trowbridgii</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. 1):13, 1857.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Two cotypes were obtained at Astoria, Clatsop County, Oregon. The
-skin of one (the lectotype) was entered in the U. S. National Museum catalogue
-in July, 1855, and the skull in January, 1857. The other was obtained
-by J. Wayne on July 10, 1855.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Small size and narrow skull.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;The average measurements of 38 adults from King County,
-Washington, are: total length 115.3; length of tail 54.4; hind foot 13.4.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Forested areas from the Pacific Coast eastward through the
-Cascades to Stehekin (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 96), 2 mi. S. Blewitt Pass (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>,
-1928: 96) and Satus Pass (M.V.Z.).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Sorex trowbridgii destructioni&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex trowbridgii destructioni</i> <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, Jour. Mamm., 23:334, August 13,
-1942.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on Destruction Island, Jefferson County, Washington, by
-V. B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> on April 22, 1941; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Large size and wide skull.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Thirty topotypes average: total length 122.5; length of
-tail 56.7; hind foot 14.3; weight 7.5 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from Destruction Island, 35 acres in area, lying
-4 miles off the Washington Coast.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Sorex vagrans&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Wandering shrew</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;This species closely resembles the cinereous shrew
-in body form. Its head and body measure about 2-1/4 inches; the
-tail slightly less than 2 inches. In summer the upper parts are reddish
-brown and the underparts gray tinged with brownish. In winter
-the upper parts are more dusky.</p>
-
-<p>Several races of the wandering shrew range over western North
-America from southwestern British Columbia south to southern
-Mexico. Two races occur in the state of Washington.</p>
-
-<p>Marshy areas and damp places are the habitat of the wandering
-shrew. Cattail and tule marshes, sphagnum bogs, and meadows are
-favored. They frequent streams through forests but rarely are taken
-in places away from water. On some of the San Juan Islands, wandering
-shrews were found along the beaches where they were feeding
-on the amphipods that live in the dead seaweed and litter at the
-high tide line. In a favorable habitat, wandering shrews may be
-the most abundant mammal present. Specimens are occasionally
-taken in 90 per cent or more of a mammal collector's traps.</p>
-
-<p>The preference of the wandering shrew for damp areas makes it
-more or less independent of life-zones, for marshy areas, whether
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
-in Transition, Canadian, or Upper Sonoran life-zones, present comparable
-ecological conditions.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Broadbrooks (1939: 65) found that captives taken at Seattle ate
-rolled oats, apple, fresh or cooked meat, sow bugs, centipedes, earthworms,
-frogs (<i>Hyla regilla</i>), a salamander (<i>Plethodon vehiculum</i>),
-and small, black slugs (<i>Arean arean</i>). Wandering shrews proved incapable
-of destroying snails (<i>Helisoma occidentalis</i>) and large slugs.
-The captive shrews kept by Broadbrooks ate an average of 1.3 times
-their own weight in food each day.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_29"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_138.jpg" alt="Fig. 29." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the wandering shrew in Washington. A. <i>Sorex
-    vagrans vagrans.</i> B. <i>Sorex vagrans monticola.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The wandering shrew changes from winter to summer pelage in
-a few days, seemingly in the second week of October (<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>,
-1944: 147). The spring molt occurs rapidly but perhaps at a less
-regular date. Rarely a midsummer molt occurs.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The earliest evidence of breeding in a wandering shrew was discovered
-on January 27, 1937. Most adult females taken in February,
-March, April and May were pregnant. Embryos were less often
-found in summer and fall, but one pregnant female was taken in
-November. Embryos varied in number from 3 to 8 with an average
-of six.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Sorex vagrans vagrans&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex vagrans</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. 1):15, 1857.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex suckleyi</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. 1):18, 1857 (type from Steilacoom
-Pierce County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Willapa Bay [Shoalwater Bay], Pacific County, Washington,
-by J. G. Cooper; entered in U. S. Nat. Mus. catalogue on October
-23, 1856.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Dark color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twenty-five males and 25 females from Seattle, King
-County, average, respectively: total length 110.5, 107; length of tail 44.6, 45;
-hind foot 12.4, 12.4.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;This is the common marsh shrew of western Washington and
-occurs from the Pacific Ocean east to the Cascades at Lake Keechelus (W.S.M.)
-and 15 mi. NW White Salmon (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 106).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Sorex vagrans monticola&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex monticolus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 3:43, September 11, 1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex vagrans monticola</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:69, December 31, 1895.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on San Francisco Mountain, 1150 ft. altitude, Coconino
-County, Arizona, by C. H. <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> and V. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> on August 28, 1889; type
-in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Pale color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Five males and 5 females from Selah, Yakima County,
-average, respectively: total length 100, 98.4; length of tail 40.6, 39.2; hind
-foot 12.2, 12.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Eastern Washington. The range of this shrew extends west
-to Bauerman Ridge (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 113), Merritt (W.W.D.) and Maryhill
-(M.V.Z.).</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;A series of shrews from Moses Lake, Grant County, differs from
-<i>monticola</i> in larger size and darker color. They agree rather closely with
-<i>Sorex r. amoenus</i> from California and Nevada. Because they are isolated
-from that subspecies it seems best to consider them a microgeographic race
-referable to <i>monticola</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Sorex obscurus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Dusky shrew</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The dusky shrew is similar in form of body to the
-cinereous shrew. The length of head and body is about 2-1/4 inches.
-The tail is about 2-1/2 inches. The upper parts are rusty or reddish
-brown. The underparts are brownish gray. The dusky shrew differs
-from the wandering shrew in possessing a slightly longer body
-and longer tail, but in eastern Washington the two species are almost
-indistinguishable.</p>
-
-<p>Dusky shrews range from northern Alaska to southern New Mexico,
-and from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. Thirteen
-subspecies are recognized by <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a> (1928: 115), of which two
-occur in Washington.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Records of the dusky shrew are not available from the arid subdivision
-of the Transition or the Upper Sonoran life-zones. It occurs
-sparingly in the humid subdivision of the Transition and is
-common in the Canadian and Hudsonian life-zones.</p>
-
-<p>The habitat of the dusky shrew is varied. Near Seattle, King
-County, several specimens were trapped in marshes where <i>Sorex
-vagrans</i> was abundant. Near Stevens Pass, King County, two were
-taken in a marsh; two others were trapped in a dry, coniferous
-forest; one was taken in a small bed of heather on a barren mountain
-top; and another was found dead in a pan of pancake batter in
-camp. Two specimens were trapped along a small stream at Dewey
-Lake, Mt. Rainier, Yakima County. Four specimens were caught
-in traps set in a talus slope on a dry hillside at the North Fork of
-the Quinault River, Jefferson County. Three others were trapped
-in dense, rain-forest thickets along the ocean at La Push, Jefferson
-County. These records indicate that the dusky shrew has a wider
-environmental range than other Washington shrews. Despite this
-wide range of tolerance the dusky shrew is common only locally,
-except in the Hudsonian Life-zone.</p>
-
-<p>Little is known of the habits of dusky shrews but they seem to
-be as diurnal as they are nocturnal. At Wolf Bar, North Fork of
-the Quinault River, Jefferson County, a dusky shrew was seen on
-the packed-earth floor of an old trapper's cabin. A hat was carefully
-dropped over the live animal but, when the hat was lifted,
-the shrew was found dead. In an old cabin at Stevens Pass, King
-County, a dusky shrew was found dead one morning in a pan of
-flapjack batter prepared the evening before. As this pan was on a
-table about three feet from the floor, the shrew must have climbed
-to the table by way of the rough cabin wall, but how the animal
-managed to scale the side of the pan is a mystery.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Slipp">Slipp</a> (1942: 211) discovered the nest of a dusky shrew between
-Round Pass and Lake George, 4200 feet elevation, in Mt. Rainier
-National Park, on July 25, 1937. The nest was in a rotten fir log
-20 inches in diameter. The nest, a ball of dry grass the size of a
-man's fist, had no central cavity or passages, the occupants "merely
-pushed through wherever they wished." Seven young shrews were
-found in and near the nest. Though the eyes of the young were
-still closed, they were able to creep about and squeal.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">A specimen obtained 5 miles west-southwest of Guler, Skamania
-County, contained 4 embryos on July 10, 1939.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_30"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_141.jpg" alt="Fig. 30." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the dusky shrew in Washington. A. <i>Sorex obscurus
-    obscurus.</i> B. <i>Sorex obscurus setosus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Sorex obscurus obscurus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex vagrans similis</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 5: 34, July 30, 1891 (not of Hensel, 1855).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex obscurus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 10: 72, December 31, 1895 (substitute for <i>similis</i>
-<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>).</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on Timber Creek, 8,200 ft., Lemhi Mountains, Lemhi
-County, Idaho, by V. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> and B. H. Dutcher on August 26, 1890; type in
-United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Tail relatively short, color pale.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Thirteen males and 10 females from Indian-point Lake,
-British Columbia, average, respectively: total length 105, 107; length of tail
-45, 46; hind foot 13.3, 13.3.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington west, according to <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a> (1928:
-122), to Pasayten River, Stehekin and Wenatchee. Because specimens from
-Tye, King County, and Mt. Stuart, Easton and Lake Keechelus are clearly
-referable to <i>S. o. setosus</i>, the specimens recorded by <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a> (1928: 122),
-from Easton and Signal Peak, are mapped in the range of <i>setosus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Sorex obscurus setosus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex setosus</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 32. zo&ouml;l, ser., 1:274. March, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex obscurus setosus</i> <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. 31:127. November 29, 1918.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex obscurus bairdi</i> <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 51:140. July 24, 1928.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Happy Lake, Clallam County, Washington, by D. G.
-<a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a> on August 18, 1898; type in Field Museum of Natural History.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Tail long, color dark.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twelve males and 17 females from southwestern Washington
-average, respectively: total length 118, 119; length of tail 53, 53; hind
-foot 13.8, 13.7; weight 6.6, 5.2 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Western Washington, east through the Cascades to Barron
-(<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 137), Cascade River (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a> 1928: 137) and Satus Pass
-(W. W. D.).</p>
-
-
-<h3>Sorex palustris navigator&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Mountain water shrew</span></h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_31"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_142.jpg" alt="Fig. 31." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the mountain water shrew. <i>Sorex palustris navigator</i>,
-    in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Neosorex navigator</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, Rept. Pacific R. R. Survey, 8 (pt. I): 11, 1857.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex (Neosorex) palustris navigator</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:92, December 31, 1895.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex palustris navigator</i> Stephens, California Mammals, p. 254, June, 1906.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at head of Yakima River, Kittitas County, Washington,
-by J. G. Cooper on August 31, 1853; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and 4 females from Washington average, respectively:
-total length 150, 150; length of tail 70, 74; hind foot 18.5, 20;
-weight?, 11.0 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Mountainous areas of entire state, including the Olympic
-Mountains, from Elwah (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 188) south to Quinault River (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>,
-1928: 189); the Cascades from Tomyhoi Lake (W. W. D.) south to 15
-mi. N. Carson (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 189); northeastern Washington from Shovel
-Creek (W. W. D.) south to Gifford (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 189); the Blue Mountains
-at Godman Springs (M. V. Z.) and Hompeg Falls (M. V. Z.).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;In general form of body the mountain water shrew
-resembles the cinereous shrew but is perhaps more stocky. It is a
-large shrew, nearly as large as a house mouse. The head and body
-measure about 3 inches; the tail also is about 3 inches long. The
-fur is exceedingly soft. The upper parts are blackish in color, lightly
-frosted with paler hairs. The underparts, from throat to vent, are
-whitish tinged with gray or brown. The stiff, curved fringe of
-bristles on the outer part of the hind foot serves as an aid in swimming.</p>
-
-<p>Mountain water shrews range over much of Canada and in mountainous
-areas of the western United States extend south to Arizona.
-The subspecies found in Washington ranges over all of the western
-United States.</p>
-
-<p>The mountain water shrew is primarily a mammal of the Hudsonian
-and Canadian life-zones. It sometimes descends to the
-Transition Life-zone along clear, cold streams where conditions are
-similar to those in the Canadian Life-zone.</p>
-
-<p>The favored habitats of the mountain water shrew are the clear,
-cold streams of the alpine cirques and gushing streams on the mountain
-sides. In the pools and waterfalls, and among the rocks and
-mosses that border them, the larvae of aquatic insects, upon which
-the mountain water shrew feeds, are abundant. <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> (1934: 45)
-observed that the fur of a swimming water shrew gathered air bubbles
-and "it had difficulty in forcing its way down to the bottom
-[of an aquarium]. On reaching the bottom it literally stood on its
-long flexible nose which was thrust into the sand and debris, searching
-for food, its feet kicking rapidly in order to maintain this position.
-A change in direction was brought about by a twist of the
-body. To come to the surface again it merely stopped kicking and
-immediately rose like a cork." The buoyancy of the water shrew
-allows it to float in the water, like a duck. <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a> (1928: 9)
-observed a water shrew run across the surface of a small pool.
-Near Stevens Pass a water shrew dashed from under a stone and
-ran, did not swim, across the surface of a small, deep pool to escape
-in a burrow on the other side. According to <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, an air bubble
-held in each foot supports the shrew on the surface of the water.
-A mountain water shrew observed at Shovel Creek, Ferry County,
-was as agile on land as any other species of shrew. In summary,
-water shrews are able to swim, dive, float like a duck, and walk on
-the surface of the water as well as walk on land.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The food of the mountain water shrew includes snails, leeches,
-and the larvae of aquatic insects. Mice caught in traps are sometimes
-eaten by water shrews. <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> (<i>loc. cit.</i>) found a captive
-water shrew unable to capture pollywogs and minnows kept in the
-same aquarium.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Sorex bendirii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Bendire water shrew</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1">
-<i>Description.</i>&mdash;The Bendire water shrew is similar in form of body
-to the cinereous shrew but possesses a more stocky body which, with
-the head, measures about 3-1/2 inches long; the tail is about 2-3/4 inches
-long. The Bendire water shrew closely resembles also the mountain
-water shrew but has a longer body and shorter tail. The upper
-parts are blackish in color, not lightly frosted with gray hairs. The
-hind feet lack the fringe of stiff, curved bristles characteristic of
-the mountain water shrew. The underparts are black in the race
-<i>S. b. bendirii</i>. In the race <i>albiventer</i> the throat is blackish but the
-abdomen is pale gray tinged with brownish.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_32"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_144.jpg" alt="Fig. 32." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the Bendire water shrew and the pigmy shrew in
-    Washington. A. <i>Sorex bendirii bendirii.</i> B. <i>Sorex bendirii albiventer.</i> C.
-    <i>Microsorex hoyi washingtoni.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb2">Bendire water shrews are restricted to the Pacific Coast of North
-America from southern British Columbia to northern California.
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
-Generally they are found at elevations lower than are mountain
-water shrews. They are typically mammals of the humid division
-of the Transition Life-zone but often occur in the Canadian Life-zone.
-They occupy marshes, swamps, damp ravines, and the banks
-of slow-moving streams. Little is known of their habits, except
-what has been deduced from the circumstances of their capture.
-They seem less aquatic than the mountain water shrew. Near Jackson
-Guard Station on the Hoh River, Jefferson County, one was
-taken by setting traps on dense beds of water cress that floated in
-a slow-moving stream. The animal must have swum or walked on
-the surface of the mat of vegetation. Near Paradise Lake, King
-County, several were caught in a deep, dark, red cedar swamp. One
-was caught in a marsh nearby. Nothing is known of the food habits
-of the Bendire water shrew.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Sorex bendirii bendirii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Atophyrax bendirii</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Trans. Linn. Soc. New York, 2:217, August 28, 1884.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Atophyrax Bendirei</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):606, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex bendirii</i> Dobson, Monog. Insectivora, part 3, fasc. 1, pl. 23, 1890.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Neosorex bendirii bendirii</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:22, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained approximately 1 mile from Williamson River, 18 miles
-southeast of Fort Klamath, Klamath County, Oregon, by C. C. Bendire on
-August 1, 1882; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Underparts everywhere sooty black.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Ten males and 10 females from southwestern Washington
-average, respectively: total length 163.9, 161.0; length of tail 71.0, 72.6; hind
-foot 20.5, 20.3; weight 16.8, 14.5 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The southern Cascades and the lowlands of western Washington,
-exclusive of the Olympic Peninsula. Marginal localities on the west
-include Mt. Vernon (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 196), Bothell (W.S.M.), Renton (M.V.Z.),
-Puyallup (W.W.D.), Steilacoom (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 196) and Oakville
-(<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 196).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Sorex bendirii albiventer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex (Atophyrax) bendirii albiventer</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 10:97, December 31, 1895.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Neosorex bendirii albiventer</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:22, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sorex bendirii albiventer</i> <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 51:198, July 24, 1928.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Lake Cushman, Mason County, Washington, by C. P.
-Streator on July 7, 1894; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Area on abdomen whitish.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from near the type locality measures: total length
-167; length of tail 69; hind foot 22. One from Potlatch, Mason County,
-measures 167; 69; 22.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Olympic Peninsula of Washington. Marginal localities
-on the south are: Potlatch (M.V.Z.) and Lake Quinault (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 199).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Microsorex hoyi washingtoni&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Pigmy shrew</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microsorex hoyi washingtoni</i> <a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 38:125, November 13,
-1925.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Loon Lake, Stevens County, Washington, by V. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>
-on September 26, 1897; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Of type: total length 89; length of tail 27; hind foot 9.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;In Washington, known only from the type specimen which
-was "found dead in a trail in dry pine woods" (<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a>, 1928: 4).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The pigmy shrew is similar in form of body to the
-cinereous shrew but smaller. The head and body are about 1-3/4
-inches in length; the tail is about 1 inch long. The upper parts are
-reddish brown and the underparts are gray.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">These tiny mammals range widely across central Canada and
-northern United States from the Atlantic nearly to the Pacific, and
-north to central Alaska. A single species is known, one race of
-which occurs in Washington. The subspecies is known from but
-two specimens: the type and an individual from Montana (<a href="#p_Koford">Koford</a>,
-1938: 372.)</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Genus <b>Myotis</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Kaup</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Mouse-eared bats</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The genus <i>Myotis</i> may be separated from all other
-bats that occur in Washington by the presence of 38 teeth (dental
-formula i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 3-3/3-3, m. 3-3/3-3 = 38). Their small size separates them
-from all other genera save <i>Pipistrellus</i>, from which <i>Myotis</i> may be
-distinguished by the straight, rather than hooked, anterior border of
-the tragus. Species of <i>Myotis</i> found in Washington vary considerably
-in size, but all are less than 100 mm. in total length. The upper
-parts are various shades of brown in color. The ears, when laid
-forward, always extend to the nostrils or beyond.</p>
-
-<p>This genus is one of the most widely ranging groups of Recent
-mammals. It occurs on all continents, including Australia and
-many of the larger islands. Of the 19 American species recognized
-by <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1928), eight occur in the state of Washington.
-They are low-flying forms and as a rule appear relatively late in
-the evening. Their flight is rapid and erratic. They often hunt over
-the surfaces of streams, pools, and lakes. Some kinds hunt in the
-shade of forest trees and these are especially difficult to collect.
-Others hunt the brushy canyons and coulees of the desert areas of
-eastern Washington.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a> (1918: 241-242) points out that, although bats are not
-subject to isolation by topographic barriers, as most wingless mammals
-are, they may be restricted by ecologic barriers in the same
-way as are other small mammals. This is particularly true of
-<i>Myotis</i> in Washington. Of the eight species in the state, five are
-represented by one subspecies west of the Cascade Mountains and
-another, paler subspecies in the more arid country east of the
-Cascades.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The mobility of bats makes it difficult to determine their origin
-and migrational history. Five of the <i>Myotis</i> found in Washington
-seem to belong to the Pacific Coastal Fauna, and to have been isolated
-south of the last continental glacier. Complete isolation is
-unlikely as these species occur in the Cascade Mountains as well
-as in the Pacific Coastal Faunal Area, and three occur also in the
-Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. The differentiation
-of the Coastal type of <i>Myotis</i> may have come about through habitat
-selection, of the type discussed by <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> (1942: 25). One western
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
-Washington <i>Myotis</i> (<i>M. keenii</i>) seems to belong to a northern fauna,
-and to have extended its range south to Washington. All seven
-species of the desert-living <i>Myotis</i> found in eastern Washington
-have subspecies which seem to have been derived from the Great
-Basin Faunal Area.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Myotis lucifugus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Le Conte)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Big myotis</span></h3>
-
-<p class="pmb1"><i>Myotis lucifugus</i> is represented by two geographic races in Washington.
-The species ranges across Canada and the United States,
-from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the northern limit of tree
-growth to southern Mexico.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_33"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_148.jpg" alt="Fig. 33." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the big myotis in Washington. A. <i>Myotis lucifugus
-    alascensis.</i> B. <i>Myotis lucifugus carissima.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">It usually proves rather difficult to separate <i>Myotis lucifugus</i>, on
-the basis of external features, from other species with which it may
-occur. Its large foot (9-10 mm.), short ear (when laid forward not
-extending past nose) and the absence of a keel on the calcar
-separate it from all species except <i>Myotis yumanensis</i>. From the
-latter species, <i>lucifugus</i> may be distinguished by the gradually
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
-rather than abruptly rising forehead, as seen in cleaned skulls, and
-by more shiny, metallic color of fur.</p>
-
-<p>Little is known of the habits of this bat in Washington. It usually
-appears after dusk, and most specimens are shot over ponds or lakes,
-where the reflection of light from the sky on the water allows the
-hunter enough light to sight a gun. A few specimens were collected
-in deep forests. Its flight and feeding habits are not known to differ
-from those of other species with which it was associated, except
-at the south end of Lake Chelan, Chelan County, where two individuals
-were shot as they hovered near the tops of pine trees and
-seemed to be picking insects from the branches. I have never found
-this bat in its daytime retreat.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">A specimen taken at Sportman's Lake, San Juan County, held one
-embryo on June 26, 1938.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Myotis lucifugus carissima&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Thomas</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis (Leucono&euml;) carissima</i> Thomas, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 13 (ser. 7): 383, May,
-1904.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis lucifugus carissima</i> Cary, N. Amer. Fauna, 42:43, October 3, 1917.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Yellowstone Lake, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming
-by J. Darling in September, 1903; type in British Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Color pale, rather "brassy" in tone; distal border of
-interfemoral membrane paler than proximal part.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Four specimens from eastern Washington average: total
-length 77; length of tail 33; hind foot 11; ear 13; height of tragus 7.3.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;East of the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains, save
-for the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. Western records are
-Stehekin (<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, 1928: 52) and Vantage (W. W. D.)</p>
-
-
-<h4>Myotis lucifugus alascensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis lucifugus alascensis</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:63, October 16, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vespertilio gryphus lucifugus</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 43:78, March 14, 1894 (part
-specimens from Washington).</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Sitka, Alaska, by C. P. Streator on August 5, 1895;
-type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Color dark, almost bronze; wing and tail membranes
-uniformly dark in color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Five specimens from San Juan County, Washington,
-average: total length 80.9; length of tail 32.1; hind foot 12; ear 12; height
-of tragus 7; weight 5.4 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains west of the
-Pacific, and the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. Marginal occurrences
-listed by <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1928:49) are Chilliwack River, Lake
-Wenatchee, and Lyle.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Myotis yumanensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Yuma myotis</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The present species closely resembles <i>Myotis lucifugus</i>
-and specimens in worn pelage can not be distinguished from
-that species unless the cleaned skulls are examined. In fresh
-pelage, <i>yumanensis</i> is duller than <i>lucifugus</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1"><i>Myotis yumanensis</i> ranges from southern British Columbia to
-central Mexico west of the Mississippi River. Four races are
-recognized by <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1928: 62).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_34"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_150.jpg" alt="Fig. 34." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the Yuma myotis in Washington. A. <i>Myotis yumanensis
-    saturatus.</i> B. <i>Myotis yumanensis sociabilis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The habits of <i>Myotis yumanensis</i> and <i>Myotis lucifugus</i> appear to
-be the same. In Washington the two species are commonly found
-together. In western Washington, <i>Myotis yumanensis</i> seems to be
-more common than <i>Myotis lucifugus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In the San Juan Islands a <i>yumanensis</i> was found hiding in the
-attic of an old cabin on Blakeley Island. A specimen of long-eared
-bat was taken at the same place. Another Yuma myotis was caught
-behind a door of a mill on Blakeley Island (<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, 1940: 4).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>This species shares with <i>Myotis californicus</i> the habit of apparently
-drinking salt water.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">A specimen obtained at Sportsmans Lake, San Juan County, held
-one embryo on June 27, 1938. One from Peavine Pass, Blakeley
-Island, San Juan County, held one embryo on June 22, 1939.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Myotis yumanensis sociabilis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">H. W. <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis yumanensis sociabilis</i> H. W. <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 12:318, December
-4, 1914.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at old Fort Tejon, Kern County, California, by J. <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>
-on July 23, 1904; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial character.</i>&mdash;Color pale.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and 2 females from Selah, Yakima County, average:
-total length 78; length of tail 36; hind foot 10; ear 14; height of
-tragus 7.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Eastern Washington generally. Marginal records on the west
-are: Stehekin (<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, 1928: 69), and Selah (W.W.D.).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_35"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_151.jpg" alt="Fig. 35." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the fringe-tailed myotis and the Keen myotis in
-    Washington. A. <i>Myotis thysanodes thysanodes.</i> B. <i>Myotis keenii keenii.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Myotis yumanensis saturatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis yumanensis saturatus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:68, October 16, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Hamilton, Skagit County, Washington, by T. S. Palmer
-on September 13, 1889; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial character.</i>&mdash;Color dark.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Eighteen adults of both sexes from San Juan County,
-Washington, average: Total length 78.2; length of tail 34.4; hind foot 10.1;
-ear 15; height of tragus 7.4; weight 5.9 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains to the
-Pacific. This is the commonest <i>Myotis</i> found in western Washington. Marginal
-localities are: Hamilton (<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, 1928: 71), and Goldendale
-(<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, 1928: 71).</p>
-
-
-<h3>Myotis keenii keenii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Keen myotis</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vespertilio subulatus keenii</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Amer. Nat., 29:860, September, 1895.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis subulatus keenii</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:77, October 16, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis keenii keenii</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:104, May 25, 1928.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Masset, Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, British
-Columbia, by J. H. Keen in 1894; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1928: 109) list the measurements of a
-male from Sol Duc Hot Springs, Clallam County, and a specimen of unknown
-sex from Lake Cushman, Jefferson County, as, respectively: total length 89,
-87; length of tail 34, 36; hind foot 8.4, 7.4; ear?, 14.6.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Only the Olympic Peninsula, where it has been recorded by
-<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1928: 104) from Sol Duc Hot Springs and Lake Cushman.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;<i>Myotis keenii</i> is similar, in general, to <i>Myotis lucifugus</i>
-and <i>Myotis yumanensis</i>, but the ears are longer and when laid
-forward reach about 4 mm. past the nose rather than ending at the
-nostrils. The foot is of medium size (about 8 mm.) and no keel is
-present on the calcar.</p>
-
-<p>The distribution of this species is given by <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1928:
-101) as "northern North America from the limits of tree growth
-south in the east to South Carolina and Arkansas, and in the west
-to northwestern Washington."</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">I have not observed this bat in Washington and know nothing of
-its habits. Its distribution is most unusual. Its range seems to lie
-only in the glaciated area of western British Columbia and northern
-Washington.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Myotis evotis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Long-eared myotis</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The distinguishing feature of <i>Myotis evotis</i> is its
-long ears, which, when laid forward, reach 5 mm. in front of the
-nose. <i>Myotis thysanodes</i> and <i>Myotis keenii</i>, other species in which
-the ears are rather long, have the ears ending less than 5 mm. anterior
-to the nose when laid forward. The foot of <i>Myotis evotis</i> is
-of moderate size (8 to 9 mm.).</p>
-
-<p>This species ranges over the western United States, from British
-Columbia to central Mexico. Two subspecies of this interesting bat
-are recognized, both of which occur in Washington.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Though I have hunted for this species of bat in Washington on
-numerous occasions, I have taken no specimens. In the summer of
-1939, <i>Myotis</i> identified as this species because of their large ears,
-were seen flying at midnight in the light of searchlights over Lake
-Washington Canal at Seattle. Mary Greer gave us a specimen
-which was struck by her auto near Baker Lake, Whatcom County.
-According to Miss Greer, the specimen was seen "hovering in the
-road, like a large moth." The time was about midnight. This
-evidence indicates that the species does its hunting late at night,
-when ordinary methods of hunting bats are useless, and may account
-for the scarcity of specimens from the state. Nevertheless, collectors
-from the California Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy took specimens
-in the Blue Mountains where the bats flew slowly, in rather straight
-courses, 20 to 25 feet from the ground.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_36"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_153.jpg" alt="Fig. 36." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the long-eared myotis in Washington. A. <i>Myotis
-    evotis evotis.</i> B. <i>Myotis evotis pacificus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb2">This species has not, so far as is known, been taken in Washington
-in its daytime retreat. Daniel Bonell saved two specimens from under
-slabs of loose bark on old, dead snags near Tillamook, Oregon. <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>
-(1939: 214) reported them as hiding in the daytime in a cave in
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
-Craters of the Moon National Monument, Idaho. <a href="#p_Whitlow">Whitlow</a> and <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>
-(1933: 241) report specimens found in an old cabin near Pocatello,
-Idaho, two of them containing one embryo each.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Myotis evotis evotis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vespertilio evotis</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no. 165):48, June, 1864.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis evotis</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:77, October 16, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis evotis evotis</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:114, April 14, 1928.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Description based on a series of specimens, one of which came from
-Monterey, California. This locality was designated the type locality by
-<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> (1897: 78).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial character.</i>&mdash;Color pale.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and 2 specimens of unknown sex from the
-Blue Mountains, Columbia County, average: total length 87; length of tail
-40; hind foot 7.5; ear 20; height of tragus 11; weight 5.4 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Blue Mountains area, of southeastern Washington; recorded
-from South Touchet (<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, 1928: 116) and Godman Springs
-(W. S. M.).</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1928: 116) record the dark race of <i>Myotis
-evotis</i> from the Blue Mountains. Specimens examined by me are much paler
-than <i>pacificus</i> and most of them are indistinguishable from specimens of <i>evotis</i>
-from California.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Myotis evotis pacificus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vespertilio evotis</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no. 165):48, June, 1864 (part specimens
-from Puget Sound).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis evotis evotis</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:114, May 25, 1928.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis evotis pacificus</i> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 56:2, February 25, 1943.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained from 3-1/2 miles east and 5 miles north of Yacolt, Clark
-County, Washington, by John Chattin on August 3, 1940; type in Museum of
-Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial character.</i>&mdash;Color dark.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Five specimens from the type locality average: Total
-length 85; length of tail 41; hind foot 7.4; ear 19.4; height of tragus 10;
-weight 5.5 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Western Washington from the Cascade Mountains westward.
-Marginal occurrences are: Baker Lake (W. W. D.) and Easton (<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and
-<a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, 1928: 116).</p>
-
-
-<h3>Myotis thysanodes thysanodes&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Fringe-tailed myotis</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis thysanodes</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:80, October 16, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis thysanodes thysanodes</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:126, May
-25, 1928.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Old Fort Tejon, Kern County, California, by T. S.
-Palmer on July 5, 1891; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and 3 females from Vernon, British Columbia,
-average, respectively: total length 90.5, 82; length of tail 41.5, 37; hind foot
-10.5, 10; ear 18.5, 16; height of tragus 14, 13.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;In Washington known only from the southeastern border of
-the state, namely from Dayton (W. S. M.) and Anatone (<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>,
-1928: 127).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;<i>Myotis thysanodes</i> resembles <i>Myotis evotis</i>, but differs
-in larger size, smaller ear (reaching less than 5 mm. past nose
-when laid forward), and in possessing a well developed fringe of
-hairs along the border of the caudal membrane.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">This species of bat ranges over western North America from southern
-British Columbia to southern Mexico. Two geographic races are
-currently recognized, only one of which occurs in the United States.
-This bat is not recorded by <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a> (1939) as occurring in Idaho and
-has been found only once in Oregon. The only published account
-of the habits of <i>thysanodes</i> seems to be that of Palmer (in <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>,
-1897: 84, also <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, 1918) who found adults and young of various
-sizes in company with <i>Myotis yumanensis</i> in the attic of an old
-adobe building near Old Fort Tejon, California, in July, 1891. The
-specimens obtained in Washington and British Columbia came from
-dry areas of pine forest.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Myotis volans&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Hairy-winged myotis</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;This species, in Washington, may be easily recognized
-by its relatively large size and the presence of a distinct keel
-on the side of the calcar, posterior to the foot.</p>
-
-<p>Four subspecies of <i>Myotis volans</i> are recognized by <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and
-<a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1928: 136). These range over western North America from
-southern Alaska to southern Mexico. Two subspecies occur in
-Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The record stations in Washington for the pale, southern race are
-all in arid places and the dark, coastal race is a forest animal. Most
-of the specimens taken by me (all of the dark race) were in clearings
-or along roads through timber near the crests of hills. They
-appeared relatively late in the evening, after the big-brown and
-the silver-haired bats had been in the air for some time. Often
-they were taken in company with <i>Myotis lucifugus</i> and <i>Myotis
-yumanensis</i>. They were appreciably larger than those species and
-their flight was slower and less erratic. They usually flew in relatively
-straight lines or large circles at from ten to forty feet from
-the ground. At Lake Kapowsin, Pierce County, they were attracted
-by swishing a long pole in the air. At Renton, King County, one
-was shot as it hunted insects at a city street light several hours
-after dark.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Myotis volans longicrus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(True)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vespertilio longicrus</i> True, Science, 8:588, 1886.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vespertilio nitidus longicrus</i> H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 43:103, March 14, 1894.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis lucifugus longicrus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:64, October 16, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis longicrus</i> Lyon and <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 62:271, January 28, 1909.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis volans longicrus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:140, May 25, 1928.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained in the "vicinity of Puget Sound, Washington" by D. S.
-Jordan, and catalogued in the U. S. National Museum on December 16, 1886.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial character.</i>&mdash;Color dark.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from 6 miles northeast of Kelso, Cowlitz County,
-measures: total length 95; length of tail 39; hind foot 8; ear 13; height of
-tragus 8.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains to the
-Pacific. Marginal records (from <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, 1928: 142) are Oroville,
-Entiat, and Carson.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_37"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_156.jpg" alt="Fig. 37." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the hairy-winged myotis in Washington. A. <i>Myotis
-    volans longicrus.</i> B. <i>Myotis volans interior.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Myotis volans interior&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis longicrus</i> interior <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:211, October 31, 1914.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis volans interior</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:142, May 25, 1928.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained 5 miles south of Twining, Taos County, New Mexico, by
-Vernon <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> on July 23, 1904; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Smaller and paler than <i>Myotis v. longicrus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Four males and a female from the Blue Mountains, Columbia
-County, average: total length 93; length of tail 41.5; hind foot?; ear
-12; height of tragus 6.3.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from the Blue Mountains area of the southeastern
-part of the state, from Walla Walla (E. S. B.) east to Anatone (<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>
-and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, 1928: 144).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Of 5 specimens available from the Blue Mountains, 4 are like
-<i>interior</i> and 1 is like <i>longicrus</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_38"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_157.jpg" alt="Fig. 38." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the California myotis in Washington. A. <i>Myotis
-    californicus californicus.</i> B. <i>Myotis californicus caurinus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h3>Myotis californicus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Audubon and Bachman)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">California myotis</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;<i>Myotis californicus</i> may be separated from all <i>Myotis</i>
-that occur in Washington, except <i>Myotis subulatus</i>, by its small
-foot (about 6 mm.). It is the only small-footed bat found in western
-Washington. In eastern Washington, where <i>Myotis subulatus</i>
-occurs, the cleaned skulls of the two species must be compared before
-certain identification of some specimens is possible. The skull
-of <i>M. californicus</i> possesses a higher cranium and more abruptly
-rising forehead than that of <i>M. subulatus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Four geographic races of this bat recognized by <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>
-(1928: 149) range from southern Alaska southward over western
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
-North America to southern Mexico. Two subspecies occur in Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Myotis californicus</i>, in western Washington, often occurs in company
-with <i>Myotis yumanensis</i>, <i>lucifugus</i>, and <i>volans</i>. In flight it
-cannot be distinguished from <i>M. yumanensis</i> or <i>M. lucifugus</i>. Most
-of our specimens were collected over water, for these bats usually
-fly rather late and can be shot most easily where their reflection
-on the water assists the hunter in aiming. They are usually not
-common, one or two being taken at a single locality. This species,
-like <i>Myotis yumanensis</i>, seems to drink salt water. On May 9,
-1936, a living specimen was caught under a loose piece of bark on
-a dead tree.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Myotis californicus caurinus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vespertilio nitidus</i> H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 247, 1862 (part of the
-specimens were from Fort Steilacoom, Pierce Co., Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis californicus caurinus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:72, October 16, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Masset, Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, British
-Columbia, by J. H. Keen in 1895; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Racial character.</i>&mdash;Color reddish-brown.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_39"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_158.jpg" alt="Fig. 39." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the small-footed myotis, <i>Myotis subulatus melanorhinus</i>,
-    in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Eight specimens, including both sexes, from the San Juan
-Islands, San Juan and Skagit counties, average: total length 77.8; length of
-tail 36.7; hind foot 6.7; ear?; height of tragus 7.6; weight 5.2 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Western Washington east through the northern Cascades to
-Chelan, Blue Creek and Colville (<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, 1928: 156) in northeastern
-Washington, and, farther south, east to Mount Rainier (<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>,
-1928: 156) and Carson (<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, 1928: 156).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Myotis californicus californicus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Audubon and Bachman)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vespertilio californicus</i> Audubon and Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, 8 (ser. 1, ser. 1,
-pt. 2):285, 1842.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis californicus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:69, October 16, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;None designated. Type locality fixed at Monterey, Monterey
-County, California, by <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1928: 153).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial character.</i>&mdash;Color pale.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from Crooked River, Crook County, Oregon,
-measures: Total length 80; length of tail 40; hind foot 7; ear 13; height of
-tragus 5; weight 3.2 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Recorded only from the eastern part of the state. Westernmost
-records, according to <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1928: 155) are: Orondo, Goldendale
-and Lyle.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Myotis subulatus melanorhinus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Small-footed myotis</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vespertilio melanorhinus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 3:46, September 11, 1890.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myotis subulatus melanorhinus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 144:169, May 25,
-1928.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on San Francisco Mountain, 8250 ft. elevation, Coconino
-County, Arizona, by C. H. <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> and V. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> on August 4, 1889; type
-in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Three males and 2 females from eastern Washington average:
-total length 77; length of tail 37; hind foot 7; ear 15; height of tragus
-8. One weighed 5.4 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Desert areas of eastern Washington, including the Columbian
-Plateau and the lower Columbia River Valley. Marginal records are: 5 mi. S
-Grand Coulee Dam (W. W. D.) in the north, Wenatchee (W. W. D.) in the
-northwest, Lyle (W. W. D.) in the southwest, and Bly (<a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, 1928:
-171) in the southeast.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;<i>Myotis subulatus</i> is closely similar to <i>Myotis californicus</i>,
-but is more orange in color and has the skin on the face
-more nearly black. Specimens cannot be identified with certainty
-until the cleaned skulls are examined. The more flattened cranium
-and less abruptly rising forehead separate <i>Myotis subulatus</i> from <i>M.
-californicus</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">This species is confined to the United States and northern Mexico.
-Two races are recognized by <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1928), of which one
-occurs in Washington. It is the commonest bat in the desert of
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>
-eastern Washington. It lives far from trees on plains and in sandy
-or rocky areas, emerging rather early in the evening. It is not difficult
-to shoot. Its flight is erratic. The animal usually hunts in large,
-irregular circles at 10 to 25 feet from the ground. It has not been
-found in its daytime retreat but may hide in crevices in rocky outcrops.
-Near Vantage, Grant County, individuals were shot as they
-hung up in a concrete underpass to digest food. The stomachs of specimens
-taken were so crammed with the remains of insects that their
-abdomens were greatly distended. The underpass seemed to be only
-a resting place, not inhabited by day. Others were taken when they
-came to rest in the loft of a barn at Selah, Yakima County. They
-usually did not arrive at the barn until an hour after sunset and were
-still present there at midnight.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Lasionycteris noctivagans&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Le Conte)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Silver-haired bat</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>V[espertilio]. noctivagans</i> Le Conte, McMurtrie's Cuvier, Anim. Kingd., 1:431, 1831.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vesperugo noctivagans</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lasionycteris noctivagans</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 43:105, March 14, 1894.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;None designated; described from a specimen obtained in the "eastern
-United States."</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Five males from San Juan County, Washington, average:
-total length 96.2; length of tail 46.4; hind foot 8.5; ear 16; height of tragus
-7.2; weight 8.2 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Forested areas of the entire state. This species is migratory
-and first appears about the middle of May. September 15th is the latest recorded
-occurrence, when one was seen at Seattle, King County. Marginal
-records are: Sportsmans Lake (W. W. D.), in the northwest; Carson (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>
-and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 9) in the southwest; Pass Creek Pass (W. W. D.) in the
-northeast; and Bly (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 9) in the southeast.</p>
-
-<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The chocolate-brown color phase of the silver-haired
-bat is most common east of the Cascade Mountains, while almost all
-specimens from western Washington represent the black phase.</p>
-
-<p>This medium-sized bat is the darkest-colored species living in
-the state, ranging from chocolate-brown to nearly black. Numerous
-white-tipped hairs give the upper parts a frosted appearance.
-The upper surface of the interfemoral membrane is well
-furred, a character shared only with <i>Lasiurus</i>. The dental formula
-(i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 2-2/3-3, m. 3-3/3-3 = 36) is the same as that of <i>Corynorhinus</i>. The
-small ears and short tragus immediately distinguish the silver-haired
-bat from the long-eared bat.</p>
-
-<p>The genus <i>Lasionycteris</i> contains but a single species, of which
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
-no geographic races have been described. It ranges across North
-America from coast to coast and from central Canada southward,
-in forested areas, nearly to Mexico. This species is known to be migratory,
-and southern records probably do not represent breeding
-individuals.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">In Washington these bats have been taken in the Transition,
-Canadian, and Hudsonian life-zones. They were found near clearings
-in forests of open pine woods in the arid section of eastern
-Washington, near mountain hemlock thickets in the high mountains,
-and in the dense rain-forests of the Pacific Coastal area.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_40"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_161.jpg" alt="Fig. 40." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the silver-haired bat. <i>Lasionycteris noctivagans</i>,
-    in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The size and flight of the silver-haired bats are distinctive, and
-after some experience it is possible to identify them in the air. It
-is an early flier, usually appearing just after the swallows roost.
-They fly at a considerable height, rarely coming within forty feet
-of the ground. The wings are moved with a "fluttery" motion, and
-their flight is interrupted by frequent short glides. They fly more
-rapidly than the big brown-bats, and twist and dart sideways more
-frequently. Compared with big brown-bats, silver-haired bats are
-relatively gregarious, and six to a dozen individuals were seen in the
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
-same area. They generally hunt in sweeping circles, from fifty to
-one hundred yards in diameter. In the daytime the silver-haired
-bats hide beneath slabs of loose bark on dead trees. Near Cottage
-Lake, King County, two individuals were found beneath the bark
-on an old, lightning-blasted stub. The dark color of the bats
-blended with the charred surface of the stub.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">This species feeds mainly on forest insects and for this reason is
-probably of considerable value to man. The stomachs of specimens
-were usually crammed with the remains of small, soft-bodied insects.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Corynorhinus rafinesquii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Lesson)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Long-eared bat</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Diagnostic characters of the long-eared bat are:
-medium size (total length about 4 inches); dull, grayish-brown
-color; exceptionally long ears (over 1 inch from notch); thin, tissue-like
-membranes; and paired "lumps" on the rostrum. The dental
-formula is: i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 2-2/3-3, m. 3-3/3-3 = 36.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_41"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_162.jpg" alt="Fig. 41." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>&nbsp;
-    Long-eared bat (<i>Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius</i>), female
-    with young; Boulder Cave, Kittitas County, Washington, July 20, 1928. (Fish
-    and Wildlife Service photo by T. H. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. B-33332.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Long-eared bats range from southern British Columbia to southern
-Mexico. Three species are listed by <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> (1924: 82), one of which
-(<i>rafinesquii</i>) is divisible into five geographic races.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">This bat is colonial and is not uncommonly found in caves, mine
-shafts, and darkened attics of old buildings. It is of scattered distribution
-throughout the state. In Washington its distribution in
-winter is unknown. A specimen from Friday Harbor, San Juan
-County, taken in March, 1936, indicates that it hibernates in the
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
-state. <a href="#p_Whitlow">Whitlow</a> and <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> (1933: 245) give a detailed account of
-individuals found hibernating in winter near Pocatello, Idaho.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_42"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_163.jpg" alt="Fig. 42." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>&nbsp;
-    Entrance to Boulder Cave, inhabited by long-eared bats (<i>Corynorhinus</i>);
-    Kittitas County, Washington, May 26, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife
-    Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 56.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">John K. <a href="#p_Townsend">Townsend</a> (1839: 325) mentions that the "great-eared
-bat" at the forts of the Columbia River district (Fort Vancouver)
-were protected by the "gentlemen of the Hudson's Bay Company
-for their services in destroying the <i>dermestes</i> which abound in their
-fur establishments." <a href="#p_Townsend">Townsend</a> mentions also that the long-eared
-bats seldom left the "storehouses attached to the forts," even at
-night. My own observations are similar, in that at Boulder Cave,
-Kittitas County, on July 7, 1936, when not less than 100 long-eared
-bats were present in the cave, I watched the entrances to the cave
-until an hour after dark but no bats were seen to emerge. All of the
-specimens available from Washington were caught in their daytime
-hiding place. The number of long-eared bats at Boulder Cave
-has decreased in recent years. On July 12, 1930, bats were so
-abundant that 90 were captured with a single sweep of a butterfly
-net (T. H. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1930: 11). On July 7, 1936, it was estimated
-that there were slightly more than 100 in the cave. On June 11,
-1937, the number was less, probably about 75.</p>
-
-<p>Little is known of the food habits of the long-eared bat. The
-stomach of a specimen from Blakeley Island, San Juan County, was
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
-crammed with the remains of insects, including the wing scales of
-<i>Lepidoptera</i> and the wings of small Diptera.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1"><a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> noted that the long-eared bats at Boulder Cave were
-nearly ready to give birth to young on July 12, 1930, and were carrying
-naked young a week later. On July 7, 1936, at the same locality,
-females contained nearly full-term embryos.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_43"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_164.jpg" alt="Fig. 43." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the long-eared bat in Washington. A. <i>Corynorhinus
-    rafinesquii townsendii.</i> B. <i>Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Cooper)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Plecotus townsendii</i> Cooper, Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York, 4:73, November, 1837.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Corynorhinus macrotis townsendii</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:53, October 16, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Corynorhinus megalotis townsendii</i> G. M. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zo&ouml;l., 60:344, April,
-1916.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:82, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Probably obtained at Fort Vancouver, Clark County, Washington;
-type not now in existence.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial character.</i>&mdash;Dark color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from Blakeley Island, San Juan County, measured:
-total length 83; length of tail 43; hind foot 8.5; ear 37.4; tragus 15.1; weight
-10 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Western Washington, from Blakeley Island (W. W. D.) in
-the north, south to Seattle (W. W. D.) and Fort Vancouver.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">H. W. <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Corynorhinus rafinesquii intermedius</i> H. W. <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 12:320,
-December 4, 1914.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Corynorhinus rafinesquii townsendii</i> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, Jour. Mamm., 19:213, May 14, 1938.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Auburn, Placer County, California, by J. C. Hawver
-on July 31, 1909; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Paler and duller than <i>townsendii</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;One male and 6 females from 15 miles east of Tonasket,
-Okanogan County, average: total length 96, length of tail 47; hind foot 11;
-ear 35.5; tragus 14.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Scattered localities in the arid subdivision of the Transition
-Life-zone of eastern Washington, from 15 mi. E Tonasket (W. W. D.) on the
-north to Boulder Cave (W. W. D.) on the west and Spokane (W. S. C.) on
-the east.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Of specimens in the University of Kansas, Museum of Natural
-History, those from Selah (not plotted on distribution map), Yakima County,
-are paler than those from Boulder Cave, Yakima County, but both series are
-paler than specimens from the coast of Oregon.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_44"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_165.jpg" alt="Fig. 44." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the western pipistrelle, <i>Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus</i>,
-    in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Western pipistrelle</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Scotophilus hesperus</i> H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no. 165):43, June, 1864.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vesperugo hesperus</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Pipistrellus hesperus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 13:88, October 16, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Old Fort Yuma, Imperial County, California, by G. H.
-Thomas; catalogued in U. S. National Museum on October 31, 1861.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A specimen from Maryhill, Klickitat County, measures:
-total length 68; length of tail 27; hind foot 7; ear 10; height of tragus 3;
-weight 4.2 grams. Two males from Vantage, Grant County, average: 68.5;
-27.5; 6; 11; 4.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from along the Snake and Columbia rivers
-of south-central Washington; recorded from Vantage (W.W.D.), south to
-Maryhill (M.V.Z.), and east to Almota (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 9).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;This is the smallest bat found in Washington, its
-body being approximately 1-3/4 inches long and the tail 1-1/4. It may
-be separated from <i>Myotis</i> by the bent tragus and by the
-possession of 34 rather than 38 teeth. The dental formula is:
-i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 2-2/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 34.</p>
-
-<p>The genus <i>Pipestrellus</i> is cosmopolitan in distribution. The few
-records for the single subspecies found in Washington indicate that
-it is a casual, though probably regular, summer visitant from the
-south.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Two western pipistrelles were shot at Vantage, Grant County,
-on July 23, 1937. They flew in slow circles about 50 feet from the
-ground. No breeding records are known from the state.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Big brown-bat</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1901:619, February
-6, 1902.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eptesicus fuscus pallidus</i> <a href="#p_Engels">Engels</a>, Amer. Midland Nat., 17:656, May, 1936 (part specimens
-from Washington).</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained near San Bernardino, San Bernardino County, California,
-by R. B. Herron on May 26, 1893; type in Academy of Natural Sciences of
-Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Three males and 5 females from Washington average:
-total length 117; length of tail 48; hind foot 11.5; ear 18.3; height of tragus 9.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Forested areas of the entire state of Washington. Marginal
-localities are San Juan Island (W.W.D.) in the northwest, Carson (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>
-and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 9), in the southwest, Newport (W.W.D.) in the northeast,
-and Grand Ronde River (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 9) in the southeast.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Specimens from both eastern and western Washington vary
-greatly in color, and series of specimens from eastern Washington average
-little, if any, paler than series from western Washington. Washington specimens
-most closely resemble specimens from California of the race <i>bernardinus</i>
-and average darker than <i>pallidus</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Description.</i> The big brown-bat may be distinguished from other bats by its
-large size (about 4-1/2 inches), rich, brown color, and small ears
-(reaching only to nostril when laid forward). It possesses 32 teeth,
-the dental formula being: i. 2-2/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 1-1/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 32.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Bats of the genus <i>Eptesicus</i> are cosmopolitan in distribution. A
-single species occurs in North America, of which <a href="#p_Engels">Engels</a> (1936)
-recognizes four races in western United States.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_45"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_167.jpg" alt="Fig. 45." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the big brown-bat, <i>Eptesicus fuscus bernardinus</i>,
-    in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The big brown-bat appears early in the evening, often before the
-swallows have retired. This, and its large size, makes it relatively
-easy to study. It is principally a forest bat but also is found in
-towns and cities. It is common in Seattle and hunts around street
-lights and about the trees in the city parks. In its more natural
-habitat it flies over trees and clearings. Big brown-bats were repeatedly
-timed, with a car's speedometer, at 17 miles an hour as
-they flew down a road lined with tall trees. This is a greater speed
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>
-than that at which they usually hunt. When the speed of the car
-was increased the bats dodged sideways, around the car. At lesser
-speeds they pulled ahead and escaped.</p>
-
-<p>Big brown-bats are less gregarious, when hunting, than some bats.
-One or two may be found in a small area, the limits of which are
-definitely fixed. We noted this repeatedly near Cottage Lake, King
-County, where the big brown-bats hunted along roads through second-growth
-conifers. The bats patrolled back and forth along a
-section of a road about a quarter of a mile in length. When a bat
-reached the end of its personal territory, it would wheel and return.
-On six successive trips a bat turned, to retrace its course, at points
-less than 50 feet distant from the point of the first turn. When
-the bat approached the turning point on the seventh trip, a bat from
-the adjoining strip of road approached the area. The two animals
-fluttered about each other with shrill squeaks, audible 50 feet away.
-The fluttering and squeaking continued for nearly a minute, after
-which both bats resumed their hunting. Darkness concluded the
-observations.</p>
-
-<p>On several occasions we stood on a road patrolled by a big brown-bat.
-The bat immediately detected the watcher and fluttered about
-his head and face. Big brown-bats ignore other species of bats
-hunting on their territory. Indeed, such comparatively slow flyers
-could scarcely drive the more speedy bats away.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Two <i>Eptesicus</i>, kept in captivity for several weeks, exhibited very
-different personalities. One was shy and sullen. It cowered in
-the back of its cage and attempted to bite when handled. It would
-eat only small quantities of finely scraped liver tendered to it on a
-spoon. If a bit of liver adhered to its face it would shake violently
-and refuse to eat more. When it had eaten its fill, it would seize
-the spoon in its teeth and spill the remaining food. The second
-specimen was tame and greedy. It ate insects, liver, earthworms,
-and even pieces of flesh. After two days in captivity it learned to
-come to the door of its cage at a person's approach and open its
-mouth, in anticipation of food. If it dropped bits of liver on which
-it was chewing it would descend from the top of its cage to retrieve
-them, squeaking indignantly while doing so. It also descended to
-the floor of the cage to lap water from a dish. It habitually hung
-head downward from the roof of its cage, but reversed its position
-when evacuating urine or feces. <a href="#p_Engler">Engler</a> (1943: 96) discovered that
-big brown-bats will kill and eat smaller bats, at least in captivity.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Lasiurus cinereus cinereus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Beauvois)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Hoary bat</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vespertilio cinereus</i> (misspelled <i>linereus</i>) Beauvois, Catal. Raisonn&eacute; Mus. Peale, Philadelphia,
-1796:18 (p. 15 of English edition by Peale and Beauvois).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lasiurus cinereus</i> H. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 7 (no. 165): 21, 1864.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Atalapha cinerea</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:602, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;None designated. Type locality Pennsylvania, probably near Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Ten specimens from California average: Total length 130.5;
-length of tail 54.8; hind foot 10.7; ear 16; height of tragus 9.5; weight (of 3)
-20.4 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Recorded from Seattle (W.S.M.) to the north, Westport
-(W.S.M.) to the west and Pullman (W.S.M.) to the east.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_46"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_169.jpg" alt="Fig. 46." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>&nbsp;
-    Record stations for the hoary bat, <i>Lasiurus cinerea</i>, in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The hoary bat is the largest and most distinctively
-marked kind of bat in the state. Adults are usually more than 5
-inches in total length. The fur is exceptionally long and soft. The
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
-wing-membranes are thick and leathery. The posterior half of the
-wing-membrane is black; the anterior half is pale. The interfemoral
-membrane is furred. Dorsally the color of the fur is mottled
-white and seal-brown, giving a silvery-gray effect. The ears are
-short and thick; the feet short and wide. The dental formula is:
-i. 1-1/3-3, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 2-2/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 32.</p>
-
-<p>The genus <i>Lasiurus</i> is found in North America, South America,
-and the Hawaiian Islands. <i>Lasiurus cinereus</i> ranges from British
-Columbia to southern South America. <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a> (1943: 53) records
-two subspecies from Chile.</p>
-
-<p>Information on the natural history of the hoary bat is meager.
-It was observed in the Kettle River Mountains, but none was obtained.
-It flew erratically and rapidly and did not appear until
-darkness had set in. At least two were seen above a road through
-a forest of western larch and ponderosa pine. Probably it breeds in
-the mountains of northeastern Washington and in the northern
-Cascades.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The hoary bat is migratory, leaving the state in August and September,
-rarely lingering until early October. It winters along the
-coast of central and southern California (<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, 1943: 23).</p>
-
-
-<h3>Antrozous pallidus cantwelli&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Pallid bat</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Antrozous pallidus cantwelli</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:391, August 29, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Rogersburg, Asotin County, Washington, by G. G. Cantwell
-on May 28, 1918; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from the south bank of the Columbia River, opposite
-Fallbridge, Klickitat County, measures: total length 113; length of tail
-40; hind foot 14; ear 36; height of tragus 13; weight 19.8 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Recorded only from localities near the Columbia and Snake
-rivers in eastern Washington; from Wenatchee (W.W.D.) south and east to
-Bly and Rogersburg (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 9).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;<i>Antrozous pallidus</i> is more likely to be confused
-with <i>Corynorhinus</i> than with any other kind of bat and can
-be distinguished from <i>Corynorhinus</i> by its larger size (4-1/2 to 5
-inches), lighter color, thick and leathery membranes, and shorter,
-wider ears. <i>Antrozous</i> lacks the prominent "lumps" on the rostrum,
-characteristic of the long-eared bat. The dental formula is:
-i. 1-1/2-2, c. 1-1/1-1, p. 1-1/2-2, m. 3-3/3-3 = 28.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The genus <i>Antrozous</i> is confined to western United States and
-northwestern Mexico. Two species are recognized by <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> (1924:
-84). One of these (<i>pallidus</i>) includes three geographic races. A
-single race is known to occur in Washington.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_47"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_171.jpg" alt="Fig. 47." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the pallid bat, <i>Antrozous pallidus cantwelli</i>,
-    in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The pallid bat chooses a crevice in a cliff, cave, or building as its
-daytime hiding place. Like <i>Corynorhinus</i>, it is colonial. The basalt
-cliffs of eastern Washington offer such ideal hiding places that pallid
-bats are seldom seen and consequently little is known of their habits.
-In the southwestern United States, pallid bats are more abundant
-and better known. H. W. <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a> (1918: 355) notes that the floor
-of a roost of pallid bats was strewn each morning with the heads,
-wings, and legs of insects. Most numerous were the remains of the
-Jerusalem cricket (<i>Stenopelmatus</i>), a flightless insect that the bats
-must have secured on the ground. <a href="#p_Engler">Engler</a> (1943: 96) found that in
-captivity, pallid bats would kill and eat smaller bats and lizards
-confined with them.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> (1936: 392) believes that the young of this bat are born
-in late June and early July. One or two young constitute a litter.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Ursus americanus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Pallas</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Black bear</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1">
-<i>Description.</i>&mdash;The black bear is the largest carnivore found in
-Washington if the grizzly is extinct there. The exact size of the
-adult male black bear is somewhat in question. Few actual weights
-are on record of Washington bears. <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Dixon and Linsdale
-(1937: 101) paid special attention to the maximum weight of black
-bears in California and concluded that few ever exceeded 500 pounds.
-The total length of the largest black bear among specimens from
-the entire Pacific Coastal area, especially from California and
-Alaska, they give as 5 feet, 10 inches (<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 102). It may
-safely be assumed that few individuals ever reach a length of six
-feet. Females are smaller; recorded weights of adults rarely exceed
-350 pounds. The largest males have hind feet from 10 to 10-1/2
-inches in length.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_48"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_172.jpg" alt="Fig. 48." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>&nbsp;
-    Female black bear (<i>Ursus americanus altifrontalis</i>), and two cubs,
-    near Big Four Inn, Mt. Baker National Forest, Washington, July, 1939. (Forest
-    Service photo by R. L. Fromme.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The black bear, including its closely related species, the Mexican
-bear, <i>Ursus machetes</i>, ranges over Alaska, Canada, the United States
-and northern Mexico. The distinction between the black and grizzly
-bears has been listed under the account of <i>Ursus chelan</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The fur of black bears in the Cascade Mountains in the fall is
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
-long, sleek and glossy but rather stiff. In the spring and early
-summer the fur of animals at Mount Rainier often appeared coarse,
-wooly and patchy or rubbed on older animals. Some smaller bears
-possessed sleek, well-groomed pelts. Bears from the lowland areas
-are said to possess poor pelts because of constant abrasion in the
-forests. In the fall, when the salmon are spawning, the bears are
-said by trappers to roll in decayed fish until they "smell so bad
-you can't come near them" and their fur is matted and "crawling
-with lice."</p>
-
-<p>It is now known that the cinnamon bear, sometimes called brown
-bear, is merely a color phase of the black bear. The brown phase
-varies in color from a rich, dark reddish brown to a pale cinnamon
-brown. <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> (1938: 204) has recorded the geographic variation
-in the brown and black coats of the bears of British Columbia and,
-in part, of Washington. On the Olympic Peninsula the brown phase
-is rare. Old residents have told me of seeing but a few brown bears
-in their life. I have seen only black bears in the lowlands of western
-Washington. <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> (<i>loc. cit.</i>) lists 1,197 black and 79 brown
-bears from Fort Nisqually, Pierce County, between 1834 and 1852.
-In the Cascade Mountains the brown phase is not uncommon, perhaps
-one out of five bears seen being brown. In northeastern
-Washington the brown and black phases are about equal in number,
-and some trappers state that the browns are more numerous. <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a>
-lists 3,813 black and 2,871 brown bears from Fort Colville between
-1826 and 1856.</p>
-
-<p>The black bear occurs in a variety of habitats in Washington.
-It seems to be absent only from the treeless areas of eastern Washington,
-and is most abundant in the Cascade Mountains and Olympic
-Mountains where food is abundant and men are few. It is not
-uncommon throughout the timbered lowlands of northeastern Washington
-and western Washington, however, and shows a surprising
-ability to exist unnoticed near the larger cities. In the dense,
-junglelike forests of southwestern Washington it is numerous.
-<a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a> (1944: 1) estimates that 13,679 black bears live in Washington,
-more than in any other state.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The habits of the black bear have changed greatly where it has
-come into contact with man. At Mount Rainier National Park
-black bears now ignore people, save to beg for food. In the Cascades
-the bears are wild but so seldom see men that in many places
-they live much as they did hundreds of years ago. In the lowlands
-of western Washington they are in daily contact with evidence of
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
-man or his guns. As a result they are silent and shy, rarely being
-seen.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_49"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_174.jpg" alt="Fig. 49." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>&nbsp;
-    Black bear (<i>Ursus americanus altifrontalis</i>), in "hibernation," Mt.
-    Baker region, Washington, about 1936. (John E. Candle photo, courtesy
-    "Field and Stream.")</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The black bear in the mountains is active sometimes by day and
-sometimes by night. Probably it is principally nocturnal but active
-by day only when the food obtained at night is insufficient to
-meet the needs of the animal. In the lowlands it is almost completely
-nocturnal. In the mountains it enters upon its winter sleep
-with the first snows or, if the snows are late, when the huckleberries
-are gone. Ordinarily black bears are in "hibernation" by the
-middle of November. In the lowlands of western Washington they
-are active until after the salmon spawning season, and probably do
-not "hibernate" before the middle of December and may not do so
-at all. In the mountains they emerge from the winter sleep in May;
-in the lowlands they emerge in February or March.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The black bear is omnivorous in the truest sense of the word.
-Because the animal is of large size it requires much nourishment.
-This is obtained by eating large quantities of material with low
-food value. Material eaten passes rapidly through the digestive
-tract and often only easily digested parts seem to be utilized. Feces
-commonly contain complete and undigested berries and seeds or
-almost undigested pieces of apples or other fruit.</p>
-
-<p>The principal food of the black bear in Washington is berries.
-Many species are eaten, but the huckleberry (<i>Vaccinium</i> sp.) is
-favored. Other food items are: <i>Gaultheria shallon</i> (pulpy fruit);
-Oregon grape, <i>Berberis nervosa</i> (flowers and fruit); salmonberry,
-<i>Rubus parviflorus</i> (leaves and fruit); leaves of several plants, including
-<i>Rubus macropetalus</i> and other thorny kinds; grass, succulent
-plants, and roots. Insects are eaten and most feces show remains of
-a few. In June, 1938, near Cle Elum, Kittitas County, a species
-of sword-tailed cricket fully two inches in length was abundant,
-and droppings of a bear there were composed entirely of the remains
-of these crickets. Fish, especially spawning salmon, are important
-food. When salmon are spawning the bears in the vicinity feed on
-nothing else. Warm-blooded vertebrates probably are eaten but
-none of the many bear droppings examined by me contained remains
-of birds or mammals. <a href="#p_Bennett">Bennett</a>, <a href="#p_English">English</a> and Watts (1943: 30) found
-few mammals to be eaten by bears studied by them in Pennsylvania.
-Locally bears kill pigs and sheep, smash bee-hives and raid fruit
-trees.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The large size and sometimes awkward appearance of black bears
-combine to give a comic note to some of their natural actions. A
-bear in full flight, lumbering along a trail with head swinging from
-side to side and hind feet stretching past the forelegs at each stride,
-is more apt than not to amuse the observer. Near Stevens Pass, a
-large black bear was observed lying on its back in a mud wallow.
-This was an oval opening in the ground in a meadow of heather and
-huckleberry near a small stream. The wallow was approximately
-5 feet long, 3 feet deep and 4 feet wide. The bear was immersed in
-muddy water with only its head and feet visible. It seemed well
-content and comfortable, shifting its bulk occasionally and waving
-its paws. When a stray breeze brought to the bear the scent of my
-companion and myself the animal's contentment vanished and it
-hastily made a frantic effort to depart. It had wedged itself deeply
-in the hole, and as it twisted and turned in attempting to sit up,
-waves of water gushed from the wallow. Eventually escaping
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span>
-from its wallow, the bear half ran and half rolled to the cover of
-alders 100 feet away. This particular wallow had been in use by
-bears for some time, as was attested by old droppings at its edge
-and by its well-worn condition.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_50"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_176.jpg" alt="Fig. 50." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the black bear in Washington. A. <i>Ursus americanus
-    altifrontalis.</i> B. <i>Ursus americanus cinnamomum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb2">The fact that Washington has the largest population of black
-bears of the states in the union is due, largely, I feel, to abundant
-natural cover, food, such as salmon and huckleberries, and an intelligent
-game code. In California and some other states the black
-bear has been considered a fur bearer, to be trapped with steel traps.
-This is permitted in spite of the fact that their pelts bring but a few
-dollars, usually less than ten. Their sale scarcely repays the trapper
-for his labor in preparing the hide. <a href="#p_Townsend">Townsend</a> (1887: 182) remarked
-on the ease with which bears could be trapped in California although
-in the same area they were so shy that they could seldom be shot.
-As a result of trapping, the number of bears in some states has been
-dangerously reduced. In Washington the bear is a game animal,
-to be hunted with a rifle for a few weeks in the fall when the pelt
-and flesh are at their best. As a result bears are numerous and can
-be hunted with fair chances of success.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Ursus americanus altifrontalis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ursus altifrontalis</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 80, zo&ouml;l. ser. 3:234, June, 1903.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Euarctos altifrontalis</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:90, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ursus americanus americanus</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Mammals and Birds of Mount Rainier National
-Park, U. S. Nat. Park Service, Washington, p. 37, 1927.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Euarctos americanus altifrontalis</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:321, August 29, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ursus americanus altifrontalis</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 30:232, March 2, 1928.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Lake Crescent, Olympic Peninsula, Clallam County,
-Washington, by D. G. <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a> in 1898; type in Field Museum of Natural
-History.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Color dark, almost always black instead of brown; skull
-wide, high and heavy; molar teeth wide and heavy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains westward
-to the Pacific. Marginal occurrences are Chelan (W.W.D.) and Signal Peak
-(<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 10).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Ursus americanus cinnamomum&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Audubon and Bachman</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ursus americanus var. cinnamomum</i> Audubon and Bachman, Quadrupeds of North America,
-3:125, 1854.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Euarctos cinnamomum</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:91, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Euarctos americanus cinnamomum</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:319, August 29, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ursus americanus cinnamomum</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 30:232, March 2, 1928.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained near the mouth of Jim Ford Creek, Lower Clearwater
-River, western Idaho (<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, 1936: 319) by Lewis and Clark on May 31, 1806.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Resembling <i>altifrontalis</i> but skull and molar teeth narrower;
-color even in black phase paler and browner; brown and black phases of
-approximately equal incidence.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains of southeastern
-Washington, occurring westward as far as Republic (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>,
-1929: 10).</p>
-
-
-<h3>Ursus chelan&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Grizzly bear</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ursus chelan</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 29:136, September 6, 1916.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained in Township 30 N. Range 16 E. Willamette Meridian,
-Wenatchee National Forest, Chelan County, Washington, by D. S. Rice on
-September 1, 1913; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;The skull of the type, an old male, measures: basal length
-314; occipito-nasal length 323; palatal length 170; zygomatic breadth 225;
-interorbital breadth 86.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Probably once from the Stevens Pass area north to British
-Columbia. Possibly still remaining in the mountains between Mount Baker
-and Lake Chelan.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Grizzly bears occurred in the lowlands of Oregon (<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>,
-1936: 324) and California (<a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 67) but there
-is no record of their ever having occurred in the lowlands of western Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Bears of the genus <i>Ursus</i> range over Europe, Asia and North
-America. No less than 75 kinds of grizzly and big brown bears are
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>
-recognized for North America by <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> (1918). They are closely
-related to the brown bears of Asia. The 13 kinds of black bears
-of North America are now thought to belong to but one species,
-namely <i>americanus</i>, and have no close relatives in Eurasia.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_51"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_178.jpg" alt="Fig. 51." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>&nbsp;
-    Probable past distribution of grizzly bears in Washington. A. <i>Ursus
-    chelan.</i> B. <i>Ursus canadensis.</i> C. <i>Ursus idahoensis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The grizzly is the largest carnivorous mammal in North America.
-From the black bear the grizzly may be distinguished in life by the
-prominent muscular hump on the shoulders. Another feature is the
-long, slim, gently curved claws of the forefoot as compared with
-the shorter, stouter and sharply curved or hooked foreclaws of the
-black bear. The grizzly is much larger than the black bear. Cranially,
-the grizzly differs in possessing a larger skull with lower
-frontal area, higher, more extensive sagittal crest, more posteriorly
-jutting occipital condyles and much longer tooth row. The color
-of both species is variable. Some grizzly bears from Alaska and
-British Columbia are dark brown, almost as black as a black bear.
-Others are pale cinnamon with the longer guard hairs pale gray.
-Individuals of this frosted appearance popularly are known as "silver
-tips." In Washington, the black bear varies in color from glossy
-black, through various shades of brown to a pale cinnamon.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The grizzly bear is extinct over most of Washington. A few may
-remain in remote parts of the northern Cascades, and are regularly
-listed on the game census reports of the Mount Baker National
-Forest. Nevertheless, I have found no one who has seen an undoubted
-grizzly bear in Washington. The type specimen was obtained
-well up in the Cascade Mountains where the animals, like
-those in British Columbia, feed on roots, berries, marmots, pikas
-and other vegetable and animal life.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Procyon lotor&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Linnaeus)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Raccoon</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The raccoon is a relatively large carnivore with a
-stout, heavy body. Large adults measure three feet in length and
-weigh up to 20 pounds. The legs are of moderate length. The
-broad head tapers sharply to a pointed muzzle. The ears are erect,
-broad, low and rounded; the tail is long, about one-half the length
-of the head and body, bushy and round; the hind feet are large,
-flat and naked-soled but the forefeet are smaller with long, slim,
-handlike toes. The color of the body is a grizzled gray heavily
-washed with black on the back and sides. A jet-black "mask"
-across the eyes, sharply outlined by white muzzle and forehead, is
-the most distinctive feature of the head. The tail is alternately
-marked with six or seven black and five or six yellowish gray bands.
-The long, loose guard hairs give the body a shaggy appearance. The
-fur of the wrists is short, smooth, coarse, and directed downward.</p>
-
-<p>The raccoon is not an aquatic mammal, yet it is closely associated
-with water, whether it be streams, rivers, lakes or the ocean.
-The favored habitat of the raccoon is the shore line. It is a wader
-and, if it can be considered as specialized for any occupation, it is
-wading in mud and shallow water. Its long toes, naked feet, and
-short-haired wrists are admirable adapted for walking on muddy
-bottoms or in shallow water. The coon is also at home on land. It
-moves swiftly and silently and when chased by dogs can cover miles
-in a few hours. It is an agile climber and lives in dens well up in
-trees.</p>
-
-<p>The raccoon is almost completely nocturnal. Individuals are occasionally
-seen in the morning or evening, especially, when the tide
-is low along the ocean beach or Puget Sound. Near Fall City, King
-County, a small raccoon was seen eating a crayfish at 3:30 p.m. on
-a warm, sunny June day. In the eastern United States raccoons
-sleep during much of the winter, and probably they do the same
-in eastern Washington. In western Washington they are active most
-of the winter. Some trappers stated that the animals "hole up" in
-spells of unusually cold weather. Along the Tolt River, 10 miles
-southeast of Duvall, King County, their tracks were seen daily in
-January, 1936, although the temperature fell well below freezing
-each night.</p>
-
-<p>Washington is near the northern limit of the range of the raccoon.
-The animal is reasonably common in western Washington, and
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
-ranges well up into the Cascade Mountains. The highest altitudinal
-record available is Longmire, Mount Rainier National Park (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>
-and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1927). Raccoons are not uncommon in southeastern
-Washington and in the Yakima Valley. They follow the Columbia
-River northward, as shown by tracks at Wenatchee on two occasions.
-The river valleys that flow into the Columbia in northeastern
-Washington seem admirably adapted for raccoons but the animal
-is rare there. Trappers who have lived and trapped in northeastern
-Washington for many years tell of seeing tracks at intervals of
-years along the Okanogan, San Poil, Colville and Kettle rivers.
-Several stated that tracks had been seen more often in recent years.
-Northeastern Washington seems to be the peripheral range of the
-species, occupied at rare intervals by animals wandering north from
-the Columbia River.</p>
-
-<p>The food habits of raccoons are almost as varied as those of black
-bears. Animal matter forms their diet over most of the year; along
-stream courses crayfish, fish, thin-shelled fresh-water mussels, frogs
-(<i>Hyla</i> and <i>Rana</i>), and aquatic insects are eaten. Along beaches
-fish brought in by the tide, crustaceans, and mussels (<i>Mytilus
-edulis</i>) are taken; small sharks appear not to be eaten. A recently
-dead dogfish that lay on the beach at Whidby Island, Island County,
-was ringed by the tracks of a raccoon but had not been eaten. The
-shore crabs (<i>Hemigrapsus nudus</i> and <i>Hemigrapsus oregonensis</i>) are
-a favored food and regular items of diet. The edible crab (<i>Cancer
-productus</i>) is also eaten and in the San Juan Islands the porcelain
-crab (<i>Petrolisthes eriomerus</i>) was commonly eaten. Small mammals
-and birds are eaten regularly by this race of raccoon in California
-(<a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 157), and the eggs and young
-of wild birds are sought in the spring (<i>op. cit.</i>: 158). The ability
-of the raccoon as a climber makes it a particular menace to nesting
-birds. Berries, including domestic blackberries and salmonberries,
-are eaten in quantity when available. Apples are dearly loved and
-the trees and orchards of abandoned ranches are regularly visited.
-The fondness of the raccoon for green corn is well known. Insects
-are present in small quantities in most droppings and in the late
-summer some feces were composed entirely of the remains of grasshoppers.
-Chickens, ducks, young turkeys and eggs are stolen and
-individuals become extremely adept at raiding hen-houses.</p>
-
-<p>At one time, about 1920, the raccoon became scarce in western
-Washington as a result of heavy trapping and high price of the pelts.
-A closed season was strictly enforced until it again became common.
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
-The price received by the trapper for raw furs of raccoon has since
-been rather low, from two to ten dollars. With fur prices in this
-range, the number of raccoons probably will not be reduced to a
-dangerously low level by trapping, but instead may be expected
-to furnish a regular winter income to the trappers who do trap for it.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Raccoons are known to breed in their first year of life (<a href="#p_Pope">Pope</a>, 1944:
-91).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Procyon lotor psora&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Procyon psora</i> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 10: 261. December, 1842.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Procyon psora pacifica</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 16: 107, October 28, 1899 (type from
-Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Procyon proteus</i> Brass, Aus dem Reiche der Pelze, p. 564, 1911.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Procyon lotor pacifica</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2: 10. December,
-1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Procyon lotor psora</i> <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Dixon, and Linsdale, Fur-bearing Mamm. California, Univ.
-California Press, Berkeley, p. 137, July 22, 1937.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;Sacramento, Sacramento County, California.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Medium size; dark color; smoothly rounded skull.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from Forks, Clallam County, measures: total
-length 905; length of tail 355; hind foot 125; ear 50; weight 14-1/2 lbs. A
-female and 6 males, young animals of the year, taken between November
-15 and December 15, average: 772; 284; 114; weight (of 3) 8-2/3 lbs.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_52"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_182.jpg" alt="Fig. 52." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the raccoon in Washington. A. <i>Procyon lotor psora.</i>
-    B. <i>Procyon lotor excelsus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the western slope of the Cascade Mountains westward.
-Marginal occurrences are Lake Keechelus (type locality) and Mount Rainier
-(<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1927: 45).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The range of variation in color and cranial characters of coastal
-raccoons is large. I am unable to find any character or average difference to
-separate the raccoons of western Washington from those of northern California.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Procyon lotor excelsus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a> and <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Procyon lotor excelsus</i> <a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a> and <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 11:458, November 11, 1930.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on upper Owyhee River, near the mouth of the
-North Fork in southeastern Oregon by J. W. Fisk on April 15, 1920; type
-in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>psora</i> but larger; body paler and grayer;
-skull larger, heavier and more angular.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Southeastern Washington, the valleys of the Snake and
-Yakima rivers and the valley of the Columbia River north to northeastern
-Washington. Marginal records, from reports of trappers, include the Okanogan
-River, Okanogan County, Wenatchee, Chelan County, and Selah, Yakima
-County.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The assignment of the raccoons of northeastern Washington to
-<i>excelsus</i> is tentative for I have seen no specimens.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Martes caurina&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Western marten</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The marten is slightly smaller and slimmer than a
-house cat, and at first glance resembles a large squirrel. The legs
-are longer, the body stouter and the fur more fluffy than those of
-a mink or weasel. Adult males weigh from two to two and a half
-pounds, and females from one and a half to two pounds. Males
-are slightly more than two feet in total length and females about
-18 inches, the tail comprising one-third or more of the total length.
-The head is broad and narrows rapidly to a sharp muzzle. The
-ears are large, erect and prominent. The feet are large with stout
-toes and long, sharply curved pinkish-white claws. The body and
-head are rich golden brown, the tail, wrists, feet and muzzle being
-darker.</p>
-
-<p>The western marten ranges from British Columbia southward
-through Idaho and Washington to California. A closely related
-species, <i>americana</i>, is found in Alaska, the eastern United States
-and Canada. Martens and fishers may be distinguished from weasels
-and minks by the presence of 18 rather than 16 teeth in the upper
-jaw and 20 instead of 18 teeth in the lower jaw.</p>
-
-<p>The western marten is arboreal. Its principal habitat in Washington
-is the Canadian Life-zone forests of the Olympic, Cascade
-and Blue mountains and the various ranges in the northeastern part
-of the state. At one time it ranged near sea level along the densely
-forested coastal belt and may still do so in the more rugged parts
-of the Willapa Hills.</p>
-
-<p>The marten is both diurnal and nocturnal. In Mount Rainier
-National Park the species has become quite tame and may be seen
-in the daytime. Many of the small mammals upon which it feeds
-are diurnal, but others are nocturnal. The marten is active throughout
-the year. Trappers report that during a storm the marten
-"holes up in rock slides" where it lives on conies and chipmunks
-until the storm passes. It spends a large part of its time in trees,
-and travels through them for long distances. It climbs more skillfully
-than the tree squirrels upon which it feeds. On the ground
-or on snow the marten travels in bounds, a yard at a leap, and
-its characteristic bounding gait forms tracks that are distinctive
-and easily followed.</p>
-
-<p>Mammals of the weasel family mostly are not gregarious but the
-marten is exceptional in that in the winter it travels in bands of 6
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
-to 10 animals. Individuals composing these bands are inclined to
-wander but nevertheless the whole band travels in a definite general
-direction at a good rate of speed. Travel-ways or "runs" may be
-used by more than one band, and a run may extend for many miles,
-perhaps for as many as 50. A band of martens may take two weeks
-to complete the circuit, but usually returns to the starting point
-in less than a week. Most runs are about "half-way up the mountain,"
-or midway between the crest of the hill or timber-line and
-the floor of the stream valley below. In summer the marten ranges
-higher; it lives in the trees just below timber-line and in the talus
-slides near timber-line. When the snows are unusually late the
-martens may keep to these higher areas until November.</p>
-
-<p>The food of the marten consists principally of small mammals
-and probably birds; the staple food in winter is the Douglas squirrel.
-In summer they feed on pikas, mantled ground squirrels and chipmunks.
-Mice, also, are eaten. The deer mouse, <i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>,
-is usually abundant about old cabins and is successfully
-used as bait by trappers. Wood rats and flying squirrels are also
-eaten, the latter being especially important in certain areas. The
-tracks of martens that had been following snowshoe rabbits were
-seen on several occasions but the martens had turned off before a
-kill was made. In every instance the rabbit tracks indicated that
-the animals were hopping leisurely and browsing; apparently the
-tracks were made some time before the marten began to follow them.</p>
-
-<p>Martens are inquisitive, and to judge from their tracks in snow
-they investigate almost every object that they pass; a fallen mound
-of snow, branch, bit of moss, log or isolated tree is apt to be visited.
-Failing to find a meal in or around one of these objects, the marten
-visits the next object that catches its eye. Seemingly the animal
-always is giving concentrated attention to some definite object although
-the attention can shift in an instant when a more interesting
-object comes in to view. As a result the trail of a marten in the
-snow is an intricate affair composed of numerous straight lines and
-sharp turns.</p>
-
-<p>The trapping of martens is specialized work, engaged in by professional
-trappers that follow trap lines many miles in length.
-Trappers commonly have a base cabin and one or two shelters
-situated a day's march apart, The trap-line is set in a circle, requiring
-one to three days' travel by the trapper to complete the
-circuit.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The standard "set" for marten in the Cascades consists of an
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
-opening 8 to 10 inches wide, 4 inches high and 6 inches deep chopped
-into the side of a dead stub. The hole is cut as high as the trapper
-can reach. A trap is set in the opening and bait is placed in the
-back of the hole. A sapling 1 to 3 inches in diameter inclined at
-an angle of 45° from the ground to the hole completes the set. As
-the snow deepens, new holes are chopped higher up on the stub.
-Such sets seen in the summer may consist of six or seven holes spaced
-a foot apart. The chips from the holes are left lying on the snow
-and are said to attract the animals. Bait commonly consists of
-flying squirrel, red squirrel or deer mouse.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_53"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_186.jpg" alt="Fig. 53." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the western marten in Washington. A. <i>Martes
-    caurina caurina.</i> B. <i>Martes caurina origenes.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb2">The value of the marten's pelt fluctuates from year to year. In
-recent years average pelts have sold at from ten to twenty dollars
-each. The number of individuals taken by a trapper varies with
-the trapper's skill and energy and the location of the trap line. The
-largest catch made by one trapper in a single winter, of which I
-know, was 300 animals, taken near Mt. Adams.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Martes caurina caurina&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela caurina</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:27, October 8, 1890.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Martes caurina caurina</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:93, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained near Grays Harbor, Grays Harbor County, Washington,
-by L. C. Toey on February 4, 1886; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Color dark; throat patch bright orange or brownish.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the Cascade Mountains westward. Marginal localities
-are (from <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 10) head of Cascade River, Riverside, Chelan,
-Easton and Trout Lake. The record from Chelan seems doubtful, and the
-specimen may have come from somewhere around Lake Chelan, rather than
-from the town of that name.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Skulls of martens from many localities in western North
-America were studied in an effort to determine the relationship of the eastern
-pine marten (<i>Martes americana</i>) and the western marten. East of the Rocky
-Mountains the ranges of the two species approach closely, but each retains
-distinctive characters, notably the shape of the auditory bullae. The two
-species have not been taken together and the possibility of intergradation
-exists. On the basis of the evidence at hand, the two should be regarded
-as full species until positive proof of intergradation is established.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2">In the absence of sufficient material, the marten of the Cascades is referred
-to <i>Martes caurina caurina</i>. Fur graders distinguish between a dark "coast
-marten" and a paler "Cascade marten."</p>
-
-
-<h4>Martes caurina origenes&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela caurina origenes</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Proc. Acad. at Sci. Philadelphia, 1902:458, September
-30, 1902.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Martes caurina origenes</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:93, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Marvine Lodge, Garfield County, Colorado, by E. T.
-Seton on September 16, 1901; type in Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Paler than <i>caurina</i> with grayer head and yellow or white
-rather than deep orange or brown throat patch.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Mountainous areas of northeastern Washington and the Blue
-Mountains of southeastern Washington. Trappers have reported this marten
-from the mountains near Republic, Ferry County.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Martes pennanti&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Erxleben)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Fisher</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-[<i>Mustela</i>] <i>pennanti</i> Erxleben, Syst. Regni. Anim., 1:470, 1777.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Martes pennanti pennanti</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:94, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela canadensis pacifica</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n.s., 19:435, September,
-1898 (type from Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Martes pennanti pacifica</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:94, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Martes pennanti</i> <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Dixon and Linsdale, Fur-bearing Mamm. California, Univ. California
-Press, Berkeley, p. 211, July 22, 1937.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;Eastern Canada.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Originally forested areas from the eastern base of the Cascades
-westward and possibly the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington
-and the mountains of northeastern Washington; now probably confined to the
-Cascade and Olympic mountains.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_54"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_188.jpg" alt="Fig. 54." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>&nbsp;
-    Fisher (<i>Martes pennanti</i>). 2-year-old male in captivity; New Westminster,
-    B. C., March 7, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B.
-    Scheffer, No. 598.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The fisher is the size of a large cat. In general proportions
-it resembles the marten. Adult males measure about 3-1/2
-feet in length; the tail comprises 16 inches of this. Adult females
-are slightly less than 3 feet in length of which the tail makes up
-approximately 15 inches. Males weigh up to 10 lbs. and females
-about 5-1/2 pounds (<a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 213). The
-fisher has a slim body, bushy tail, short legs, large feet, and wide,
-low and triangular head. The ears are low, wide, rounded and erect.
-The fur is an ashy, brownish gray in color with an overwash of
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
-blackish caused by long, dark hairs. The head is slightly paler than
-the body. The feet, rump and tail are darkest. The claws are
-strong and sharply curved.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The fisher is found in wooded parts of North America, extending
-southward in the Cascade-Sierra Nevada Chain to central California.
-Its near relatives are the martens. It is active all year.
-Like the marten, it is active by day and probably also by night. In
-spite of absolute protection for several years, the fisher is rare in
-Washington, and seems never to have been common. In consequence
-relatively little is known of its habits, and the little that is known
-has been reported by fur-trappers.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_55"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_189.jpg" alt="Fig. 55." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the fisher, <i>Martes pennanti</i>, in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The fisher seems not to live in bands as does the marten. Most of
-the actual records of fishers trapped are at higher altitudes but are
-misleading because most trappers agree that the fisher occupied a
-lower zone, altitudinally, than does the marten. There are old
-records of its occurrence near sea level (<a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1938: 9). The
-animals are usually taken in marten sets or in traps set especially for
-fishers by trappers who find their tracks on their marten trap lines.
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
-Since marten trappers are almost the only persons who travel in
-the mountains in winter, and since they operate mostly above the
-areas where fishers live, relatively few fishers are reported.</p>
-
-<p>Fishers are said to feed on chipmunks, squirrels, mice, birds and
-other small, warm-blooded animals, and to climb trees and catch
-squirrels in their natural habitat. Also, fishers are said to catch and
-kill martens. Their tracks in the snow resemble the marten's in that
-the hind feet land in the same places as the forefeet; both animals
-bound rather than walk.</p>
-
-<p>The pelt of the fisher commands a high price. The smaller sized,
-females, are the more valuable. The price paid for pelts fluctuates
-widely and has ranged from as low as twelve dollars to as high as
-one hundred dollars in recent years.</p>
-
-<p>In Washington more fishers live in the Olympic Peninsula and the
-northern Cascade Mountains than elsewhere. A few may occur in
-northeastern Washington, the Blue Mountains and the Willapa Hills.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The name <i>pacifica</i> was regarded by <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Dixon, and Linsdale
-(1937: 217) as a synonym of <i>pennanti</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Mustela erminea&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Linnaeus</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Ermine</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Though it is similar in general characters and proportions
-to the long-tailed weasel, the ermine is much smaller and
-has a relatively shorter tail. It is darker and less reddish or yellowish
-in summer. Adult males measure about 10 inches in length,
-of which 3-1/2 inches is the length of the tail. Females measure about
-8 inches and have tails 2 inches long. The upper parts are chocolate
-brown; the underparts are white or pale yellow. Along the
-coast of Washington, the pale color of the underparts is more restricted
-in the ermine than in the long-tailed weasel. The dark
-brown tail has a black tip. Ermines east of the summit of the Cascades
-become pure white in winter, save for the black tail tip. West
-of the summit of the Cascades the winter pelt is similar to the summer
-pelt but is slightly paler with denser underfur.</p>
-
-<p>Ermines in America range from the Arctic southward, in mountainous
-areas, to the southern end of the Sierra Nevada in California,
-and in the Rocky Mountains to northern New Mexico. In
-Washington they are found over the entire state except the arid
-parts of eastern Washington, where only the long-tailed weasel occurs.
-So far as my observations go, the ermine is principally nocturnal
-in Washington; I have seen only one abroad in the daytime.
-It dashed from a roadside thicket near Glacier, Whatcom County,
-and was crushed beneath the wheels of a car. <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>
-(1927: 53) note several instances of diurnal activity of the ermines
-at Mount Rainier National Park.</p>
-
-<p>The ermine seems to feed principally upon mice. Its small size
-adapts it to entering burrows that larger weasels cannot enter. It
-probably eats chipmunks, birds, and other small, warm-blooded
-animals. Ermines climb readily and are often taken in traps set in
-trees for martens. Near Skykomish, King County, William Hoffman
-took two ermines in traps set in burrows of mountain beavers.
-The mountain beavers were needed for use as bait on his trap line.
-The traps were reset and later caught mountain beavers. Seemingly
-the ermines were traveling through the burrows, perhaps to catch
-the mice which utilize the burrows as highways, rather than to prey
-upon mountain beavers. It is difficult to see how the tiny ermine
-could kill an adult mountain beaver, which outweighs it many
-times. Should the incisors of the mountain beaver close even once
-upon an ermine it would most certainly be seriously wounded or
-killed. Judging by the forest habitat occupied by the ermine in
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
-Washington, one might expect its principal food to consist of deer
-mice (<i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>), red-backed mice (<i>Clethrionomys</i>)
-and meadow mice (<i>Microtus</i>).</p>
-
-<p>In observing the activities and habits of mammals in their natural
-habitat, I have often relied on tracking in fresh snow. Strangely
-enough, tracks of ermines were seldom found, and the few that were
-seen came from beneath a log, bush or wind-fall and disappeared
-beneath similar cover, rarely extending 20 feet on the surface of the
-snow. The larger, long-tailed weasels often traveled for miles on
-the surface of the snow. Possibly the ermines were following the
-burrows of mice through the snow, or perhaps they kept beneath
-the surface from fear of owls. This suggests a reason why ermines
-are so seldom seen abroad. They may be following burrows and
-runways of mice and seldom come to the surface of the ground.</p>
-
-<p>On November 18, 1936, we saw three ermines and two long-tailed
-weasels taken by a trapper on Deception Creek near Stevens Pass,
-King County. All were in the white winter coat. In December,
-1938, we obtained two ermines at Skykomish, King County, 18
-miles west of Stevens Pass. These were in the brown winter coat.
-In that area the break between the brown and white winter coat
-seems to come just west of the main Cascade Summit, or at the
-same point that the break occurs between the brown and white
-winter coats of the long-tailed weasel.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Ermine skins have little value and usually bring from 10 to 35
-cents. They are saved incidentally by trappers, for it takes but a
-few moments to skin and prepare them. They possess the strong,
-musk odor so typical of the long-tailed weasel.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Mustela erminea invicta&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela erminea invicta</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Jour. Mamm., 26:75, February 27, 1945.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Benewah, Benewah County, Idaho, by W. T. <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> on
-October 24, 1926; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Largest of the Washington ermines; winter coat entirely
-white; upper lips white; black of tail more than half length of tail vertebrae.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Ten males and 5 females from central Idaho average,
-respectively (<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, 1945): total length 291, 255; length of tail 86, 71; hind foot
-40, 32. 3.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington and the northeastern Cascades,
-west to Chilliwack River and Hannegan Pass (<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, 1945: 78).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Mustela erminea fallenda&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela erminea fallenda</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Jour. Mamm., 26:79, February 27, 1945.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Huntingdon, British Columbia, by C. H. <a href="#p_Young">Young</a> on
-May 21, 1927; type in National Museum of Canada.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>-Size large; winter coat usually brown; pale color of
-underparts much restricted; color of upper parts dark; color of lips variable;
-tail with more than distal half black.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Seven males and 2 females average, respectively (<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>,
-1945: 79): total length 278, 232; length of tail 77, 60; hind foot 36.5, 27.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The extreme north coast of Washington, from the Canadian
-boundary south through Whatcom County (<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, 1945: 80-81).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The range of this ermine is similar to that of the yellow-pine
-chipmunk, <i>Eutamias amoenus felix</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_56"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_193.jpg" alt="Fig. 56." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the ermine in Washington. A. <i>Mustela erminea
-    invicta.</i> B. <i>Mustela erminea murica.</i> C. <i>Mustela erminea gulosa.</i> D. <i>Mustela
-    erminea fallenda.</i> E. <i>Mustela erminea streatori.</i> F. <i>Mustela erminea
-    olympica.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Mustela erminea olympica&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela erminea olympica</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Jour. Mamm., 26:81, February 27, 1945.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained near head of Sol Duc River, Clallam County, Washington,
-by V. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, on April 28, 1897; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>streatori</i> but smaller, especially females.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twelve males and 6 females average, respectively: total
-length 243, 196; length of tail 65, 52; hind foot 31, 23.4 (<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, 1945: 81).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Olympic Peninsula, extending southeastward to Olympia.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Mustela erminea streatori&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Putorius streatori</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:13, June 30. 1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela streatori streatori</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela cicognanii streatori</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:11,
-December, 1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela erminea streatori</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Jour. Mamm., 26:76, February 23, 1945.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Mount Vernon, Skagit County, Washington, by D. R.
-Lucky on February 29, 1896; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>fallenda</i> but pale color of underparts less
-restricted; tail with less than distal half black.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and 2 females from extreme southwestern Washington
-average, respectively: total length 245, 210; length of tail 72, 54; hind
-foot 31.5, 25.5; ear 17, 14; weight 72.3, 46.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The lowlands of western Washington; north to Skagit County
-and Whidby Island (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 11), southward and westward to
-Ilwaco (M.V.Z.) and eastward to Carson (U.S.N.M.).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Mustela erminea gulosa&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela erminea gulosa</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Journ. Mamm., 26:84, February 27, 1945.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickatat County, Washington, by P.
-Schmid on February 3, 1897; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>invicta</i> but smaller; winter coat usually white;
-tail less than one-half black; upper lips white.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Five males from Mount Rainier, and 4 females from the
-Cascade Mountains, average, respectively (<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, 1945: 84): total length 253,
-208; length of tail 76, 54; hind foot 30.2, 24.3.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Cascade Mountains. Known from Skykomish (W.W.D.)
-and southward to Mount Adams (Trout Lake, <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, 1945: 85).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Mustela erminea murica&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Bangs)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Putorius (Arctogale) muricus</i> Bangs, Proc. New England Zo&ouml;l. Club, 1:71, July 31, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela muricus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:96, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela cicognanii lepta</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December,
-1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela cicognanii muricus</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:292, August 29, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela erminea murica</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Jour. Mamm., 26:77, February 27, 1945.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Echo, El Dorado County, California, by W. W. Price
-and E. M. Nutting on July 15, 1897; type in Museum of Comparative Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>invicta</i> but smaller and paler.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A young female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia
-County, measured: total length 201; length of tail 46; hind foot 24; ear 14;
-weight 45.8. A female from Butte Creek, Columbia County, measured: 185;
-50; 26. A male from Baker Creek, White Pine County, Nevada, measured:
-220; 56; 26; 14.5; weight 57.7.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Two specimens available from the Blue Mountains are darker
-than typical <i>murica</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Mustela frenata&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Lichtenstein</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Long-tailed Weasel</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Male long-tailed weasels measure about 16 inches
-in total length of which 6 inches is the length of the tail. Females are
-smaller, measuring about 14 inches in length with a tail 5 inches
-long. The body is long and exceedingly thin. The legs are short and
-stout with rather large feet and strong, curved claws. The tail is
-well-furred, not tapered, but lacks the bushy appearance of the tail
-of the fisher. The head is low, wide at the base and abruptly tapering
-to the muzzle. The ears are erect, low and rounded. The fur
-is short but dense and rather soft. In summer the color of the head,
-back, sides and outside of the legs is brown. The throat, chest,
-underside of body and insides of legs are yellow or orange. In winter
-they may be entirely white, save for the black tip of the tail. The
-tail is slightly darker than the back in summer and possesses a long
-black tip.</p>
-
-<p>Long-tailed weasels do not hibernate even in the coldest parts of
-Washington. They are active both by day and by night, apparently
-doing their hunting at the time of day or night when they can most
-easily obtain food. In the Cascade Mountains where diurnal mammals
-such as squirrels, chipmunks and pikas are common, weasels
-are not uncommonly seen by day. In the lowlands of western Washington,
-where they feed on more nocturnal mammals, they are
-seldom seen.</p>
-
-<p>The long-tailed weasel is relatively unspecialized in habits. They
-climb readily and skillfully. They are active on the surface of the
-ground and follow the burrow systems of fossorial animals such
-as gophers and mountain beavers.</p>
-
-<p>Weasels seen in the wild rarely exhibit fear of man but rather
-are curious and apt to watch his actions. Weasels are also often
-hit by cars and the number so killed seems to me to be out of proportion
-to their actual numbers.</p>
-
-<p>In moving on the surface of the ground the weasel arches its back
-and contracts the body until the four feet are rather close together.
-When the long neck and small head are held upright the animal
-presents a surprisingly giraffelike appearance. When climbing, the
-long, slim body has a snakelike appearance. A weasel travels swiftly
-and erratically in a series of bounds and seems always to know
-where the next hole is situated.</p>
-
-<p>The weasel has been accused of killing birds and doubtless does
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
-so when opportunity presents itself. However, in Washington I
-have no actual evidence of its killing birds other than domestic fowls.
-At Republic, Ferry County, a companion and I saw a weasel enter
-the burrow of a ground squirrel (<i>Citellus columbianus</i>). The
-following day we returned to the area. The weasel was not seen
-but a ground squirrel dashed into the hole at our approach. Seemingly
-the ground squirrel had eluded the weasel. At Conconully,
-Okanogan County, we set a number of gopher traps in an alfalfa
-field. The following morning an adult male long-tailed weasel was
-found in a trap but not a gopher was taken. Near Moses Lake,
-Grant County, an adult male weasel was caught in a gopher trap,
-but no gophers were taken. At Shelton, Mason County, 50 gopher
-traps were set. At daylight the following morning the first trap
-visited was found to be pulled into the burrow. When a gentle
-tug was given the wire fastening the trap, a decisive jerk at the other
-end showed that the catch was alive. If trapped gophers that pull
-the traps back into their burrows are pulled out by main strength,
-their skins are often torn and damaged. Therefore an attempt was
-made to reach into the burrow and pull back the sod. An adult
-female long-tailed weasel promptly fastened its teeth into my forefinger
-and clung on, bulldog fashion, to be lifted into the air with
-the attached trap swinging. When the left hand was used to force
-the animal to release its grip, it fastened onto the left thumb. With
-right thumb and forefinger I forced it to release its grip, but was
-unable to elude its teeth which again fastened to my right forefinger.
-Only by laying it on the ground and crushing its chest with
-my foot could I free myself from the vicious little beast. No gophers
-were taken in traps set less than 150 feet from where the weasel
-was trapped. In the three instances mentioned above, weasels
-had seemingly killed all the gophers in their immediate vicinity.
-As regards the gophers near Moses Lake, none was found
-a year later in the area where the weasel was taken and only old,
-abandoned burrows were seen. T. H. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1932: 54) records
-other instances of the capture of weasels in gopher burrows.</p>
-
-<p>At the northern limits of the city of Seattle, steel traps were set
-for mountain beavers in a rather dense colony of these mammals.
-Well-used burrows indicated that approximately 10 individuals were
-present. The following morning an exceptionally large male weasel
-was found in a trap, but all others were empty. The traps were
-left out for two additional nights but no mountain beavers were
-taken. A month later the colony seemed abandoned and no evidence
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
-of recent digging was noted. It could only be concluded that
-the weasel had killed the animals comprising the colony. A large
-mountain beaver weighs three or four pounds, which is 6 or 8 times
-as much as a weasel. <a href="#p_Edson">Edson</a> (1933: 76) recounts trapping 7 weasels
-in burrows of mountain beavers near Bellingham, Whatcom County.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Near Forks, Clallam County, a weasel was seen pursuing a young
-snowshoe rabbit (<i>Lepus americanus washingtonii</i>) along the edge
-of a concrete highway. As our car approached and passed the animals,
-they separated, the weasel retreating to the cover of horsetail
-(<i>Equisetum</i>) beside the road. The car was stopped 50 feet ahead.
-As we emerged the weasel dashed from cover to intercept the rabbit
-in the center of the road. The weasel knocked the rabbit to its side
-and, placing its feet on the rabbit's shoulders, bit fiercely at its
-neck. It then dashed back to the cover of the horsetails. The
-rabbit stood up, made two hops and died. It was approximately
-two weeks old.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_57"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_197.jpg" alt="Fig. 57." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the long-tailed weasel in Washington. A. <i>Mustela
-    frenata washingtoni.</i> B. <i>Mustela frenata altifrontalis.</i> C. <i>Mustela frenata
-    nevadensis.</i> D. <i>Mustela frenata effera.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The pelts of weasels bring the trapper from twenty-five cents to
-a dollar and a half. Only skins in the white winter coat command
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
-the higher price. They are usually taken in traps set for other
-animals.</p>
-
-<p>In the western part of the state, long-tailed weasels do not turn
-white in the winter; the back is slightly less reddish than in summer
-and the underparts are pale yellow or white or may be both
-yellow and white. From the summit of the Cascades eastward
-weasels become white. The break in winter color seems to occur
-slightly west of the main summit of the Cascades. Specimens taken
-by marten trappers at Tye and Scenic, near Stevens Pass, were
-white on November 15, 1936, but specimens from Skykomish and
-Baring, 18 miles to the west, were brown.</p>
-
-<p>The long-tailed weasel possesses a distinctive odor. It results
-from a glandular secretion and, although it has no great carrying
-power or lasting quality, it does affect some persons strongly. It
-is a heavy, rather sickening scent.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The gestation period of <i>Mustela f. nevadensis</i> has been recorded
-as more than 131 days (<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, 1938B: 250). The gestation period
-of the long-tailed weasel of eastern United States has been recorded
-as more than 70 days. Three to five young are born in a litter,
-usually four.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Mustela frenata nevadensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela arizonensis</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December,
-1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela washingtoni</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, in part, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:11,
-December, 1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela frenata nevadensis</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:91, November 20,
-1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained 3 miles east of Baker, White Pine County, Nevada, by
-E. R. <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and W. C. <a href="#p_Russell">Russell</a> on May 30, 1929; type in Museum of Vertebrate
-Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size medium; colors pale; back near Brussels Brown
-in summer, chin white and underparts yellow, rarely orange; color in winter
-white with black tip on tail.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from Neppel, Grant County, measures: total length
-412; length of tail 151; hind foot 43; ear 19. Two males from Yakima,
-Yakima County, average: 379; 135; 42.5; 21; weight 176.5. A female from
-Ellensburg and one from 4 miles east of Ellensburg, Kittitas County, average:
-284; 98; 33; 17.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the high Cascades eastward, save for the Blue Mountains
-area. Marginal occurrences are Barron (<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, 1936: 93) and Easton
-(W. W. D.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Specimens from the northern Cascades are intergrades between
-<i>nevadensis</i> and the form to the west, <i>altifrontalis</i>. Specimens from extreme
-northeastern Washington might be referred to <i>oribasa</i> Bangs as readily as to
-<i>nevadensis</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Mustela frenata effera&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>-</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela frenata effera</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:93, November 20, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Ironside, Malheur County, Oregon, by H. E. Anthony on
-September 8, 1912; type in American Museum of Natural History.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>nevadensis</i> in color but smaller, with smaller,
-lighter skull. Color in winter white with black tip on tail.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from Prescott, Walla Walla County, measures:
-total length 310; length of tail 105; hind foot 34.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake River. Specimens
-from Walla Walla and Prescott have been examined.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Mustela frenata washingtoni&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Putorius washingtoni</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 11:18, June 30, 1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela washingtoni</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:98, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela frenata washingtoni</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:106, November
-20, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Trout Lake, Skamania County, Washington, by D. N.
-Kaegi on December 15, 1895; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Color rich, dark; hind feet free of color of underparts.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from Spray Park, Pierce County, measures: total
-length 423; length of tail 164; hind foot 52.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Higher Cascades from Mt. Rainer (M. V. Z.) south to Mt.
-Adams (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 11).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Mustela frenata altifrontalis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela saturata</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:11, December,
-1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela frenata altifrontalis</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:94, November 20,
-1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Tillamook, Tillamook County, Oregon, by A. Walker on
-July 10, 1928; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>nevadensis</i> but darker above in summer and
-richer orange beneath; winter color of upper parts dark brown, underparts
-pale yellow or white.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Four males and 2 females from western Washington average,
-respectively: total length 411.5, 267; length of tail 145, 137.5; hind foot
-50, 43; ear 26, 21.5; weight 227, 136.7 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the Cascade Mountains to the Pacific. Marginal
-occurrences are Rockport (<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, 1936: 95) and Tye (W. W. D.).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Mustela vison energumenos&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Bangs)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Mink</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Putorius vison energumenos</i> Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 27:5, March, 1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mustela vison energumenos</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:101, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Sumas, British Columbia, by A. C. Brooks on September
-23, 1895; type in Museum of Comparative Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from Seattle, King County, measures: total length
-540; length of tail 180; hind foot 66; weight 1 pound, 15 ounces.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Throughout the state save for the Columbian Plateau; recorded
-from Neah Bay (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 11) in the northwest, Ilwaco
-(M.V.Z.) in the southwest, Metaline (W.W.D.) in the northeast, and the
-Blue Mountains (<a href="#p_Dice">Dice</a>, 1919: 12) in the southeast.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_58"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_200.jpg" alt="Fig. 58." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the mink, <i>Mustela vison energumenos</i>, in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Because of the value and lasting popularity of its
-fur, the mink is known to all. Few persons, however, recognize the
-animal in the wild. The mink possesses the long, slim body and
-short, rather stout legs of a weasel but has a more bushy tail. The
-mink is larger than the weasel. Large males weigh up to 3 pounds;
-females 1-1/2 pounds. Males measure about 2 feet in length, of
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
-which the tail comprises eight inches. Females measure about 20
-inches and have tails 7 inches long. The color is rich, dark reddish
-or chocolate brown. The underparts are slightly paler than the
-back. There are usually small white markings on the chin, chest
-or other part of the ventral surface. These markings sometimes take
-the form of narrow white lines.</p>
-
-<p>The mink ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Alaska
-south to Florida, New Mexico and central California. It is active
-throughout the year and is principally, though not exclusively, nocturnal.
-<a href="#p_McMurry">McMurry</a> (1940: 47) records three mink seen at 3:30 p. m.
-on August 8, 1939, at Packwood Lake, Lewis County, one of which
-was carrying a garter snake two feet in length. This mustelid is
-semiaquatic, living along rivers, streams, lakes and salt water and
-spends most of its time along the shore, on muddy or sandy beaches.
-In this respect it resembles the raccoon. Whereas the raccoon
-spends a part of its time on the land, the mink spends a corresponding
-amount of its time in the water. It is an excellent swimmer,
-able to overtake and capture fish in the water.</p>
-
-<p>In the San Juan Islands minks have forsaken the shoreline and
-roam over the uplands, feeding on the abundant, feral domestic
-rabbits. I found evidence of their presence far inland, miles from
-water, in grassy and bushy wastes; along the beaches their tracks
-were rarely seen. Along Puget Sound, minks spend part of their
-time on the beaches, feeding on dead fish and other marine animal
-life. These animals, however, seem to live along the rivers and
-streams flowing into the sound. Along the ocean coast, some minks
-seem to live exclusively in the marine shoreline habitat.</p>
-
-<p>The mink ascends some distance into the Cascade and Olympic
-mountains along the larger watercourses. There are reliable reports
-of minks from Heart Lake and Lake Dorothy, King County,
-high in the Cascades. These animals were seen in the summer but
-they may live in higher parts of the Cascades, at least about some
-of the larger lakes throughout the year. As far as is known there
-are no minks on the Columbian Plateau.</p>
-
-<p>The food probably varies with locality. Along the ocean beaches
-they eat dead sea birds, stranded fish, crustaceans, and mollusks.
-Along Puget Sound their tracks are commonly seen following the
-caked, decaying seaweed and debris that collects at the high tide
-mark. <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> and <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> (1931: 22) captured a mink that was
-feeding on the beach of the Olympic Peninsula. This individual, in
-captivity, was able to open and feed on clams. Fur trappers report
-that minks feed on mountain beavers, and that the flesh of the
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
-mountain beaver is the best bait for attracting minks. Along
-streams and lakes, minks are thought to feed on mice, birds, fish,
-crayfish and thin-shelled, fresh-water mussels. The muskrat forms
-an important item of diet near the larger lakes and streams. Muskrats
-trapped near Seattle were often attacked by minks and either
-eaten or so slashed and torn that their pelts were worth but a fraction
-of what they would bring in an undamaged condition.</p>
-
-<p>The tracks of a mink noted in freshly fallen snow about a garbage
-dump on the shore of Lake Washington, Seattle, indicated that
-the animal had been hunting house rats, which were numerous there.
-Minks are not uncommon in the marshes along Lake Washington
-near the University of Washington campus, Seattle, where I discovered
-evidence of their preying on ducks and coots. The ducks
-included mallards and green-winged teal, species most apt to alight
-in small pools in the rushes where a mink might find cover. I found
-the fresh tracks of one mink about a half-eaten golden tench 8
-inches long. The tench is a fish of the sucker tribe, introduced
-into the lake. Tracks of minks are not uncommonly seen along
-rivers and streams under conditions that indicate they were hunting
-crayfish.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The raw pelt of the mink sells usually at from 10 to 20 dollars.
-The fur is in constant demand and fluctuates in price less than most
-furs. The average trapper takes a few minks each year along with
-his catch of muskrats, raccoons, and skunks but some trappers have
-taken as many as 100 minks in a winter in areas where the animal
-is especially numerous.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Gulo luscus luteus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Wolverine</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Gulo luteus</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 87, zo&ouml;l. ser. 3:260, December, 1903.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Gulo luscus luteus</i> <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Dixon, and Linsdale, Fur-bearing Mamm. California, Univ.
-California Press, Berkeley, p. 251, July 22, 1937.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on Mt. Whitney, Tulare County, California, by E. Heller;
-type in Field Museum of Natural History.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;The dried skin of a wolverine taken 3 miles south of Riverside,
-Okanogan County, was 4 feet in length. The animal weighed 40 pounds
-(<a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1941: 37).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Timber-line region of the Cascades Mountains. From
-Robinson Creek (<a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1938: 8) south to Mount Rainier (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>,
-1929: 12).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Specimens from Washington are intermediate in character
-between <i>luteus</i> and the race inhabiting British Columbia, although available
-skulls are closer to <i>luteus</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_59"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_203.jpg" alt="Fig. 59." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>&nbsp;
-    Wolverine (<i>Gulo luscus</i>), mounted specimen, male, trapped by
-    Billy Robinson about 1902 on Billy Robinson Creek, Okanogan County, Washington.
-    (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 76.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Large males measure more than three feet in length,
-of which the tail makes up 10 inches; they weigh as much as 50
-pounds (<a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Dixon and Linsdale, 1937: 253). The body is
-wide and stocky; the tail is short; the legs, especially the forelegs,
-are short, thick and powerful; the feet are large and are armed with
-long, curved claws; the head is wide; the jaws are powerful with
-heavy teeth. The pelage is long and rather shaggy. Face, legs,
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
-back and terminal portion of the tail are dark, blackish brown but
-the forehead is grayish, contrasting with the dark color of face and
-top of the head. Two broad, yellowish-brown bands begin on the
-side of the shoulders and pass back, low on the sides, to the hips
-where they join across the back and base of the tail.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The wolverines, nominally of several species, form a compact
-group that ranges over the boreal regions of the Old and New world.
-In North America they range southward from the Arctic to California
-and Colorado.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_60"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_204.jpg" alt="Fig. 60." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>&nbsp;
-    Wolverine (<i>Gulo luscus</i>), male, trapped by Reuben R. Lamb,
-    March 22, 1941, three miles south of Riverside, Washington; reported to
-    weigh 40 pounds; dried pelt 3 &times; 4 feet. (Reuben R. Lamb photo.)</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_61"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_205.jpg" alt="Fig. 61." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the wolverine, <i>Gulo luscus luteus</i>, in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb2">The wolverine is adapted to boreal conditions and is most abundant
-in the arctic. In the Cascades it occurs only at or near timber-line.
-Except the wolf and the possibly extinct grizzly bear, the
-wolverine is the rarest carnivore in Washington. Probably it has
-been rare since the retreat of the continental glaciers, for suitable
-habitat for wolverines is not abundant and each animal requires
-a large area over which to range. An unusual record, possibly of
-a wandering animal, is given by <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1941: 37). This is of an
-adult male taken in the Okanogan Valley 3 miles south of Riverside,
-Okanogan County, on March 22, 1941.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Lutra canadensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Schreber)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">River otter</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The otter has the long body of many mustelids,
-but is specialized for aquatic life. Males are slightly larger than
-females. Large adults measure more than 3-1/2 feet in length, of
-which the tail comprises 18 inches. The largest adults may weigh
-as much as 25 pounds. The body is elongate but rather plump. The
-forelimbs are small and laterally placed. The hind legs are the
-heavier, and are situated posteriorly. The feet are large and webbed
-for swimming. The tail is long, thick at the base and gradually
-tapering to a narrow tip. The head is small and rounded. The
-ears are tiny and the eyes are of moderate size. The upper lips are
-large, somewhat spaniel-like, and support a mustache of stiff vibrissae.
-The fur is short, dense and soft. The tail is sleek with
-short, posteriorly-directed fur, and is not bushy. The fur is rich,
-dark chocolate brown in color, slightly paler on the animal's underparts
-than on its upper parts.</p>
-
-<p>Otters range over Eurasia, North America and South America.
-Those occurring in North America north of Mexico are thought to
-belong to a single species, <i>canadensis</i>. Several species from tropical
-America may eventually be shown to also be races of <i>canadensis</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The aquatic habits of the otter allow it to exist in several life-zones,
-in both marine and fresh-water habitats. The principal environment
-is the streams, rivers and lakes of the Transition Life-zone,
-but along the larger rivers, otters range up into the Canadian
-Life-zone and along the Snake and Columbia rivers they enter the
-Upper Sonoran Life-zone. They are active throughout the year.
-As we have observed them, they are principally nocturnal.</p>
-
-<p>Otters are extremely powerful swimmers. Tracks along the North
-Fork of the Tolt River, King County, showed where otters had entered
-water that flowed over a stony bottom at the velocity of
-rapids. Their occurrence in the Tolt, Skykomish and Snoqualmie
-rivers where these are swift mountain streams indicates exceptional
-swimming ability. After emerging from the water, an otter often
-follows along the shore, sometimes for miles.</p>
-
-<p>In the San Juan Islands the otters have taken to a marine existence.
-In the summer of 1938, abundant opportunity offered to
-observe the otters at Thatcher Bay, Blakely Island. Here, in the
-evening, bats were shot as they flew over the calm water of the bay.
-Specimens killed were retrieved by rowing out to them with a dory.
-For the first two nights bats were collected and retrieved without
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>
-incident. On the third night, several of the bats vanished between
-the time they were killed and the time that the boat was launched
-from the rocky beach. The presence of a shark or other large fish
-was at first suspected, but observation showed a group of three or
-possibly four otters to be the thieves. On succeeding nights the
-animals became bolder. A dead bat became the object of a race
-between otters and collector. They completely ignored shouts,
-dodged stones hurled at them, and stole almost all the bats shot.
-Only a sense of humor and desire to study the animals saved them
-from a load of fine shot. Bat collecting was given up in disgust.</p>
-
-<p>These otters were remarkably seallike in many actions. In swimming
-their heads, shoulders and part of their back were exposed.
-In resting in the water, only the round head remained above the
-surface. They were never seen to float prone on the surface or rest
-on their backs, as does the sea otter. They were noisy swimmers,
-splashing with paws or heads as they dived. Their eyesight was
-remarkable. Stones the size of a walnut were hurled at them from
-distances as short as 25 feet. All were dodged with little effort. In
-this connection the experience of two trappers who caught an otter
-in the Samamish River near Woodinville, King County, is interesting.
-The trap holding the otter had been attached by a wire 6
-feet long to a pole on the bank. The wire was detached from the
-pole; while one trapper held the wire, the other tried to strike the
-otter with an oar as the boat drifted over deep water. The otter
-was free to swim and dive for the length of the wire and trap chain.
-It detected, and evaded by dodging or diving, every blow directed
-at it and not until the animal tired, a half hour later, could it be
-killed. The trappers then noted that the splashing of oars and otter
-had nearly filled the boat with water. The trappers were exhausted.</p>
-
-<p>The otters of Blakely Island were not unique in occupying a marine
-habitat. At Strawberry Bay, Cypress Island, on July 5, 1938,
-fishermen brought in a "strange animal" caught by them at Black
-Rock, a tiny bare and isolated islet 5 miles to the west. The heavy
-box holding the animal was opened, disclosing a very frightened
-young otter. Questioned, the fishermen stated that four young and
-one adult had been seen in the surf. They had thought the animals
-a species of seal, and were somewhat surprised at being successful
-in their attempts to catch one. The otter was too young to fare
-for itself and was kept in camp in the hope that it might be reared
-and released. It ate a few fresh herring and candlefish and drank
-some condensed milk. It refused whole salmon and sea bass but
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
-ate some skinned and boned strips of these fish. It died a week
-after it was captured. This young otter made a ticking sound, almost
-a chirp. A variety of crying and whimpering sounds were also
-made, and when petted it grunted in satisfaction. If surprised or
-when first picked up it gave a deep harsh growl, unexpectedly
-vicious in sound, for such a small animal.</p>
-
-<p>The otters at Blakely Island fed on a great variety of food. The
-only food they were actually seen to eat was candlefish, a slim
-silvery fish 6 inches in length. On several occasions an otter was
-seen swimming with the head of a candlefish held fast in its mouth
-and the fish's body extending out in a silvery bow. Many feces of
-these otters were composed entirely of the feathers of grebes and
-scoters. These birds were probably not killed by the otters but died
-a natural death or were shot by men. At that camp scarcely a
-day passed in which at least one person was not seen firing a .22
-caliber rifle from a cabin cruiser into the flocks of scoters at the
-mouth of the bay. Dead sea birds were common on the shore and
-doubtless furnished food for otters as they did for crows and eagles.
-The majority of the otter feces examined at Blakely Island were
-composed of the remains of invertebrates. The small mussel (<i>Mytilus
-edulis</i>) was most abundant. Crabs formed an important part
-of their diet. Strangely enough the shore crab (<i>Hemigrapsus nudus</i>)
-and the porcelain crab (<i>Petrolisthes eriomerus</i>) were seldom eaten
-though they were abundant beneath the rocks upon which the feces
-were found, and formed the principal food item of raccoons. These
-species of invertebrates live beneath rocks and the raccoon probably
-reaches beneath the rocks to catch the crabs with its handlike forefeet,
-as the otter is unable to do. The edible crab (<i>Cancer productus</i>)
-and kelp crab (<i>Telmessus cheiragonus</i>) were most often eaten
-by otters. Also eaten were snails (<i>Margarites</i>, <i>Littorina</i>), bitter
-oysters (<i>Pododesmus macroschisma</i>), unidentified pelecypods, barnacles
-(<i>Balanus</i>), one chiton (<i>Mopalia muscosa</i>), and once a starfish.
-The invertebrate remains, save for the snails, were crushed and
-broken.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Fish of many species were abundant in these waters. Salmon
-were often seen leaping near the playing otters. Yet no scales or
-other remains of fish were detected in the feces. Candlefish possess
-tiny scales that could probably be seen by microscopic examination
-only. As for the bird remains, the quantity of feathers
-consumed is notable. The otters apparently do not pluck birds, as
-do minks. Indeed, of the material eaten, the food value by volume
-seems extraordinarily low. A great quantity must be eaten to
-nourish an animal as large and as active as an otter. The number of
-fecal droppings seen each morning indicates that this is the case.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_62"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_209.jpg" alt="Fig. 62." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>&nbsp;
-    River otter (<i>Lutra canadensis pacifica</i>), trapped in Columbia National
-    Forest, Washington, February, 1937. (Adolph Roth photo.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p2">The favored food of the otter in fresh water streams and lakes
-is the crayfish. The greater part, perhaps 80 per cent, of otter feces
-seen in the lowlands of western Washington, were composed of crayfish
-remains. Some fish are also eaten and locally otters may do
-damage among the steelhead trout. Even worse, from the fisherman's
-standpoint, they frighten and scatter the schools of steelhead
-trout. Frogs are eaten, as well as the thin-shelled mussels.
-The feathers of coots were twice seen in otter feces near Cottage
-Lake, King County.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The fur of the otter is dense and beautiful but the skin is rather
-heavy. Changes in styles cause great fluctuation in the value of
-the otter's pelt.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_63"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_210.jpg" alt="Fig. 63." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the river otter in Washington. Unshaded <i>Lutra
-    canadensis pacifica</i>. Shaded <i>Lutra canadensis vancouverensis</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Lutra canadensis pacifica&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lutra hudsonica pacifica</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., n. s., 19: 429, September, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lutra canadensis pacifica</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 10: 460, November 10, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington (altitude
-3,000, rather than 8,000 feet as stated in original citation); type in Academy
-of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;An adult male from the Lower Calawah River, near Forks,
-Clallam County, measured (skinned carcass): total length 1205; length of tail
-490; weight (entire) 23 pounds. A male from Puget Island, Wahkiakum
-County, measured (skinned carcass): total length 1250; length of tail 490.
-A female from Satsop, Grays Harbor County, measured (skinned carcass):
-total length 1205; length of tail 440. A female from Calawah River near
-Forks, Clallam County, measured: total length 1062; length of tail 430;
-hind foot 120; ear 23; weight 14-3/4 pounds.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Watercourses throughout the state, scarcer east of the Cascades;
-recorded at Forks (V. B. S.) in the northwest, Puget Island (V. B. S.)
-in the southwest, Colville (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 12) in the northeast, and
-Touchet (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 12) in the southeast.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Lutra canadensis vancouverensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lutra vancouverensis</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 48: 186, November 15, 1935.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Quatsino, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, by H.
-O. Berg in 1905; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;No adults, referred to this race from Washington, have
-been examined. Said to have broader skull than <i>pacifica</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;The only available specimen, a young female from Black
-Rock, San Juan County, measured: total length 792; length of tail 247; hind
-foot 103; ear 22.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The San Juan Islands of northern Puget Sound and adjacent
-marine waters.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The otters of the San Juan Islands are referred to this race on
-geographical grounds. Numerous islands connect Vancouver Island with the
-San Juan Islands, and intervening channels are not too wide for otters to
-swim. Adult material may show that the otters of the San Juan Islands are
-referable to <i>pacifica</i> or to an undescribed race rather than to <i>vancouverensis</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Enhydra lutris nereis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Sea otter</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Latax lutris nereis</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17: 159, October 6, 1904.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Enhydra lutris nereis</i> <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 21: 316, January 27, 1923.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on San Miguel Island, Santa Barbara Islands, by G. M.
-McGuire in 1904; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Formerly occurred along the ocean coast of Washington.
-Now extinct there.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Adult sea otters reach a length of six feet. The body
-is stout, long and round; the tail is short, flattened and about a foot
-in length. The legs are short and thick. The hind feet are webbed
-for swimming. The head is rounded with small eyes and ears, and
-a seallike mustache of stiff bristles on the muzzle. The upper lip
-is thick and heavy, drooping over the sides of the mouth in a spaniel-like
-fashion. The fur is long, soft and extremely dense. The color
-of the body is various shades of rich, dark brown. Scattered white
-hairs often give the coat a frosted appearance. The heads of the
-adults are pale grey, occasionally almost white.</p>
-
-<p>The sea otter once ranged from the Gulf of California north
-along the west coast of North America to Alaska, the Aleutian
-Islands, Siberia and Japan. It is now found only in a small area
-along the coast of California and in remote islands of the north
-Pacific. Once abundant along the coast of Washington, it is now
-completely extinct there.</p>
-
-<p>The habits of sea otters living on the California Coast in the
-vicinity of Carmel have been described by <a href="#p_Fisher">Fisher</a> (1939: 21-36).
-Available information on the sea otter in Washington has been given
-by <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1940B: 369-388). The search for sea-otter skins influenced
-the exploration and settlement of the northwest. Captain
-James Cook obtained skins of sea otter at Nootka Sound, Vancouver
-Island, in 1778. The mouth of the Columbia River was discovered
-by Captain Robert <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a> on May 11, 1792, while trading for sea
-otter skins.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">According to <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, the bulk of the sea-otter population on the
-Washington coast was concentrated between the mouth of the Columbia
-River and Point Grenville at the mouth of the Quinault
-River. The otters were found several miles from land in extensive
-kelp beds. The principal food of the sea otter in Washington seems
-to have been the short-spined purple sea urchin (<i>Strongylocentrotus
-purpuratus</i>). The animals were social, living in herds of up to 400
-individuals. They never came out on land, living, sleeping, and
-bringing forth their young on the kelp beds of the open ocean. The
-single young was born at any month of the year.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Spilogale gracilis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Civet cat or spotted skunk</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The civet cat is slightly less than 18 inches in total
-length, of which the tail constitutes 6 inches. Large, fat animals
-may weigh more than a pound. The body is long and moderately
-stout, heavier than that of the weasel but slimmer than that of the
-striped skunk. The tail is long with long, plumelike fur. The legs
-are slender and of moderate length. The feet are small with long
-claws. The head is small and triangular with low, erect ears and
-large, bright eyes. The fur is short but soft and silky. The ground
-color of the civet cat is black. Wavy lines and spots of white or
-salmon intercept the black in a complex pattern. Variations in color
-patterns include width of stripes, waviness of stripes, and breaking
-up of the stripes into spots.</p>
-
-<p><i>Spilogale</i> is restricted to America; it ranges from southern
-British Columbia south into Central America. Several species are
-now recognized, but additional material probably will show intergradation
-between some of them and reduce the number.</p>
-
-<p>The name "spotted skunk" is seldom used by trappers or other
-persons familiar with the animal. Nor is it appropriate, for the
-distinctive color pattern is composed of short stripes. Neither is
-the term "civet cat" appropriate, for the true civet is found in Asia.
-The name civet cat is well established, however, and will doubtless
-remain in general use.</p>
-
-<p>The civet cat is principally a lowland animal, but has been recorded
-from the Nisqually entrance of Mt. Rainier National Park
-(<a href="#p_Brockman">Brockman</a>, 1939: 70). Its rather generalized habits allow it to
-exist in areas that will not support larger carnivores or species with
-specialized food habits. It dwells in areas of thickets, brushy
-tangles or deep woods. In southeastern Washington it lives in
-rocky places as well as in river-side thickets of willow and cottonwood.
-Where conditions are suitable it ranges up into the Canadian
-Life-zone but is most abundant in the Transition Life-zone.</p>
-
-<p>The civet cats, in contrast to the striped skunks, are exclusively
-nocturnal. They are active the year around in western Washington
-but move about less in spells of unusually cold weather. We have
-taken them, however, in freezing weather.</p>
-
-<p>In spite of their abundance and wide range, civet cats are known
-to few persons other than trappers, perhaps because of their exclusively
-nocturnal habits. They do occasionally make people
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
-aware of themselves by taking up residence about old buildings.
-They are rather noisy at times. At the Tolt River, 10 miles southeast
-of Duvall, King County, we were asleep in an old building
-when a stamping noise from the next room awakened us. Investigation
-revealed a civet cat indulging in a series of short, stiff-legged
-hops. The forefeet were held slightly ahead and six or eight hops
-made. The animal would then relax, turn, and prance off in a new
-direction. The amount of noise made by its feet striking the board
-floor was surprising. The civet cat seemed to enjoy the noise it
-made, and the prancing may have been a method of playing.
-Trapped civet cats have been seen to make a similar but shorter
-series of hops at the trapper's approach, which might have been a
-warning. In the case described, however, the noise of the animal's
-actions was heard before the animal was seen and presumably
-when it was unaware of human presence. The civet cat also makes
-a drumming noise similar to the drumming of a wood rat. This
-was heard twice from wild animals that did not suspect an observer's
-presence, and once from a captive animal. While an
-animal was drumming I never had the opportunity to watch the
-actions closely enough to describe them. Apparently the drumming
-is done with the forefeet.</p>
-
-<p>The civet cat is said to be a good climber and to do some of its
-hunting in trees. One trapped civet cat climbed to the limit of a
-trap chain and wire in a low bush near Cottage Lake, King County,
-but, in Washington, I have no other evidence of this animal climbing.
-Near Cottage Lake, we took a civet cat in a trap set beneath
-2 inches of water at the side of a stream. The animal had either
-been swimming or wading.</p>
-
-<p>Trapped civet cats rarely dig holes near the traps, as striped
-skunks often do. One caught near Ocean Park, Pacific County, did
-dig a hole beneath a log and forced earth and leaves over the entrance.
-I walked within a few feet of the animal in searching for
-the trap. Not until the trap chain was seen did I find the civet cat.
-None was taken in traps set in mountain beaver burrows, although
-I have caught both striped skunks and weasels in such burrows.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Some trappers state that the musk of the civet cat smells different
-from that of the striped skunk. I think the odor is slightly more
-acrid and that it does not carry so far as the skunk musk. The civet
-cat is far more active and nervous than the striped skunk. Whereas
-the striped skunk almost never throws its scent when trapped, the
-civet cat almost invariably does so, apparently when the trap closes
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>
-about its legs. Striped skunks in traps move slowly and steadily
-but civet cats jump, roll and squirm erratically.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_64"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_215.jpg" alt="Fig. 64." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the civet cat in Washington. A. <i>Spilogale gracilis
-    latifrons.</i> B. <i>Spilogale gracilis saxatilis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">In the winter of 1934 a large male civet cat was taken near
-Cottage Lake, King County. It had been killed and partially eaten
-in the trap. The ground about the set was torn up, indicating that
-the civet cat had put up a fight. The area for many feet about
-smelled of skunk musk. The body of the civet cat was used for bait
-and the trap reset. The following morning a large male striped
-skunk was in the trap. Its skin bore superficial cuts in several places
-about its neck and rump, and it was doubtless the animal that had
-killed the civet cat. Under ordinary circumstances a striped skunk
-could scarcely catch the far swifter and more agile civet cat. One
-civet cat in a trap was killed and partly eaten by a horned owl. Save
-for dislodging a few feathers, the civet cat seemed to have done little
-damage to the owl. The thick cover inhabited by the civet cat
-ordinarily protects it from owls. Dead civet cats run over by cars on
-the highway are rarely seen.</p>
-
-<p>The stomach of a specimen from Ocean Park, Pacific County,
-contained the remains of three red-backed mice (<i>Clethrionomys</i>
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>
-<i>californicus</i>). The stomachs of most specimens trapped were empty.
-Mice, birds and insects probably constitute the bulk of the food.</p>
-
-<p>Notes on the early life of <i>Spilogale interrupta</i>, a species related
-to the one occurring in Washington, have been published by <a href="#p_Crabb">Crabb</a>
-(1944: 213-221).</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The fur of the civet cat is of little value; in recent years trappers
-have received from fifteen cents to a dollar for large pelts. Because
-of its habit of throwing scent when in the traps, most trappers discard
-the animals without skinning them.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Spilogale gracilis saxatilis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Spilogale saxatilis</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:13, October 8, 1890.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Spilogale gracilis saxatilis</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 26:23, November 24, 1906.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Provo, Utah County, Utah, by V. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> on November
-13, 1890; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size small; white areas extensive, especially on tail but
-white triangle on head small; white areas less often tinged with salmon or
-orange than <i>latifrons</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1906: 32) gives the measurements of a male from
-Harney, Oregon, and the average of 3 females from Oregon as, respectively:
-total length 455, 360; length of tail 155, 129; hind foot 50, 40.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Southeastern Washington, north to Kamiak Butte (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>
-and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 12).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Spilogale gracilis latifrons&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Spilogale phenax latifrons</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:15, October 8, 1890.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Spilogale olympica</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 32, zo&ouml;l. ser. 1:270, March, 1899
-(type from Lake Sutherland, Clallam County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Spilogale phenax olympica</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 26:33, November 24, 1906.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Spilogale gracilis latifrons</i> <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Dixon and Linsdale, Fur-bearing Mamm. California,
-Univ. California Press, Berkeley, p. 301, July 22, 1937.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Roseburg, Douglas County, Oregon, by T. S. Palmer
-on July 13, 1889; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Larger than <i>saxatilis</i> with less extensive white markings,
-especially on tail, but white markings on head larger; white usually tinged
-with salmon or pale orange.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Means for four males, from Pacific County, are total
-length 411; length of tail 136; hind foot 47.5; ear 27. One weighed 784 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Western Washington from the western edge of the Cascades
-westward. Marginal records, given by <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1929: 12) are Hamilton,
-on the north; Lake Keechelus, on the east; and Carson, on the south.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Comparison of adult specimens of civet cats from western
-Washington and western Oregon shows no reliable character for recognition
-of two races. No difference in tail length exists. Narrowness of rostrum was
-the only diagnostic character found by <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1906: 34) to separate <i>latifrons</i>
-and <i>olympica</i>. We have carefully compared civet cats from western Oregon,
-southwestern Washington and the area about Seattle. Some local variation
-exists but overlapping is great and specimens from Washington do not have
-rostra that average narrower than specimens from Oregon.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Mephitis mephitis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Schreber)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Striped skunk</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The striped skunk is a heavy-bodied animal about
-the size of a house cat. The legs are of moderate length and stout
-and the hind feet are large. The claws of the forefeet are long,
-strong and curved. The head is small and pointed, with small eyes
-and ears. The tail is long, nearly equal in length to the head and
-body. The fur is long, soft and shiny, and is jet black with sharply
-contrasting white markings. These consist of a narrow stripe on
-the forehead, a broad band on the neck that diverges into two
-stripes on the back. The two lateral stripes fuse on the rump. The
-tail has long black hairs some of which are white at the base.</p>
-
-<p>Striped skunks range over North America from central Canada
-southward to southern Mexico. Two species are recognized by <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>
-(1936: 64), namely <i>mephitis</i> and <i>macroura</i>. The latter species is
-found in Mexico and parts of the southwestern United States.</p>
-
-<p>Skunks are principally nocturnal but are sometimes active in the
-morning and evening, especially on cloudy days. They prefer relatively
-open country such as logged-over land, old fields and river-side
-and streamside thickets. Their dens usually consist of old <i>Aplodontia</i>
-burrows or burrows which they, themselves, dig under stumps
-or log jams, the floors of old buildings or among rocks. They feed
-on a variety of animals and wild fruit. Along Puget Sound they
-wander over the beaches when the tide is out, eating stranded fish,
-crustaceans and other marine animals. The purple shore crab
-(<i>Hemigrapusus nudus</i>) forms a staple article of diet. Along streams
-and rivers they wander along low, muddy banks and sand bars
-searching for fish, crayfish, insects and insect larvae. The larger
-water beetles (<i>Dytiscidae</i>) are often eaten; feces are at times composed
-entirely of their shells. For the most part, however, skunks
-have no regular food habits but eat such insects, small mammals,
-birds or refuse as are available.</p>
-
-<p>The skunk is famous for the musk which it uses as a defensive
-weapon. This highly volatile liquid is ejected from two small,
-nipplelike ducts situated in the edge of the anus. The consistency,
-color, and distance to which the musk can be discharged varies with
-the amount thrown. The first discharge or two is usually a fine,
-pale yellow spray, which can be accurately directed to a distance
-of 25 feet. The third discharge consists of small drops of heavy,
-bright-yellow liquid that travels an arching curve, 5 feet high, reaching
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>
-a maximum distance of about 10 feet. Later discharges consist
-of heavy yellow mucus and can be thrown only a few feet. As many
-as seven or eight discharges are possible. Skunk musk is acrid and
-pungent in order. In quantity or at close range it is choking. In
-small quantities it is not unpleasant. It is extremely lasting, sometimes
-being noticeable for months on clothes or buildings. It is
-soluble in gasoline and clothes may be de-scented by several washings
-in that fluid.</p>
-
-<p>The striped skunk is an even-tempered animal. Its defensive
-fluid is discharged only when it is cornered or attacked. A trapped
-skunk rarely releases musk. A man, by speaking softly and moving
-slowly, can come within a distance of six feet of a trapped
-skunk. Experienced trappers utilize this fact to approach and shoot
-trapped skunks through the head or neck and so produce odorless
-furs.</p>
-
-<p>The skunk is potentially a source of considerable income to trappers
-in Washington. The value of their furs varies with the demand
-but large prime skins usually bring from $1 to $4. In eastern
-Washington, where trapping for coyotes and other terrestrial mammals
-is carried on, the skunks taken incidentally are an important
-source of revenue. In western Washington they are often abundant
-but are seldom trapped. The most sought pelts in western Washington
-are the mink, muskrat and raccoon; all semiaquatic species.
-Skunks are rarely taken in traps set for these mammals and few
-trappers bother to set overland trap lines for skunks.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The young of the striped skunk usually number four to six. They
-are born in late May or early June in western Washington; possibly
-later in eastern Washington.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Mephitis mephitis hudsonica&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Richardson</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mephitis americana</i> var. <i>hudsonica</i> Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1:55, 1829.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mephitis hudsonica</i> Bangs, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 26:536, July 31, 1895.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Chincha hudsonica</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:24, August 31, 1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mephitis mephitis hudsonica</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:65, November 20,
-1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on the "plains of the Saskatchewan, Canada."</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size moderate; stripes diverging anteriorly on back of
-neck; tail long with white stripe reaching well out, nearly to tip; zygomatic
-arches nearly parallel.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1901: 24) gives the average of 3 males from Saskatchewan,
-Montana and Wyoming, and of 3 females from Montana and
-Idaho, as, respectively: total length 726, 602; length of tail 268, 250; hind
-foot 82, 71.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution</i>.&mdash;Northeastern Washington and the eastern edge of the northern
-Cascades, south probably to the Wenatchee Mountains. Recorded west
-to Oroville (W. W. D.) and Timentwa (W. W. D.) and south to Spokane (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>
-and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 12).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Mephitis mephitis major&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Chincha occidentalis major</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:37, August 31, 1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08 pmb1">
-<i>Mephitis mephitis major</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 37:2, April 10, 1931.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_65"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_219.jpg" alt="Fig. 65." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the striped skunk in Washington. A. <i>Mephitis
-    mephitis hudsonica.</i> B. <i>Mephitis mephitis major.</i> C. <i>Mephitis mephitis notata.</i>
-    D. <i>Mephitis mephitis spissigrada.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Fort Klamath, Klamath County, Oregon, by B. L. Cunningham
-on January 5, 1898; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Slightly larger than <i>hudsonica</i> with white stripes diverging
-on shoulders rather than neck.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A young male from 1 mile north of Burbank, Walla Walla
-County, measures: total length 474; length of tail 205; hind foot 68; ear 30;
-weight 815 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake River and east
-of the Columbia River, occurring west to Burbank (M. V. Z.).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Mephitis mephitis notata&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Chincha occidentalis notata</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:36, August 31, 1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mephitis mephitis notata</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:67, November 20,
-1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Trout Lake, south base of Mt. Adams, Klickitat County,
-Washington, by P. Schmid on March 22, 1897; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>hudsonica</i> but larger; stripes narrower, diverging
-anteriorly on neck or back of head; tail shorter, sometimes without
-long, white hairs.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1901:37) gives the average of 3 adult males from
-Trout Lake, Klickitat County, as: total length 633; length of tail 249; hind
-foot 76.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Columbia River Valley of the southern Cascades from
-the Wind River east to the Snake River and the Yakima Valley area (trappers'
-reports).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Mephitis mephitis spissigrada&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Bangs</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mephitis spissigrada</i> Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:31, March 24, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mephitis foetulenta</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus., Publ. 32, zo&ouml;l. ser., 1:269, March, 1899
-(type from Laguna, near Port Angeles, Clallam County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Chincha occidentalis spissigrada</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 20:35, August 31, 1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mephitis mephitis spissigrada</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Carnegie Inst. Publ. 473:67, November 20, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Sumas [prairie], British Columbia, by A. Brooks on
-September 30, 1895; type in Museum of Comparative Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>hudsonica</i> but larger; stripes broader, usually
-diverging on shoulders; hairs of stripes often cream color or yellowish near
-base; end of tail usually white.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;An adult male from 2-1/2 miles southeast of Chinook, Pacific
-County, measures: total length 578; length of tail 260; hind foot 30. A female
-from the same place and one from Renton, King County, average: 575;
-233; 72; 27.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Lowlands of western Washington. This form rarely goes far
-into the mountains except along the valleys of the larger rivers. Marginal
-records are Skykomish (W. W. D.) and Washougal River (W. W. D.).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Taxidea taxus taxus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Schreber)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Badger</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ursus taxus</i> Schreber, Saugethiere, 3:520, 1778.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Taxidea taxus</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Amer. Nat., 28:524, June, 1894.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Taxidea taxus neglecta</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:12, December,
-1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Taxidea taxus taxus</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ. 473:78, November 20, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;None. Type locality probably southwest of Hudson Bay (<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>,
-1936: 78).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males from northern Nevada measure, respectively:
-total length 780, 762; length of tail 113, 150; hind foot 136, 120; ear 55, 54;
-weight 15, 11 pounds.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Of general distribution over open country east of the Cascades.
-Marginal records are Wauconda (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 12), Chelan
-(<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 13), Goldendale (W. W. D.) and "Divide above
-Trout Lake" (trapper's photograph).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_66"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_221.jpg" alt="Fig. 66." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>&nbsp;
-    Badger (<i>Taxidea taxus taxus</i>), tame animal in Seattle, Washington.
-    January 29, 1938. Captured at Lakeside, Chelan County, and photographed
-    at approximate age of ten months; subadult male. (Eloise Kuntz photo).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The badger is the size of a small dog, measuring up
-to 32 inches in total length and weighing up to 20 pounds. The body
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span>
-is heavy, powerful and remarkably flat and compressed. The tail
-and legs are short. The forelegs are thick and strong, armed with
-long heavy claws for digging. The ears are wide and low. The color
-of the upper parts is a grizzled yellowish brown, not unlike the
-color of the yellow-bellied marmot. The underparts are buffy, often
-with a white area on the abdomen. The legs, feet, top of head, ears,
-and small areas on the cheeks are blackish. Triangular areas about
-the eyes are buffy. A white stripe extends from the nose pad backwards,
-between the eyes, to the shoulders and serves as the best
-recognition mark.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_67"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_222.jpg" alt="Fig. 67." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the badger, <i>Taxidea taxus taxus</i>, in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Badgers are found over central and western United States,
-Canada and northern Mexico. They are commonest on the plains
-and desert, principally because the burrowing mammals upon which
-they feed are most abundant there. The badger is a powerful and
-rapid digger, being able to overtake and capture mice, ground
-squirrels, and even pocket gophers. <a href="#p_Perry">Perry</a> (1939: 49-53) in her
-interesting accounts of the habits of a pet badger obtained at Lakeside,
-Chelan County, found the animal powerful enough to dig
-through a concrete floor! Evidence of badger's activities are usually
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>
-seen at any ground squirrel colony in eastern Washington. This
-evidence consists of large holes in the ground. Rarely a horizontal
-tunnel begins at the depth of two to four feet and extends for an
-unknown distance. Earth removed in excavating is heaped beside
-one or both of the narrower sides of the surface opening.</p>
-
-<p>In examining badger workings in ground squirrel colonies I have
-been impressed by the fact that most of the holes ended not more
-than four or five feet from the entrances&mdash;perhaps at the places
-where the ground squirrel nests were located, although it may be
-that the digging of the badger so terrified the squirrels that they
-dashed out in an attempt to escape past the badger, before he
-reached the nests. Kangaroo rats and pocket mice often attempt
-to escape by dashing past a person when he is excavating their burrows.</p>
-
-<p>The power of the short, thick and slightly bowed foreleg of the
-badger is tremendous. The claws are stout and fully an inch long.
-The animal is able to break up and remove at a scoop, the baked,
-claylike loess of the Columbian Plateau. Clods of this same material
-are so firm that only by twisting and exerting considerable power
-was I able to break them. The soil a foot beneath the sunbaked
-crust is softer and more easily worked.</p>
-
-<p>It is difficult to estimate the size of badger populations. In the
-arid land of eastern Washington their diggings may exist almost
-unchanged for many years. Interviews with professional trappers
-serve to indicate their range and numbers as follows: southeastern
-edge of the Cascades and Yakima Valley, not common, rarely straying
-up into mountains&mdash;average trapper's catch, only one to three a
-year; Okanogan Valley and northeastern edge of Cascades, not
-common&mdash;average trapper's catch is six to ten a year, occasional
-trappers catching as many as 35; Columbia, Kettle River,
-and other valleys in northeastern Washington, uncommon, a few
-records only; Columbian Plateau, fairly common&mdash;average professional
-trapper's yearly catch includes 10 to 20 badgers; southeastern
-Washington, now rare because of overtrapping, formerly common.</p>
-
-<p>Trappers state that the badgers taken in northeastern Washington
-are usually classified as "hair badger" by fur buyers and bring
-only a dollar or two. The badgers of the eastern Cascades are "fur"
-badgers but do not bring top prices. The badgers of the Columbian
-Plateau bring the best prices. Seemingly some geographic variation
-exists among badgers in Washington. Those from the more humid
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>
-areas of northeastern Washington and the eastern Cascades are
-darker and bring poorer prices than the paler "silver" badgers of
-the more open desert areas.</p>
-
-<p>The principal food of the badger in Washington seems to be
-ground squirrels, <i>Citellus washingtoni</i>, <i>townsendii</i>, <i>columbianus</i>, or
-<i>saturatus</i>, depending on locality. Pocket mice, gophers, and other
-mammals are also eaten, as are grasshoppers, sword-tailed crickets,
-other insects, and birds.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Young of badgers number 3 to 5 and are born in late April, May,
-or early June.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Vulpes fulva cascadensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Red fox</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vulpes cascadensis</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Washington Acad. Sci., 2:665, December 28, 1900.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Vulpes fulvus cascadensis</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:281, August 29, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington, by P.
-Schmid on March 3, 1898; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Skull heavy, narrow; color yellowish.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from Crater Lake, Klamath County, Oregon, measures:
-total length 1113; length of tail 441; hind foot 180; ear 112; weight 9
-pounds.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From Trout Lake northward, through the higher Cascades,
-to Loomis (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 13).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The red fox of the Cascades is large and measures
-about 4 feet in total length, of which the tail comprises 15 inches.
-The body is slender and doglike; the legs long and slim; the tail
-thick and bushy, and the ears are large and erect. In the red phase
-the red fox of the Cascades is distinctly more yellowish than the
-red fox of the eastern United States; the head is especially yellow.
-The body has more red on the shoulder area than posteriorly, and
-is darkest on the rump. The tail is rather pale with a dusky, not
-black, area distally and a white tip. The ears are dusky. The lower
-legs and feet are black. The throat, chest and underparts are white.
-The "cross" phase, according to <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> (1938: 202-206), is rather
-common in the Cascades. In cross foxes the color is darker, brown
-rather than yellowish, and the area from the nape of the neck back
-between the shoulders, including a bar across the shoulders, is deep
-blackish or grayish brown. In a pelt that is stretched out a cross is
-formed by the dark areas. The black and silver phases of the red
-fox are also said by <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> to be relatively common in the Cascades,
-constituting 48 per cent of the population. Of 3,163 foxes traded
-at Fort Colville, in northeastern Washington, only 19 per cent were
-silver or cross. One fox, trapped in Okanogan County, is said by
-its captor to have been black above and straw colored beneath, with
-no white on the body.</p>
-
-<p>Red foxes range from Alaska and northern Canada well southward
-into the United States. Related forms occur in Eurasia.</p>
-
-<p>The red fox of Washington is an alpine animal, ranging at or
-slightly below timber-line. Here food is abundant in summer and
-fall but must be scarce in winter. In winter its habitat is difficult
-for man to reach and few persons penetrate the dangerous terrain
-where the fox lives. A few professional trappers regularly catch
-foxes in the Cascades but know little of their habits.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The feces of red foxes examined by <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> on Mt.
-Rainier contained remains of insects and berries (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>,
-1927: 43).</p>
-
-<p>The red fox is rare in Washington; it lives in inaccessible territory
-and its fur is not especially valuable. The animal is of relatively
-little economic importance.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The brood den of a red fox found by <a href="#p_Livezey">Livezey</a> and Evendan (1943:
-500) near Corvallis, Oregon, was two-thirds of the way up a 300-foot
-hill in a strip of oaks (<i>Quercus garryana</i>). Well-packed trails led
-to an entrance concealed in poison oak (<i>Rhus diversiloba</i>). Remains
-of a turkey, 5 ground squirrels, and a jack rabbit were found near
-the den. The entrance was 8 inches wide and 15 inches high. The
-tunnel tapered to 5 inches in diameter and was 47 feet long. Seven
-pups, 4 males and 3 females, were found in the den.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_68"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_226.jpg" alt="Fig. 68." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the red fox in Washington. A. <i>Vulpes fulva cascadensis.</i>
-    B. <i>Vulpes fulva macroura.</i> (See p. 450.)</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Canis latrans&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Say</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Coyote</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The coyote is a large carnivore, about the size and
-general proportions of a small collie dog but with bushier tail, and
-more slender body. Adults measure about four feet in length, of
-which the tail comprises a fourth. Adult males weigh about 30
-pounds. The color is somewhat variable, yellowish, buffy, or
-grayish. The muzzle and backs of the ears are more reddish, and
-the legs brown. The tail is yellowish gray with a dusky tip. The
-throat, chest and underparts are white.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_69"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_227.jpg" alt="Fig. 69." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>&nbsp;
-    Coyote (<i>Canis latrans lestes</i>), in trap, 5 miles southeast of McKenna,
-    Washington, April 10, 1924. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by G.
-    R. Bach, No. 26901.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The coyote ranges from Alaska southward, over western North
-America, to Central America.</p>
-
-<p>At the present time the coyote ranges over almost all of Washington,
-except for the highest parts of the mountains and the dense
-forest areas of western Washington. According to available
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
-information it was not found about Puget Sound or the Olympic
-Peninsula until relatively recent times. Some old trappers are of
-the opinion that coyotes did not come into western Washington
-until the timber wolves became rare there. The scarcity of the
-timber wolves seems to coincide with settlement, clearing and
-lumbering. Probably coyotes did not become common in western
-Washington until lumbering provided extensive clearings and open
-areas more suitable to them than forest. Certainly coyotes and
-wolves existed together in eastern Washington.</p>
-
-<p>It is difficult to determine whether coyotes were completely absent
-from western Washington in the early days or simply scarce. The
-glacial prairies of the Puget Sound area provide suitable habitat
-for coyotes and coyotes are abundant there at the present time.
-If coyotes were present at all in western Washington in the early
-days it is reasonable to suppose that they would have been common
-on the prairies. Yet I was told by an old trapper who had lived
-near Scotts Prairie, Mason County, for many years, that he had
-never seen or <i>heard</i> coyotes there until about 1910. Although a
-coyote might be mistaken for a small wolf, the call, as this trapper
-pointed out, is distinctive.</p>
-
-<p>The principal habitat requirement of the coyote seems to be
-extensive areas of open country. This it finds in the desert area
-of the Columbian Plateau, the open forests of northeastern Washington
-and the eastern Cascades, and in the extensive timbered and
-burned-over lands in western Washington. In summer coyotes
-range well up into the Hudsonian Life-zone of the Cascade and
-Olympic mountains. Their principal range is lower, in the Transition
-and Upper Sonoran life-zones.</p>
-
-<p>The coyotes are both nocturnal and diurnal. In the vicinity of
-human habitations they are most active at night. In the heat of
-the day they take refuge in brushy areas or small gullies. Many
-actions of the coyote are doglike, and were it not for the large,
-round, bushy tail, a coyote might easily be mistaken for a dog.
-The tail is carried in a drooped position with the tip bowed slightly
-backwards. When badly frightened and running at full speed the
-tail is stretched out straight behind. The ordinary gait is a purposeful
-trot with the head held erect, the ears pricked up, and the
-legs moving smoothly and effortlessly. Near Moses Lake, Grant
-County, I watched a coyote trot along the side of one of a series
-of small sand dunes. At the report of the small shotgun fired at it,
-the coyote's dignified trot changed to terrified bounds, its feet dug
-into the dune, throwing showers of sand into the air, as it crossed
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
-several successive dunes in full flight before turning to take advantage
-of the shelter of a draw between two dunes. A coyote
-chased by an automobile attained a speed of 43 miles an hour for
-a short distance (<a href="#p_Zimmerman">Zimmerman</a>, 1943: 400).</p>
-
-<p>I have not watched a coyote stalk game, but as described to me
-it creeps up to within a few yards of its prey and catches it with
-a sudden dash. In hunting a jack rabbit, the coyote is said to pursue
-it, taking advantage of short cuts, until close enough to seize it.</p>
-
-<p>Better known than the coyote itself is its howl&mdash;several doglike
-barks, each successive one of a series shorter and higher pitched, the
-last one ending in a long, drawn-out howl. In the winter of 1936
-the coyotes near Cottage Lake, King County, were especially vociferous.
-They ordinarily began to howl about 9 p.m., but could
-be induced to howl earlier by imitating their call. Their howling
-was a signal for all nearby ranchers' dogs to howl in reply. In the
-desert areas of eastern Washington I heard coyotes most often just
-at dusk or at dawn.</p>
-
-<p>The coyote is principally carnivorous, feeding on any mammals
-and birds easy to kill. It willingly eats carrion, even when much
-decayed. Large insects such as grasshoppers and crickets are eaten
-when they are abundant and easily caught. Fruit and berries are
-eaten when available.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Sperry">Sperry</a> (1941) reported on the analysis of the contents of 8,339
-coyote stomachs from various places in the United States, 1,186 of
-the stomachs being from Washington. The following information
-is from his report on all of the 8,339 stomachs: rabbits formed
-one-third of the food; <i>Microtus</i> was found in 7 per cent of the
-stomachs; <i>Peromyscus</i> in 6 per cent; <i>Neotoma</i> in 4 per cent. <i>Reithrodontomys</i>
-were found in 53 of the 8,339 stomachs and in insignificant
-numbers. <i>Onychomys</i> occurred in 11 of the 8,339 stomachs;
-<i>Clethrionomys</i> in 8. <i>Ondatra</i> occurred in 8 of the 8,339. Two
-muskrats were in stomachs obtained from Washington. <i>Citellus</i>
-(exclusive of <i>beecheyi</i>, <i>lateralis</i>, and <i>saturatus</i>) were found in 4
-per cent and were locally important; <i>Citellus beecheyi</i> occurred in
-84 stomachs, including 1 from Washington; <i>Citellus lateralis</i> and
-<i>saturatus</i> occurred in 50 stomachs, including 5 from Washington.
-<i>Marmota</i> were found in 1 per cent of the stomachs. They were
-included in stomachs from Washington but the number was not
-reported. <i>Tamias</i> (= <i>Eutamias</i>) were found in 43 stomachs from
-western United States and were present in 1 per cent of the 1,186
-stomachs from Washington. <i>Sciurus</i> and <i>Tamiasciurus</i> occurred in
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>
-33 stomachs. Included were 3 <i>Tamiasciurus douglasii</i>, a <i>Tamiasciurus
-hudsonicus</i>, and a <i>Sciurus griseus</i> from Washington. <i>Glaucomys</i>
-occurred in 6 Washington-taken coyotes, of a total of 11
-from the entire United States. <i>Perognathus</i> occurred in 3 per cent of
-the stomachs, and 274 individuals were represented. They were
-found in 10 per cent of the 1,186 Washington stomachs. <i>Thomomys</i>
-occurred in 4 per cent of the stomachs examined and in 7 per cent
-of the stomachs from Washington. <i>Erethizon</i> appeared in 2 per cent
-of the stomachs (135 records), including some from Washington.
-<i>Aplodonta</i> occurred in only 11 stomachs, all taken in Washington.
-Locally, it is concluded, mountain beavers are important coyote
-food. House mice occurred in but five stomachs, including 2 from
-Washington. <i>Zapus</i> did not occur in coyote stomachs from Washington.
-Domestic sheep and goats formed 7 per cent of the food of
-Washington coyotes. Calves occurred in 3 stomachs of coyotes
-from Washington. Pigs occurred in 8. Deer formed 3 per cent, by
-volume, of coyote food in Washington. A part of the stock and
-deer reported was doubtless carrion.</p>
-
-<p>One shrew was found in the stomach of a coyote from Washington,
-and two stomachs contained moles. A house cat was eaten by
-one Washington coyote, and another coyote had eaten a raccoon.
-Birds occurred in 13 per cent of the stomachs examined but formed
-only a small part by volume. Poultry formed one-fourth of this
-volume. Reptiles formed 0.08 per cent of the food eaten by coyotes
-and occurred in 3 per cent of the stomachs. A coyote from Washington
-had eaten a garter snake. No frogs were found in coyote
-stomachs. A coyote from Washington had eaten a salamander. Another
-had eaten a fish. Insects formed 1.08 per cent of the total
-food eaten by coyotes. Fruit formed 3.63 per cent. Carrion constituted
-25.2 per cent of the total food eaten.</p>
-
-<p>It is extremely difficult to draw conclusions regarding the economic
-value of any species. Much depends on the outlook of the individual,
-his occupation, the locality where the animal occurs and
-local conditions there. Furthermore it is impossible to understand
-and fairly weigh all the factors involved.</p>
-
-<p>Coyotes destroy game and stock. They also eat carrion and destroy
-sick animals, thus preventing the spread of disease. They
-eat jack rabbits which are pests, and snowshoes and cottontails
-which are game. They eat mice, which are a pest in agricultural
-areas, a benefit on rangelands where they destroy weed seeds, and
-of neutral importance elsewhere. To analyze the economic value
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>
-of the coyote, the economic importance of all animals on which it
-feeds must be considered and the "good" and "bad" balanced&mdash;a
-well-nigh impossible task.</p>
-
-<p>In any event, the coyote has been judged and found guilty.
-Coyotes are controlled by poison, trapping, and bounty. In spite of
-control measures the coyote is holding its own in numbers or increasing.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Stimulated in part by the bounty, professional trappers take many
-coyotes each year in Washington. The pelts fluctuate in value from
-year to year but a large, prime skin usually brings from 5 to 10
-dollars.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_70"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_231.jpg" alt="Fig. 70." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the coyote in Washington. A. <i>Canis latrans lestes.</i>
-    B. <i>Canis latrans incolatus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Canis latrans lestes&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Canis lestes</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:25, March 15, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Canis latrans lestes</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Mamm. and Birds Mt. Rainier Nat. Park, p. 41, 1927.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained in the Toyabe Mountains near Cloverdale, Nye County,
-Nevada, by V. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> on November 21, 1890; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Frontal region of skull only slightly concave.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from 20 miles south of Ephrata, Grant County, on
-the Columbian Plateau, measures: total length 1185; length of tail 365;
-hind foot 198; ear 125; weight 26-1/2 lbs. A female from 10 miles northeast
-of Goldendale, Klickitat County, in the southern Cascades, measured: 1105;
-280; 197; weight 19 lbs. A female from Cashmere, Chelan County, in the
-northern Cascades, measured: 1209; 410; 210; 131. A female from the middle
-fork of the Nooksack River, Whatcom County, in western Washington,
-measured: total length 1185; length of tail 358.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Suitable areas of the entire state, except for northeastern
-Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Pending a revision of the coyotes, those of western Washington
-are referred to <i>lestes</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Canis latrans incolatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Canis latrans incolatus</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 40:369, November 5, 1934.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Isaacs Lake, 3,000 ft. elevation, Bowron Lakes Region,
-British Columbia, by T. T. and E. B. McCabe on October 23, 1928; type in
-Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>lestes</i> but frontal region more concave.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from 20 miles east of Tonasket, Okanogan
-County, measures: total length 1033; length of tail 291; hind foot 163;
-ear 110.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington, west to Okanogan and Conconully
-(W. W. D.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Several series of coyote skulls from northeastern Washington
-are more variable than series of <i>lestes</i> from California and <i>incolatus</i> from
-British Columbia. The "dish-faced" character of <i>incolatus</i> is more strongly
-represented in some coyotes from northeastern Washington than in topotypes
-of <i>incolatus</i> but others are more like <i>lestes</i>. In average measurements they
-are nearer <i>incolatus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Canis lupus fuscus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Richardson</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Timber Wolf</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Canis lupus</i> var. <i>fusca</i> Richardson, Mammalia, Zo&ouml;logy, Captain Beechey's voyage of the
-Blossom, p. 5, 1839.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lupus gigas</i> <a href="#p_Townsend">Townsend</a>, Jour. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia, 2:75, November, 1850 (type from
-near Vancouver, Clark County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Canis gigas</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 59 (no. 15):4, June 8, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Canis occidentalis gigas</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Birds and Mamm. Mt. Rainier Nat. Park, p. 39,
-1927.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Canis lycaon gigas</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:272, August 29, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;Banks of the Columbia below The Dalles in Oregon or
-Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;A large, relatively dark colored wolf with wide skull
-and heavy dentition.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Probably occurred from the eastern base of the Cascades
-westward to the Pacific. Now extinct over most of its range.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_71"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_233.jpg" alt="Fig. 71." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>&nbsp;
-    Probable past distribution of the wolf in Washington. A. <i>Canis
-    lupus fuscus.</i> B. <i>Canis lupus columbianus.</i> C. <i>Canis lupus irremotus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The wolf is a large carnivore of the general proportions
-of a large collie dog. Wolves closely resemble coyotes but
-are larger, with stouter body, larger feet, thicker muzzle and more
-massive, powerful skull and teeth. The fur of wolves is long and
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>
-rather stiff. In general color of the body they resemble coyotes,
-but the underparts are less white and the legs and feet are more
-contrastingly reddish.</p>
-
-<p>Wolves of the species <i>Canis lupus</i> range over the northern parts
-of both the Old and New World. In America they are found from
-the Arctic south into Mexico.</p>
-
-<p>Wolves occurred in western, northeastern and southeastern Washington.
-They seem not to have occurred on the Columbian Plateau.
-Wolves are generally associated with the larger, hooved mammals
-upon which they feed. In Washington these probably once included
-the elk, deer, mountain sheep and mountain goat. Hooved animals,
-except mountain sheep and deer, may not have occurred on the Columbian
-Plateau in historic times, and even the deer and sheep probably
-were scarce. There was probably little food for wolves on the
-Plateau.</p>
-
-<p>The early settlers found wolves to be common and a serious pest.
-By 1900 they had nearly disappeared. In the settled parts of western
-Washington they were doubtless exterminated at an early date
-but it is difficult to account for their disappearance on the Olympic
-Peninsula. To the best of my knowledge, two wolves killed on
-the north fork of the Quinault River in 1920, or a few years earlier,
-were the last ones from that peninsula. Previously they were common
-and I doubt that man killed them all; perhaps some introduced
-disease, such as rabies, brought about their extinction.</p>
-
-<p>In the Cascade area they probably still exist in small numbers
-and in remote places. There are said to be some near Mount Adams.
-They have been reported from Mount Rainier as recently as 1920.
-Trappers state that there are a few in the northern Cascades, between
-Lake Chelan and Mount Baker. There are no recent records
-for southeastern Washington. The last wolves killed on the Columbian
-Plateau were two taken at Wahluke, Grant County, on September
-17, 1917. Only rumors&mdash;no authentic reports&mdash;of wolves
-are available from northeastern Washington in recent years. The
-reappearance of the caribou there may attract wolves from British
-Columbia.</p>
-
-<p>Any report of wolves, even from experienced trappers, is open to
-some question. An unusually large coyote often is mistaken for a
-wolf. A large, wild and wolflike dog is even more likely to be mistaken
-for a wolf.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The wolf no longer is an important element in the mammalian
-fauna of Washington and will probably never be so again. The species,
-like the grizzly bear, is nearly extinct in the state.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Canis familiaris&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Linnaeus</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Dog</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Canis familiaris</i> Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1:56, 1766.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;Sweden.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Dogs were present with aboriginal man in Washington, previous
-to the arrival of the white man. For greater detail see <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>
-(1936), <a href="#p_Suckley">Suckley</a> and <a href="#p_Gibbs">Gibbs</a> (1860) and <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1920).</p>
-
-
-<h3>Felis concolor&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Linnaeus</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Cougar or mountain lion</span></h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_72"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_235.jpg" alt="Fig. 72." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>&nbsp;
-    Cougar or mountain lion (<i>Felis concolor missoulensis</i>), skin
-    mounted as a rug; shot on Mill Creek, Pend Oreille County, Washington,
-    February 13, 1935, by Ralph <a href="#p_Johnson">Johnson</a>. Skin now measures: snout to tip of
-    tail 252 cm., span between tips of forepaws 157 cm., tail 89 cm.; male. (Fish
-    and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 66.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The cougar is a large cat and has the general proportions
-of the house cat. Large cougars measure more than seven
-feet in length of which the tail comprises two feet. Large males
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>
-weigh more than 150 pounds. Females are smaller and lighter than
-males. In color the head, back, tail and outside of the legs are
-reddish brown. The throat, underparts and inside of the legs are
-white. The tip of the tail, or area near the tip, is black or blackish.</p>
-
-<p>Cougars, often called mountain lions, pumas and panthers, range
-from Canada to southern South America.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The cougar feeds extensively upon deer and its habits and habitat
-are accordingly specialized. It is active in both winter and summer
-and zonally ranges from the Transition through the Canadian to the
-Hudsonian life-zones.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_73"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_236.jpg" alt="Fig. 73." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>&nbsp;
-    Cougar or mountain lion (<i>Felis concolor oregonensis</i>), adults and
-    young taken by Dewey Schmid in White Salmon Valley, Washington, about
-    December 1, 1937, and January 1, 1938. Two bobcats show at extreme right.
-    (Dewey Schmid photo.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The number of deer killed by the average cougar is unknown.
-Some trappers believe that a cougar kills a deer at least every other
-day while others feel that only one a week is taken. Other food
-is eaten when available. Because cougars kill deer, they are incessantly
-warred upon by hunters and sportsmen. Bounties, often
-generous, have long been paid in Washington. Although many
-cougars are killed each year they are still numerous in many areas.
-So many remote areas in the mountains are not easily accessible
-to man and dogs that the cougar, as a species, probably will persist
-for many years.</p>
-
-<p>A cougar is one of the most secretive animals in the wilds.
-Rarely are individuals seen by man. They are difficult to trap,
-principally because they are such wide-ranging animals and partly
-because they prefer to feed on fresh deer meat and hence are not
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>
-apt to be attracted to trap bait. For these same reasons they are
-difficult to poison. By using poisoned hamburger, a government
-agent did poison one near Leavenworth, Chelan County. The
-principal method of killing cougar is to hunt them with packs of
-especially trained hounds which pursue the cougar until it takes
-refuge in a tree or other supposed place of safety, where it is shot.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">A common gait is a swift, smooth trot in which the body is kept
-low and the tail droops with the terminal part bent backwards.
-A wild cougar seen near Leavenworth, Chelan County, traveled
-with effortless speed until fired upon. At the sound of the shot
-it made two great bounds and disappeared into the brush fringing
-a canyon.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_74"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_237.jpg" alt="Fig. 74." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the cougar in Washington. A. <i>Felis concolor oregonensis.</i>
-    B. <i>Felis concolor missoulensis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Although the cougar is a large and powerful carnivore it almost
-never makes unprovoked attacks upon man. An exception was
-the cougar that partially devoured a thirteen-year old boy near
-Lake Chelan, Chelan County (<a href="#p_Finley">Finley</a>, 1925: 197-199).</p>
-
-<p>The hunting range of an individual cougar is many miles in
-extent. These ranges are traveled periodically and any particular
-area may be visited regularly every few days. The cougars may
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>
-travel many miles each night in search of deer. Their ranges
-must overlap to a certain extent for as many as 12 have been taken
-from a single drainage area. Over most of the year they are solitary
-but breeding females may attract several males and hunters occasionally
-capture a female and several males at one locality. Breeding
-occurs in almost any month of the year. The young are cared
-for by the female and follow her for perhaps a year. Young individuals
-have been taken at the same time and in the same locality
-as an adult female and several adult males that supposedly were
-breeding. There are from one to three young in a litter. For the
-first months of their life cougar kittens are spotted. In this they
-differ from the young of the bobcat which are plain or slightly
-mottled and do not become spotted until later in life. Cougar
-kittens differ further from bobcat kittens in possessing a long tail.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The pelage of the cougar is short and of no value as fur although
-the skins often are sold at a good price as trophies when prepared
-as rugs.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Felis concolor oregonensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Rafinesque</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Felix [sic] oregonensis</i> Rafinesque, Atlantic Journal, 1:62, 1832.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Felis hippolestes olympus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:220, July 15, 1897
-(type from Lake Cushman, Mason County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Felis oregonensis</i> Stone, Science, n. s., 9:35, January 6, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Felis oregonensis oregonensis</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:158, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Felis concolor oregonensis</i> <a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a> and <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 10:347, November 11, 1929.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;"Oregon Mountains, or east or west of them."</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Light, rounded skull, dark color, extensive black on tip
-of tail and short, rather coarse fur.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains westward
-to the Pacific. Marginal records are (trappers' specimens): Ruby, Leavenworth,
-and Goldendale.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Felis concolor missoulensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Felis concolor missoulensis</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 24:229, June 8, 1943.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained 10 miles southwest of Missoula, Missoula County, Montana,
-by R. and C. Thompson, on December 30, 1936; type in United States
-National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;A large cougar with heavy, wide skull, pale color and
-rather long, soft fur.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington west at least to Republic (W.W.D.)
-and the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a> (1943: 229) states "Between the Rocky Mountains and
-the Cascade Range <i>missoulensis</i> intergrades with <i>oregonensis</i>." My own comparison
-of specimens reveals differences of considerable magnitude between the
-cougars of western and northeastern Washington. I suppose that intergradation
-takes place in a limited area in, and west of, the Okanogan River Valley
-in Washington.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_75"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_239.jpg" alt="Fig. 75." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>&nbsp;
-    Canadian lynx, <i>Lynx canadensis</i>, male, taken February 16, 1939,
-    on Baldy Mountain, northwest Idaho, by Lloyd Robinson of Sandpoint.
-    (Ross A. <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> photo.)</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Lynx canadensis canadensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Kerr</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Canadian lynx</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lynx canadensis</i> Kerr, Anim. Kingd., 1: systematic catalogue inserted between pages 32 and
-33 (description, p. 157), 1792.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lynx borealis canadensis</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:611, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lynx canadensis canadensis</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:160, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;Eastern Canada.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from Buttermills Creek, Twisp River, Okanogan
-County, measured: total length 900; length of tail 95; hind foot 205.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Higher parts of the Cascade Mountains, Blue Mountains and
-mountains of northeastern Washington, recorded from Oroville on the north
-(W. W. D.) to Mount Adams (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 13) on the south.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_76"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_240.jpg" alt="Fig. 76." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>&nbsp;
-    Canadian lynx (<i>Lynx canadensis</i>), catch of nine, with two coyotes,
-    taken by Lester Fairbrother in hills west of Oroville, Washington, March,
-    1938. (Lester Fairbrother photo.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The Canadian lynx weighs about 20 pounds and is
-catlike in general proportions but differs in possessing longer, stouter
-legs, much larger feet, a short tail, tufted ears and long, very soft
-fur. The pelage of the upper parts is soft gray with a slightly yellowish
-tone; the ears and tail are black; and the underparts are gray
-with indistinct black spots. The pelage is shorter and more reddish
-in summer. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> (1936: 271) records a maximum weight of 28
-pounds.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_77"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_241.jpg" alt="Fig. 77." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the Canadian lynx, <i>Lynx canadensis</i>, in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb2">The lynx ranges over the forested parts of North America from
-the Arctic south into the northern United States. It has a restricted
-range in Washington, occurring in the same areas as does the red
-fox. Although the lynx is an important fur bearer in Canada and
-Alaska, it is unimportant in Washington because only a few are
-trapped each winter. Most of the natural range is in the remote
-and wilder parts of the mountains. Here, each of several trappers
-regularly takes a dozen or more each year. Mr. Lester Fairbrother
-of Oroville, Okanogan County, regularly traps lynxes in the northern
-Cascades. They are taken in wooded areas where snowshoe rabbits,
-their principal food in winter, are abundant. In the more accessible
-parts of the animal's range, such as the Blue Mountains
-and the mountains of northeastern Washington, lynxes are rare. As
-much as sixty dollars each is offered for large skins.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Lynx rufus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Schreber)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Bobcat</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The average male bobcat weighs approximately 20
-pounds. The female is about one-fourth lighter. A bobcat has
-longer, stouter legs and larger feet than a house cat and a short tail.
-The ears are short, with pointed tufts of hair.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_78"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_242.jpg" alt="Fig. 78." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>&nbsp;
-    Bobcat (<i>Lynx rufus fasciatus</i>), two-year-old male captured as a
-    kit near Lyman, Washington, in the spring of 1937, by Earl <a href="#p_Scott">Scott</a>; photographed
-    March 9, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>,
-    No. 588.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Bobcats range from southern Canada south to central Mexico.
-Whereas the Canadian lynx occupies the boreal region, the bobcat
-occupies the temperate region. It is thought to be principally nocturnal
-but is occasionally active by day. One that I watched near
-Lake Samamish, King County, when it was unaware of my presence,
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span>
-was decidedly uncatlike as it strolled with a smooth but stiff-legged
-gait on a forest trail, with head held up, short tail erect and wagging
-back and forth with each step. The general impression was of a
-large, extremely long-legged animal. There was nothing stealthy
-in its movements. Another individual seen in the same locality on
-a later date saw me. As it bounded away the body was kept low
-and the legs were bent with the forelegs appearing almost bowlegged.</p>
-
-<p>Like many other carnivores, each bobcat has a home range
-which varies with the available food supply. The range may include
-deep forest, dense thickets and open grasslands, but country with
-considerable edge-environment seems to be preferred to dense cover,
-and rocky areas to smooth soil. Perhaps the abundance of mice
-and wood rats attracts bobcats to the rocks, but the cover afforded is
-also a factor.</p>
-
-<p>The bobcat is almost universally regarded as a predator and the
-state of Washington now offers a bounty on it. The animals doubtless
-do kill a certain amount of game, but kill also other animals
-which man regards as pests because they interfere with reforestation
-and growing of food crops. One of the best natural checks on these
-pests is the bobcat which, in certain areas, does more good than
-harm. Where doing damage to game or livestock bobcats may be
-eliminated by trapping or hunting with dogs.</p>
-
-<p>Trappers report that bobcats have a poor sense of smell but
-very keen sight. They are easily trapped. The fur is soft and
-handsome but does not wear well. Fur buyers designate the large,
-pale bobcats of eastern Washington as lynx cats and reserve the
-name bobcat for the more reddish race of western Washington. Immature
-and unprime pelts from eastern Washington also are classed
-as "bobcat."</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The difference between the pale bobcat of eastern Washington and
-the dark race of western Washington is greater than that which
-separates many subspecies. Dewey <a href="#p_Smith">Smith</a> of Guler, Klickitat
-County, showed me skins of bobcats taken on his trap-line along
-the White Salmon River, which drains southward to the Columbia,
-and over into the watershed of the Lewis River. Bobcats from the
-White Salmon River were pale and gray, and those from along the
-Lewis River were more reddish. The difference was striking. A
-very few intermediate skins indicated that interbreeding occurs.
-The geographic variation between the two races is reminiscent of
-that in the snowshoe rabbits of the western Cascades.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Lynx rufus fasciatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Rafinesque</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lynx fasciatus</i> Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag., 2:46, November, 1817.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lynx fasciatus fasciatus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:160, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lynx rufus fasciatus</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:269, August 29, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;Near mouth of the Columbia River on "Netul" River (Lewis
-and Clark River) near Astoria (<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, 1936: 269).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size moderate; fur short; color distinctly reddish.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from Forks, Clallam County, measured: total length
-890; length of tail 190; hind foot 167; ear 80; weight 24-1/2 pounds.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the Cascade Mountains westward, including the valleys
-of rivers draining westward in the Cascades. Marginal occurrences are: Skykomish
-(W. W. D.), Mt. Rainier (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1927: 60) and headwaters
-of Lewis River (W. W. D.).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_79"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_244.jpg" alt="Fig. 79." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the bobcat in Washington. A. <i>Lynx rufus fasciatus.</i>
-    B. <i>Lynx rufus pallescens.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Lynx rufus pallescens&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lynx fasciatus pallescens</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 16:104, October 28, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lynx rufus uinta</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:267, August 29, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lynx rufus pallescens</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:268, August 29, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington, by D. Kaegi
-on January 10, 1895; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size large; skull heavy with extensive crests and ridges;
-fur long and soft; color pale, more grayish and less reddish than in <i>fasciatus</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the Cascade Mountains eastward, including the valleys
-of rivers in the Cascades which drain southward and eastward. Marginal
-records of occurrences are Oroville (W. W. D.), Lake Keechelus (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and
-<a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 15) and Trout Lake (W. W. D.).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Zalophus californianus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Lesson)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">California sea lion</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Otaria californiana</i> Lesson, Dict. Class Nat. Hist., 13:420, 1828.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Zalophus californianus</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Monogr. N. Amer. Pinnipeds, U. S. Geol. and Geogr. Surv.
-Terr., Misc. Publ., 12:276, 1880.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;California.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Rare or casual along the coast of Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Adult males are 7 to 8 feet in length and females
-about 6 feet. Bulls weigh as much as 1,000 pounds, and females up
-to 600 pounds. Both fore and hind limbs are modified for swimming;
-they are flippers directed posteriorly. The body is cylindrical
-and streamlined, the neck thick and the head small. Adult males
-possess a high sagittal crest resulting in a high forehead. Eyes and
-ears are small. The reddish brown pelage is short and coarse. Females
-are darker than the males.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The California sea lion occurs along the Pacific Coast from Mexico
-to northern California and has been recorded from Oregon
-(<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, 1936: 332), Washington and British Columbia (<a href="#p_Greenwood">Greenwood</a>,
-Newcombe, and Fraser, 1918: 1-39). It is of rare or casual
-occurrence along the coast of Washington.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Eumetopias jubata&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Schreber)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Steller sea lion</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Phoca jubata</i> Schreber, S&auml;ugthiere, 3:300, 1776.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eumetopias Stelleri</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):607, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eumetopias jubata</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:113, March 15, 1902.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;North Pacific Ocean.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Ocean coast, breeding on small, rocky islets such as the Quillayute
-Needles.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The Steller sea lion resembles the California sea
-lion but is larger. Old bulls are from 10 to 12 feet in length and
-weigh from 1,200 to 1,500 pounds, perhaps even a ton. Females are
-8 to 9 feet in length and may weigh up to 1000 pounds. The female
-Steller sea lion is nearly as large as the male of the California sea
-lion. The bull Steller sea lion lacks the high forehead characteristic
-of the California sea lion, and the body is heavier and stouter, especially
-in the neck and chest. Bulls are distinctly bicolored, the
-head, neck and chest being cinnamon and the rest of the body
-darker. Females are a uniform dark brown color. The Steller sea
-lion makes a loud, deep roaring sound.</p>
-
-<p>Steller sea lions occur along the coast of Asia south to Japan
-and the coast of North America from the Bering Strait south to
-central California. The range thus meets and overlaps that of the
-California sea lion.</p>
-
-<p>Steller sea lions are splendid swimmers and spend much of their
-time in the surf. They often lie in the water a few yards from
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>
-where the waves pound some jagged cliff, retaining their dangerous
-position without discernible effort. They are curious and will raise
-their head and neck vertically out of the water to observe a passing
-boat. Much time is spent beneath the surface, presumably hunting
-fish. They sometimes leap up out of the water in an arching dive
-or may simply lower their heads beneath the surface and appear
-several minutes later at another place. They may come to the surface
-with a porpoiselike roll, breathe, and again dive. Many of their
-actions seem inspired by playfulness&mdash;a means of working off excess
-energy.</p>
-
-<p>Sea lions haul out on a number of rocky islands along the coast.
-They are slow and clumsy on land. Their rear flippers can be
-directed forward and so give them some assistance in moving about.
-When startled they are able, with much struggling, to move with
-fair speed to the water. They can dive from considerable heights.</p>
-
-<p>The studies of <a href="#p_Greenwood">Greenwood</a>, Newcombe and Fraser (1918: 1-39)
-show that the Steller sea lions eat a great variety of marine fish
-and other sea life. Included in their diet are squid, starfish, crabs,
-clams, mussels, salmon, herring, flounder, rock cod, sea bass and
-dogfish. They seem not to be selective in their food habits but eat
-the food most easily available at the time. Unfortunately this is
-occasionally salmon in nets or traps and for this reason fishermen
-usually kill sea lions on sight. The number of sea lions along the
-coast of Washington has been greatly reduced by shooting and dynamiting
-the animals on their hauling-out grounds. There is no
-doubt that sea lions do occasionally eat salmon, especially in traps
-or nets. They also become entangled in the nets, and damage them.
-On the other hand, investigations of their food habits have
-shown that they do not eat any great number of salmon or other
-important food fishes. They are a relatively harmless and exceedingly
-interesting animal and might well be preserved in numbers
-exceeding their present population.</p>
-
-<p>Until relatively recent times the sea lion was an important source
-of food to the Indians living along the ocean coast. The bones of
-sea lions are often the most numerous vertebrate remains in shell
-mounds.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The Steller sea lion now breeds only in a few places along the
-coast of Washington. They are polygamous and each of the stronger
-bulls has eight or ten cows in his harem. Fierce battles between
-bulls are said to take place in the breeding season, late in May. A
-single pup is born after a gestation period of about one year. Pups
-are darker in color than adults.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Callorhinus ursinus cynocephalus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Walbaum)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Alaska fur seal</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Siren cynocephalus</i> Walbaum, Petri Artedi Sueci Genera Pisc., p. 560, 1792.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Callorhinus ursinus</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):607, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Callorhinus alascanus</i> Jordan and Clark, Fur Seals and Fur Seal Islands of the North Pacific,
-pt. 3, p. 2, November, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Callotaria ursina cynocephala</i> Stejneger, George Wilhelm Steller, Harvard Univ. Press, p. 285,
-1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;Pribilof Islands, Alaska.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Breeds on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Abundant off the
-coast of Washington on migration.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The difference in the size of male and female fur
-seals is great. Males are about 8 feet in length when fully grown but
-the females are only about 4 feet long. Males weigh up to 700
-pounds but females only about 100 pounds. In general appearance
-the fur seal resembles the sea lion but the fur is longer, denser and
-softer. Males are very dark brown in color. Females and young
-are grayish brown. The fur seal, like the sea lion, can reverse its hind
-flippers and use them to a certain extent in walking.</p>
-
-<p>The Alaskan fur seal breeds on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. The
-seals emerge from the water to certain favored hauling-out places in
-May and June. They leave the Islands in November to begin their
-long migration. The bulls spend the winter off the coast of Alaska
-south of the Aleutians but the females and young travel south to
-the ocean off California. In the spring they start north, arriving off
-the coast of Washington in February, March and April. Young,
-rarely adults, are washed up on the ocean beaches of Washington
-(<a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1939: 43).</p>
-
-<p>The United States Government, by international treaty, manages
-the fur seal herds on a sustained yield basis and pelagic sealing by
-independent hunters is prohibited. Indians are allowed to take the
-fur seals on migration but are subject to certain restrictions. Modern
-boats, outboard motors and guns are prohibited. Indians living on
-the coast of Washington hunt the fur seals from dugout canoes.
-The weapons are double-headed harpoons with long cedar shafts.
-One harpoon head is at the tip of the shaft and the other is on a short
-fork that projects downward and forward at a 30° angle from the
-main shaft. The harpoon is thrown with the aid of hand grips at
-the end of the shaft. The seal is recovered by rawhide lines connected
-to the harpoon heads. The hunters leave shore at dawn and
-travel ten to twenty miles from land, at which distance the seal
-herds are usually encountered. The hunting is dangerous work and
-is carried on only by skilled and brave men. Relatively calm
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span>
-weather is required. The flesh of the seals is eaten and the skins
-sold.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><a href="#p_Schultz">Schultz</a> and Rafn (1936: 13-15) examined the stomachs of 41
-fur seals taken within 30 miles of La Push, Washington, in March,
-April and May, 1930. Food found included squids, shrimps, herring
-and lampreys.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Phoca vitulina richardii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Hair seal or harbor seal</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Halicyon richardii</i> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>, Proc. Zo&ouml;l. Soc. London, p. 28, 1864.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Phoca richardii</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:491, December 12, 1902.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Phoca richardii richardii</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:164, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Phoca vitulina richardii</i> <a href="#p_Doutt">Doutt</a>, Ann. Carnegie Mus., 29:117, May 12, 1942.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Described from a specimen obtained at the Fraser River, British
-Columbia, probably on March 23, 1861, by C. B. Wood and another obtained
-by Wood at Queen Charlotte Sound, British Columbia, in 1862 (see <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>
-and <a href="#p_Slipp">Slipp</a>, 1944: 374); type in British Museum of Natural History.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Puget Sound, the Strait of Juan De Fuca and the coast
-of Washington, extending at times up the Columbia River to The Dalles.
-Has been recorded in Lake Washington, Seattle (<a href="#p_Bonham">Bonham</a>, 1942: 76).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Adults are about 5 feet in length and weigh up to
-250 pounds; males are approximately a quarter larger than females.
-The hair seals differ from the sea lions and fur seals in a number of
-respects. The body is widest in the midsection rather than in the
-chest. The neck is short and slim. The eyes are large and there
-are no external ears. The hind flippers are not reversible but are
-permanently directed posteriorly. The pelage is short, stiff, and
-directed posteriorly. The ground color is silver gray or yellow;
-usually it is yellow, blotched and marbled with black, dusky or
-gray.</p>
-
-<p>Hair seals range over the northern Atlantic and Pacific oceans,
-occurring southward along the Pacific Coast of North America to
-central Mexico. Six races are recognized by <a href="#p_Doutt">Doutt</a> (1942: 115).</p>
-
-<p>The hair seal is the common seal in Puget Sound, the Strait of
-Juan De Fuca and on the ocean coast. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> and <a href="#p_Slipp">Slipp</a> (1944:
-373) estimate that 5,000 live along the coast of Washington. Hair
-seals are social to some degree but are often seen singly. In
-Puget Sound, where there are relatively few hauling-out areas,
-they rarely leave the water but on the ocean coast they emerge to
-bask on the reefs. On Destruction Island, Jefferson County, V. B.
-<a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> and I watched a herd of about 20 animals that lay on a
-reef exposed by low tide. According to the lighthouse keeper the
-reef was occupied daily by these seals. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> and <a href="#p_Slipp">Slipp</a> (<i>loc. cit.</i>,
-p. 388) report herds of up to 200 hair seals. In Puget Sound 10 to
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span>
-20 seals seem to be the usual number in a herd, but occasionally
-there are as many as 50.</p>
-
-<p>Hair seals often exhibit curiosity concerning small boats; the
-seals lie in the water with only their round heads above the surface,
-staring at the boat for many minutes. Constant shooting has made
-them shy and any quick movement will cause them to dive; several
-dived instantly when I pointed either a stick or gun at them.</p>
-
-<p>Hair seals are less spectacular than sea lions. When basking
-on rocks the seals are silent. When an observer is yet a long distance
-away the seals raise their small heads and remain on the
-alert. When they take to the water, they travel with a jerking
-motion. In the water one rarely sees more than their heads. When
-they dive they usually sink below the surface, never making the
-spectacular arching dive so typical of the sea lions.</p>
-
-<p>At Useless Bay, Whidby Island, Island County, a herd of five
-or six hair seals was studied in July, 1936. These animals played
-and slept in the shallow water beneath a high, forested bluff and
-could be watched from the bluff above. The seals seemed to
-gather here in the early afternoon. Much of their time was spent
-sleeping on the surface with the body in a bowed position and drifting
-freely. Occasional waving of the rear flippers kept them from
-drifting away. They played a great deal, splashing, diving and
-swimming in circles or spirals. Occasionally one would dive down to
-swim slowly along just above the bottom. At times one would put
-on a sudden burst of speed, apparently in pursuit of some fish,
-rarely continued for more than 30 or 40 feet after which the seal
-usually rose to the surface to resume play. Never did I see one with
-a fish in its mouth and these pursuits, if pursuits they were, seemed
-to have been prompted more by a spirit of play than by hunger.</p>
-
-<p>A young seal was kept as a pet for several weeks at Friday
-Harbor, San Juan County. It was tame and affectionate but decidedly
-temperamental. It demanded constant attention and whimpered,
-cried or moaned if left alone. It was more active by night
-than by day and made a characteristic mooing cry, which continued
-at intervals throughout the night. This habit led to its eventual
-disposal. The temper of this young seal was shown by its actions
-when it encountered strands of kelp while swimming. If the kelp
-strands held back its progress it would turn back, seize the kelp
-in its teeth and bite viciously. Never did it attempt to bite persons.</p>
-
-<p>The hair seal was generally thought to feed almost exclusively
-on salmon, but the work of <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1928: 10-16) showed this view
-to be incorrect. Of 14 hair seal stomachs examined, all of which
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span>
-were full, only two contained salmon. In a later study (<a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>
-and <a href="#p_Sperry">Sperry</a>, 1931: 214-226), only two of 100 stomachs examined
-contained salmon. Other food items were tomcod, flounder, sculpin,
-herring, shiner, hake, skate, blenny, unidentified fish, squid, octopus,
-shrimp, crab and starfish. In spite of <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>'s work, hair seals
-are killed at every opportunity by fisherman and boatman. Bounties
-were paid on their scalps for many years, and more than 1,000
-bounties were paid for each of several years previous to 1930.
-Their small, round heads bobbing on the waves offer a poor target
-and many seals, after having been fired at, become extremely shy.
-They seem to be holding their own in numbers at the present time.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> and <a href="#p_Slipp">Slipp</a> (1944: 401) found that the young were born
-in late May along the ocean coast and in June and July in Puget
-Sound. The young seal mentioned as having been kept captive
-at Friday Harbor was obtained from an Indian on July 26, 1938,
-and was said to be two weeks old at the time. The Indian said that
-he had watched the birth of the young and then killed the mother
-for bounty. On July 28 the young seal weighed approximately 20
-pounds and was in good health. The seal could swim well. It
-was said to have been born "on the rocks" at Long Island, San
-Juan County. The seal drank milk from a baby's bottle but
-refused fresh scallops, clams and fish of several species. When
-put into a large, screened box sunk in the water it at once investigated
-the other animals in the box. It showed no fear of a large
-bull cod weighing 50 pounds, or of a 20-pound skate and several
-sharks 5 feet long but seemed to be frightened by a large octopus
-weighing about 30 pounds. In swimming, the front flippers were
-held flat against the body and the actual swimming was accomplished
-by the vertically-held rear flippers and the rapid swinging
-of the hips. Its eyes were very dark brown, almost black, but
-soft and appealing. The bases of the vibrissae were thick and soft.
-The belly was silvery white and unspotted. The sides and back
-were iron gray spotted with dark, bluish gray, the whole overlaid
-with a silvery tint. The claws were long, round, and sharply
-pointed.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">When sleeping, the seal usually lay on its side, occasionally upon
-its back or belly. The front flippers were held tight to its sides
-but the back flippers were held straight back with the digits bent
-inward at right angles and laid so that the right digits were against
-the left. In moving on land the front flippers were folded into
-fists and used to push the animal forward while the body was moved
-by snakelike motions of the hips. It breathed in short gasps.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Genus Tamias&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Illiger</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Chipmunks</span></h3>
-
-<p>The chipmunks of Asia and western North America have usually
-been separated under the generic name <i>Eutamias</i> from those of the
-genus <i>Tamias</i> of eastern America. <a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a> (1940: 428) placed
-both in the same genus and <a href="#p_Bryant">Bryant</a> (1945: 257-390) reached the
-same conclusions after intensive study of American sciurids. <a href="#p_Bryant">Bryant</a>'s
-treatment is followed here. The sciurid genera as they occur in
-Washington, are listed by <a href="#p_Bryant">Bryant</a> as follows: <i>Tamias</i>, <i>Marmota</i>,
-<i>Citellus</i>, <i>Sciurus</i>, <i>Tamiasciurus</i>, <i>Glaucomys</i>. This order, rather than
-that of <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> (1924) is used here. Four species of <i>Tamias</i> are listed
-for Washington: <i>minimus</i> represented by two subspecies; <i>amoenus</i>,
-by six; <i>ruficaudus</i> by one; and <i>townsendii</i>, by two.</p>
-
-<p>Chipmunks from Washington vary in size from less than 8 inches
-in total length to more than 10 inches in total length. Some race
-of chipmunk occurs in almost every part of Washington. Their
-striped color pattern serves as a universal recognition mark. The
-somewhat similarly striped mantled ground squirrel is often mistakenly
-called chipmunk. The mantled ground squirrel is larger
-than any chipmunk, has but two dark stripes as compared with
-five dark stripes of chipmunks, and has a plain, reddish head unlike
-the distinctly striped head of <i>Tamias</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Like most members of the squirrel family, chipmunks are active
-by day and are therefore better known to man than are most of
-the other kinds of small mammals, most of which are nocturnal.
-The attractive color and sprightly actions of chipmunks make them
-a delightful feature of the outdoors. They feed on fruit, seeds, and
-fungus and eagerly eat food that can be begged or stolen from
-man. They have been known to kill mice and they have been accused
-of destroying nests and eggs of birds. They often eat insects
-and occasionally eat the flesh of mice or other chipmunks held in
-collector's traps.</p>
-
-<p>Chipmunks climb trees and bushes readily but only <i>townsendii</i>
-can be called arboreal, and even it prefers to climb on stumps and
-dead trunks rather than in living trees. All species are fond of
-climbing about rocky outcrops and talus slides.</p>
-
-<p>The call of the chipmunks is a birdlike cheep. In <i>minimus</i> it is
-shrill and uttered rapidly, but it is low-pitched and is uttered by
-<i>townsendii</i> with longer intervals between the notes. The call of
-<i>amoenus</i> is of an intermediate nature.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Young of chipmunks vary in number from four to six. Nests are
-constructed of dry grass and are placed under rocks, logs, and in
-burrows in the ground. There are four pairs of mammae, one pectoral,
-two abdominal, and one inguinal.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Tamias minimus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Bachman</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Least chipmunk</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The least chipmunk is the smallest chipmunk found
-in Washington. The head and body of adults measure about 3-1/2
-inches; the tail about 3-1/2 inches. Its fur is short and sleek. The
-dorsal stripe is black; the upper pale stripe is buffy gray; the lower
-dark stripe is rich brown; the lower stripe is white. The sides are
-pale buff and the head, rump and thighs are buffy gray. The tail
-is brownish above, yellowish beneath.</p>
-
-<p><i>Tamias minimus</i> has a wide range, being found from the Cascade-Sierra
-Nevada Chain to the Great Lakes and from northern
-Canada to central Arizona and New Mexico. Two races occur in
-Washington, both in the sagebrush desert area.</p>
-
-<p>Least chipmunks are only locally common in Washington. I
-have found them in areas where the soil was firmly packed and
-sagebrush the dominant vegetation. All were far from water. Two
-miles west of Vantage, Kittitas County, several were found near
-an old sheep corral, where one took shelter in a pile of boards. In
-my experience, least chipmunks are wary and difficult to collect.
-Many times as I crept silently through the sagebrush chipmunk
-after chipmunk scampered with tail aloft into a hole at the base of
-same sage bush, each far out of gunshot, voicing alarmed chirps.
-The extreme caution of least chipmunks, as compared with other
-species, is doubtless a necessary adaptation to living in an exposed
-situation. The open sagebrush desert is a favored hunting place
-of hawks and eagles; also coyotes, wildcats, and badgers sometimes
-abound there. All these probably find the least chipmunk a suitable
-food item and only the most cautious chipmunk survives to reproduce.
-The least chipmunk has been timed at a speed of 10 miles
-per hour (<a href="#p_Cottam">Cottam</a> and Williams, 1943: 262).</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The food of the least chipmunk in eastern Washington is almost
-entirely seeds of the annuals that flourish briefly in the spring. Insects
-probably are eaten and one specimen had the remains of two
-scorpions in its stomach.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Tamias minimus scrutator&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and Hatfield)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias minimus pictus</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 52:39, November 30, 1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias minimus scrutator</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and Hatfield, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 40:321, February
-12, 1934.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08 pmb1">
-<i>Tamias minimus scrutator</i> <a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a>, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat.
-Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_80"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_253.jpg" alt="Fig. 80." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the least chipmunk in Washington. A. <i>Tamias minimus
-    scrutator.</i> B. <i>Tamias minimus grisescens.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained near Blanco Mountain, 10500 ft. elevation, Mono County,
-California, by J. <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a> on July 28, 1917; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Buffy color; wide dark stripes and narrow pale stripes.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male and a female from Sunnyside, Yakima County,
-measure respectively; total length 186, 186; length of tail 81, 82; hind foot 31,
-31; ear 9, 10.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The sagebrush areas west of the Columbia River. Present in
-scattered and widely separated areas, ranging, according to <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1929: 41),
-north to Ellensburg and south to Wiley City.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2">This species is a member of the Great Basin Fauna that entered the state
-from Oregon. The population in Washington is now isolated north and west
-of the Columbia River but seems not to differ from least chipmunks from
-Oregon and Nevada.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Tamias minimus grisescens&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias minimus grisescens</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Jour. Mamm., 6:52, February 9, 1925.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias minimus grisescens</i> <a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a>, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat.
-Hist., p. 431, June 8, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Farmer, Douglas County, Washington, by J. A. Loring,
-on July 31, 1897; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>scrutator</i> but smaller; more grayish, less buffy
-in color, dark stripes narrower and pale stripes wider.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Seven topotypes and near topotypes average: Total length
-177; length of tail 78.7; hind foot 26.8; ear 10.6.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from the Columbian Plateau. This race is rare
-and though we hunted for it in localities where specimens have been collected,
-including the type locality, it was found but twice. Ranchers living in the area
-know the chipmunk but see individuals only occasionally. Marginal occurrences
-are Douglas (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1929: 41), Vantage (V. B. S.) and Pasco (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>,
-1929: 41).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The geographic range of this race is separated from that of
-<i>scrutator</i> by the Columbia River and many miles of country uninhabited by
-chipmunks of this species.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Tamias amoenus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Yellow-pine chipmunk</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The yellow-pine chipmunk resembles the least chipmunk
-but is larger. The underside of the tail is more ochraceous,
-less yellowish. The color of the sides varies considerably in the
-various races. The stripes are narrow and sharply delineated, the
-dorsal one being black. Next lower is a grayish stripe, followed by
-one of brownish black. The lower stripe is white. The underparts,
-in most races, are white but in <i>luteiventris</i> are buffy.</p>
-
-<p>The geographic range of the species is west of the Great Plains
-from central British Columbia to central California. There are
-twelve races, six of them occurring in Washington.</p>
-
-<p>The yellow-pine chipmunk is a small animal, being but little
-larger than the least chipmunk, and much smaller than <i>townsendii</i>.
-Externally it may be separated from the Townsend chipmunk by
-its small size, sleek, appressed pelage and brighter color. Separation
-from <i>minimus</i> is more difficult but, in the Washington races of
-<i>minimus</i>, the colored fur of the underside of the tail is pale yellowish
-while in <i>amoenus</i> it is more ochraceous or buffy. So far as is
-known, the two species do not occur together in Washington.</p>
-
-<p>The yellow-pine chipmunks live in open woods, brushy areas,
-clearings, and rocky outcrops. Suitable conditions are abundant
-in mountainous areas and the distribution of mountain ranges affects
-the distribution of these chipmunks. Where yellow pine forests
-descend to relatively low altitudes, the chipmunks enter the lowlands.
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span>
-Such conditions are present in some places along the eastern
-base of the Cascades, the inter-mountain river valleys of northeastern
-Washington, and along the central-eastern border of the
-state.</p>
-
-<p>Yellow-pine chipmunks are sprightly and active. They seem
-always to be moving restlessly about, running, investigating for food,
-and watching for enemies. They are far tamer than the least chipmunks,
-usually allowing the observer to approach within twenty
-feet or closer. Some, after coaxing, will take food from a person's
-hand.</p>
-
-<p>Near Stevens Pass, King County, numbers of <i>Tamias townsendii
-cooperi</i> and <i>Tamias amoenus ludibundus</i>, apparently on good terms,
-were feeding together on blue huckleberries which grew in abundance
-on an extensive snowslide area. The yellow-pine chipmunks
-had been drawn from surrounding open areas by the berries, while
-the Townsend chipmunks had been attracted from the forest by
-the same food. The nervous movements of <i>amoenus</i> contrasted
-strongly with the more sedate behavior of <i>townsendii</i>. At the observer's
-close approach the yellow-pine chipmunks went scampering
-off through the brush and tangles of logs and branches, to emerge
-again and watch from a hundred feet away. The same individuals,
-when repeatedly followed, always remained in sight. Most of the
-Townsend chipmunks, when frightened, ran into the nearest dense
-cover and vanished, not to appear again. A goodly number, perhaps
-ten per cent, climbed high up in fir trees. None of the yellow-pine
-chipmunks took refuge in trees.</p>
-
-<p>The yellow-pine chipmunk is usually found at considerable altitude
-and consequently there is deep snow and bitter cold in winter
-where it lives. Hibernation is probably complete. Seemingly these
-chipmunks depend on stored food rather than on accumulated fat
-to tide them over the winter, for animals collected in autumn are
-no fatter than those taken in the spring. <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> (1936B: 290) found
-that <i>Tamias a. canicaudus</i>, hibernating in captivity at Pullman,
-Whitman County, awoke at intervals to eat stored food. The time
-of retirement of yellow-pine chipmunks for the winter seems to coincide
-with the coming of winter weather. In mid-November of
-one year, when no snow had yet fallen in the Cascades, yellow-pine
-chipmunks were common near Stevens Pass, although their actions
-were noticeably slow. In another autumn, when the winter snows
-came early, I looked in vain for chipmunks in October where they
-had been common earlier. George C. Cantwell noted a yellow-pine
-chipmunk at Republic, Ferry County, on November 9, 1903, after
-the ground was "well frozen," but apparently free of snow (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>,
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span>
-1929: 7). Like other species that hibernate, they, at times, seem to
-become active in winter; J. B. Flett reported seeing a yellow-pine
-chipmunk at Longmire, Mt. Rainier, on February 14, 1920, and
-again on March 31 (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, <i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 7). At Deer Park, Clallam
-County, at timber-line, several <i>Tamias townsendii cooperi</i> were
-active in early April, 1938, but only one <i>Tamias amoenus</i> was seen.
-In the previous June they were abundant there and <i>townsendii</i> was
-scarce.</p>
-
-<p>I have watched these chipmunks eat the berries of the red huckleberry
-(<i>Vaccinium parvifolium</i>), salmonberry (<i>Rubus spectabilis</i>),
-thimbleberry (<i>Rubus parviflorus</i>), devil's club (<i>Fatsia horrida</i>), and
-mountain ash (<i>Sorbus cascadensis</i> and <i>S. occidentalis</i>). Of these,
-the blue huckleberry (<i>Vaccinum occidentale</i> and <i>V. membranaceum</i>)
-are probably the most important to the chipmunks. At Sherman
-Creek Pass, in the Kettle River Mountains, Ferry County, I watched
-a pika (<i>Ochotona</i>) busily harvesting wild raspberry plants (<i>Rubus
-leucodermis</i>), and laying them in a pile under a rock. A yellow-pine
-chipmunk waited under the rock and ate the ripe berries from
-each branch as it was laid away.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">A brood nest of the yellow-pine chipmunk was discovered by
-<a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1944: 274) at Hurricane Ridge, Clallam County. The entrance
-was a hole 1-1/2 inches in diameter constructed among the
-grass and alpine flowers of a meadow at 6,450 feet elevation. The
-burrow itself was 2 inches in diameter, and had a turning-around
-pocket 9 inches from the entrance. The nest was situated just beneath
-the sod, 4 feet from the entrance. The nest chamber was 7
-inches high by 7-1/2 inches in diameter and in the shape of a "round-bottomed
-flask." It was filled snugly with nest material composed
-of a grasslike sedge (<i>Carex spectabilis</i>) mixed with feathers of the
-blue grouse. Earth excavated from the nest cavity had been forced
-upwards through the sod in the manner of a mole in forming mounds.
-The single burrow was unbranched. Seven young of about 16 to
-18 days of age were found in the nest.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Tamias amoenus caurinus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias caurinus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 352, October 4, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias amoenus caurinus</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias amoenus caurinus</i> <a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a>, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat.
-Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at timber-line, head of Sol Duc River, Olympic Mountains,
-Clallam County, Washington, by C. H. <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> and Vernon <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> on
-August 27, 1897; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Small size and pale color.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Seven males and 3 females from Deer Park, Clallam
-County, average: total length 207.4; length of tail 93.2; hind foot 32.5; ear 16.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Higher parts of the Olympic Mountains, from Deer Park
-(W. W. D.) south to head of Dosewallips River (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1929:77).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Tamias amoenus felix&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias quadrivittatus felix</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Amer. Nat., 29:941, October, 1895.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias quadrivittatus felix</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:44, December
-27, 1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias amoenus felix</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08 pmb1">
-<i>Tamias amoenus felix</i> <a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a>, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat.
-Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_81"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_257.jpg" alt="Fig. 81." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the yellow-pine chipmunk in Washington. A.
-    <i>Tamias amoenus luteiventris.</i> B. <i>Tamias amoenus canicaudus.</i> C. <i>Tamias
-    amoenus affinis.</i> D. <i>Tamias amoenus ludibundus.</i> E. <i>Tamias amoenus felix.</i>
-    F. <i>Tamias amoenus caurinus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Church Mountain, British Columbia, near the United
-States boundary by Allan Brooks on August 13, 1895; type in Philadelphia
-Academy of Natural Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Large size and rich, dark color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Ten topotypes average: total length 224.7; length of tail
-98.8; hind foot 34.1; ear 14.4.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The extreme northwestern Cascades, north and west of Mt.
-Baker.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This richly-colored coastal race barely enters Washington. It
-is abundant near Goldrun Pass and Tomyhoi Lake, Whatcom County, just
-south of the international boundary.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Tamias amoenus ludibundus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Hollister)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias ludibundus</i> Hollister, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 56 (no. 26):1, December 5, 1911.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias amoenus ludibundus</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias amoenus ludibundus</i> <a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a>, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus.
-Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Yellowhead Lake, 3,700 ft., British Columbia, by N.
-Hollister on August 29, 1911; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Moderate size, brownish rump, ochraceous sides.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Five males and 4 females from the higher parts of the
-Cascades average, respectively: total length 210, 217; length of tail 89, 90;
-hind foot 33, 33; ear 17.4, 16.7; weight 50, 59.7 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The higher Cascade Mountains. Marginal records are:
-Barron (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1929:75), Lyman Lake (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1929:75), Cascade Tunnel
-(W. W. D.), Mt. Stuart (W. W. D.), Lake Kachees (W. W. D.), Boulder Cave
-(W. W. D.), and Mt. St. Helens (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1929:75).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;At the higher altitudes this race seems to be the equivalent of
-<i>affinis</i>. The latter race lives in relatively arid yellow pine forests and <i>ludibundus</i>
-occupies more moist and varied habitats higher in the mountains.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Tamias amoenus affinis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Allen</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias quadrivittatus affinis</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull., 3:103, June, 1890.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias quadrivittatus affinis</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:44, December
-27, 1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias amoenus affinis</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias amoenus affinis</i> <a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a>, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat.
-Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Ashcroft, British Columbia, by C. P. Streator on July
-3, 1889; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Small size, grayish color including rump, and white underparts.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Fourteen males and 7 females from Washington average:
-total length 201.5; length of tail 86.5; hind foot 31.7; ear 17.2.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains. Marginal records
-on the west are: Bald Mountain (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1929:73), Mazama (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>,
-1929:73), Hart Lake (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1929:73), Lake Wenatchee (W. W. D.), 10 mi.
-S. Dryden (W. W. D.), Blewett Pass (W. W. D.), 10 mi. N. W. Ellensburg
-(W. W. D.), Wenas Creek (W. W. D.), Mt. Adams (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1929:73), and
-Lyle (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1929:73). Marginal occurrences on the east are: Mt. Chopaka
-(<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1929:73), 20 mi. E. Tonasket (W. W. D.) and Omak Lake (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>,
-1929:73).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Tamias amoenus canicaudus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias canicaudus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 16:77, May 29, 1903.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias amoenus</i> canicaudus <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias amoenus canicaudus</i> <a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a>, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus.
-Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.</p></div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Spokane, Spokane County, Washington, by C. P.
-Streator, on April 11, 1891; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Large size, pale color, grayish tail, white or buffy underparts.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Thirteen topotypes average: total length 227.2; length
-of tail 104.4; hind foot 33.7; ear 14.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The pine-covered lowlands along the central-eastern border
-of the state, ranging, according to <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1929: 71), from Spokane County
-south to Pullman.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Tamias amoenus luteiventris&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias quadrivittatus luteiventris</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull., 3:101, June, 1890.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias quadrivittatus luteiventris</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:44,
-December 27, 1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias amoenus luteiventris</i>, <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Jour. Mamm., 3:179, August 4, 1922.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias amoenus luteiventris</i> <a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a>, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus.
-Nat. Hist., p. 432, June 8, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Chief Mountain Lake (Waterton Lake), Alberta (3-1/2
-mi. N. United States boundary) by Elliott Coues on August 24, 1874; type in
-United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Small size, rich color, buffy underparts.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twelve males and 12 females from the Blue Mountains,
-Columbia County, average respectively: total length 212, 219; length of tail
-96.7, 101; hind foot 31.7, 32.5; ear 17.3, 18; weight 46.5, 52.8 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington, and the
-Pend Oreille Mountains of northeastern Washington, west to Eureka, in
-the Kettle River Mountains, Ferry County (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1929: 69), and south
-to Newport (W. W. D.).</p>
-
-
-<h3>Tamias ruficaudus simulans&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Red-tailed chipmunk</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias ruficaudus simulans</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Jour. Mamm., 3:179, August 4, 1922.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias ruficaudus simulans</i> <a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a>, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus.
-Nat. Hist., p. 434, June 8, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Coeur d'Alene, Kootenai County, Idaho, by C. P.
-Streator on June 1, 1891.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Six males and 3 females from northeastern Washington
-average: total length 234; length of tail 109; hind foot 31.6; ear 18.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington, reported from Pend Oreille,
-Stevens and Ferry counties by <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1929: 98).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The red-tailed chipmunk closely resembles <i>Tamias
-amoenus</i>. From <i>T. a. luteiventris</i> and <i>T. a. canicaudus</i> it differs
-principally in larger size, wider brain case and especially in its pure
-white underparts. From <i>T. a. affinis</i> it differs in richer coloration,
-especially the brownish rather than gray rump. The differences
-separating it from <i>amoenus</i> are slight, and only adult specimens
-can be identified in the field.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>According to <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1929: 81) this species occurs in northern
-Idaho, western Montana, northeastern Washington, southeastern
-British Columbia and extreme southwestern Alberta. Two subspecies
-are recognized, only one of which occurs in Washington.</p>
-
-<p>A number of large, white-bellied chipmunks have been taken in
-northeastern Washington that answer well to the description of <i>ruficaudus</i>.
-Also, there are a number of specimens that I cannot definitely
-identify as either <i>amoenus</i> or <i>ruficaudus</i>. Some buff-bellied
-chipmunks from Idaho are as large, and possess brain cases as wide,
-as specimens from Washington unhesitatingly called <i>ruficaudus</i>,
-while some white-bellied individuals match <i>amoenus luteiventris</i> in
-all other characters. When all the specimens available from Pend
-Oreille, Stevens and Ferry counties are separated into <i>amoenus</i> and
-<i>ruficaudus</i> and the skulls are examined, it is noticeable that all the
-<i>ruficaudus</i> are old, fully adult animals and that most of the <i>amoenus</i>
-are younger, showing less wear on the teeth. Perhaps the buffy
-underparts are lost with increasing age.</p>
-
-<p>This leads to the suspicion that <i>ruficaudus</i>, as applied to chipmunks
-in Washington, is a synonym of <i>amoenus</i>. Until considerable
-material is collected in northeastern Washington, showing individual
-and age variation, it seems best to retain the name <i>ruficaudus</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Most of the specimens referable to <i>ruficaudus</i> were taken in talus
-slides high in the Pend Oreille Mountains. A smaller series was
-collected at a lower altitude in open pine forests near Pend Oreille
-Lakes, Stevens County. I could detect no difference between
-<i>amoenus</i> and <i>ruficaudus</i> in habitat or habits.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Tamias townsendii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Bachman</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Townsend chipmunk</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The Townsend chipmunk is the largest of the chipmunks
-that occur in Washington. Head and body measure about
-5-1/2 inches; the tail about 4-1/2 inches. The fur of the Townsend
-chipmunk is more lax and less sleek than that of other species. The
-upper parts are duller and darker ochraceous. Stripes are wide and
-not sharply delineated. The dark stripes are deep chestnut or blackish.
-The upper pale stripe is pale buffy gray; the lower is whitish.
-The tail is blackish frosted with white above and rich ochraceous
-below. Underparts are dull white.</p>
-
-<p>The Townsend chipmunk ranges from the Fraser River in southern
-British Columbia through western Washington and Oregon, to
-central California. Like other members of the Pacific Coastal
-Fauna which extend southward to California, its geographic range
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span>
-extends farther inland to the south and geographic variation is
-greater; 3 races are listed by <a href="#p_Johnson">Johnson</a> (1943: 114) in California.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The Townsend chipmunk is the largest and darkest chipmunk in
-Washington. Over much of its range it is the only chipmunk found
-although in some mountainous areas both <i>townsendii</i> and <i>amoenus</i>
-occur together. The larger size and richer coloration, especially the
-rich tawny color of the underside of the tail, separate Townsend
-chipmunks from <i>amoenus</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_82"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_261.jpg" alt="Fig. 82." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>&nbsp;
-    Townsend chipmunk (<i>Tamias townsendii cooperi</i>), captured on
-    Goat Creek, 3,000 feet, western Cascade Mountains near Chinook Pass, Washington,
-    September 16, 1940, by Earl J. <a href="#p_Larrison">Larrison</a>; photographed February 1,
-    1941. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 1139.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Townsend chipmunks are closely associated with the coniferous
-forest where they live in clearings and tangles of underbrush such
-as on steep hillsides, fire slashings, snowslide areas or mountain
-glades. Though capable of swift movement, they are less nervous
-and active than other chipmunks. Rarely are they as abundant,
-even locally, as other species, and the home range of an individual
-seems to be larger than that of an <i>amoenus</i> or a <i>minimus</i>. Rarely
-are more than two seen in a locality. Their more sedentary habits
-make them less conspicuous than other species. In the fall, when
-berries are dried out and seeds are ripe, they are most often seen.
-The Townsend chipmunk seems to be the most arboreal species found
-in Washington and individuals are not uncommonly seen in trees.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The brushy cover inhabited by Townsend chipmunks protects
-them from most hawks while their diurnal habits prevent owls from
-feeding on them. Predatory mammals probably constitute their
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span>
-greatest menace. A weasel (<i>Mustela frenata</i>) was seen to follow
-a Townsend chipmunk into a pile of timbers near Cottage Lake,
-King County, and another was seen carrying a dead Townsend chipmunk
-at Stevens Pass, King County. Tracks around an area of
-blood and fur showed where a mink (<i>Mustela vison</i>) had killed a
-Townsend chipmunk near Cottage Lake, King County.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_83"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_262.jpg" alt="Fig. 83." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the Townsend chipmunk in Washington. A. <i>Tamias
-    townsendii townsendii.</i> B. <i>Tamias townsendii cooperi.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb2"><a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1944: 278) discovered the brood nest of a Townsend chipmunk
-on Hurricane Ridge, Clallam County, 4,500 feet elevation.
-The burrow was in a cool, damp area among surface runs of moles
-(<i>Scapanus</i>), and led to an underground nest among the roots of a
-tree. The nest was formed of the gray, moss-like lichen (<i>Usnea</i>),
-lined within with sedge leaves (<i>Carex spectabilis</i>) and covered outside
-with leaves of the same sedge. A turning-about chamber was
-constructed near the entrance. The burrow was single and not
-branched. Three young, only two or three days old, were in the nest.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Tamias townsendii townsendii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Bachman</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias townsendii</i> Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 (pt. 1):68, 1839.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias quadrivittatus townsendii</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 16:290, 1874.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias asiaticus</i> var. <i>townsendii</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Monog. N. Amer. Rodentia, Rept. U. S. Geol.
-Surv. Terr., 11:794, 1877.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias townsendii</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:195, July 1, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Lectotype obtained near the lower mouth of the Willamette River,
-Multnomah County, Oregon, by J. K. <a href="#p_Townsend">Townsend</a> in 1834; in Philadelphia
-Academy of Natural Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial Characters.</i>&mdash;Color of sides rich tawny; dark stripes black or dark
-brown, and pale stripes cinnamon; underside of tail tawny.</p>
-
-<p><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Fifteen males and 10 females from western Washington
-average, respectively: total length 254.7, 258.6; length of tail 116, 122; hind
-foot 36.7, 37.1; ear 20.5, 20.4; weight 72, 81.2 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The humid coastal belt of western Washington, from the
-western base of the Cascade Mountains to the Pacific, exclusive of the Olympic
-Mountains. When A. H. <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> revised the chipmunks in 1929, he employed
-a concept of a subspecies different from the writer's own. The locality records
-listed by <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1929: 109-112) for <i>Tamias townsendii townsendii</i> and <i>T. t.
-cooperi</i> are not in agreement with <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>'s own distribution map (<i>op. cit.</i>:
-107). When the localities listed by <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> are plotted on a map of Washington,
-the ranges of the two races overlap in some critical areas. Not all of
-the material examined by <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> was seen by the writer, and, consequently,
-the ranges shown in Fig. 83 are plotted, in part, on geographic grounds.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2">Marginal localities on the east, so plotted, for <i>T. t. townsendii</i>, are: Hamilton
-(U. S. N. M.), 5 mi. E. Monroe (W. W. D.), Redmond (W. W. D.), Roy
-(U. S. N. M.), and Vancouver (U. S. N. M.).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Tamias townsendii cooperi&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias cooperi</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:334, 1855.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias townsendii</i> var. <i>cooperi</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 737, 1857.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias cooperi</i> Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 50:89, June 27, 1907.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eutamias townsendii cooperi</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Jour. Mamm., 3:184, August 4, 1922.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Cotypes obtained at Klickitat Pass, 4,500 ft., Skamania County,
-Washington, by J. S. Cooper in July, 1853; in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial Characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>T. t. townsendii</i> but paler with pale stripes
-whitish rather than cinnamon.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Ten males and 10 females from the Cascades average, respectively:
-total length 246.4, 246.8; length of tail 111.7, 107.6; hind foot 35,
-35.4; ear 20, 20; weight 77, 89.9 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The higher and eastern Cascade Mountains and the Olympic
-Mountains. Marginal localities along the Cascades probably include: Swamp
-Creek (U. S. N. M.), Index (W. S. C.), North Bend (U. S. N. M.), Mt. St.
-Helens (U. S. N. M.), and Yacolt (M. V. Z.).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Marmota monax petrensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Woodchuck</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Marmota monax petrensis</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 37:33, April 7, 1915.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Revelstoke, British Columbia, by W. Spreadborough on
-May 12, 1890; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1915: 33) gives the measurements of an adult
-male (the type) as: total length 540; length of tail 127; hind foot 76. An
-adult female from Barkerville, British Columbia, measured: total length 505;
-length of tail 125; and hind foot 68.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Pend Oreille Mountains. Pend Oreille County. The
-woodchuck was seen and positively identified in northeastern Washington but
-no specimens were collected.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The woodchuck is the smallest member of the genus
-<i>Marmota</i> that occurs in Washington. Adults are about 22 inches
-in length, of which the tail comprises 5 inches. The body is stout
-and plump. The legs are short. The ears are low and rounded.
-The eyes are large but not prominent. The fur is rather stiff but
-dense. The upper parts are cinnamon, frosted with white-tipped
-guard hairs. The underparts are tawny. There is no white bar
-across the nose.</p>
-
-<p>Woodchucks occur from Alaska to Idaho and eastward to the
-Atlantic, extending southward in the eastern United States. <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>
-(1924: 173-175) lists seven subspecies, one of which enters the extreme
-northeastern corner of Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The habits of the eastern woodchuck (<i>Marmota monax rufescens</i>)
-have been studied by <a href="#p_Hamilton">Hamilton</a> (1934: 85-178), but the northern
-races are less well known. <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> (1939: 77-79) gives observations
-on the habits, nests and burrows of <i>Marmota monax canadensis</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Marmota flaviventris avara&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Bangs)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Yellow-bellied marmot</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Arctomys flaviventer avarus</i> Bangs, Proc. New England Zo&ouml;l. Club, 1:68, July 31, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-[<i>Marmota flaviventer</i>] <i>avarus</i> Trouessart, Catal. Mamm., viv. foss., suppl., p. 344, 1904.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Marmota flaviventris avara</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:175, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Okanogan, British Columbia, by A. C. Brooks on July
-17, 1897; type in Museum of Comparative Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from 5 miles north of Entiat, Chelan County, measured:
-total length 610; length of tail 182; hind foot 70; ear 28.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the eastern edge of the Cascade Mountains eastward,
-except, apparently, extreme northeastern Washington. Marginal records are:</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08">Okanogan (W. W. D.) in the north, Wenas (W. W. D.) in the west, Pasco
-(M. V. Z.) in the south, and 14 mi. S. W. Pullman (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1915: 42) in the
-east.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The yellow-bellied marmot is similar to the woodchuck
-but is slightly larger. It is decidedly paler in color, less
-reddish, but possesses white-tipped hairs on the dorsal surface, as
-does the woodchuck. The yellow-bellied marmot also differs from
-the woodchuck in having a distinct white bar on the nose. Its pelage
-is coarse and rather thin.</p>
-
-<p>The yellow-bellied marmot is typically an animal of the basalt
-talus of eastern Washington but occurs in mountainous areas in
-northeastern Washington. These animals are usually found near
-streams, ponds, lakes, or rivers. They wander considerably, however,
-and are often found far from water. Their wandering habits
-probably account for their presence near temporary streams and
-ponds on the Columbian Plateau. When these temporary sources
-of water dry up in July or early August, the marmots go into hibernation.
-<a href="#p_Edson">Edson</a> (1935: 68) records a marmot from Bellingham,
-Whatcom County, far west of the usual range of the species.</p>
-
-<p>The "ground hog" is often hunted for sport and sometimes for
-food. Near centers of human population the yellow-bellied marmots
-are extremely shy. Along the highways of the Columbia River on
-any Sunday in June, it is not unusual to see a dozen cars in an
-hour, moving slowly past a talus slide while eager hunters scan the
-rocks for marmots. In the late afternoon, when the marmots leave
-the protection of the talus slides to drink at the river, they fall easy
-prey to rifles with telescope sights. Near cities in eastern Washington
-yellow-bellied marmots have become partially nocturnal.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Couch">Couch</a> (1930: 2-6) attempted to excavate several dens of yellow-bellied
-marmots, but decided to leave the task "to some future
-road-building crew." Embryos found by <a href="#p_Couch">Couch</a> numbered three to
-six. <a href="#p_Couch">Couch</a> thought the young were born about March 15 in the
-Snake River area and about April 15 in the upper Okanogan area.
-The young appear above ground approximately 30 days after birth.</p>
-
-<p>The yellow-bellied marmots enter aestivation from late June to
-early August, depending on the locality and local conditions. They
-are active longer in northeastern Washington. <a href="#p_Couch">Couch</a> records a
-yellow-bellied marmot seen in Okanogan County on October 10, but
-regards this as exceptional. The marmots near Wenatchee, Chelan
-County, emerge from their burrows in early March (March 5 to
-10, from reports of residents in 1937, 1938). <a href="#p_Couch">Couch</a> (1930: 5) gives
-February 20 to March 15 as the date of appearance.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>A principal requirement for marmots is the presence of rocks. At
-Cle Elum, Kittitas County, I took a marmot from an alfalfa field
-where a farmer had placed all the surface stones in a loose pile.
-Fifteen miles east of Tonasket, Okanogan County, marmots were
-living in the stones piled by road builders to support the ends of a
-small bridge. A hundred feet away another marmot was living
-under an abandoned building. A high, convenient rock near their
-burrow serves the yellow-bellied marmots as a look-out post. These
-look-out posts seem, in many cases, to have been used by many
-generations of marmots, for their feces sometimes fill nearby crevices
-to a depth of several feet and cover the look-out rock itself.
-The glacial boulders on the plateau between the Okanogan River
-and Omak Lake, Okanogan County, furnish the best examples of
-look-out posts. These numerous isolated boulders, ten to fifty feet
-in diameter and ten to thirty feet high, each seem to furnish shelter
-to one or more marmots. Well-worn trails lead from the boulders
-to burrows and feeding areas.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The food of the yellow-bellied marmot includes grasses and succulent
-plants found in their habitat. Fondness for alfalfa makes
-them a serious pest in some areas, for their large size enables them
-to make considerable inroads on a field. Natural enemies probably
-include most larger predaceous mammals. Hawks and eagles probably
-kill their young. Near Tonasket, Okanogan County, Robert
-<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> surprised a coyote as it ran across a small wash. A shot
-caused the coyote to drop a half-grown marmot which it had been
-carrying.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Marmota caligata cascadensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Hoary marmot</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Marmota caligata cascadensis</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:17, February 2, 1914.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on Mt. Rainier, 6,000 ft., Pierce County, Washington,
-by A. K. <a href="#p_Fisher">Fisher</a> on August 11, 1897; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A young adult male from Stevens Pass, King County,
-measures: total length 773; length of tail 221; hind foot 93; ear 27.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Cascade Mountains, ranging from Mt. Baker (W. W. D.)
-and Mt. Chopaka (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 15) south to Mt. Adams (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>
-and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 15).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The hoary marmot is the largest of the American
-marmots; adults are 28 inches or more in length, of which the tail
-makes up about 8 inches. The pelage is dense and rather woolly.
-The upper parts are not frosted with white-tipped hairs, but are
-gray washed with blackish. The head is blackish with white facial
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span>
-markings, and the shoulders, legs and underparts are gray. The
-tail is dark reddish brown.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Hoary marmots range from Alaska south to Washington and
-Idaho. <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1915: 57-67) recognizes seven races of this species.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_84A"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_267.jpg" alt="Fig. 84A." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84A.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of marmots in Washington. A. <i>Marmota monax
-    petrensis.</i> B. <i>Marmota flaviventris avara.</i> C. <i>Marmota caligata cascadensis.</i>
-    D. <i>Marmota olympus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">This mammal of the higher altitudes rarely goes below the
-Hudsonian Life-zone. It is most common in the talus slides at the
-lower edge of the Arctic-Alpine Life-zone. Like other marmots, it
-prefers to live amid loose boulders. The steep talus or "scab rock"
-slides in the glacial cirques provide an ideal habitat. The crevices
-and caves beneath the rocks offer concealment for young and adults.
-A large boulder with a flat top is usually selected as a look-out.
-Well-worn trails lead from the talus slides to nearby grassy slopes.
-When surprised in the open, the hoary marmot exhibits a peculiar
-bounding run, reminiscent of that of tree squirrels. The short tail
-"follows through" in the leaps. In the rock slides the hoary marmot
-is surprisingly agile.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The clear, shrill whistle of the hoary marmot is familiar to all
-who penetrate its haunts. The whistle is remarkably similar to the
-whistle of a person. Locally the hoary marmot is known as "whistler"
-or "whistle pig." Individuals emerge from hibernation early
-in June; most adults retire again by the middle of September. On
-September 14, 1937, a young of the year was shot and few were seen
-where they had been common in June. All were shy. Only one
-adult was seen.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Large hawks and eagles commonly hunt over the rock slides inhabited
-by marmots, and probably kill very young individuals.
-Only the larger predators such as bear, cougar, wolf, coyote, lynx,
-and bobcat would be expected to kill an adult hoary marmot.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Marmota olympus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Olympic marmot</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Arctomys olympus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 352, October 4, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-[<i>Marmota</i>] <i>olympus</i> Trouessart, Catal. Mamm., viv. foss. suppl., p. 344, 1904.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at timber-line, head of Sol Duc River, Clallam County,
-Washington, by C. H. <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, on August 27, 1897; type in United States
-National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two small but adult females from Deer Park, Clallam
-County, measure respectively: total length 758, 691; length of tail 163, 161;
-hind foot 106, 97; ear 31, 29.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;This species is confined to the Olympic Mountains.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The Olympic marmot closely resembles the hoary
-marmot, and differs in being slightly larger, and reddish or rusty
-brown where the hoary marmot is gray. It lacks the blackish overwash
-of the hoary marmot. The nose is whitish.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Although the Olympic marmot belongs to the hoary marmot group
-it is a distinct species, most closely related to the marmot of the
-mountains of Vancouver Island. Its habits differ but little from
-those of the hoary marmot. It lives in burrows in talus slides and
-boulder piles near timber line. A few burrows are dug beneath logs.
-Well worn trails lead from burrows to feeding grounds on nearby
-grassy slopes and heather meadows. High rocks or logs serve as
-lookouts. The alarm whistle is similar to that of the hoary marmot.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Citellus townsendii townsendii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Bachman)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Townsend ground squirrel; sage rat</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Spermophilus townsendii</i> Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8:61, 1839.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Spermophilus mollis yakimensis</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:70, March 24,
-1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-[<i>Citellus mollis</i>] <i>yakimensis</i> Trouessart, Cat. Mamm., Sup., p. 339, 1904.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08 pmb1">
-<i>Citellus townsendii townsendii</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:60, May 18, 1938.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_84B"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_269.jpg" alt="Fig. 84B." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84B.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the Townsend and Washington ground squirrels in
-    Washington. A. <i>Citellus townsendii townsendii.</i> B. <i>Citellus washingtoni.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on the western bank of the Columbia River "about 300
-miles above its mouth" (probably near the mouth of the Walla Walla or
-Touchet river; more exactly, opposite Wallula, in Benton County, Washington)
-by J. K. <a href="#p_Townsend">Townsend</a> in July, 1836; type in Academy of Natural Sciences of
-Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Ten adults from Mabton and North Yakima, Yakima
-County, average: total length 212.2; length of tail 45.7; hind foot 33.9.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Upper Sonoran Life-zone area of the Yakima Valley
-from Ellensburg (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1938: 63) south to the Columbia at Kennewick
-(W. W. D.).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span></p>
-
-<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This race is probably derived from <i>C. t. mollis</i> of
-Oregon, from which it is but slightly differentiated. It was known
-for many years as <i>Citellus mollis yakimensis</i>. For use of the name
-<i>townsendii</i> see <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1938: 62).</p>
-
-<p>The head and body are about 6-1/2 inches long and the tail is
-about 2 inches in length. The head is large with low, rounded ears
-and large eyes. The neck is distinctly constricted and the body
-is plump. Adults are "pot-bellied." The legs are short and the
-feet small. The tail is short, round at the base but bushy throughout
-the rest of its length. The pelage is short and rather harsh.
-In color the upper parts are yellowish gray flecked with tiny, pale
-dots. The underparts are buffy. The face, thighs and tail are reddish
-buff.</p>
-
-<p>Ground squirrels occur in parts of Europe, Asia, and much of
-western North America. <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1938: 36-37) recognizes eight
-subgenera and thirty-one species in North America. Three subgenera
-occur in Washington, namely: <i>Citellus</i>, the spotted ground
-squirrels, represented by <i>Citellus townsendii</i>, <i>Citellus washingtoni</i>
-and <i>Citellus columbianus</i>; <i>Otospermophilus</i>, the long-tailed ground
-squirrels, represented by <i>Citellus beecheyi</i>; and <i>Callospermophilus</i>,
-the striped ground squirrels, represented by <i>Citellus lateralis</i> and
-<i>Citellus saturatus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>All ground squirrels are diurnal and consequently are familiar to
-man. Most species bear local names and the striped or mantled
-ground squirrels are often mistaken for chipmunks. Some species
-are destructive to crops, especially grain. In addition they harbor
-sylvatic plague. Economically the genus <i>Citellus</i> is of great importance
-in Washington.</p>
-
-<p>All Washington ground squirrels live in burrows which they construct
-themselves. The life histories of the two striped species are
-less well known than those of the more economically important
-species. All species hibernate. The striped species disappear in
-October and reappear the following March. This can be called
-true hibernation. The long-tailed ground squirrels probably hibernate
-at high altitudes but aestivate in more arid localities. In
-Washington the Douglas ground squirrel occupies an area that is
-relatively temperate and humid. They may hibernate or aestivate,
-depending on local conditions, or they may remain active all year.
-The spotted ground squirrels disappear in midsummer and sleep
-(aestivate) until the following spring, for in their arid habitat the
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span>
-disappearance of green food in late summer and fall makes living
-conditions almost as unfavorable as in winter.</p>
-
-<p>Townsend ground squirrels range from central Washington south
-to southern Nevada and from the Cascade Mountains east to eastern
-Idaho and central Utah. Five races are recognized, only one of which
-occurs in Washington, where it is confined to the Upper Sonoran
-Life-zone. It occupies the sagebrush area, being most common
-where the sage is in scattered clumps separated by grassy areas.
-Occasionally these squirrels occupy extensive grasslands where sage
-is scarce and in the Yakima area may enter pastures and fields.
-They live in colonies, often with more than ten separate burrows to
-the acre.</p>
-
-<p>Burrows are dug in dusty ground, either near sage bushes or in
-openings among them. Well-worn trails lead from feeding places
-to openings of burrows. Mouths of burrows are usually situated
-on flat ground and are surrounded by a rim of excavated earth four
-to six inches high. If located on a slope, the excavated earth collects
-as a mound on the lower side, and serves as a look-out post for
-the squirrels. Burrows excavated by <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> are described by
-<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1938: 5). One reached a depth of 5-1/4 feet at a point
-where it branched 11 feet from the entrance. One branch led to the
-nest chamber three feet to the right of the main tunnel. The other
-reached a depth of six feet at a point 14 feet from the entrance,
-then turned upwards at a 70 degree angle and reached the surface
-through a partly obstructed entrance, 12 feet from the original entrance.
-The nest chamber was 6-1/2 inches in diameter and filled
-with a perfectly dry nest of fine grass, partly broken and shredded.</p>
-
-<p>Food consists of soft green vegetation and seeds. Foods listed
-by <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1938: 5) include: <i>Sphaeralida munroana</i>, <i>Plantago
-purshii</i>, <i>Bromus tectorum</i>, <i>Agropyron pauciflorum</i>, <i>Oryzopsis hymenoides</i>,
-<i>Norta altissima</i>, <i>Artemisiae spinescens</i>, sunflower, alfalfa,
-wheat, barley, potato, beets, carrots, lettuce, and insects (grasshoppers,
-cicadas). In 1917, these squirrels were reported to have
-practically destroyed a ten-acre field of beets at White Swan,
-Yakima County.</p>
-
-<p>Aestivation of older individuals begins in late May and the last
-young disappear in early June. The squirrels appear again in late
-January, before the snow has disappeared (<a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1941: 272).</p>
-
-<p>The voice of the Townsend ground squirrel is a faint, high pitched
-"pe-eee-ep," of remarkable carrying power for so faint a sound,
-and extremely difficult to trace to its source. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (in <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>,
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span>
-<i>op. cit.</i>, p. 6) mentions also a chirping sound and a chatter of alarm
-which I have not heard.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Five to seven embryos were found in specimens collected near
-Yakima. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1941: 270) found the number of fetuses in 52
-pregnant females from the Kennewick area to vary from 4 to 16
-with an average of 8.6. <a href="#p_Francis">Francis</a> (1922: 5) reported tularemia in
-this species. They probably harbor also sylvatic plague.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Citellus washingtoni&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Washington ground squirrel; sage rat</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Citellus washingtoni washingtoni</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:69, May 18, 1938.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Citellus washingtoni loringi</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:71, May 18, 1938 (type from
-Douglas, Douglas County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Touchet, Walla Walla County, Washington, by C. P.
-Streator on May 18, 1891; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Columbian Plateau and southward into Oregon, ranging
-from Farmer (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1938: 71) and Moses Coulee (W. W. D.) south to
-Wallula (M. V. Z.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Fifteen specimens from the vicinity of the type locality
-average: total length 229.2; length of tail 50; hind foot 35.3. A male from 4
-miles west of Pasco, Franklin County, weighed 201 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;<i>Citellus w. loringi</i> allegedly differs from typical <i>washingtoni</i>
-in smaller size. The specimens collected by us from within the range of
-<i>loringi</i> are as large as those from farther south. <i>C. w. loringi</i> is regarded as a
-synonym of <i>C. w. washingtoni</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The Washington ground squirrel closely resembles
-the Townsend ground squirrel in size and appearance. It differs
-principally in color. The upper parts are brownish gray marked
-with distinct white spots, and the underparts are buffy. The face,
-thighs and tail are dull reddish.</p>
-
-<p>This species is closely related to the Townsend ground squirrel
-but its habitat is more varied. It is most common in areas of low
-sage bushes surrounded by grasslands and on extensive grasslands,
-but occurs also in sandy places, wheat fields, and rocky hillsides.
-The animals live in colonies, in some places 50 or more individuals
-to the acre. They occur also as scattered individuals or small
-colonies in smaller areas of suitable habitat. For example, along
-the highway from Farmer, Douglas County, to Waterville, a distance
-of 15 miles, a band of natural grass, 50 feet or less in width,
-lies between the road and the extensive wheat fields beyond. This
-strip of natural cover possessed about one <i>Citellus</i> to each 200 feet
-along most of its length. The squirrels were often seen sitting on
-rolls of wire drift fence, used to keep snow drifts from the road in
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
-winter but in summer rolled into bundles 3 feet in diameter and left
-standing at intervals of one each 100 feet. The squirrels had constructed
-their burrow entrances beneath these rolls and used the
-rolls as look-out posts. At my approach they would dodge into the
-rolls of wire and, unless scared, remained in the wire roll. By approaching
-carefully and overturning the rolls I was able to trap
-and capture a good series of living specimens.</p>
-
-<p>Burrows, nests, habits, and food of this species seem identical to
-those of <i>townsendii</i>. Aestivation dates seem to be the same (<a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>,
-1941: 270-279). The hibernation of this species has been discussed
-in detail by Svhila (1939: 6-10). Food species listed by
-<a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> at Wallula (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1938: 8) are identical to those of
-<i>townsendii</i> at Kennewick, across the Columbia River (see account
-of <i>townsendii</i>).</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1941: 270-279) examined 26 pregnant females of this
-species and found the fetuses to vary from 5 to 11 in number, with an
-average of 8.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Citellus columbianus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Ord)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Columbian ground squirrel</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The Columbian ground squirrel has the general
-body proportions, large head, large eyes, low, rounded ears, plump
-body and short tail of the Townsend ground squirrel, but is much
-larger. The head and body of an adult measure about 10 inches and
-the tail about 4 inches. The upper parts are grayish buff mottled
-with round white dots. The underparts and forefeet are pale ochraceous.
-The back of the head and neck are gray. The face, thighs
-and tail are reddish.</p>
-
-<p>The Columbian ground squirrel occupies inland mountainous areas
-from central British Columbia to central Oregon and Idaho and
-from eastern Washington and Oregon to western Montana and
-southwestern Alberta. It is closely related to the arctic ground
-squirrels of the <i>Citellus parryii</i> group, which are in turn related to
-the Siberian forms, <i>buxtoni</i> and <i>stejnegeri</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The habitat of the Columbian ground squirrel is varied but is
-usually more humid than that of the Townsend and Washington
-ground squirrels. The most arid of the lands occupied by them in
-Washington are the grasslands and wheat fields of the Poulouse
-country and the eastern border of the state. In northeastern Washington
-they live in meadows and grasslands in the valleys, in openings
-in the coniferous forest at higher altitudes and in parks and
-alpine meadows almost to timber-line on the mountains. Some individuals
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span>
-were in brushy places or even in forests, far from grassy
-clearings. Near Republic, Ferry County, a Columbian ground
-squirrel was killed as it ran along a log in dense larch woods. Its
-burrows were found in a tangle of brush and fallen logs. No clearings,
-meadow or grassland existed nearby. Narrow bands of cleared
-land beside roads and railroad tracks are extensively used by these
-squirrels. Where small meadows or pastures occur, this species lives
-in dense colonies. If grasslands are extensive it lives in loose colonies,
-often with considerable distances between individual burrow
-systems. In the mountains the squirrels are scattered or live in
-small groups.</p>
-
-<p>Burrows of the Columbian ground squirrel are often constructed
-in the open. Mouths of burrows, especially if the animals are living
-in colonies, usually are marked by a large pile of excavated
-earth. If, however, there is some large object on the surface of the
-ground, such as a stone, stump, or log, the entrance to the burrow is
-located beside this. Such objects are often undermined and made
-to settle, eventually becoming buried. The squirrels live under
-houses, and the yards of abandoned ranch buildings are often infested
-with them.</p>
-
-<p>The burrows of the Columbian ground squirrel have been described
-by <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1919, 1924B, 1925, A, B, E, 1926) and <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>
-(1918: 47). Two types of burrows are constructed, summer burrows
-and hibernation dens. Summer burrows are used year after year, perhaps
-by succeeding generations of squirrels. They vary considerably
-but usually are 3 or 4 inches in diameter and possess several
-entrances. The depth to which the burrow descends, as well as the
-number of forks and subsidiary burrows, depends to some extent
-on the whims of the individual squirrel and the length of time the
-burrow has been occupied. Usually the burrow reaches a depth of
-four feet and two or more branches are present. A turning-about
-chamber is present, not far from the entrance. Here a startled
-squirrel can turn about and watch the entrance and, if the alarm
-was false, the squirrel resumes its activities above ground. Nests
-are above the level of the main burrow system and thus are
-protected from flooding by rain or melting snow. Stored food and
-excrement are deposited in separate compartments. Escape entrances,
-concealed in grass and weeds, for use in case the burrow is
-invaded, are dug from beneath the surface of the ground and thus
-are unmarked by any telltale mound of earth.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Separate dens are used for aestivation. While the squirrel is in
-aestivation the entrances to the summer burrow are solidly plugged
-with tamped earth. Aestivation dens are short and may or may not
-communicate with the summer burrow. <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1925B: 58) measured
-50 such dens and found the aestivation cell to average 2 feet 6
-inches beneath the surface with extreme depths of 6 inches and 4
-feet 11 inches. Ordinarily a drainage burrow is dug beneath the
-level of the nest.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_85"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_275.jpg" alt="Fig. 85." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the Columbian and Beechey ground squirrels in
-    Washington. A. <i>Citellus columbianus columbianus.</i> B. <i>Citellus columbianus
-    ruficaudus.</i> C. <i>Citellus beecheyi douglasii.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The time and length of aestivation is variable. Old males enter
-aestivation before the females and young, and emerge earlier in the
-spring. In the lowlands, as about Pullman, Whitman County, the
-squirrels begin to disappear in mid July. In the mountains of
-northeastern Washington they are active until late August. They
-emerge again in late February or early March. <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1925B) mentions
-that food is occasionally stored in aestivation dens of male
-squirrels. This food is not eaten in the winter but in the spring,
-when the squirrels awaken.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The gestation period was determined by <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1925C: 108) as
-24 days. Two to five, rarely seven, young are born. The average
-litter is about 3.5. Mating occurs in late March and the young are
-born about the middle of April.</p>
-
-<p>Most green vegetation occurring in its habitat is food for the
-Columbian ground squirrel. Bulbs, seeds, fruit, berries, grain, clover,
-alfalfa, and garden truck are eagerly eaten. The squirrels are
-especially fond of wheat and great damage results from their depredations.
-In northeastern Washington some wheat fields are almost
-entirely destroyed. <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1925G) showed that one squirrel destroyed
-an average of more than 50 pounds of wheat in a season.
-When populations range as high as ten squirrels to the acre, little
-wheat is left.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">In Montana the Columbian ground squirrel is a known reservoir
-of Rocky Mountain spotted fever (<a href="#p_Birdseye">Birdseye</a>, 1912: 1-46) while
-sylvatic plague has been reported in this species in Oregon (<a href="#p_Meyer">Meyer</a>,
-1936: 965). Control of the Columbian ground squirrel by traps,
-poison, and shooting is only locally successful.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Citellus columbianus columbianus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Ord)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Arctomys columbianus</i> Ord, Guthrie's Geography, 2d American Edition, 2:292 (description,
-p. 303), 1815.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Spermophilus columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:39, July 30, 1891.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Citellus columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 19:536, October 10, 1903.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;None designated. Description based on Lewis and Clark's account
-of animals taken by them between the forks of the Clearwater and Kooskooskie
-rivers, Idaho.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Smaller size and paler color than in <i>ruficaudus</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Five females from northeastern Washington average: total
-length 346; length of tail 77; hind foot 48.6; ear 20.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington, from 15 mi. E. Tonasket (W. W. D.)
-east to Pass Creek Pass (U. S. N. M.) and south to Pullman (W. S. C.) along
-the eastern edge of the state.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Citellus columbianus ruficaudus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Citellus columbianus ruficaudus</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 41:212, December 18,
-1928.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Wallowa Lake, Wallowa County, Oregon, by G. G.
-Cantwell on April 13, 1919; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>Citellus columbianus columbianus</i> but tail
-redder, especially above, and red color everywhere deeper.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Restricted to the Blue Mountains of extreme southeastern
-Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This is at best a slightly differentiated race and upon further
-study, animals assigned to it may prove unworthy of recognition as a distinct
-subspecies.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Citellus beecheyi douglasii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Richardson)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Beechey ground squirrel</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Arctomys? (Spermophilus?) douglasii</i> Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1:172, 1829.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Spermophilus douglasii</i> F. Cuvier, Sup. a l'hist. natur. Buffon, 1:333, 1831.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-[<i>Spermophilus grammurus</i>] var. <i>douglasii</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 16:293, 1874.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Citellus v[ariegatus]. douglasii</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 76, zo&ouml;l. ser. 3:183,
-May, 1903.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Citellus beecheyi douglasi</i> <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Proc. California Acad. Sci., 3 (ser. 4):345, August 28,
-1913.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Otospermophilus grammurus douglasii</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:18, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Citellus douglasii</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, <i>Occ.</i> Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:15, December,
-1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Citellus beecheyi douglasii</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:150, May 18, 1938.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;None. Description based on a hunter's skin from "Banks of the
-Columbia," probably near The Dalles, Wasco County, Oregon.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male and 6 females from Klickitat County, average, respectively:
-total length 469, 480; length of tail 181, 198; hind foot 58, 62; ear
-26, 26.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Columbia River Valley from Goldendale (W. W. D.)
-west to the White Salmon River (W. W. D.).</p>
-
-<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Ground squirrels have been common on the Oregon
-side of the Columbia River for a long time. The specimen upon
-which the description was based was presumably obtained there in
-the early 1800's. Yet the species did not become established in
-Washington until 100 years later, in about 1915.</p>
-
-<p>The head is large with eyes and ears of moderate size. The body
-is rather stout; thicker than that of a tree squirrel but slimmer than
-that of the Columbian ground squirrel. Head and body are about
-11 inches in length and the tail is about 7 inches long. The upper
-parts are dark brownish or blackish gray heavily marked with white
-spots. A triangular area at the shoulders is clear black outlined
-in whitish. The head and neck are grayish brown. The underparts
-are buffy. The tail is gray above and buffy beneath.</p>
-
-<p>This species belongs to the subgenus <i>Otospermophilus</i>. Externally
-the species <i>beecheyi</i> differs from <i>Citellus washingtoni</i>, <i>townsendii</i>,
-and <i>columbianus</i>, all of which belong to the subgenus <i>Citellus</i>, in
-possessing more slender limbs, a longer, thinner body, a rather bushy
-tail that is nearly two-thirds, rather than less than half, the length
-of the body, and larger, more prominent ears. The Beechey ground
-squirrel lacks also the hazel color of nose and thigh that is characteristic
-of the subgenus <i>Citellus</i> in Washington.</p>
-
-<p><i>Citellus beecheyi</i> ranges from the southern edge of the state of
-Washington southward through western Oregon and California into
-northern Lower California. It is a western coastal species and
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span>
-reaches eastward only as far as Nevada. A related species, <i>Citellus
-variegatus</i>, occurs farther inland, from Utah, Colorado, and Texas,
-southward to central Mexico. Eight subspecies of <i>Citellus beecheyi</i>
-are recognized by <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1938), all but three of which are restricted
-to California.</p>
-
-<p>At present the Beechey ground squirrel occupies a limited area
-of Washington, which it has invaded in recent years (<a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> and
-<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, 1939: 44). However, it is extending its range and may
-be expected eventually to occupy a considerable part of the state.</p>
-
-<p>The habitat of this ground squirrel is varied. It occupies a more
-humid terrain than do most members of the genus. At the present
-time it is most common in grassy fields and rocky outcrops along
-the Columbia River. It is common also in the open oak groves on
-the hillsides back from the river valley and some individuals were
-seen near Guler, well up on the slopes of Mount Adams. As observed
-in Washington, its favored habitat is about rock outcrops
-and talus slides near extensive fields or grasslands. In California
-and Oregon, however, it occurs among other places, in scattered
-fields and meadows of the coniferous forests in the humid subdivision
-of the Transition Life-zone. The range of tolerance of the
-species is such that it might extend its range into much of western
-Washington, including the Puget Sound area. It may be expected
-to move northward through the eastern Cascades.</p>
-
-<p>Because of its limited range and the short time of its establishment,
-the Beechey ground squirrel has been studied little in Washington.
-According to <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1938: 28), this race is less prolific
-and abundant than other members of the species. Of the Beechey
-ground squirrel, certainly the subspecies <i>C. b. douglasii</i>, is less common,
-locally and over wide areas, in its range in California and Oregon,
-than are the subspecies <i>C. b. beecheyi</i> and <i>C. b. fisheri</i> in California.
-In Washington, on the other hand, <i>douglasii</i> is locally
-abundant, perhaps more so than elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p>The habits of this race in California have been studied by <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>
-and Dixon (1919: 595-807). Burrows have been excavated
-near Eugene, Oregon, and the findings published (<a href="#p_Edge">Edge</a>, 1934: 189-193).
-Burrows were dug on sloping or well-drained ground. Mounds
-of earth at the entrances were usually inconspicuous but well-worn
-trails led to the burrows. The burrows entered the ground at an
-angle of 35° for about two feet, then flattened out horizontally for
-six feet or more. The burrows were from 1 to 4 feet deep, usually
-about 2 feet. Ordinary burrows had a single entrance but some
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span>
-older burrows had two or more. Burrows branched frequently.
-Nest chambers were of the shape of a flattened sphere 10 inches in
-diameter. Frequently more than one nest was found in a burrow,
-but only one was in use at a time. Some nests were infested with
-fleas. Nests frequently contained food. Most of the burrows observed
-by me had their entrances beside rocks or oak roots. In
-alfalfa fields near Bingen and Lyle, Klickitat County, the burrows
-were in open fields and the entrances were marked by large mounds
-of earth. In actual diameter the burrows seemed smaller than those
-of <i>Citellus columbianus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Aestivation and hibernation of the ground squirrels in the lower
-Columbia River Valley seem unnecessary, for the climate is temperate
-and humid. It is not established that <i>douglasii</i> hibernates
-in other parts of its range where the climate is mild. Specimens
-shot at White Salmon in early March were lean and gave no evidence
-of having hibernated.</p>
-
-<p>The Beechey ground squirrel is an excellent climber; I have seen
-individuals in oak trees on a number of occasions. They like to sit
-on fence posts and when alarmed descend head foremost, with speed
-and agility. In running on the ground their movements are more
-graceful than those of <i>Citellus columbianus</i> but are unlike the flowing,
-bounding run of tree squirrels.</p>
-
-<p>Near White Salmon and Lyle, these ground squirrels were eating
-burr clover (<i>Medicago</i>), grasses (<i>Bromus</i>), and alfalfa. In some
-places they do considerable damage to alfalfa fields. They probably
-eat acorns and are said to eat some insects.</p>
-
-<p>In California the young are born in May and number five to seven.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">No disease has been recorded for this subspecies but a related
-form in California (<i>Citellus b. beecheyi</i>) is known to harbor plague
-(<a href="#p_Kellogg">Kellogg</a>, 1935: 857) and tularemia (<a href="#p_McCoy">McCoy</a>, 1911: 53-71).</p>
-
-
-<h3>Citellus lateralis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Say)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Golden-mantled ground squirrel</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The head and body measure about 6 inches and the
-tail about 4 inches. The head is large and rounded with eyes and
-ears of moderate size. The body is stouter than that of a chipmunk.
-The tail is long and well furred. Upper parts are buffy gray with
-one pale stripe bordered by two black stripes extending from
-shoulders to rump, and the underparts are buffy. The head and
-shoulders are tawny. The tail is buffy beneath and darker above.</p>
-
-<p>Externally golden-mantled ground squirrels somewhat resemble
-chipmunks but actually are no more closely related to chipmunks
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span>
-than are other ground squirrels. They are larger than chipmunks
-and their stripes differ in that there is but one pale stripe on each
-side bordered with black stripes rather than two pale stripes, and
-in that the stripes end at the shoulders rather than continuing on
-to the face.</p>
-
-<p>These ground squirrels are distributed in mountainous areas of
-western North America from central British Columbia south to
-central Arizona and New Mexico. A closely related species (<i>Citellus
-madrensis</i>) occupies a limited area in northern Mexico and another
-lives in the Cascades of Washington. There are two subspecies of
-<i>lateralis</i> in Washington, each with a major part of its range outside
-of Washington.</p>
-
-<p>This species inhabits mountain clearings, parks and talus slides,
-where it is most common about rocks, stumps, and logs. Its fondness
-for talus slides and outcrops has earned it the common name of
-"rock squirrel" in some places.</p>
-
-<p>Entrances to burrows are usually beside a rock, stump, or root,
-or are concealed under talus slides. A burrow excavated by <a href="#p_Hatt">Hatt</a>
-(1927) in Colorado was three inches in diameter at the entrance and
-uniformly two inches in diameter for the rest of its length. Most
-of the burrow was 8 inches beneath the surface. The tunnel
-branched twice and contained one pocket, probably a turning or
-passing chamber, in addition to the nest. "A runway surrounded
-the nest on three sides, from which there were four passages leading
-in. The nest cavity was 4 inches deep, the nest not filling the space
-available, but occurring more as a mat in the bottom of a cup."</p>
-
-<p>The habits of this ground squirrel in Washington are little known.
-Since it occupies areas that are cold and under deep snow in winter,
-it probably hibernates. According to <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1938: 32) these
-animals become fat in the fall and must retire for the winter about
-the middle of September.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The food habits of these ground squirrels in Washington are little
-known. In the Pend Oreille Mountains, Pend Oreille County, I
-found them eating the fruit of the western raspberry (<i>Rubus leucodermis</i>).
-<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> lists, as food of this species, the seeds of yellow
-pine and douglas fir, serviceberries, other berries and seeds, grain,
-mushrooms, and several kinds of insects.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Citellus lateralis tescorum&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Hollister)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Callospermophilus lateralis tescorum</i> Hollister, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 56 (no. 26):2, December
-5, 1911.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Citellus lateralis tescorum</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Check-list Mamm. N. Amer., Supp., p. 29, 1917.</p></div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at the head of Moose Pass Branch, Smoky River, Alberta
-(near Moose Pass, British Columbia), 7,000 ft., by N. Hollister on August 2,
-1911; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Large size, gray color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille County,
-measures: total length 257; length of tail 90; hind foot 40; ear 14.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from the Pend Oreille Mountains, Pend Oreille
-County, at Pass Creek Pass (W. W. D.).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_86"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_281.jpg" alt="Fig. 86." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of golden-mantled ground squirrels in Washington.
-    A. <i>Citellus lateralis tescorum.</i> B. <i>Citellus lateralis connectens.</i> C. <i>Citellus
-    saturatus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Citellus lateralis connectens&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Callospermophilus chrysodeirus connectens</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Jour. Mamm., 12:161, May 14, 1931.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Citellus lateralis connectens</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:205, May 18, 1938.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Homestead, Oregon, by H. H. Sheldon on June 1,
-1916; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial Characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>C. l. tescorum</i> but browner, more buffy and
-less grayish, mantle brighter, size slightly smaller.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Seven males from northeastern Oregon average (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>,
-1938: 206): total length 266; length of tail 92; hind foot 41.7; ear 14.8 (dry).
-An adult female from Godman Springs, Columbia County, measures: total
-length 257; length of tail 87; hind foot 37; ear 14.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Blue Mountains of extreme southeastern Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This race differs markedly from the subspecies that occupies
-northeastern Washington, but differs but little from <i>Citellus l. chrysodeirus</i>
-of the Cascades of Oregon.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Citellus saturatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Golden-mantled ground squirrel</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamias lateralis saturatus</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1895:43, April 9,
-1895.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-[<i>Spermophilus lateralis</i>] <i>saturatus</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 45, zo&ouml;l. ser., 2:83,
-1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Citellus lateralis saturatus</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 105, zo&ouml;l. ser., 6:106, 1905.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Callospermophilus lateralis saturatus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:316, December 31,
-1912.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Citellus saturatus</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 56:212, May 18, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Lake Keechelus, 3000 ft., Kittitas County, Washington,
-by A. Rupert, in September, 1893; type in Academy of Natural Sciences of
-Philadelphia.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Ten males from the Cascade Mountains average: total
-length 305; length of tail 110.9; hind foot 46.5; ear 17 (dry). The weights
-of 3 males and 5 females average, respectively: 281 grams; 259.4 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The higher and eastern Cascade Mountains from Barron
-(<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1938: 213) and Bauerman Ridge (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1938: 213) south to
-Cleveland (<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, 1938: 213) and Goldendale (W. W. D.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The golden-mantled ground squirrel of the Cascades is
-similar to <i>Citellus lateralis</i> but is larger and duller-colored. Head
-and body are about 8 inches in length and the tail is about 4-1/2
-inches long. The upper parts are brownish gray with one pale and
-two dark stripes on each side. Head and shoulders are tawny. The
-underparts are dull buffy gray.</p>
-
-<p><i>Citellus saturatus</i> occupies the Cascade Mountains of Washington
-and southern British Columbia. It inhabits talus slides and clearings.
-The rock embankment of the Great Northern Railroad between
-the Cascade Tunnel and Leavenworth, Chelan County, is a
-favored habitat and the population along the railroad probably
-averages one squirrel each hundred yards. To the east it extends
-well into the Transition Life-zone, being abundant in clearings in
-the open forest of yellow pine. In places its range nearly reaches
-the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. A few miles east of Leavenworth,
-Chelan County, we found this squirrel in chapparal and brush,
-principally composed of <i>Ceanothus creneatus</i>. Here the animals
-were unusually abundant and formed a colony almost as dense as
-colonies of <i>Citellus washingtoni</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Entrances of burrows are usually placed beside rocks, stumps or
-logs. In the area near Leavenworth, mentioned above, entrances
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span>
-to burrows were in the open or among roots of bushes. The entrances
-to many burrows are doubtless concealed under talus slides.
-No complete records of excavations of burrows are available. One
-burrow, uncovered by road construction operations three miles east
-of Scenic, Chelan County, was dug in the earth-filled cleft of a great
-granite boulder. The cleft was 5 feet wide at the surface of the
-ground but narrowed until at a depth of six feet the stones were in
-contact. The cleft was at least 10 yards long. The burrow descended
-at an angle of 45 degrees, to a depth of three feet. Here the construction
-work had passed the cleft, but digging into the almost
-vertical wall uncovered the nest at the end of a horizontal tunnel
-two feet farther on. It was a matted cup of dry grass with two
-fresh, green fern fronds lying loose in the cup. Two divergent burrows
-emerged on opposite sides of the nest cavity, but a fall of the
-loose, gravelly soil prevented further observation. The body of the
-occupant, crushed and mangled by the steam-shovel scoop, was that
-of a small male.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_87"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_283.jpg" alt="Fig. 87." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>&nbsp;
-    Golden-mantled ground squirrel (<i>Citellus saturatus</i>), captured
-    when young at Tye, Washington, by Earl J. <a href="#p_Larrison">Larrison</a>, June 20, 1940; photographed
-    February 1, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B.
-    <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 1139.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">In spite of their vivacious appearance, these squirrels are rather
-sedentary. When undisturbed they move leisurely over rocks and
-stumps, pausing often, and occasionally sitting on their hindquarters
-to gaze about for minutes at a time. They are good climbers and
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span>
-often ascend smooth-barked trees to heights of 20 feet or more. At
-the approach of danger they descend and enter the nearest burrow.
-In August these ground squirrels become exceedingly fat and by
-late September only a few may be seen, basking in the midday
-sun. These take alarm at the slightest excuse. All have usually
-gone into hibernation by October 15.</p>
-
-<p>The food includes the berries of salal, huckleberry, mountain ash,
-and seeds of lupine. Near Liberty, Kittitas County, a squirrel killed
-by a car had its cheek pouches stuffed with garden peas. The source
-of its loot was doubtless the garden of a farmhouse 100 feet away.
-Numerous individuals are run over by cars, and on many occasions
-I have found other individuals eating the sun-dried flesh of their
-mates, parents, or young. These cannibals are often run over while
-so engaged, and it is not unusual to find two or three dead on a
-section of pavement 20 feet in length.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Economically this species is of little importance. Its principal
-enemies probably include hawks, weasels, martens, bobcats and
-coyotes.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Sciurus griseus griseus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Ord</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Western gray squirrel</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciurus griseus</i> Ord, Jour. de phys., 87:152, 1818.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciurus griseus griseus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:222, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;None. Described from a squirrel seen by Lewis and Clark. Type
-locality, The Dalles, Wasco County, Oregon.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from midway between Satus Pass and Goldendale,
-Klickitat County, measured: total length 560; length of tail 264; hind
-foot 76; weight 897 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Southwestern Washington north to the glacial prairies near
-Tacoma (W. W. D.); the Columbia River Valley of the southern Cascades;
-the eastern edge of the Cascades north to Lake Chelan (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>,
-1929: 18).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_88"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_285.jpg" alt="Fig. 88." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the western gray squirrel, <i>Sciurus griseus</i>,
-    in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;This is the largest tree squirrel found in Washington.
-The head and body measure about 12 inches, and the tail about
-11 inches. The body is long and slender. The fur is long and soft,
-that on the tail being exceptionally long. The upper parts are silvery
-gray and the underparts white.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The western gray squirrel is restricted to the region of the Pacific
-Coast and ranges from central Washington south to northern Lower
-California. Three subspecies are recognized, only one of which occurs
-in Washington. Like the red squirrels, the western gray squirrel
-is arboreal. Its favored habitat is the oak woods rather than coniferous
-forest. Its range in Washington is largely regulated by the
-distribution of oaks, especially the garry oak (<i>Quercus garryana</i>).
-Altitudinally it ranges from near sea level at Puget Sound to above
-2,500 feet elevation in the eastern Cascade Mountains. It seems to
-be restricted to the Transition Life-zone.</p>
-
-<p>The habits of the western gray squirrel are modified by its arboreal
-existence. Homes consist of holes in hollow trees or outside
-nests of sticks and twigs. It is extremely active in trees and travels
-from tree to tree on branches that seem scarcely strong enough to
-bear the weight of so large an animal. The oak woods in Washington
-are usually rather open and the trees more scattered than
-is the case in coniferous forests. Consequently gray squirrels must
-more often descend to the ground than Douglas and red squirrels.
-On the ground, western gray squirrels travel in smooth leaps each
-of two feet or more in length. The long tail is held out behind and
-"follows through" the animal's leaps in a remarkable way. The tip
-of the tail may be descending from the previous leap while the animal's
-fore parts are already at the height of a new jump. This
-results in a "flowing" movement that is extremely graceful. The
-squirrel may stop momentarily to dig in the ground or search for
-an acorn. At such times the tail is immediately switched up, over
-the back.</p>
-
-<p>The western gray squirrel is able to drop unharmed for considerable
-distances. Near Fort Lewis, Pierce County, a gray squirrel
-was cornered in a tall fir tree and an agile friend volunteered to
-climb the tree. The squirrel ascended to the very topmost branches.
-When only a few feet separated them the squirrel leaped far out
-into the air. Its legs were stretched out stiffly, the tail was extended
-and the body slightly arched. It struck the ground with an audible
-thud and bounced fully 18 inches. At the height of its bounce, the
-squirrel's legs began moving rapidly, and it struck the ground the
-second time at a full run.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The principal food is acorns, although the seeds of the Douglas
-fir and probably other conifers are eaten. Four embryos were found
-by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> in a specimen from Klickitat County on March
-20, 1939.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Sciurus carolinensis hypophaeus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Eastern gray squirrel</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciurus carolinensis hypophaeus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Science, 7:351, April 16, 1886.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Elk River, Sherburne County, Minnesota.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Size large, slightly smaller than the western gray
-squirrel; color of upper parts less silvery, more reddish, especially
-on the dorsal area and top of the tail.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The eastern gray squirrel was introduced at Woodland
-Park, Seattle, in 1925. The original stock (7 pairs) came
-from Minneapolis, Minnesota. It has spread through the nearby
-woods, around Green Lake, <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> Park, and to the woods on the
-University of Washington Campus. Occasional individuals are
-found outside the city limits, but the species seems not to spread
-away from the city.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Sciurus niger&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Linnaeus subsp?</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Fox squirrel</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-[<i>Sciurus</i>] <i>niger</i> Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1 (10th ed.):64, 1758.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Similar in size and appearance to the eastern gray
-squirrel but upper parts more reddish and underparts reddish orange
-rather than white.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Occasional fox squirrels are encountered near Seattle
-where they have been introduced from the southeastern United
-States. The source and date of the introduction are unknown.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Erxleben)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Red squirrel</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The head and body of the red squirrel measure
-about 7-3/4 inches, the tail about 5 inches. It may be recognized
-by its trim body, bushy tail and white underparts. The upper parts
-are reddish gray, reddest on the dorsal area. The red color of the
-center of the back extends to the tail. A black line separates
-the dark upper parts from the white underparts.</p>
-
-<p>Red squirrels range over North America from the northern limit
-of tree growth south through the United States to Tennessee and
-North Carolina. A related species, <i>douglasii</i>, is found along the
-Pacific coast from British Columbia to California. The genus
-<i>Tamiasciurus</i> differs from <i>Sciurus</i> of Washington in lacking a penis
-bone or baculum. There are other fundamental differences in anatomy
-(see <a href="#p_Mossman">Mossman</a>, <a href="#p_Mossman">Lowlah</a> and <a href="#p_Mossman">Bradley</a>, 1932: 89-155).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The habitat of the red squirrels is the coniferous forests from
-which they rarely stray. Zonally they range through the Transition
-and Canadian life-zones into the Hudsonian Life-zone. Red squirrels
-are arboreal and most of their habits are modified by arboreal
-existence. They are swift and agile climbers, able to travel from
-tree to tree on slender twigs or by leaping as much as ten feet to
-span the distance from one branch to another. They ascend and
-descend trees head first. They hang by their hind feet, high in the
-air, to clip the cones of conifers. If cornered in a tree they leap
-far out and, by extending the legs and tail stiffly, fall to the ground
-unharmed by leaps of fifty feet or more.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_89"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_288.jpg" alt="Fig. 89." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>&nbsp;
-    Douglas squirrel (<i>Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii</i>): feeding station
-    with remnants of Douglas fir cone, Longmire, Washington, elevation 2,700
-    feet, June 25, 1937. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>,
-    No. 268.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The homes of red squirrels are woodpecker holes or other holes in
-hollow trees. More rarely they build outside nests of twigs and
-branches, about two feet in diameter, or add onto old nests of crows
-or jays. Most nests and holes are some distance from the ground
-but some holes are between roots on the ground itself.</p>
-
-<p>The food consists principally of the seeds of coniferous trees,
-especially Douglas fir and various species of pines. Cones are
-clipped when green or just before ripening and are either allowed
-to fall to the ground to be retrieved later or are at once carried to
-a favored feeding place to be consumed. Cones are held between
-the forepaws while the squirrel sits on its hind feet, tail curved up
-over its back, and rapidly clips the cone apart to get the seeds
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span>
-it contains. The cone is rotated between the paws and a steady
-stream of husks drops to the ground. Soon only the core is left and
-this too joins the husks on the ground. Favored feeding stations
-are used continually, perhaps by generation after generation of
-squirrels, and debris from thousands of cones accumulates in great
-piles.</p>
-
-<p>Cones are stored. In the vicinity of a favored feeding place, at
-times virtually every hiding place is filled with green cones. Cones
-may be jammed into cracks or crevices in logs or stumps without
-effort at concealment or may be carefully covered with leaves
-or dry needles. Many are placed in craterlike pits dug in the ground.
-Most of these pits probably are later covered over but many are
-left open to the weather. Hollows in trees are probably also used
-for storage, as are holes dug into the piles of accumulated cone debris
-beneath feeding stations. Other food eaten by squirrels includes
-hazelnuts, berries, maple seeds, and mushrooms. A variety of fruits
-and seeds are doubtless eaten when opportunity offers.</p>
-
-<p>Red squirrels do not hibernate. In the lowlands they are active
-all winter long but are noticeably shy and quiet. In the mountains
-they disappear after the snow falls but tracks may be seen in the
-snow about their dens and occasional individuals are seen. Specimens
-collected at this time are not fat, as would be the case if
-hibernation had been interrupted. Seemingly they stay close to
-their homes and feed on stored food.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The call of the red squirrel is harsher, more metallic, than that
-of the Douglas squirrel. The common call is a rolling "bur-r-r,"
-starting loud but fading out entirely in a half minute. A lower-pitched
-"pauf" is uttered at intervals when the squirrel is going
-about its business. The danger cry is a loud "pee-ee," not unlike
-the call of a red-tailed hawk but less shrill. A low pitched "chauf-chauf-chauf,"
-repeated at intervals of about two seconds, is
-occasionally given in the fall of the year.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus streatori&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciurus hudsonicus streatori</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 10:267, July 22, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>T[amiasciurus]. h[udsonicus]. streatori</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 49:135, August
-22, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Ducks, British Columbia; type in American Museum
-of Natural History.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>richardsoni</i> but smaller and darker, redder
-above.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Seven males from north-central Washington average: total
-length 330; length of tail 129; hind foot 51; ear 23.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington. Marginal occurrences are (from
-<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 17): Beaver Creek, Ruby Creek, and head of Lake
-Chelan.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This race reaches Washington from the interior of British Columbia.
-Intergradation between <i>hudsonicus streatori</i> and <i>h. richardsoni</i> takes
-place over much of northeastern Washington.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_90"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_290.jpg" alt="Fig. 90." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the red squirrel and Douglas squirrel in Washington.
-    A. <i>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni.</i> B. <i>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus
-    streatori.</i> C. <i>Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Bachman)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciurus richardsoni</i> Bachman, Proc. Zo&ouml;l. Soc. London, p. 100, 1838.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciurus hudsonius Richardsoni</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:595, 1884.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciurus hudsonius Richardsoni</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 10:265, July 22, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciurus hudsonicus richardsoni</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:211, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus richardsoni</i> <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> and <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a>, Murrelet, 21:55, December 20, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at the head of Big Lost River, Custer County, Idaho.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Color paler, especially on back.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Four males and 4 females average, respectively: total length
-339, 339; length of tail 133, 131; hind foot 54, 51; ear 24, 24; weight 256, 266.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Tamiasciurus douglasii douglasii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Bachman)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Douglas squirrel</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciurus douglasii</i> Bachman, Proc. Zo&ouml;l. Soc. London, p. 99, 1838.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciurus hudsonius Douglasii</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:595, 1884.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciurus douglasii douglasii</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:212, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciurus douglasii cascadensis</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:18,
-December, 1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Tamiasciurus douglasii</i> Holdenried, Jour. Mamm., 21:406, November 14, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained near the mouth of the Columbia River by David Douglas.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Fifteen males and 10 females from the lowlands of western
-Washington average, respectively: total length 317, 320; length of tail 121,
-126.7; hind foot 50, 49.4; ear 23.2, 22.6; weight 204, 202 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the eastern base of the Cascade Mountains westward
-to the Pacific. Marginal occurrences are: Nooksack River (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>,
-1929: 18), Lake Wenatchee (W. W. D.) and Wenatchee (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>,
-1929: 18).</p>
-
-<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Squirrels from the Puget Sound area are slightly less
-intensely colored than specimens from the ocean coast and the
-Olympic Mountains. Those from the higher and eastern Cascade
-Mountains are paler still. When, however, squirrels from the Cascades
-of Washington are compared with individuals of the race inhabiting
-the Cascades of Oregon, it is apparent that the Washington
-squirrels are nearest to <i>douglasii</i>. The pale tips of the hairs in the
-tail of the Oregon race are strikingly white while in Washington
-specimens they are orange or yellow.</p>
-
-<p>The Douglas squirrel resembles the red squirrel in size and proportions
-but differs in being dusky olive (less reddish) on the upper
-parts and orange instead of white on the underparts.</p>
-
-<p>Douglas squirrels range from southern British Columbia southward
-to Lower California. They are confined to the Pacific Coastal
-region. Although closely related to <i>Tamiasciurus hudsonicus</i>, no
-intergradation with that species has been found.</p>
-
-<p>The rich coloration of the Douglas squirrel matches the background
-of the humid forests it inhabits. It occurs at sea level along
-the ocean coast, the shores of Puget Sound and on some islands in
-Puget Sound. It ranges through the Transition and Canadian life-zones
-well into the Hudsonian.</p>
-
-<p>It makes its home in holes in trees or in nests constructed of
-conifer twigs, needles and bark. Old nests of birds may be modified
-and taken over, but most outside nests seem to have been made
-entirely by the squirrel. Nests are usually placed near the top
-of denser fir and cedar trees. Nests are hemispherical in shape, 12
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span>
-inches or more in diameter, and open on top. The central cup, 4
-inches in diameter, is lined with strips of inner bark of red cedar
-coiled but unshredded. Nests in holes are usually some distance
-from the ground, but the entrances to some are at ground level.</p>
-
-<p>The habits of the Douglas squirrels vary with the season. In
-spring they are shy. They rarely call and are skillful in keeping
-branches or tree trunks between themselves and persons. In June
-and July they become bolder, calling more frequently and moving
-about more. In September and October they become exceptionally
-bold. They call almost incessantly from late morning until early
-afternoon, and spend considerable time on the ground.</p>
-
-<p>The call notes of the Douglas squirrel are similar to those of the
-red squirrel but are softer, more slurred. The common call is the
-long, trilling "burr," loud at first and becoming gradually softer.
-On hot afternoons in late summer a barking "pauf" note is given.
-This sound is repeated several times at intervals of a minute or so.
-It has remarkable carrying power. The danger signal is a loud,
-explosive "pe-ee." Another common call is a short barking or
-chirping "bauf" with a musical, questioning sound. This is repeated
-at intervals of a few seconds when the presence of danger
-is suspected. At times it, rather than the loud danger signal, is
-given also when a person is sighted. A low chirping note is often
-given while the squirrel is busily at work. This is made while the
-squirrel is moving about. Other calls described are made from a
-standing or sitting position and are accompanied by a jerk or a
-flick of the tail.</p>
-
-<p>The Douglas squirrel eats seeds of the Douglas fir, seeds of maple,
-hazelnuts, dogwood berries and mushrooms. The berries of forest
-shrubs, such as the red huckleberry, salal and Oregon grape, may
-also be eaten.</p>
-
-<p>Two broods of young may be born in a year. The first is born
-in early June. Embryos found from June 11 to 28 varied in
-number from 6 to 8. A nursing female was taken as early as June
-10, 1938, and one was taken as late as October 10, 1938.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Douglas squirrels commonly have a few fleas and 2 to 5 ticks at
-the bases of the ears. No lice, cases of mange, or serious infestations
-of parasites have been seen.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Glaucomys sabrinus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Northern flying squirrel</span></h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_91"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_293.jpg" alt="Fig. 91." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>&nbsp;
-    Northern flying squirrel (<i>Glaucomys sabrinus</i>), probably from near
-    Seattle, in Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, Washington, January 28, 1941. (Fish
-    and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 1137.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The northern flying squirrel is slightly smaller than
-the red squirrel (<i>Tamiasciurus</i>). The head and body measure about
-7 inches and the tail about 5 inches. The most distinctive feature
-is the loose fold of skin that stretches from the wrist of the foreleg
-to the ankle of the hind leg. The fur is extremely soft and plushlike.
-It is not separated into guard hair and underfur, and because
-all hairs are of approximately the same length, the fur appears extremely
-sleek. The fur of the tail is of the same texture as that on
-the body but is dorso-ventrally compressed. The eyes are large and
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span>
-dark. The color of the upper parts varies from reddish brown in
-some races to brownish gray in others. The underparts are buffy
-gray.</p>
-
-<p>Flying squirrels range over the forested parts of North America
-from Guatemala to Alaska and northern Canada and from the Atlantic
-to the Pacific. A closely related genus (<i>Pteromys</i>) occurs in
-Europe. Two species are found in North America. The small <i>volans</i>
-ranges in eastern United States, Mexico, and Guatemala, while the
-larger <i>sabrinus</i> occurs in parts of the western United States, most
-of Canada, and central Alaska. Near the Great Lakes the two
-species occur in the same area, probably in different habitats.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1918: 16) recognized 18 subspecies of <i>sabrinus</i>, five of
-which were recorded in the state of Washington. One of these
-(<i>olympicus</i>) proves to be a synonym of an earlier-named subspecies
-but another form (<i>bangsi</i>), not recorded for Washington by <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>,
-has been found in the Blue Mountains in the southeastern corner of
-the state (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 18).</p>
-
-<p>Flying squirrels are strictly arboreal and occur only in woods and
-forests. They prefer areas where trees grow close together and to
-considerable heights. Older woods with dead stubs and hollow trees
-are preferred. They occasionally invade attics of cabins and other
-habitations of man. The old Forestry Building on the University
-of Washington Campus, later the home of the Washington State
-Museum, was inhabited by flying squirrels for many years. Several
-specimens preserved in the Museum prove the poor judgment of the
-animal in choosing a natural history museum as a home.</p>
-
-<p>Relatively little is known of the detailed habits of <i>Glaucomys
-sabrinus</i> although the life history of the eastern <i>Glaucomys volans</i>
-has been described. Flying squirrels are active all winter, even in
-the high mountains. They are often caught in traps set for fur
-bearers and, where trapping is an important means of livelihood,
-they are serious pests. Flying squirrels do not actually fly but only
-glide through the air. The loose fold of fur between their limbs is
-stretched by extending the legs. With it the flying squirrel is able
-to sail 50 yards or more. The flat tail serves as a rudder and allows
-the squirrel to change direction while in flight. Glides end with
-an upward swoop, allowing the squirrel to alight, head upwards, on
-a tree trunk slightly lower than their starting point.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Unlike other members of the squirrel family, flying squirrels are
-completely nocturnal. They are seen in the daytime only when
-frightened from their retreats. Homes consist principally of old
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span>
-woodpecker holes or other cavities in trees. They are said to build
-outside nests, similar to those of tree squirrels, but I have found
-none of these in Washington. The animals can be frightened from
-their holes by pounding on the bases of trees in which their nests
-are situated. Certain holes seem to be preferred nesting places.
-Near Cottage Lake, King County, two flying squirrels were taken
-from a woodpecker hole in succeeding years. <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> (1936B: 58)
-discovered remains of 14 nests of flying squirrels in a single hollow
-tree near Alta Lake, British Columbia. According to <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a>, hollow
-trees are used in winter but the young are born in outside nests of
-shredded bark and lichens. The young usually number 3 and are
-born in May and June.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_92"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_295.jpg" alt="Fig. 92." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of flying squirrel in Washington. A. <i>Glaucomys sabrinus
-    oregonensis.</i> B. <i>Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus.</i> C. <i>Glaucomys sabrinus
-    columbiensis.</i> D. <i>Glaucomys sabrinus latipes.</i> E. <i>Glaucomys sabrinus
-    bangsi.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Only once have I heard the voice of a flying squirrel. Near Dewey
-Lake, Yakima County, the squirrels were unusually abundant in the
-black hemlock and Douglas fir forests of the mountain sides. Here
-a birdlike twittering note caught my attention and occasional dark,
-sailing shapes were glimpsed against the clear sky. Eight traps set
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span>
-in the afternoon and visited at 11 p. m. held two flying squirrels.
-In the morning another was in a trap. Seemingly the squirrels are
-active most of the night.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The food consists principally of conifer seeds and probably other
-nuts, seeds, and fruit. They eat the meat bait of traps set for fur
-bearers and probably eat the eggs of birds.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Bachman)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Pteromys oregonensis</i> Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8:101, 1839.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciuropterus alpinus oregonensis</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 324, June,
-1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciuropterus alpinus olympicus</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zo&ouml;l. ser., 1:225, February
-1, 1899 (type from Happy Lake, Clallam County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Glaucomys sabrinus oregonensis</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:44, June 13, 1918.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Glaucomys sabrinus olympicus</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:49, June 13, 1918.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained "in pine [= conifer] woods of the Columbia near the sea"
-by J. K. <a href="#p_Townsend">Townsend</a> in 1839. Probably near St. Helen, Columbia County,
-Oregon (<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, 1897:324).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Small size, rich color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from Cottage Lake, King County, measured: total
-length 287; length of tail 125; hind foot 38. A female from 5 miles southeast
-of Sequim, Clallam County, measured: 303; 133; 41; ear 27. A male from
-Quilcene, Jefferson County, measured: 311; 140; 41.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Western Washington west of the Cascade Mountains. The
-locality records for flying squirrels in the northern Cascade Mountains, given
-by <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1929: 18), when plotted on a distribution map, show
-overlapping of ranges in this area. The ranges of the three races involved
-have been drawn on the accompanying map (fig. 92) on the basis of geographic
-probability and are subject to revision because the specimens from
-this area have not been examined.</p>
-
-<p class="font08">Marginal records that may apply to <i>G. s. oregonensis</i> are, from <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and
-<a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1929: 18): Nooksack River, Rockport, North Bend and Skamania.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Of all the races occurring in Washington, <i>oregonensis</i> is the most
-distinct. <i>Glaucomys s. olympicus</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a> must be regarded as a synonym of
-<i>oregonensis</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciuropterus alpinus bangsi</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 321, June, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Glaucomys sabrinus bangsi</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:38, June 13, 1918.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained in Idaho County, Idaho, by Harbison and Bargamin on
-March 8, 1897; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>oregonensis</i> but larger and paler throughout.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from Wildcat Spring, Columbia County, measured:
-total length 333; length of tail 147; hind foot 45; ear 29; weight 151
-grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Found only in the Blue Mountains of extreme southeastern
-Washington.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Glaucomys sabrinus columbiensis</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:111, May 27,
-1915.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Okanogan, British Columbia, by Allan Brooks on May
-9, 1898; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Larger than <i>oregonensis</i> and paler. Similar to <i>bangsi</i>
-but paler, especially beneath, and less reddish above.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1918: 46) gives the average of two subadult topotypes
-as: total length 313; length of tail 143; hind foot 42.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington, probably extending, from records
-of <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1929: 18), west to Mazama and Stehekin and east to
-Molson.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Glaucomys sabrinus latipes&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Glaucomys sabrinus latipes</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:112, May 27, 1915.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Glacier, British Columbia, by J. A. Loring, on August
-13, 1894; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>bangsi</i> and <i>columbiensis</i> but with larger feet
-and grayer color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1918: 49) gives the average of 10 specimens as:
-total length 342; length of tail 153; hind foot 41.5.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Pend Oreille Mountains of extreme northeastern Washington,
-north (from records of <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 18-19, as revised) to
-Sullivan Lake and south to Loon Lake.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sciuropterus alpinus fuliginosus</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 321, June,
-1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Glaucomys sabrinus fuliginosus</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 44:47, June 13, 1918.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Martin Station, Kittitas County, Washington, by Allan
-Rupert in March, 1893; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>columbiensis</i> but underparts darker and tail
-paler. Larger and paler than <i>oregonensis</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Three females from the Cascades average: total length
-327; length of tail 145; hind foot 40.7; ear 25.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Cascade Mountains, according to <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1929:
-18), as revised here, east to Entiat River and south to Carson.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Perognathus parvus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Peale)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Great Basin pocket mouse</span></h3>
-
-<p><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Great Basin pocket mice are slightly larger than
-house mice. The ears are tiny and round; the tail is relatively long,
-slightly longer than the head and body; the forefeet are small but
-the hind feet are large and powerful, more than one-fourth as long
-as the head and body. They have relatively large, fur-lined, external
-cheek pouches. The color of the upper parts varies with the
-subspecies from blackish olive-gray to buffy olive-gray; a line of
-clear buff or buffy-olive extends along the lower part of side, separating
-the darker color of the upper parts from the white underparts;
-the tail is short-haired, blackish above, olive beneath.</p>
-
-<p>Pocket mice of the genus <i>Perognathus</i> range from Mexico northward
-to British Columbia. Only one species, <i>parvus</i>, occurs in
-Washington where it is represented by three subspecies. Pocket mice
-are most common in the Upper Sonoran Life-zone in sandy areas
-dotted with desert shrubs. They are found occasionally in dry,
-grassy places in the Arid Transition Life-zone. They may be locally
-abundant in rocky areas and are often trapped high on talus slides,
-many yards from the nearest soil. <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a> (1943: 191-193) estimates
-their numbers on the sagebrush areas of the Yakima Valley at 32
-per acre. They are completely nocturnal. Their ordinary movements
-are rather slow and specimens studied by the aid of a searchlight
-usually crept quietly into the protection of the nearest desert
-shrub. The trail of a pocket mouse in soft sand may be recognized
-by the distinctive mark left by the dragging tail.</p>
-
-<p>Burrows of pocket mice usually are at the bases of shrubs where
-tough roots furnish protection. They are kept closed during the
-day by means of a plug of fresh earth or sand. Openings may often
-be recognized by a fan-shaped pile of fresh sand before the hole.
-Burrows excavated were usually less than four feet in length and
-branched from two to four times. No nests were found in the burrows
-but one contained a few fresh stalks of desert annuals. The
-air in the burrows seemed warm and humid.</p>
-
-<p>The pouches of pocket mice from Washington often contain the
-fresh, green tips of desert plants, grass seeds, seeds of plants
-other than grasses, and plant leaves. Because of their occasional
-great abundance, pocket mice may be a menace to agriculture.
-Fortunately much of their habitat is unsuited to farming.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">In Washington pocket mice breed in March and April. From 4
-to 8 embryos were found in pregnant females.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Perognathus parvus parvus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Peale)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Cricetodipus parvus</i> Peale, U. S. Explor. Exped., 8 (mamm. and ornith.):53, 1848.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Perognathus parvus</i> Cassin, U. S. Explor. Exped., 8 (mamm. and ornith.):48, 1858.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08 pmb1">
-<i>Perognathus parvus parvus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 128:278, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_93"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_299.jpg" alt="Fig. 93." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the Great Basin pocket mouse in Washington. A.
-    <i>Perognathus parvus parvus.</i> B. <i>Perognathus parvus columbianus.</i> C. <i>Perognathus
-    parvus lordi.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Probably obtained in the neighborhood of The Dalles, Wasco
-County, Oregon.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size small; upper parts brownish-buff washed with blackish
-or, in gray phase, ashy gray washed with blackish; sides buffy yellow; a
-buffy spot often present on throat; tail blackish above, olive below; facial
-markings usually brownish-buff but in older animals indistinct and washed
-with blackish.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Thirty-one males and 19 females from Washington average,
-respectively: total length 169, 164; length of tail 90, 86; hind foot 22.6,
-21.8; ear 5, 5.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Southeastern Washington south of the Snake River, the area
-on the north side of the Columbia River in Klickitat County, and the Yakima
-Valley area as far north as the Vantage, Kittitas County (W. W. D.). Other
-marginal records are: Kennewick (W. W. D.), Atilla (W. W. D.) and Walla
-Walla (E. S. B.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Dichromatism seems to be rather common in <i>Perognathus p.
-parvus</i>&mdash;so common that <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a> (1900: 35) recognized both a "red" and a
-"gray" phase. <a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a> (1932: 102) found no dichromatism in <i>P. p. lordi</i>
-in British Columbia. A single specimen from the Grand Coulee at Dry Falls,
-Grant County, does show dichromatism. It is even more red than the reddest
-topotypes of <i>parvus</i> examined.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2">Seemingly the recessive gene for red is still present in <i>lordi</i>, or has mutated
-anew. When present, the color is deeper and brighter than in the parent population,
-in keeping with the heavier pigmentation of the race <i>lordi</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Perognathus parvus lordi&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Abromys lordi</i> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>, Proc. Zo&ouml;l. Soc. London, p. 202, 1868.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Perognathus lordi</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 1:28, October 25, 1889.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Perognathus lordi lordi</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:279, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Perognathus parvus lordi</i> <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>, Recent Mamm. of Idaho, p. 266, Caxton Printers, Caldwell,
-Idaho, April 5, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained in southern British Columbia (probably near Lake Osoyoos)
-by J. K. Lord, probably in 1860.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size large; color of upper parts buffy-olive, washed with
-blackish; sides buff-olive; facial markings absent or, if present, indistinct and
-pale olive; tail blackish above, olive below.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twenty-nine males and 10 females average, respectively:
-total length 175, 171; length of tail 93, 89; hind foot 23.4, 22.9; ear 5.3, 5.1.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Okanogan Valley and the Columbian Plateau, except for the
-southwestern part. Marginal localities are: Vantage, Grant County (W. W.
-D.), 10 mi. S. Moses Lake (W. W. D.), Washtucna (M. V. Z.) and Pullman
-(M. V. Z.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;There are constant differences between <i>Perognathus parvus parvus</i>
-and <i>Perognathus parvus lordi</i>. The latter is larger, darker, and differs
-slightly in average cranial measurements. The Snake River, the Columbia
-River, and the Wenatchee Mountains separate the geographic ranges of the
-two subspecies and prevent intergradation between them. Nevertheless their
-close similarity and probable common origin indicate that both belong to one
-species, namely <i>parvus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Perognathus parvus columbianus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Perognathus columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 263, September
-27, 1894.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Perognathus lordi columbianus</i>, <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 18:40, September 20, 1900.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Pasco, Franklin County, Washington, by Clark P.
-Streator on May 9, 1891; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size and color as in <i>lordi</i> but skull considerably wider
-in mastoid region.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twenty-one male and 9 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 173, 168; length of tail 91, 89; hind foot 23.9, 22.8; ear 5, 5.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The vicinity of the type locality and the part of the Columbian
-Plateau north of the Snake and east of the Columbia rivers.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This race is separated from <i>parvus</i> by river barriers and the
-two do not intergrade. It differs significantly from <i>lordi</i> only in the wider mastoid
-region. No barrier separates the range of <i>lordi</i> from that of <i>parvus</i>, and
-the two races intergrade over a wide area (north to Moses Lake, east to
-Washtucna). The race <i>columbianus</i> must have originated <i>in situ</i> from <i>lordi</i>.
-The habitat of <i>columbianus</i> seems not to differ from that of <i>parvus</i> or <i>lordi</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Dipodomys ordii columbianus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Ord kangaroo rat</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Perodipus ordi columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 9:115, June 21, 1894.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Dipodomys ordii columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Jour. Mamm., 2:96, May 2, 1921.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Umatilla, Umatilla County, Oregon, by C. P. Streator
-on October 18, 1890; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Fourteen males and 9 females from Walla Walla County
-average, respectively: total length 261.5, 248.4; length of tail 137.2, 139.1; hind
-foot 40.6, 40.8; ear 13.1, 13.0; weight 52.1, 49.0 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Western Walla Walla County from the Oregon boundary
-north to the Snake River and on Blalock Island in the Columbia River, Benton
-County.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_94"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_301.jpg" alt="Fig. 94." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the Ord kangaroo rat, <i>Dipodomys ordii columbianus</i>,
-    in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The kangaroo rat with a body about the size of that
-of a chipmunk has an exceptionally large head and large, black eyes.
-The forelegs and forefeet are tiny but the hind feet and legs are large
-and powerful. The hind foot is almost a third as long as the head
-and body. The tail is long, longer than the head and body. Kangaroo
-rats possess fur-lined, external cheek pouches, like those of
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span>
-the pocket mice. The upper parts are soft buff in color. The underparts
-and a stripe on each flank are white. The tail is dusky
-above and below, with white sides; it is tufted at the tip.</p>
-
-<p>Kangaroo rats are typical of the desert regions of the southwestern
-United States, where numerous species and subspecies are found.
-A single subspecies of the wide-ranging species <i>ordii</i> occurs into
-southeastern Washington, where it is restricted to sandy areas in
-the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. In the soft, drifted sand along the
-Columbia River where sagebrush and other desert shrubs are low
-and widely spaced kangaroo rats are abundant.</p>
-
-<p>These rats are strictly nocturnal. When individuals are dug
-from their burrows in the daytime they usually hop about in a
-dazed manner and appear to be blinded by sunlight. Near Wallula,
-Walla Walla County, these rats were caught at night with a butterfly
-net as they stood "paralyzed" in the beam of a powerful searchlight.
-Such night hunting was unsuccessful on cloudy or windy
-nights when kangaroo rats seem not to move about.</p>
-
-<p>As might be guessed from their powerful hind legs, kangaroo
-rats travel in bounds. Near Wallula, where we watched them in
-their natural habitat, they traveled, when unfrightened, in slow
-hops, each hop followed by a pause. As they struck the surface
-of the ground an audible thud could be heard for a distance of
-several feet. After each jump they paused for a second or so,
-perhaps to allow a pursuing enemy to over-run them.</p>
-
-<p>Near Wallula the burrows of kangaroo rats were dug in large
-mounds of wind-blown sand. The burrows entered these natural
-mounds horizontally and branched two or three times. Their
-average length was about five feet. No nests or food stores were
-discovered although several kangaroo rats were caught as they burst
-from entrances at sides of the mounds. All entrances to burrows
-were plugged with soft sand. The air in the burrows seemed warm
-and humid.</p>
-
-<p>Food found in the cheek pouches of kangaroo rats from Washington
-included the seeds of desert annuals, short sections of sprouts
-of an unidentified plant, grass seeds, and the leaves of the hop-sage.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">A female taken March 22, 1939, contained 3 embryos.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Thomomys talpoides&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Richardson)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Northern pocket gopher</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The pocket gopher is a fossorial animal, being but
-slightly less adapted to an underground existence than the moles.
-The body is stout, the legs short and the head broad. The tail is
-short, sparsely haired, cylindrical and blunt-ended. The fur is soft
-and dense. The eyes are small and the ears tiny and naked. The
-incisor teeth are external, being separated from the mouth cavity
-by a furry strip of skin. Like the pocket mouse and kangaroo rat,
-the pocket gopher possesses external, fur-lined cheek pouches. The
-openings of these begin just below and posterior to the nostrils,
-sweep out and down in a semicircle, and end at the chin posterior
-to the base of the lower incisors. They extend laterally to the shoulders
-and easily accommodate a fifty-cent piece.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_95"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_303.jpg" alt="Fig. 95." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>&nbsp;
-    Northern pocket gopher (<i>Thomomys talpoides yelmensis</i>), from
-    two miles southwest of Tenino, Washington, January 28, 1941. (Fish and
-    Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 1133.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The family Geomyidae is composed of eight genera, so similar
-in appearance that the name "pocket gopher" is applied to all of
-them. The family is confined to North and Central America. Three
-genera occur in the United States but only one, <i>Thomomys</i>, occurs
-in Washington. <i>Thomomys</i> is restricted to western North America
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span>
-where it ranges from central Canada south to the southern edge of
-the table land of Mexico.</p>
-
-<p>Several hundred kinds of <i>Thomomys</i> have been described and as
-systematic work with this genus has been continued, more and more
-kinds, originally thought to be species, are found to intergrade and
-to be only subspecies. All of the 17 kinds of pocket gophers occurring
-in Washington belong to a single species.</p>
-
-<p>The pocket gopher is principally nocturnal or crepuscular but
-sometimes it is active at midday, especially if the day be dark and
-cloudy. Pocket-gopher activity is indicated by fresh mounds of
-earth on the surface of the ground. Rarely, an observer may see
-movement of plants as the gopher molests the roots of the plants, or
-even see the head and shoulders of an animal that partly emerges
-from an open burrow. The ordinary gopher mound consists of less
-than a cubic foot of earth. The earth is forced up from a single
-opening and usually is pushed out in one direction. In consequence
-it forms in a fan-shaped pile about the opening, and the last load
-forms a circular plug above and to one side of the burrow opening.
-When so much earth has been forced out of one opening that expulsion
-of additional loads of earth is overly difficult, the burrow is
-extended slightly to one side, or even extended into the newly formed
-mound, and another fan formed. Usually not more than three
-coalesced fans form a mound, but where the soil is exceedingly soft
-and fluffy, hundreds of fans may form a composite mound and the
-one mound may include a cubic yard of earth. Large composite
-mounds probably are formed gradually over a period of weeks or
-even months.</p>
-
-<p>The earth in a fresh gopher mound is usually "scratched," and
-gives the appearance of having been sieved. Pebbles weighing more
-than 100 grams are included in material ejected from burrows. The
-entrances to the burrows of gophers are usually solidly plugged
-with earth. The plug may be from a few inches to more than a foot
-in length. At times a burrow entrance may appear to be open, but
-in such cases investigation will usually reveal it to be plugged some
-distance back&mdash;sometimes several feet.</p>
-
-<p>In contrast to the gopher mounds described above, the mounds
-of moles are not fan-shaped but volcano-shaped. The earth from a
-mole's burrow is forced straight upwards, whence it falls to either
-side. Later loads are pushed up from beneath, raising the entire
-mound, with the last material ejected at the center and bottom.
-The earth of a fresh mole-mound is not of fine texture but instead
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span>
-is "clotted" and, if damp, gives the mound a fractured appearance.
-When mounds are older, perhaps changed by rain and sun, their
-identity as of mole-origin or pocket gopher-origin is more difficult
-to establish. In such cases, if no fresh mounds can be found, the
-observer must rely on the spacing of the mounds. Mole-mounds are
-spaced along a burrow, about as far apart as a man can step. Gopher
-mounds are irregularly spaced, and the course of the burrow cannot
-be traced merely by observing the arrangement of the mounds as
-can that of the mole.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">In addition to mounds, gopher burrows have plugged openings
-where a gopher has come to the surface, probably to cut plants. Such
-entrances are marked by a plug of earth several inches long.
-Mounds and feeding entrances of the gopher burrow are usually
-not constructed in the main burrow system itself, but at the ends
-of lateral burrows of varying length. If one traces the burrow back
-from the mound, a junction with the main, better-constructed burrow
-is found. The junction is usually T-shaped, with the lateral
-burrow at right angles to the main burrow. More rarely the junction
-has a Y-shape.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_96"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_305.jpg" alt="Fig. 96." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>&nbsp;
-    Giant mounds raised by pocket gophers on Mima Prairie, Thurston
-    County, Washington, July 13, 1941. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by
-    Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 1209.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The burrow system of the pocket gopher may be divided into
-three main parts. These are the laterals, just discussed, the main
-burrow, and the deep nesting burrow. The main burrow is a sinuous
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span>
-tube or tunnel at a relatively uniform depth, that marks the extent
-of the gopher's home territory. This tunnel may branch, or even
-intersect. As it is extended in one direction, the earth excavated
-by the gopher may in part be thrust into an unused portion of the
-burrow.</p>
-
-<p>The deep, nesting burrows may be used only in the breeding season.
-They are connected with the main tunnel system but descend
-to a greater depth. Usually they descend into the harder, consolidated
-layers of soil below the zone where plant roots penetrate.
-Here chambers are constructed in which nests and food are stored.
-Usually a vertical shaft is dug in the burrow ahead of the nest to
-lead rain water away from the nest.</p>
-
-<p>In areas where gophers live in a thin layer of soil underlain by a
-more or less impenetrable layer of rock, clay or gravel, it has been
-suggested that they form unique structures known as Mima Mounds.
-The formation of these mounds has been discussed in detail elsewhere
-(<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1942: 68-84). At least in the breeding
-season the gophers work mainly and make their nest where the
-soil is deepest. In the vicinity of this nest, considerable mounding
-and cultivation of soil ensues. This stimulates plant growth in the
-area. Much observation indicates that cultivation of earth by
-gophers stimulates plant growth to a greater extent than the depredations
-of the gopher deplete the ensuing growth. Thus the gopher,
-by cultivation of the soil in the area about its burrow, stimulates
-the growth of vegetation and so increases his own food supply. Consequently
-there is but little incentive for the gopher to leave the
-vicinity of the nest. The gopher does, however, construct lateral
-tunnels into surrounding areas. Earth from these lateral tunnels
-is, in part, thrown to the surface in mounds and in part transported
-back to fill the abandoned burrows near the nest. The earth from
-the burrows about the nest was earlier ejected on the surface.
-Slowly, then, earth is transported from surrounding areas to burrows
-in the vicinity of the original nest. Each succeeding generation
-finds in the vicinity of the original nest, better food and deeper soil,
-while areas surrounding the nest possess thinner soil and less vegetation.
-Over a period of thousands of generations of gophers, large
-mounds, known as Mima Mounds, are formed. Since the removal
-of earth from the surrounding areas and its accumulation in the
-Mima Mound are chance affairs, the contours of the mound are
-smooth and flowing while the contours of the intermound areas are
-smoothly convex.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The pocket gophers in Washington are economically important.
-In truck and flower gardens they are a pest, especially if the crop be
-bulb plants. In grain fields they are a pest because their mounds
-cover considerable grain and are apt to clog or dull the knife of the
-mower. In fields of young alfalfa they are apt to crop back the
-plant more rapidly than it can grow. Once the alfalfa plant is well
-established, however, the cultivation resulting from activities of
-gophers, some persons believe, stimulates the plant to such an extent
-that it grows larger and healthier in spite of the gopher's feeding
-on it. In the White Salmon Valley, Klickitat County, I examined
-numerous alfalfa fields. The most luxuriant growth was invariably
-in fields where gophers were common. In these fields, the largest
-plants were those in the immediate vicinity of gopher activity. The
-commensal relation between the gopher and alfalfa was understood
-by many farmers, who forbade us to take gophers for specimens
-from their fields. Several told us that they always trapped the
-gophers from the fields of young alfalfa and from hay meadows but
-encouraged their presence in fields of older alfalfa.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_97"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_307.jpg" alt="Fig. 97." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>&nbsp;
-    Food cache of northern pocket gopher (<i>Thomomys talpoides tacomensis</i>),
-    from chamber four inches below surface of ground, Tacoma, Washington,
-    December 1, 1940. Contents 575 grams (about 2 liters) of roots, principally
-    quackgrass, <i>Agropyron repens</i>. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by
-    Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 1119.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p2">Another economic factor is the gopher's removal of certain weeds
-from grazing land. A number of introduced weeds form dense
-rosettes that prevent the growth of grass from several square inches
-of ground and themselves lie so close to the ground as to be unavailable
-as food to grazing stock. These weeds seem to be favored
-food of gophers which cut not only the rosettes but the roots of the
-weeds as well.</p>
-
-<p>In irrigated parts of eastern Washington the gopher is a serious
-pest. It burrows in the banks of the main ditches, causing cave-ins
-and occasional breaks with resultant water loss. The mounds of
-gophers fill in the smaller channels and divert the streams. Constant
-attention is necessary to keep the ditches free of gopher
-mounds.</p>
-
-<p>In uncultivated land the gopher is a distinct asset unless the land
-is near enough to cultivated land to serve as a reservoir of pests.
-In the mountains and on the desert the gopher cultivates and keeps
-the soil soft and stimulates the growth of water-retaining vegetation,
-thus preventing rapid run-off and erosion and keeping the flow of
-springs and streams constant. Boulders, logs, and other obstructions
-are undermined and, as a result of gopher activity, in time
-sink under the surface of the ground. Thus a larger surface is available
-for plant growth. Lastly the gopher furnishes an important
-food source for certain fur-bearing mammals and eases the predator
-pressure on game species.</p>
-
-<p>The subspecies of pocket gopher occupying the Puget Sound area
-are highly restricted in their habitat preference; they occur only
-on the grassy prairies of the glacial outwash aprons. They do not
-occur in woods, brush or even small openings on the borders of the
-prairies. The alpine forms occupy the mountain meadows and are
-slightly less selective in their habits. It should be noted that in
-western Washington the forests are far more open at higher altitudes
-than at low elevations. The races inhabiting the desert are found
-in open areas, often in sandy places. They occur more rarely in
-areas where the soil is baked and claylike, and then usually in the
-vicinity of springs or watercourses. The race <i>T. t. fuscus</i> has a wide
-range of tolerance as regards environmental factors; it occurs near
-Wenatchee in essentially desert conditions, in alpine meadows of
-northeastern Washington, and in many habitats at intermediate
-elevations. It occurs also in brushy areas and is often abundant
-in open pine forests.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Since the gopher usually has a narrow range of tolerance as regards
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span>
-its environmental adaptations, this has resulted in considerably
-more isolation than is the case with other mammals, and has
-probably contributed to the formation of the many subspecies.
-Within the range of almost every race, microgeographic races, or
-local populations with distinctive characters, are found. Many subspecies
-of <i>Thomomys</i> are probably the result of chance fixation of
-genetic characters already present in a more genetically variable
-ancestral population, and the loss of other genetic factors. Such
-races might be considered degenerative (see <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>,
-1944: 24).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_98"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_309.jpg" alt="Fig. 98." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the northern pocket gopher in Washington. A.
-    <i>Thomomys talpoides devexus.</i> B. <i>Thomomys talpoides columbianus.</i> C.
-    <i>Thomomys talpoides aequalidens.</i> D. <i>Thomomys talpoides wallowa.</i> E.
-    <i>Thomomys talpoides fuscus.</i> F. <i>Thomomys talpoides yakimensis.</i> G. <i>Thomomys
-    talpoides shawii.</i> H. <i>Thomomys talpoides immunis.</i> I. <i>Thomomys
-    talpoides limosus.</i> J. <i>Thomomys talpoides douglasii.</i> K. <i>Thomomys talpoides
-    pugetensis.</i> L. <i>Thomomys talpoides tacomensis.</i> M. <i>Thomomys talpoides
-    glacialis.</i> N. <i>Thomomys talpoides tumuli.</i> O. <i>Thomomys talpoides
-    yelmensis.</i> P. <i>Thomomys talpoides couchii.</i> Q. <i>Thomomys talpoides melanops.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The history of the pocket gophers of Washington has been traced
-previously (<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1942, 1944). It may be briefly
-summarized as follows: At the close of Vashon-Wisconsin times,
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>
-gophers were found in the southern Cascades, on the Simcoe Bridge,
-the Columbian Plateau, and in southeastern Washington. Following
-the retreat of the ice, the gophers in the Mount Rainier area
-spread westward on the outwash of the Nisqually and perhaps other
-glaciers to the Vashon Outwash about southern Puget Sound and
-thence to the Olympic Mountains. In the southern Cascades,
-gophers spread westward on glacial terraces of the Columbia River
-to the vicinity of Vancouver, Clark County. The establishment
-and growth of the forests split up the original populations, and
-continued spread of forest has exterminated many units. All the
-races in the lowlands of western Washington face extermination as
-the prairies are reclaimed by forest.</p>
-
-<p>Pocket gophers also invaded northeastern Washington from Idaho
-and spread westward to the Cascades, thence southward until the
-native gophers were encountered north of Mount Rainier and in
-the Yakima Valley. The invading gophers nearly surrounded the
-Columbian Plateau.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">T. H. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1938B: 220-224) found the gestation period of
-the pocket gopher to be approximately 28 days. No second brood
-is raised in Washington. Near Kennewick, Yakima County, the
-young are born from February to April. The average number of
-embryos found in 76 female gophers was 6.3. Near Olympia, Thurston
-County, the young are born from March to June. The average
-number of embryos from 312 females was 5.0.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides devexus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides devexus</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, Murrelet, 20:3, April 30, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides ericaeus</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 20:243, May 15, 1939 (type from
-Badger Mountains, Douglas County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained 1 mile west-southwest of Neppel (now Moses Lake), Grant
-County, Washington, by W. W. <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> on May 30, 1938; type in Museum
-of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size medium; ears tiny; color of upper parts pale
-brownish gray; underparts white; postauricular spots dark.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two male and 4 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 184, 184; length of tail 54, 55; hind foot 25, 25; weight 89, 71
-grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Columbian Plateau. Marginal occurrences of the races
-of pocket gophers occurring in Washington are not listed here because they
-have recently been placed on record (<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1944: 308-333,
-423-450).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This is the smallest and palest race of pocket gopher found in
-Washington.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides columbianus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys fuscus columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:117, July 10, 1914.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:106, November 15, 1915.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 20:234, May 15, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Touchet, Walla Walla County, Washington, by C. P.
-Streator on September 10, 1890; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Larger and brighter in color than <i>devexus</i>. Near ochraceous
-orange in color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Five male and three female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 213, 209; length of tail 60, 58; hind foot 29, 28.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Walla Walla County, between the Snake River and the
-Oregon boundary and from the Columbia River east to the Columbia County
-line.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides aequalidens&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides aequalidens</i> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, Murrelet, 23:3, May 14, 1942.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Abel Place, 2,200 ft., 6 miles south-southeast of Dayton,
-Columbia County, Washington, by S. H. Lyman, on April 6, 1934; type in
-Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Large size, very dark color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;The average of four male topotypes and the measurements
-of one female topotype are, respectively: total length 202, 201; length of tail
-57, 59; hind foot 26, 27.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Southeastern Washington east of the range of <i>columbianus</i>
-and north of the higher parts of the Blue Mountains.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides wallowa&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Orr">Orr</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys quadratus wallowa</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Orr">Orr</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 46:41, March 24,
-1933.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides wallowa</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 20:234, May 15, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Catherine Creek, 7 miles east of Telocaset, 3,500 ft.,
-Union County, Oregon, by R. T. <a href="#p_Orr">Orr</a> on June 29, 1932; type in Museum of
-Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>devexus</i> but much darker. Similar (in Washington)
-to <i>aequalidens</i> but much smaller.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Four males and 4 females from Mountain Top and Stay-a-while
-Spring, Columbia County, average, respectively: total length 191, 180;
-length of tail 56, 52; hind foot 26, 25.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The higher parts of the Blue Mountains.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Washington specimens referred to this race are intermediate
-between <i>wallowa</i> and <i>aequalidens</i> but are colored like <i>aequalidens</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides fuscus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys clusius fuscus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:69, July 30, 1891.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys myops</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:112, July 19, 1901 (type from
-Conconnully, Okanogan County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys fuscus fuscus</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:126, November 15, 1915.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides fuscus</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, Murrelet, 20:4, April 30, 1939.</p></div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at the head of Big Lost River, Custer County, Idaho, by
-B. H. Dutcher on September 23, 1890; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>devexus</i> but upper parts rich tawny in color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Three males and 2 females from Newport, Pend Oreille
-County, average, respectively: total length 189, 186; length of tail 54, 57;
-hind foot 27, 26.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Along the eastern border of the state to the north of the
-Snake River, northeastern Washington, and the northeastern Cascades.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides yakimensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides yakimensis</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, Murrelet, 20:4, April 30, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides badius</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 20:242, May 15, 1939 (type from
-Wenatchee, Chelan County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Selah, Yakima County, Washington, by P. <a href="#p_Dalquest">Burgner</a>,
-on November 27, 1938; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>fuscus</i> but more orange, less red.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Four male and 3 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 209, 191; length of tail 60, 56; hind foot 27, 26.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The eastern edge of the Cascades from the Wenatchee Mountains
-south to the Simcoe Anticline.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides shawi&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys douglasii shawi</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 34:121, June 30, 1921.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides shawi</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, Murrelet, 20:4, April 30, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Owyhigh Lakes, Mount Rainier, Pierce County, Washington,
-by G. G. Cantwell, on August 9, 1919; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;A large, tan-colored pocket gopher, similar to <i>aequalidens</i>
-but paler.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two male and 7 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 227, 213; length of tail 72, 64; hind foot 32, 30.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The higher Cascade Mountains from Mount Rainier southward.
-Southern limits of range unknown.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides immunis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides immunis</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> and <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, Murrelet, 20:4, April 30, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained 5 miles south of Trout Lake, Klickitat County, Washington,
-by W. W. <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> on July 27, 1937; type in Museum of Vertebrate
-Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>shawi</i> but paler and grayer.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and 2 females from Morrison Springs Ranger
-Station, Skamania County, average, respectively: total length 211, 212; length
-of tail 64, 58; hind foot 28, 29.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Cascade Mountains from the vicinity of Mount Adams
-north. The zone of intergradation between <i>shawi</i> and <i>immunis</i> is in the
-rugged, inaccessible mountains between Mount Rainier and Mount Adams.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides limosus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys limosus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:116, July 19, 1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides limosus</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May 15, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at White Salmon, Klickitat County, Washington, by
-J. A. Loring on June 26, 1897; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>immunis</i> but darker with smaller, shorter
-skull.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;One male and 13 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 210, 198; length of tail 55, 56; hind foot 30, 28.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The lower Columbia River Valley, from the type locality east
-to the Columbian Plateau.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides douglasii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Richardson)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Geomys douglasii</i> Richardson, Fauna Boreali-American, 1:200, 1829.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Geomys fuliginosus</i> Schinz, Syn. Mamm., 2:136, 1846 (type from "Habitat ad fluvium
-Columbia").</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys douglasii</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:66, April 28, 1893.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys douglasi douglasi</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:116, November 15, 1915.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides douglasii</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 20:234, May 15, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Fort Vancouver (now the city of Vancouver), Clark
-County, Washington, by David Douglas, probably in 1825. Probably not now
-in existence.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;A medium-sized, yellowish gopher with tiny, pointed
-ears and very small postauricular patches.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two male and 10 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 227, 213; length of tail 68, 63; hind foot 30, 30; and weight 148,
-117 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from Clark County.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides glacialis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides glacialis</i> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:97,
-August 13, 1942.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained 2 miles south of Roy, Pierce County, Washington, by W.
-W. <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, on December 19, 1941; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;A dark, yellowish-brown gopher with orange-tinged underparts.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twenty male and 17 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 225, 220; length of tail 72, 71; hind foot 30, 30; and weight
-128, 116 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from Roy Prairie, Pierce County.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides tacomensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys douglasii tacomensis</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 32:169, September 30,
-1919.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides tacomensis</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May 15, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained 6 miles south of Tacoma, Pierce County, Washington, by
-G. G. Cantwell on December 24, 1918; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;A large, dark form; rich hazel in color with large, black
-postauricular patches and ochraceous underparts.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Thirteen male and 15 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 224, 196; length of tail 71, 57; hind foot 31, 29; and weight
-127, 104 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Restricted to the area about Steilacoom and Tacoma, Pierce
-County, Washington.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides pugetensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides pugetensis</i> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:96,
-August 13, 1942.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained 4 miles south of Olympia, Thurston County, Washington,
-by W. W. <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, on December 31, 1941; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>glacialis</i> but underparts not tinged with orange
-and conspicuous dusky areas present on sides of neck.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Fourteen male and 19 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 223, 205; length of tail 62, 59; hind foot 30, 29; and weight
-123, 96 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from the type locality.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides tumuli&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides tumuli</i> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> and <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:96,
-August 13, 1942.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on Rocky Prairie, 7 miles north of Tenino, Thurston
-County, Washington, by W. W. <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> on January 2, 1942; type in United
-States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>pugetensis</i> but grayer, less yellow.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Eleven male and 14 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 225, 216; length of tail 60, 64; hind foot 31, 30; and weight 140,
-118 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from the type locality.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides yelmensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys douglasi yelmensis</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:21, January 31,
-1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys douglasii yelmensis</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 32:169, September 30,
-1919.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides yelmensis</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May 15, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Tenino, Thurston County, Washington, by C. P.
-Streator on October 24, 1891; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;A rather small, yellowish race with whitish underparts.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twenty-one male and 21 female topotypes average, respectively;
-total length 213, 202; length of tail 64, 61; hind foot 29, 28; and weight
-121, 101 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from Grand Mound Prairie (type locality), Vail
-Prairie, near Vail, and Rochester Prairie, near Rochester, all in Thurston
-County.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides couchi&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides couchi</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 20:243, May 15, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on Scotts Prairie, 4 miles north of Shelton, Mason County,
-Washington, by L. K. <a href="#p_Couch">Couch</a>, on June 27, 1922; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;A small race; rich hazel in color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Thirteen male and 9 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 196, 191; length of tail 55, 53; hind foot 27, 27; and
-weight 87, 79 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from the type locality and from Lost Lake
-Prairie, near Satsop, Mason County.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Thomomys talpoides melanops&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys melanops</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:21, January 31, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys douglasi melanops</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 39:119, November 15, 1915.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Thomomys talpoides melanops</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 20:235, May 15, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at head of Sol Duc River, Clallam County, Washington,
-by V. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> on August 28, 1897; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Most like <i>shawi</i> but smaller, with larger postauricular
-patches and dusky areas on side of head.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male topotype measures: total length 211; length of tail
-67; hind foot 28.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Higher Olympic Mountains.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Castor canadensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Kuhl</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Beaver</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The beaver is the largest rodent occurring in Washington.
-Large individuals weight approximately 50 pounds. They
-are heavily-built, robust animals with large heads and short necks.
-The large, flat, naked tail immediately separates them from all other
-mammals occurring in the state. The forelegs are short and the
-forefeet handlike. The hind legs are long, thick and powerful. The
-hind feet are large and webbed for swimming. The ears are small
-and the eyes, although of moderate size, are not prominent. The
-incisors are large and prominent with a distinct yellow or orange
-color. The close, dense underfur is overlaid with long, lax, rather
-stiff overfur or guardhairs.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_99"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_316.jpg" alt="Fig. 99." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>&nbsp;
-    Beaver (<i>Castor canadensis</i>). Silvana, Washington, August 15, 1921.
-    (Fish and Wildlife Service by Leo K. <a href="#p_Couch">Couch</a>, No. B-21912.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Beavers are found in Europe, Asia and North America. In
-America they range from Alaska to Mexico and from the Atlantic
-to the Pacific. Many American subspecies have been described, all
-thought to belong to a single species.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Beavers live in streams and lakes of Washington under diverse
-climatic conditions. They are perhaps most abundant in the western
-Washington lowlands where there are numerous watercourses. In
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span>
-the Cascade Mountains they are found well up into the Canadian
-Life-zone, where the streams are swift and clear with stony bottoms.
-The highest altitudinal record known to us is Reflection Lake,
-Mt. Rainier, 4,861 feet (<a href="#p_Brockman">Brockman</a>, 1939: 71). Farther east, in the
-timbered regions of the eastern Cascades and in northeastern Washington,
-beavers live in deeper, more sluggish streams. Abundant
-beaver signs were noted at the junction of the Snake and Columbia
-rivers where the animals were occupying one of the hottest, most
-desertlike portions of the state. They are found in Moses Lake,
-in the center of the arid Columbian Plateau. Beavers once occurred
-in the San Juan Islands and have recently been reintroduced there.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_100"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_317.jpg" alt="Fig. 100." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>&nbsp;
-    Beaver (<i>Castor canadensis</i>): lodge and beaver pond, Elbe, Washington,
-    August 24, 1926. (T. H. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> photo.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb1">The part the beaver played in man's exploration of the state of
-Washington is a story in itself. The establishment of Fort Vancouver
-and Fort Spokane and other settlements was principally due
-to the trade in beaver pelts. These forts served as headquarters
-for Douglas, <a href="#p_Suckley">Suckley</a>, <a href="#p_Townsend">Townsend</a>, Nuttall and other early naturalists
-who contributed so greatly to the knowledge of the mammalian
-fauna of the western United States.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_101"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_318.jpg" alt="Fig. 101." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span>&nbsp;
-    Cottonwood pole carved by beaver, Lake Wenatchee, Washington,
-    May 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>,
-    No. 33.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p2">Trapping for fur drastically reduced the number of beavers in
-Washington. After trapping was prohibited they were slow in recovering
-and, until about 1930, they were uncommon. After that
-date they seemed to increase rapidly, becoming abundant about
-1940. The present system of removing beavers only from areas
-where they are doing damage, and then only under strict supervision
-from the State Department of Game, has held their numbers at a
-high level.</p>
-
-<p>The food of the beaver varies greatly with locality. Along the
-Columbia River, in eastern Washington, cottonwood (<i>Populus hastata</i>)
-and willow (<i>Salix</i> sp.) seem to constitute favorite foods. Few
-other trees grow in this arid region. On Puget Island, near the
-mouth of the Columbia, willow, alder (<i>Alnus oregonus</i>) and probably
-other shrubs are eaten. In the many streams that run from
-the western Cascade Mountains to Puget Sound, various species of
-willow seem to be the principal food eaten. Some alder, cascara,
-Douglas fir, red huckleberry and salmonberry are eaten. In some
-streams on the eastern slope of the Cascades, coniferous trees, including
-Douglas fir, yellow pine (<i>Pinus ponderosa</i>), and red cedar
-(<i>Thuja plicata</i>) are used.</p>
-
-<p>Beaver dams are abundant in certain sections of Washington,
-notably the area between the Cascade Mountains and Puget Sound.
-Dams several hundred feet in length were seen in the valley of Cherry
-Creek, 7 miles northeast of Duvall, King County. However, in
-most parts of the state few dams are built. No dams are necessary
-in the larger streams and lakes while the smaller mountain streams
-possess a gradient too steep for successful damming. Spring floods
-and high water following rains would destroy such dams.</p>
-
-<p>True beaver houses, or lodges, are seldom seen in Washington.
-In the larger streams, rivers and lakes the beavers are "bank beavers,"
-living in burrows with underwater entrances. In the mountain
-streams, log jams furnish protection. Great piles of logs and
-debris accumulate at bends of streams in periods of high water.
-These jams commonly contain large, well-anchored key logs and
-persist for years. Back-cutting by the stream often forms deep
-pools before the jams while the sloping bank opposite may support
-willows and alders. Thus beavers may find a home, food, and a
-protecting pool of deep water at a log jam. In periods of low water,
-and when meandering of the stream causes it to leave the log jam,
-canals are constructed by the beavers to connect the log jam with
-the stream.</p>
-
-<p>Where dams are built a few lodges may occur. For the most part,
-however, the beavers dig holes in the bank or in small islands that
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span>
-result from their dam-building activities. Burrows are occasionally
-easy to locate because of the mud and sticks laid on the ground
-above. At best these sticks form a layer only a few inches thick
-and are too loosely packed to furnish any additional protection.
-They probably represent a concession to the beavers' lodge-building
-instincts.</p>
-
-<p>The beaver probably breeds in January. A specimen from Cle
-Elum, taken on March 1, contained 4 embryos and one from the
-Teanaway River near Cle Elum held 2 embryos on February 28.
-One from Swauk Creek, Kittitas County, on the eastern slope of the
-Cascades, had 3 embryos on February 12. A young beaver was born
-to a captive animal on May 18. Its mother was taken at Soos
-Creek in southeastern King County. This baby weighed 884 grams.</p>
-
-<p>The majority of the beavers trapped are small animals, measuring
-from 725 to 900 mm. (total length) in February, and weighing from
-10 to 20 pounds. These are kits, probably one and two years old.
-It is rather difficult to divide these animals into two age groups but
-probably the first year young (7 to 11 months old) weigh from 10
-to 15 pounds and measure between 725 and 800 mm. in total length.
-Two-year olds (19 to 23 months) measure from 800 to 925 mm. and
-weigh from 15 to 25 pounds. They measure approximately 1050
-mm. the third year, when they become adult, and weigh in the neighborhood
-of 45 pounds. Individuals occasionally weigh more than
-50 pounds; these are probably old adults.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Damage by beavers is limited. Their dams occasionally flood
-roads and rarely fields. In some parts of eastern Washington, where
-fruit raising is an important industry, an individual beaver may
-cause considerable damage by cutting valuable trees. Ornamental
-trees may be damaged near the larger cities. Beavers living in Lake
-Washington in almost the center of the city of Seattle, caused some
-damage to ornamental trees on the University of Washington Golf
-Course. Canals and dams in small streams and ditches in areas
-where stock raising is practiced, flood stock food and sometimes form
-mudholes or bogs where stock might be trapped. Where individual
-beavers are doing damage they are trapped and killed, or are live-trapped
-and transported to more favorable habitats. In places
-where any beaver may be potentially dangerous, as in the fruit-growing
-areas of eastern Washington or stock-raising areas in
-western Washington, their numbers should be kept down by continued
-trapping.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_102"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_321.jpg" alt="Fig. 102." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span>&nbsp;
-    Forest road flooded by beavers which built a dam on the upstream (left) side of a bridge; Tronson Creek, Blewett
-    Pass, Wenatchee National Forest, May 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife Service by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 30.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb1">Probably the greatest value of beavers lies in the impounding of
-water by their dams. This is especially true in the arid mountains of
-eastern Washington and in the logged-off or burned-over parts of
-western Washington. These ponds prevent erosion, raise the water
-table and so stimulate the growth of vegetation, insure greater
-regularity of stream flow, provide suitable water for trout and muskrats
-as well as some breeding grounds for waterfowl. On burned-over
-or logged-off land, the greatest, and often the only, growth of
-new conifers is in the vicinity of beaver ponds. In the vicinity of
-beaver dams, rich growths of willows and other deciduous vegetation
-provides food and cover for deer and fur-bearing mammals.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_103"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_322.jpg" alt="Fig. 103." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the beaver in Washington. A. <i>Castor canadensis
-    leucodonta.</i> B. <i>Castor canadensis idoneus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb2">Trapping of beaver for their fur at present is not a private enterprise
-but controlled trapping by the state adds to public funds.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Castor canadensis leucodonta&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Castor canadensis leucodonta</i> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 4 (ser. 4):293, October, 1869.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Castor canadensis pacificus</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., 19 (n. s.):422, September,
-1898 (type from Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained by Dr. Robert Brown, probably on Vancouver Island,
-British Columbia.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Large size; reddish color; elongate skull.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Found over all but the southwestern corner of the state.
-The most westward locality from which specimens have been examined is
-Lake Crescent (U. S. N. M.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The good series of beaver skulls available from several areas
-of Washington has led to careful comparison of Washington material with
-specimens from Vancouver Island. Skulls from extreme southwestern Washington
-are small and decidedly short, being referable to the race <i>idoneus</i>. No
-satisfactory way of distinguishing between the others could be found and all
-are consequently referred to the earliest named form, <i>leucodonta</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Castor canadensis idoneus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Jewett and <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Castor canadensis idoneus</i> Jewett and <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Jour. Mamm., 21:87, February 15, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Foley Creek, tributary to Nehalem River, Tillamook
-County, Oregon, by C. Leach on December 15, 1914; type in California
-Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>leucodonta</i> but smaller, darker, with shorter and
-wider skull.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Lowlands near the mouth of the Columbia River. Specimens
-from Puget Island (U. S. N. M.) have been examined.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Anthony</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Northern grasshopper mouse</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Onychomys leucogaster fuscogriseus</i> Anthony, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 32: 11, March 7,
-1913.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Ironside, Malheur County, Oregon, by H. E. Anthony,
-in 1912; type in American Museum of Natural History.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Nine males and 5 females from Franklin, Benton, and
-Walla Walla counties, Washington, average, respectively: total length 132.3,
-133.0; length of tail 35.8, 35.6; hind foot 19.2, 19.6; ear 17.6, 17.6; weight 23.3,
-24.1 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Columbian Plateau, southeastern Washington, and the
-Yakima Valley, ranging north to Douglas (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 21), west
-to Yakima (M. V. Z.), east to Asotin (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 21) and south
-to Wallula (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 21).</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_104"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_324.jpg" alt="Fig. 104." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the northern grasshopper mouse, <i>Onychomys leucogaster
-    fuscogriseus</i>, in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A mature grasshopper mouse is slightly larger than
-a house mouse; the head and body measure about 4 inches and the
-tail about 1-1/4 inches; it may be recognized by the rather plump
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>
-body, naked ears, short, thick and tapering tail and soft, dense fur.
-The upper parts of adults are buffy. Younger animals are blue-gray
-above. Underparts and tail are white.</p>
-
-<p>Grasshopper mice of two species range over much of northern
-Mexico and the western United States. The species occurring in
-Washington, <i>leucogaster</i>, is found from southern Manitoba to
-northern Mexico, and from the Pacific states east to North Dakota.
-This species is characteristic of the Upper Sonoran Life-zone, and
-usually is associated with sagebrush and greasewood. It prefers
-open areas of sand and avoids heavy cover, and seems to be strictly
-nocturnal. It eats vegetation, seeds, insects, or the flesh of other
-mice. According to <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> (1936: 178), grasshopper mice pursue,
-catch and kill other mice. They hunt by scent and follow tracks
-like a wolf. They make a sound, or "call," like a miniature wolf
-howl. They are said to be rather docile and make friends with
-humans quickly.</p>
-
-<p>On some occasions grasshopper mice are locally abundant, but
-for the most part they are rather uncommon over their range.
-Usually one is taken in about 200 traps set in suitable habitats.
-They do not hibernate; one was caught at Moses Lake, Grant
-County, on a freezing winter night.</p>
-
-<p>The grasshopper mouse is almost always associated with the
-pocket mouse (<i>Perognathus parvus</i>), deer-mouse (<i>Peromyscus
-maniculatus</i>), and often the harvest mouse (<i>Reithrodontomys megalotis</i>).
-The same snakes, owls, and carnivorous mammals that prey
-on these mice doubtless eat also the grasshopper mouse.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">R. D. <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> (1936: 172) determined the gestation period of 3
-lactating grasshopper mice captured at Lind, Adams County, as 33,
-39 and 47 days. A non-lactating female gave birth to a litter in 32
-days. Young varied from 2 to 5 in number and were pink and hairless
-at birth, with eyes and ears closed.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Western harvest mouse</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Reithrodon megalotis</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, Mamm. N. Amer., p. 451, 1857.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Reithrodontomys megalotis nigrescens</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 36:32, June 5, 1914 (type
-from Payette, Idaho).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Reithrodontomys megalotis megalotis</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:189, August 29, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained between Janos, Chihuahua, and San Luis Springs, New
-Mexico, by C. B. R. Kennerly, in 1855; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Five males and 6 females, showing moderate wear on the
-third upper molars, from Walla Walla County, average, respectively: total
-length 141, 137.5; length of tail 71.8, 68.1; hind foot 17.2, 16.7; weight (males
-only) 10.5 grams. A female, 136 mm. long, from Grant County, weighed 9.5
-grams. Over the range of <i>megalotis</i> in the United States, males average consistently
-larger than females in length of the hind foot and consistently less
-in length of head and body.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Columbian Plateau, the Upper Sonoran Life-zone area
-west of the Columbia River and south of the Wenatchee Mountains in Kittitas,
-Yakima, and Benton counties, the north side of the Columbia River in
-Klickitat County, and Okanogan County east of the Okanogan River. Marginal
-localities are: Timentwa (W. W. D.) on the north, Maryhill (M. V. Z.)
-on the west, Wallula (M. V. Z.) on the south, and Colfax (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>,
-1929: 21) on the east.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_105"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_326.jpg" alt="Fig. 105." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the western harvest mouse, <i>Reithrodontomys
-    megalotis megalotis</i>, in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Harvest mice from the states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho,
-Utah, Nevada, California, Arizona, and New Mexico were examined to ascertain
-the validity of the name <i>Reithrodontomys megalotis nigrescens</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>
-(type from Payette County, Idaho). No cranial characters or measurements
-could be found to separate <i>nigrescens</i> from <i>megalotis</i>. Specimens from Washington,
-Oregon, and west-central Idaho, within the range ascribed to <i>nigrescens</i>,
-averaged slightly darker in color with a more distinct, blackish dorsal line than
-specimens from New Mexico. This difference is slight, and specimens from
-any one locality vary greatly in color. Some Washington specimens are as
-pale as the palest material from New Mexico, and some of the darkest <i>nigrescens</i>
-can be matched by specimens of <i>megalotis</i> from Arizona and New Mexico.
-This slight color variant is not worthy of recognition as a distinct subspecies,
-and I agree with <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a> (1939: 390) that <i>nigrescens</i> is a synonym of <i>megalotis</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The western harvest mouse is about the size and
-shape of the common house mouse. The length of the tail is approximately
-equal to the length of the head and body. The tail is
-slim and lightly haired. The upper parts are brownish buff lightly
-washed with blackish. A faint but distinct dark dorsal stripe is
-usually present. The underparts are white. From <i>Mus</i> and <i>Peromyscus</i>,
-<i>Reithrodontomys</i> can be distinguished by the grooves on
-the anterior face of the upper incisors and the long brown hairs at
-the bases of the ears.</p>
-
-<p>This genus reaches the extreme northern limit of its distribution
-in the state of Washington, where it ranges to the Canadian border.
-A single subspecies occurs in Washington. The harvest mouse is a
-resident of the Upper Sonoran Life-zone and it is most abundant
-in dense growths of grass, weeds, and other vegetation. Along the
-Yakima River, near Ellensburg, it was abundant in thick, river-side
-jungle. Near Yakima many specimens were taken in a marsh of
-cattails and tules. In the Grand Coulee they live in thick grass.
-Near Moses Lake several were found in their nests in a thick growth
-of tumbleweed. Harvest mice occur also, although never in great
-numbers, in relatively open areas. At the Potholes near Moses Lake,
-Grant County, a few were caught on sand dunes among scattered
-bushes of sage. They were taken on sagebrush flats in several
-localities. <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a> (1943: 191) estimates their numbers in the sagebrush
-area of the Yakima Valley at 5 per acre.</p>
-
-<p>Where harvest mice live in dense vegetation they make small runways
-and food piles similar to those of <i>Microtus</i> but in more open
-areas they leave no perceptible signs. Near Yakima the nest of a
-harvest mouse was found among the roots of an overturned apple
-tree. This nest was an irregular ball composed of fine grasses and
-shredded bark closed above, with a side entrance and a central
-cavity three inches in diameter. Near Moses Lake three nests of
-harvest mice were discovered on the ground under cover of a dense
-growth of tumbleweed, and six live harvest mice were captured in
-the same area. These nests were cuplike, open above, and were
-composed of dry grasses, bits of weeds, and newspaper. The smoothly
-rounded inner cups measured about three inches in diameter.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Embryos were found in harvest mice in Washington from March
-to April and numbered 3 to 6.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Peromyscus maniculatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Wagner)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Deer mouse</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The deer mouse is slightly larger than the house
-mouse, the head and body measuring from 3-1/2 to 4 inches. The
-length of the tail varies considerably in the several races, ranging
-from approximately 2-1/2 inches in <i>gambelii</i> to 4 inches or more in
-some individuals of <i>oreas</i>. The eyes are large and protrude slightly.
-The ears are large, erect and naked. The tail is sparsely furred with
-short, posteriorly directed hairs. The color of the upper parts varies
-from yellowish buff in <i>gambelii</i> to reddish brown in <i>oreas</i> and dusky
-in <i>austerus</i>. Young deer mice are gray or bluish gray above. Underparts
-and feet are white. The tail is bicolored, being dusky
-above and white below.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_106"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_328.jpg" alt="Fig. 106." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>&nbsp;
-    Deer mouse (<i>Peromyscus maniculatus austerus</i>), in captivity, Seattle,
-    Washington, September 18, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by
-    Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 723.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">In Washington <i>Peromyscus</i> may be separated from other naked-eared
-mice by ungrooved teeth and slightly tapering, bicolor tail.
-Nearly every part of North America is inhabited by one or more
-kinds of <i>Peromyscus</i>. The single species, <i>maniculatus</i>, which occurs
-in Washington, ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from
-the Arctic to tropical Mexico. <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a> (1909: 17) remarks: "...
-it is probable that a line, or several lines, could be drawn from Labrador
-to Alaska and thence to southern Mexico throughout which
-not a single square mile is not inhabited by some form of this species."</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Deer mice are the most abundant mice in Washington. They
-occur at sea level on the ocean beaches and above timber-line, even
-breeding in the Arctic-alpine Life-zone. They occur on the islands
-in Puget Sound, the lowland marshes and deciduous thickets of western
-Washington, the great conifer forests, the alpine cirques and
-mountain parks, and the deserts of eastern Washington. Almost
-everywhere they are the commonest mammal encountered. They
-make their homes in city dwellings, under logs or in hollow trees in
-the forest, in the burrows of larger rodents and, if necessary, in burrows
-of their own construction.</p>
-
-<p>Nests are usually cup-shaped masses of soft material, 4 to 8 inches
-in diameter with central cavities 2 to 3 inches in diameter. Materials
-utilized include dry grass, shredded bark, rope, rags, newspaper,
-moss, cattail fluff, fur, wool, and feathers. One nest discovered
-in the attic of an old building near Coulee City, Grant County,
-consisted of the mummified body of a wood rat (<i>Neotoma cinerea</i>).
-The fur of the arched body of the rat formed one side of the nest,
-while the fur of the far side of the body had been plucked to form
-the remainder. In the extensive marshes along Lake Washington,
-King County, deer mice occupy the ball-shaped nests of tule wrens
-(<i>Telamtodytes palustris</i>). These are constructed entirely of fragments
-of cattail leaves and cattail fluff and are placed in the cattail
-rushes about four feet above the wet ground of the marsh. Other
-deer mouse nests were found in an unused typewriter, in the pocket
-of an old coat, in a window frame, under a piece of tar paper on
-the ground, in a cavity in the ground under a board, between a ceiling
-and a loose bit of roofing paper, under rocks and logs, in hollows
-in logs, and in an unused nest of a wood rat. Where plant
-cover is dense, nests are placed on the surface of the ground, as
-under thick growths of tumbleweed (<i>Salsola</i>) in eastern Washington.</p>
-
-<p>Deer mice are definitely nocturnal. Of thousands of specimens
-trapped only a few were taken in the daytime. Two of these were
-taken in a rock slide at Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille County, on
-the same day, and some unusual conditions may have incited them
-to travel in daylight. Deer mice are active throughout the winter
-and their lacy footprints are seen on the snow in below-freezing
-weather. They are mainly terrestial but one race (<i>oreas</i>) is at
-least partly arboreal for it is often taken in traps set in trees for
-flying squirrels. One was caught in a trap set 50 feet from the
-ground. All are good climbers, and <i>oreas</i> is perhaps the best. One
-was watched as it climbed the rough cedar shake wall of a cabin,
-ran upside-down across three feet of rough ceiling, and descended
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>
-the opposite wall head first. They are equally agile in climbing
-rocks and cliffs.</p>
-
-<p>The ordinary gait of the deer mouse is a steady run. When frightened
-it may leap a distance of one foot or more. When surprised
-in its nest it usually remains in the vicinity, hopping about in confusion,
-returning time after time to the exposed nest.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The food of deer mice consists principally of vegetable material
-such as seeds, nuts, berries, and the soft parts of fleshy plants.
-Mushrooms and lichens are eaten. Insect remains are present in
-small quantities in most stomachs examined. Flesh is also eaten
-and small mammals caught in traps are often eaten by deer mice.
-Cannibalism appears to be common only in captivity.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_107"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_330.jpg" alt="Fig. 107." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the deer mouse in Washington. A. <i>Peromyscus
-    maniculatus oreas.</i> B. <i>Peromyscus maniculatus austerus.</i> C. <i>Peromyscus
-    maniculatus hollisteri.</i> D. <i>Peromyscus maniculatus gambelii.</i> E. <i>Peromyscus
-    maniculatus artemisiae.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Deer mice are often heavily parasitized by tapeworms and roundworms.
-Virtually all of the deer mice taken on Jones Island in the
-San Juan Islands had livers so infected by the eggs of a nematode
-worm as to be swollen to several times their natural size, and had a
-yellow, crystalline appearance. The maggots of parasitic flies often
-occur in the anal and genital region of deer mice, effectively sterilizing
-some individuals.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Predatory snakes, birds, and mammals doubtless kill and eat
-deer mice. Strangely enough, although deer mice may be the
-commonest mammal in an area, the pellets of owls collected in
-the same area usually contain the remains of relatively few deer
-mice. The impact of owls seems to be greatest upon mice, such
-as <i>Microtus</i>, which follow definite runways.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The breeding season of the deer mouse extends over most of
-the spring and summer. Growth and development of the young of
-<i>Peromyscus m. oreas</i> have been discussed by A. <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> (1936A).
-Embryos found varied in number from 2 to 8 with a mean of 4.5.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Peromyscus maniculatus oreas&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Bangs</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Peromyscus oreas</i> Bangs, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:84, March 24, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Peromyscus akeleyi</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30., zo&ouml;l. ser., 1:226. February 1, 1899
-(type from Elwha River, Olympic Mountains, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Peromyscus maniculatus oreas</i> <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:51, April 17, 1909.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on Church Mountain, 6,500 ft., Mt. Baker Range, near
-the U. S. boundary, British Columbia, by Allan Brooks on August 29, 1896;
-type in Museum of Comparative Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size large; tail more than 50 per cent of total length;
-color of upper parts reddish.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twenty-five males and 15 females average: total length
-202; length of tail 110; hind foot 22.6; ear 18.7.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the Cascade Mountains west to the Pacific Ocean,
-save for the Puget Sound area and a narrow band extending southward
-nearly to the Columbia River. Marginal localities along the west side of
-Puget Sound are: Deer Park (W.W.D.), Lake Cushman (W.W.D.), and
-Kelso (M.V.Z.). Marginal localities on the west side of the Cascade
-Mountains are: Tomyhoi Lake (W.W.D.), Forks of Skykomish River
-(W.W.D.), North Bend (W.W.D.), Mt. St. Helens (V.B.S.) and Yacolt
-(M.V.Z.). Marginal localities on the east slope of the Cascade Mountains
-are: Grouse Creek (W.W.D.), Lake Wenatchee (W.W.D.), Easton (W.W.D.),
-Morrison Springs Ranger Station (W.W.D.) and Wind River C.C.C.
-Camp (W.W.D.).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-Peromyscus maniculatus hollisteri <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:62, April 17, 1909.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Friday Harbor, San Juan Island, San Juan County,
-Washington, by N. Hollister on October 23, 1903; type in United States
-National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>oreas</i> but darker, less reddish, and with
-much shorter tail. Length of tail about 40 per cent of total length.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Populations of deer mice on the various islands vary
-slightly in average measurements. The average measurements of 10 males
-and 10 females from San Juan Island, 20 males and 15 females from Blakeley
-Island, and 20 males and 15 females from Cypress Island, are respectively:
-total length 189, 183, 179; length of tail 87, 82, 79; hind foot 22.8, 22, 19.5;
-ear 19.4, 18.7, 19.5; weight 33, 29, 32 grams.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The San Juan Islands, San Juan and Skagit counties, in
-northern Puget Sound.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Peromyscus maniculatus austerus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Hesperomys austerus</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:336, 1855.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sitomys americanus austerus</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:192, August 18, 1893.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>P[eromyscus]., austerus</i> Bangs, Amer. Nat., 31:75, January 1, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Peromyscus maniculatus austerus</i> <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:63, April 17, 1909.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Old Fort Steilacoom, Pierce County, Washington, by
-J. G. <a href="#p_Suckley">Suckley</a>, probably on January 20, 1854; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>oreas</i> but smaller with relatively shorter tail;
-tail narrower at base, less sharply bicolor; upper parts duller, browner, less
-reddish. In <i>oreas</i> the tail is usually more than 100 mm. In <i>austerus</i> the
-tail is usually less than 90 mm.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twenty-seven males and 23 females from Seattle, King
-County, average: total length 180.5; length of tail 88.6; hind foot 21; ear
-18. The average weight of 15 adults is 21 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Puget Sound area and south to the Columbia River
-in a narrow band through the lowlands. Marginal localities on the west side
-of Puget Sound are: Port Angeles (W.W.D.), Bremerton (W.W.D.), 4
-miles north of Shelton (W.W.D.), Tenino (W.W.D.) and Mouth of Klama
-River (M.V.Z.). Marginal localities on the east side of Puget Sound are:
-Bellingham (W.W.D.), Arlington (W.W.D.), Everett (W.W.D.), 4 miles
-east of Monroe (W.W.D.), Fall City (W.W.D.), and Vancouver (W.W.D.).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Peromyscus oreas rubidus</i> <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 14:193, December 12, 1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Peromyscus maniculatus rubidus</i> <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:65, April 17, 1909.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Mendocino City, California, by J. A. Loring on
-November 17, 1897; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Closely similar to <i>austerus</i> but paler with longer skull.
-Specimens from Washington are almost purplish-brown in appearance.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Six males and 2 females from Puget Island, Wahkiakum
-County, average: total length 177; length of tail 89; hind foot 21.9; ear 18.7.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;This is the deer mouse of the humid coastal belt of Oregon
-and California. It enters Washington only at Puget Island, Wahkiakum
-County, in the Columbia River.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Peromyscus maniculatus gambelii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Peromyscus gambelii</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, Mamm. N. Amer., Pacific R. R. Reports, 8:464, 1857.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sitomys americanus gambelii</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:190, August 18, 1893.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>P[eromyscus]., t[exanus]. gambelii</i> Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 18:446, March 25, 1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Peromyscus maniculatus gambeli</i> <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:67, April 17, 1909.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Monterey, Monterey County, California, by W. P. Trowbridge;
-skin catalogued on January 4, 1853; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size small; tail short; color pale, varying from buffy
-gray to rich buff; rarely dark reddish brown.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twenty-five males and 15 females average: total length
-160; length of tail 71; hind foot 19.8; ear 17.7.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Columbian Plateau. Intergradation with <i>oreas</i> occurs
-between the Columbia River and the Cascade Mountains. Marginal records
-on the west are: Chelan (W.W.D.), Leavenworth (W.W.D.), Cle Elum
-(W.W.D.), Satus Pass (W.W.D.), Lyle (V.B.S.). Marginal localities on
-the north are: Chelan (W.W.D.), 5 miles north of Coulee (W.W.D.),
-Sprague (V.B.S.) and Steptoe Butte (M.V.Z.).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sitomys americanus artemisiae</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 260, October
-23, 1894.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Peromyscus texanus artemisiae</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a> and Rehn, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 30:84, December,
-1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Peromyscus maniculatus artemisiae</i> <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 28:58, April 17, 1909.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Ashcroft, British Columbia, by S. N. <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a> on July
-5, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>gambelii</i> but darker, more reddish; often with
-longer tail.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Ten males and 10 females from northeastern Washington
-average: total length 167; length of tail 80; hind foot 20; ear 17.8.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains of southeastern
-Washington, extending west, in northeastern Washington, to Conconully
-(W.W.D.) and south to Duly Lake (W.W.D.).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Neotoma cinerea&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Ord</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Bushy-tailed wood rat</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The bushy-tailed wood rat is slightly larger than
-the common Norway or brown rat. The head and body measure
-about 12-1/2 inches and the tail about 3-1/2 inches. It resembles the
-deer mouse in general proportions. The ears are large and naked
-and the black eyes are large and protruding. The tail is bushy,
-squirrel-like. The feet are small and have furry soles. The fur is
-soft and silky. Adults are brownish gray above with white underparts
-and a gray tail. Young individuals have blue-gray upper-parts.</p>
-
-<p>Wood rats range over most of North America. They exhibit
-great variation, especially in the southwestern United States. The
-bushy-tailed species occurs in the western United States and Canada.
-Wood rats are notorious for invading buildings in the mountains
-and in the desert. However, their natural habitat is broken
-rock or talus. This habitat preference accounts for their distribution
-in Washington, for talus is common except in the humid subdivision
-of the Transition Life-zone. Wood rats are probably most
-abundant in the talus slides of the Columbian Plateau, especially
-in the canyon of the Columbia River and in Moses and Grand
-coulees. They are common in all the mountainous areas in the
-state where high altitudes and steep slopes result in the accumulation
-of talus. Wood rats range from sea level to 10,000 feet elevation
-on Mount Rainier and from the Upper Sonoran to the Arctic-alpine
-life-zones. Great horned owls and probably all of the
-carnivores that share the range of the wood rat prey on it to some
-extent. <a href="#p_Sperry">Sperry</a> (1941: 15) lists <i>Neotoma</i> in four per cent of 8,339
-coyote stomachs gathered throughout the United States.</p>
-
-<p>Wood rats in Washington are definitely nocturnal and are rarely
-seen in daylight. On January 10, 1939, however, near Colville,
-Stevens County, a companion and I were sitting on the porch of a
-deserted shack eating lunch. Suddenly a wood rat darted out of
-the open door into the full sunlight and tugged at a can, containing
-a few drops of tomato juice, which one of us was holding in his hand.
-When the rat looked up and saw the human, it hastily retreated.
-The wood rat has a habit of flattening its body tightly against the
-ground when observed and also of "drumming" with its feet when
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span>
-excited. This habit is shared by the snowshoe rabbit and the spotted
-skunk. A captive specimen "drummed" by lifting its back feet,
-alternately, about one-half inch from the surface of a piece of wood
-and striking downward with surprising power. The agility of the
-wood rat was demonstrated near Wallula where we watched a specimen
-by the light of a flashlight as it climbed an almost vertical
-rock wall, taking advantage of small fractures for toe-holds.</p>
-
-<p>Wood rats are far from noiseless in their nocturnal activities. Near
-Moses Coulee, Douglas County, wood rats were heard from a distance
-of 50 feet as they scampered back and forth through a concrete
-culvert under the highway.</p>
-
-<p>Many species of wood rats build complicated stick houses in which
-they live. In Washington, elaborate stick houses are sometimes
-built but are usually not occupied. In the attic of an old building
-near Pend Oreille Lakes, Stevens County, two large and complicated
-houses were discovered. These were built of sticks, paper and other
-debris and measured more than three feet in diameter. Three small,
-cup-shaped nests resembling those of a bird, made of soft grasses,
-moss, and shredded paper were found on the attic floor ten feet or
-more from the stick houses. These nests gave every indication of
-being used, while the piles of sticks contained no nests and seemed
-never to have been occupied. Near Moses Lake, Grant County, a
-wood rat house built in the rafters of an old shed was constructed
-entirely of tumbleweeds (<i>Salsola pestifer</i>). This house was spherical
-in shape and measured more than five feet in diameter. It
-appeared to be unoccupied and a wood rat, probably its builder, was
-living under the floor of the shed. Most wood rat houses consist
-of a half-dozen sticks arranged in a crevice in a rock pile or a cave.
-Wood rats were placing fresh material on a house in the Wenatchee
-National Forest on January 17, 1939, when there was two feet of
-snow on the ground and the temperature was hovering around zero.
-The house measured about one cubic yard and consisted of <i>Ceanothus</i>
-leaves and steins, with some twigs of fir (<i>Abies</i>). It was built under
-a bunk in a broken-down cabin left by deer hunters.</p>
-
-<p>The collecting habit of the wood rat has gained it the name "pack-rat."
-<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> (1920A: 91) lists the following materials from a wood
-rat nest on Mt. Rainier: <i>Nesting material</i>: rags, leaves, paper,
-thumb of a glove, string, thongs, oakum; <i>Food</i>: apple core, onion
-peel, bacon rind, raisins, 10 bars of chocolate, figs, puff balls, bread
-crust, meat scraps, cantaloupe rind, potatoes, dried apricots, lemons,
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span>
-mushrooms, beans, peanuts, banana, 15 lumps of sugar; <i>Miscellaneous</i>:
-dime, coffee can cover, paraffin from jelly glass, bones, 19
-pieces of candles and several cakes of soap.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">As a rule only one or two wood rats are trapped at a given locality,
-indicating that the species is not gregarious. The presence of wood
-rats in a building, cave, mine tunnel, or talus slide can be detected
-in several ways. The white, mineral-like incrustation formed by the
-urine of many generations of wood rats is usually conspicuous on
-rocks near their homes. A strong musky odor pervades the atmosphere
-in every habitat occupied by wood rats. Wood rat feces,
-consisting of hard, black cylinders one-half inch long and three-sixteenths
-of an inch in diameter, are invariably found scattered
-on stones or exposed areas of ground.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_108"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_336.jpg" alt="Fig. 108." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the bushy-tailed wood rat in Washington. A. <i>Neotoma
-    cinerea occidentalis.</i> B. <i>Neotoma cinerea alticola.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The food of the bushy-tailed wood rat is varied and includes insects
-and vegetation. A captive specimen that escaped in the University
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span>
-of Washington Zo&ouml;logical Laboratories killed and ate a
-number of lizards.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Embryos found from April 18 to June 14 varied in number from
-3 to 5.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Neotoma cinerea occidentalis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Neotoma occidentalis</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 335, 1855.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Neotoma cinerea occidentalis</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:58, July 30, 1891.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Shoalwater Bay (Willapa Bay), Pacific County, Washington,
-by J. G. Cooper, in June, 1854; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size large; color of upper parts cinnamon brown.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male and a female from Glade Creek, 1/2 mile north
-of the Columbia River, Benton County, measure, respectively: total length
-425, 395; length of tail 181, 176; hind foot 50, 44; ear 32, 31; weight 532.5,
-330.0 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Throughout the state except in the Blue Mountains.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Specimens from the Olympic Mountains and western Washington
-are slightly duller-colored than specimens from eastern Washington and
-young from western Washington are more bluish, less gray, than young individuals
-from the Columbian Plateau. The specimens from the Columbian
-Plateau show some resemblance to <i>alticola</i>. Specimens from northeastern
-Washington are more like typical <i>occidentalis</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Neotoma cinerea alticola&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Hooper</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Neotoma cinerca alticola</i> Hooper, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 42:409, May 17, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Parker Creek, 5,500 ft., Warner Mountains, Modoc
-County, California, by N. B. Stern on June 22, 1916; type in Museum of Vertebrate
-Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>Neotoma c. occidentalis</i> but slightly paler,
-with paler hind feet and narrower sphenopalatine vacuities.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia County,
-measures: total length 387; length of tail 171; hind foot 43; ear 33; weight
-330 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Southeastern Washington, south of the Snake River.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The only adult specimen available from the Blue Mountains
-shows well the characters attributed to <i>alticola</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Synaptomys borealis wrangeli&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Northern lemming mouse</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Synaptomys (Mictomys) wrangeli</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:63, March 19,
-1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Synaptomys (Mictomys) truei</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 10:62, March 19, 1896
-(type from Skagit Valley, Skagit County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Synaptomys borealis wrangeli</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 50:26, June 30, 1927.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Wrangel, Alexander Archipelago, Alaska, by C. P.
-Streator on September 6, 1895; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial character.</i>&mdash;Dark color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The northwestern Cascades, from Mt. Baker northward.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The relationship of this race to <i>artemisiae</i> remains to be worked
-out.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_109"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_338.jpg" alt="Fig. 109." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the northern lemming mouse in Washington. A.
-    <i>Synaptomys borealis wrangeli.</i> B. Possible range of <i>Synaptomys borealis
-    artemisiae</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Lemming mice may be recognized by their short,
-thick bodies, slightly larger than the bodies of the common house
-mouse (<i>Mus</i>); short tails, which are less than 20 per cent of their
-total length; small, inconspicuous ears; and grooved upper incisors.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Mice of the genus <i>Synaptomys</i> range over much of boreal North
-America. Two species and eleven races are recognized by <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>
-(1927B: 9). <i>Synaptomys borealis</i> ranges westward across Canada
-from Labrador to the Pacific Coast and from Alaska south to Washington.
-The lemming mice are terrestrial and inhabit runways similar
-to those of meadow mice (<i>Microtus</i>). They are alpine in distribution.
-<a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1930: 7-10) found them among typical annual
-herbs in a cold, boggy mountain valley. Other than this, nothing
-is known of the species in Washington. Indeed little is known of
-the life history of any member of the genus.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The lemming mouse possesses four pairs of mammae, two pectoral
-and two inguinal. It is the most primitive of the microtines. It
-seems to be of boreal origin but is not known from the Old World.
-It was evidently forced southward by the Pleistocene glaciers into
-Washington and is now retreating northward in the wake of the ice.
-The only specimens recorded from Washington are from the northern
-border of the state.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Phenacomys intermedius&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Heather vole</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Heather voles are heavy-bodied, short-legged mice,
-closely similar in general appearance to other microtines that occur
-in Washington. Their dull, brownish upper parts, lacking a distinct
-reddish dorsal stripe, separate them from the red-backed mice
-(<i>Clethrionomys</i>) and the lack of grooves on their upper incisors
-separates them from <i>Synaptomys</i>. Their relatively short tail (30
-per cent or less of their total length) separates them from most
-meadow mice (<i>Microtus</i>). There are no external characters which
-serve to separate them from all species of <i>Microtus</i> and the teeth
-must be examined certainly to identify <i>Phenacomys</i>. In <i>Microtus</i>
-the angles between the cusps of the inner and outer sides of the
-lower molars are of approximately equal depth, but in <i>Phenacomys</i>
-the angles on the inner side of the lower molars are at least twice
-as deep as those of the outer side of the jaw. In addition the molars
-of <i>Phenacomys</i> are rooted while those of <i>Microtus</i> are not.</p>
-
-<p>The heather voles and their relatives are primitive microtines
-that range through boreal North America including the higher parts
-of the Rocky Mountains and the cool area along the Pacific Coast.
-Several species are included in the genus: an arctic form (<i>ungava</i>),
-a lowland Pacific Coastal species (<i>albipes</i>), two tree-inhabiting
-species (<i>longicaudus</i> and <i>silvicola</i>) and a mountain species (<i>intermedius</i>).
-Thus far only <i>intermedius</i> has been found in Washington
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span>
-but further search may reveal that one or more of the arboreal
-species and possibly <i>albipes</i> are also present.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Heather voles are alpine animals, seldom occurring below the
-Hudsonian Life-zone. They are rare as compared with most microtines,
-and are seldom taken in traps, even by the experienced collector
-of small mammals. Evidence of their presence is most often
-found in the dense meadows of heather (<i>Cassiope</i> and <i>Phyllodoce</i>)
-high on the mountains. Here their feces, runways, and old winter
-nests are not uncommon, and heather voles may be far more abundant
-than trapping records indicate. They are not restricted to
-the vicinity of heather, however, for one of my specimens was taken
-in a marshy willow thicket near Stevens Pass in King County,
-one in a patch of skunk-cabbage in a grassy glacial cirque near
-Tomyhoi Lake in Whatcom County, and one at the edge of a snowbank
-on a steep hillside at Deer Park, Clallam County. In each
-of these places, however, there were heather meadows within a
-thousand yards. <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1924A: 12-15) also found the heather
-mouse on "comparatively dry hill slopes" and reports that it "rather
-characteristically occurs in such log-tangled areas as former fire
-zones."</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_110"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_340.jpg" alt="Fig. 110." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the heather vole in Washington. A. <i>Phenacomys
-    intermedius oramontis.</i> B. <i>Phenacomys intermedius intermedius.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p2">The winter nests of <i>Phenacomys intermedius</i> are placed on the
-surface of the ground and in the season when occupied are deeply
-buried under the snow. They are spherical or oval in shape, six to
-eight inches in diameter and with a side entrance. One examined
-by <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> was "formed of white heather twigs, the interstices being
-filled with leaves of huckleberry." It was "lined with finely
-shredded grass." All those examined by me were composed of grass
-and lichens.</p>
-
-<p>The principal foods of the heather vole seem to be white heather
-(<i>Cassiope mertensiana</i>) and huckleberry (<i>Vaccinium</i>). Red heather
-(<i>Phyllodoce empetriformis</i>) is not eaten. <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> also lists beargrass
-(<i>Xerophyllum tenax</i>) and lousewort (<i>Pedicularis</i>) as eaten.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">A burrow excavated and figured by <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, was slightly more than
-a yard long and contained four young in a nest situated but a few
-inches from one of the three entrances. The nest was made of grass
-and moss. A female taken at Tye, King County, contained 4 embryos
-on May 28, 1939. One taken at Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille
-County, contained 3 small embryos on June 14, 1938.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Phenacomys intermedius intermedius&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Phenacomys intermedius</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 2:32, October 30, 1889.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Phenacomys intermedius intermedius</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 48:15, October 12, 1926.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained 20 miles north-northwest of Kamloops, 5,500 ft. elevation,
-British Columbia, by G. M. Dawson on October 2, 1888; type in United States
-National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size small; color of upper parts brownish gray; skull
-small.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from Pass Creek Pass, Pend Oreille County,
-measured: total length 127; length of tail 29; hind foot 17; weight 25 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from extreme northeastern Washington at Pass
-Creek Pass (W.W.D.) and the Blue Mountains.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Phenacomys intermedius oramontis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Phenacomys oramontis</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Amer. Nat., 29:941, October, 1895.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Phenacomys olympicus</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zo&ouml;l. ser., 1:225, February 1,
-1899 (type from Happy Lake, 5,000 ft., Clallam County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus (Lagurus) pumilus</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zo&ouml;l. ser., 1:226, February
-1, 1899 (type from Happy Lake, 5,000 ft., Clallam County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Phenacomys intermedius olympicus</i> <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 48:21, October 12, 1926.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Phenacomys intermedius oramontis</i> <a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a>, Canadian Field Nat., 56:59, June 8, 1942.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on Church Mountain, 6,000 ft., Mt. Baker Range, British
-Columbia, just north of international boundary, by A. C. Brooks on August
-6, 1895; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>intermedius</i> but darker, browner above and
-deeper gray beneath; skull large and heavy.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from Tye, King County, measures: total length
-152; length of tail 40; hind foot 19; ear 12. A female from Tomyhoi Lake,
-Whatcom County, measures: 170; 45; 20; 15.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Cascade and Olympic mountains, from Tomyhoi Lake
-(W. W. D.) on the north, to Mt. Adams (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929:23) on the
-south.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Clethrionomys gapperi&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Vigors)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Gapper red-backed mouse</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Red-backed mice are heavy-bodied, short-tailed
-and short-legged mice, similar in general appearance to the meadow
-mice (<i>Microtus</i>). Unlike the meadow mice, they possess rooted
-molars, a primitive character. They do not have grooved incisors,
-like <i>Synaptomys</i>, or the great difference in the depth of the angles
-of the lower molars that characterizes both <i>Synaptomys</i> and <i>Phenacomys</i>.
-Externally <i>Clethrionomys</i> may be recognized by the
-broad red dorsal area from which they obtain their common name.
-Their sides are grayish or dusky and the undersides buffy white.</p>
-
-<p>The red-backed mice, including more than one species, range over
-the boreal parts of the Old and New World. In America they are
-found in most of Alaska, Canada and the northern United States,
-and extend southward in the Rocky Mountains and along the Pacific
-Coast. The one species <i>Clethrionomys gapperi</i> ranges across southern
-Canada from the Atlantic to the Pacific, extending southward
-in forested areas to New Mexico. They usually live in clearings in
-the forest. In the Pend Oreille Mountains <i>saturatus</i> was common
-in damp, mossy talus slides, along with <i>Microtus longicaudus</i> and
-<i>Phenacomys intermedius</i>. The <i>Clethrionomys</i> outnumbered the two
-latter species combined by 25 to 1. In nearby forest, red-backed
-mice were scarce but no other microtines were found. In the Kettle
-River Mountains a week later, red-backed mice were rare. A single
-specimen was taken in a damp place in the forest; none was found
-in talus slides. Near Stevens Pass, King County, in the Cascades,
-<i>cascadensis</i> was taken in equal numbers in talus slides and under
-logs in the forest. Near Dewey Lake, Yakima County, in the Cascades,
-I took them only in an extensive grassy meadow. In the
-Blue Mountains I found <i>idahoensis</i> in the dense chaparral, far from
-forests.</p>
-
-<p>Unlike <i>Microtus</i>, red-backed mice do not make runways, although
-they sometimes follow the runways of other mammals.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1"><a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> (1920B: 92) found red-backed mice breeding on Mount
-Rainier from early July to the middle of September. One female
-gave birth to four young in a nest in his duffle bag.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_111"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_343.jpg" alt="Fig. 111." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the Gapper and California red-backed mice in
-    Washington. A. <i>Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus.</i> B. <i>Clethrionomys gapperi
-    idahoensis.</i> C. <i>Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius.</i> D. <i>Clethrionomys gapperi
-    cascadensis.</i> E. <i>Clethrionomys californicus occidentalis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Clethrionomys gapperi saturatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Evotomys gapperi saturatus</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 284, October 23,
-1894.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-[<i>Clethrionomys gapperi</i>] <i>saturatus</i> <a href="#p_Whitlow">Whitlow</a> and <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 40:265,
-September 30, 1933.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Nelson, British Columbia, by S. N. <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a> on August
-27, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size small, about 140 mm. in total length; tail short,
-about one-third of total length; ears large, projecting above fur; color of head
-and sides gray tinged with yellowish; back with distinct red stripe; underparts
-whitish tinged with buff.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Five males and 10 females from Pass Creek Pass, Pend
-Oreille County, average: total length 147; length of tail 43; hind foot 18.3;
-ear 14.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington from Sherman Creek Pass (W. W.
-D.) on the west to Pass Creek Pass on the east.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Evotomys idahoensis</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:66, July 30, 1891.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Clethrionomys gapperi idahoensis</i> <a href="#p_Whitlow">Whitlow</a> and <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 40:265,
-September 30, 1933.</p></div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Sawtooth (Alturas) Lake, 7,200 ft., Blaine County,
-Idaho, by C. H. <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> and V. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, on October 4, 1890; type in United
-States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>saturatus</i> but brain case longer and narrower
-and dorsal area more reddish.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Seven males and 6 females from the Blue Mountains average,
-respectively: total length 138, 142; length of tail 41, 41; hind foot 18.7,
-19.0; ear 13.6, 13.5; weight 20.5, 22.7 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Booth">Booth</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Evotomys gapperi saturatus</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:23,
-December, 1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Clethrionomys gapperi cascadensis</i> <a href="#p_Booth">Booth</a>, Murrelet, 26:27, August 10, 1945.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained 2 miles south of Blewett Pass, 3,000 ft. elevation, Kittitas
-County, Washington, by G. G. Cantwell, on October 30, 1921; type in United
-States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Dark and dull with underparts dull buffy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Ten adults from the Cascade Mountains average (<a href="#p_Booth">Booth</a>,
-1945: 27): total length 162; length of tail 50; hind foot 19; ear 14.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Cascade Mountains, according to <a href="#p_Booth">Booth</a> (<i>loc. cit.</i>, p. 28),
-from Hannegan Pass south to Mount Adams. Marginal localities listed are:
-Swamp Creek, Glacier Peak, McKenna, and Mt. St. Helens. These, and other
-localities listed by <a href="#p_Booth">Booth</a> are not plotted on the accompanying distribution
-map (fig. 111).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Clethrionomys gapperi nivarius&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Evotomys nivarius</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:136, May 13, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Evotomys gapperi nivarius</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:23,
-1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Clethrionomys nivarius</i> <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a>, Murrelet, 12:54, May, 1931.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on the northwest slope of Mt. Ellinor, 4,000 ft. elevation,
-Mason County, Washington, by C. P. Streator, on July 9, 1894; type in United
-States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>saturatus</i> but paler throughout.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and a female from 1 mile northwest of Lake
-Cushman, Mason County, average: total length 140; length of tail 42; hind
-foot 18; ear 13.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Olympic Mountains, from Sol Duc Hot Springs
-(W.S.M.) south and west at least to Staircase, on Lake Cushman (W.W.D.).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Clethrionomys californicus occidentalis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">California red-backed mouse</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Evotomys occidentalis</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 4:25, October 8, 1890.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Evotomys pygmaeus</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 284, October 23, 1894
-(type from mouth of Nisqually River, Pierce County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Evotomys gapperi occidentalis</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., no.
-2:23, 1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Clethrionomys occidentalis</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Murrelet, 13:79, September, 1932.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Aberdeen, Grays Harbor County, Washington, by T. S.
-Palmer, on August 16, 1889; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Ten males and 10 females average: total length 137;
-length of tail 45; hind foot 18; ear 12.3.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The lowlands of western Washington, east at least to Cottage
-Lake (W. W. D.).</p>
-
-<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Specimens from the type locality of <i>occidentalis</i> and
-other places along the ocean coast are larger and brighter in color
-than specimens from farther inland, but the difference appears to
-me to be insufficient to warrant subspecific separation of the two
-lots.</p>
-
-<p><i>Clethrionomys californicus</i> resembles <i>Clethrionomys gapperi</i> but
-is darker and duller in color with the red dorsal area more obscured
-and forming less of a stripe. <i>C. californicus</i> is found in the forested
-lowlands of western Washington, Oregon, and northern California,
-and in the Cascades of Oregon. In Washington, it is confined entirely
-to the forest where it is trapped under logs and on the layer
-of dead needles at the bases of conifers. Mice of this species were
-numerous in the forest along the Pacific Coast on the Long
-Beach Peninsula and at Aberdeen, Grays Harbor County. At Lost
-Lake Prairie, Mason County, at the southeastern base of the
-Olympic Mountains, they were rather scarce, but were the only
-mammals taken in the deep woods. Near Shelton, Mason County,
-at the eastern edge of the Olympic Mountains, a number of specimens
-were taken along with twice as many <i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>.
-At Cottage Lake, King County, near Seattle, they were rare,
-comprising about two per cent of the mammals taken in two weeks'
-trapping.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Almost nothing was learned of the habits of these mice. They
-seem to be rigidly restricted to a habitat where few plants other
-than trees grow. The stomachs examined contained pasty masses
-of finely chewed white vegetation with occasional gray particles
-that might have been bits of lichens. The mice do not make runways
-like those of <i>Microtus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Microtus pennsylvanicus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Ord)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Pennsylvanian meadow mouse</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The upper parts are dark blackish brown and the
-underparts grayish or whitish. The tail comprises about a fourth
-of the total length and the foot does not exceed 21 mm. These two
-features separate it from most other species of meadow mice. From
-<i>Microtus oregoni</i> it may be separated by its larger size, blackish
-color and well-developed eyes. From <i>Microtus montanus</i> it differs
-in being larger, darker, and in having a closed posterior loop on the
-innerside of the second upper molar.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_112"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_346.jpg" alt="Fig. 112." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span>&nbsp;
-    Pennsylvania meadow mouse (<i>Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi</i>),
-    from ten miles south of Moses Lake, Washington, April 28, 1940. (Fish and
-    Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 937.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2"><i>Microtus pennsylvanicus</i> is the most common meadow mouse of
-the eastern United States. It ranges westward through Canada and
-southward in the Rocky Mountains. A number of races occur in this
-extensive range. In northeastern Washington the eastern meadow
-mouse is locally common, being confined to marshes and damp
-meadows. Well-used runways are made through the dense vegetation
-and piles of feces and blades of grass are deposited therein. A
-number of broods are raised in a season, for young of many different
-ages are taken together in midsummer.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">On the Columbian Plateau this mouse lives in marshy areas about
-lakes and potholes. Narrow trails are constructed through the
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>
-dense vegetation. It burrows in damp earth and some occupied
-burrows are half-full of seepage water. Cuttings found in runways
-show that the mice feed on a variety of plants, including sedge
-(<i>Carex</i>). In the Moses Lake area the breeding season begins in
-March. Embryos found March 24, 1940, varied from 4 to 7 in
-number. This species is cyclically abundant.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_113"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_347.jpg" alt="Fig. 113." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the Pennsylvania meadow mouse in Washington.
-    A. <i>Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris.</i> B. <i>Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Dale">Dale</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus pennsylvanicus modestus</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:20, June 6, 1900.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus drummondii</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:22, June 6, 1900.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus pennsylvanicus funebris</i> <a href="#p_Dale">Dale</a>, Jour. Mamm., 21:338, August 13, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Coldstream. 1,450 ft., 3-1/2 miles southeast of Vernon.
-British Columbia, by T. P. Maslin. Jr., on August 2, 1937; type in Museum
-of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size medium; color reddish brown; fur short, harsh;
-skull small and narrow.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Three males from Newport, Pend Oreille County, average:
-total length 165; length of tail 40; hind foot 20; ear 15.3.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington, west to Conconully (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and
-<a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 24) and east to Newport (W. W. D.).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Specimens from northeastern Washington are larger and darker,
-more reddish and less gray, than <i>drummondii</i>. They are larger, more reddish,
-and have relatively narrower skulls, than <i>modestus</i> from Colorado and Idaho.
-They closely resemble <i>funebris</i> from south-central British Columbia, and
-are best referred to that race. <a href="#p_Rand">Rand</a> (1943: 123) considers <i>funebris</i> a synonym
-of <i>modestus</i> but I feel is incorrect in doing so.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Microtus pennsylvanicus kincaidi&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus montanus kincaidi</i> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 54:145, September 30,
-1941.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at The Potholes, 10 miles south of Moses Lake, Grant
-County, Washington, by W. W. <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> on March 24, 1940; type in Museum
-of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Large size; dark blackish color; long fur; wide, angular
-skull.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Six male and 12 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 176.6, 168.0; length of tail 45.1, 43.8; hind foot 20.8, 20.3;
-ear 14.0, 13.4.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Columbian Plateau, in the Grand Coulee area.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Microtus montanus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Peale)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Montane meadow mouse</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Montane meadow mice have short tails, flaring
-zygomatic arches, and heavily ridged skulls. They are small, about
-6-1/2 inches long, and buffy-gray in color. Their short tails, less
-than one-third the length of head and body, and gray color separate
-them from all other Washington meadow mice.</p>
-
-<p>Montane meadow mice are widely distributed in the southwestern
-United States, where numerous races are found. They occupy
-damp meadows and marshes in the arid subdivision of the Transition
-Life-zone of eastern Washington. They seem to require deep,
-dense cover of grasses, reeds, or sedges, near water. They are
-usually associated with harvest mice (<i>Reithrodontomys megalotis</i>),
-wandering shrews (<i>Sorex vagrans monticola</i>), and muskrats (<i>Ondatra
-zibethica</i>). Hawks and owls are their principal enemies,
-but predatory mammals and snakes probably kill many.</p>
-
-<p>Montane meadow mice evidently are both diurnal and nocturnal;
-specimens were taken in the daytime as well as at night, and captives
-were active periodically day and night. Captives were extremely
-quick in their movements. If disturbed they sat up on their
-haunches and chattered indignantly. It was almost impossible to
-handle them without being bitten.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The trails of montane meadow mice are narrower than those of
-other meadow mice, and appear to be used the year around. Burrows
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span>
-are numerous where the mice are plentiful. A heap of damp
-earth marks the entrance to each burrow. One nest of <i>M. m. canescens</i>
-near Lake Chelan, Chelan County, was under a log on a
-small knoll in a marsh. The nest was round, about 8 inches in
-diameter, and was composed of cattails, grasses, and moss.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_114"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_349.jpg" alt="Fig. 114." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the montane and Townsend meadow mice in
-    Washington. A. <i>Microtus montanus nanus.</i> B. <i>Microtus montanus canescens.</i>
-    C. <i>Microtus townsendii townsendii.</i> D. <i>Microtus townsendii pugeti.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<h4>Microtus montanus nanus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Arvicola (Mynomes) nanus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:63, July 30, 1891.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus nanus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:67, April 21, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus nanus nanus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., 128:409, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus montanus nanus</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 51:133, August 23, 1938.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained in the Pahsimeroi Mountains, 9,300 ft., Custer County,
-Idaho, by C. H. <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> and V. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> on September 16, 1890; type in
-United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size medium; color of upper parts brownish gray; sides
-paler; underparts grayish white.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A large male from Prescott, Walla Walla County, measures:
-total length 168; length of tail 48; hind foot 20. A female from Prescott,
-Walla Walla County, and a female from Pullman, Whitman County,
-average: 133; 31; 18.5.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Southeastern Washington, westward as far as 5 miles east
-of Wallula (M.V.Z.).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Microtus montanus canescens&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus nanus canescens</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:87, April 30, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus montanus canescens</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 51:133, August 23, 1938.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Conconully, Okanogan County, Washington, by J. A.
-Loring, on September 12, 1897; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size small; color of upper parts pale brownish gray;
-sides yellowish gray. This race differs from <i>Microtus m. nanus</i> in generally
-paler, less brownish coloration. It does not differ from <i>nanus</i> in any distinctive
-cranial features.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two male and 2 female topotypes average, respectively:
-total length 151, 143; length of tail 35, 33.5; hind foot, 19.5, 19.5. A series of
-8 males and 6 females from Selah, Yakima County, average, respectively: total
-length 151.7, 150.5; length of tail 41.5, 40.1; hind foot 19.7, 18.8; ear 12.8, 13.0;
-weight 47.2, 36.8 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The eastern foothills of the Cascade Mountains from the
-British Columbian boundary south, probably to the Columbia River. Recorded
-east to Benton City (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 24).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;A large series from Selah, Yakima County, is somewhat intermediate
-between <i>nanus</i> and <i>canescens</i>. These specimens from south of the
-Wenatchee Mountains are, however, more like <i>canescens</i> in color than they are
-like <i>nanus</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> (1900: 32) records a specimen of this race from North Yakima as
-<i>Microtus canicaudus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Microtus townsendii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Bachman)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Townsend meadow mouse</span></h3>
-
-<p><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The Townsend meadow mouse is a large-bodied,
-long-furred mouse with a tail of moderate length. Head and body
-measure about 8 inches, the tail about 2-1/2 inches. The legs are
-short and the ears scarcely project through the fur on the head.
-In summer the color is dark reddish-brown. The winter color is dark
-brownish-black. Underparts are paler, more grayish brown, than
-are the upper parts. The tail is sparsely haired.</p>
-
-<p>Townsend meadow mice occur west of the Cascade Mountains in
-California, Washington, Oregon, British Columbia, and on some
-British Columbian and Washington islands. The habitats of the
-two races of the Townsend meadow mice found in Washington are
-wholly in the humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone but
-vary somewhat in nature. The race <i>townsendii</i> lives in marshes or
-damp meadows, under cover of deep, rank vegetation. These mice
-avoid forested areas or dry brush, but sometimes occur in dry grass
-when it is deep enough to conceal them from enemies. The race
-<i>pugeti</i> has been recorded from meadows, salt marshes, driftwood
-strewn on sea-beaches, areas of sparse, dry grass, and piles of rocks.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Townsend meadow mice are as diurnal as they are nocturnal;
-specimens have been trapped at almost all hours of the day and
-night. Their ordinary method of traveling is a slow run. When
-startled they make a dash for the nearest cover, into which they
-dive headlong. They make considerable noise while moving about
-and often may be heard from several feet away. Captives in the
-laboratory seemed rather dull and stupid as compared with other
-meadow mice.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_115"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_351.jpg" alt="Fig. 115." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>&nbsp;
-    Runways of Townsend meadow mice (<i>Microtus
-    townsendii</i>) worn to grooves in the damp soil at Seattle;
-    May 18, 1938; dense cover of cattails has been
-    burned off (W. W. <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a> photo).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">In the fall, winter, and early spring the Townsend meadow mice
-keep to their runways. These runways are used by successive generations
-of mice, and often are worn into ditches several inches
-deep. In the late spring and summer, when the grass and other
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>
-vegetation in their habitat is tall and rank, offering complete concealment,
-the runways are abandoned and cuttings of rejected food
-are found scattered over the surface of the ground.</p>
-
-<p>The food of the Townsend meadow mice includes the succulent
-leaves and stems of many grasses and annuals. Near Seattle the
-staple summer food is the velvet grass (<i>Holcus lanatus</i>), although
-many other plants, including the horsetail (<i>Equisetum arvense</i>),
-are eaten. In winter the common cattail is eaten. <a href="#p_Couch">Couch</a> (1925:
-200) found caches of the roots of mint (<i>Mentha canadensis</i>) stored
-by this species. As much as 14 quarts was found in a single cache.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The cup-shaped nests of Townsend meadow mice near Seattle
-were below ground. Embryos were found from May 4 to May 20
-and varied in number from 5 to 8 with a mean of 7. In the San Juan
-Islands the nests of <i>M. t. pugeti</i> were under driftwood.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Microtus townsendii townsendii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Bachman)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Arvicola townsendii</i> Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 (pt. 1):60, 1839.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Arvicola occidentalis</i> Peale, U. S. Expl. Exped., Mammalogy, p. 45, 1848 (type from Puget
-Sound).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>M[icrotus]. townsendi</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 12:66, July 23, 1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus townsendii townsendii</i> <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> and <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a>, Murrelet, 14:40, May, 1933.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on the Columbia River (probably on or near Sauvie
-Island, Multnomah County, Oregon); type in Philadelphia Academy of
-Natural Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size large; skull narrow in interorbital region.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Eight males and 5 females from Clark and Pacific counties,
-southwestern Washington, average, respectively: total length 208.0,
-208.4; length of tail 65.7, 66.0; hind foot 26.5, 25.4; ear 15.0, 14.6; weight
-80.8, 76.7 grams. Thirteen males and 9 females from Seattle average, respectively:
-211.8, 209.0; 71.2, 68.6; 25.7, 26.0; 15.8, 15.4.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The lowlands of western Washington from Bellingham
-(J.M.E.) south to Puget Island (V.B.S.).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Microtus townsendii pugeti&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus townsendii pugeti</i> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, Murrelet, 21:7, April 1, 1940.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Neck Point, northwest corner of <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> Island, San
-Juan County, Washington, by D. H. <a href="#p_Johnson">Johnson</a>, on July 10, 1938; type in
-Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size small; skull wide in interorbital region, averaging
-about 4.0 mm. (3.8-4.2); basi-sphenoid truncate posteriorly; upper incisors
-strongly curved.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and 6 females average: total length 182.6;
-length of tail 50.3; hind foot 23.2; ear 15.0.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Found only on the San Juan Islands, San Juan and Skagit
-counties.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The islands occupied by this race of mouse were heavily glaciated
-by the last continental glacier (Vashon). Mice of the species <i>townsendii</i>
-apparently migrated to the islands early in the Recent era, and under isolation
-developed the differences which now separate them from the mainland
-population.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Microtus longicaudus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Long-tailed meadow mouse</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The several races of this species vary from small to
-large in size. Their bodies are relatively longer and slimmer than
-those of the other meadow mice that occur in Washington. Their
-most distinctive feature is the long tail, only slightly shorter than
-the head and body. Their fur is rather coarse. The color varies
-from grayish brown to dull reddish brown with a brighter brown
-dorsal stripe. The tail is bicolor; black or dark brown above, yellowish
-below. The underparts are whitish gray.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_116"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_353.jpg" alt="Fig. 116." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the long-tailed meadow mouse in Washington. A.
-    <i>Microtus longicaudus macrurus.</i> B. <i>Microtus longicaudus halli.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Long-tailed meadow mice are widely distributed over the western
-United States, Canada, and Alaska. In Washington the long-tailed
-meadow mouse has been taken in many habitats. One specimen was
-taken along a small, temporary stream through sagebrush in the
-Upper Sonoran Life-zone. Others were found in marshes and near
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span>
-water in the arid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone. In the
-humid subdivision of the Transition Life-zone they are not uncommon
-in damp areas along the ocean coast, but are rather rare
-in dry, grassy habitats. In the Canadian and Hudsonian life-zones
-they are fairly common in forest-free, grassy places, being most
-abundant near talus slides. Altitudinally they range from sea level
-to 6,000 feet.</p>
-
-<p>Long-tailed meadow mice are rather rare. Several were taken
-in the daytime at Round Top Mountain, Pend Oreille County, and
-two others were taken in daytime two miles south of Tenino, Thurston
-County. However most of the specimens were caught at night.</p>
-
-<p>Long-tailed meadow mice do not, at least ordinarily, make trails
-as do other meadow mice. Specimens are usually taken unexpectedly,
-and intensive trapping in the area where a specimen or two is
-taken rarely yields additional individuals.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Two specimens taken in the Cascade Mountains in September were
-pregnant; one contained two embryos and the other four.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Microtus longicaudus halli&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus mordax angustus</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 37:13, April 10, 1931 (not of
-Thomas, 1908).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus longicaudus angustus</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 19:491, November 14, 1938.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus mordax halli</i> <a href="#p_Ellerman">Ellerman</a>, Fam. and Genera of Living Rodents, British Mus. Nat.
-Hist., 2:603, March 21, 1941 (new name for <i>Microtus mordax angustus</i> <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a>).</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Godman Springs, 5,700 ft., Blue Mountains, Columbia
-County, Washington, by S. H. Lyman, on September 1, 1927; type in Museum
-of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size small; color of sides pale grayish brown; brown
-dorsal stripe conspicuous; tail relatively short.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Four males and 5 females from eastern Washington average,
-respectively: total length 164.8, 166.6; length of tail 55.8, 55.8; hind
-foot 22.0, 21.4.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington north,
-along the eastern edge of the state, to British Columbia, and thence west,
-north of the Columbia River, to the Cascades, and south along the eastern
-edge of the Cascades to the Wenatchee Mountains. Marginal occurrences
-are: Pasayten River (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 24), Hart Lake (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and
-<a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 24), Blewett Pass (W.W.D.), Boulder Cave (W.W.D.), and
-Satus Pass (W.W.D.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Four specimens from Satus Pass, Klickitat County, are somewhat
-intermediate between this race and <i>macrurus</i>, and indicate that <i>halli</i> crossed
-the Columbia River when an alpine meadow land extended from the Simcoe
-Anticline to southeastern Washington.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2">One specimen from Selah, Yakima County, is colored somewhat like <i>halli</i>,
-and is smaller than <i>macrurus</i>. Possibly the <i>halli</i> type of meadow mouse
-spread northward to the Yakima Valley. This specimen was taken in the
-Upper Sonoran Life-zone. A specimen from the Arid Transition Zone at
-Naches, Yakima County (taken in almost Canadian Life-zone habitat), is
-like <i>macrurus-halli</i> intergrades from the higher Cascade Mountains.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Microtus longicaudus macrurus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus macrurus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 353, October 4, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus mordax macrurus</i> <a href="#p_Dice">Dice</a>, Murrelet, 13:49, May, 1932.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus longicaudus macrurus</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Jour. Mamm., 19:491, November 14, 1938.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Lake Cushman, Mason County, Washington, by C. P.
-Streator on June 26, 1894; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size large; tail relatively long, almost as long as head
-and body; color of upper parts dull brown; dorsal stripe obscure; underparts
-gray.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and 4 females from the Olympic Mountains and
-the coast of Washington, average, respectively: total length 212.5, 220.5;
-length of tail 82.5, 86.8; hind foot 25.5, 24.7; ear 15.0, 13.7.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Olympic Mountains, the coast region of western Washington,
-and the Cascade Mountains, save in the southeastern part. Marginal
-occurrences are: Sauk (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 24), Tye (W.W.D.), Naches
-River (W.W.D.), and Wind River (W.W.D.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Specimens from the Cascade Mountains are referred to <i>macrurus</i>
-but are intermediate between that race and <i>halli</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Microtus richardsoni&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(De Kay)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Water rat</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;This is the largest meadow mouse found in Washington.
-It is too large to be called a mouse and the term water rat,
-applied to it by <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, suits it well. It is the only Washington
-microtine measuring more than 8 inches in total length. The upper
-parts are dark, reddish brown in color; the underparts are grayish
-brown. The tail comprises about one-third of the total length.</p>
-
-<p>This species of meadow mouse ranges from Canada south to Colorado
-in the Rocky Mountains and in the Cascades south into Oregon.
-The water rats are strictly alpine animals, occurring about streams,
-marshes and damp meadows. In the Cascade Mountains they are
-most common in the glacial cirques where tiny streams flow through
-grassy meadows to plunge over the lip of the cirque on a rocky
-course of cascades to the valley below. Here their broad trails occur
-along the stream banks, commonly entering the water where it
-is swift. These trails are well-worn roads, usually about four inches
-wide but often wider. The burrows of the water rat are about
-three inches in diameter and are constructed with no effort at concealment;
-large mounds of earth mark their entrances. Freshly dug
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>
-burrows are so abundant that it seems likely more are dug than are
-actually inhabited. Burrows are often dug beneath rocks.</p>
-
-<p>The water rat is mainly nocturnal but not uncommonly is seen in
-the daytime. Twice I cornered a water rat away from its burrow
-and each time it escaped by swimming. The rats swam with great
-speed but with much splashing. One dived under the surface of a
-small pool and disappeared. Stones along the bank were pulled out
-until the rat was captured in a small chamber at the end of a burrow.
-The burrow entered the bank at the base of a large stone six
-inches beneath the surface. This burrow resembled a miniature
-muskrat burrow and apparently had been dug when the rat was
-under water.</p>
-
-<p>Like <i>Phenacomys</i>, the water rat constructs sub-snow nests on the
-surface of the ground. These are recognizable by their large size
-and by piles of ovoid droppings a quarter of an inch in length.
-These nests are loosely built and fall apart soon after the snow melts.</p>
-
-<p>The water rat is sometimes a pest to the mammal collector for
-they spring mouse traps set for other mammals without becoming
-caught. At times the greater part of an entire trap line was thus
-rendered ineffective by these mammals. Fully adult animals are
-uncommon in collections for a rat trap or steel trap is needed to
-take them and these items, when packed on back up mountains to
-water-rat habitat, are usually set for still larger animals. <a href="#p_Racey">Racey</a>
-(<a href="#p_Racey">Racey</a> and <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a>, 1935: H27) recounting his difficulty in securing
-specimens when no suitable traps were at hand, writes: "Killed one
-with my hands, shot another, and a third was stunned by a mouse
-trap."</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1927: 76) list food eaten by the water rat on
-Mount Rainier as the avalanche lily, dogtooth violet, <i>Ligusticum
-purpureum</i>, <i>Valeriana sitchensis</i>, <i>Polygonum bistortoides</i>, <i>Petasites
-frigida</i>, <i>Phyllodoce empetriformis</i>, <i>Potentilla flabellifolia</i>, <i>Aster</i> sp.,
-grass, wild clover, conifer seeds, two kinds of blueberry (<i>Vacinnium</i>)
-and <i>Xerophyllum tenax</i>. <a href="#p_Racey">Racey</a> and <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> (1935) list foods eaten
-in the Cascades of southern British Columbia as <i>Lupinus polyphyllus</i>,
-<i>Senecio balsamitae</i>, <i>Pedicularis bractiosa</i> and <i>Arnica alpinus</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">A female from Dewey Lake, Yakima County, contained 4 embryos
-on September 1, 1940. One from Tye, King County, had 2
-embryos on September 8, 1940.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Aulacomys arvicoloides</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Amer. Nat., 28:182, February, 1894.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus richardsoni arvicoloides</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:62, June 6, 1900.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Washington, by A.
-Rupert in September, 1893. <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a> gives the altitude as 8,000 ft. This
-apparently is an error, for the elevation of the lake is 2,458 ft. and the summit
-of Snoqualmie Pass, to the west, is 3,100 ft. Probably 3,000 ft. was
-intended; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size large; color of upper parts dark reddish brown;
-underparts paler.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_117"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_357.jpg" alt="Fig. 117." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the water rat in Washington. A. <i>Microtus richardsoni
-    arvicoloides.</i> B. <i>Microtus richardsoni macropus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from Tomyhoi Lake, Whatcom County, measured:
-total length 242; length of tail 68; hind foot 27; ear 17. A female from
-Tye, King County, measured: 257; 83; 26; 17.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Cascade Mountains, from Tomyhoi Lake (W.W.D.)
-south to Potato Hill (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, 1929: 25).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Microtus richardsoni macropus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Arvicola (Mynomes) macropus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:60, July 30, 1891.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus richardsoni macropus</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 17:61, June 6, 1900.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus richardsonii macropus</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Pap. Chas. R. Conner Mus., no. 2:25,
-December, 1929.</p></div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained in the Pashimeroi Mountains, 9,700 ft., Custer County,
-Idaho, by C. H. <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> and V. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> in 1890; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>arvicoloides</i> but slightly smaller and redder.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia County,
-measures: total length 228; length of tail 73; hind foot 25; ear 14.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Microtus oregoni oregoni&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Bachman)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Creeping mouse</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Arvicola oregoni</i> Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8:60, 1839.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus oregoni</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 12:9, July 23, 1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus morosus</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zo&ouml;l. ser., 1:227, February 1, 1899
-(type from Boulder Lake, 5,000 ft., Clallam County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus oregoni oregoni</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:227, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08 pmb1">
-<i>Microtus oregoni cantwelli</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>, Jour. Mamm., 1:180, August 24, 1920 (type from Glacier
-Basin, 5,935 ft., Mt. Rainier, Pierce County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_118"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_358.jpg" alt="Fig. 118." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the creeping mouse, <i>Microtus oregoni oregoni</i>,
-    in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Astoria, Clatsop County, Oregon, by J. K. <a href="#p_Townsend">Townsend</a>
-in 1836; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Ten males and 10 females from southwestern Washington,
-average, respectively: total length 133, 126; length of tail 35, 32; hind foot 16.9,
-16.7; ear 9.8, 9.7; weight 19.3, 19.1 grams.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Cascade Mountains, the Olympic Mountains, and the
-lowlands of western Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;A large series of topotypes of <i>Microtus o. oregoni</i> in the California
-Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy, and the rather large series from Cowlitz
-County, Washington, show a wide range of variation in color, size, and cranial
-characters. Specimens from the Cascade and Olympic Mountains seem to
-average a bit paler than topotypes of <i>oregoni</i>, but are not worthy of recognition
-as distinct races. Too few topotypes of <i>Microtus o. serpens</i> from British
-Columbia are available to judge the status of that race with any certainty,
-but specimens from northwestern Washington are certainly <i>oregoni</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The creeping mouse is a small species of general
-microtine form. The head and body measure about 4 inches and
-the tail about 1-1/2 inches. The ears are small and the eyes tiny,
-nearly buried in the fur. The fur is short and rather rough. It
-does not lie back smoothly, thereby giving a woolly appearance.
-The upper parts are reddish or grayish brown and the underparts
-are grayish white. The nondescript appearance suggests a young
-rather than adult mouse.</p>
-
-<p>The creeping mouse (subgenus <i>Chilotus</i>) is restricted to the Pacific
-Coast and ranges from British Columbia to California. In
-Washington it occupies almost every conceivable "mouse" habitat
-in its range, including wet marshes, damp ravines, dry forest, damp,
-mossy forest, meadows, alpine meadows and fields of short grass.
-It is rare in all but the latter habitat. In fields of short or dry
-grass it is often abundant. In the Cascade Mountains it was in
-relatively dry places along streams or rock slides. Altitudinally
-it ranges from sea level to at least 6,000 feet, and from the Humid
-Transition well into the Hudsonian life-zones.</p>
-
-<p>Creeping mice construct tiny tunnels among the grass roots and
-seldom venture out of them. In suitable habitat the surface of
-the ground beneath the grass is a maze of these tunnels, which cross,
-intersect, and divide in a complex network. An observer standing
-in a field occupied by creeping mice can scarcely conceive of the
-extent and perfection of the tiny tunnel system at his feet.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Creeping mice lived but a day or two in captivity. Save for the
-bits of grass blades left in their runways, little is known of their
-food or other life habits. Their nests are round balls of dry grasses
-placed in cavities under logs. None of the many examined possessed
-a lining of softer materials. Embryos found in pregnant females
-from April 10 to May 18 numbered from 2 to 4.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Lagurus curtatus pauperrimus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Cooper)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Sagebrush vole</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Arvicola pauperrima</i> Cooper, Amer. Nat., 2:535, December, 1868.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Arvicola pauperrimus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 5:64, July 30, 1891.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>L[agurus]. pauperrimus</i> Thomas, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, 9:401, April, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Microtus pauperrimus</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 55:214, August 29, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lemmiscus pauperrimus</i> <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>, Recent Mamm. Idaho, Caxton Printers, p. 327, April 5, 1939.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lemmiscus curtatus pauperrimus</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 54:70, July 31,
-1941.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on the "Plains of the Columbia" near the Snake River,
-southwestern Washington by J. G. Cooper on October 9, 1860. Probably
-from the Bunchgrass Hills near Wallula (Old Fort Walla Walla), Walla
-Walla County: type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> (1900: 69) gives the average of 3 adults from the
-vicinity of Antelope, Oregon, as: total length 115; length of tail 20; hind
-foot 16.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known in Washington only from the type and a specimen
-from Badger Mountains, 8 miles southwest of Waterville (<a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>,
-1929: 25).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This rare vole is the smallest microtine rodent in
-Washington. The head and body measure about 4 inches and the
-tail about 1 inch. The upper parts are grayish or yellowish brown
-and the underparts grayish. The upper incisors are not grooved
-and the inner and outer angles of the molars are about equal in
-length.</p>
-
-<p>Mice of the genus <i>Lagurus</i> occur in Siberia and in prairie areas
-of the northwestern United States and Canada. The sagebrush
-vole inhabits the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. It prefers upland areas
-of low sagebrush with sparse grass. Poorly formed runways and
-small piles of feces indicate its presence. The type of <i>Lagurus
-pauperrimus</i> was obtained in southwestern Washington 80 years
-ago, and a single additional record has since been obtained. Nothing
-is known of its habits in Washington. The life history of related
-forms has been reported on by <a href="#p_Hall">Hall</a> (1928: 201-204) from
-Nevada and <a href="#p_Moore">Moore</a> (1943: 188-191) from Oregon.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a> (1939: 326) raised the subgenus <i>Lemmiscus</i> Thomas (for
-American forms) to generic rank and <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a> (1941: 69) accepted
-this usage. Comparison of the Siberian and American
-species reveals but three impressive differences: the dorsal stripe
-of the Siberian mice, the greater development of prisms in the
-molars of the American species, and the presence of cement in the
-angles of the molars of the Siberian specimens and its lack in the
-American. These differences seem to be of no more than subgeneric
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>
-value. <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a> (1941: 69) showed that all American <i>Lagurus</i>
-belong to a single species.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Ondatra zibethicus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Linnaeus)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Muskrat</span></h3>
-
-<p class="pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The muskrat is a large aquatic rodent. Head and
-body measure about 14 inches; the tail about 10 inches. The body
-is plump and the head small. Eyes and ears are relatively small.
-The forefeet are small and handlike with furred wrists. The hind
-feet are large with webbed toes and naked wrists. The tail is narrow,
-constricted at the base and flattened vertically. It is scaled
-and possesses scattered, stiff hairs. The underfur is dense and soft.
-The guard hair is stiff and shiny. The upper parts are rich, dark
-brown. The underparts are gray washed with cinnamon.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_119"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_361.jpg" alt="Fig. 119." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>&nbsp;
-    Muskrat (<i>Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis</i>), male, Lake Washington,
-    Seattle, October 13, 1939; weight 906 grams on November 4, 1939. (Fish
-    and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 736.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Muskrats are found in Canada and the United States. They are
-lowland animals, rarely ranging into the Canadian Life-zone. Their
-aquatic habitat makes them relatively independent of temperature,
-and consequently they occur in both the Transition and Upper Sonoran
-life-zones.</p>
-
-<p>The muskrat is well adapted to aquatic life. The toes of the
-large hind feet are webbed at the base, the hind feet are turned
-slightly outward, a fringe of stiff bristles at the rear edge of each
-foot furnishes additional aid in swimming, and the laterally compressed
-tail makes it an efficient rudder. In the water the surface
-of the fur flattens down to entrap air in the dense underfur, keeping
-the body dry.</p>
-
-<p>The typical habitat of the muskrat is slow-moving water or still
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span>
-water, such as in lakes, ponds, marshes and sluggish rivers and
-streams. Muskrats occur commonly, though not in large numbers,
-in more swiftly moving streams. In Puget Sound and the San Juan
-Islands they occupy a marine habitat.</p>
-
-<p>In the extensive marshes along Lake Washington, King County,
-muskrats are abundant. They occupy sluggish water, often water
-polluted by garbage and sewage. In these marshes, banks suitable
-for the construction of burrows are absent and houses are made of
-cattail stalks and leaves. The food of these marsh-living muskrats
-consists principally of cattail and other marsh vegetation.</p>
-
-<p>In contrast to the marsh-occupying muskrats, muskrats along the
-open, marsh-free shores of the lake live in deep clear water where
-waves lap the shore. These muskrats live exclusively in burrows
-dug in the banks and feed upon fresh-water mussels.</p>
-
-<p>In still greater contrast were muskrats living 20 miles away, near
-Cottage Lake, King County. Here we found them in small clear
-streams, 4 to 10 feet wide. Depth of the water varied from a few
-inches to three feet. The streams flowed through meadows, pastures
-and junglelike, deciduous woods. Muskrats were slightly more common
-along wooded stretches than in open areas. Some were trapped
-where the streams flowed at high velocity over shallow, gravel bottoms.
-The animals lived in burrows and fed upon fresh-water
-mussels and a variety of plants.</p>
-
-<p>Near Richmond Beach, Snohomish County, muskrats took up residence
-in a small tidal pool along Puget Sound. The nearest fresh
-water stream large enough to support a muskrat was two miles away.
-Two muskrats were trapped here. Investigation of a tidal pool a
-mile to the north disclosed unmistakable muskrat signs. Traps set
-in the culvert connecting the pool with Puget Sound at high tide
-took several specimens. Study showed that the muskrats were not
-living in the pool but among the large boulders forming the breakwater
-for the Great Northern Railroad, along the sound itself. They
-were feeding on marine mussels (<i>Mytilus</i>). These mussels lived in
-the salt water of the sound, not in the tidal pool.</p>
-
-<p>At Peavine Pass, Blakely Island, in the San Juan Islands, muskrats
-were living in the swift tidal current and deep, marine waters.
-Several were seen in late afternoon. All were swimming parallel
-to the shore about 50 feet out. Here also they fed on <i>Mytilus</i>, but
-their homes were not discovered. Certainly they were not living
-in the tidal pool at Flat Point, a half-mile away.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">In the interior of Blakely Island a colony of muskrats was discovered
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span>
-living in a marsh of about one acre. In the rainy season
-the ground of the marsh was covered with less than one inch of
-water. Residents said that in the dry season springs kept the ground
-moist. Muskrats were living in burrows whose entrances descended
-at a 45-degree angle and were filled with water. The ground about
-some occupied burrows was dry, the only water visible being in the
-burrow itself. A variety of marsh vegetation provided food.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_120"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_363.jpg" alt="Fig. 120." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the muskrat in Washington. A. <i>Ondatra zibethicus
-    osoyoosensis.</i> B. <i>Ondatra zibethicus occipitalis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Burrows of muskrats always have entrances under water. Usually
-they enter a vertical bank 6 to 15 inches below water line and occasionally
-3 feet below it. About half the burrows excavated near
-Lake Washington, King County, had a single entrance. About 40
-per cent had double or triple entrances situated 2 to 3 feet apart and
-converging within a yard to a single burrow. About 10 per cent had
-double burrows more than 3 feet in length. Burrows were from 5
-to 8 inches in diameter. Nest chambers were from 12 to 15 inches
-in diameter, spherical, and from 6 to 30 feet from the burrow entrance.
-The nests themselves were bulky, loose masses of cattail
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span>
-leaves. Embryos found in late February and early March numbered
-4 to 8.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Because it is abundant, widely spread and easy to trap, the muskrat
-is one of the most important fur bearers in the state. The fur
-is relatively stable in value. In recent years the average skin has
-brought the trapper slightly less than a dollar. Muskrat flesh is
-eaten and sold on the market in the eastern United States but has
-never been popular in Washington. The muskrat does little damage
-to agriculture, most complaints arising from its burrows which
-interfere with irrigation ditches.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Ondatra zibethicus osoyoosensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Lord)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Fiber osoyoosensis</i> Lord, Proc. Zo&ouml;l. Soc. London, p. 97, 1863.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>F[iber]. z[ibethicus]. osoyoosensis</i> Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 23:1, February 2,
-1910.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ondatra zibethica osoyoosensis</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:231, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Osoyoose Lake, British Columbia, on British Columbia-Washington
-boundary at head of Okanogan River, by J. K. Lord, in 1861 or
-1862.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Color of the upper parts rich, dark brown.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and a female from Seattle, King County, average
-and measure respectively: total length 565, 555; length of tail 262, 257;
-hind foot 80.5, 79; weight 2 pounds 13 ounces and 2 pounds 3 ounces.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Eastern Washington generally and all but the southern part
-of western Washington. Specimens from as far southwest as Tenino (W.W.D.)
-are typical of <i>osoyoosensis</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Ondatra zibethicus occipitalis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Fiber occipitalis</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 74, zo&ouml;l. ser., 3:162, April, 1903.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ondatra zibethica occipitalis</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:231, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Florence, Lane County, Oregon, by E. Heller, in 1901;
-type in Chicago Natural History Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>osoyoosensis</i> but redder; fur shorter and interpterygoid
-spaces of skull narrower.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from Chinook, Pacific County, measures: total
-length 580; length of tail 248; hind foot 78; ear 21; weight 863 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The southwestern corner of the state, extending north to
-Aberdeen (V.B.S.) and east to Cathlamet (V.B.S.).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Rattus rattus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Linnaeus)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Roof rat</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Size large, total length approximately 400 mm.;
-tail long, naked, comprising 50 per cent or more of total length;
-color sooty black or brown; in brown phase, whitish beneath.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The roof rat became established in Central America some 350
-years ago, and entered the United States (English Colonies) late
-in the seventeenth century. Subsequent to the introduction of the
-Norway rat the roof rat decreased in numbers and is now found
-only in restricted areas.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Rattus rattus rattus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Linnaeus)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>[Mus] rattus</i> Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1 (ed. 10):61, 1758.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Rattus rattus</i> Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:126, June 6, 1916.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;From Uppsala, Sweden.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;In Washington I have taken specimens of the roof
-rat in the San Juan Islands and in the coniferous forests on the
-west slope of the Cascades. In the latter area it seems to be widely
-spread and to live in the wild.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Rattus rattus alexandrinus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Geoffroy)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mus alexandrinus</i> Geoffroy, Catal. Mam. du Mus. Nat. d'Hist. Nat. Paris, p. 192, 1803.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>R[attus]. rattus alexandrinus</i> <a href="#p_Hinton">Hinton</a>, Jour. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 26:63, December 20,
-1918.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;From Alexandria, Egypt.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This subspecies seems to be rare in Washington. My
-specimens are all from small, isolated islands in the San Juan
-group. All were taken in the vicinity of human habitations. <i>R. r.
-alexandrinus</i> resembles <i>R. r. rattus</i>, differing only in brown color
-of upper parts.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Rattus norvegicus norvegicus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Erxleben)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Norway rat</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>[Mus] norvegicus</i> Erxleben, Syst. Regni Anim., 1:381, 1777.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Rattus norvegicus</i> Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 29:126, June 6, 1916.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;From Norway.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Larger, heavier-bodied and coarser-furred than the black rat
-or roof rat with shorter, heavier tail. The tail is less than 50 per cent of the
-total length. The color of the back is dull, reddish brown, the sides are paler
-and the underparts are dirty gray.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The Norway rat was absent from the Pacific Coast
-of the United States before 1851. It probably reached the coast
-slightly after that date. It is common about all large cities in
-Washington. In the western part of the state it lives along streams
-and marshes under feral conditions.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Mus musculus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Linnaeus, subsp?</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">House mouse</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>[Mus] musculus</i> Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., 1 (ed. 10):62, 1758.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Size small; tail about 50 per cent of total length, naked; ears
-small, about 12 mm. in height; upper incisors not grooved; color of upper
-parts reddish or grayish brown; underparts brown or gray.</p>
-
-<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The house mouse became established in North America
-soon after its settlement by Europeans. It is now common throughout
-the state of Washington, principally near human habitations,
-but often lives in the wild.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Races of the house mouse have been dealt with by <a href="#p_Schwartz">Schwartz</a> and
-<a href="#p_Schwartz">Schwartz</a> (1943: 59-72), and by <a href="#p_Nichols">Nichols</a> (1944: 82-89), but lack of
-adequate material prevents subspecific identification of house mice
-from Washington at this time.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Aplodontia rufa&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Rafinesque)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Mountain beaver</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The mountain beaver is a stout-bodied animal
-about 14 inches in length, with a tiny tail that is almost invisible
-externally. The head is large, wide and low with small eyes, small
-ears and long vibrissae. The legs are short and heavy, but the
-forefeet are small and handlike; the hind feet are large and powerful.
-The claws of both forefeet and hind feet are long and strong. The
-pelage is short, coarse and rough. The upper parts are dark reddish
-brown and the underparts are grayish brown. The feet are pink.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_121"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_367.jpg" alt="Fig. 121." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>&nbsp;
-    Mountain beaver (<i>Aplodontia rufa rufa</i>), Seattle, Washington,
-    March 19, 1940. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>,
-    No. 919.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Mountain beavers are confined to the Pacific Coast and range
-from southern British Columbia to central California. The genus
-contains a single species of which <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> (1918) recognized nine
-races. The principal habitat of the mountain beaver is clearings
-at the edge of coniferous forests. The animals are most abundant
-near springs, streams and damp places, although they are not
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span>
-aquatic. The tangled jungles of deciduous trees and shrubs that
-grow in the ravines and stream valleys of the Puget Sound area
-present optimum habitat. They occur also on hillsides, on logged-off
-land and along roadside clearings. In the mountains they occur in
-thickets and forests, always, in our experience, near streams.</p>
-
-<p>The most conspicuous evidence of the presence of mountain
-beavers is their burrows. These are large tunnels, four to eight
-inches in diameter. To each set of tunnels there are numerous
-entrances, some partly concealed in brush or beside logs or stumps,
-and some are in the open. Those in the open are less used as entrances
-than as places for receiving the loose earth which the animals
-excavate. A pile may contain nearly a cubic yard of earth and
-stones. Many of the burrows are shallow, and cave-ins are common.
-Breaks in the roof of a burrow are not repaired, although debris is
-removed from the burrow itself. The burrows seem not to be constructed
-according to a system, but are extended to take in whatever
-brush, logs or other cover is available. They are commonly dug
-through damp or muddy soil. Small streams flow through some
-burrows. Such partly flooded runs seem to be favored by the
-animals.</p>
-
-<p>The nest of a mountain beaver excavated by <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1929:
-15), under the roots of a fallen tree, was oval in shape, twenty
-inches high and 13 inches wide. The nest was protected from flooding
-by a basal chamber, or basin, six inches beneath the nest. Two
-drainage tunnels lead away from this basal chamber. The nest
-was composed of the leaves and stems of bracken laced together
-with grass and fine twigs. Two other nests examined by <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>
-measured 17 by 18 inches and 19 by 17 inches. Both were about
-two feet beneath the surface.</p>
-
-<p>Around Puget Sound the mountain beavers mate in early March.
-The young number two to three, rarely four, per litter and are born
-in early April.</p>
-
-<p>Mountain beavers enter water readily but wade rather than
-swim. They are rather noisy, splashing in water and breaking
-twigs or rustling leaves on the ground. They climb bushes and
-saplings, clipping off branches for food as they ascend. According
-to <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1929: 15) they leave the stubs of branches attached
-to the trunk to facilitate their descent. Twice a mountain beaver
-was found several feet up in a sapling. In both saplings the animal
-had clipped the branches close to the trunk and was desperately
-reaching with its hind feet for missing branches. When the observer
-came near, one animal squealed, tumbled to the ground, and
-scurried frantically to its burrow.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Although principally nocturnal, mountain beavers are not infrequently
-active by day, especially in the fall. At this season
-they harvest food and spread it on logs to dry. The cured hay is
-removed to their burrows for nesting material and food. In winter
-mountain beavers are more restricted in habits and are rarely seen
-by day. Presumably they feed on stored food at this time but they
-forage somewhat. In winter they eat such evergreen shrubs as
-salal (<i>Gaultheria shallon</i>) and Oregon grape (<i>Berberis nervosa</i>).
-They eat also the bark of trees, especially that of the willow (<i>Salix</i>).
-Under cover of snow, in the mountains, they burrow to some extent
-and pack excavated earth in snow burrows. The melting of the
-snow in the spring reveals the earth core, six to eight inches in
-diameter and two to four feet long. Several such earth cores were
-forked, showing that part of the earth had been pushed into a
-branching burrow.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_122"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_369.jpg" alt="Fig. 122." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the mountain beaver in Washington. A. <i>Aplodontia
-    rufa rufa.</i> B. <i>Aplodontia rufa rainieri.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The mountain beaver holds its food in its forefeet, squirrel-like,
-when it eats. Its food consists of the leaves and bark of woody
-plants and entire herbs, including roots. The mountain beaver is
-the only mammal so far as known that eats the bracken fern. It
-feeds on the branches of coniferous trees, including Douglas fir,
-red cedar, and hemlock. Such thorny species as the blackberry,
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span>
-blackcap and devil's club are eaten. The odiferous skunk cabbage
-and the stinging nettle are on its bill of fare. A list of its food
-would include most plants found in its habitat, and we know of
-no species that it refuses as food.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The mountain beaver is more of a nuisance than a pest. In most
-of its range there is but little farming although where crops are
-raised the mountain beaver may do some damage. It undermines
-roads and trails and defiles springs and streams. Control is simple
-for the animals readily enter steel traps set in their burrows.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Aplodontia rufa rufa&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Rafinesque)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Anisonyx? rufa</i> Rafinesque, Amer. Monthly Mag., 2:45, November, 1817.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Haplodon rufus</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):596, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Aplodontia rufa</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Ann. New York Acad. Sci., 3:316, May, 1886.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Aplodontia olympica</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:20, January 31, 1899 (type
-from Lake Quiniault, Grays Harbor County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Aplodontia rufa grisea</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 12:497, May 6, 1916 (type from
-Renton, King County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Aplodontia rufa rufa</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 12:497, May 6, 1916.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;None. Based on a description by Lewis and Clark. <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>
-(1918: 455) regarded as typical specimens collected at "Marmot, Clackamas
-County, Oregon (western slope of Mount Hood, not far from the Columbia
-River)."</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size small; skull small.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Eight males and 7 females, from the area about Puget
-Sound, average, respectively: total length 343, 338; length of tail 37.5, 33.5;
-hind foot 57.8, 56; ear 25, 24.5; weight 1342, 1300 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Western Washington, between Puget Sound and the Cascade
-Mountains and southward. Marginal localities are: Bellingham (U.S.N.M.),
-Sauk (U.S.N.M.), Forks of Skykomish River (W.W.D.), North Bend
-(U.S.N.M.), and mouth of Klama River (M.V.Z.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Individual variation in mountain beavers is considerable. Two
-weakly defined races are recognized in Washington.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Aplodontia rufa rainieri&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Aplodontia major rainieri</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 13:21, January 31, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>[Haplodontia rufa] raineri</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 45, zo&ouml;l. ser., 2:112, 1901.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>[Aplodontia rufa] raineri</i> Trouessart, Catal. Mamm., viv. foss., suppl. p. 348, 1904.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Aplodontia rufa columbiana</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a>, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 12:499, 1916 (type from
-Hope, British Columbia).</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Paradise Creek, 5, 200 ft., Mount Rainier, Pierce County,
-Washington, by V. <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> on August 6, 1897; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>rufa</i> but larger with larger skull.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Three males and a female from Tye, King County, average
-and measure respectively: total length 352, 340; length of tail 35, 40;
-hind foot 60, 59; ear 24, 19.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The higher Cascade Mountains from the Columbia River
-northward to the Canadian boundary. Marginal localities are: Canyon Creek
-(U.S.N.M.), Cascade Pass (U.S.N.M.), Tye (W.W.D.), Mt. Rainier
-(U.S.N.M.), Mt. St. Helens (U.S.N.M.), and Yacolt (M.V.Z.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Intergradation between <i>rufa</i> and <i>raineri</i> is seen in specimens from
-the area between Stevens Pass and Skykomish, King County.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Zapus princeps&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Big jumping mouse</span></h3>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_123"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_371.jpg" alt="Fig. 123." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>&nbsp;
-    Big jumping mouse (<i>Zapus princeps trinotatus</i>) in hibernation.
-    Puyallup, Washington, January 30, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by
-    Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 576.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The big jumping mouse is a medium-sized mouse,
-slightly larger than the house mouse, with an exceptionally long,
-tapering tail. Head and body measure about 4 inches and the tail
-about 5 inches. The body is slender with a small head, small eyes
-and small, naked ears. The forefeet are small and handlike but the
-hind feet are large with long, powerful legs. The long, naked tail
-is smoothly tapering to a narrow point. The fur is short, posteriorly
-directed, stiff and bristlelike. The dorsal area is dusky,
-the sides are orange or yellow, and the underparts are creamy white.
-Each upper incisor tooth has a groove on its anterior face.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Jumping mice are boreal mammals occurring in wooded regions
-ranging from the Arctic region southward to North Carolina, New
-Mexico and California. Jumping mice are of rather general distribution
-in Washington, being only locally common. They are
-partial to damp, boggy areas but avoid true swamps. They occur
-in clearings in the forests in the Puget Sound area and in meadows
-in river bottoms and in jungles in ravines. They reach their greatest
-abundance in the boggy meadows and glacial cirques of the mountains
-and spread out from such areas to seemingly less favored
-habitat on dryer slopes and heather meadows. Unlike many species,
-they do not seem to inhabit talus slides. They are entirely absent
-from the eastern Washington desert.</p>
-
-<p>Sometimes the jumping mouse walks on all four feet but the
-ordinary means of progression is by short hops on the hind feet
-alone. When startled they travel in great bounds, covering six feet
-or more at a jump. When jumping they make considerable noise,
-swishing or rustling through the grass and landing with an audible
-thud. The long tail serves as a balancing organ. A specimen whose
-tail had been lost was reported by <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> and <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> (1933: 133)
-to turn somersaults in the air and invariably to land on its back
-rather than its feet.</p>
-
-<p>Jumping mice become very fat and hibernate in middle summer
-or early fall. In the lowlands they disappear by late July but in
-the mountains they remain active until the middle of September.
-They spend the winter in nests of grass several feet beneath the
-surface. A hibernating individual figured by <a href="#p_Flahaut">Flahaut</a> (1939: 17)
-was curled in a ball, head down with the tail wrapped completely
-around the greatest circumference of the ball.</p>
-
-<p>Near Seattle the principal food of the jumping mouse was the
-velvet grass (<i>Holchus lanatus</i>), and the seeds of grasses and the
-broad-leaved dock. The fruit of the blackberry (<i>Rubus macropetalus</i>)
-is eaten and occasional individuals are seen with the chin
-stained a deep purple from the juice.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The new-born young of the jumping mouse were reported by
-<a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> and <a href="#p_Svihla">Svihla</a> (1933: 132) to average 0.8 grams in weight. They
-are pink, hairless, lacking even the facial vibrissae, with eyes closed
-and ears folded.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Zapus princeps trinotatus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Zapus trinotatus</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1894, p. 421, January 15, 1895.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Zapus imperator</i> <a href="#p_Elliot">Elliot</a>, Field Columb. Mus. Publ. 30, zo&ouml;l. ser., 1:228, February 1, 1899
-(type from Sieg's Ranch, Elwha River, Olympic Mountains, Clallam County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on Lulu Island, mouth of Fraser River, British Columbia,
-by S. N. <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a> on May 31, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural
-Sciences.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>oregonus</i> but brighter; sides orange; underparts
-creamy white; buffy area often present on chest.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twenty males and 15 females from western Washington
-average, respectively: total length 230, 233; length of tail 140, 140; hind foot
-33, 32.8; ear 14.9, 16.3; weight 23.7, 25.7 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Western Washington and the Cascade Mountains, east in the
-northern Cascades at least to Tomyhoi Lake (W.W.D.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Actual intergrades between <i>trinotatus</i> and <i>kootenayensis</i> have not
-been examined but the differences separating the two forms are of the degree
-that usually distinguish subspecies. Since <i>trinotatus</i> occurs in the high Cascades
-as far east as Mount Baker, at least, and <i>kootenayensis</i> probably occurs
-in the northeastern Cascades, the two forms doubtless come together in the
-rugged, inaccessible area between these two localities. Further collecting will
-probably show a narrow zone of intergradation in extreme western Okanogan
-County.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_124"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_373.jpg" alt="Fig. 124." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the big jumping mouse in Washington. A. <i>Zapus
-    princeps oregonus.</i> B. <i>Zapus princeps idahoensis.</i> C. <i>Zapus princeps
-    kootenayensis.</i> D. <i>Zapus princeps trinotatus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Zapus princeps kootenayensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Zapus princeps kootenayensis</i> <a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a>, Ann. Rept. Nat. Mus. Canada for 1931, p. 108,
-November 24. 1932.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on Green Mountain, 6,000 ft., 10 miles north of Rossland,
-West Kootenay District, British Columbia, by R. M. <a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a>, on July 18,
-1929; type in National Museum of Canada.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>oregonus</i> but paler; yellow more faded.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Twenty females, including 15 topotypes, average (<a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a>,
-1932: 109): total length 245; length of tail 140; hind foot 30.5.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington. Specimens from Sullivan Lake
-(E.S.B.) have been examined.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Zapus princeps idahoensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Zapus princeps idahoensis</i> <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>, Jour. Mamm., 15:221, August 10, 1934.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained 5 miles east of Warm Lake, 7,000 feet elevation, Valley
-County, Idaho, by W. B. <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a>; type in Museum of Vertebrate Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>kootenayensis</i> but brighter in color, more
-ochraceous. Similar to <i>oregonus</i> but paler, more yellowish.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a> (1939:339) gives the measurements of six adult
-topotypes as: total length 240; length of tail 144; hind foot 31.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;A single specimen in the Charles R. Conner Museum from
-Kamiak Butte, Whitman County, is referable to this race.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Zapus princeps oregonus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Preble</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Zapus princeps oregonus</i> Preble, N. Amer. Fauna. 15:24, August 8, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Elgin, Union County, Oregon, by E. A. Preble, on May
-29, 1896; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Small size, pale color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Three males and 3 females from the Blue Mountains average,
-respectively: total length 233, 234; length of tail 138, 139; hind foot
-31.8, 31.8; ear 16, 16; weight 29, 33 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Erethizon dorsatum&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Linnaeus)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Porcupine</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The porcupine is one of the largest rodents found
-in Washington, being exceeded in size only by the beaver. Its body
-is heavy and stocky, its legs short, its tail long and thick and its eyes
-small. It is best known for the modified hairs, or quills, of its tail
-and dorsal area. These vary in greatest diameter from one-sixteenth
-to three-sixteenths of an inch and from three-quarters of an inch to
-five inches in length. They are ivory-white with black tips. In
-addition to quills, the porcupine possesses wooly, black underfur
-and long, banded guard hair. The bands of the guard hairs are
-black and yellow, varying in width. Commonly they are of a single
-color, black, yellow or brown.</p>
-
-<p>Porcupines range over virtually all wooded parts of North
-America north of Mexico, in and above the Transition Life-zone.
-The Canadian porcupines have been studied by <a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a> and <a href="#p_Rand">Rand</a>
-(1943A) and intergradation between the eastern <i>dorsatum</i> and the
-western <i>epixanthum</i> has been shown.</p>
-
-<p>The porcupines are commonly considered to be forest animals.
-However, they are rather rare in the denser coniferous forests. In
-the more open areas on the Cascade Mountains, especially on the
-eastern slopes, they are not uncommon. They are rather common
-in the coniferous forests of northeastern Washington and the Blue
-Mountains. They seem to be rather common also in desert areas
-at the southern edge of the Columbian Plateau.</p>
-
-<p>The huge incisors of the porcupine are adapted to feeding on bark.
-They do feed on bark to a certain extent in Washington, but it is
-my observation that more herbs and bushes are eaten than bark. In
-areas where porcupines are common, trees are commonly girdled,
-usually close to the top. Trees girdled in this manner in the Kettle
-River Mountains included western larch, ponderosa pine, and grand
-fir. The tops of some trees were killed.</p>
-
-<p>The ordinary walking gait of the porcupine is a slow deliberate
-walk in which he appears to waddle somewhat. They can increase
-their speed to a slow trot. They are slow, deliberate climbers,
-ascending and descending trees with head upward. They are able
-also to climb rocks and cliffs, sometimes being seen on the tops of
-large boulders.</p>
-
-<p>Despite their large size, porcupines are not commonly seen. They
-are mainly nocturnal and, in the daytime, find concealment high in
-the branches of some conifer or a cave between the rocks in a talus
-slide.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">While encamped near Sherman Creek Pass in the Kettle River
-Mountains my companion and I heard a crunching of gravel from
-the road fifty feet away. We listened intently, wondering what
-person would be abroad in the mountains at midnight. In the vicinity
-of our car, concealed from our view by trees, the noise stopped, to
-be followed a few minutes later by a rasping and clattering that
-could be heard far away. We raced to the car to discover a large porcupine
-crouched on the running board by a pile of "pick-up" antlers
-of the white-tailed deer left there by us. The "porkie" had been
-chewing on these, heedless of the noise made by the loose antlers
-clashing against the metal side of the car.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_125"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_376.jpg" alt="Fig. 125." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the porcupine, <i>Erethizon epixanthum</i> in Washington.
-    Boundaries between ranges of subspecies are uncertain.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb2">In Washington the single young is born late in May or early in
-June. There are two pairs of mammae, both pectoral, of which only
-the anterior are functional.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Brandt</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Erethizon epixanthus</i> Brandt, Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. P&eacute;tersbourg, ser. 6, 3 (Sci. Nat.
-vol. <b>1</b>): 390, 1835.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Erethizon dorsatus epixanthus</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:600, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Erethizon epixanthum epixanthum</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:437, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Erethizon dorsatum epixanthum</i> <a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a> and <a href="#p_Rand">Rand</a>, Canadian Jour. Research, 21:293,
-September 24, 1943.</p></div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;None. Type locality California.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size large, total length of adults approximately 30 inches;
-tail long (nearly one-third of total length), thick, heavy and spiny; body stout;
-legs short; claws long and curved; ears and eyes small; body spines short,
-thick and most abundant on posterior part of back, longer and more slender
-on sides and shoulders; guard hairs of shoulders and sides long, almost concealing
-spines; fur of underparts shorter; color variable, brown, black or yellow.
-In winter the fur is longer and woolly, concealing spines.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Columbian Plateau and the Blue Mountains.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a> and <a href="#p_Rand">Rand</a> (1943A: 295) ascribe two races to Washington.
-With inadequate material myself to verify this ascription. I think it probable
-that the northern forest porcupine and the Great Basin animal are racially
-different. In consequence the available names, <i>nigrescens</i> and <i>epixanthum</i>, are
-here applied, pending a revision of the entire genus.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Erethizon epixanthus nigrescens</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 19:558, October 10,
-1903.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Erethizon epixanthum nigrescens</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 128:437, April 29, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Erethizon dorsatum nigrescens</i> <a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a> and <a href="#p_Rand">Rand</a>, Canadian Jour. Research, 21:293, September
-24, 1943.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on the Shesley River, British Columbia, by M. P. <a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a>
-on August 23, 1902; type in American Museum of Natural History.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A female from Sherman Creek Pass, Ferry County, measured:
-total length 770; length of tail 250; hind foot 95; ear 37. A female from
-Tye, King County, measured: 930; 280; 125; weight 20 pounds.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Forested parts of the state, exclusive of the Blue Mountains.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Porcupines are extremely rare west of the Cascades but are occasionally
-reported from as far west as the Olympic Peninsula.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Myocastor coypus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Molina) subsp?</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Coypu, nutria</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mus coypus</i> Molina, Sagg. Stor. Nat. Chili, p. 287, 1782.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Myocastor coypus</i> Kerr, Anim. Kingd., p. 225, 1792.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;Chile.</p>
-
-<p><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Size large, slightly smaller than a beaver; color
-rich, reddish brown; tail long, round; hind feet webbed for swimming.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The nutria, a native of South America, has been
-brought to the United States and raised commercially on "fur
-farms." The species has become established in the wild in several
-localities in western Washington and at the Colville Indian Reservation
-in northeastern Washington. For further details see <a href="#p_Larrison">Larrison</a>
-(1943).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Ochotona princeps&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Richardson)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Pika or cony</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The pika is of guinea-pig size, with a short, chunky
-body about 200 mm. in length. The tail is represented externally
-merely by a tuft of white fur. The short, wide head has large, circular
-ears, large black eyes, and long whiskers. The legs are short
-and the soles of the feet are furred. The color of the Washington
-races varies from grayish-yellow to dark reddish brown. Like
-rabbits, all pikas have two pairs of upper incisors. The second pair,
-located just in back of the first, is small and delicate.</p>
-
-<p><i>Ochotona</i> is a wide-ranging genus with many more species in Asia
-and extreme eastern Europe than in North America. Three races
-of the species <i>princeps</i> occur in the state of Washington, where they
-are confined to the Cascade, Kettle River, and Pend Oreille Mountains.
-The ranges of all three races extend northward into British
-Columbia; one (<i>brunnescens</i>) occurs also in Oregon, and one
-(<i>cuppes</i>) in Idaho.</p>
-
-<p>In Washington pikas live only in talus slides and rock piles, where
-they find refuge from most of the carnivores that prey on small
-mammals. Their distribution in the state seems to be regulated by
-the distribution of talus slides, and areas free of talus act as effective
-barriers to pikas. They are abundant throughout the Cascades
-but are absent from the Olympic Mountains although conditions
-there are well suited to them. Probably the lowlands of western
-Washington which, owing to moderate temperature and low relief,
-have little talus and exposed rock, serve as a barrier. The Columbian
-Plateau is also free of pikas. This may be due to the relative
-scarcity of talus as compared with mountainous areas, and the fact
-that much of the talus on the Plateau is composed of fragments of
-basalt too small to afford the shelter needed by pikas. The aridity
-of the Columbian Plateau may contribute to the absence of pikas,
-although this seems unlikely in view of the fact that they occur on
-arid lands in Nevada and elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p>Altitudinally, pikas range from 300 feet, in Clark County, to
-6,000 feet on Mt. Rainier, Pierce County, and on Round Top Mountain,
-Pend Oreille County. They occur from the arid subdivision
-of the Transition Life-zone, at Milk Creek, Kittitas County, to the
-upper edge of the Hudsonian Life-zone, at Glacier Basin, Mt.
-Rainier. Generally speaking, they are mammals of the mountains.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Common enemies of the pikas are the weasel (<i>Mustela frenata</i>),
-marten (<i>Martes caurina</i>), and hawks of several species. Pikas are
-active by day, especially in the early morning. Their call note is
-a short "eek!" which carries a long distance. This squeaking note is
-often heard throughout the night when rain threatens their drying
-hay.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_126"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_379.jpg" alt="Fig. 126." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the pika in Washington. A. <i>Ochotona princeps
-    brunnescens.</i> B. <i>Ochotona princeps fenisex.</i> C. <i>Ochotona princeps cuppes.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Vegetation used as food, either for immediate consumption or for
-winter use, includes almost all grasses, vines, shrubs, and trees
-available near the pika's home. The subalpine lupines are especially
-favored. Even such a thorny growth as the devil's club (<i>Oplopanax
-horridum</i>) is eaten. Heather (<i>Phyllodoce, Cassiope</i>) has not
-been found in any of the numerous hay piles examined, even when
-it is the commonest plant in the vicinity. Large bundles of plants
-are carried in the pika's mouth. The forefeet do not assist in transporting
-the load. If intended for immediate consumption, the plants
-are deposited on one of last year's hay piles and are eaten at leisure.
-The eating habits of the pika are rabbitlike. A large leaf is seized
-at the tip and drawn into the mouth with rapid chewing motions
-without assistance from the forefeet. Plants destined to become
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span>
-hay are carefully spread out and exposed to the sun. In cloudy
-or rainy weather the exposed plants are gathered and stored under
-large rocks, to be re&euml;xposed for curing when the weather improves.
-Large hay piles often include more than fifty pounds of perfectly
-cured grasses, annuals, bushes and evergreens.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">No record of embryos is available for Washington pikas, but a
-male with enlarged testes was taken at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas
-County, on March 22, 1940. Half-grown young of <i>fenisex</i> were
-taken at Sawtooth Mountain, Skamania County, on July 13, 1939,
-and of <i>brunnescens</i> at Slate Creek, Whatcom County, on August 16,
-1937. Nearly full-grown young of <i>fenisex</i> are reported taken at
-Bald Mountain, head of Ashnola River, Okanogan County, on September
-16, 1920. Young <i>cuppes</i> of several sizes were taken at
-Sherman Creek Pass, Ferry County, on September 11, 1938. The
-breeding season possibly extends from March to August with a
-tendency to be earlier at lower elevations.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Ochotona princeps cuppes&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Bangs</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ochotona cuppes</i> Bangs, Proc. New England Zo&ouml;l. Club, 1:40, June 5, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ochotona princeps cuppes</i> A. H. <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:27, August 21, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained by Allan Brooks at the Monashee Divide, 4,000 feet, Gold
-Range, British Columbia, on August 2, 1897; type in Museum of Comparative
-Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Smallest and palest of the Washington pikas; total
-length less than 8 inches; color of upper parts grayish-yellow, grayest on
-posterior third of back; underparts pale buff; skull small, but with relatively
-wide zygomatic and interorbital regions.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Eight males and 3 females from Round Top Mountain,
-Pend Oreille County, average, respectively: total length 183.5, 181.5; hind
-foot 30.7, 31.0; ear 22.4, 23.7; one adult male from the same locality weighed
-141.6 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;This pika has been found at Round Top Mountain (W.W.D.)
-and Pass Creek Pass (W.W.D.) in northeastern Washington.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Ochotona princeps fenisex&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lagomys minimus</i> Lord, Proc. Zo&ouml;l. Soc. London, p. 98, 1863 (not of Schinz, 1821).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ochotona minimus</i> Bangs, Proc. New England Zo&ouml;l. Club, 1:39, June 5, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ochotona fenisex</i> <a href="#p_Osgood">Osgood</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 26:80, March 22, 1913 (substitute
-for <i>minimus</i> Lord).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ochotona princeps fenisex</i> A. H. <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 47:28, August 21, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained by J. K. Lord at "Ptarmigan Hill," near head of Ashnola
-River, Cascade Range, British Columbia, in early fall of 1860 (?); type in
-British Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size and color intermediate between <i>brunnescens</i> and
-<i>cuppes</i>; length about 8 inches; color of upper parts near Pinkish Cinnamon,
-becoming gray on posterior third of back; underparts washed with buff; skull
-of medium size and proportions.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Nine males and 5 females from Okanogan and Chelan
-counties average, respectively: total length 190.0, 197.4; hind foot 31.1, 32.8;
-ear 21.6, 22.0.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Specimens referable to this race occur from the British Columbian
-boundary south, through the eastern Cascade Mountains. Along the
-western border of its range, <i>fenisex</i> becomes larger and darker, merging into
-the race <i>brunnescens</i>. Marginal records are: Hidden Lakes (U.S.N.M.),
-Lyman Lake (U.S.N.M.), Mt. Stuart (W.W.D.), Easton (U.S.N.M.),
-Mt. Aix (U.S.N.M.), Steamboat Mt. (M.V.Z.).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Ochotona princeps brunnescens&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ochotona fenisex brunnescens</i> A. H. <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 32:108, May 20,
-1919.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ochotona princeps brunnescens</i> A. H. <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>, N. Amer. Fauna. 47:31, August 21, 1924.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained by George G. Cantwell at Lake Keechelus, Kittitas
-County, Washington, on August 23, 1917; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Largest and darkest of the three races of Washington
-pikas; total length 8 inches or more; color of upper parts rich cinnamon,
-heavily washed with blackish; posterior part of back slightly paler; underparts
-buffy cinnamon; skull large and heavy with wide zygomatic arches but relatively
-narrow interorbital region and relatively narrow across maxillary tooth
-rows.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Eight males and 9 females from within three miles of
-Stevens Pass, King and Chelan counties, average, respectively: total length
-201.8, 208.3; hind foot 33.3, 33.0; ear 22.3, 22.6. The average weights of 4
-males and 3 females from 3 mi. S E Tumtum Mountain, Clark County, are
-178.0 and 174.3 grams, respectively.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the British Columbia boundary south to the Columbia
-River and from the western Cascades east to the area of intergradation with
-<i>fenisex</i>. Marginal occurrences are: Whatcom Pass (U.S.N.M.), Stevens Pass
-(W.W.D.), Keechelus (U.S.N.M.), Cowlitz Pass (U.S.N.M.), Tumtum
-Mountain (M.V.Z.).</p>
-
-
-<h3>Lepus townsendii townsendii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Bachman</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">White-tailed jack rabbit</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus townsendii</i> Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8 (pt. 1):90, pl. 2, 1839.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus campestris townsendi</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:132, July 14, 1904.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus townsendii townsendii</i> Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 28:70, March 12, 1915.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained by J. K. <a href="#p_Townsend">Townsend</a> at old Fort Walla Walla (present town
-of Wallula), Walla Walla County, Washington; type in Philadelphia Academy
-of Natural Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from Miller's Island, Klickitat County, in the
-Columbia River, measured: total length 564; length of tail 117; hind foot 156;
-ear 110; weight 337.5 grams.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Previously found over the grasslands of eastern Washington.
-Now restricted and scarce except in the Okanogan Valley.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The white-tailed jack rabbit is the largest rabbit in
-the state, adults measuring 24 or more inches in length. The long
-legs and long ears accentuate the impression of large size. Its body
-is more bulky than that of its relative, the black-tailed jack rabbit.
-In summer the pelage of the upper parts is dark gray and in winter
-it is white over nearly the entire body.</p>
-
-<p>The white-tailed jack rabbit occurs from southern Saskatchewan
-south to extreme northern New Mexico, and from eastern Washington
-east to Wisconsin. A single race occurs in Washington. In
-eastern Washington "whitetails" favor the hilly, bunchgrass territory
-of the arid subdivision of the Transition and Upper Sonoran
-life-zones. In winter they descend to the lower sagebrush valleys.</p>
-
-<p>The principal enemies of the white-tailed jack rabbit are the eagle,
-coyote, and bobcat. Of 1,186 stomachs of coyotes from Washington,
-<a href="#p_Sperry">Sperry</a> (1941: 11) found that 27 percent contained rabbits, including
-jack rabbits, snowshoe hares, and cottontails.</p>
-
-<p>In the daytime, white-tailed jack rabbits hide in forms which
-consist of shallow holes dug at the bases of bushes or beside rocks.
-They feed in the morning, evening, and in the night along wide, well-defined
-trails through the bunchgrass. If startled from their forms
-they dash off in bounding, erratic leaps, skimming away until lost
-to sight. A whitetail has been timed at a speed of 34 miles per
-hour (<a href="#p_Cottam">Cottam</a> and Williams, 1943: 262).</p>
-
-<p>The early explorers and settlers found the white-tailed jack rabbits
-abundant in eastern Washington. With the invasion and spread
-of the black-tailed jack rabbit, and the reduction of native bunchgrass
-through overgrazing by livestock, the whitetail has become
-rare. In several years of field work on the Columbian Plateau, I
-saw none. Near Wallula, the type locality, residents had not seen
-whitetails for years, but thought there might be a few left "back
-in the hills." There are thought to be a few left near Ellensburg
-and Yakima.</p>
-
-<p>Only in the Okanogan Valley are the whitetails holding their own;
-they are reasonably common there. In winter they come down from
-the hills on to the sagebrush flats along the Okanogan River in Okanogan
-County. In January it is not unusual to see as many as
-five in a day's drive. When, as will most certainly occur, the black-tailed
-jack rabbit enters the Okanogan Valley, the splendid whitetail
-may be expected to disappear from Washington.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Because this species has been so reduced in numbers, no distributional
-map has been included. <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1929: 28) give
-its range as: "north to Oroville, east to Pullman, south to Asotin,
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span>
-Walla Walla, and Kennewick, and west to Lake Chelan (Manson),
-Yakima Valley, and Klickitat County." This range is similar to
-that of the Nuttall Cottontail (Fig. 129).</p>
-
-
-<h3>Lepus americanus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Erxleben</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Snowshoe rabbit</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08">
-<i>Description.</i>&mdash;The appearance, size, and proportions of the snowshoe
-rabbit are similar to those of the Belgian hare. The body is
-about 16 inches in length, the ears are midway in size between those
-of the cottontail and the jack rabbit, and the feet are relatively
-long and the tail is short. In summer the color of the upper parts is
-reddish brown, varying with the subspecies. The winter pelage of
-<i>Lepus a. washingtonii</i> is a slightly paler brown than the summer
-coat. In the other three races in Washington the winter coat is
-entirely white, except for the dusky borders of the ears.</p>
-
-<p>Snowshoe rabbits occur in Alaska, Canada, and the northern
-United States, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They are absent
-in desert or prairie regions but range far southward in the
-United States in mountainous areas. They are found throughout
-Washington, except on the Columbian Plateau and in the
-Okanogan River Valley. None of the four races found in Washington
-is restricted exclusively to the state. Snowshoe rabbits
-live only in wooded areas. Their habitat varies from dense, impenetrable
-rain-forests along the ocean to the alpine parks, dotted
-with trees, of the Hudsonian Life-zone. They occur in humid and
-arid subdivisions of the Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian
-life-zones. Altitudinally they range from sea level to 6,000 feet
-(Mt. Rainier).</p>
-
-<p>Enemies of the snowshoe rabbit include the coyote, bobcat, lynx,
-long-tailed weasel, and great horned owl.</p>
-
-<p>Snowshoe rabbits are largely nocturnal or crepuscular in habit.
-They are secretive and slip away quietly at the least threat of danger.
-Persons often live for years in localities where snowshoe
-rabbits are abundant without seeing a live individual. Those that
-are seen ordinarily have been startled from their forms at midday,
-or surprised while feeding on clover along a highway in the early
-morning. More commonly they are seen crossing a road in the lights
-of an automobile. Tracks, easily found after a fresh snowfall, give
-some indication of their numbers in any locality.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Little information is available on the fluctuations of numbers of
-snowshoe rabbits in Washington. Floyd Thornton, a trapper living
-at Forks, Clallam County, states that they were numerous in 1924,
-scarce in 1930-31, and fairly common in 1938-39. More rabbits
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span>
-are seen shortly after the breeding season than at other times of
-the year. From April 8-10, 1941, I saw none on a highway extending
-about 100 miles along the west coast of the Olympic Peninsula,
-but on June 4-5 here counted 3 dead on the road and saw 3 running
-across it. One was about one-third grown and another two-thirds
-grown.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_127"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_384.jpg" alt="Fig. 127." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the snowshoe hare in Washington. A. <i>Lepus
-    americanus washingtonii.</i> B. <i>Lepus americanus cascadensis.</i> C. <i>Lepus americanus
-    columbiensis.</i> D. <i>Lepus americanus pineus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The snowshoe rabbits are classed as game animals in Washington
-but few people hunt them. Their winter food includes buds and
-needles of hemlock, Douglas fir, and probably other evergreens.
-Annuals, grasses, and shrubs, as well as Douglas fir needles, are
-eaten in the summer. Snowshoe rabbits do some damage by eating
-the bark of trees and the boughs of newly planted evergreens. Together
-with rodents they are responsible for serious damage to plantations
-of Douglas fir and hemlock on the Olympic Peninsula.</p>
-
-<p>At least in summer, they are heavily parasitized by fleas and ticks
-and may in addition carry tularemia, or rabbit fever.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> (1933: 77-78) found that the young were born from May
-5 to July 4 in the Puget Sound area and that there were from
-2 to 5, usually 5 per litter.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Lepus americanus washingtonii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus washingtonii</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:333, 1855.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-[<i>Lepus americanus</i>] var. <i>Washingtoni</i> J. A. <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 17:434,
-February 17, 1875.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus americanus Washingtoni</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:601, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained by G. <a href="#p_Suckley">Suckley</a> at Steilacoom, Pierce County, Washington,
-on April 1, 1854; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size small for a snowshoe rabbit; color of upper parts
-dark, in summer between Sayal Brown and Cinnamon, in winter slightly
-paler, near Pale Cinnamon Buff (capitalized color terms in the accounts of
-the lagomorphs are after Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature,
-Washington, D. C., 1912); underparts white; soles of feet usually stained yellowish,
-brownish, or blackish.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and 6 females from the Olympic Peninsula
-average, respectively: total length 407, 402.5; hind foot 114, 119. Weight of
-a 408 mm. male from the same locality 2-1/4 lbs.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;This snowshoe rabbit occupies the humid subdivision of the
-Transition Life-zone of western Washington from the British Columbian
-boundary south to the Columbia River. Marginal occurrences are (from <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>,
-1942: 175): Mt. Vernon, Paradise Lake, Lake Kapowsin, and White
-Salmon.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Lepus americanus cascadensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus bairdi cascadensis</i> <a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 20:87, December 11, 1907.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus americanus cascadensis</i> <a href="#p_Racey">Racey</a> and <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a>, Ann. Rept. Provincial Mus. British Columbia,
-p. H 18, 1935.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained by W. C. Colt near Hope, British Columbia, on June 12,
-1894; type in Museum of Comparative Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size medium for a snowshoe rabbit; color of upper parts
-in summer near Orange Cinnamon; head paler, sharply marked off from
-body; underparts white. Color in winter: entire body pure white except for
-dusky borders of ears and eyelids.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Three males and 5 females from Kittitas County, Washington,
-average, respectively: total length 405, 440; hind foot 124, 133.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Cascade Mountains from the British Columbia boundary
-south to Mount Adams. Marginal occurrences are: Skykomish (<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>,
-1942: 177), Vance (<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, 1942: 177) and 7 mi. W Guler (W.W.D.).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Lepus americanus pineus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus americanus pineus</i> <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, Jour. Mamm., 23:178, May 14, 1942.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained by P. G. Putnam at Cedar Mountain (now Moscow
-Mountain), Latah County, Idaho, on May 29, 1921; type in University of
-Michigan, Museum of Zo&ouml;logy.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size small for a snowshoe rabbit; in summer, upper
-parts Cinnamon Brown, with sides slightly paler and rump patch blackish;
-color of the head between Sayal Brown and Cinnamon; hips Light Olivaceous
-Buff; chest-band light Cinnamon; ears blackish, often edged with white. In
-winter the color of the entire body is white, save for the dusky edges of the
-ears and the blackish eyelids. The color of the underfur in winter is usually
-Pale Pinkish Cinnamon, rarely Light Vinaceous Cinnamon or Orange Cinnamon,
-with the basal portion slaty.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and 5 females, from northeastern Washington,
-average, respectively: total length 419, 439; hind foot 138.5, 138. The average
-measurements of 3 males and 7 females from the Blue Mountains are: 407,
-422; 128, 131.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The pine forests of the arid subdivision of the Transition
-Life-zone along the eastern border of Washington, in the Blue Mountains,
-and in the forested parts of northeastern Washington as far west as the
-Kettle River Range. Western records of occurrence are (<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>, 1942:
-179): Deep Lake, Colville, Calispel Peak.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Lepus americanus columbiensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus americanus columbiensis</i> <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a>, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, p. 242, June,
-1895.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained by S. N. <a href="#p_Rhoads">Rhoads</a> at Vernon, British Columbia, on July
-29, 1892; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Size large; color in summer: upper parts near Cinnamon
-Brown, sides and head slightly paler; top of tail and small rump-patch
-blackish; chest-band pale Cinnamon Brown; hips light Ochraceous Buff;
-chin and belly white.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A male from Molson, Okanogan County, measures: total
-length 435; length of tail 150. A male and a female from Danville, Ferry
-County, measure, respectively: 460, 430; 150, 142.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Only a small part of the range of this rabbit lies within the
-state of Washington; the greater part is in British Columbia. In Washington
-it occupies the timbered areas north of the Columbia River, east of the Okanogan
-River, and west of the Kettle River Range. Records are (<a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>,
-1942: 182): Molson, Danville and Republic. In the 1942 paper, the latter
-locality was erroneously listed under <i>pineus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Lepus californicus deserticola&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Mearns</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Black-tailed jack rabbit</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus texianus deserticola</i> Mearns, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 18:564, June 24, 1896.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus texianus wallawalla</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 17:137, July 14, 1904
-(type from Touchet, Walla Walla County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus californicus deserticola</i> <a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a>, N. Amer. Fauna, 29:137, August 31, 1909.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at western edge of Colorado desert, Imperial County, California;
-type in American Museum of Natural History.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Three males and 4 females from Union Gap, Yakima
-County, average, respectively: total length 538, 539; length of tail 72, 71; hind
-foot 128, 124; ear 120, 124. Two females from the same locality weighed 5
-and 6-1/2 pounds, respectively.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Columbian Plateau, southeastern Washington, and the
-Yakima Valley area. The northernmost locality record is Moses Coulee
-(W.W.D.).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The blacktail is the commonest jack rabbit of the
-West. It is larger than the domestic rabbit and its enormous ears,
-long, gangling legs, and bounding gait make it appear even larger
-than it really is. Its iron-gray color, black tail and black ear tips
-match its sagebrush habitat.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_128"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_387.jpg" alt="Fig. 128." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the black-tailed jack rabbit, <i>Lepus californicus
-    deserticola</i>, in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">Black-tailed jack rabbits reach the northern limit of their distribution
-on the Columbian Plateau of eastern Washington. They extend
-from Washington south to the Valley of Mexico and from the
-Pacific Coast east to Missouri (<a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a>, 1909: 127). About 20 races
-are recognized, of which only one is native to Washington.</p>
-
-<p>The blacktail is restricted to the Upper Sonoran Life-zone. Seldom
-is it found far from sagebrush (<i>Artemisia</i>) and rabbitbrush
-(<i>Chrysothamus</i>). It is well adapted to desert life, and is able to
-withstand the bitterly cold winters and hot, dry summers of eastern
-Washington. Blacktails are active in the evening, night, morning,
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span>
-and cooler parts of the day. In the daytime they crouch in forms
-consisting of shallow depressions at the bases of shrubs.</p>
-
-<p>Blacktails eat the twigs and leaves of sagebrush, rabbitbrush,
-other desert shrubs, and grasses. They are particularly fond of alfalfa
-and cultivated crops, of which they destroy great quantities.
-They are serious pests during periodic years of abundance. Some
-measure of their abundance may be gained by counting the bodies
-of jack rabbits killed by cars on well-traveled highways through
-sagebrush areas. In years of abundance these may number 50 to
-100 per mile, while in years of scarcity these may number only one
-or two.</p>
-
-<p>Black-tailed jack rabbits are susceptible to numerous parasites
-and diseases including tularemia. Diseased rabbits are especially
-noticeable during years of abundance. Jack rabbits are almost
-never used as food although many are shot for sport or to protect
-crops.</p>
-
-<p>The black-tailed jack rabbit is a swift runner. <a href="#p_Cottam">Cottam</a> and Williams
-(1943: 263) timed 6 individuals while running under varying
-conditions. Full speeds for 50 to 300 yards varied from 27 to 38
-miles per hour. The maximum speed was attained by two individuals,
-each for 100 yards.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Embryos found in March numbered 4, 5 and 6.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Bachman)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Nuttall cottontail</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus nuttallii</i> Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 7:345, 1837.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus artemisia</i> Bachman, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 8:94, 1839 (type from Wallula,
-Walla Walla County, Washington).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-[<i>Lepus sylvaticus</i>] var. <i>Nuttallii</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 17:434, February 17,
-1875.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus sylvaticus Nuttalli</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:601, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sylvilagus (Sylvilagus) nuttallii</i> Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 45 (no. 1456):336, June 15,
-1904.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sylvilagus nuttalli</i> <a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a>, N. A. Fauna, 29:201, August 31, 1909.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained near mouth of Malheur River, Malheur County, Oregon.
-by T. Nuttall in August, 1834; type in Philadelphia Academy of Natural
-Sciences.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two males and 4 females from Moses Lake, Grant County,
-average, respectively: total length 355, 348; length of tail 33, 35; hind foot 83,
-83; ear 63.5, 60.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;The Columbian Plateau, Okanogan Valley, Yakima Valley
-and Columbia Valley in southeastern Washington; in general, the sagebrush
-area of eastern Washington; north in the Okanogan River Valley to Oroville
-and in the Columbia Valley to Kettle Falls (W.W.D., records not all shown
-on map).</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb1"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Nuttall cottontails are small, grayish-brown rabbits
-with relatively short, rounded ears and short legs. Their small
-size and small ears, which lack black tips, distinguish them from
-jack rabbits where the two occur together.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_129"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_389.jpg" alt="Fig. 129." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 129.</span>&nbsp;
-    Distribution of the Nuttall cottontail. <i>Sylvilagus nuttallii nuttallii</i>,
-    in Washington.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The genus <i>Sylvilagus</i> is found in both North and South America.
-The species <i>nuttallii</i>, with three subspecies, is restricted to the
-western part of the United States. It ranges from southern Canada
-south to central New Mexico and from western South Dakota west
-to the Cascades. A single race occurs in Washington. Nuttall
-cottontails depend on cover for concealment from enemies. They
-frequent thick stands of tall sagebrush, riparian thickets, or rocky
-coulees. Seldom are they encountered in the open. In the sand-dune
-areas near Moses Lake cottontails were abundant in the dense,
-thorny thickets about potholes and in areas of tall sagebrush.
-They are especially common near the talus at the bases of the walls
-of Grand Coulee, and Moses Coulee where they do not hesitate to
-enter crevices in rock slides for protection. Indeed, cottontails are
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span>
-abundant everywhere within their range in the state of Washington,
-where suitable cover and food are present. They seem to be confined
-to the Upper Sonoran Life-zone.</p>
-
-<p>Cottontails are most active at night, as is attested by the number
-killed then by automobiles on highways. The greatest number are
-seen by observers in the morning and evening but it is not unusual
-to see an animal feeding at midday. When startled they dash for
-the nearest thicket or pile of rocks with their tiny white tails erect.
-They travel in relatively straight lines and do not dash from side
-to side in flight as do jack rabbits. They sometimes seek concealment
-by "freezing" motionlessly in plain sight. When feeding undisturbed
-they travel by slow hops.</p>
-
-<p>The trails of cottontails are characteristic of thickets in sagebrush
-country. The trails are narrow, less than four inches wide,
-and often enter thickets of strong, thorny growths which can
-scarcely be penetrated by man. Near Okanogan Lake the trails of
-cottontails were found among greasewood bushes on hard-packed
-gravel. Trails are usually most abundant in thickets near water.
-Permanent trails are not made through low sagebrush or over sandy
-areas where the animals prefer to pick their way when traveling
-from one clump of cover to another.</p>
-
-<p>Nuttall cottontails probably eat many desert grasses, annuals,
-and shrubs; observation indicates that sagebrush (<i>Artemisiae tridentata</i>)
-and rabbit brush (<i>Chrysothamnus nauseosus</i>) are particularly
-important as food.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The young of cottontails in Washington seem to vary from one to
-four per litter and are born between April and June.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Sylvilagus floridanus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>) subsp.?</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Florida cottontail</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus sylvaticus floridanus</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 3:160, October 8, 1890.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sylvilagus floridanus</i> Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 45 (no. 1456):322, June 15, 1904.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Slightly larger than the sagebrush cottontail;
-smaller than the snowshoe rabbit; ears small; color of upper parts
-pinkish cinnamon-brown; sides pale grayish-cinnamon; underparts
-white; nape of neck cinnamon; chest band paler cinnamon; tail
-brown above, white beneath; forefeet and sides of hind feet cinnamon.</p>
-
-<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The Florida cottontail is not native to the state of
-Washington but has been introduced at several localities. It is
-spreading rapidly at the present time. Points of introduction include
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span>
-Pullman, Whitman County (1926-1927); Battleground, Clark
-County (1933); Auburn, King County (1927); and Whidby Island,
-Island County (1931). At least two subspecies (<i>mearnsi</i>, <i>alacer</i>)
-have been introduced and a third (<i>similis</i>) may have been introduced.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">For further information on introduced cottontails see <a href="#p_Dalquest">Dalquest</a>
-(1941B: 408-411).</p>
-
-
-<h3>Sylvilagus idahoensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Pigmy rabbit</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Lepus idahoensis</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>. N. Amer. Fauna, 5:75, July 30, 1891.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Brachylagus idahoensis</i> Lyon, Smithsonian Misc. Coll., 45 (no. 1456):323, June 15, 1904.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Sylvilagus idahoensis</i> <a href="#p_Grinnell">Grinnell</a>, Dixon and Linsdale, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 35:553,
-October 10, 1930.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained in the Pahsimeroi Valley, Custer County, Idaho, by V.
-<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> and B. H. Dutcher on September 16, 1890; type in United States
-National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Known only from the central part of the Columbian Plateau.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The pigmy rabbit is a tiny species, differing from
-the cottontail in smaller size, paler, grayer color, shorter ears and
-smaller legs.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The pigmy rabbit is restricted to the Great Basin region. No
-subspecies has been described. It is rare and of local occurrence
-in Washington, having been recorded only from the central part
-of the Columbian Plateau. <a href="#p_Orr">Orr</a> (1940), who studied the species
-in California, found them only in stands of tall, dense sage
-(<i>Artemisiae tridentata</i>). It is a burrowing form, not straying far
-from its hole.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Cervus canadensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Erxleben)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Elk or wapiti</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The elk, next to the moose, is our largest deer. The
-legs of the elk are slender. The tail is a short, pointed stub a few
-inches long. The neck is thick in proportion to the head. Both
-males and females possess the canine teeth familiar as "elk tooth
-charms." Only the males possess antlers. These are huge, slender
-beams that curve up, out and back with the basal tine or "dog
-killer" and four to six points on each antler. The antlers are deciduous
-and are shed annually. The body is grayish or tan in color.
-The head, neck, chest and legs are rich, dark brown, strongly contrasting
-with the paler body. The distinctive rump patch is pale
-tan or white.</p>
-
-<p>In the past the elk was found over most of the forested areas of
-Washington. Lumbering, agriculture and settlement as well as excessive
-hunting removed it from parts of eastern Washington and
-all except the most inaccessible parts of the lowlands of western
-Washington. Only in the Cascade and Olympic Mountains and the
-coastal strip between the Columbia River and the Olympic Mountains,
-did the elk survive in appreciable numbers. Conservationists
-and a more enlightened game policy began to protect the elk at the
-turn of the century. It was already too late to save the species
-in eastern Washington, where it seems never to have been truly
-abundant and where relatively open country afforded little protection
-from the high-powered rifle. In the dense, rugged forests of
-western Washington a sizable number remained on the Olympic
-Peninsula and these, under protection, increased to their present
-numbers. The dense, tangled forests of the southwestern coastal
-area and the western Cascades lack conditions suitable to support
-truly large elk herds. These areas probably now have as large an
-elk population as can safely be supported and fed.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The elk of eastern Washington had disappeared or nearly disappeared
-by 1910. The race originally occurring there was the Rocky
-Mountain form; it has been reintroduced from Montana and Wyoming
-into northeastern Washington and the Blue Mountains area.
-These plantings have not been very successful. Introduced in the
-eastern Cascades, however, the Rocky Mountain elk thrived and
-increased on what was probably once the peripheral range of the
-coastal elk.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_130"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_393.jpg" alt="Fig. 130." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 130.</span>&nbsp;
-    Elk or wapiti (<i>Cervus canadensis nelsoni</i>), Banff, Alberta, October,
-    1939. (G. A. Thomas photo.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p2">The habits of the elk are best known from the herds in the
-Olympic Mountains and on the Rattlesnake Game Refuge in the
-eastern Cascade Mountains. Here the animals are numerous and
-relatively tame. Their habits seem to differ somewhat in the forests
-of the lowlands from those of the animals in the higher Olympics
-where the topography and climate are very different.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The elk is a social animal, gathering in herds over most of the
-year. The old males leave the herds in the spring but seem to
-stay in small bands while their antlers are growing. In the Olympic
-Mountains, herds of 100 or more animals have been seen. In the
-lowlands there are ordinarily from five to ten in a herd.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_131"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_394.jpg" alt="Fig. 131." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 131.</span>&nbsp;
-    Group of elk or wapiti (<i>Cervus canadensis nelsoni</i>), Banff, Alberta,
-    October 10, 1939. (G. A. Thomas photo.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The elk is a browsing animal, feeding on twigs and leaves of deciduous
-trees, shrubs and evergreens. In spring and summer it eats
-grasses and succulent annuals, but in winter twigs and needles of
-evergreens, perennial ferns, dry grass and even moss is utilized. To
-a certain extent the elk are migratory, ascending to the open
-meadows of the Hudsonian Life-zone in the early summer and returning
-to the dense forests of the Transition and lower Canadian
-Life-zones with the winter snows. The lowland elk make no such
-migrations, merely leaving the riverbottom jungles when the leaves
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span>
-are off the deciduous plants growing there, and live in the coniferous
-timber.</p>
-
-<p>In the forests the elk is capable of swift and almost silent movement.
-It is an eerie experience to trail a herd of elk through a dense
-forest in a winter rain, knowing that a number of the large animals
-are within a few feet, moving swiftly but silently away. When a
-herd is feeding and does not suspect the presence of an observer,
-the animals rustle branches, break twigs, snort and wheeze as they
-breathe.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The antlers of the males are shed in March. The bulls retire
-from the herd until the new horns are well grown, in late August
-or September. Breeding takes place in September or October and
-the young are born the following April or May.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Cervus canadensis roosevelti&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Cervus roosevelti</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 11:272, December 17, 1897.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Cervus canadensis occidentalis</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., 2:29,
-December, 1929.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on Mount Elaine, Mason County, Washington, by H. and
-C. Emmet on October 4, 1897; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;A large, dark elk with short, heavy antlers.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;The type measured, in the flesh (<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, 1936:81): total
-length 2,490; tail 80; ear (dry) 208.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;From the Cascade Mountains westward; possibly occurred
-formerly in the eastern Cascades, and perhaps still present there, in places, or
-mixed with introduced <i>nelsoni</i>.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;For use of the name <i>roosevelti</i> rather than <i>occidentalis</i> see
-<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a> (1936:81).</p>
-
-
-<h4>Cervus canadensis nelsoni&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Cervus canadensis canadensis</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., 2:29,
-December, 1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Cervus canadensis nelsoni</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, Proc. Biol. Sec. Washington, 48:188, November 15, 1935.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, by J. Pitcher;
-died in captivity on September 21, 1904; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Smaller and paler than <i>roosevelti</i> with longer, slimmer antlers.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Formerly occurred in northeastern Washington and the Blue
-Mountains of southeastern Washington. Since then exterminated and reintroduced
-to both areas from the Rocky Mountains. Also introduced and
-established in the eastern Cascades.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Odocoileus virginianus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Boddaert)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">White-tailed deer</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb1"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The white-tailed deer differs from the black-tailed
-and mule deer in several anatomical details. The tail is long, wide,
-and when the animal is frightened is carried upright with the long,
-white hair of the underside spread out. The antlers of the buck
-are not of a biramous system of branching but instead consist of
-a main beam which curves sharply out and forward, remaining
-low. All subsidiary tines, save the basal one, emerge from the
-dorsal side of the main beam. The basal tine is usually a spurlike
-point arising vertically from the main beam not far from the base
-of the antler. In exceptional specimens the basal tine is large and
-divided into several points. The body of the "whitetail" is more
-smoothly rounded, and more graceful, than that of the mule deer.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_132"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_396.jpg" alt="Fig. 132." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 132.</span>&nbsp;
-    White-tailed deer (<i>Odocoileus virginianus leucurus</i>), doe at least
-    nine years old, kept as a pet by Mrs. Jack Hovis, Puget Island, Washington,
-    December 16, 1939. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>,
-    No. 750.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">White-tailed deer range from Canada south to Panama and from
-the Atlantic to the Pacific. Their range is much more extensive
-to the east and south than that of the "blacktail" and mule deer.
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span>
-In western Washington the whitetail occupies a limited habitat
-near the mouth of the Columbia River. Its geographic range was
-probably somewhat greater in the past. Its habitat includes the
-low, damp, marshy islands and floodplain of the Columbia. Blacktail
-range in the wooded hills surrounding the whitetail's range but
-rarely enter it to compete with the whitetail (<a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, 1940A: 282).</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">In northeastern Washington the whitetail shows the same tendency
-to occupy low, marshy areas and valleys. The habitat preference
-of the whitetail in northeastern Washington is less exact
-than in western Washington, for the species ranges up from the
-valleys into the forests of larch and cottonwood of the Transition
-Life-zone. Its habitat includes denser forest and brushy areas.
-Rarely does it occur in the open type of forest occupied by the
-mule deer.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_133"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_397.jpg" alt="Fig. 133." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 133.</span>&nbsp;
-    White-tailed deer (<i>Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus</i>): fawn kept
-    as a pet by L. E. Borud, Ione, Washington, June 13, 1938. (Fish and Wildlife
-    Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 69.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 pmb1">In Washington the whitetail is not an important game animal.
-The race occurring in western Washington is characterized by small
-size and small antlers. Further, its total population is estimated at
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span>
-but 400 to 900 individuals. The whitetail of northeastern Washington
-is larger and possesses larger antlers. Indeed, some antlers
-from Ferry County are the largest antlers of whitetail that I have
-ever seen. Nevertheless, the whitetail of northeastern Washington
-is smaller than the mule deer and far less common. The habitat
-is dense and difficult to traverse. The animal is shy and silent,
-fleeing soundlessly when approached. For these reasons most hunters
-in northeastern Washington prefer to hunt the mule deer.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_134"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_398.jpg" alt="Fig. 134." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 134.</span>&nbsp;
-    White-tailed deer (<i>Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus</i>): left antler
-    found on ground at Park Rapids, Pend Oreille County, Washington, October
-    1, 1937. (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 756.)</p>
-  </div>
-<p class="pmb2" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Odocoileus virginianus macrourus</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., 2:30,
-December, 1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Odocoileus virginianus ochrourus</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 45:43, April 2, 1932.</p></div>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_135"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_399.jpg" alt="Fig. 135." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 135.</span>&nbsp;
-    White-tailed deer (<i>Odocoileus virginianus leucurus</i>), antlers of
-    large buck killed in the fall of 1939 at Cathlamet, Washington, by Paul Lewis.
-    (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>. No. 752.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2 font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Coolin, south end of Priest Lake, Bonner County,
-Idaho, by F. Lemmer on December 27, 1908; type in United States National
-Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;A large, pale white tail with large, low antlers and distinctive
-cranial features.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;The type, an adult male, measures (<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, 1936. p. 43):
-total length 1,752; tail 265; hind foot 483; ear (dry) 120.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Northeastern Washington. Probably once occurred in southeastern
-Washington.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Odocoileus virginianus leucurus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Douglas)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Cervus leucurus</i> Douglas, Zo&ouml;l. Jour., 4:330, 1829.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Odocoileus leucurus</i> Thompson, Forest and Stream, 51:286, October 8, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Odocoileus virginianus leucurus</i> Lydekker, Cat. Ung. Mamm. British Mus., 4:162, 1915.</p></div>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained on the North Umpqua River, Oregon, by David Douglas
-on October 17, 1826; type originally, and perhaps still, in British Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;A small, handsome whitetail with slender, erect antlers
-and brownish or grayish color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;A young adult female from 1 mile south of Skamokawa,
-Wahkiakum County, measured: total length 1,545; length of tail 250; hind
-foot 458; ear 143; weight 88 pounds.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Previously occurred over much of southwestern Washington;
-now confined to the banks and islands of the Columbia River in Wahkiakum
-County.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Odocoileus hemionus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Rafinesque)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Mule deer and black-tailed deer</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The mule and black-tailed deer are among deer of
-medium to large size. Adult mule deer may weigh up to 400 pounds
-while some fully adult blacktail bucks may weigh as little as 100
-pounds. The body is heavily muscled, the legs long and the tail
-only about 6 inches in length. The ears are long, from 6 to 8 inches
-from notch to tip. The head is long and the male has well-developed
-antlers. The first antlers are almost straight spikes. Those
-of the second year are bent slightly outward and forward and are
-equally or subequally forked with the anterior branch usually the
-stouter. In the third year the anteriolateral curvature is more pronounced
-and one or both of the forks again fork. In succeeding
-years forks are larger and more numerous but the essential biramous
-arrangement of forking is maintained. The "blacktail" and mule
-deer are strongly marked races. The blacktail differs from the mule
-deer in: smaller size; darker color, especially on face and tail; tail
-dark brown above with dark tip rather than whitish with black tip;
-tail haired beneath, not naked for half its length; antlers smaller
-and lighter; and skull and teeth smaller.</p>
-
-<p>Mule deer and black-tailed deer range over western North America
-from southeastern Alaska southward into northern Mexico. They
-inhabit forested parts of the state of Washington. Blacktails occupy
-the San Juan Islands, the islands in Puget Sound, the Olympic
-Mountains, the lowlands of western Washington, and the Cascade
-Mountains. Mule deer occupy the Cascades, including their eastern
-slope, northeastern and southeastern Washington and parts of the
-Columbian Plateau. Over this large range there is considerable
-local geographic variation.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Jackson">Jackson</a> (1944: 1-56) estimated that 109,600 blacktail and 175,725
-mule deer live in Washington. Thus Washington is second only to
-California in number of blacktail and ranks fifth in number of mule
-deer.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>Individual variation over the range of the mule deer is considerable
-but no trends of variation are distinguishable. Mule deer from
-the Blue Mountains, northeastern Washington and the eastern Cascades
-are essentially similar.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">There is geographic variation as well as great individual variation
-in the black-tailed deer of Washington. The deer of the San Juan
-Islands and the islands of Puget Sound are smaller and darker than
-those of the mainland and possess smaller, lighter antlers. The deer
-of Whidby Island are sometimes contemptuously referred to by
-residents as jackrabbit deer. Fully grown bucks on the Islands
-weigh in the neighborhood of 100 pounds, rarely exceeding 150 pounds,
-whereas bucks on the mainland commonly weigh more than 150
-pounds dressed.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_136"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_401.jpg" alt="Fig. 136." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 136.</span>&nbsp;
-    Mule deer (<i>Odocoileus hemionus hemionus</i>), subadult male from
-    Okanogan County, Washington, raised in captivity; photographed June 29,
-    1938, on Hurricane Ridge, Olympic National Park. (Fish and Wildlife Service
-    photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 99.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The dividing line between the ranges of the black-tailed and mule
-deer in general is the summit of the Cascade Mountains. In summer
-the two races come together and doubtless mingle in the Cascades
-but as fall approaches they migrate. The mule deer moves
-eastward to the yellow-pine areas on the lower slopes while the
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span>
-blacktails descend westward to the denser Douglas fir and hemlock
-forests on the western flanks of the Cascades. In the breeding season
-the two races are separated. However, as shown by <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a>
-(1936A: 219), in the Pemberton Valley, British Columbia, the two
-forms occur together during the breeding season and intergradation
-occurs there. Intergradation occurs also in the Lake Wenatchee
-area of Chelan County. Observation of hunters' specimens showed
-some undoubted intergrades among the more abundant, typical mule
-deer.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Both the mule deer and blacktail have a characteristic bounding
-gait, unlike the smooth run of the white-tailed deer. The tail is
-usually held down, rarely erect. When not frightened they move
-with dainty steps, making little noise.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_137"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_402.jpg" alt="Fig. 137." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 137.</span>&nbsp;
-    Black-tailed deer (<i>Odocoileus hemionus columbianus</i>), buck resting
-    at midday, Van Trump Park, Mt. Rainier, Washington, August, 1931.
-    (Fish and Wildlife Service photo by Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a>, No. 260.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">The black-tailed deer in certain areas is more nocturnal than
-diurnal. They feed principally in the early morning and evening.
-In the Olympic Mountains, on the North Fork of the Quinault
-River, in July, 1937, blacktails were watched feeding and playing
-until midnight. Also in December, 1939, deer, near the forks of
-the Skykomish River, were moving about, browsing as late as 11
-p. m. while a light snow was falling. In the San Juan Islands, in the
-summer of 1939, deer were observed feeding at all hours of the day.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The blacktail lives in some of the most dense jungle areas of western
-Washington. On Whidby Island and some of the San Juan
-Islands the brush and vines grow so densely that a man can scarcely
-penetrate them. Were it not for the deer trails, formed by generations
-of deer, our small mammal investigations would have been
-far more difficult. The blacktail lives also in the dense forests
-where fir, hemlock and cedars grow to heights of more than 150
-feet. Here lack of light allows only ferns and moss to form an understory
-vegetation. These forests often clothe the steep glacial
-hills and the trails of the deer on such hills show them to be adept
-climbers. Deer trails generally avoid fallen trees and other obstacles.
-When startled, however, a stump, fence or log is easily
-leaped by a blacktail. Often they are in small bands of 6 to 10
-individuals, but almost as often are solitary, or in pairs.</p>
-
-<p>The habitat of the mule deer is generally more open than that
-of the blacktail. In the summer, it may occupy rough and rugged
-country; in the higher Cascades individuals were found in the
-rocky and brushy country and in open glades and meadows. Farther
-east they were in the open yellow-pine forests where extensive
-grassy slopes, free of trees, existed. In some parts of northeastern
-Washington they lived in the larch and lodgepole pine forests almost
-dense enough to be "blacktail country." In the Okanogan Valley and
-on the northwestern corner of the Columbia Plateau mule deer
-lived in open prairie country where a few cottonwoods and willows
-were the only trees.</p>
-
-<p>The mule deer seem more social than the blacktail. In the late
-summer they gather in bands of 10 to 20 or more. In winter, under
-pressure of hunger, they gather in herds and raid haystacks and
-pastures. Farmers in the Methow Valley, Okanogan County, report
-herds of 200 to 400 mule deer about a single haystack.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The mule deer and blacktail are the principal game mammals of
-the state of Washington. Thousands of hunters enter the woods
-each year in search of a buck. Eastern Washington is the favored
-hunting grounds for that is the home of the mule deer, the larger
-size of which makes it a more desirable trophy. Also the open
-country which it inhabits makes hunting more productive. Sums
-spent on equipment, gasoline and hunting licenses are tremendous
-but the feeling is that the return in recreational value and venison
-are worth the cost. A few casualties result each year among the
-army of deer hunters.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Odocoileus hemionus hemionus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Rafinesque)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Cervus hemionus</i> Rafinesque, Amer. Month. Mag., 1:436, October, 1817.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Cariacus macrotis</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7:592, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Odocoileus hemionus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:100, April 30, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Odocoileus hemionus macrotis</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, National Geographic, 20:64, 1932.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type locality.</i>&mdash;Vicinity of Big Sioux River, South Dakota.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Large size, pale color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;Two adult males from Stay-a-while Spring, Columbia
-County, measure respectively: total length 1,751, 1,559; length of tail 172,
-205; hind foot 515, 485; ear 210, 211; length of metatarsal gland 150, 135.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Summit of Cascades eastward, in forested areas, exact limits
-not certainly known.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Odocoileus hemionus columbianus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Richardson)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Cervus macrotis</i> var. <i>columbiana</i> Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1:257, 1829.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Cariacus columbianus</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):592, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Cervus columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, U. S. Pacific R. R. Exp. and Surveys, p. 659, 1857.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Eucervus columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 18 (ser. 3):338, 1866.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Odocoileus columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 12:100, April 30, 1898.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Odocoileus columbianus columbianus</i> Swarth, Univ. California Publ. Zo&ouml;l., 10:85, February
-13, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Odocoileus hemionus columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a>, California Fish and Game, 22:215, July, 1936.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Cape Disappointment, Pacific County, Washington, by
-Lewis and Clark on November 19, 1805 (<a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a>, 1936A: 218).</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Small size, dark color.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Summit of Cascades westward, including islands in Puget
-Sound and San Juan Islands; exact limits of range uncertain.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Alce americana shirasi&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Moose</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Alces americanus shirasi</i> <a href="#p_Nelson">Nelson</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 27:72, April 25, 1914.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained near the Snake River, Lincoln County, Wyoming, by J.
-Shire on December 11, 1913; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Casual wanderer into northeastern Washington from Canada.</p>
-
-<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The moose is the largest North American deer. Its
-large size and huge, palmate antlers serve to separate it from any
-other member of the deer tribe.</p>
-
-<p>Moose range from northern United States to central Canada and
-Alaska. The European elk and the American moose are subspecies
-of the same species. The moose is of only casual occurrence in
-Washington. The latest authentic record for Washington is a bull
-that wandered southward and westward from Canada until it was
-killed on an Indian reservation in Ferry County. Other moose are
-reported to have wandered into northeastern Washington from
-Canada in past years.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><a href="#p_Dice">Dice</a> (1919) was told that moose once occurred in the Blue
-Mountains of southeastern Washington but there is no confirmation
-of this report.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Rangifer arcticus montanus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Seton-Thompson</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Caribou</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Rangifer montanus</i> Seton-Thompson, Ottawa Naturalist, 13:129-30, August, 1899.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Rangifer arcticus montanus</i> Jacobi, Erganzungsband, Zo&ouml;l. Anz., 96:92, November, 1931.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained near Revelstoke, Selkirk Range, British Columbia.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Rare or casual along the Canadian boundary in northeastern
-Washington.</p>
-
-<p><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The caribou is a rather stout-bodied deer with large
-hoofs, short, rounded muzzle and long, erect, flattened antlers.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Caribou and their relatives, the reindeer, range over Arctic Europe,
-Asia, Greenland and America. In North America they range from
-the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the northern border of the
-United States northward into the Arctic. The caribou was, until
-recent years, a regular winter resident in small numbers in northeastern
-Washington near the Canadian Boundary. Their wintering
-grounds in Washington were said to have been destroyed by fire in
-1915 and the species has appeared in the state only casually since
-then. Two were killed in 1940 by hunters who thought they were
-deer. Caribou are protected by law in Washington.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Bison bison oregonus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Bison</span></h3>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Bison bison bison</i> <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Occ. Papers Chas. R. Conner Mus., 2:31, December,
-1929.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Bison bison oregonus</i> <a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 45:48, April 2, 1932.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Skull and skeleton picked up at Malheur Lake, Oregon, by G. M.
-Benson in November, 1931; type in United States National Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Perhaps casual in eastern Washington before coming of the
-white man.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Bison, or buffalo, occurred in southeastern Oregon
-but disappeared before white men reached the country (<a href="#p_Bailey">Bailey</a>,
-1936: 57). <a href="#p_Gibbs">Gibbs</a> (1860: 138) was told by an Indian hunter in
-1853 that a lost bull had been killed in the Grand Coulee (state of
-Washington) 25 years before but that "this was an extraordinary
-occurrence, perhaps before unknown." In the days before horses
-reached the Indian tribes of eastern Washington and Oregon, wandering
-bison from herds in Oregon probably strayed into Washington,
-in somewhat the manner that the moose today stray in
-from Canada.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Ovis canadensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a></span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Mountain sheep</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The mountain sheep is the size of a small deer.
-The horns of the males are massive spirals. Those of the females
-are smaller, curve upward and backward, rarely forming a semicircle.
-The horns are permanent structures, enlarged each year by
-growth at the base. Growth is irregular, probably as the result of
-seasonal reproductive activities. As a result the horns are "ringed"
-with concentric ridges. The color of the upper parts is dark, grayish
-brown. The face is paler, yellowish brown. The outer sides
-of the legs are dark brown. The rump, abdomen, and insides of
-legs are white.</p>
-
-<p>Mountain sheep of the genus <i>Ovis</i> are abundantly represented in
-Asia. Two species occur in North America, <i>Ovis dalli</i> in Alaska,
-and <i>Ovis canadensis</i> in western North America. They range from
-Alaska south to northern Mexico.</p>
-
-<p>In the past the mountain sheep inhabited most of the eastern
-Cascade Mountains, the Blue Mountains, Pend Oreille Mountains,
-and the cliffs of the Columbia River Valley in eastern Washington.
-They occurred on the eastern or Columbian Plateau side of the
-river and therefore probably occupied the cliffs of Moses Coulee
-and the Grand Coulee. Their habitat seems thus to have included
-rocky areas from the Upper Sonoran to the Hudsonian life-zones.
-At the present time they are extinct over most of their range. A
-small band still remains in the extreme northeastern Cascades
-near Mount Chopaka.</p>
-
-<p>Little has been published concerning the habits of the mountain
-sheep in Washington. In caves along the Columbia River in Grant
-County, bones of sheep are found in association with stone arrowheads
-and other human artifacts. Presumably the sheep were
-killed and eaten by the Indians.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">The history of the mountain sheep in North America is outlined
-by <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> (1940: 506). The genus is thought to have crossed
-from Asia to America by the land bridge now under Bering Strait
-in the early Pleistocene and spread southward through the Rockies.
-The advance of the glacial ice forced them farther southward and
-the southern (<i>canadensis</i>) sheep were separated from their relatives
-farther north. The present differences between the Rocky
-Mountain and western sheep seem to have resulted from separation
-by glaciers during Wisconsin Time.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Ovis canadensis canadensis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ovis canadensis</i> <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a>, Nat. Misc., vol. 15, text to pl. 610, about December, 1803.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained in the mountains on Bow River; W. B. <a href="#p_Davis">Davis</a> (1939: 377)
-gives Dew River near Exshaw, Alberta.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Large size; heavy, closely coiled horns.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> (1940: 533) gives the measurements of a fully adult
-(6-year old) ram from Colorado as: total length 1,953; length of tail 127;
-hind foot 394; ear (dry) 63.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Now extinct in Washington. <a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> (<i>op. cit.</i>: 535) refers
-to this race as the sheep that formerly occurred in the Blue Mountains. This
-view seems logical but I feel that the sheep formerly occurring in the Pend
-Oreille Mountains of extreme northeastern Washington should, on the basis
-of geographic probability, also be referred to <i>canadensis</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Ovis canadensis californiana&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Douglas</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ovis californianus</i> Douglas, Zo&ouml;l. Jour., 4:332, 1829.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ovis californica</i> Richardson, Fauna Boreali-Americana, 1:272, 1829.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ovis californiana</i> Biddulph, Proc. Zo&ouml;l. Soc. London, p. 683, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ovis canadensis californiana</i> Lydekker, The Sheep and its Cousins, p. 288, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained from near Mount Adams, Yakima County, Washington,
-by D. Douglas on August 27, 1826; type in British Museum.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Racial characters.</i>&mdash;Similar to <i>canadensis</i> but smaller with more slender,
-spreading horns and horn tips less blunt.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;<a href="#p_Cowan">Cowan</a> (1940: 545) gives the measurements of a ram, five
-years old, from Owens Valley, California, as: total length, 1,582; length of tail,
-110; hind foot, 240.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Formerly occupied the eastern Cascades, the valley of the
-Columbia and possibly the cliffs bordering Moses Coulee and The Grand
-Coulee. Now it is found only near Mt. Chopaka in the extreme northeastern
-Cascades.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Oreamnos americanus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Blainville)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Mountain goat</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;The mountain goat is of deer-size, with a stout
-body and a pronounced hump on the shoulders. The legs are short
-but the hoofs are large with large dewclaws. The neck is short
-and thick. The head is large and goatlike in appearance. The tail
-is tiny. The horns are slim, round and curve up and slightly backwards.
-They are hollow and are permanent structures, added to
-each year. The body is snow white, consisting of long, soft wool,
-which is longer and coarser on forelegs, neck and chin than on the
-body. Males have a distinct beard.</p>
-
-<p>Mountain goats range from Washington and Idaho north to
-Alaska. Their nearest relatives are the Old-World antelopes, especially
-the alpine species of Europe and Asia.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span></p>
-
-<p>The mountain goat is an animal of the high mountains. Their
-habitat is the bare-rock cliffs and rock-strewn slopes of the Arctic-alpine
-and Hudsonian Life-zones. Where extensive, open rocky
-areas occur they descend to the Canadian Life-zone. Even in winter
-they keep to the high cliffs where steep slopes and strong winds
-keep the snow from the plants on which they feed.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">Mountain goats are considered a game animal in Canada and
-Idaho. The species has been protected in Washington for many
-years. As a result they are common, although not present in numbers
-sufficient to withstand hunting. The high country which they
-occupy is unsuited to any of man's domestic animals and no reason
-is apparent at present why the mountain goat should not be protected
-and conserved for many years.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_138"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_408.jpg" alt="Fig. 138." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 138.</span>&nbsp;
-    Mountain goat (<i>Oreamnos americanus americanus</i>), old female,
-    Lake Chelan, Washington, March 6, 1937. (Forest Service photo by Oliver
-    T. Edwards, No. 348491.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">In spite of the protection accorded them, the mountain goat has
-not become tame. In driving over Stevens Pass, King County, one
-can, with the aid of glasses, usually pick out one or more mountain
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span>
-goats on nearby mountains. Nevertheless, I have never seen one
-within 100 yards of a highway, nor heard of one being killed by
-cars on a highway.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb1">The mountain goat does not, as a rule, allow close approach by
-man. At Goat Basin, Deception Creek, King County, circumstances
-are particularly favorable for goats and several are usually to be
-seen. While studying them on several occasions, I was never able
-to get truly close to them. On the few occasions when I came upon
-a band unexpectedly, they rapidly went over the mountain or up
-the nearest cliff.</p>
-
-<div class="figcenter">
- <a id="Fig_139"></a>
-  <img src="images/i_409.jpg" alt="Fig. 139." />
-</div>
-  <div class="l_distance_fig"><p class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fig. 139.</span>&nbsp;
-    Group of mountain goats (<i>Oreamnos americanus americanus</i>),
-    northern Cascade Mountains, Washington. (Forest Service photo, No.
-    348490.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p class="p2">When unfrightened, these mountain goats spent much time standing,
-or lying with forefeet folded under them, looking into space.
-For such large animals they seemed to spend little time feeding. At
-intervals of about five minutes they plucked the ferns or other plants
-that grew in abundance on ledges or in tiny crevices in the cliffs.
-Some animals did browse for several minutes at a time. They
-seemed rather particular as to their food, plucking only one or
-two stems from a clump of vegetation.</p>
-
-<p>The ordinary movements of the mountain goats are deliberate.
-They rarely move more than a few feet at a time. They climb
-with sure-footed ease but usually slowly. In climbing, the forelegs
-are spread and the knees are bent. The animal moves as if it were
-climbing steps. The greatest action is in the knee joints. If surprised
-in the open they run with a smoother gait, the legs moving
-from the shoulder and hip. If near a cliff they climb rapidly, jumping
-when necessary, and rarely stop while in sight. Evidence of the
-    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span>
-presence of mountain goats is usually seen in the form of tufts and
-strands of wool. Their wool becomes caught in bushes and rough
-rocks and seemingly pulls out easily.</p>
-
-<p>The range of the mountain goat in Washington includes the entire
-Cascade range from Mt. Adams and Mt. Saint Helens north to
-the Canadian boundary. They extend west to Mt. Baker, Mt.
-Higgins and Mt. Index and east to Lake Chelan and, in the Wenatchee
-Range, east of Mt. Stuart, perhaps almost to the Columbia
-River.</p>
-
-<p><a href="#p_Dice">Dice</a> (1919: 21) was told that mountain goats once occurred in
-the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington. We know of no
-suitable goat country in the Blue Mountains of Washington and
-feel that the report was probably based on an erroneous identification.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2">There is a single record, supported by specimen, of a mountain
-goat from northeastern Washington. This individual probably
-wandered into Washington from northern Idaho, Montana, or adjacent
-British Columbia.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Oreamnos americanus americanus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Blainville)</span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Ovis montanus</i> Ord, Guthrie's Geol., 2d Amer. Ed., p. 292, 1815 (preoccupied).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>R[upicapra]. americana</i> Blainville, Bull. Sci. Soc. Philomath, Paris, p. 80, 1816.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mazama dorsata</i> Rafinesque, Amer. Month. Mag., 2:44, 1817 (new name for <i>Ovis montanus</i>
-Ord).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Mazama montana</i> True, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 7 (1884):592, 1885.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Oreamnos montanus</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, Science, n. s., 1:19, 1895.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Oreamnos montanus montanus</i> <a href="#p_Miller">Miller</a>, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull., 79:398, December 31, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Oreamnos americanus americanus</i> Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 25:186, December 24,
-1912.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;None. Descriptions all based on <i>Ovis montanus</i> Ord who, in turn,
-based his description on the account of skins seen by Lewis and Clark on
-the Columbia River of Washington or Oregon. As the mountain goat is not
-known to have ever occurred in Oregon in Recent times, the type locality
-is probably near Mt. Adams, Washington, the point where goats come nearest
-the Columbia.</p>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;The measurements of a large male killed "west of North
-Yakima" were reported by A. S. Harmer as: 8 feet 3 inches from tip of nose
-to tip of tail; horns 10 inches; weight 507 pounds (Outdoor Life, 1915: 459).</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Throughout the higher Cascade Mountains.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Oreamnos americanus missoulae&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1"><a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a></span></h4>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Oreamnos montanus missoulae</i> <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 20:20, February 10, 1904.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">
-<i>Oreamnos americanus missoulae</i> Hollister, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 25:186, December
-24, 1912.</p></div>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Type.</i>&mdash;Obtained at Missoula, Missoula County, Montana; type in American
-Museum of Natural History.</p>
-
-<p class="font08 pmb2"><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;A single record for northeastern Washington. Seemingly a
-rare wanderer from outside the state.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2>ORDER CETACEA<br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx1">Whales and porpoises</span></h2>
-
-<p class="pmb2">Because Victor B. <a href="#p_Scheffer">Scheffer</a> and John W. <a href="#p_Slipp">Slipp</a> have in preparation
-a detailed account of Cetaceans properly ascribable to Washington,
-members of this order here are not treated in as much detail as are
-other native mammals.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Berardius bairdii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Stejneger</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2"><a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a> beaked whale</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Length about 40 feet; mandibles elongate, "beak-like";
-one or two large teeth at tip of lower jaw; dorsal fin small and
-situated posteriorly; color black but abdomen occasionally grayish.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This rare whale is known from a few specimens recorded
-from Alaska south to California.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Mesoplodon stejnegeri&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">True</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Stejneger beaked whale</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Similar to the previous species in proportions but
-smaller; length about 17 feet. Differs in possessing one large flat
-tusk in lower jaw.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Known only from a specimen from Alaska and
-another from the coast of Oregon.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Delphinus bairdii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Dall</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Dolphin</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A slender porpoise about 6 or 7 feet long; long,
-narrow beak with 80-120 conical teeth; color above black tinged
-with greenish; sides gray; belly and throat white.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Recorded from California and probably ranges into
-Washington in off-shore waters.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Lissodelphis borealis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Peale)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Right whale porpoise</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A small, beaked porpoise lacking a dorsal fin; color
-black with narrow white area from breast to tail; length about 4
-feet.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;A rare species described from waters 500 miles off
-the mouth of the Columbia River.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Lagenorhynchus obliquidens&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Gill</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Striped porpoise</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Length about 7 feet; beak not prominent; 44-46
-conical teeth in each jaw; anterior edge of dorsal fin curved; color
-of upper parts greenish black; sides with one white or gray stripe
-posteriorly; underparts white.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;This is the common porpoise in the Straits of Juan
-De Fuca from about the vicinity of Port Townsend to the ocean and
-in immediate off-shore waters. One specimen was obtained 100
-miles off Grays Harbor. Rarely seen in Puget Sound.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Grampus rectipinna&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Cope)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Killer whale</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A large porpoise, 20-30 feet in length; dorsal fin
-high and nearly straight; teeth large, conical, 12 above, 13 below;
-color black above with white patch on side anteriorly.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The killer is common in Puget Sound and off the ocean
-coast. Both the killer and the true blackfish are locally termed
-"blackfish."</p>
-
-
-<h3>Grampidelphis griseus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Cuvier)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Grampus</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A round-headed porpoise about 10 feet in length;
-dorsal fin high and narrow; 4 to 6 teeth in each jaw; color black,
-occasionally with white head or with body mottled with white and
-gray.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;An off-shore species, probably not uncommon off the
-coast of Washington at times.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Globicephalus scammonii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Cope)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Blackfish</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A large, stout-bodied, round-headed porpoise about
-20 feet in length. Teeth large; 8-10 in lower jaw; 10-12 in upper
-jaw. Color black. Differs from the killer whale in possessing a
-low, long dorsal fin rather than a high, erect one.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The blackfish is a colonial species, often common in
-Puget Sound. It is frequently confused with the killer whale.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Phocoena vomerina&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Gill)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Harbor porpoise</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A small, stout-bodied porpoise with a rounded head.
-Length 5 to 6 feet. Teeth small, slightly flattened; about 25 above,
-24 below; color blackish or brownish to liver color.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Small schools of harbor porpoises are common in Puget
-Sound, among the San Juan Islands, and in the Straits of Juan De
-Fuca. This is the commonest inshore porpoise but, because of its
-smaller size, is less well known to most persons than are the blackfish
-and killer whale.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Phocoenoides dalli&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(True)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Dall porpoise</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A small porpoise, about 6 feet in length, with
-pointed head and moderately stout body. Teeth small, 23 above
-and 27 below. Color greenish black with flanks or posterior sides
-white.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;A rare off-shore species.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Physeter catodon&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Linnaeus</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Sperm whale</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A toothed whale about 60 feet long; head enormous,
-squarish; teeth conical, 50 or fewer in lower jaw.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Occurs off the coast of Washington and rarely enters
-the Straits of Juan De Fuca.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Kogia breviceps&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Blainville)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Pigmy sperm whale</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Similar to the sperm whale in proportions but less
-than 10 feet in length.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;A rare species whose habits are little known. The
-available information concerning this species in the Atlantic has
-been summarized by <a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a> (1941).</p>
-
-
-<h3>Rhachianectes glaucus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Cope)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Gray whale</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A relatively slender whale, about 40 feet in length;
-dorsal fin absent; baleen short, yellow in color; color of body mottled
-gray or blackish.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The gray whale was once abundant and occurred off
-the coast of Washington in spring and summer migrations. Hunted
-until now rare.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Balaenoptera physalus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Linnaeus)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Finback whale</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A relatively slender whale, up to 82 feet in
-length; dorsal fin far posterior, prominent; baleen in two slabs, well
-developed, about two feet in length and gray in color; color of body
-blackish or brownish above, white below.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Recorded off-shore.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Balaenoptera borealis&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Lesson</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Sei or Pollack whale</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Similar to the finback whale but dorsal fin larger;
-baleen dark; body dark blue or brownish; belly with restricted
-white area.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Recorded off-shore.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Balaenoptera acutorostrata&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">Lac&eacute;p&egrave;de</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Pike whale</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A small whalebone whale, about 30 feet in length;
-body slender; head pointed; pectoral fin well developed and prominent;
-baleen short, white; color black above, white beneath.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;A rare species that has been recorded from Washington.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Sibbaldus musculus&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Linnaeus)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Blue whale or sulphur-bottom whale</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;Largest of the whales; length up to 100 feet; body
-slender; head flat above, rounded beneath; dorsal fin slender but
-prominent; baleen in two series, heavy and black; belly with numerous
-longitudinal ridges; color bluish black above, yellow beneath.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;Probably uncommon off-shore.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Megaptera novaeangliae&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(Borowski)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Humpback whale</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A medium-sized, stout-bodied whale up to 54 feet
-in length; dorsal fin low, not prominent; head flat above, rounded
-beneath; prominent "hump" at back of head; belly with numerous
-longitudinal ridges; baleen small; color blackish or grayish above,
-paler below; body characteristically blotched with patches of whitish
-barnacles.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb2"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;The humpback is the commonest whale off the coast
-of Washington, often coming into northern Puget Sound.</p>
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Eubalaena sieboldii&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="hx1">(<a href="#p_Gray">Gray</a>)</span><br /><br />
-
-<span class="hx2">Pacific right whale</span></h3>
-
-<p class="font08"><i>Description.</i>&mdash;A large whale, 60-70 feet in length, with enormous,
-rounded head; dorsal fin absent; belly lacking longitudinal ridges;
-baleen blackish, 8 feet in length; color uniformly blackish.</p>
-
-<p class="pmb3"><i>Remarks.</i>&mdash;A much hunted species now probably rare off shore.</p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break">HYPOTHETICAL LIST</h2>
-
-<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Mammals Other Than Cetaceans Possibly Occurring in Washington<br />
-of Which Satisfactory Record Is Lacking</span></p>
-
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">1. <i>Ursus canadensis</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, grizzly bear.&mdash;This species has been recorded
-from Kootenay Lake, British Columbia, 30 miles northeast from the northeastern
-corner of the state of Washington and may have occurred in
-northeastern Washington.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">2. <i>Ursus idahoensis</i> <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, grizzly bear.&mdash;Recorded by <a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a> (1918: 54)
-from the Wallowa Mountains, Oregon. This form may have occurred in
-the Blue Mountains of southeastern Washington.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">3. <i>Vulpes fulva macroura</i> <a href="#p_Baird">Baird</a>, red fox.&mdash;Reported from the Blue Mountains
-and northeastern Washington; no specimen recorded.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">4. <i>Canis lupus columbianus</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, wolf.&mdash;Possibly occurred in northeastern
-Washington in historic time, and perhaps is occasionally still found
-there.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">5. <i>Canis lupus irremotus</i> <a href="#p_Goldman">Goldman</a>, wolf.&mdash;Perhaps once occurred in southeastern
-Washington.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">6. <i>Mirounga angustirostris</i> (Gill), sea elephant.&mdash;May occur as a casual wanderer
-off the coast of Washington. The home of this species is Lower
-California but a dead specimen was washed upon the shore of Prince of
-Wales Island, Alaska (<a href="#p_Willett">Willett</a>, 1943: 500).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">7. <i>Perognathus parvus laingi</i> <a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a>, Great Basin pocket mouse.&mdash;Probably
-present in the mountains east of Lake Osoyoos in Washington, but no
-specimens have yet been collected.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">8. <i>Synaptomys borealis artemisiae</i> <a href="#p_Anderson">Anderson</a>, northern lemming mouse.&mdash;Probably
-present in the Cascades of northern Okanogan County but no
-specimens have yet been obtained.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08 pmb3">9. <i>Antilocapra americana</i> (Ord) subsp?, pronghorned antelope.&mdash;This species
-is restricted to North America and once ranged over much of the plains
-region of the western part of the continent. <a href="#p_Taylor">Taylor</a> and <a href="#p_Shaw">Shaw</a> (1929: 31)
-included the antelope in their list of Washington mammals with the statement
-"Now extirpated within State; the former range of the pronghorn
-included much of the plains country of eastern Washington." So far as
-known to me, there is no record by any of the early explorers of antelope
-killed or seen in what is now Washington. No bones of antelope have
-been discovered in caves in eastern Washington. <a href="#p_Ogden">Ogden</a> (1909: 339) mentions
-an antelope killed in Oregon a day's journey south of The Dalles.
-This record is fairly close to Washington and indicates that antelope might
-have occurred at least in southeastern Washington in historic times.</p></div>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="ADDENDA">ADDENDA</h2>
-
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">1. The antelope (<i>Antilocapra americana</i>) has been introduced into the
-Yakima Valley by the state of Washington, Department of Game.</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08">2. The elephant seal (<i>Mirounga angustirostris</i>) has been discovered off the
-coast of Washington (Seattle <i>Times</i>, April 15, 1947, p. 3).</p></div>
-
-<div class="l_distance"><p class="font08 pmb3">3. The yellow-pine chipmunk of the Blue Mountains has been described
-as a new subspecies, <i>Eutamias [Tamias] amoenus albiventris</i> <a href="#p_Booth">Booth</a>, Murrelet,
-28 (no. 1):7, 1947. Type locality Wickiup Spring, 23 miles west of Anatone,
-Asotin-Garfield County boundary.</p></div>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="BIBLIOGRAPHY">BIBLIOGRAPHY</h2>
-
-
-<div class="block1">
-<table border="0" cellspacing="0" class="tdl" summary="Bibliography">
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Allen"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Allen, G. M.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1920.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Dogs of the American aborigines. Harvard Col., Bull. Mus. Comp.
-Zo&ouml;l., 63:431-517, 12 pls.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1941.</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Pigmy sperm whale in the Atlantic. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., zo&ouml;l.
-      ser., 27:17-36, 4 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Allen1"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Allen, J. A.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1893.</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">On a collection of mammals from the San Pedro Martin region of
-      Lower California, with notes on other species, particularly of the
-      genus <i>Sitomys</i>. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 5:181-202.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Anderson"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Anderson, R. M.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1932.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Five new mammals from British Columbia. Ann. Rept. Canadian
-      Nat. Mus. for 1931, pp. 99-119, 1 pl.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Anderson, R. M.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Rand, A. L.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Variation in the porcupine (genus <i>Erethizon</i>) in Canada. Canadian
-      Jour. Research, 21:292-309, 5 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943B.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Status of the Richardson vole (<i>Microtus richardsoni</i>) in Canada.
-      Canadian Field-Nat., 57:106-107.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Bailey"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Bailey, V.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1900.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the American voles of the genus <i>Microtus</i>. N. Amer.
-      Fauna, 17:1-88, 5 pls., 17 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1918.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Wild animals of Glacier National Park: the mammals. U. S. Nat
-      Park Serv. Bull., pp. 15-102, 21 pls., 18 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1936.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The mammals and life zones of Oregon. N. Amer. Fauna, 55:1-416,
-      51 pls., 102 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Baird"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Baird, S. F.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1857.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Mammals. Gen. Rept., Zo&ouml;logy of the Several Pacific R. R. Routes,
-      pp. xxv-xxxii, 1-737; xlviii + 757 pp., pls. xvii-lx, 35 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Bennett"></a>
-      <a id="p_English"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Bennett, L. J.</span>, <span class="smcap">English, P. F.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Watts, R. L.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The food habits of the black bear in Pennsylvania. Jour. Mamm.,
-      24:25-31, 1 fig. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Berry"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Berry, E. W.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1931.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A Miocene flora from Grand Coulee, Washington. <i>In</i> U. S. Geol.
-      Surv. Prof. Paper 170, pp. 31-42, pls. 11-13.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Birdseye"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Birdseye, C.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1912.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Some Common mammals of western Montana in relation to agriculture
-      and spotted fever. U. S. Dept. Agric., Farm. Bull. 484, pp.
-      1-46, 34 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Bonham"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Bonham, K.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1942.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Records of harbor seals in lakes Washington and Union, Seattle.
-      Murrelet, 23:76.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Booth"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Booth, E. S.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1945.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A new red-backed mouse from Washington state. Murrelet,
-      26:27-28.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Bretz"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Bretz, J. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1913.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Glaciation of the Puget Sound region. Washington Geol. Soc.
-      Bull. 8, pp. 1-244, 24 pls., 27 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span>
-      <span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1923.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Glacial drainage on the Columbian Plateau. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.
-      vol. 34, pp. 573-608. 12 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Brockman"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Brockman, C. F.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Items of interest from Mount Rainier. Murrelet, 20:70-71.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Broadbooks"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Broadbooks, H. E.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Food habits of the vagrant shrew. Murrelet, 20:62-66.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Bryan"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Bryan, K.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1927.</span><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The "Palouse soil" problem. <i>In</i> U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 790, pp. 21-45,
-      pls. 4-7.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Bryant"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Bryant, M. D.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1945.</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Phylogeny of nearctic Sciuridae. Amer. Mid. Nat., vol. 33, pp. 257-390,
-      8 pls., 48 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Cottam"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Cottam, C.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Williams, C. S.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Speed of some wild mammals. Jour. Mamm., 24:262.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Couch"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Couch, L. K.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1925.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Storing habits of Microtus townsendii. Jour. Mamm., 6:200-201.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1927.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Migration of the Washington black-tailed jack rabbit. Jour. Mamm.,
-      8:313-314.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1930.</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Notes on the pallid yellow-bellied marmot. Murrelet, 11 (No. 2):2-6,
-      3 figs.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Cowan"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Cowan, I. M.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1936A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Distribution and variation in deer (genus <i>Odocoileus</i>) of the Pacific
-      coastal region of North America. California Fish and Game, 22:155-246.
-      figs. 51-63.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1936B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Nesting habits of the flying squirrel Glaucomys sabrinus. Jour.
-      Mamm., 17:58-60.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1937.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A new race of <i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i> from British Columbia.
-      Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 50:215-216.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1938.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Geographic distribution of color phases of the red fox and black
-      bear in the Pacific Northwest. Jour. Mamm., 19:202-206, 1 map.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The vertebrate fauna of the Peace River district of British Columbia.
-       Occ. Papers British Columbia Prov. Mus., No. 1, pp. 1-102.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Distribution and variation in the native sheep of North America.
-      Amer. Mid. Nat., 24:505-580, 4 pls., 1 map.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Cowan, I. M.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Hatter, J.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span><br /><br /></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Two mammals new to the known fauna of British Columbia. Murrelet,
-      21:9.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Crabb"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Crabb, W. D.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1944.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Growth, development, and seasonal weights of spotted skunks. Jour.
-      Mamm., vol. 25. pp. 213-221, 2 pls.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Culver"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Culver, H. E.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1936.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The geology of Washington: part 1, General features of Washington
-      geology (with map). Washington State Div. Geol., Bull. 32, pp. 1-70.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Dale"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Dale, F. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Geographic variation in the meadow mouse in British Columbia
-      and southeastern Alaska. Jour. Mamm., 21:332-340.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Dalquest"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Dalquest, W. W.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span>
-      <span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1938.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Bats in the state of Washington. Jour. Mamm., 19:211-213.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Bats in the San Juan Islands, Washington. Murrelet, 21:4-5.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1941A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Ecologic relationships of four small mammals in western Washington.
-      Jour. Mamm., 22:170-173.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1941B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Distribution of cottontail rabbits in Washington State. Jour. Wildlife
-      Management, 5:408-411, 1 fig.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1942.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Geographic variation in northwestern snowshoe hares. Jour. Mamm.,
-      23:166-183, 2 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08"> Seasonal distribution of the hoary bat along the Pacific Coast. Murrelet,
-      24:20-24, 2 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1944.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The moulting of the wandering shrew. Jour. Mamm., 25:146-148.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Dalquest, W. W.</span>, and <span class="smcap"><a href="#p_Dalquest">Burgner</a>, R. L.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1941.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The shrew-mole of western Washington. Murrelet, 22:12-14.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Dalquest, W. W.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Orcutt, D. R.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1942.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The biology of the least shrew-mole, Neurotrichus gibbsii minor.
-      Amer. Mid. Nat., 27:387-401, 4 figs. in text</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Dalquest, W. W.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Scheffer, V. B.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1942.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The origin of the mima mounds of western Washington. Jour. Geol.,
-      50:68-84, 8 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1944.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Distribution and variation in pocket gophers, <i>Thomomys talpoides</i>,
-      in the state of Washington. Amer. Nat., part 1, 78:308-333, part 2,
-      78:423-550, 8 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Davis"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Davis, W. B.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The Recent Mammals of Idaho. The Caxton Printers, Caldwell,
-      Idaho, pp. 1-400.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Dice"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Dice, L. R.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1919.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The mammals of southeastern Washington. Jour. Mamm., 1:10-22,
-      2 pls.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Variation in the deer-mouse (<i>Peromyscus maniculatus</i>) of the Columbia
-      Basin of southeastern Washington and adjacent Idaho and Oregon.
-      Contrib. Lab. Vert. Genetics, Univ. Michigan, 12:1-22, 1 map.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Speciation in Peromyscus. Amer. Nat., 74:289-298.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Dobzhansky"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Dobzhansky, T. G.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1937.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Genetics and the origin of species. Columbia Univ. Press, New York,
-      pp. xvi + 364.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Doutt"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Doutt, J. K.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1942.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A review of the genus <i>Phoca</i>. Ann. Carnegie Mus., 29:61-125, 14 pls.,
-      11 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Edge"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Edge, E. R.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1934.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Burrows and burrowing habits of the Douglas ground squirrel. Jour.
-      Mamm., 15:189-193, 1 pl., 1 fig. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Edson"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Edson, J. M.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1916.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Wild animals of Mount Baker. Mountaineer, 9:51-57.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1933.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A visitation of weasels. Murrelet, 14:76-77.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1935.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Yellow-bellied marmot out of bounds. Jour. Mamm., 16:68.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span>
-      <a id="p_Ellerman"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Ellerman, J. R.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940-1941.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The families and genera of living rodents. Jarrold and sons,
-      Ltd., Norwich, vol. 1 (1940), xxvi + 689, 189 figs. in text; vol. 2 (1941)
-      xii + 690, 49 figs, in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Elliot"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Elliot, D. G.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1899.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Catalogue of mammals from the Olympic Mountains, Washington,
-      with descriptions of new species. Field Columb. Mus. Publ., 32,
-      zo&ouml;l. ser., 1:241-276, pls. 41-62, numerous figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Engels"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Engels, W. L.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1936.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Distribution of races of the brown bat (<i>Eptesicus</i>) in western North
-      America. Amer. Mid. Nat., 17:653-660, 1 fig. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Engler"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Engler, C. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Carnivorous activities of big brown and pallid bats. Jour. Mamm.,
-      24:96-97.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3">
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">English, E. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1930.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Mammals of Austin Pass, Mount Baker. Mazama, 12:34-43, illustrated.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Finley"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Finley, W. L.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1919.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">With the birds and animals of Rainier. Mazama, 5:319-326, pls.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1925.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Cougar kills a boy. Jour. Mamm., 6:197-199.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Fisher"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Fisher, E. M.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Habits of the southern sea otter. Jour. Mamm., 20:21-36.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Flahaut"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Flahaut, M. R.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Unusual location of hibernating jumping mice. Murrelet, 20:17-18,
-      1 fig.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Flint"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Flint, R. F.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1935.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Glacial features of the southern Okanogan region. Bull. Geol. Soc.
-      Amer., vol. 46, pp. 169-194, pls. 13-18, 2 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1937.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Pleistocene drift border in eastern Washington. Bull. Geol. Soc.
-      Amer., vol. 48, pp. 203-232, 5 pls., 1 fig. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1938.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Summary of late-Cenozoic geology of southeastern Washington.
-      Amer. Jour. Science, ser. 5, vol. 35, pp. 223-230.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Francis"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Francis, E.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1922.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The occurrence of tularaemia in nature as a disease of man. U. S.
-      Publ. Health Serv., Hyg. Lab. Bull. 130:1-8.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Furlong"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Furlong, E. L.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1906.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The exploration of Samwel Cave. Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 4, 22:235-247,
-      3 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Gibbs"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Gibbs, G.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top" colspan="2"><span class="font08">See <a href="#p_Suckley">Suckley</a>, G., and Gibbs, G. 1860.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Gidley"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Gidley, J. W.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Gazin, C. L.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1933.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">New Mammalia in the Pleistocene fauna from Cumberland Cave.
-      Jour. Mamm., 14:343-357.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1938.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The Pleistocene vertebrate fauna from Cumberland Cave, Maryland.
-      U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 171, pp. i-vi + 1-99, pls. 1-10, 50 figs.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span>
-      <a id="p_Goldman"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Goldman, E. A.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1941.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Remarks on voles of the genus <i>Lemmiscus</i>, with one described as new.
-      Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 54, pp. 69-71.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Two new races of the puma. Jour. Mamm., 24:228-231.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Gray"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Gray, J. A. Jr.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Rodent populations in the sagebrush desert of the Yakima Valley,
-      Washington. Jour. Mamm., 24:191-193.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Greenwood"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Greenwood, W. H.</span>, <span class="smcap">Newcomb, F. C.</span> and <span class="smcap">Fraser, C. M.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1918.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Sea-lion question in British Columbia. Contr. Canadian Biol., Sessional
-      Paper No. 38a., pp. xv + 52, 36 photographs.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Grinnell"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Grinnell, J.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1923.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The burrowing rodents of California as agents in soil formation.
-      Jour. Mamm., 4:137-149, pls. 13-15.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Grinnell1"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Grinnell, J.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Dixon, J.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1919.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Natural history of the ground squirrels of California. California
-      State Comm. Hort., Monthly Bull., 7:595-708, 5 col. pls., 30 figs. in
-      text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Grinnell2"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Grinnell, J.</span>, <span class="smcap">Dixon, J.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Linsdale, J. M.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1937.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Fur-bearing mammals of California. Univ. California Press, Berkeley,
-      2 vols., pp. xii + xiv + 777, 13 col. pls., 345 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Grinnell3"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Grinnell, H. W.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1918.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A synopsis of the bats of California. Univ. California Publs. Zo&ouml;l.,
-      17:223-404, pls. 14-24, 24 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Hall"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Hall, E. R.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1928.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Notes on the life history of the sagebrush meadow mouse (<i>Lagurus</i>).
-      Jour. Mamm., 9:201-204.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1936.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Mustelid mammals from the Pleistocene of North America with systematic
-      notes on some Recent members of the genera Mustela, Taxidea
-      and Mephitis. Carnegie Inst. Washington. Publ. 473, pp. 41-119,
-      5 pls., 6 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1938A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Variation among insular mammals of Georgia Strait, British Columbia.
-      Amer. Nat., 72:453-463, 2 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1938B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Gestation period in the long-tailed weasel. Jour. Mamm., 19:249-250.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1944.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A new genus of American Pliocene badger, with remarks on the relationships
-      of badgers of the northern hemisphere. Carnegie Inst.
-      Washington, Publ. 551, pp. 9-23, 2 pls., 2 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1945.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Four new ermines from the Pacific Northwest. Jour. Mamm., 26:75-85,
-      1 fig.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Hamilton"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Hamilton, W. J.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1934.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The life history of the rufescent woodchuck, Marmota monax rufescens
-      <a href="#p_Howell">Howell</a>. Carnegie Mus. Ann., 23:85-178, 6 pls., 9 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The biology of the smoky shrew (<i>Sorex fumeus fumeus</i> Miller). Zoologica,
-      25:473-492, 4 pls.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Hanson"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Hanson, H. P.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Pollen analysis of a bog near Spokane, Washington. Bull. Torrey
-      Bot. Club., 66:215-220, 1 fig. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Paleoecology of a montane peat deposit at Bonaparte Lake, Washington.
-      Northwest Science, 14:60-69.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span>
-      <span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1941A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Paleoecology of a peat deposit in west central Oregon. Amer. Jour.
-      Botany, 28:206-212. 1 fig. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1941B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Further studies of Post Pleistocene bogs in the Puget lowlands of
-      Washington. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club., 68:133-148. 2 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1941C.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A pollen study of Post Pleistocene lake sediments in the Upper
-      Sonoran Life Zone of Washington. Amer. Jour. Sci., 239:503-522,
-      1 fig.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Hartman"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Hartman, C.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1923.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Breeding habits, development, and birth of the opossum. Smithsonian
-      Rept. for 1921, pp. 347-363, 10 pls.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Hatt"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Hatt, R. T.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1927.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Notes on the ground-squirrel, Callospermophilus. U. Michigan, Mus.
-      Zo&ouml;l., Occ. Papers 185, pp. 1-22. 1 pl., 2 figs.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Hay"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Hay, O. P.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1921.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Descriptions of species of Pleistocene Vertebrata, types or specimens
-      of most of which are preserved in the United States National Museum.
-      Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 59:599-642, pls. 116-124.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Hinton"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Hinton, M. A. C.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1926.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Monograph of the voles and lemmings (Microtinae) living and extinct.
-      British Mus. Nat. Hist., London, pp. xvi + 1-488, 15 pls., 110
-      figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Howell"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Howell, A. B.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1927A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">On the faunal position of the Pacific Coast of the United States.
-      Ecology, 8:18-26.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1927B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the American lemming mice (Genus <i>Synaptomys</i>).
-      N. Amer. Fauna, 50:1-38, 2 pls., 11 figs.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Howell1"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Howell, A. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1901.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the skunks of the genus <i>Chincha</i>. N. Amer. Fauna, 20:1-62,
-      8 pls.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1906.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the skunks of the genus <i>Spilogale</i>. N. Amer. Fauna, 26:1-55,
-      10 pls.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1914.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the American harvest mice (Genus <i>Reithrodontomys</i>).
-      N. Amer. Fauna, 36:1-97, 7 pls., 6 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1915.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the American marmots. N. Amer. Fauna, 37:1-80, 15
-      pls., 3 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1918.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the American flying squirrels. N. Amer. Fauna, 44:1-64,
-      7 pls., 4 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1924.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the American pikas (Genus <i>Ochotona</i>). N. Amer. Fauna,
-      47:1-57, 6 pls., 4 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1929.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the American chipmunks (Genera <i>Tamias</i> and <i>Eutamias</i>).
-      N. Amer. Fauna, 52:1-157, 10 pls., 9 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1938.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the North American ground squirrels with a classification
-      of the North American Sciuridae. N. Amer. Fauna, 56:1-256,
-      32 pls., 10 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">|Review of "The Recent Mammals of Idaho" by William B. Davis|.
-      Jour. Mamm., 20:389-390.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Huxley"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Huxley, J. S.</span> (edited by).</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The new systematics. Oxford Univ. Press, pp. viii + 583, 55 figs. in
-      text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Jackson"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Jackson, H. H. T.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1915.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A review of the American moles. N. Amer. Fauna, 38:1-100, 6 pls.,
-      27 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1928.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A taxonomic review of the American long-tailed shrews (Genera
-      <i>Sorex</i> and <i>Microsorex</i>). N. Amer. Fauna, 51:i-vi + 1-238, 13 pls.,
-      24 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span>
-      <span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1944.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Big-game resources of the United States, 1937-1942. U. S. Dept.
-      Interior, Fish and Wildlife Research Rept. 8:1-56, 31 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Johnson"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Johnson, D. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Systematic review of the chipmunks (genus <i>Eutamias</i>) of California.
-      Univ. California Publs. Zo&ouml;l., 48:63-148, 6 pls., 12 figs.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Jones"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Jones, G. N.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1936.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A botanical survey of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington. Univ.
-      Washington Publs. Biol., 5:1-286, 9 pls.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1938.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The flowering plants and ferns of Mount Rainier. Univ. Washington
-      Publs. Biol., 7:1-192, 9 pls.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Kellogg"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Kellogg, L.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1912.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Pleistocene rodents of California. Univ. California Publs., Bull.
-      Dept. Geol., 7:151-168, 16 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Kellogg1"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Kellogg, W. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1935.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Rodent plague in California. Jour. Amer. Med. Assoc. 105:856-859.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Koford"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Koford, C. B.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1938.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Microsorex hoyi washingtoni in Montana. Jour. Mamm., 19:372.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Larrison"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Larrison, E. J.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1942.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Pocket gophers and ecological succession in the Wenas region of
-      Washington. Murrelet, 23:34-41, 2 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Feral coypus in the Pacific Northwest. Murrelet, 24:3-9, 1 fig.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Livezey"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Livezey, R.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Evenden, F.</span>, Jr.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Notes on the western red fox. Jour. Mamm., 24:500-501.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Matthew"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Matthew, W. D.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1902.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">List of the Pleistocene Fauna from Hay Springs, Nebraska. Bull.
-      Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 16:317-322.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_McCoy"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">McCoy, G. W.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1911.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A plague-like disease of rodents. U. S. Publ. Health and Marine-Hosp.
-      Serv., Pub. Health Bull., 43:53-71.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_McMurry"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">McMurry, F. B.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Mink observations at Packwood Lake. Murrelet, 21:47.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Merriam"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Merriam, C. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1892.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The geographic distribution of life in North America. Ann. Rept.
-      Smiths. Inst. for 1891, pp. 365-415.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1918.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Review of the grizzly and big brown bears of North America (genus
-      <i>Ursus</i>) with description of a new genus, Vetularctos. N. Amer. Fauna,
-      41:1-136, 16 pls.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Merriam1"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Merriam, J. C.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1911.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The fauna of Rancho La Brea, Pt. 1, Occurrence. Mem. Univ. California,
-      1:197-213, pls. 19-23.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Merriam2"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Merriam, J. C.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Bulwalda, J. P.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1917.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Age of strata referred to the Ellensburg Formation in the White
-      Bluffs of the Columbia River. Univ. California Publs. Bull. Dept.
-      Geol., 10:255-266, 1 pl.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Meyer"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Meyer, K. F.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1936.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The sylvatic plague committee. Amer. Jour. Pub. Health, 26:961-969.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span>
-      <a id="p_Miller"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Miller, A. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1942.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Habitat selection among higher vertebrates and its relation to intraspecific
-      variation. Amer. Nat., 76:25-35.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Miller1"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Miller, G. S.</span>, Jr.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1897.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the North American bats of the family Vespertilionidae.
-      N. Amer. Fauna, 13:1-140, 3 pls., 40 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1924.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">List of North American Recent mammals, 1923. U. S. Nat. Mus.
-      Bull. 128, pp. xvi + 673.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Miller, G. S., Jr.</span>, and <span class="smcap"><a href="#p_Allen">Allen</a>, G. M.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1928.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">American bats of the genera Myotis and Pizonyx. U. S. Nat. Mus.
-      Bull. 144, pp. 1-218, 1 pl., 1 fig., 13 maps.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Moore"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Moore, A. W.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1933.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Food habits of the Townsend and coast moles. Jour. Mamm., 14:36-40,
-      1 pl.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Wild animal damage to seed and seedlings on cut-over Douglas fir
-      lands of Oregon and Washington. U. S. Dept. Agri., Tech. Bull. 706,
-      pp. 1-28, 14 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1942.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Shrews as a check on Douglas fir regeneration. Jour. Mamm., 23:37-41,
-      1 pl.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Notes on the sage mouse in eastern Oregon. Jour. Mamm., 24:188-191.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Mossman"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Mossman, H. W.</span>, <span class="smcap">Lowlah, J. W.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Bradley, J. A.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1932.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The male reproductive tract of the Sciuridae. Amer. Jour. Anat.,
-      vol. 51, pp. 89-155, 7 pls., 16 figs.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Murie"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Murie, O. J.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Murie, A.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1931.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Travels of Peromyscus. Jour. Mamm., 12:200-209, 1 fig.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1932.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Further notes on travels of Peromyscus. Jour. Mamm., 13:78-79.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Nelson"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Nelson, E. W.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1909.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The rabbits of North America. N. Amer. Fauna, 29:1-314, 13 pls.,
-      19 figs.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Nichols"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Nichols, D. G.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1944.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Further consideration of American house mice. Jour. Mamm., 25:82-84.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Ogden"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Ogden, P. S.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1909.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The Peter Skene Ogden Journals. Quart. Oregon Hist. Soc., 10:331-365.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Orr"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Orr, R. T.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The rabbits of California. Occas. Papers, California Acad. Sci., 19:1-227,
-      10 pls., 30 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Osgood"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Osgood, W. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1900.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the pocket mice of the genus <i>Perognathus</i>. N. Amer.
-      Fauna, 18:1-72, 4 pls., 15 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1909.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the mice of the American genus <i>Peromyscus</i>. N. Amer.
-      Fauna, 28:1-285, 8 pls., 12 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The mammals of Chile. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Zo&ouml;l. Ser., vol. 30,
-      publ. 542, pp. 1-268, 33 figs., 10 maps.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Pardee"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Pardee, J. T.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Bryan, K.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1926.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Geology of the Latah formation in relation to the lavas of the
-      Columbia Plateau near Spokane, Washington. <i>In</i> U. S. Geol. Surv.
-      Prof. Paper 140, pp. 1-16, 7 pls., 1 fig. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span>
-      <a id="p_Paschall"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Paschall, S. E.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1920.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Mountain beaver (Haplodontia or Aplodontia). Mountaineer, 13:40-43,
-      1 illustration.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Perry"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Perry, M. L.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Notes on a captive badger. Murrelet, 20:49-53, 1 fig.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Piper"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Piper, C. V.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1906.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Flora of the state of Washington. Cont. U. S. Nat. Herb., 11:1-637,
-      22 pls., 1 map in pocket.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Pope"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Pope, C. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1944.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Attainment of sexual maturity in raccoons. Jour. Mamm., 25:91.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Racey"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Racey, K.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Cowan, I. M.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1935.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Mammals of the Alta Lake region of southwestern British Columbia.
-      Ann. Rept. Prov. Mus. British Columbia 1935, pp. H15-H27, 5 pls.,
-      1 fig. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Rand"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Rand, A. L.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Canadian forms of the meadow mouse (<i>Microtus pennsylvanicus</i>).
-      Canadian Field Nat., 57:115-123.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Rhoads"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Rhoads. S. N.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1897.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A revision of the west American flying squirrels. Proc. Acad. Nat.
-      Sci. Philadelphia 1897, pp. 314-327.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Russell"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Russell, I. C.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1893.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A geological reconnaisance in central Washington. Bull. U. S. Geol.
-      Surv. 108, pp. 1-108, 12 pls., 8 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Sampson"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Sampson, A.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1906.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Wild animals of the Mt. Rainier National Park. Sierra Club Bull.,
-      6:32-38.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Scheffer"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Scheffer, T. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1922.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">American moles as agriculture pests and as fur producers. U. S.
-      Dept. Agri., Farm. Bull. 1247 (revised 1927), pp. 1-21, 18 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1928.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Precarious status of the seal and sea-lion on our northwest coast.
-      Jour. Mamm., 9:10-16.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1929.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Mountain beavers in the Pacific Northwest: their habits, economic
-      status and control. U. S. Dept. Agric., Farm. Bull. 1598, pp. 1-18,
-      13 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1930.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Bat matters. Murrelet, 11, (no. 2):11-13, 2 figs.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1931.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Habits and economic status of the pocket gophers. U. S. Dept. Agric.,
-      Tech. Bull. 224, pp. 1-26, 8 pls.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1932.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Weasels and snakes in gopher burrows. Murrelet, 13:54.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1933.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Breeding of the Washington varying hare. Murrelet, 14:77-78.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1938A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Pocket mice of Oregon and Washington in relation to agriculture.
-      U. S. Dept. Agric., Tech. Bull. 608, pp. 1-16, 6 pls., 1 fig.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1938B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Breeding records of Pacific Coast pocket gophers. Jour. Mamm., 19:220-224.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1941.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Ground squirrel studies in the Four-rivers Country, Washington.
-      Jour. Mamm., 22:270-279, 2 pls.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Scheffer1"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Scheffer, T. H.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Sperry, C. C.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1931.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Food habits of the Pacific harbor seal, Phoca richardii. Jour.
-      Mamm., 12:214-226.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span>
-      <a id="p_Scheffer2"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Scheffer, V. B.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1938.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Notes on the wolverine and fisher in the state of Washington. Murrelet,
-      19:8-10, 2 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Fur seal in Willapa Harbor. Murrelet, 20:43, 1 fig.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A newly located herd of Pacific white-tailed deer. Jour. Mamm.,
-      21:271-282, 1 pl.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The sea otter on the Washington coast. Pacific Northwest Quart.,
-      October, 1940, pp. 369-388, 5 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1941.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Wolverine captured in Okanogan County, Washington. Murrelet,
-      22:37, 1 fig.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1942.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A list of the marine mammals of the west coast of North America.
-      Murrelet, 23:42-47.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The opossum settles in Washington State. Murrelet, 24:27-28.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Scheffer3"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Scheffer, V. B.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Dalquest, W. W.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Present distribution of the Douglas ground squirrel in Washington.
-      Murrelet, 20:44.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Scheffer4"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Scheffer, V. B.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Slipp, J. W.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1944.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The harbor seal in Washington State. Amer. Mid. Nat., 32:373-416,
-      17 figs.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Schultz"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Schultz, L. P.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Rafn, A. M.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1936.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Stomach contents of fur seals taken off the coast of Washington.
-      Jour. Mamm., 17:13-15.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Schwartz"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Schwartz, E.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Schwartz, H. K.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The wild and commensal stocks of the house mouse, Mus musculus
-      Linnaeus. Jour. Mamm., 24:59-72.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Scott"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Scott, W. B.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1937.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A history of land mammals in the western hemisphere. Macmillan
-      Co., New York, pp. xiv + 786, 420 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Shaw"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Shaw, W. T.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1919.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The Columbian ground squirrel. (<i>Citellus columbianus columbianus</i>).
-      California State Comm. Hort., Monthly Bull. 7, pp. 710-720,
-      col. pl. vi. figs. 31-43.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1924A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Alpine life of the heather vole (Phenacomys olympicus). Jour.
-      Mamm., 5:12-15, pls. 2-4.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1924B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The home life of the Columbian ground squirrel. Canadian Field
-      Nat., 38:128-130, 4 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1925A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The seasonal differences of north and south slopes in controlling the
-      activities of the Columbian ground squirrel. Ecology, 6:157-162,
-      2 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1925B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Duration of the aestivation and hibernation of the Columbian
-      ground squirrel (<i>Citellus columbianus</i>) and sex relations of the same.
-      Ecology, 6:75-81, 2 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1925C.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Breeding and development of the Columbian ground squirrel. Jour.
-      Mamm., 6:106-113, pls. 11-14.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1925D.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The Columbian ground squirrel as a handler of earth. The Sci.
-      Monthly, 20:483-490, 8 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1925E.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The food of ground squirrels. Amer. Nat., 59:250-264, 5 figs. in text.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1925F.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A life history problem and a means for its solution. Jour. Mamm.,
-      6:157-162, pls. 15-17.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1925G.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Observations on the hibernation of ground squirrels. Jour. Agric.
-      Research, 31:761-769, 7 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1925H.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The hibernation of the Columbian ground squirrel. Canadian Field
-      Nat., 39:56-61, 79-82, 11 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>
-      <span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1925I.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The marmots of Hannegan Pass. Nat. Hist., 25:169-177, 6 unnumbered
-      photographs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1926.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Age of the animal and slope of the ground surface, factors modifying
-      the structure of hibernation dens of ground squirrels. Jour.
-      Mamm., 7:91-96, 1 pl., 3 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1930.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The lemming mouse in North America and its occurrence in the
-      state of Washington. Murrelet, 11 (No. 2):7-10, 2 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1944.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Brood nests and young of two western chipmunks in the Olympic
-      Mountains of Washington. Jour. Mamm., 25:274-284, 4 pls. 1 fig.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Sinclair"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Sinclair, W. J.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1903.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A preliminary account of the exploration of the Potter Creek Cave,
-      Shasta county, California. Science, 17:708-712.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Slipp"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Slipp, J. W.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1942.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Nest and young of the Olympic dusky shrew. Jour. Mamm.,
-      23:211-212.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Smith"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Smith, G. O.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1903.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Ellensburg Folio (No. 86). U. S. Geol. Surv., Geol. Atlas of the U. S.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Sperry"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Sperry, C. C.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1941.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Food habits of the coyote. U. S. Dept. Interior, Wildlife Research
-      Bull. 4, pp. 1-70, 3 pls., 3 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Stager"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Stager, K. E.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Notes on the resting place of Pipistrellus hesperus. Jour. Mamm.
-      24:266-267.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_StJohn"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">St. John, H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1937.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Flora of southeastern Washington. Student Book Corp., Pullman,
-      Washington, pp. xxv + 531, front (map) illus.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_StJohn1"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">St. John, H.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Jones, G. N.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1928.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">An annotated catalogue of the vascular plants of Benton County,
-      Washington. Northwest Science, 2:73-93, illustrated.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Stock"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Stock, C.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1918.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The Pleistocene fauna of Hawver Cave. Univ. California Publs.
-      Bull. Dept. Geol., 10:461-515, 32 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1930.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Rancho La Brea: a record of Pleistocene life in California. Los
-      Angeles Mus. Publ. 1, pp. 1-82, 27 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Suckley"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Suckley, G.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Gibbs, G.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1860.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Report upon the mammals collected on the survey. Repts. expls.
-      and surveys ... route for a railroad, from the Mississippi River
-      to the Pacific Ocean, ... 1853-1855, Pacific R. R. Rept., vol. 12,
-      book 2, pt. 3, zo&ouml;l. rept., No. 2, chap. 3, pp. 107-139, 6 pls. (for chaps.
-      1-3).</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Sumner"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Sumner, F. B.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1917A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The role of isolation in the formation of a narrowly localized race
-      of deer-mice (Peromyscus). Amer. Nat., 51:173-185.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1917B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Several color "mutations" in mice of the genus Peromyscus. Genetics,
-      2:291-300, 1 fig. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1932.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Genetic, distributional and evolutionary studies of the subspecies of
-      deer mice (<i>Peromyscus</i>). Bibliographia Genetica, 9:1-106, 24 figs. in
-      text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span>
-      <a id="p_Svihla"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Svihla, A.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1932.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A comparative life history study of the mice of the genus
-      <i>Peromyscus</i>. Univ. Michigan Mus. Zo&ouml;l., Misc. Publs. 24, pp. 1-39.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1933.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Notes on the deer-mouse. <i>Peromyscus maniculatus oreas</i> (Bangs).
-     Murrelet, 14:13-14.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1934.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The mountain water shrew. Murrelet, 15:44-45.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1936A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Development and growth of Peromyscus maniculatas oreas. Jour.
-      Mamm., 17:132-137, 2 figs.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1936B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Notes on the hibernation of a western chipmunk. Jour. Mamm., 17:289-290.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1939.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Breeding habits of Townsend's ground squirrel. Murrelet, 20:6-10.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Svihla1"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Svihla, A.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Svihla, R. D.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1931.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Mink feeding on clams. Murrelet, 12:22.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1933.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Notes on the jumping mouse Zapus trinotatus trinotatus Rhoads.
-      Jour. Mamm., 14:131-134.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Annotated list of the mammals of Whitman County, Washington.
-      Murrelet, 21:53-58.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Svihla2"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Svihla, R. D.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1936.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Breeding and young of the grasshopper mouse (Onychomys leucogaster
-      fuscogriseus). Jour. Mamm., 17:172-173.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Tate"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Tate, G. H. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1942.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Review of the Vespertilionine bats, with special attention to genera
-      and species of the Archbold collections. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.,
-      80:221-297, 4 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Taylor"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Taylor, W. P.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1918.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Revision of the rodent genus <i>Aplodontia</i>. Univ. California Publs.
-      Zo&ouml;l., 17:435-504, pls. 25-29, 16 figs. in text.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1920A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The wood rat as a collector. Jour. Mamm., 1:91-92.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1920B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A novel nesting place of the red-backed mouse. Jour. Mamm., 1:92.
-      </span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1921.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Some birds and mammals of Mount Rainier. The Mountaineer, 14:27-35,
-      illustrated.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1922.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A distributional and ecological study of Mount Rainier, Washington.
-      Ecology, 3:214-236, 4 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Taylor1"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Taylor, W. P.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Shaw, W. T.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1927.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Mammals and birds of Mount Rainier National Park. U. S. Dept.
-      Interior, Nat. Park Service, U. S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington,
-      D. C., pp. 1-249.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1929.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Provisional list of the land mammals of the state of Washington.
-      Occ. Papers Charles R. Conner Mus. No. 2, pp. 1-32.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Timofeeff"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Timofeeff-Ressovsky, N. W.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1932.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The genographical work with <i>Epilachna chrysomelina</i>, etc. Proc. 6th
-      International Congress Genetics, 2:230.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1940.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Mutations and geographical variation, <i>in</i> The New Systematics, ed.
-      J. S. Huxley, Oxford Univ. Press, pp. 73-136, 38 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Townsend"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Townsend, C. H.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1887.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Field-notes on the mammals, birds and reptiles of northern California.
-      Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 10:159-241. 1 pl., 4 unnumbered figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span>
-      <a id="p_Townsend1"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Townsend, J. K.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1839.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Narrative of a journey across the Rocky Mountains, to the Columbia
-      River ... Reprint in Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, R. G.
-      Thwaits, ed., A. H. Clark Co., Cleveland, 21:107-369, 1 pl., 1905.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Weaver"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Weaver, C. E.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1937.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Tertiary stratigraphy of western-Washington and northwestern Oregon.
-      Univ. Washington Publs. Geol., 4:1-266, 15 pls.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Whitlow"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Whitlow, W. B.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Hall, E. R.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1933.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Mammals of the Pocatello Region of southeastern Idaho. Univ.
-      California Publs. Zo&ouml;l., 40:235-275, 3 figs.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Wight"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Wight, H. M.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1928.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Food habits of the Townsend's mole, Scapanus townsendii (Bachman).
-      Jour. Mamm., 9:19-33.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Willett"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Willett, G.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Elephant seal in southeastern Alaska. Jour. Mamm., 24:500.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Wilson"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Wilson, R. W.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1933A.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">Pleistocene mammalian fauna from the Carpinteria asphalt. Carnegie
-      Inst. Washington, Publ., 440:59-76.</span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1933B.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A rodent fauna from the later Cenozoic beds of southwestern Idaho.
-      Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publ., 440:117-135, 2 pls., 8 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Wright"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Wright, S.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1932.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The roles of mutation, interbreeding, crossbreeding and selection in
-      evolution. Proc. 6th Internat. Congress Genetics, 1:356-366, figs.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Young"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Young, S. P.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Goldman, E. A.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1944.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">The wolves of North America. Amer. Wildlife Inst., Washington,
-      D. C., xx + 636 pp., 131 pls., 15 figs. in text.</span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td colspan="3"><a id="p_Zimmerman"></a>
-      <span class="font08"><span class="smcap">Zimmerman, R. S.</span></span></td>
-  </tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">1943.</span></td>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">A coyote's speed and endurance. Jour. Mamm., 24:400.
-      </span><br /><br /></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td valign="top"><span class="font08">&nbsp;</span></td>
-    <td valign="top" colspan="2"><span class="font07"><i>Transmitted August 14, 1947.</i></span></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-</div>
-<p class="pmb3" />
-
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_430"></a></span></p>
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span></p>
-
-
-<h2 class="no-break" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2>
-
-
-<div class="center">
-Quick Links to Index Letters<br />
-
-[<a href="#Ind_A">A</a>] [<a href="#Ind_B">B</a>] [<a href="#Ind_C">C</a>]
-[<a href="#Ind_D">D</a>] [<a href="#Ind_E">E</a>] [<a href="#Ind_F">F</a>]
-[<a href="#Ind_G">G</a>] [<a href="#Ind_H">H</a>] [<a href="#Ind_I">I</a>]<br />
-
-[<a href="#Ind_J">J</a>] [<a href="#Ind_K">K</a>] [<a href="#Ind_L">L</a>]
-[<a href="#Ind_M">M</a>] [<a href="#Ind_N">N</a>] [<a href="#Ind_O">O</a>]
-[<a href="#Ind_P">P</a>] [<a href="#Ind_Q">Q</a>] [<a href="#Ind_R">R</a>]<br />
-
-[<a href="#Ind_S">S</a>] [<a href="#Ind_T">T</a>] [<a href="#Ind_U">U</a>]
-[<a href="#Ind_V">V</a>] [<a href="#Ind_W">W</a>] [<a href="#Ind_Y">Y</a>]
-[<a href="#Ind_Z">Z</a>]<br />
-
-</div>
-
-<p class="pmb1" />
-
-<div class="block3">
-
-<div class="left">
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_A">A</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-Abromys lordi, <a href="#Page_299">299</a><br />
-<br />
-Accounts of species, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
-<br />
-acutorostrata, Balaenoptera, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
-<br />
-addenda, <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br />
-<br />
-aequalidens, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_310">310</a><br />
-<br />
-affinis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias amoenus, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias amoenus, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
-<br />
-akeleyi, Peromyscus, <a href="#Page_330">330</a><br />
-<br />
-alascanus, Callorhinus, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
-<br />
-alascensis, Myotis lucifugus, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br />
-<br />
-Alaska fur seal, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
-<br />
-albiventer,<br />
-<span class="i1">Neosorex bendirii, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sorex bendirii, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
-<br />
-albiventris, Tamias amoenus, <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br />
-<br />
-Alce,<br />
-<span class="i1">americana, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">shirasi, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Alces,<br />
-<span class="i1">americanus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">shirasi, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<br />
-alexandrinus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Mus, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Rattus rattus, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></span><br />
-<br />
-alpinus, Sciuropterus, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br />
-<br />
-alticola, Neotoma cinerea, <a href="#Page_336">336</a><br />
-<br />
-altifrontalis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Euarctos, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Mustela frenata, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Ursus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<br />
-americana,<br />
-<span class="i1">Alce, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Antilocapra, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Martes, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Mephitis, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Rupicapra, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span><br />
-<br />
-americanus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Euarctos, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lepus, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Oreamnos, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sitomys, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Ursus, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></span><br />
-<br />
-amoenus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br />
-<br />
-angustirostris, Mirounga, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br />
-<br />
-angustus, Microtus, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br />
-<br />
-Anisonyx rufa, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br />
-<br />
-antelope, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br />
-<br />
-Antilocapra americana, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br />
-<br />
-Antrozous,<br />
-<span class="i1">cantwelli, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pallidus, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Aplodontia,<br />
-<span class="i1">columbiana, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">grisea, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">olympica, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">raineri, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">rainieri, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">rufa, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Arctic-alpine Life-zone, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
-<br />
-arcticus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Rangifer, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sorex, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Arctomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">avarus, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">columbianus, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">douglasii, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">flaviventer, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">olympus, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Arean arean, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
-<br />
-arizonensis, Mustela, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
-<br />
-artemisia, Lepus, <a href="#Page_387">387</a><br />
-<br />
-artemisiae,<br />
-<span class="i1">Peromyscus maniculatus, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sitomys americanus, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Synaptomys borealis, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Artiodactyla, 118<br />
-<br />
-Arvicola,<br />
-<span class="i1">macropus, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nanus, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">occidentalis, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">oregoni, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pauperrimus, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">townsendii, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></span><br />
-<br />
-arvicoloides,<br />
-<span class="i1">Aulacomys, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Microtus, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></span><br />
-<br />
-asiaticus, Tamias, <a href="#Page_262">262</a><br />
-<br />
-Atophyrax bendirii, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
-<br />
-Aulacomys arvicoloides, <a href="#Page_356">356</a><br />
-<br />
-austerus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Hesperomys, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Peromyscus, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sitomys americanus, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<br />
-avara, Marmota flaviventris, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
-<br />
-avarus, Arctomys flaviventer, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_B">B</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-badger, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
-<br />
-badius, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_311">311</a><br />
-<br />
-Baird beaked whale, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
-<br />
-bairdi,<br />
-<span class="i1">Lepus, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sorex obscurus, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
-<br />
-bairdii,<br />
-<span class="i1">Berardius, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Delphinus, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></span><br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span>
-
-<br />
-Balaenoptera,<br />
-<span class="i1">acutorostrata, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">borealis, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">physalus, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Balanus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-bangsi,<br />
-<span class="i1">Glaucomys sabrinus, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sciuropterus alpinus, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<br />
-bat,<br />
-<span class="i1">big-brown, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hoary, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">long-eared, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pallid, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">silvery-haired, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
-<br />
-bats, mouse-eared, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br />
-<br />
-beaked whale,<br />
-<span class="i1">Baird, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Stejneger, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></span><br />
-<br />
-bear,<br />
-<span class="i1">black, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">grizzly, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br />
-<br />
-beaver, <a href="#Page_315">315</a><br />
-<span class="i1">mountain, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Beechey ground squirrel, <a href="#Page_276">276</a><br />
-<br />
-Bendirei, Atophyrax, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
-<br />
-bendirii,<br />
-<span class="i1">Atophyrax, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sorex, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Neosorex, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Berardius bairdii, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
-<br />
-bernardinus, Eptesicus fuscus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
-<br />
-bibliography, <a href="#Page_417">417</a><br />
-<br />
-big,<br />
-<span class="i1">brown bat, <a href="#Page_417">417</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">jumping mouse, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">myotis, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Bison,<br />
-<span class="i1">bison, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">oregonus, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></span><br />
-<br />
-bison, Bison, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
-<br />
-black bear, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
-<br />
-blackfish, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
-<br />
-black tailed,<br />
-<span class="i1">deer, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">jack rabbit, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
-<br />
-blue whale, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
-<br />
-bobcat, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br />
-<br />
-borealis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Balaenoptera, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lissodelphis, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lynx, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Synaptomys, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Brachylagus idahoensis, <a href="#Page_390">390</a><br />
-<br />
-breviceps, Kogia, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-brown bat, big, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
-<br />
-brunnescens, Ochotona princeps, <a href="#Page_380">380</a><br />
-<br />
-bushy-tailed wood rat, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_C">C</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-California,<br />
-<span class="i1">myotis, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">red-backed mouse, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">sea lion, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
-<br />
-californiana, Ovis, <a href="#Page_406">406</a><br />
-<br />
-californianus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Otaria, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Ovis, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Zalophus, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
-<br />
-californicus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Clethrionomys, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lepus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Myotis, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Vespertilio, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Callorhinus,<br />
-<span class="i1">alascanus, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cynocephalus, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">ursinus, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Callospermophilus,<br />
-<span class="i1">chrysodeirus, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">connectens, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lateralis, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">saturatus, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">tescorum, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Callotaria ursina cynocephala, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
-<br />
-campestris, Lepus, <a href="#Page_380">380</a><br />
-<br />
-canadensis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Castor, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Cervus, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lutra, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lynx, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Mustela, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Ovis, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Canadian,<br />
-<span class="i1">Life-zone, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lynx, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Cancer productus, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-canescens, Microtus montanus, <a href="#Page_349">349</a><br />
-<br />
-canicaudus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias amoenus, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias amoenus, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Canis,<br />
-<span class="i1">columbianus, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">familiaris, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">fuscus, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">gigas, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">incolatus, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">irremotus, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">latrans, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lestes, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lupus, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lycaon, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">occidentalis, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
-<br />
-cantwelli,<br />
-<span class="i1">Antrozous pallidus, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Microtus oregoni, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Cariacus,<br />
-<span class="i1">hemionus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">macrotis, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<br />
-caribou, <a href="#Page_404">404</a><br />
-<br />
-carissima, Myotis lucifugus, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br />
-<br />
-Carnivora, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
-<br />
-carolinensis, Sciurus, <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br />
-<br />
-cascadensis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Clethrionomys gapperi, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lepus americanus, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></span><br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span>
-
-<span class="i1">Sciurus, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Vulpes, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Castor,<br />
-<span class="i1">canadensis, <a href="#Page_315">315</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">idoneus, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pacificus, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">leucodonta, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></span><br />
-<br />
-cat, civet, <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br />
-<br />
-catodon, Physeter, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-caurina,<br />
-<span class="i1">Martes, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Mustela, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br />
-<br />
-caurinus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Myotis californicus, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias amoenus, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Cervus,<br />
-<span class="i1">canadensis, <a href="#Page_391">391</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">columbianus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hemionus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">leucurus, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">macrotis, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nelsoni, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">occidentalis, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">roosevelti, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Cetacea, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
-<br />
-Check List, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
-<br />
-cheiragonus, Telmessus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-chelan, Ursus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a><br />
-<br />
-Chincha,<br />
-<span class="i1">hudsonica, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">major, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">occidentalis, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">spissigrada, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br />
-<br />
-chipmunk,<br />
-<span class="i1">least, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">red-tailed, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Townsend, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Yellow-pine, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Chipmunks, <a href="#Page_250">250</a><br />
-<br />
-Chiroptera, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
-<br />
-cicognanii, Mustela, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
-<br />
-cinerea,<br />
-<span class="i1">Atalapha, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Neotoma, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></span><br />
-<br />
-cinereus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Lasiurus, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sorex, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Vespertilio, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
-<br />
-cinnamomum,<br />
-<span class="i1">Euarctos, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Ursus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Citellus,<br />
-<span class="i1">beecheyi, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">columbianus, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">connectens, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">douglasii, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lateralis, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">loringi, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">mollis, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">ruficaudus, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">saturatus, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">tescorum, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">townsendii, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">washingtoni, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">yakimensis, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<br />
-civet cat, <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br />
-<br />
-Clethrionomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">californicus, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cascadensis, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">gapperi, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">idahoensis, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nivarius, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">occidentalis, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">saturatus, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Climate and vegetation, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br />
-<br />
-clusius, Thomomys, <a href="#Page_310">310</a><br />
-<br />
-Columbian ground squirrel, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br />
-<br />
-columbianus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Arctomys, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Canis lupus, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Cariacus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Cervus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Citellus, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Eucervus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Odocoileus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Perognathus, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Spermophilus, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Thomomys, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br />
-<br />
-columbiensis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Glaucomys sabrinus, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lepus americanus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
-<br />
-concolor, Felis, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
-<br />
-connectens,<br />
-<span class="i1">Callospermophilus chrysodeirus, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Citellus lateralis, <a href="#Page_280">280</a></span><br />
-<br />
-cony, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br />
-<br />
-cooperi,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></span><br />
-<br />
-coots, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
-<br />
-Corynorhinus,<br />
-<span class="i1">macrotis, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">megalotis, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">intermedius, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">rafinesquii, <a href="#Page_161">161</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">townsendii, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br />
-<br />
-cottontail,<br />
-<span class="i1">Florida, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Nuttall, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></span><br />
-<br />
-couchi, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br />
-<br />
-cougar, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
-<br />
-coyote, <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br />
-<br />
-coypu, <a href="#Page_376">376</a><br />
-<br />
-crayfish, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br />
-<br />
-creeping mouse, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br />
-<br />
-curtatus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Lagurus, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lemmiscus, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<br />
-cuppes, Ochotona, <a href="#Page_379">379</a><br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span>
-
-<br />
-cynocephala, Callotaria, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
-<br />
-cynocephalus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Callorhinus, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Siren, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_D">D</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-Dall porpoise, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-dalli, Phocenoides, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-deer,<br />
-<span class="i1">black-tailed, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">mouse, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">mule, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">white-tailed, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Delphinus bairdii, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
-<br />
-dermestes, <a href="#Page_162">162</a><br />
-<br />
-deserticola, Lepus californicus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a><br />
-<br />
-destructioni, Sorex trowbridgii, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br />
-<br />
-devexus, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_309">309</a><br />
-<br />
-Didelphis virginiana, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
-<br />
-Dipodomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">columbianus, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">ordii, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Distributional,<br />
-<span class="i1">areas, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">history, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></span><br />
-<br />
-dog, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
-<br />
-dolphin, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
-<br />
-dorsata, Mazama, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br />
-<br />
-dorsatum, Erethizon, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br />
-<br />
-Douglas squirrel, <a href="#Page_290">290</a><br />
-<br />
-douglasii,<br />
-<span class="i1">Arctomys, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Citellus, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Geomys, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Otospermophilus grammurus, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sciurus, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Spermophilus, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamiasciurus, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Thomomys, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br />
-<br />
-drummondii, Microtus, <a href="#Page_346">346</a><br />
-<br />
-Dytiscidae, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_E">E</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-Ecology, Life-zones and, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
-<br />
-edulis, Mytilus, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-effera, Mustela frenata, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br />
-<br />
-elk, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br />
-<br />
-Emmigrational history, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
-<br />
-energumenos,<br />
-<span class="i1">Mustela vison, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Putorius vison, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Enhydra lutris nereis, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
-<br />
-epixanthum, Erethizon, <a href="#Page_376">376</a><br />
-<br />
-Eptesicus,<br />
-<span class="i1">bernardinus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">fuscus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pallidus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Erethizon,<br />
-<span class="i1">dorsatum, <a href="#Page_374">374</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">epixanthum, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">epixanthus, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nigrescens, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
-<br />
-ericacus, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_309">309</a><br />
-<br />
-eriomerus, Petrolisthes, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-ermine, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
-<br />
-erminea, Mustela, <a href="#Page_190">190</a><br />
-<br />
-Euarctos,<br />
-<span class="i1">altifrontalis, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">americanus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cinnamomum, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Eubalaena sieboldii, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br />
-<br />
-Eumetopias,<br />
-<span class="i1">jubata, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">stelleri, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Eutamias,<br />
-<span class="i1">affinis, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">albiventris, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">amoenus, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">canicaudus, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">caurinus, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cooperi, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">felix, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">grisescens, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">ludibundus, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">luteiventris, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">minimus, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pictus, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">quadrivittatus, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">ruficaudus, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">scrutator, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">simulans, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">townsendii, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<br />
-evotis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Myotis, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Vespertilio, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Evotomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">gapperi, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">idahoensis, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nivarius, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">occidentalis, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pygmaeus, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">saturatus, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br />
-<br />
-excelsus, Procyon lotor, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_F">F</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-fallenda, Mustela erminea, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
-<br />
-familiaris, Canis, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
-<br />
-fasciatus, Lynx, <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br />
-<br />
-Faunas,<br />
-<span class="i1">Great Basin, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Pacific Coastal, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Rocky Mountain, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Felis,<br />
-<span class="i1">concolor, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hippolestes, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">olympus, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">oregonensis, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">missoulensis, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
-<br />
-felix,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias amoenus, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias amoenus, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br />
-<br />
-fenisex, Ochotona, <a href="#Page_379">379</a><br />
-<br />
-Fiber,<br />
-<span class="i1">occipitalis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">osoyoosensis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">zibethicus, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
-<br />
-finback whale, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span>
-
-<br />
-fisher, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br />
-<br />
-flaviventris, Marmota, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
-<br />
-Florida cottontail, <a href="#Page_389">389</a><br />
-<br />
-floridanus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Lepus sylvaticus, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sylvilagus, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></span><br />
-<br />
-flying squirrel, northern, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br />
-<br />
-foetulenta, Mephitis, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
-<br />
-fox,<br />
-<span class="i1">red, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">squirrel, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br />
-<br />
-frenata, Mustela, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
-<br />
-fringe-tailed myotis, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
-<br />
-fuliginosus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Geomys, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Glaucomys sabrinus, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></span><br />
-<br />
-fulva, Vulpes, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
-<br />
-funebris, Microtus pennsylvanicus, <a href="#Page_346">346</a><br />
-<br />
-fur seal, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
-<br />
-fuscogriseus, Onychomys leucogaster, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
-<br />
-fuscus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Canis lupus, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Eptesicus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Thomomys, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_G">G</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-gambelii,<br />
-<span class="i1">Hesperomys, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Peromyscus maniculatus, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sitomys americanus, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<br />
-gapperi,<br />
-<span class="i1">Clethrionomys, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Evotomys, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Gapper red-backed mouse, <a href="#Page_341">341</a><br />
-<br />
-Geologic history, <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
-<br />
-Geomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">douglasii, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">fuliginosus, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br />
-<br />
-gibbsii,<br />
-<span class="i1">Neurotrichus, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Urotrichus, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br />
-<br />
-gigas,<br />
-<span class="i1">Canis, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lupus, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
-<br />
-glacialis, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_312">312</a><br />
-<br />
-Glaciation, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
-<br />
-Glaucomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">bangsi, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">columbiensis, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">fuliginosus, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">latipes, <a href="#Page_296">296</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">olympicus, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">oregonensis, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">sabrinus, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></span><br />
-<br />
-glaucus, Rhachianectes, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-Globicephalus scammonii, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
-<br />
-goat, mountain, <a href="#Page_406">406</a><br />
-<br />
-Golden-mantled ground squirrel, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a><br />
-<br />
-gopher, northern pocket, <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br />
-<br />
-gracilis, Spilogale, <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br />
-<br />
-grammurus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Otospermophilus, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Spermophilus, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Grampidelphis griseus, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
-<br />
-Grampus rectipinna, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
-<br />
-grampus, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
-<br />
-grasshopper mouse, northern, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
-<br />
-gray squirrel,<br />
-<span class="i1">eastern, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">western, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br />
-<br />
-gray whale, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-Great Basin pocket mouse, <a href="#Page_297">297</a><br />
-<br />
-grisea, Aplodontia rufa, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br />
-<br />
-grisescens,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias minimus, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias minimus, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br />
-<br />
-griseus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Grampidelphis, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sciurus, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br />
-<br />
-ground squirrel,<br />
-<span class="i1">Beechey, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Columbian, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">golden-mantled, 278, 281</span><br />
-<span class="i1">Townsend, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Washington, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br />
-<br />
-gryphus, Vespertilio, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br />
-<br />
-gulosa, Mustela erminea, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_H">H</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-hair seal, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br />
-<br />
-hairy-winged myotis, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
-<br />
-halli, Microtus longicaudus, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br />
-<br />
-Haplodon rufus, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br />
-<br />
-Haplodontia,<br />
-<span class="i1">raineri, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">rufa, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<br />
-harbor,<br />
-<span class="i1">porpoise, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">seal, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
-<br />
-harvest mouse, western, <a href="#Page_324">324</a><br />
-<br />
-heather vole, <a href="#Page_338">338</a><br />
-<br />
-Helisoma occidentalis, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
-<br />
-Hemigrapsus,<br />
-<span class="i1">oregonensis, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nudus, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br />
-<br />
-hemionus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Cervus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Odocoileus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Hesperomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">austerus, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">gambelii, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<br />
-hesperus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Pipistrellus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Scotophilus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Vespertilio, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
-<br />
-hippolestes, Felis, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
-<br />
-hoary marmot, <a href="#Page_265">265</a><br />
-<br />
-hollisteri, Peromyscus maniculatus, <a href="#Page_330">330</a><br />
-<br />
-house mouse, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br />
-<br />
-hoyi, Microsorex, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span>
-
-<br />
-Hudsonian Life-zone, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
-<br />
-hudsonica,<br />
-<span class="i1">Chincha, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lutra, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Mephitis, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br />
-<br />
-hudsonicus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Sciurus, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamiasciurus, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br />
-<br />
-humpback whale, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
-<br />
-Hyla, 180<br />
-<span class="i05">regilla, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br />
-<br />
-hypophaeus, Sciurus carolinensis, <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br />
-<br />
-hypothetical list, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_I">I</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-idahoensis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Brachylagus, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Clethrionomys gapperi, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Evotomys, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lepus, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sylvilagus, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Zapus princeps, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></span><br />
-<br />
-idoneus, Castor canadensis, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br />
-<br />
-immunis, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_311">311</a><br />
-<br />
-imperator, Zapus, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br />
-<br />
-incolatus, Canis latrans, <a href="#Page_231">231</a><br />
-<br />
-Insectivora, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
-<br />
-interior, Myotis volans, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
-<br />
-intermedius,<br />
-<span class="i1">Corynorhinus rafinesquii, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Phenacomys, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></span><br />
-<br />
-invicta, Mustela erminea, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
-<br />
-irremotus, Canis lupus, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_J">J</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-jack rabbit,<br />
-<span class="i1">black-tailed, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">white-tailed, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
-<br />
-jubata,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eumetopias, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Phoca, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
-<br />
-jumping mouse, big, <a href="#Page_370">370</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_K">K</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-kangaroo rat, Ord, <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br />
-<br />
-Keen myotis, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br />
-<br />
-keenii,<br />
-<span class="i1">Myotis, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Vespertilio, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
-<br />
-killer whale, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
-<br />
-kincaidi, Microtus pennsylvanicus, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br />
-<br />
-Kogia breviceps, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-kootenayensis, Zapus princeps, 373<br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_L">L</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-Lagenorhynchus obliquidens, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
-<br />
-Lagomorpha, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br />
-<br />
-Lagomys minimus, <a href="#Page_379">379</a><br />
-<br />
-Lagurus,<br />
-<span class="i1">curtatus, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pauperrimus, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<br />
-laingi, Perognathus parvus, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br />
-<br />
-Lasionycteris noctivagans, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
-<br />
-Latax lutris nereis, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
-<br />
-lateralis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Callospermophilus, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Citellus, <a href="#Page_278">278</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Spermophilus, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<br />
-latifrons, Spilogale, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br />
-<br />
-latipes, Glaucomys sabrinus, <a href="#Page_296">296</a><br />
-<br />
-latrans, Canis, <a href="#Page_226">226</a><br />
-<br />
-lemming mouse, northern, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br />
-<br />
-Lemmiscus,<br />
-<span class="i1">curtatus, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pauperrimus, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<br />
-lepta, Mustela cicognanii, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
-<br />
-Lepus,<br />
-<span class="i1">americanus, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">artemisia, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">bairdi, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">californicus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">campestris, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cascadensis, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">columbiensis, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">deserticola, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">floridanus, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nuttallii, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pineus, <a href="#Page_384">384</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">sylvaticus, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">texianus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">townsendii, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
-<br />
-lestes, Canis, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br />
-<br />
-leucodonta, Castor canadensis, <a href="#Page_322">322</a><br />
-<br />
-leucogaster, Onychomys, <a href="#Page_323">323</a><br />
-<br />
-leucurus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Cervus, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Odocoileus, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Life-zones and ecology, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
-<br />
-limosus, Thomomys, <a href="#Page_312">312</a><br />
-<br />
-lion, mountain, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
-<br />
-Lissodelphis borealis, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
-<br />
-Littorina, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-long-eared myotis, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br />
-<br />
-long-tailed,<br />
-<span class="i1">meadow mouse, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">shrews, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">weasel, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></span><br />
-<br />
-longicaudus, Microtus, <a href="#Page_352">352</a><br />
-<br />
-longicrus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Myotis, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Vespertilio, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
-<br />
-lordi,<br />
-<span class="i1">Abromys, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Perognathus, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></span><br />
-<br />
-loringi, Citellus washingtoni, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
-<br />
-lotor, Procyon, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
-<br />
-ludibundus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias amoenus, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
-<br />
-lucifugus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Gryphus, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Myotis, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Vespertilio, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span>
-
-<br />
-Lupus gigas, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
-<br />
-lupus, Canis, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
-<br />
-luteiventris,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias amoenus, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias amoenus, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Lutra,<br />
-<span class="i1">canadensis, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hudsonica, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pacifica, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">vancouverensis, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br />
-<br />
-lutris,<br />
-<span class="i1">Enhydra, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Latax, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></span><br />
-<br />
-lycaon, Canis, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
-<br />
-Lynx,<br />
-<span class="i1">borealis, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">canadensis, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">fasciatus, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pallescens, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">rufus, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">uinta, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></span><br />
-<br />
-lynx, Canadian, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_M">M</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-machetes, Ursus, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
-<br />
-macropus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Arvicola, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Microtus, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Mynomes, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></span><br />
-<br />
-macroschisma, Pododesmus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-macrotis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Cariacus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Cervus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Corynorhinus, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Odocoileus hemionus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<br />
-macroura, Vulpes fulva, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br />
-<br />
-macrurus, Microtus, <a href="#Page_354">354</a><br />
-<br />
-major,<br />
-<span class="i1">Chincha occidentalis, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Mephitis mephitis, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span><br />
-<br />
-maniculatus, Peromyscus, <a href="#Page_327">327</a><br />
-<br />
-Margarites, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-marmot,<br />
-<span class="i1">hoary, <a href="#Page_265">265</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Olympic, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">yellow-bellied, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Marmota,<br />
-<span class="i1">avara, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">flaviventris, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">monax, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">olympus, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">petrensis, <a href="#Page_263">263</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Marsupalia, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
-<br />
-marten, western, <a href="#Page_183">183</a><br />
-<br />
-Martes,<br />
-<span class="i1">americana, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">caurina, <a href="#Page_183">183</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">origenes, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pacifica, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pennanti, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Mazama,<br />
-<span class="i1">dorsata, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">montana, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span><br />
-<br />
-megalotis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Corynorhinus, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Reithrodon, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Reithrodontomys, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Megaptera novaeangliae, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
-<br />
-melanops, Thomomys, <a href="#Page_314">314</a><br />
-<br />
-melanorhinus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Myotis, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Vespertilio, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Mephitis,<br />
-<span class="i1">americana, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">foetulenta, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hudsonica, <a href="#Page_217">217</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">major, <a href="#Page_218">218</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">mephitis, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">notata, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">spissigrada, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br />
-<br />
-mephitis, Mephitis, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br />
-<br />
-merriami, Sorex, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br />
-<br />
-Mesoplodon stejnegeri, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
-<br />
-Microsorex,<br />
-<span class="i1">hoyi, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">washingtoni, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Microtus,<br />
-<span class="i1">angustus, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">arvicoloides, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">canescens, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cantwelli, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">drummondii, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">funebris, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">halli, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">kincaidi, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">longicaudus, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">macropus, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">macrurus, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">modestus, <a href="#Page_346">346</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">montanus, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">mordax, <a href="#Page_353">353</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">morosus, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nanus, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">oregoni, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pauperrimus, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pennsylvanicus, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pugeti, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">richardsonii, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">townsendii, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></span><br />
-<br />
-minimus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Ochotona, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lagomys, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br />
-<br />
-minor, Neurotrichus, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br />
-<br />
-Mirounga angustirostris, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a><br />
-<br />
-missoulae, Oreamnos americanus, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br />
-<br />
-missoulensis, Felis concolor, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
-<br />
-modestus, Microtus pennsylvanicus, <a href="#Page_346">346</a><br />
-<br />
-mole, 125<br />
-<span class="i1">coast, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Gibbs shrew-, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">shrew-, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Townsend, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span>
-
-<br />
-mollis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Citellus, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Spermophilus, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<br />
-monax, Marmota, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
-<br />
-montana, Mazama, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br />
-<br />
-Montane meadow mouse, <a href="#Page_347">347</a><br />
-<br />
-montanus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Microtus, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Oreamnos, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Rangifer, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></span><br />
-<br />
-monticola, Sorex vagrans, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
-<br />
-monticolus, Sorex, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
-<br />
-moose, <a href="#Page_403">403</a><br />
-<br />
-Mopalia muscosa, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-mordax, Microtus, <a href="#Page_353">353</a><br />
-<br />
-morosus, Microtus, <a href="#Page_357">357</a><br />
-<br />
-mountain,<br />
-<span class="i1">beaver, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">goat, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lion, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">sheep, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></span><br />
-<br />
-mouse,<br />
-<span class="i1">big jumping, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">California red-backed, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">creeping, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">deer, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Gapper red-backed, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">grasshopper, northern, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Great Basin pocket, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">harvest, western, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">house, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">jumping, big, <a href="#Page_370">370</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lemming, northern, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">long-tailed meadow, <a href="#Page_352">352</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">meadow, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">montane meadow, <a href="#Page_347">347</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">northern grasshopper, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">northern lemming, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Pennsylvania meadow, <a href="#Page_345">345</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pocket, Great Basin, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">red-backed, California, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">red-backed, Gapper, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Townsend meadow, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">western harvest, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></span><br />
-<br />
-mouse-eared bats, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br />
-<br />
-mule deer, <a href="#Page_399">399</a><br />
-<br />
-murica, Mustela erminea, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
-<br />
-muricus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Mustela, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Putorius, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Mus,<br />
-<span class="i1">alexandrinus, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">musculus, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">norvegicus, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">rattus, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></span><br />
-<br />
-muscosa, Mopalia, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-musculus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Mus, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sibbaldus, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
-<br />
-muskrat, <a href="#Page_360">360</a><br />
-<br />
-Mustela,<br />
-<span class="i1">altifrontalis, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">arizonensis, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">canadensis, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">caurina, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cicognanii, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">effera, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">energumenos, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">erminea, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">fallenda, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">frenata, <a href="#Page_194">194</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">gulosa, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">invicta, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lepta, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">murica, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nevadensis, <a href="#Page_197">197</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">olympica, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">origenes, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pacifica, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pennanti, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">saturata, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">streatori, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">washingtoni, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Mynomes,<br />
-<span class="i1">macropus, <a href="#Page_356">356</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nanus, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br />
-<br />
-myops, Thomomys, <a href="#Page_310">310</a><br />
-<br />
-Myotis, 146<br />
-<span class="i1">big, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">California, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">californicus, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">carissima, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">caurinus, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">evotis, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">fringe-tailed, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hairy-winged, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">interior, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Keen, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">keenii, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">long-eared, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">longicrus, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lucifugus, <a href="#Page_147">147</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">melanorhinus, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pacificus, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">saturatus, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">sociabilis, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">small-footed, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">subulatus, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">thysanodes, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">volans, <a href="#Page_154">154</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Yuma, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">yumanensis, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Mytilus edulis, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_N">N</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-nanus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Arvicola, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Microtus, <a href="#Page_348">348</a></span><br />
-<br />
-navigator,<br />
-<span class="i1">Neosorex, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sorex palustris, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span>
-
-<br />
-neglecta, Taxidea taxus, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
-<br />
-nelsoni, Cervus canadensis, <a href="#Page_394">394</a><br />
-<br />
-Neosorex,<br />
-<span class="i1">albiventer, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">bendirii, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">navigator, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Neotoma,<br />
-<span class="i1">alticola, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cinerea, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">occidentalis, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></span><br />
-<br />
-nereis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Enhydra lutris, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Latax lutris, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Neurotrichus,<br />
-<span class="i1">gibbsii, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">minor, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br />
-<br />
-nevadensis, Mustela frenata, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
-<br />
-niger, Sciurus, <a href="#Page_286">286</a><br />
-<br />
-nigrescens,<br />
-<span class="i1">Erethizon dorsatum, <a href="#Page_376">376</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Reithrodontomys megalotis, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></span><br />
-<br />
-nitidus, Vespertilio, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
-<br />
-nivarius,<br />
-<span class="i1">Clethrionomys gapperi, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Evotomys, <a href="#Page_343">343</a></span><br />
-<br />
-noctivagans,<br />
-<span class="i1">Lasionycteris, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Vespertilio, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Vesperugo, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
-<br />
-northern,<br />
-<span class="i1">flying squirrel, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">grasshopper mouse, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lemming mouse, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pocket gopher, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></span><br />
-<br />
-norvegicus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Mus, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Rattus, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Norway rat, <a href="#Page_365">365</a><br />
-<br />
-notata, Mephitis mephitis, <a href="#Page_219">219</a><br />
-<br />
-novaeangliae, Megaptera, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
-<br />
-nudus, Hemigrapsus, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a><br />
-<br />
-nutria, <a href="#Page_376">376</a><br />
-<br />
-Nuttall cottontail, <a href="#Page_387">387</a><br />
-<br />
-nuttallii,<br />
-<span class="i1">Lepus, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sylvilagus, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></span><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_O">O</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-obliquidens, Lagenorhynchus, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
-<br />
-obscurus, Sorex, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
-<br />
-occidentalis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Arvicola, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Canis, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Cervus canadensis, <a href="#Page_394">394</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Chincha, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Clethrionomys californicus, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Evotomys, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Helisoma, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Neotoma, <a href="#Page_336">336</a></span><br />
-<br />
-occipitalis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Fiber, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Ondatra zibethicus, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Ochotona,<br />
-<span class="i1">brunnescens, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cuppes, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">fenisex, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">minimus, <a href="#Page_379">379</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">princeps, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></span><br />
-<br />
-ochrourus, Odocoileus virginianus, <a href="#Page_398">398</a><br />
-<br />
-Odocoileus,<br />
-<span class="i1">columbianus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hemionus, <a href="#Page_399">399</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">leucurus, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">macrotis, <a href="#Page_403">403</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">ochrourus, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">virginianus, <a href="#Page_398">398</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Olympic marmot, <a href="#Page_267">267</a><br />
-<br />
-olympica,<br />
-<span class="i1">Aplodontia, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Mustela erminea, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Spilogale, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br />
-<br />
-olympicus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Glaucomys sabrinus, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Phenacomys, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sciuropterus alpinus, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<br />
-olympus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Felis, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Marmota, <a href="#Page_267">267</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Ondatra,<br />
-<span class="i1">occipitalis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">osoyoosensis, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">zibethicus, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Onychomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">fuscogriseus, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">leucogaster, <a href="#Page_323">323</a></span><br />
-<br />
-opossum, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
-<br />
-oramontis, Phenacomys, <a href="#Page_340">340</a><br />
-<br />
-orarius, Scapanus, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
-<br />
-Ord kangaroo rat, <a href="#Page_300">300</a><br />
-<br />
-ordii,<br />
-<span class="i1">Dipodomys, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Perodipus, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Oreamnos,<br />
-<span class="i1">americanus, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">missoulae, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">montanus, <a href="#Page_409">409</a></span><br />
-<br />
-oreas, Peromyscus, <a href="#Page_330">330</a><br />
-<br />
-oregonensis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Felis, <a href="#Page_237">237</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Glaucomys sabrinus, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Hemigrapsus, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Pteromys, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sciuropterus alpinus, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<br />
-oregoni,<br />
-<span class="i1">Arvicola, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Microtus, <a href="#Page_357">357</a></span><br />
-<br />
-oregonus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Bison, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Zapus princeps, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></span><br />
-<br />
-origenes, Martes caurina, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
-<br />
-osoyoosensis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Fiber, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Ondatra, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span>
-
-<br />
-Otaria californianus, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br />
-<br />
-otter,<br />
-<span class="i1">river, <a href="#Page_205">205</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">sea, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Ovis,<br />
-<span class="i1">californiana, <a href="#Page_406">406</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">canadensis, <a href="#Page_405">405</a></span><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_P">P</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-Pacific right whale, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br />
-<br />
-pacifica,<br />
-<span class="i1">Lutra hudsonica, <a href="#Page_210">210</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Martes pennanti, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Mustela canadensis, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Procyon lotor, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></span><br />
-<br />
-pacificus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Castor canadensis, <a href="#Page_322">322</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Myotis evotis, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
-<br />
-pallescens, Lynx, <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br />
-<br />
-pallidus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Antrozous, <a href="#Page_169">169</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Eptesicus fuscus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
-<br />
-palustris, Sorex, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
-<br />
-panther, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br />
-<br />
-parvus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Cricetodops, <a href="#Page_298">298</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Perognathus, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></span><br />
-<br />
-pauperrimus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Arvicola, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lagurus, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lemmiscus, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Microtus, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<br />
-pennanti,<br />
-<span class="i1">Martes, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Mustela, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Pennsylvanian meadow mouse, <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br />
-<br />
-pennsylvanicus, Microtus, <a href="#Page_345">345</a><br />
-<br />
-Perodipus,<br />
-<span class="i1">columbianus, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">ordii, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Perognathus,<br />
-<span class="i1">columbianus, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">laingi, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lordi, <a href="#Page_299">299</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">parvus, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Peromyscus,<br />
-<span class="i1">akeleyi, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">americanus, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">artemisiae, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">austerus, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">gambelii, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hollisteri, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">maniculatus, <a href="#Page_327">327</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">oreas, <a href="#Page_330">330</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">rubidus, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">texianus, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<br />
-personatus, Sorex, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br />
-<br />
-petrensis, Marmota monax, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
-<br />
-Petrolisthes eriomerus, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-Phenacomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">intermedius, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">oramontis, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">olympicus, <a href="#Page_340">340</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Phoca,<br />
-<span class="i1">jubata, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">richardii, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">vitulina, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Phocena vomerina, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-Phocenoides dalli, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-physalus, Balaenoptera, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
-<br />
-Physeter catodon, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-Physiographic provinces, <a href="#Page_16">16</a><br />
-<br />
-pictus, Eutamias minimus, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br />
-<br />
-pigmy,<br />
-<span class="i1">rabbit, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">sperm whale, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
-<br />
-pika, <a href="#Page_377">377</a><br />
-<br />
-pike whale, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
-<br />
-pineus, Lepus americanus, <a href="#Page_384">384</a><br />
-<br />
-Pinnipedia, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
-<br />
-pipistrelle, western, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
-<br />
-Pipistrellus hesperus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
-<br />
-pocket,<br />
-<span class="i1">gopher, northern, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">mouse, Great Basin, <a href="#Page_297">297</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Podedesmus macroschisma, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-Plecotus townsendii, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
-<br />
-Plethodon vehiculum, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
-<br />
-Pollack whale, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
-<br />
-porcupine, <a href="#Page_374">374</a><br />
-<br />
-porpoise,<br />
-<span class="i1">Dall, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">harbor, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">right whale, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">striped, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br />
-<br />
-porpoises, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
-<br />
-princeps,<br />
-<span class="i1">Ochotona, <a href="#Page_377">377</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Zapus, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Procyon,<br />
-<span class="i1">excelsus, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lotor, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pacifica, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">proteus, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">psora, <a href="#Page_181">181</a></span><br />
-<br />
-productus, Cancer, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-pronghorned antelope, <a href="#Page_415">415</a><br />
-<br />
-proteus, Procyon, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
-<br />
-psora, Procyon, <a href="#Page_181">181</a><br />
-<br />
-Pteromys oregonensis, <a href="#Page_295">295</a><br />
-<br />
-pugetensis, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_312">312</a><br />
-<br />
-pugeti, Microtus townsendii, <a href="#Page_351">351</a><br />
-<br />
-puma, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br />
-<br />
-pygmacus, Evotomys, <a href="#Page_344">344</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_Q">Q</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-quadratus, Thomomys, <a href="#Page_310">310</a><br />
-<br />
-quadrivittatus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_R">R</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-rabbit,<br />
-<span class="i1">black-tailed jack, <a href="#Page_385">385</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">jack, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pigmy, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">snowshoe, <a href="#Page_382">382</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">white-tailed jack, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span>
-
-<br />
-raccoon, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
-<br />
-rafinesquii, Carynorhinus, <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
-<br />
-raineri,<br />
-<span class="i1">Aplodontia, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Haplodontia, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<br />
-rainieri, Aplodontia rufa, <a href="#Page_369">369</a><br />
-<br />
-Rana, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
-<br />
-Rangifer,<br />
-<span class="i1">arcticus, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">montanus, <a href="#Page_404">404</a></span><br />
-<br />
-rat,<br />
-<span class="i1">bushy-tailed wood, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">kangaroo, Ord, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Norway, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Ord kangaroo, <a href="#Page_300">300</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">roof, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">sage, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">water, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">wood, bushy-tailed, <a href="#Page_333">333</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Rattus,<br />
-<span class="i1">alexandrinus, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">norvegicus, <a href="#Page_365">365</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">rattus, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></span><br />
-<br />
-rattus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Mus, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Rattus, <a href="#Page_364">364</a></span><br />
-<br />
-rectipinna, Grampus, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
-<br />
-red-backed mouse,<br />
-<span class="i1">California, <a href="#Page_344">344</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Gapper, <a href="#Page_341">341</a></span><br />
-<br />
-red,<br />
-<span class="i1">fox, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">squirrel, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br />
-<br />
-regilla, Hyla, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
-<br />
-Reithrodon megalotis, <a href="#Page_324">324</a><br />
-<br />
-Reithrodontomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">megalotis, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nigrescens, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></span><br />
-<br />
-richardii,<br />
-<span class="i1">Halicyon, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Phoca, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
-<br />
-richardsonii,<br />
-<span class="i1">Microtus, <a href="#Page_354">354</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sciurus, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamiasciurus, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br />
-<br />
-right,<br />
-<span class="i1">whale, Pacific, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">whale porpoise, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></span><br />
-<br />
-river otter, <a href="#Page_205">205</a><br />
-<br />
-Rhachianectes glaucus, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-Rodentia, <a href="#Page_115">115</a><br />
-<br />
-roof rat, <a href="#Page_364">364</a><br />
-<br />
-roosevelti, Cervus, <a href="#Page_394">394</a><br />
-<br />
-rubidus, Peromyscus maniculatus, 331<br />
-<br />
-rufa,<br />
-<span class="i1">Aplodontia, <a href="#Page_366">366</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Anisonyx, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Haplodon, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<br />
-ruficaudus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Citellus columbianus, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<br />
-rufus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Haplodon, <a href="#Page_369">369</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lynx, <a href="#Page_241">241</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Rupicapra americana, <a href="#Page_409">409</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_S">S</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-sabrinus, Glaucomys, <a href="#Page_292">292</a><br />
-<br />
-sage rat, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
-<br />
-sagebrush vole, <a href="#Page_359">359</a><br />
-<br />
-saturata, Mustela, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br />
-<br />
-saturatus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Callospermophilus lateralis, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Citellus, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Clethrionomys gapperi, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Evotomys gapperi, <a href="#Page_342">342</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Myotis yumanensis, <a href="#Page_150">150</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Spermophilus, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<br />
-saxatilis, Spilogale, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br />
-<br />
-Scalops townsendii, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
-<br />
-scammonii, Globicephalus, <a href="#Page_411">411</a><br />
-<br />
-Scapanus, 125<br />
-<span class="i1">orarius, <a href="#Page_127">127</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">schefferi, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">townsendii, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">yakimensis, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
-<br />
-schefferi, Scapanus orarius, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br />
-<br />
-Sciuropterus,<br />
-<span class="i1">alpinus, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">bangsi, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">olympicus, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">oregonensis, <a href="#Page_295">295</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Sciurus,<br />
-<span class="i1">cascadensis, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">carolinensis, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">douglasii, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">griseus, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hudsonicus, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hypophaeus, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">niger, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">richardsonii, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">streatori, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Scotophilus hesperus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a><br />
-<br />
-scrutator,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias minimus, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias minimus, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br />
-<br />
-sea lion,<br />
-<span class="i1">California, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Steller, <a href="#Page_244">244</a></span><br />
-<br />
-sea otter, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
-<br />
-seal,<br />
-<span class="i1">Alaska fur, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">fur, Alaska, <a href="#Page_246">246</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hair, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">harbor, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Sei whale, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
-<br />
-setosus, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
-<br />
-shawi, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_311">311</a><br />
-<br />
-sheep, mountain, <a href="#Page_405">405</a><br />
-<br />
-shirasi, Alce americanus, <a href="#Page_403">403</a><br />
-<br />
-shrew,<br />
-<span class="i1">Bendire, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cinereous, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_442">[Pg 442]</a></span>
-
-<span class="i1">dusky, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">long-tailed, <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">-mole, <a href="#Page_122">122</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1"><a href="#p_Merriam">Merriam</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">mountain, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pigmy, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Trowbridge, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">wandering, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">water, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br />
-<br />
-shrew-mole, Gibbs, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
-<br />
-shrews, long-tailed, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br />
-<br />
-Sibbaldus musculus, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
-<br />
-sieboldii, Eubalaena, <a href="#Page_414">414</a><br />
-<br />
-silvery-haired bat, <a href="#Page_159">159</a><br />
-<br />
-similis, Sorex vagrans, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
-<br />
-simulans,<br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias ruficaudus, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias ruficaudus, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Siren cynocephalus, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
-<br />
-Sitomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">americanus, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">artemisiae, <a href="#Page_332">332</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">austerus, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">gambelii, <a href="#Page_331">331</a></span><br />
-<br />
-skunk,<br />
-<span class="i1">spotted, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">striped, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br />
-<br />
-small-footed myotis, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
-<br />
-snowshoe rabbit, <a href="#Page_382">382</a><br />
-<br />
-sociabilis, Myotis yumanensis, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
-<br />
-sorex, 131,<br />
-<span class="i1">albiventer, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">areticus, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">bairdi, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">bendirei, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">bendirii, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cinereus, <a href="#Page_132">132</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">destructioni, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">merriami, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">monticola, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">monticolus, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">navigator, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">obscurus, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">palustris, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">personatus, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">setosus, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">similis, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">streatori, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">suckleyi, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">trowbridgii, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">vagrans, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
-<br />
-sperm whale, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-Spermophilus,<br />
-<span class="i1">columbianus, <a href="#Page_275">275</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">douglasii, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">grammurus, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lateralis, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">mollis, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">saturatus, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">townsendii, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Spilogale,<br />
-<span class="i1">gracilis, <a href="#Page_212">212</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">latifrons, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">olympica, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">saxatilis, <a href="#Page_215">215</a></span><br />
-<br />
-spissigrada,<br />
-<span class="i1">Chincha occidentalis, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Mephitis, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></span><br />
-<br />
-spotted skunk, <a href="#Page_212">212</a><br />
-<br />
-squirrel,<br />
-<span class="i1">Beechey ground, <a href="#Page_276">276</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Columbian ground, <a href="#Page_272">272</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Douglas, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">eastern gray, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">flying, northern, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">fox, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">golden-mantled ground, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">gray, eastern, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">gray, western, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">northern flying, <a href="#Page_292">292</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">red, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Townsend ground, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Washington ground, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">western gray, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br />
-<br />
-steelhead trout, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
-<br />
-Stejneger beaked whale, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
-<br />
-stejnegeri, Mesoplodon, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
-<br />
-Steller sea lion, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br />
-<br />
-Stenopalmatus, <a href="#Page_170">170</a><br />
-<br />
-streatori,<br />
-<span class="i1">Mustela, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Putorius, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sciurus, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sorex cinereus, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamiasciurus, <a href="#Page_288">288</a></span><br />
-<br />
-striped,<br />
-<span class="i1">porpoise, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">skunk, <a href="#Page_216">216</a></span><br />
-<br />
-subulatus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Myotis, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Vespertilio, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
-<br />
-suckleyi, Sorex, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
-<br />
-sulphur-bottom whale, <a href="#Page_413">413</a><br />
-<br />
-sylvaticus, Lepus, <a href="#Page_387">387</a><br />
-<br />
-Sylvilagus,<br />
-<span class="i1">floridanus, <a href="#Page_389">389</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">idahoensis, <a href="#Page_390">390</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nuttallii, <a href="#Page_387">387</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Synaptomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">artemisiae, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">borealis, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">truei, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">wrangeli, <a href="#Page_337">337</a></span><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_T">T</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-tacomensis, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_312">312</a><br />
-<br />
-talpoides, Thomomys, <a href="#Page_302">302</a><br />
-<br />
-Tamias,<br />
-<span class="i1">affinis, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">albiventris, <a href="#Page_416">416</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">amoenus, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span>
-
-<span class="i1">asiaticus, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">canicaudus, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">caurinus, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cooperi, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">felix, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">grisescens, <a href="#Page_253">253</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lateralis, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">ludibundus, <a href="#Page_257">257</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">luteiventris, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">minimus, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">quadrivittatus, <a href="#Page_256">256</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">ruficaudus, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">saturatus, <a href="#Page_281">281</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">scrutator, <a href="#Page_252">252</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">simulans, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">townsendii, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Tamiasciurus,<br />
-<span class="i1">douglasii, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hudsonicus, <a href="#Page_286">286</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">richardsonii, <a href="#Page_289">289</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">streatori, <a href="#Page_290">290</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Taxidea,<br />
-<span class="i1">neglecta, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">taxus, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br />
-<br />
-taxus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Taxidea, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Ursus, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Telmessus cheiragonus, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
-<br />
-tescorum,<br />
-<span class="i1">Callospermophilus lateralis, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Citellus lateralis, <a href="#Page_279">279</a></span><br />
-<br />
-texanus, Peromyscus, <a href="#Page_331">331</a><br />
-<br />
-texianus, Lepus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a><br />
-<br />
-Thomomys,<br />
-<span class="i1">aequalidens, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">badius, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">clusius, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">columbianus, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">couchi, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">devexus, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">douglasii, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">ericaeus, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">fuscus, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">glacialis, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">immunis, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">limosus, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">melanops, <a href="#Page_314">314</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">myops, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pugetensis, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">quadratus, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">shawi, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">tacomensis, <a href="#Page_312">312</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">talpoides, <a href="#Page_302">302</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">tumuli, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">wallowa, <a href="#Page_310">310</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">yakimensis, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">yelmensis, <a href="#Page_313">313</a></span><br />
-<br />
-thysanodes, Myotis, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
-<br />
-timber wolf, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
-<br />
-Townsend,<br />
-<span class="i1">ground squirrel, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">meadow mouse, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></span><br />
-<br />
-townsendii,<br />
-<span class="i1">Arvicola, <a href="#Page_351">351</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Citellus, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Corynorhinus, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Corynorhinus rafinesquii, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Eutamias, <a href="#Page_262">262</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Lepus, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Microtus, <a href="#Page_349">349</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Plecotus, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Scalops, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Scapanus, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Spermophilus, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Tamias, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Transition Life-zone, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
-<br />
-trinotatus, Zapus, <a href="#Page_372">372</a><br />
-<br />
-trout, steelhead, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
-<br />
-trowbridgii, Sorex, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br />
-<br />
-truei, Synaptomys, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br />
-<br />
-tumuli, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_313">313</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_U">U</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-uinta, Lynx, <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br />
-<br />
-Upper Sonoran Life-zone, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
-<br />
-Urotrichus, gibbsii, <a href="#Page_124">124</a><br />
-<br />
-ursina, Callotaria, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
-<br />
-ursinus, Callorhinus, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
-<br />
-Ursus,<br />
-<span class="i1">altifrontalis, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">americanus, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">canadensis, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cinnamomum, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">chelan, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">idahoensis, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">machetes, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">taxus, <a href="#Page_220">220</a></span><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_V">V</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-vagrans, Sorex, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br />
-<br />
-vancouverensis, Lutra, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br />
-<br />
-Vegetation, Climate and, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
-<br />
-vehiculum, Plethodon, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
-<br />
-Vespertilio,<br />
-<span class="i1">californicus, <a href="#Page_158">158</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">cinereus, <a href="#Page_168">168</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">evotis, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">gryphus, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">hesperus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">keenii, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">lucifugus, <a href="#Page_155">155</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">longicrus, <a href="#Page_148">148</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">nitidus, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">noctivagans, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">subulatus, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
-<br />
-Vesperugo,<br />
-<span class="i1">hesperus, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">noctivagans, <a href="#Page_159">159</a></span><br />
-<br />
-virginiana, Didelphis, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
-<br />
-virginianus, Odocoileus, <a href="#Page_398">398</a><br />
-<br />
-vitulina, Phoca, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br />
-<br />
-volans, Myotis, <a href="#Page_154">154</a><br />
-<br />
-vole,<br />
-<span class="i1">heather, <a href="#Page_338">338</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">sagebrush, <a href="#Page_359">359</a></span><br />
-<br />
-vomerina, Phocena, <a href="#Page_412">412</a><br />
-<br />
-
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span><br />
-
-Vulpes,<br />
-<span class="i1">cascadensis, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">fulva, <a href="#Page_224">224</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">macroura, <a href="#Page_415">415</a></span><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_W">W</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-wallowa, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_310">310</a><br />
-<br />
-wallawalla, Lepus texianus, <a href="#Page_385">385</a><br />
-<br />
-wapiti, <a href="#Page_391">391</a><br />
-<br />
-Washington ground squirrel, <a href="#Page_271">271</a><br />
-<br />
-washingtoni,<br />
-<span class="i1">Citellus, <a href="#Page_271">271</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Microsorex hoyi, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Mustela, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Putorius, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
-<br />
-washingtonii, Lepus, <a href="#Page_384">384</a><br />
-<br />
-water rat, <a href="#Page_354">354</a><br />
-<br />
-weasel, long-tailed, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
-<br />
-western,<br />
-<span class="i1">gray squirrel, <a href="#Page_284">284</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">harvest mouse, <a href="#Page_324">324</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pipistrelle, <a href="#Page_165">165</a></span><br />
-<br />
-whale,<br />
-<span class="i1">Baird beaked, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">blue, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">finback, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">gray, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">humpback, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">killer, <a href="#Page_411">411</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Pacific right, <a href="#Page_414">414</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pigmy sperm, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">pike, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Pollack, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Sei, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">sperm, <a href="#Page_412">412</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">sulphur-bottom, <a href="#Page_413">413</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Stejneger beaked, <a href="#Page_410">410</a></span><br />
-<br />
-whales, <a href="#Page_410">410</a><br />
-<br />
-white-tailed,<br />
-<span class="i1">deer, <a href="#Page_395">395</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">jack rabbit, <a href="#Page_380">380</a></span><br />
-<br />
-wolf, timber, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
-<br />
-woodchuck, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
-<br />
-wood rat, bushy-tailed, <a href="#Page_333">333</a><br />
-<br />
-wrangeli, Synaptomys, <a href="#Page_337">337</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_Y">Y</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-yakimensis,<br />
-<span class="i1">Citellus mollis, <a href="#Page_268">268</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Scapanus orarius, <a href="#Page_130">130</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_311">311</a></span><br />
-<br />
-yellow-bellied marmot, <a href="#Page_263">263</a><br />
-<br />
-yelmensis, Thomomys talpoides, <a href="#Page_313">313</a><br />
-<br />
-Yuma myotis, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
-<br />
-yumanensis, Myotis, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
-
-<br />
-<br />
-<b><a id="Ind_Z">Z</a></b><br />
-<br />
-
-Zalophus californianus, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br />
-<br />
-Zapus,<br />
-<span class="i1">idahoensis, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">imperator, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">kootenayensis, <a href="#Page_373">373</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">oregonus, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">princeps, <a href="#Page_371">371</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">trinotatus, <a href="#Page_372">372</a></span><br />
-<br />
-zibethicus,<br />
-<span class="i1">Fiber, <a href="#Page_363">363</a></span><br />
-<span class="i1">Ondatra, <a href="#Page_360">360</a></span><br />
-
-  </div>
-</div>
-<p class="pmb3" />
-
-
-
-<p class="break" />
-<hr class="chap" />
-
-<div class="transnote">
-<b><a id="Transcribers_notes">Transcriber's notes:</a></b>
-
-<p>Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected, but other
-variations in spelling and punctuation remain unchanged.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
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