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diff --git a/old/53080-8.txt b/old/53080-8.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4df3ca4..0000000 --- a/old/53080-8.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,13895 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Myths of Mexico & Peru, by Lewis Spence - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: The Myths of Mexico & Peru - -Author: Lewis Spence - -Release Date: September 18, 2016 [EBook #53080] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MYTHS OF MEXICO & PERU *** - - - - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project -Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously -made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - - - - - - - - - THE MYTHS OF - MEXICO & PERU - - BY - LEWIS SPENCE - - AUTHOR OF "THE MYTHOLOGIES OF ANCIENT MEXICO AND PERU" - "THE POPOL VUH" "THE CIVILIZATION OF ANCIENT MEXICO" - "A DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY" ETC. ETC. - - WITH SIXTY FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS MAINLY BY - GILBERT JAMES AND WILLIAM SEWELL - AND OTHER DRAWINGS AND MAPS - - - - NEW YORK - THOMAS Y. CROWELL COMPANY - PUBLISHERS - - - - - - - - - Printed by - BALLANTYNE AND COMPANY LTD - Tavistock Street Covent Garden - London England - - - - - - - - -PREFACE - - -In recent years a reawakening has taken place in the study of American -archæology and antiquities, owing chiefly to the labours of a band of -scholars in the United States and a few enthusiasts in the continent -of Europe. For the greater part of the nineteenth century it appeared -as if the last word had been written upon Mexican archæology. The lack -of excavations and exploration had cramped the outlook of scholars, -and there was nothing for them to work upon save what had been done in -this respect before their own time. The writers on Central America who -lived in the third quarter of the last century relied on the travels -of Stephens and Norman, and never appeared to consider it essential -that the country or the antiquities in which they specialised should -be examined anew, or that fresh expeditions should be equipped to -discover whether still further monuments existed relating to the -ancient peoples who raised the teocallis of Mexico and the huacas of -Peru. True, the middle of the century was not altogether without its -Americanist explorers, but the researches of these were performed in -a manner so perfunctory that but few additions to the science resulted -from their labours. - -Modern Americanist archæology may be said to have been the creation of -a brilliant band of scholars who, working far apart and without any -attempt at co-operation, yet succeeded in accomplishing much. Among -these may be mentioned the Frenchmen Charnay and de Rosny, and the -Americans Brinton, H. H. Bancroft, and Squier. To these succeeded -the German scholars Seler, Schellhas, and Förstemann, the Americans -Winsor, Starr, Savile, and Cyrus Thomas, and the Englishmen Payne and -Sir Clements Markham. These men, splendidly equipped for the work they -had taken in hand, were yet hampered by the lack of reliable data--a -want later supplied partly by their own excavations and partly by the -painstaking labours of Professor Maudslay, now the principal of the -International College of Antiquities at Mexico, who, with his wife, -is responsible for the exact pictorial reproductions of many of the -ancient edifices in Central America and Mexico. - -Writers in the sphere of Mexican and Peruvian myth have been few. The -first to attack the subject in the light of the modern science of -comparative religion was Daniel Garrison Brinton, professor of American -languages and archæology in the University of Philadelphia. He has -been followed by Payne, Schellhas, Seler, and Förstemann, all of whom, -however, have confined the publication of their researches to isolated -articles in various geographical and scientific journals. The remarks -of mythologists who are not also Americanists upon the subject of -American myth must be accepted with caution. - -The question of the alphabets of ancient America is perhaps the most -acute in present-day pre-Columbian archæology. But progress is being -made in this branch of the subject, and several German scholars are -working in whole-hearted co-operation to secure final results. - -What has Great Britain accomplished in this new and fascinating field -of science? If the lifelong and valuable labours of the venerable Sir -Clements Markham be excepted, almost nothing. It is earnestly hoped -that the publication of this volume may prove the means of leading many -English students to the study and consideration of American archæology. - -There remains the romance of old America. The real interest of American -mediæval history must ever circle around Mexico and Peru--her golden -empires, her sole exemplars of civilisation; and it is to the books -upon the character of these two nations that we must turn for a -romantic interest as curious and as absorbing as that bound up in -the history of Egypt or Assyria. - -If human interest is craved for by any man, let him turn to the -narratives of Garcilasso el Inca de la Vega and Ixtlilxochitl, -representatives and last descendants of the Peruvian and Tezcucan -monarchies, and read there the frightful story of the path to fortune -of red-heeled Pizarro and cruel Cortés, of the horrible cruelties -committed upon the red man, whose colour was "that of the devil," of -the awful pageant of gold-sated pirates laden with the treasures of -palaces, of the stripping of temples whose very bricks were of gold, -whose very drain-pipes were of silver, of rapine and the sacrilege of -high places, of porphyry gods dashed down the pyramidal sides of lofty -teocallis, of princesses torn from the very steps of the throne--ay, -read these for the most wondrous tales ever writ by the hand of man, -tales by the side of which the fables of Araby seem dim--the story -of a clash of worlds, the conquest of a new, of an isolated hemisphere. - -It is usual to speak of America as "a continent without a history." The -folly of such a statement is extreme. For centuries prior to European -occupation Central America was the seat of civilisations boasting a -history and a semi-historical mythology second to none in richness and -interest. It is only because the sources of that history are unknown -to the general reader that such assurance upon the lack of it exists. - -Let us hope that this book may assist in attracting many to the -head-fountain of a river whose affluents water many a plain of beauty -not the less lovely because bizarre, not the less fascinating because -somewhat remote from modern thought. - -In conclusion I have to acknowledge the courtesy of the Bureau of -American Ethnology, which placed in my hands a valuable collection of -illustrations and allowed me to select from these at my discretion. The -pictures chosen include the drawings used as tailpieces to chapters; -others, usually half-tones, are duly acknowledged where they occur. - - -LEWIS SPENCE - -Edinburgh: July 1913 - - - - - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. The Civilisation of Mexico 1 - II. Mexican Mythology 54 - III. Myths and Legends of the Ancient Mexicans 118 - IV. The Maya Race and Mythology 143 - V. Myths of the Maya 207 - VI. The Civilisation of Old Peru 248 - VII. The Mythology of Peru 291 - Bibliography 335 - Glossary and Index 341 - - - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS - - - PAGE - - The Princess is given a Vision Frontispiece - The Descent of Quetzalcoatl xiv - Toveyo and the Magic Drum 16 - The Altar of Skulls 26 - The Guardian of the Sacred Fire 30 - Pyramid of the Moon: Pyramid of the Sun 32 - Ruins of the Pyramid of Xochicalco 34 - The Spirit of the dead Aztec is attacked by an Evil - Spirit who scatters Clouds of Ashes 38 - The Demon Izpuzteque 40 - The Aztec Calendar Stone 44 - A Prisoner fighting for his Life 48 - Combat between Mexican and Bilimec Warriors 53 - Priest making an Incantation over an Aztec Lady 54 - The Princess sees a Strange Man before the Palace 62 - Tezcatlipoca, Lord of the Night Winds 66 - The Infant War-God drives his Brethren into a Lake - and slays them 70 - Statue of Tlaloc, the Rain-God 76 - The Aged Quetzalcoatl leaves Mexico on a Raft of - Serpents 80 - Ritual Masks of Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca; and - Sacrificial Knife 84 - The so-called Teoyaominqui 88 - Statue of a Male Divinity 90 - Xolotl 94 - The Quauhxicalli, or Solar Altar of Sacrifice 98 - Macuilxochitl 102 - The Penitent addressing the Fire 106 - Cloud Serpent, the Hunter-God 110 - Mexican Goddess 114 - Tezcatlipoca 117 - "Place where the Heavens Stood" 120 - A Flood-Myth of the Nahua 122 - The Prince who fled for his Life 126 - The Princess and the Statues 130 - The King's Sister is shown the Valley of Dry Bones 140 - Mexican Deity 142 - The Prince who went to Found a City 156 - "The Tablet of the Cross" 160 - Design on a Vase from Chamá representing Maya Deities 166 - The House of Bats 172 - Part of the Palace and Tower, Palenque 182 - The King who loved a Princess 186 - Teocalli or Pyramid of Papantla: The Nunnery, - Chichen-Itza 188 - Details of the Nunnery at Chichen-Itza 190 - The Old Woman who took an Egg home 192 - Great Palace of Mitla: Interior of an Apartment in - the Palace of Mitla 198 - Hall of the Columns, Palace of Mitla 202 - The Twins make an Imitation Crab 214 - The Princess and the Gourds 220 - The Princess who made Friends of the Owls 222 - In the House of Bats 226 - How the Sun appeared like the Moon 230 - Queen Móo has her Destiny foretold 240 - The Rejected Suitor 242 - Piece of Pottery representing a Tapir 247 - Doorway of Tiahuanaco 248 - Fortress at Ollantay-tampu 250 - "Mother and child are united" 252 - The Inca Fortress of Pissac 254 - "Making one of each nation out of the clay of the - earth" 258 - Painted and Black Terra-cotta Vases 280 - Conducting the White Llama to the Sacrifice 312 - "The birdlike beings were in reality women" 318 - "A beautiful youth appeared to Thonapa" 320 - "He sang the song of Chamayhuarisca" 322 - "The younger one flew away" 324 - "His wife at first indignantly denied the accusation" 326 - "He saw a very beautiful girl crying bitterly" 328 - - - -MAPS - - The Valley of Mexico 330 - Distribution of the Races in Ancient Mexico 331 - Distribution of the Races under the Empire of the Incas 333 - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER I: THE CIVILISATION OF MEXICO - - -The Civilisations of the New World - -There is now no question as to the indigenous origin of the -civilisations of Mexico, Central America, and Peru. Upon few subjects, -however, has so much mistaken erudition been lavished. The beginnings -of the races who inhabited these regions, and the cultures which they -severally created, have been referred to nearly every civilised or -semi-civilised nation of antiquity, and wild if fascinating theories -have been advanced with the intention of showing that civilisation was -initiated upon American soil by Asiatic or European influence. These -speculations were for the most part put forward by persons who -possessed but a merely general acquaintance with the circumstances -of American aboriginal civilisation, and who were struck by the -superficial resemblances which undoubtedly exist between American and -Asiatic peoples, customs, and art-forms, but which cease to be apparent -to the Americanist, who perceives in them only such likenesses as -inevitably occur in the work of men situated in similar environments -and surrounded by similar social and religious conditions. - -The Maya of Yucatan may be regarded as the most highly civilised -of the peoples who occupied the American continent before the -advent of Europeans, and it is usually their culture which we are -asked to believe had its seat of origin in Asia. It is unnecessary -to refute this theory in detail, as that has already been ably -accomplished. [1] But it may be remarked that the surest proof of -the purely native origin of American civilisation is to be found in -the unique nature of American art, the undoubted result of countless -centuries of isolation. American language, arithmetic, and methods of -time-reckoning, too, bear no resemblance to other systems, European -or Asiatic, and we may be certain that had a civilising race entered -America from Asia it would have left its indelible impress upon -things so intensely associated with the life of a people as well as -upon the art and architecture of the country, for they are as much -the product of culture as is the ability to raise temples. - - - -Evidence of Animal and Plant Life - -It is impossible in this connection to ignore the evidence in favour of -native advancement which can be adduced from the artificial production -of food in America. Nearly all the domesticated animals and cultivated -food-plants found on the continent at the period of the discovery were -totally different from those known to the Old World. Maize, cocoa, -tobacco, and the potato, with a host of useful plants, were new to -the European conquerors, and the absence of such familiar animals -as the horse, cow, and sheep, besides a score of lesser animals, -is eloquent proof of the prolonged isolation which the American -continent underwent subsequent to its original settlement by man. - - - -Origin of American Man - -An Asiatic origin is, of course, admitted for the aborigines of -America, but it undoubtedly stretched back into that dim Tertiary Era -when man was little more than beast, and language as yet was not, or at -the best was only half formed. Later immigrants there certainly were, -but these probably arrived by way of Behring Strait, and not by the -land-bridge connecting Asia and America by which the first-comers found -entrance. At a later geological period the general level of the North -American continent was higher than at present, and a broad isthmus -connected it with Asia. During this prolonged elevation vast littoral -plains, now submerged, extended continuously from the American to the -Asiatic shore, affording an easy route of migration to a type of man -from whom both the Mongolian branches may have sprung. But this type, -little removed from the animal as it undoubtedly was, carried with it -none of the refinements of art or civilisation; and if any resemblances -occur between the art-forms or polity of its equal descendants in Asia -and America, they are due to the influence of a remote common ancestry, -and not to any later influx of Asiatic civilisation to American shores. - - - -Traditions of Intercourse with Asia - -The few traditions of Asiatic intercourse with America are, -alas! easily dissipated. It is a dismal business to be compelled to -refute the dreams of others. How much more fascinating would American -history have been had Asia sowed the seeds of her own peculiar -civilisation in the western continent, which would then have become -a newer and further East, a more glowing and golden Orient! But -America possesses a fascination almost as intense when there -falls to be considered the marvel of the evolution of her wondrous -civilisations--the flowers of progress of a new, of an isolated world. - -The idea that the "Fu-Sang" of the Chinese annals alluded to America -was rendered illusory by Klaproth, who showed its identity with -a Japanese island. It is not impossible that Chinese and Japanese -vessels may have drifted on to the American coasts, but that they -sailed thither of set purpose is highly improbable. Gomara, the Mexican -historian, states that those who served with Coronado's expedition -in 1542 saw off the Pacific coast certain ships having their prows -decorated with gold and silver, and laden with merchandise, and these -they supposed to be of Cathay or China, "because they intimated by -signs that they had been thirty days on their voyage." Like most of -these interesting stories, however, the tale has no foundation in -fact, as the incident cannot be discovered in the original account -of the expedition, published in 1838 in the travel-collection of -Ternaux-Compans. - - - -Legends of European Intercourse - -We shall find the traditions, one might almost call them legends, -of early European intercourse with America little more satisfactory -than those which recount its ancient connection with Asia. We may -dismiss the sagas of the discovery of America by the Norsemen, which -are by no means mere tradition, and pass on to those in which the -basis of fact is weaker and the legendary interest more strong. We -are told that when the Norsemen drove forth those Irish monks who -had settled in Iceland, the fugitives voyaged to "Great Ireland," -by which many antiquarians of the older school imagine the author of -the myth to have meant America. The Irish Book of Lismore recounts the -voyage of St. Brandan, Abbot of Cluainfert, in Ireland, to an island -in the ocean which Providence had intended as the abode of saints. It -gives a glowing account of his seven years' cruise in western waters, -and tells of numerous discoveries, among them a hill of fire and an -endless island, which he quitted after an unavailing journey of forty -days, loading his ships with its fruits, and returning home. Many Norse -legends exist regarding this "Greater Ireland," or "Huitramanna Land" -(White Man's Land), among them one concerning a Norseman who was -cast away on its shores, and who found there a race of white men -who went to worship their gods bearing banners, and "shouting with -a loud voice." There is, of course, the bare possibility that the -roving Norsemen may have on occasions drifted or have been cast away -as far south as Mexico, and such an occurrence becomes the more easy -of belief when we remember that they certainly reached the shores of -North America. - - - -The Legend of Madoc - -A much more interesting because more probable story is that which -tells of the discovery of distant lands across the western ocean by -Madoc, a princeling of North Wales, in the year 1170. It is recorded -in Hakluyt's English Voyages and Powel's History of Wales. Madoc, -the son of Owen Gwyneth, disgusted by the strife of his brothers -for the principality of their dead father, resolved to quit such an -uncongenial atmosphere, and, fitting out ships with men and munition, -sought adventure by sea, sailing west, and leaving the coast of -Ireland so far north that he came to a land unknown, where he saw -many strange things. "This land," says Hakluyt, "must needs be some -part of that country of which the Spaniards affirme themselves to -be the first finders since Hanno's time," and through this allusion -we are enabled to see how these legends relating to mythical lands -came to be associated with the American continent. Concerning the -land discovered by Madoc many tales were current in Wales in mediæval -times. Madoc on his return declared that it was pleasant and fruitful, -but uninhabited. He succeeded in persuading a large number of people -to accompany him to this delectable region, and, as he never returned, -Hakluyt concludes that the descendants of the folk he took with him -composed the greater part of the population of the America of the -seventeenth century, a conclusion in which he has been supported by -more than one modern antiquarian. Indeed, the wildest fancies have -been based upon this legend, and stories of Welsh-speaking Indians who -were able to converse with Cymric immigrants to the American colonies -have been received with complacency by the older school of American -historians as the strongest confirmation of the saga. It is notable, -however, that Henry VII of England, the son of a Welshman, may have -been influenced in his patronage of the early American explorers by -this legend of Madoc, as it is known that he employed one Guttyn Owen, -a Welsh historiographer, to draw up his paternal pedigree, and that -this same Guttyn included the story in his works. Such legends as -those relating to Atlantis and Antilia scarcely fall within the scope -of American myth, as they undoubtedly relate to early communication -with the Canaries and Azores. - - - -American Myths of the Discovery - -But what were the speculations of the Red Men on the other side of -the Atlantic? Were there no rumours there, no legends of an Eastern -world? Immediately prior to the discovery there was in America a widely -disseminated belief that at a relatively remote period strangers -from the east had visited American soil, eventually returning to -their own abodes in the Land of Sunrise. Such, for example, was the -Mexican legend of Quetzalcoatl, to which we shall revert later in -its more essentially mythical connection. He landed with several -companions at Vera Cruz, and speedily brought to bear the power -of a civilising agency upon native opinion. In the ancient Mexican -pinturas, or paintings, he is represented as being habited in a long -black gown, fringed with white crosses. After sojourning with the -Mexicans for a number of years, during which time he initiated them -into the arts of life and civilisation, he departed from their land -on a magic raft, promising, however, to return. His second advent was -anxiously looked for, and when Cortés and his companions arrived at -Vera Cruz, the identical spot at which Quetzalcoatl was supposed to -have set out on his homeward journey, the Mexicans fully believed him -to be the returned hero. Of course Montezuma, their monarch, was not -altogether taken by surprise at the coming of the white man, as he had -been informed of the arrival of mysterious strangers in Yucatan and -elsewhere in Central America; but in the eyes of the commonalty the -Spanish leader was a "hero-god" indeed. In this interesting figure -several of the monkish chroniclers of New Spain saw the Apostle -St. Thomas, who had journeyed to the American continent to effect -its conversion to Christianity. - - - -A Peruvian Prophecy - -The Mexicans were by no means singular in their presentiments. When -Hernando de Soto, on landing in Peru, first met the Inca Huascar, the -latter related an ancient prophecy which his father, Huaina Ccapac, -had repeated on his death-bed, that in the reign of the thirteenth -Inca white men of surpassing strength and valour would come from their -father the Sun, and subject the Peruvians to their rule. "I command -you," said the dying king, "to yield them homage and obedience, -for they will be of a nature superior to ours." [2] - -But the most interesting of American legends connected with the -discovery is that in which the prophecy of the Maya priest Chilan -Balam is described. Father Lizana, a venerable Spanish author, records -the prophecy, which he states was very well known throughout Yucatan, -as does Villagutierre, who quotes it. - - - -The Prophecy of Chilan Balam - -Part of this strange prophecy runs as follows: "At the end of -the thirteenth age, when Itza is at the height of its power, as -also the city called Tancah, the signal of God will appear on the -heights, and the Cross with which the world was enlightened will be -manifested. There will be variance of men's will in future times, -when this signal shall be brought.... Receive your barbarous bearded -guests from the east, who bring the signal of God, who comes to us -in mercy and pity. The time of our life is coming...." - -It would seem from the perusal of this prophecy that a genuine -substratum of native tradition has been over-laid and coloured -by the influence of the early Spanish missionaries. The terms of -the announcement are much too exact, and the language employed is -obviously Scriptural. But the native books of Chilan Balam, whence -the prophecy is taken, are much less explicit, and the genuineness of -their character is evinced by the idiomatic use of the Maya tongue, -which, in the form they present it in, could have been written by none -save those who had habitually employed it from infancy. As regards the -prophetic nature of these deliverances it is known that the Chilan, -or priest, was wont to utter publicly at the end of certain prolonged -periods a prophecy forecasting the character of the similar period to -come, and there is reason to believe that some distant rumours of the -coming of the white man had reached the ears of several of the seers. - -These vague intimations that the seas separated them from a great -continent where dwelt beings like themselves seem to have been -common to white and red men alike. And who shall say by what strange -magic of telepathy they were inspired in the minds of the daring -explorers and the ascetic priests who gave expression to them in act -and utterance? The discovery of America was much more than a mere -scientific process, and romance rather than the cold speculations -of mediæval geography urged men to tempt the dim seas of the West in -quest of golden islands seen in dreams. - - - -The Type of Mexican Civilisation - -The first civilised American people with whom the discoverers came -into contact were those of the Nahua or ancient Mexican race. We -use the term "civilised" advisedly, for although several authorities -of standing have refused to regard the Mexicans as a people who had -achieved such a state of culture as would entitle them to be classed -among civilised communities, there is no doubt that they had advanced -nearly as far as it was possible for them to proceed when their -environment and the nature of the circumstances which handicapped them -are taken into consideration. In architecture they had evolved a type -of building, solid yet wonderfully graceful, which, if not so massive -as the Egyptian and Assyrian, was yet more highly decorative. Their -artistic outlook as expressed in their painting and pottery was more -versatile and less conventional than that of the ancient people of -the Orient, their social system was of a more advanced type, and a -less rigorous attitude was evinced by the ruling caste toward the -subject classes. Yet, on the other hand, the picture is darkened -by the terrible if picturesque rites which attended their religious -ceremonies, and the dread shadow of human sacrifice which eternally -overhung their teeming populations. Nevertheless, the standard of -morality was high, justice was even-handed, the forms of government -were comparatively mild, and but for the fanaticism which demanded -such troops of victims, we might justly compare the civilisation -of ancient Mexico with that of the peoples of old China or India, -if the literary activity of the Oriental states be discounted. - - - -The Mexican Race - -The race which was responsible for this varied and highly coloured -civilisation was that known as the Nahua (Those who live by Rule), -a title adopted by them to distinguish them from those tribes who -still roamed in an unsettled condition over the contiguous plains of -New Mexico and the more northerly tracts. This term was employed by -them to designate the race as a whole, but it was composed of many -diverse elements, the characteristics of which were rendered still -more various by the adoption into one or other of the tribes which -composed it of surrounding aboriginal peoples. Much controversy has -raged round the question regarding the original home of the Nahua, -but their migration legends consistently point to a northern origin; -and when the close affinity between the art-forms and mythology of -the present-day natives of British Columbia and those of the Nahua -comes to be considered along with the very persistent legends of a -prolonged pilgrimage from the North, where they dwelt in a place "by -the water," the conclusion that the Nahua emanated from the region -indicated is well-nigh irresistible. [3] - -In Nahua tradition the name of the locality whence the race commenced -its wanderings is called Aztlan (The Place of Reeds), but this -place-name is of little or no value as a guide to any given region, -though probably every spot betwixt Behring Strait and Mexico has been -identified with it by zealous antiquarians. Other names discovered in -the migration legends are Tlapallan (The Country of Bright Colours) -and Chicomoztoc (The Seven Caves), and these may perhaps be identified -with New Mexico or Arizona. - - - -Legends of Mexican Migration - -All early writers on the history of Mexico agree that the Toltecs were -the first of the several swarms of Nahua who streamed upon the Mexican -plateau in ever-widening waves. Concerning the reality of this people -so little is known that many authorities of standing have regarded them -as wholly mythical, while others profess to see in them a veritable -race, the founders of Mexican civilisation. The author has already -elaborated his theory of this difficult question elsewhere, [4] but -will briefly refer to it when he comes to deal with the subject of the -Toltec civilisation and the legends concerning it. For the present we -must regard the Toltecs merely as a race alluded to in a migration myth -as the first Nahua immigrants to the region of Mexico. Ixtlilxochitl, -a native chronicler who flourished shortly after the Spanish conquest -of Mexico, gives two separate accounts of the early Toltec migrations, -the first of which goes back to the period of their arrival in the -fabled land of Tlapallan, alluded to above. In this account Tlapallan -is described as a region near the sea, which the Toltecs reached by -voyaging southward, skirting the coasts of California. This account -must be received with the greatest caution. But we know that the -natives of British Columbia have been expert in the use of the -canoe from an early period, and that the Mexican god Quetzalcoatl, -who is probably originally derived from a common source with their -deity Yetl, is represented as being skilled in the management of the -craft. It is, therefore, not outside the bounds of possibility that -the early swarms of Nahua immigrants made their way to Mexico by sea, -but it is much more probable that their migrations took place by land, -following the level country at the base of the Rocky Mountains. - - - -The Toltec Upheaval - -Like nearly all legendary immigrants, the Toltecs did not set out to -colonise distant countries from any impulse of their own, but were the -victims of internecine dissension in the homeland, and were expelled -from the community to seek their fortunes elsewhere. Thus thrust forth, -they set their faces southward, and reached Tlapallan in the year 1 -Tecpatl (A.D. 387). Passing the country of Xalisco, they effected a -landing at Huatulco, and journeyed down the coast until they reached -Tochtepec, whence they pushed inland to Tollantzinco. To enable them to -make this journey they required no less than 104 years. Ixtlilxochitl -furnishes another account of the Toltec migration in his Relaciones, -a work dealing with the early history of the Mexican races. In this -he recounts how the chiefs of Tlapallan, who had revolted against the -royal power, were banished from that region in A.D. 439. Lingering -near their ancient territory for the space of eight years, they then -journeyed to Tlapallantzinco, where they halted for three years before -setting out on a prolonged pilgrimage, which occupied the tribe for -over a century, and in the course of which it halted at no less than -thirteen different resting-places, six of which can be traced to -stations on the Pacific coast, and the remainder to localities in -the north of Mexico. - - - -Artificial Nature of the Migration Myths - -It is plain from internal evidence that these two legends of the Toltec -migrations present an artificial aspect. But if we cannot credit them -in detail, that is not to say that they do not describe in part an -actual pilgrimage. They are specimens of numerous migration myths -which are related concerning the various branches of the Mexican -races. Few features of interest are presented in them, and they -are chiefly remarkable for wearisome repetition and divergence in -essential details. - - - -Myths of the Toltecs - -But we enter a much more fascinating domain when we come to peruse -the myths regarding the Toltec kingdom and civilisation, for, before -entering upon the origin or veritable history of the Toltec race, it -will be better to consider the native legends concerning them. These -exhibit an almost Oriental exuberance of imagination and colouring, -and forcibly remind the reader of the gorgeous architectural and -scenic descriptions in the Arabian Nights. The principal sources of -these legends are the histories of Zumarraga and Ixtlilxochitl. The -latter is by no means a satisfactory authority, but he has succeeded -in investing the traditions of his native land with no inconsiderable -degree of charm. The Toltecs, he says, founded the magnificent city of -Tollan in the year 566 of the Incarnation. This city, the site of which -is now occupied by the modern town of Tula, was situated north-west of -the mountains which bound the Mexican valley. Thither were the Toltecs -guided by the powerful necromancer Hueymatzin (Great Hand), and under -his direction they decided to build a city upon the site of what had -been their place of bivouac. For six years they toiled at the building -of Tollan, and magnificent edifices, palaces, and temples arose, -the whole forming a capital of a splendour unparalleled in the New -World. The valley wherein it stood was known as the "Place of Fruits," -in allusion to its great fertility. The surrounding rivers teemed with -fish, and the hills which encircled this delectable site sheltered -large herds of game. But as yet the Toltecs were without a ruler, -and in the seventh year of their occupation of the city the assembled -chieftains took counsel together, and resolved to surrender their -power into the hands of a monarch whom the people might elect. The -choice fell upon Chalchiuh Tlatonac (Shining Precious Stone), who -reigned for fifty-two years. - - - -Legends of Toltec Artistry - -Happily settled in their new country, and ruled over by a king whom -they could regard with reverence, the Toltecs made rapid progress in -the various arts, and their city began to be celebrated far and wide -for the excellence of its craftsmen and the beauty of its architecture -and pottery. The name of "Toltec," in fact, came to be regarded by -the surrounding peoples as synonymous with "artist," and as a kind of -hall-mark which guaranteed the superiority of any article of Toltec -workmanship. Everything in and about the city was eloquent of the -taste and artistry of its founders. The very walls were encrusted -with rare stones, and their masonry was so beautifully chiselled -and laid as to resemble the choicest mosaic. One of the edifices -of which the inhabitants of Tollan were most justly proud was the -temple wherein their high-priest officiated. This building was a -very gem of architectural art and mural decoration. It contained four -apartments. The walls of the first were inlaid with gold, the second -with precious stones of every description, the third with beautiful -sea-shells of all conceivable hues and of the most brilliant and -tender shades encrusted in bricks of silver, which sparkled in the -sun in such a manner as to dazzle the eyes of beholders. The fourth -apartment was formed of a brilliant red stone, ornamented with shells. - - - -The House of Feathers - -Still more fantastic and weirdly beautiful was another edifice, -"The House of Feathers." This also possessed four apartments, one -decorated with feathers of a brilliant yellow, another with the -radiant and sparkling hues of the Blue Bird. These were woven into a -kind of tapestry, and placed against the walls in graceful hangings -and festoons. An apartment described as of entrancing beauty was that -in which the decorative scheme consisted of plumage of the purest and -most dazzling white. The remaining chamber was hung with feathers of -a brilliant red, plucked from the most beautiful birds. - - - -Huemac the Wicked - -A succession of more or less able kings succeeded the founder of -the Toltec monarchy, until in A.D. 994 Huemac II ascended the throne -of Tollan. He ruled first with wisdom, and paid great attention to -the duties of the state and religion. But later he fell from the -high place he had made for himself in the regard of the people by -his faithless deception of them and his intemperate and licentious -habits. The provinces rose in revolt, and many signs and gloomy -omens foretold the downfall of the city. Toveyo, a cunning sorcerer, -collected a great concourse of people near Tollan, and by dint of -beating upon a magic drum until the darkest hours of the night, -forced them to dance to its sound until, exhausted by their efforts, -they fell headlong over a dizzy precipice into a deep ravine, where -they were turned into stone. Toveyo also maliciously destroyed a -stone bridge, so that thousands of people fell into the river beneath -and were drowned. The neighbouring volcanoes burst into eruption, -presenting a frightful aspect, and grisly apparitions could be seen -among the flames threatening the city with terrible gestures of menace. - -The rulers of Tollan resolved to lose no time in placating the gods, -whom they decided from the portents must have conceived the most -violent wrath against their capital. They therefore ordained a great -sacrifice of war-captives. But upon the first of the victims being -placed upon the altar a still more terrible catastrophe occurred. In -the method of sacrifice common to the Nahua race the breast of a -youth was opened for the purpose of extracting the heart, but no such -organ could the officiating priest perceive. Moreover the veins of -the victim were bloodless. Such a deadly odour was exhaled from the -corpse that a terrible pestilence arose, which caused the death of -thousands of Toltecs. Huemac, the unrighteous monarch who had brought -all this suffering upon his folk, was confronted in the forest by the -Tlalocs, or gods of moisture, and humbly petitioned these deities to -spare him, and not to take from him his wealth and rank. But the gods -were disgusted at the callous selfishness displayed in his desires, -and departed, threatening the Toltec race with six years of plagues. - - - -The Plagues of the Toltecs - -In the next winter such a severe frost visited the land that all crops -and plants were killed. A summer of torrid heat followed, so intense in -its suffocating fierceness that the streams were dried up and the very -rocks were melted. Then heavy rain-storms descended, which flooded the -streets and ways, and terrible tempests swept through the land. Vast -numbers of loathsome toads invaded the valley, consuming the refuse -left by the destructive frost and heat, and entering the very houses -of the people. In the following year a terrible drought caused the -death of thousands from starvation, and the ensuing winter was again -a marvel of severity. Locusts descended in cloud-like swarms, and -hail- and thunder-storms completed the wreck. During these visitations -nine-tenths of the people perished, and all artistic endeavour ceased -because of the awful struggle for food. - - - -King Acxitl - -With the cessation of these inflictions the wicked Huemac resolved -upon a more upright course of life, and became most assiduous for the -welfare and proper government of his people. But he had announced -that Acxitl, his illegitimate son, should succeed him, and had -further resolved to abdicate at once in favour of this youth. With -the Toltecs, as with most primitive peoples, the early kings were -regarded as divine, and the attempt to place on the throne one -who was not of the royal blood was looked upon as a serious offence -against the gods. A revolt ensued, but its two principal leaders were -bought over by promises of preferment. Acxitl ascended the throne, -and for a time ruled wisely. But he soon, like his father, gave way -to a life of dissipation, and succeeded in setting a bad example to -the members of his court and to the priesthood, the vicious spirit -communicating itself to all classes of his subjects and permeating -every rank of society. The iniquities of the people of the capital -and the enormities practised by the royal favourites caused such -scandal in the outlying provinces that at length they broke into -open revolt, and Huehuetzin, chief of an eastern viceroyalty, joined -to himself two other malcontent lords and marched upon the city of -Tollan at the head of a strong force. Acxitl could not muster an army -sufficiently powerful to repel the rebels, and was forced to resort -to the expedient of buying them off with rich presents, thus patching -up a truce. But the fate of Tollan was in the balance. Hordes of rude -Chichimec savages, profiting by the civil broils in the Toltec state, -invaded the lake region of Anahuac, or Mexico, and settled upon its -fruitful soil. The end was in sight! - - - -A Terrible Visitation - -The wrath of the gods increased instead of diminishing, and in order -to appease them a great convention of the wise men of the realm met -at Teotihuacan, the sacred city of the Toltecs. But during their -deliberations a giant of immense proportions rushed into their midst, -and, seizing upon them by scores with his bony hands, hurled them -to the ground, dashing their brains out. In this manner he slew -great numbers, and when the panic-stricken folk imagined themselves -delivered from him he returned in a different guise and slew many -more. Again the grisly monster appeared, this time taking the form -of a beautiful child. The people, fascinated by its loveliness, -ran to observe it more closely, only to discover that its head was -a mass of corruption, the stench from which was so fatal that many -were killed outright. The fiend who had thus plagued the Toltecs at -length deigned to inform them that the gods would listen no longer to -their prayers, but had fully resolved to destroy them root and branch, -and he further counselled them to seek safety in flight. - - - -Fall of the Toltec State - -By this time the principal families of Tollan had deserted the country, -taking refuge in neighbouring states. Once more Huehuetzin menaced -Tollan, and by dint of almost superhuman efforts old King Huemac, -who had left his retirement, raised a force sufficient to face the -enemy. Acxitl's mother enlisted the services of the women of the -city, and formed them into a regiment of Amazons. At the head of -all was Acxitl, who divided his forces, despatching one portion to -the front under his commander-in-chief, and forming the other into a -reserve under his own leadership. During three years the king defended -Tollan against the combined forces of the rebels and the semi-savage -Chichimecs. At length the Toltecs, almost decimated, fled after a final -desperate battle into the marshes of Lake Tezcuco and the fastnesses -of the mountains. Their other cities were given over to destruction, -and the Toltec empire was at an end. - - - -The Chichimec Exodus - -Meanwhile the rude Chichimecs of the north, who had for many years -carried on a constant warfare with the Toltecs, were surprised that -their enemies sought their borders no more, a practice which they -had engaged in principally for the purpose of obtaining captives -for sacrifice. In order to discover the reason for this suspicious -quiet they sent out spies into Toltec territory, who returned with -the amazing news that the Toltec domain for a distance of six hundred -miles from the Chichimec frontier was a desert, the towns ruined and -empty and their inhabitants scattered. Xolotl, the Chichimec king, -summoned his chieftains to his capital, and, acquainting them with -what the spies had said, proposed an expedition for the purpose of -annexing the abandoned land. No less than 3,202,000 people composed -this migration, and only 1,600,000 remained in the Chichimec territory. - -The Chichimecs occupied most of the ruined cities, many of which -they rebuilt. Those Toltecs who remained became peaceful subjects, -and through their knowledge of commerce and handicrafts amassed -considerable wealth. A tribute was, however, demanded from them, -which was peremptorily refused by Nauhyotl, the Toltec ruler of -Colhuacan; but he was defeated and slain, and the Chichimec rule was -at last supreme. - - - -The Disappearance of the Toltecs - -The transmitters of this legendary account give it as their belief, -which is shared by some authorities of standing, that the Toltecs, -fleeing from the civil broils of their city and the inroads of -the Chichimecs, passed into Central America, where they became the -founders of the civilisation of that country, and the architects of -the many wonderful cities the ruins of which now litter its plains -and are encountered in its forests. But it is time that we examined -the claims put forward on behalf of Toltec civilisation and culture -by the aid of more scientific methods. - - - -Did the Toltecs Exist? - -Some authorities have questioned the existence of the Toltecs, and -have professed to see in them a race which had merely a mythical -significance. They base this theory upon the circumstance that -the duration of the reigns of the several Toltec monarchs is very -frequently stated to have lasted for exactly fifty-two years, the -duration of the great Mexican cycle of years which had been adopted -so that the ritual calendar might coincide with the solar year. The -circumstance is certainly suspicious, as is the fact that many of the -names of the Toltec monarchs are also those of the principal Nahua -deities, and this renders the whole dynastic list of very doubtful -value. Dr. Brinton recognised in the Toltecs those children of the sun -who, like their brethren in Peruvian mythology, were sent from heaven -to civilise the human race, and his theory is by no means weakened by -the circumstance that Quetzalcoatl, a deity of solar significance, is -alluded to in Nahua myth as King of the Toltecs. Recent considerations -and discoveries, however, have virtually forced students of the subject -to admit the existence of the Toltecs as a race. The author has dealt -with the question at some length elsewhere, [5] and is not of those -who are free to admit the definite existence of the Toltecs from a -historical point of view. The late Mr. Payne of Oxford, an authority -entitled to every respect, gave it as his opinion that "the accounts of -Toltec history current at the conquest contain a nucleus of substantial -truth," and he writes convincingly: "To doubt that there once existed -in Tollan an advancement superior to that which prevailed among the -Nahuatlaca generally at the conquest, and that its people spread -their advancement throughout Anahuac, and into the districts eastward -and southward, would be to reject a belief universally entertained, -and confirmed rather than shaken by the efforts made in later times -to construct for the Pueblo something in the nature of a history." [6] - - - -A Persistent Tradition - -The theory of the present author concerning Toltec historical existence -is rather more non-committal. He admits that a most persistent body -of tradition as to their existence gained general credence among the -Nahua, and that the date (1055) of their alleged dispersal admits of -the approximate exactness and probability of this body of tradition -at the time of the conquest. He also admits that the site of Tollan -contains ruins which are undoubtedly of a date earlier than that -of the architecture of the Nahua as known at the conquest, and that -numerous evidences of an older civilisation exist. He also believes -that the early Nahua having within their racial recollection existed -as savages, the time which elapsed between their barbarian condition -and the more advanced state which they achieved was too brief to admit -of evolution from savagery to culture. Hence they must have adopted an -older civilisation, especially as through the veneer of civilisation -possessed by them they exhibited every sign of gross barbarism. - - - -A Nameless People - -If this be true it would go to show that a people of comparatively -high culture existed at a not very remote period on the Mexican -tableland. But what their name was or their racial affinity the writer -does not profess to know. Many modern American scholars of note have -conferred upon them the name of "Toltecs," and speak freely of the -"Toltec period" and of "Toltec art." It may appear pedantic to refuse -to recognise that the cultured people who dwelt in Mexico in pre-Nahua -times were "the Toltecs." But in the face of the absence of genuine -and authoritative native written records dealing with the question, -the author finds himself compelled to remain unconvinced as to the -exact designation of the mysterious older race which preceded the -Nahua. There are not wanting authorities who appear to regard the -pictorial chronicles of the Nahua as quite as worthy of credence -as written records, but it must be clear that tradition or even -history set down in pictorial form can never possess that degree of -definiteness contained in a written account. - - - -Toltec Art - -As has been stated above, the Toltecs of tradition were chiefly -remarkable for their intense love of art and their productions in its -various branches. Ixtlilxochitl says that they worked in gold, silver, -copper, tin, and lead, and as masons employed flint, porphyry, basalt, -and obsidian. In the manufacture of jewellery and objets d'art they -excelled, and the pottery of Cholula, of which specimens are frequently -recovered, was of a high standard. - - - -Other Aboriginal Peoples - -Mexico contained other aboriginal races besides the Toltecs. Of -these many and diverse peoples the most remarkable were the Otomi, -who still occupy Guanajuato and Queretaro, and who, before the coming -of the Nahua, probably spread over the entire valley of Mexico. In -the south we find the Huasteca, a people speaking the same language as -the Maya of Central America, and on the Mexican Gulf the Totonacs and -Chontals. On the Pacific side of the country the Mixteca and Zapoteca -were responsible for a flourishing civilisation which exhibited -many original characteristics, and which in some degree was a link -between the cultures of Mexico and Central America. Traces of a still -older population than any of these are still to be found in the more -remote parts of Mexico, and the Mixe, Zaque, Kuicatec, and Popolcan -are probably the remnants of prehistoric races of vast antiquity. - - - -The Cliff-dwellers - -It is probable that a race known as "the Cliff-dwellers," occupying -the plateau country of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah, -and even extending in its ramifications to Mexico itself, was related -ethnologically to the Nahua. The present-day Pueblo Indians dwelling to -the north of Mexico most probably possess a leaven of Nahua blood. Ere -the tribes who communicated this leaven to the whole had intermingled -with others of various origin, it would appear that they occupied with -others those tracts of country now inhabited by the Pueblo Indians, -and in the natural recesses and shallow caverns found in the faces -of the cliffs erected dwellings and fortifications, displaying an -architectural ability of no mean order. These communities extended -as far south as the Gila river, the most southern affluent of the -Colorado, and the remains they have left there appear to be of a later -date architecturally than those situated farther north. These were -found in ruins by the first Spanish explorers, and it is thought that -their builders were eventually driven back to rejoin their kindred in -the north. Farther to the south in the cañons of the Piedras Verdes -river in Chihuahua, Mexico, are cliff-dwellings corresponding in many -respects with those of the Pueblo region, and Dr. Hrdlicka has examined -others so far south as the State of Jalisco, in Central Mexico. These -may be the ruins of dwellings erected either by the early Nahua or by -some of the peoples relatively aboriginal to them, and may display the -architectural features general among the Nahua prior to their adoption -of other alien forms. Or else they may be the remains of dwellings -similar to those of the Tarahumare, a still existing tribe of Mexico, -who, according to Lumholtz, [7] inhabit similar structures at the -present day. It is clear from the architectural development of the -cliff-dwellers that their civilisation developed generally from south -to north, that this race was cognate to the early Nahua, and that it -later withdrew to the north, or became fused with the general body -of the Nahua peoples. It must not be understood, however, that the -race arrived in the Mexican plateau before the Nahua, and the ruins -of Jalisco and other mid-Mexican districts may merely be the remains -of comparatively modern cliff-dwellings, an adaptation by mid-Mexican -communities of the "Cliff-dweller" architecture, or a local development -of it owing to the exigencies of early life in the district. - - - -The Nahua Race - -The Nahua peoples included all those tribes speaking the Nahuatlatolli -(Nahua tongue), and occupied a sphere extending from the southern -borders of New Mexico to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on the south, -or very much within the limits of the modern Republic of Mexico. But -this people must not be regarded as one race of homogeneous origin. A -very brief account of their racial affinities must be sufficient -here. The Chichimecs were probably related to the Otomi, whom we have -alluded to as among the first-comers to the Mexican valley. They were -traditionally supposed to have entered it at a period subsequent to -the Toltec occupation. Their chief towns were Tezcuco and Tenayucan, -but they later allied themselves with the Nahua in a great confederacy, -and adopted the Nahua language. There are circumstances which justify -the assumption that on their entrance to the Mexican valley they -consisted of a number of tribes loosely united, presenting in their -general organisation a close resemblance to some of the composite -tribes of modern American Indians. - - - -The Aculhuaque - -Next to them in point of order of tribal arrival were the Aculhuaque, -or Acolhuans. The name means "tall" or "strong" men, literally -"People of the Broad Shoulder," or "Pushers," who made a way for -themselves. Gomara states in his Conquista de Mexico that they -arrived in the valley from Acolhuacan about A.D. 780, and founded -the towns of Tollan, Colhuacan, and Mexico itself. The Acolhuans -were pure Nahua, and may well have been the much-disputed Toltecs, -for the Nahua people always insisted on the fact that the Toltecs -were of the same stock as themselves, and spoke an older and purer -form of the Nahua tongue. From the Acolhuans sprang the Tlascalans, -the inveterate enemies of the Aztecs, who so heartily assisted Cortés -in his invasion of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, or Mexico. - - - -The Tecpanecs - -The Tecpanecs were a confederacy of purely Nahua tribes dwelling -in towns situated upon the Lake of Tezcuco, the principal of which -were Tlacopan and Azcapozalco. The name Tecpanec signifies that each -settlement possessed its own chief's house, or tecpan. This tribe were -almost certainly later Nahua immigrants who arrived in Mexico after the -Acolhuans, and were great rivals to the Chichimec branch of the race. - - - -The Aztecs - -The Aztecâ, or Aztecs, were a nomad tribe of doubtful origin, but -probably of Nahua blood. Wandering over the Mexican plateau for -generations, they at length settled in the marshlands near the Lake -of Tezcuco, hard by Tlacopan. The name Aztecâ means "Crane People," -and was bestowed upon the tribe by the Tecpanecs, probably because of -the fact that, like cranes, they dwelt in a marshy neighbourhood. They -founded the town of Tenochtitlan, or Mexico, and for a while paid -tribute to the Tecpanecs. But later they became the most powerful -allies of that people, whom they finally surpassed entirely in power -and splendour. - - - -The Aztec Character - -The features of the Aztecs as represented in the various Mexican -paintings are typically Indian, and argue a northern origin. The -race was, and is, of average height, and the skin is of a dark brown -hue. The Mexican is grave, taciturn, and melancholic, with a deeply -rooted love of the mysterious, slow to anger, yet almost inhuman in -the violence of his passions when aroused. He is usually gifted with a -logical mind, quickness of apprehension, and an ability to regard the -subtle side of things with great nicety. Patient and imitative, the -ancient Mexican excelled in those arts which demanded such qualities -in their execution. He had a real affection for the beautiful in -nature and a passion for flowers, but the Aztec music lacked gaiety, -and the national amusements were too often of a gloomy and ferocious -character. The women are more vivacious than the men, but were in -the days before the conquest very subservient to the wills of their -husbands. We have already very briefly outlined the trend of Nahua -civilisation, but it will be advisable to examine it a little more -closely, for if the myths of this people are to be understood some -knowledge of its life and general culture is essential. - - - -Legends of the Foundation of Mexico - -At the period of the conquest of Mexico by Cortés the city presented -an imposing appearance. Led to its neighbourhood by Huitzilopochtli, -a traditional chief, afterwards deified as the god of war, there -are several legends which account for the choice of its site by the -Mexicans. The most popular of these relates how the nomadic Nahua -beheld perched upon a cactus plant an eagle of great size and majesty, -grasping in its talons a huge serpent, and spreading its wings to -catch the rays of the rising sun. The soothsayers or medicine-men of -the tribe, reading a good omen in the spectacle, advised the leaders -of the people to settle on the spot, and, hearkening to the voice of -what they considered divine authority, they proceeded to drive piles -into the marshy ground, and thus laid the foundation of the great -city of Mexico. - -An elaboration of this legend tells how the Aztecs had about the year -1325 sought refuge upon the western shore of the Lake of Tezcuco, -in an island among the marshes on which they found a stone on which -forty years before one of their priests had sacrificed a prince of -the name of Copal, whom they had made prisoner. A nopal plant had -sprung from an earth-filled crevice in this rude altar, and upon -this the royal eagle alluded to in the former account had alighted, -grasping the serpent in his talons. Beholding in this a good omen, -and urged by a supernatural impulse which he could not explain, -a priest of high rank dived into a pool close at hand, where he -found himself face to face with Tlaloc, the god of waters. After an -interview with the deity the priest obtained permission from him to -found a city on the site, from the humble beginnings of which arose -the metropolis of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. - - - -Mexico at the Conquest - -At the period of the conquest the city of Mexico had a circumference -of no less than twelve miles, or nearly that of modern Berlin without -its suburbs. It contained 60,000 houses, and its inhabitants were -computed to number 300,000. Many other towns, most of them nearly half -as large, were grouped on the islands or on the margin of Lake Tezcuco, -so that the population of what might almost be called "Greater Mexico" -must have amounted to several millions. The city was intersected by -four great roadways or avenues built at right angles to one another, -and laid four-square with the cardinal points. Situated as it was in -the midst of a lake, it was traversed by numerous canals, which were -used as thoroughfares for traffic. The four principal ways described -above were extended across the lake as dykes or viaducts until they met -its shores. The dwellings of the poorer classes were chiefly composed -of adobes, but those of the nobility were built of a red porous stone -quarried close by. They were usually of one story only, but occupied a -goodly piece of ground and had flat roofs, many of which were covered -with flowers. In general they were coated with a hard, white cement, -which gave them an added resemblance to the Oriental type of building. - -Towering high among these, and a little apart from the vast squares and -market-places, were the teocallis, or temples. These were in reality -not temples or covered-in buildings, but "high places," great pyramids -of stone, built platform on platform, around which a staircase led to -the summit, on which was usually erected a small shrine containing -the tutelar deity to whom the teocalli had been raised. The great -temple of Huitzilopochtli, the war-god, built by King Ahuizotl, -was, besides being typical of all, by far the greatest of these -votive piles. The enclosing walls of the building were 4800 feet -in circumference, and strikingly decorated by carvings representing -festoons of intertwined reptiles, from which circumstance they were -called coetpantli (walls of serpents). A kind of gate-house on each -side gave access to the enclosure. The teocalli, or great temple, -inside the court was in the shape of a parallelogram, measuring 375 -feet by 300 feet, and was built in six platforms, growing smaller in -area as they descended. The mass of this structure was composed of -a mixture of rubble, clay, and earth, covered with carefully worked -stone slabs, cemented together with infinite care, and coated with -a hard gypsum. A flight of 340 steps circled round the terraces and -led to the upper platform, on which were raised two three-storied -towers 56 feet in height, in which stood the great statues of the -tutelar deities and the jasper stones of sacrifice. These sanctuaries, -say the old Conquistadores who entered them, had the appearance and -odour of shambles, and human blood was bespattered everywhere. In this -weird chapel of horrors burned a fire, the extinction of which it was -supposed would have brought about the end of the Nahua power. It was -tended with a care as scrupulous as that with which the Roman Vestals -guarded their sacred flame. No less than 600 of these sacred braziers -were kept alight in the city of Mexico alone. - - - -A Pyramid of Skulls - -The principal fane of Huitzilopochtli was surrounded by upwards of -forty inferior teocallis and shrines. In the Tzompantli (Pyramid of -Skulls) were collected the grisly relics of the countless victims to -the implacable war-god of the Aztecs, and in this horrid structure -the Spanish conquerors counted no less than 136,000 human skulls. In -the court or teopan which surrounded the temple were the dwellings -of thousands of priests, whose duties included the scrupulous care -of the temple precincts, and whose labours were minutely apportioned. - - - -Nahua Architecture and Ruins - -As we shall see later, Mexico is by no means so rich in architectural -antiquities as Guatemala or Yucatan, the reason being that the -growth of tropical forests has to a great extent protected ancient -stone edifices in the latter countries from destruction. The ruins -discovered in the northern regions of the republic are of a ruder type -than those which approach more nearly to the sphere of Maya influence, -as, for example, those of Mitla, built by the Zapotecs, which exhibit -such unmistakable signs of Maya influence that we prefer to describe -them when dealing with the antiquities of that people. - - - -Cyclopean Remains - -In the mountains of Chihuahua, one of the most northerly provinces, -is a celebrated group called the Casas Grandes (Large Houses), the -walls of which are still about 30 feet in height. These approximate in -general appearance to the buildings of more modern tribes in New Mexico -and Arizona, and may be referred to such peoples rather than to the -Nahua. At Quemada, in Zacatecas, massive ruins of Cyclopean appearance -have been discovered. These consist of extensive terraces and broad -stone causeways, teocallis which have weathered many centuries, and -gigantic pillars, 18 feet in height and 17 feet in circumference. Walls -12 feet in thickness rise above the heaps of rubbish which litter the -ground. These remains exhibit little connection with Nahua architecture -to the north or south of them. They are more massive than either, and -must have been constructed by some race which had made considerable -strides in the art of building. - - - -Teotihuacan - -In the district of the Totonacs, to the north of Vera Cruz, we find -many architectural remains of a highly interesting character. Here -the teocalli or pyramidal type of building is occasionally crowned -by a covered-in temple with the massive roof characteristic of Maya -architecture. The most striking examples found in this region are the -remains of Teotihuacan and Xochicalco. The former was the religious -Mecca of the Nahua races, and in its proximity are still to be seen the -teocallis of the sun and moon, surrounded by extensive burying-grounds -where the devout of Anahuac were laid in the sure hope that if interred -they would find entrance into the paradise of the sun. The teocalli of -the moon has a base covering 426 feet and a height of 137 feet. That -of the sun is of greater dimensions, with a base of 735 feet and a -height of 203 feet. These pyramids were divided into four stories, -three of which remain. On the summit of that of the sun stood a -temple containing a great image of that luminary carved from a rough -block of stone. In the breast was inlaid a star of the purest gold, -seized afterwards as loot by the insatiable followers of Cortés. From -the teocalli of the moon a path runs to where a little rivulet flanks -the "Citadel." This path is known as "The Path of the Dead," from the -circumstance that it is surrounded by some nine square miles of tombs -and tumuli, and, indeed, forms a road through the great cemetery. The -Citadel, thinks Charnay, was a vast tennis or tlachtli court, where -thousands flocked to gaze at the national sport of the Nahua with a -zest equal to that of the modern devotees of football. Teotihuacan was -a flourishing centre contemporary with Tollan. It was destroyed, but -was rebuilt by the Chichimec king Xolotl, and preserved thenceforth its -traditional sway as the focus of the Nahua national religion. Charnay -identifies the architectural types discovered there with those -of Tollan. The result of his labours in the vicinity included the -unearthing of richly decorated pottery, vases, masks, and terra-cotta -figures. He also excavated several large houses or palaces, some with -chambers more than 730 feet in circumference, with walls over 7-1/2 -feet thick, into which were built rings and slabs to support torches -and candles. The floors were tessellated in various rich designs, -"like an Aubusson carpet." Charnay concluded that the monuments of -Teotihuacan were partly standing at the time of the conquest. - - - -The Hill of Flowers - -Near Tezcuco is Xochicalco (The Hill of Flowers), a teocalli the -sculpture of which is both beautiful and luxuriant in design. The -porphyry quarries from which the great blocks, 12 feet in length, -were cut lie many miles away. As late as 1755 the structure towered -to a height of five stories, but the vandal has done his work only -too well, and a few fragmentary carvings of exquisite design are all -that to-day remain of one of Mexico's most magnificent pyramids. - - - -Tollan - -We have already indicated that on the site of the "Toltec" city of -Tollan ruins have been discovered which prove that it was the centre of -a civilisation of a type distinctly advanced. Charnay unearthed there -gigantic fragments of caryatides, each some 7 feet high. He also found -columns of two pieces, which were fitted together by means of mortise -and tenon, bas-reliefs of archaic figures of undoubted Nahua type, and -many fragments of great antiquity. On the hill of Palpan, above Tollan, -he found the ground-plans of several houses with numerous apartments, -frescoed, columned, and having benches and cisterns recalling the -impluvium of a Roman villa. Water-pipes were also actually unearthed, -and a wealth of pottery, many pieces of which were like old Japanese -china. The ground-plan or foundations of the houses unearthed at -Palpan showed that they had been designed by practical architects, -and had not been built in any merely haphazard fashion. The cement -which covered the walls and floors was of excellent quality, and -recalled that discovered in ancient Italian excavations. The roofs -had been of wood, supported by pillars. - - - -Picture-Writing - -The Aztecs, and indeed the entire Nahua race, employed a system of -writing of the type scientifically described as "pictographic," in -which events, persons, and ideas were recorded by means of drawings -and coloured sketches. These were executed on paper made from the agave -plant, or were painted on the skins of animals. By these means not only -history and the principles of the Nahua mythology were communicated -from generation to generation, but the transactions of daily life, the -accountings of merchants, and the purchase and ownership of land were -placed on record. That a phonetic system was rapidly being approached -is manifest from the method by which the Nahua scribes depicted the -names of individuals or cities. These were represented by means of -several objects, the names of which resembled that of the person for -which they stood. The name of King Ixcoatl, for example, is represented -by the drawing of a serpent (coatl) pierced by flint knives (iztli), -and that of Motequauhzoma (Montezuma) by a mouse-trap (montli), an -eagle (quauhtli), a lancet (zo), and a hand (maitl). The phonetic -values employed by the scribes varied exceedingly, so that at times -an entire syllable would be expressed by the painting of an object -the name of which commenced with it. At other times only a letter -would be represented by the same drawing. But the general intention of -the scribes was undoubtedly more ideographic than phonetic; that is, -they desired to convey their thoughts more by sketch than by sound. - - - -Interpretation of the Hieroglyphs - -These pinturas, as the Spanish conquerors designated them, offer no -very great difficulty in their elucidation to modern experts, at least -so far as the general trend of their contents is concerned. In this -they are unlike the manuscripts of the Maya of Central America with -which we shall make acquaintance further on. Their interpretation -was largely traditional, and was learned by rote, being passed on -by one generation of amamatini (readers) to another, and was by no -means capable of elucidation by all and sundry. - - - -Native Manuscripts - -The pinturas or native manuscripts which remain to us are but few -in number. Priestly fanaticism, which ordained their wholesale -destruction, and the still more potent passage of time have so -reduced them that each separate example is known to bibliophiles and -Americanists the world over. In such as still exist we can observe -great fullness of detail, representing for the most part festivals, -sacrifices, tributes, and natural phenomena, such as eclipses and -floods, and the death and accession of monarchs. These events, and the -supernatural beings who were supposed to control them, were depicted -in brilliant colours, executed by means of a brush of feathers. - - - -The Interpretative Codices - -Luckily for future students of Mexican history, the blind zeal which -destroyed the majority of the Mexican manuscripts was frustrated by the -enlightenment of certain European scholars, who regarded the wholesale -destruction of the native records as little short of a calamity, -and who took steps to seek out the few remaining native artists, -from whom they procured copies of the more important paintings, the -details of which were, of course, quite familiar to them. To those were -added interpretations taken down from the lips of the native scribes -themselves, so that no doubt might remain regarding the contents of -the manuscripts. These are known as the "Interpretative Codices," -and are of considerable assistance to the student of Mexican history -and customs. Three only are in existence. The Oxford Codex, treasured -in the Bodleian Library, is of a historical nature, and contains a -full list of the lesser cities which were subservient to Mexico in -its palmy days. The Paris or Tellerio-Remensis Codex, so called from -having once been the property of Le Tellier, Archbishop of Rheims, -embodies many facts concerning the early settlement of the various -Nahua city-states. The Vatican MSS. deal chiefly with mythology -and the intricacies of the Mexican calendar system. Such Mexican -paintings as were unassisted by an interpretation are naturally of -less value to present-day students of the lore of the Nahua. They -are principally concerned with calendric matter, ritualistic data, -and astrological computations or horoscopes. - - - -The Mexican "Book of the Dead" - -Perhaps the most remarkable and interesting manuscript in the Vatican -collection is one the last pages of which represent the journey of the -soul after death through the gloomy dangers of the Other-world. This -has been called the Mexican "Book of the Dead." The corpse is depicted -dressed for burial, the soul escaping from its earthly tenement by way -of the mouth. The spirit is ushered into the presence of Tezcatlipoca, -the Jupiter of the Aztec pantheon, by an attendant dressed in an ocelot -skin, and stands naked with a wooden yoke round the neck before the -deity, to receive sentence. The dead person is given over to the tests -which precede entrance to the abode of the dead, the realm of Mictlan, -and so that he may not have to meet the perils of the journey in a -defenceless condition a sheaf of javelins is bestowed upon him. He -first passes between two lofty peaks, which may fall and crush him if -he cannot skilfully escape them. A terrible serpent then intercepts -his path, and, if he succeeds in defeating this monster, the fierce -alligator Xochitonal awaits him. Eight deserts and a corresponding -number of mountains have then to be negotiated by the hapless spirit, -and a whirlwind sharp as a sword, which cuts even through solid -rocks, must be withstood. Accompanied by the shade of his favourite -dog, the harassed ghost at length encounters the fierce Izpuzteque, -a demon with the backward-bent legs of a cock, the evil Nextepehua, -the fiend who scatters clouds of ashes, and many another grisly foe, -until at last he wins to the gates of the Lord of Hell, before whom -he does reverence, after which he is free to greet his friends who -have gone before. - - - -The Calendar System - -As has been said, the calendar system was the source of all Mexican -science, and regulated the recurrence of all religious rites and -festivals. In fact, the entire mechanism of Nahua life was resident in -its provisions. The type of time-division and computation exemplified -in the Nahua calendar was also found among the Maya peoples of Yucatan -and Guatemala and the Zapotec people of the boundary between the -Nahua and Maya races. By which of these races it was first employed -is unknown. But the Zapotec calendar exhibits signs of both Nahua and -Maya influence, and from this it has been inferred that the calendar -systems of these races have been evolved from it. It might with equal -probability be argued that both Nahua and Maya art were offshoots -of Zapotec art, because the characteristics of both are discovered -in it, whereas the circumstance merely illustrates the very natural -acceptance by a border people, who settled down to civilisation at -a relatively later date, of the artistic tenets of the two greater -peoples who environed them. The Nahua and Maya calendars were in all -likelihood evolved from the calendar system of that civilised race -which undoubtedly existed on the Mexican plateau prior to the coming -of the later Nahua swarms, and which in general is loosely alluded -to as the "Toltec." - - - -The Mexican Year - -The Mexican year was a cycle of 365 days, without any intercalary -addition or other correction. In course of time it almost lost its -seasonal significance because of the omission of the extra hours -included in the solar year, and furthermore many of its festivals -and occasions were altered by high-priests and rulers to suit their -convenience. The Mexican nexiuhilpililztli (binding of years) -contained fifty-two years, and ran in two separate cycles--one -of fifty-two years of 365 days each, and another of seventy-three -groups of 260 days each. The first was of course the solar year, -and embraced eighteen periods of twenty days each, called "months" -by the old Spanish chroniclers, with five nemontemi (unlucky days) -over and above. These days were not intercalated, but were included -in the year, and merely overflowed the division of the year into -periods of twenty days. The cycle of seventy-three groups of 260 days, -subdivided into groups of thirteen days, was called the "birth-cycle." - - - -Lunar Reckoning - -People in a barbarous condition almost invariably reckon time by the -period between the waxing and waning of the moon as distinct from the -entire passage of a lunar revolution, and this period of twenty days -will be found to be the basis in the time-reckoning of the Mexicans, -who designated it cempohualli. Each day included in it was denoted by -a sign, as "house," "snake," "wind," and so forth. Each cempohualli -was subdivided into four periods of five days each, sometimes alluded -to as "weeks" by the early Spanish writers, and these were known by -the sign of their middle or third day. These day-names ran on without -reference to the length of the year. The year itself was designated -by the name of the middle day of the week in which it began. Out -of twenty day-names in the Mexican "month" it was inevitable that -the four calli (house), tochtli (rabbit), acatl (reed), and tecpatl -(flint) should always recur in sequence because of the incidence -of these days in the Mexican solar year. Four years made up a year -of the sun. During the nemontemi (unlucky days) no work was done, -as they were regarded as ominous and unwholesome. - -We have seen that the civil year permitted the day-names to run on -continuously from one year to another. The ecclesiastical authorities, -however, had a reckoning of their own, and made the year begin always -on the first day of their calendar, no matter what sign denominated -that day in the civil system. - - - -Groups of Years - -As has been indicated, the years were formed into groups. Thirteen -years constituted a xiumalpilli (bundle), and four of these a -nexiuhilpilitztli (complete binding of the years). Each year had thus -a double aspect, first as an individual period of time, and secondly -as a portion of the "year of the sun," and these were so numbered -and named that each year in the series of fifty-two possessed a -different description. - - - -The Dread of the Last Day - -With the conclusion of each period of fifty-two years a terrible dread -came upon the Mexicans that the world would come to an end. A stated -period of time had expired, a period which was regarded as fixed by -divine command, and it had been ordained that on the completion of -one of those series of fifty-two years earthly time would cease and -the universe be demolished. For some time before the ceremony of -toxilmolpilia (the binding up of the years) the Mexicans abandoned -themselves to the utmost prostration, and the wicked went about -in terrible fear. As the first day of the fifty-third year dawned -the people narrowly observed the Pleiades, for if they passed the -zenith time would proceed and the world would be respited. The gods -were placated or refreshed by the slaughter of the human victim, -on whose still living breast a fire of wood was kindled by friction, -the heart and body being consumed by the flames so lighted. As the -planets of hope crossed the zenith loud acclamations resounded from -the people, and the domestic hearths, which had been left cold and -dead, were rekindled from the sacred fire which had consumed the -sacrifice. Mankind was safe for another period. - - - -The Birth-Cycle - -The birth-cycle, as we have said, consisted of 260 days. It had -originally been a lunar cycle of thirteen days, and once bore the names -of thirteen moons. It formed part of the civil calendar, with which, -however, it had nothing in common, as it was used for ecclesiastical -purposes only. The lunar names were abandoned later, and the numbers -one to thirteen adopted in their places. - - - -Language of the Nahua - -The Nahua language represented a very low state of culture. Speech is -the general measure of the standard of thought of a people, and if we -judged the civilisation of the Nahua by theirs, we should be justified -in concluding that they had not yet emerged from barbarism. But we -must recollect that the Nahua of the conquest period had speedily -adopted the older civilisation which they had found awaiting them -on their entrance to Mexico, and had retained their own primitive -tongue. The older and more cultured people who had preceded them -probably spoke a more polished dialect of the same language, but its -influence had evidently but little effect upon the rude Chichimecs -and Aztecs. The Mexican tongue, like most American languages, belongs -to the "incorporative" type, the genius of which is to unite all -the related words in a sentence into one conglomerate term or word, -merging the separate words of which it is composed one into another by -altering their forms, and so welding them together as to express the -whole in one word. It will be at once apparent that such a system was -clumsy in the extreme, and led to the creation of words and names of -the most barbarous appearance and sound. In a narrative of the Spanish -discovery written by Chimalpahin, the native chronicler of Chalco, -born in 1579, we have, for example, such a passage as the following: -Oc chiucnauhxihuitl inic onen quilantimanca España camo niman ic yuh -ca omacoc ihuelitiliztli inic niman ye chiuhcnauhxiuhtica, in oncan -ohualla. This passage is chosen quite at random, and is an average -specimen of literary Mexican of the sixteenth century. Its purport is, -freely translated: "For nine years he [Columbus] remained in vain -in Spain. Yea, for nine years there he waited for influence." The -clumsy and cumbrous nature of the language could scarcely be better -illustrated than by pointing out that chiucnauhxihuitl signifies "nine -years"; quilantimanca, "he below remained"; and omacoc ihuelitiliztli, -"he has got his powerfulness." It must be recollected that this -specimen of Mexican was composed by a person who had had the benefit -of a Spanish education, and is cast in literary form. What the -spoken Mexican of pre-conquest times was like can be contemplated -with misgiving in the grammars of the old Spanish missionaries, -whose greatest glory is that they mastered such a language in the -interests of their faith. - - - -Aztec Science - -The science of the Aztecs was, perhaps, one of the most picturesque -sides of their civilisation. As with all peoples in a semi-barbarous -state, it consisted chiefly in astrology and divination. Of the -former the wonderful calendar system was the basis, and by its aid -the priests, or those of them who were set apart for the study of the -heavenly bodies, pretended to be able to tell the future of new-born -infants and the progress of the dead in the other world. This they -accomplished by weighing the influence of the planets and other -luminaries one against another, and extracting the net result. Their -art of divination consisted in drawing omens from the song and flight -of birds, the appearance of grains of seed, feathers, and the entrails -of animals, by which means they confidently predicted both public -and private events. - - - -Nahua Government - -The limits of the Aztec Empire may be defined, if its tributary -states are included, as extending over the territory comprised in -the modern states of Mexico, Southern Vera Cruz, and Guerrero. Among -the civilised peoples of this extensive tract the prevailing form of -government was an absolute monarchy, although several of the smaller -communities were republics. The law of succession, as with the Celts -of Scotland, prescribed that the eldest surviving brother of the -deceased monarch should be elected to his throne, and, failing him, -the eldest nephew. But incompetent persons were almost invariably -ignored by the elective body, although the choice was limited to one -family. The ruler was generally selected both because of his military -prowess and his ecclesiastical and political knowledge. Indeed, a -Mexican monarch was nearly always a man of the highest culture and -artistic refinement, and the ill-fated Montezuma was an example of the -true type of Nahua sovereign. The council of the monarch was composed -of the electors and other personages of importance in the realm. It -undertook the government of the provinces, the financial affairs of -the country, and other matters of national import. The nobility held -all the highest military, judicial, and ecclesiastical offices. To -each city and province judges were delegated who exercised criminal -and civil jurisdiction, and whose opinion superseded even that of -the Crown itself. Petty cases were settled by lesser officials, and -a still inferior grade of officers acted as a species of police in -the supervision of families. - - - -Domestic Life - -The domestic life of the Nahua was a peculiar admixture of simplicity -and display. The mass of the people led a life of strenuous labour -in the fields, and in the cities they wrought hard at many trades, -among which may be specified building, metal-working, making -robes and other articles of bright featherwork and quilted suits -of armour, jewellery, and small wares. Vendors of flowers, fruit, -fish, and vegetables swarmed in the markets. The use of tobacco was -general among the men of all classes. At banquets the women attended, -although they were seated at separate tables. The entertainments of -the upper class were marked by much magnificence, and the variety -of dishes was considerable, including venison, turkey, many smaller -birds, fish, a profusion of vegetables, and pastry, accompanied -by sauces of delicate flavour. These were served in dishes of -gold and silver. Pulque, a fermented drink brewed from the agave, -was the universal beverage. Cannibalism was indulged in usually on -ceremonial occasions, and was surrounded by such refinements of the -table as served only to render it the more repulsive in the eyes of -Europeans. It has been stated that this revolting practice was engaged -in owing solely to the tenets of the Nahua religion, which enjoined -the slaughter of slaves or captives in the name of a deity, and their -consumption with the idea that the consumers attained unity with -that deity in the flesh. But there is good reason to suspect that the -Nahua, deprived of the flesh of the larger domestic animals, practised -deliberate cannibalism. It would appear that the older race which -preceded them in the country were innocent of these horrible repasts. - - - -A Mysterious Toltec Book - -A piece of Nahua literature, the disappearance of which is surrounded -by circumstances of the deepest mystery, is the Teo-Amoxtli (Divine -Book), which is alleged by certain chroniclers to have been the work -of the ancient Toltecs. Ixtlilxochitl, a native Mexican author, states -that it was written by a Tezcucan wise man, one Huematzin, about the -end of the seventh century, and that it described the pilgrimage of -the Nahua from Asia, their laws, manners, and customs, and their -religious tenets, science, and arts. In 1838 the Baron de Waldeck -stated in his Voyage Pittoresque that he had it in his possession, -and the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg identified it with the Maya Dresden -Codex and other native manuscripts. Bustamante also states that the -amamatini (chroniclers) of Tezcuco had a copy in their possession -at the time of the taking of their city. But these appear to be mere -surmises, and if the Teo-Amoxtli ever existed, which on the whole is -not unlikely, it has probably never been seen by a European. - - - -A Native Historian - -One of the most interesting of the Mexican historians is Don Fernando -de Alva Ixtlilxochitl, a half-breed of royal Tezcucan descent. He -was responsible for two notable works, entitled Historia Chichimeca -(The History of the Chichimecs) and the Relaciones, a compilation of -historical and semi-historical incidents. He was cursed, or blessed, -however, by a strong leaning toward the marvellous, and has coloured -his narratives so highly that he would have us regard the Toltec or -ancient Nahua civilisations as by far the most splendid and magnificent -that ever existed. His descriptions of Tezcuco, if picturesque in the -extreme, are manifestly the outpourings of a romantic and idealistic -mind, which in its patriotic enthusiasm desired to vindicate the -country of his birth from the stigma of savagery and to prove its -equality with the great nations of antiquity. For this we have not -the heart to quarrel with him. But we must be on our guard against -accepting any of his statements unless we find strong corroboration -of it in the pages of a more trustworthy and less biased author. - - - -Nahua Topography - -The geography of Mexico is by no means as familiar to Europeans as -is that of the various countries of our own continent, and it is -extremely easy for the reader who is unacquainted with Mexico and -the puzzling orthography of its place-names to flounder among them, -and during the perusal of such a volume as this to find himself in a -hopeless maze of surmise as to the exact locality of the more famous -centres of Mexican history. A few moments' study of this paragraph -will enlighten him in this respect, and will save him much confusion -further on. He will see from the map (p. 330) that the city of Mexico, -or Tenochtitlan, its native name, was situated upon an island in the -Lake of Tezcuco. This lake has now partially dried up, and the modern -city of Mexico is situated at a considerable distance from it. Tezcuco, -the city second in importance, lies to the north-east of the lake, and -is somewhat more isolated, the other pueblos (towns) clustering round -the southern or western shores. To the north of Tezcuco is Teotihuacan, -the sacred city of the gods. To the south-east of Mexico is Tlaxcallan, -or Tlascala, the city which assisted Cortés against the Mexicans, and -the inhabitants of which were the deadliest foes of the central Nahua -power. To the north lie the sacred city of Cholula and Tula, or Tollan. - - - -Distribution of the Nahua Tribes - -Having become acquainted with the relative position of the Nahua -cities, we may now consult for a moment the map which exhibits the -geographical distribution of the various Nahua tribes, and which is -self-explanatory (p. 331). - - - -Nahua History - -A brief historical sketch or epitome of what is known of Nahua history -as apart from mere tradition will further assist the reader in the -comprehension of Mexican mythology. From the period of the settlement -of the Nahua on an agricultural basis a system of feudal government had -evolved, and at various epochs in the history of the country certain -cities or groups of cities held a paramount sway. Subsequent to the -"Toltec" period, which we have already described and discussed, we -find the Acolhuans in supreme power, and ruling from their cities -of Tollantzinco and Cholula a considerable tract of country. Later -Cholula maintained an alliance with Tlascala and Huexotzinco. - - - -Bloodless Battles - -The maxim "Other climes, other manners" is nowhere better exemplified -than by the curious annual strife betwixt the warriors of Mexico and -Tlascala. Once a year they met on a prearranged battle-ground and -engaged in combat, not with the intention of killing one another, -but with the object of taking prisoners for sacrifice on the altars -of their respective war-gods. The warrior seized his opponent and -attempted to bear him off, the various groups pulling and tugging -desperately at each other in the endeavour to seize the limbs of -the unfortunate who had been first struck down, with the object of -dragging him into durance or effecting his rescue. Once secured, the -Tlascaltec warrior was brought to Mexico in a cage, and first placed -upon a stone slab, to which one of his feet was secured by a chain -or thong. He was then given light weapons, more like playthings than -warrior's gear, and confronted by one of the most celebrated Mexican -warriors. Should he succeed in defeating six of these formidable -antagonists, he was set free. But no sooner was he wounded than he -was hurried to the altar of sacrifice, and his heart was torn out -and offered to Huitzilopochtli, the implacable god of war. - -The Tlascaltecs, having finally secured their position by a defeat of -the Tecpanecs of Huexotzinco about A.D. 1384, sank into comparative -obscurity save for their annual bout with the Mexicans. - - - -The Lake Cities - -The communities grouped round the various lakes in the valley of Mexico -now command our attention. More than two score of these thriving -communities flourished at the time of the conquest of Mexico, -the most notable being those which occupied the borders of the -Lake of Tezcuco. These cities grouped themselves round two nuclei, -Azcapozalco and Tezcuco, between whom a fierce rivalry sprang up, -which finally ended in the entire discomfiture or Azcapozalco. From -this event the real history of Mexico may be said to commence. Those -cities which had allied themselves to Tezcuco finally overran the -entire territory of Mexico from the Mexican Gulf to the Pacific. - - - -Tezcuco - -If, as some authorities declare, Tezcuco was originally Otomi in -affinity, it was in later years the most typically Nahuan of all the -lacustrine powers. But several other communities, the power of which -was very nearly as great as that of Tezcuco, had assisted that city to -supremacy. Among these was Xaltocan, a city-state of unquestionable -Otomi origin, situated at the northern extremity of the lake. As we -have seen from the statements of Ixtlilxochitl, a Tezcucan writer, his -native city was in the forefront of Nahua civilisation at the time of -the coming of the Spaniards, and if it was practically subservient to -Mexico (Tenochtitlan) at that period it was by no means its inferior -in the arts. - - - -The Tecpanecs - -The Tecpanecs, who dwelt in Tlacopan, Coyohuacan, and Huitzilopocho, -were also typical Nahua. The name, as we have already explained, -indicates that each settlement possessed its own tecpan (chief's -house), and has no racial significance. Their state was probably -founded about the twelfth century, although a chronology of no less -than fifteen hundred years was claimed for it. This people composed -a sort of buffer-state betwixt the Otomi on the north and other Nahua -on the south. - - - -The Aztecs - -The menace of these northern Otomi had become acute when the Tecpanecs -received reinforcements in the shape of the Aztecâ, or Aztecs, a -people of Nahua blood, who came, according to their own accounts, -from Aztlan (Crane Land). The name Aztecâ signifies "Crane People," -and this has led to the assumption that they came from Chihuahua, -where cranes abound. Doubts have been cast upon the Nahua origin of -the Aztecâ. But these are by no means well founded, as the names of -the early Aztec chieftains and kings are unquestionably Nahuan. This -people on their arrival in Mexico were in a very inferior state of -culture, and were probably little better than savages. We have already -outlined some of the legends concerning the coming of the Aztecs to -the land of Anahuac, or the valley of Mexico, but their true origin -is uncertain, and it is likely that they wandered down from the north -as other Nahua immigrants did before them, and as the Apache Indians -still do to this day. By their own showing they had sojourned at -several points en route, and were reduced to slavery by the chiefs -of Colhuacan. They proved so truculent in their bondage, however, -that they were released, and journeyed to Chapoultepec, which they -quitted because of their dissensions with the Xaltocanecs. On their -arrival in the district inhabited by the Tecpanecs a tribute was levied -upon them, but nevertheless they flourished so exceedingly that the -swamp villages which the Tecpanecs had permitted them to raise on the -borders of the lake soon grew into thriving communities, and chiefs -were provided for them from among the nobility of the Tecpanecs. - - - -The Aztecs as Allies - -By the aid of the Aztecs the Tecpanecs greatly extended their -territorial possessions. City after city was added to their empire, -and the allies finally invaded the Otomi country, which they speedily -subdued. Those cities which had been founded by the Acolhuans on the -fringes of Tezcuco also allied themselves with the Tecpanecs with -the intention of freeing themselves from the yoke of the Chichimecs, -whose hand was heavy upon them. The Chichimecs or Tezcucans made a -stern resistance, and for a time the sovereignty of the Tecpanecs -hung in the balance. But eventually they conquered, and Tezcuco was -overthrown and given as a spoil to the Aztecs. - - - -New Powers - -Up to this time the Aztecs had paid a tribute to Azcapozalco, but now, -strengthened by the successes of the late conflict, they withheld it, -and requested permission to build an aqueduct from the shore for the -purpose of carrying a supply of water into their city. This was refused -by the Tecpanecs, and a policy of isolation was brought to bear upon -Mexico, an embargo being placed upon its goods and intercourse with -its people being forbidden. War followed, in which the Tecpanecs -were defeated with great slaughter. After this event, which may -be placed about the year 1428, the Aztecs gained ground rapidly, -and their march to the supremacy of the entire Mexican valley was -almost undisputed. Allying themselves with Tezcuco and Tlacopan, -the Mexicans overran many states far beyond the confines of the -valley, and by the time of Montezuma I had extended their boundaries -almost to the limits of the present republic. The Mexican merchant -followed in the footsteps of the Mexican warrior, and the commercial -expansion of the Aztecs rivalled their military fame. Clever traders, -they were merciless in their exactions of tribute from the states -they conquered, manufacturing the raw material paid to them by -the subject cities into goods which they afterwards sold again to -the tribes under their sway. Mexico became the chief market of the -empire, as well as its political nucleus. Such was the condition -of affairs when the Spaniards arrived in Anahuac. Their coming has -been deplored by certain historians as hastening the destruction of -a Western Eden. But bad as was their rule, it was probably mild when -compared with the cruel and insatiable sway of the Aztecs over their -unhappy dependents. The Spaniards found a tyrannical despotism in -the conquered provinces, and a faith the accessories of which were -so fiendish that it cast a gloom over the entire national life. These -they replaced by a milder vassalage and the earnest ministrations of -a more enlightened priesthood. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER II: MEXICAN MYTHOLOGY - - -Nahua Religion - -The religion of the ancient Mexicans was a polytheism or worship of a -pantheon of deities, the general aspect of which presented similarities -to the systems of Greece and Egypt. Original influences, however, -were strong, and they are especially discernible in the institutions -of ritualistic cannibalism and human sacrifice. Strange resemblances to -Christian practice were observed in the Aztec mythology by the Spanish -Conquistadores, who piously condemned the native customs of baptism, -consubstantiation, and confession as frauds founded and perpetuated -by diabolic agency. - -A superficial examination of the Nahua religion might lead to the -inference that within its scope and system no definite theological -views were embraced and no ethical principles propounded, and that -the entire mythology presents only the fantastic attitude of the -barbarian mind toward the eternal verities. Such a conclusion would -be both erroneous and unjust to a human intelligence of a type by no -means debased. As a matter of fact, the Nahua displayed a theological -advancement greatly superior to that of the Greeks or Romans, and quite -on a level with that expressed by the Egyptians and Assyrians. Toward -the period of the Spanish occupation the Mexican priesthood was -undoubtedly advancing to the contemplation of the exaltation of -one god, whose worship was fast excluding that of similar deities, -and if our data are too imperfect to allow us to speak very fully -in regard to this phase of religious advancement, we know at least -that much of the Nahua ritual and many of the prayers preserved by -the labours of the Spanish fathers are unquestionably genuine, and -display the attainment of a high religious level. - - - -Cosmology - -Aztec theology postulated an eternity which, however, was not without -its epochs. It was thought to be broken up into a number of æons, -each of which depended upon the period of duration of a separate -"sun." No agreement is noticeable among authorities on Mexican -mythology as to the number of these "suns," but it would appear as -probable that the favourite tradition stipulated for four "suns" -or epochs, each of which concluded with a national disaster--flood, -famine, tempest, or fire. The present æon, they feared, might conclude -upon the completion of every "sheaf" of fifty-two years, the "sheaf" -being a merely arbitrary portion of an æon. The period of time from the -first creation to the current æon was variously computed as 15,228, -2386, or 1404 solar years, the discrepancy and doubt arising because -of the equivocal nature of the numeral signs expressing the period -in the pinturas or native paintings. As regards the sequence of -"suns" there is no more agreement than there is regarding their -number. The Codex Vaticanus states it to have been water, wind, -fire, and famine. Humboldt gives it as hunger, fire, wind, and water; -Boturini as water, famine, wind, and fire; and Gama as hunger, wind, -fire, and water. - -In all likelihood the adoption of four ages arose from the sacred -nature of that number. The myth doubtless shaped itself upon the -tonalamatl (Mexican native calendar), the great repository of the -wisdom of the Nahua race, which the priestly class regarded as its -vade mecum, and which was closely consulted by it on every occasion, -civil or religious. - - - -The Sources of Mexican Mythology - -Our knowledge of the mythology of the Mexicans is chiefly gained -through the works of those Spaniards, lay and cleric, who entered -the country along with or immediately subsequent to the Spanish -Conquistadores. From several of these we have what might be called -first-hand accounts of the theogony and ritual of the Nahua people. The -most valuable compendium is that of Father Bernardino Sahagun, -entitled A General History of the Affairs of New Spain, which was -published from manuscript only in the middle of last century, though -written in the first half of the sixteenth century. Sahagun arrived in -Mexico eight years after the country had been reduced by the Spaniards -to a condition of servitude. He obtained a thorough mastery of the -Nahuatl tongue, and conceived a warm admiration for the native mind -and a deep interest in the antiquities of the conquered people. His -method of collecting facts concerning their mythology and history -was as effective as it was ingenious. He held daily conferences -with reliable Indians, and placed questions before them, to which -they replied by symbolical paintings detailing the answers which he -required. These he submitted to scholars who had been trained under -his own supervision, and who, after consultation among themselves, -rendered him a criticism in Nahuatl of the hieroglyphical paintings -he had placed at their disposal. Not content with this process, he -subjected these replies to the criticism of a third body, after which -the matter was included in his work. But ecclesiastical intolerance -was destined to keep the work from publication for a couple of -centuries. Afraid that such a volume would be successful in keeping -alight the fires of paganism in Mexico, Sahagun's brethren refused him -the assistance he required for its publication. But on his appealing -to the Council of the Indies in Spain he was met with encouragement, -and was ordered to translate his great work into Spanish, a task he -undertook when over eighty years of age. He transmitted the work to -Spain, and for three hundred years nothing more was heard of it. - - - -The Romance of the Lost "Sahagun" - -For generations antiquarians interested in the lore of ancient Mexico -bemoaned its loss, until at length one Muñoz, more indefatigable -than the rest, chanced to visit the crumbling library of the ancient -convent of Tolosi, in Navarre. There, among time-worn manuscripts -and tomes relating to the early fathers and the intricacies of canon -law, he discovered the lost Sahagun! It was printed separately by -Bustamante at Mexico and by Lord Kingsborough in his collection in -1830, and has been translated into French by M. Jourdanet. Thus the -manuscript commenced in or after 1530 was given to the public after -a lapse of no less than three hundred years! - - - -Torquemada - -Father Torquemada arrived in the New World about the middle of -the sixteenth century, at which period he was still enabled to -take from the lips of such of the Conquistadores as remained much -curious information regarding the circumstances of their advent. His -Monarchia Indiana was first published at Seville in 1615, and in it -he made much use of the manuscript of Sahagun, not then published. At -the same time his observations upon matters pertaining to the native -religion are often illuminating and exhaustive. - -In his Storia Antica del Messico the Abbé Clavigero, who published -his work in 1780, did much to disperse the clouds of tradition which -hung over Mexican history and mythology. The clarity of his style and -the exactness of his information render his work exceedingly useful. - -Antonio Gama, in his Descripcion Historica y Cronologica de las -dos Piedras, poured a flood of light on Mexican antiquities. His -work was published in 1832. With him may be said to have ceased the -line of Mexican archæologists of the older school. Others worthy -of being mentioned among the older writers on Mexican mythology (we -are not here concerned with history) are Boturini, who, in his Idea -de una Nueva Historia General de la America Septentrional, gives a -vivid picture of native life and tradition, culled from first-hand -communication with the people; Ixtlilxochitl, a half-breed, whose -mendacious works, the Relaciones and Historia Chichimeca, are yet -valuable repositories of tradition; José de Acosta, whose Historia -Natural y Moral de las Yndias was published at Seville in 1580; -and Gomara, who, in his Historia General de las Indias (Madrid, -1749), rested upon the authority of the Conquistadores. Tezozomoc's -Chronica Mexicana, reproduced in Lord Kingsborough's great work, -is valuable as giving unique facts regarding the Aztec mythology, -as is the Teatro Mexicana of Vetancurt, published at Mexico in 1697-98. - - - -The Worship of One God - -The ritual of this dead faith of another hemisphere abounds in -expressions concerning the unity of the deity approaching very nearly -to many of those we ourselves employ regarding God's attributes. The -various classes of the priesthood were in the habit of addressing -the several gods to whom they ministered as "omnipotent," "endless," -"invisible," "the one god complete in perfection and unity," and -"the Maker and Moulder of All." These appellations they applied not -to one supreme being, but to the individual deities to whose service -they were attached. It may be thought that such a practice would be -fatal to the evolution of a single and universal god. But there is -every reason to believe that Tezcatlipoca, the great god of the air, -like the Hebrew Jahveh, also an air-god, was fast gaining precedence -of all other deities, when the coming of the white man put an end to -his chances of sovereignty. - - - -Tezcatlipoca - -Tezcatlipoca (Fiery Mirror) was undoubtedly the Jupiter of the Nahua -pantheon. He carried a mirror or shield, from which he took his name, -and in which he was supposed to see reflected the actions and deeds -of mankind. The evolution of this god from the status of a spirit of -wind or air to that of the supreme deity of the Aztec people presents -many points of deep interest to students of mythology. Originally the -personification of the air, the source both of the breath of life and -of the tempest, Tezcatlipoca possessed all the attributes of a god who -presided over these phenomena. As the tribal god of the Tezcucans who -had led them into the Land of Promise, and had been instrumental in the -defeat of both the gods and men of the elder race they dispossessed, -Tezcatlipoca naturally advanced so speedily in popularity and public -honour that it was little wonder that within a comparatively short -space of time he came to be regarded as a god of fate and fortune, -and as inseparably connected with the national destinies. Thus, -from being the peculiar deity of a small band of Nahua immigrants, -the prestige accruing from the rapid conquest made under his tutelary -direction and the speedily disseminated tales of the prowess of those -who worshipped him seemed to render him at once the most popular and -the best feared god in Anahuac, therefore the one whose cult quickly -overshadowed that of other and similar gods. - - - -Tezcatlipoca, Overthrower of the Toltecs - -We find Tezcatlipoca intimately associated with the legends which -recount the overthrow of Tollan, the capital of the Toltecs. His -chief adversary on the Toltec side is the god-king Quetzalcoatl, -whose nature and reign we will consider later, but whom we will now -merely regard as the enemy of Tezcatlipoca. The rivalry between these -gods symbolises that which existed between the civilised Toltecs and -the barbarian Nahua, and is well exemplified in the following myths. - - - -Myths of Quetzalcoatl and Tezcatlipoca - -In the days of Quetzalcoatl there was abundance of everything necessary -for subsistence. The maize was plentiful, the calabashes were as -thick as one's arm, and cotton grew in all colours without having -to be dyed. A variety of birds of rich plumage filled the air with -their songs, and gold, silver, and precious stones were abundant. In -the reign of Quetzalcoatl there was peace and plenty for all men. - -But this blissful state was too fortunate, too happy to endure. Envious -of the calm enjoyment of the god and his people the Toltecs, -three wicked "necromancers" plotted their downfall. The reference -is of course to the gods of the invading Nahua tribes, the deities -Huitzilopochtli, Titlacahuan or Tezcatlipoca, and Tlacahuepan. These -laid evil enchantments upon the city of Tollan, and Tezcatlipoca in -particular took the lead in these envious conspiracies. Disguised as -an aged man with white hair, he presented himself at the palace of -Quetzalcoatl, where he said to the pages-in-waiting: "Pray present -me to your master the king. I desire to speak with him." - -The pages advised him to retire, as Quetzalcoatl was indisposed and -could see no one. He requested them, however, to tell the god that -he was waiting outside. They did so, and procured his admittance. - -On entering the chamber of Quetzalcoatl the wily Tezcatlipoca simulated -much sympathy with the suffering god-king. "How are you, my son?" he -asked. "I have brought you a drug which you should drink, and which -will put an end to the course of your malady." - -"You are welcome, old man," replied Quetzalcoatl. "I have known for -many days that you would come. I am exceedingly indisposed. The malady -affects my entire system, and I can use neither my hands nor feet." - -Tezcatlipoca assured him that if he partook of the medicine which he -had brought him he would immediately experience a great improvement -in health. Quetzalcoatl drank the potion, and at once felt much -revived. The cunning Tezcatlipoca pressed another and still another -cup of the potion upon him, and as it was nothing but pulque, the -wine of the country, he speedily became intoxicated, and was as wax -in the hands of his adversary. - - - -Tezcatlipoca and the Toltecs - -Tezcatlipoca, in pursuance of his policy inimical to the Toltec state, -took the form of an Indian of the name of Toueyo (Toveyo), and bent -his steps to the palace of Uemac, chief of the Toltecs in temporal -matters. This worthy had a daughter so fair that she was desired -in marriage by many of the Toltecs, but all to no purpose, as her -father refused her hand to one and all. The princess, beholding the -false Toueyo passing her father's palace, fell deeply in love with -him, and so tumultuous was her passion that she became seriously ill -because of her longing for him. Uemac, hearing of her indisposition, -bent his steps to her apartments, and inquired of her women the -cause of her illness. They told him that it was occasioned by the -sudden passion which had seized her for the Indian who had recently -come that way. Uemac at once gave orders for the arrest of Toueyo, -and he was haled before the temporal chief of Tollan. - -"Whence come you?" inquired Uemac of his prisoner, who was very -scantily attired. - -"Lord, I am a stranger, and I have come to these parts to sell green -paint," replied Tezcatlipoca. - -"Why are you dressed in this fashion? Why do you not wear a -cloak?" asked the chief. - -"My lord, I follow the custom of my country," replied Tezcatlipoca. - -"You have inspired a passion in the breast of my daughter," said -Uemac. "What should be done to you for thus disgracing me?" - -"Slay me; I care not," said the cunning Tezcatlipoca. - -"Nay," replied Uemac, "for if I slay you my daughter will perish. Go -to her and say that she may wed you and be happy." - -Now the marriage of Toueyo to the daughter of Uemac aroused much -discontent among the Toltecs; and they murmured among themselves, and -said: "Wherefore did Uemac give his daughter to this Toueyo?" Uemac, -having got wind of these murmurings, resolved to distract the -attention of the Toltecs by making war upon the neighbouring state -of Coatepec. The Toltecs assembled armed for the fray, and having -arrived at the country of the men of Coatepec they placed Toueyo -in ambush with his body-servants, hoping that he would be slain -by their adversaries. But Toueyo and his men killed a large number -of the enemy and put them to flight. His triumph was celebrated by -Uemac with much pomp. The knightly plumes were placed upon his head, -and his body was painted with red and yellow--an honour reserved for -those who distinguished themselves in battle. - -Tezcatlipoca's next step was to announce a great feast in Tollan, -to which all the people for miles around were invited. Great crowds -assembled, and danced and sang in the city to the sound of the -drum. Tezcatlipoca sang to them and forced them to accompany the rhythm -of his song with their feet. Faster and faster the people danced, -until the pace became so furious that they were driven to madness, -lost their footing, and tumbled pell-mell down a deep ravine, where -they were changed into rocks. Others in attempting to cross a stone -bridge precipitated themselves into the water below, and were changed -into stones. - -On another occasion Tezcatlipoca presented himself as a valiant -warrior named Tequiua, and invited all the inhabitants of Tollan -and its environs to come to the flower-garden called Xochitla. When -assembled there he attacked them with a hoe, and slew a great number, -and others in panic crushed their comrades to death. - -Tezcatlipoca and Tlacahuepan on another occasion repaired to the -market-place of Tollan, the former displaying upon the palm of -his hand a small infant whom he caused to dance and to cut the most -amusing capers. This infant was in reality Huitzilopochtli, the Nahua -god of war. At this sight the Toltecs crowded upon one another for -the purpose of getting a better view, and their eagerness resulted -in many being crushed to death. So enraged were the Toltecs at this -that upon the advice of Tlacahuepan they slew both Tezcatlipoca and -Huitzilopochtli. When this had been done the bodies of the slain gods -gave forth such a pernicious effluvia that thousands of the Toltecs -died of the pestilence. The god Tlacahuepan then advised them to cast -out the bodies lest worse befell them, but on their attempting to do so -they discovered their weight to be so great that they could not move -them. Hundreds wound cords round the corpses, but the strands broke, -and those who pulled upon them fell and died suddenly, tumbling one -upon the other, and suffocating those upon whom they collapsed. - - - -The Departure of Quetzalcoatl - -The Toltecs were so tormented by the enchantments of Tezcatlipoca -that it was soon apparent to them that their fortunes were on the wane -and that the end of their empire was at hand. Quetzalcoatl, chagrined -at the turn things had taken, resolved to quit Tollan and go to the -country of Tlapallan, whence he had come on his civilising mission to -Mexico. He burned all the houses which he had built, and buried his -treasure of gold and precious stones in the deep valleys between the -mountains. He changed the cacao-trees into mezquites, and he ordered -all the birds of rich plumage and song to quit the valley of Anahuac -and to follow him to a distance of more than a hundred leagues. On -the road from Tollan he discovered a great tree at a point called -Quauhtitlan. There he rested, and requested his pages to hand him a -mirror. Regarding himself in the polished surface, he exclaimed, "I am -old," and from that circumstance the spot was named Huehuequauhtitlan -(Old Quauhtitlan). Proceeding on his way accompanied by musicians -who played the flute, he walked until fatigue arrested his steps, -and he seated himself upon a stone, on which he left the imprint -of his hands. This place is called Temacpalco (The Impress of the -Hands). At Coaapan he was met by the Nahua gods, who were inimical -to him and to the Toltecs. - -"Where do you go?" they asked him. "Why do you leave your capital?" - -"I go to Tlapallan," replied Quetzalcoatl, "whence I came." - -"For what reason?" persisted the enchanters. - -"My father the Sun has called me thence," replied Quetzalcoatl. - -"Go, then, happily," they said, "but leave us the secret of your art, -the secret of founding in silver, of working in precious stones and -woods, of painting, and of feather-working, and other matters." - -But Quetzalcoatl refused, and cast all his treasures into the -fountain of Cozcaapa (Water of Precious Stones). At Cochtan he -was met by another enchanter, who asked him whither he was bound, -and on learning his destination proffered him a draught of wine. On -tasting the vintage Quetzalcoatl was overcome with sleep. Continuing -his journey in the morning, the god passed between a volcano and the -Sierra Nevada (Mountain of Snow), where all the pages who accompanied -him died of cold. He regretted this misfortune exceedingly, and wept, -lamenting their fate with most bitter tears and mournful songs. On -reaching the summit of Mount Poyauhtecatl he slid to the base. Arriving -at the sea-shore, he embarked upon a raft of serpents, and was wafted -away toward the land of Tlapallan. - -It is obvious that these legends bear some resemblance to those of -Ixtlilxochitl which recount the fall of the Toltecs. They are taken -from Sahagun's work, Historia General de Nueva España, and are included -as well for the sake of comparison as for their own intrinsic value. - - - -Tezcatlipoca as Doomster - -Tezcatlipoca was much more than a mere personification of wind, -and if he was regarded as a life-giver he had also the power of -destroying existence. In fact on occasion he appears as an inexorable -death-dealer, and as such was styled Nezahualpilli (The Hungry Chief) -and Yaotzin (The Enemy). Perhaps one of the names by which he was -best known was Telpochtli (The Youthful Warrior), from the fact that -his reserve of strength, his vital force, never diminished, and that -his youthful and boisterous vigour was apparent in the tempest. - -Tezcatlipoca was usually depicted as holding in his right hand a dart -placed in an atlatl (spear-thrower), and his mirror-shield with four -spare darts in his left. This shield is the symbol of his power as -judge of mankind and upholder of human justice. - -The Aztecs pictured Tezcatlipoca as rioting along the highways in -search of persons on whom to wreak his vengeance, as the wind of -night rushes along the deserted roads with more seeming violence -than it does by day. Indeed one of his names, Yoalli Ehecatl, -signifies "Night Wind." Benches of stone, shaped like those made -for the dignitaries of the Mexican towns, were distributed along the -highways for his especial use, that on these he might rest after his -boisterous journeyings. These seats were concealed by green boughs, -beneath which the god was supposed to lurk in wait for his victims. But -if one of the persons he seized overcame him in the struggle he might -ask whatever boon he desired, secure in the promise of the deity that -it should be granted forthwith. - -It was supposed that Tezcatlipoca had guided the Nahua, and especially -the people of Tezcuco, from a more northerly clime to the valley of -Mexico. But he was not a mere local deity of Tezcuco, his worship -being widely celebrated throughout the country. His exalted position -in the Mexican pantheon seems to have won for him especial reverence -as a god of fate and fortune. The place he took as the head of the -Nahua pantheon brought him many attributes which were quite foreign -to his original character. Fear and a desire to exalt their tutelar -deity will impel the devotees of a powerful god to credit him with -any or every quality, so that there is nothing remarkable in the -spectacle of the heaping of every possible attribute, human or divine, -upon Tezcatlipoca when we recall the supreme position he occupied in -Mexican mythology. His priestly caste far surpassed in power and in -the breadth and activity of its propaganda the priesthoods of the -other Mexican deities. To it is credited the invention of many of -the usages of civilisation, and that it all but succeeded in making -his worship universal is pretty clear, as has been shown. The other -gods were worshipped for some special purpose, but the worship of -Tezcatlipoca was regarded as compulsory, and to some extent as a -safeguard against the destruction of the universe, a calamity the -Nahua had been led to believe might occur through his agency. He -was known as Moneneque (The Claimer of Prayer), and in some of the -representations of him an ear of gold was shown suspended from his -hair, toward which small tongues of gold strained upward in appeal -of prayer. In times of national danger, plague, or famine universal -prayer was made to Tezcatlipoca. The heads of the community repaired -to his teocalli (temple) accompanied by the people en masse, and all -prayed earnestly together for his speedy intervention. The prayers -to Tezcatlipoca still extant prove that the ancient Mexicans fully -believed that he possessed the power of life and death, and many of -them are couched in the most piteous terms. - - - -The Teotleco Festival - -The supreme position occupied by Tezcatlipoca in the Mexican religion -is well exemplified in the festival of the Teotleco (Coming of the -Gods), which is fully described in Sahagun's account of the Mexican -festivals. Another peculiarity connected with his worship was that -he was one of the few Mexican deities who had any relation to the -expiation of sin. Sin was symbolised by the Nahua as excrement, and -in various manuscripts Tezcatlipoca is represented as a turkey-cock -to which ordure is being offered up. - -Of the festival of the Teotleco Sahagun says: "In the twelfth month a -festival was celebrated in honour of all the gods, who were said to -have gone to some country I know not where. On the last day of the -month a greater one was held, because the gods had returned. On the -fifteenth day of this month the young boys and the servitors decked all -the altars or oratories of the gods with boughs, as well as those which -were in the houses, and the images which were set up by the wayside -and at the cross-roads. This work was paid for in maize. Some received -a basketful, and others only a few ears. On the eighteenth day the -ever-youthful god Tlamatzincatl or Titlacahuan arrived. It was said -that he marched better and arrived the first because he was strong -and young. Food was offered him in his temple on that night. Every -one drank, ate, and made merry. The old people especially celebrated -the arrival of the god by drinking wine, and it was alleged that his -feet were washed by these rejoicings. The last day of the month was -marked by a great festival, on account of the belief that the whole -of the gods arrived at that time. On the preceding night a quantity -of flour was kneaded on a carpet into the shape of a cheese, it being -supposed that the gods would leave a footprint thereon as a sign of -their return. The chief attendant watched all night, going to and fro -to see if the impression appeared. When he at last saw it he called -out, 'The master has arrived,' and at once the priests of the temple -began to sound the horns, trumpets, and other musical instruments -used by them. Upon hearing this noise every one set forth to offer -food in all the temples." The next day the aged gods were supposed -to arrive, and young men disguised as monsters hurled victims into -a huge sacrificial fire. - - - -The Toxcatl Festival - -The most remarkable festival in connection with Tezcatlipoca was -the Toxcatl, held in the fifth month. On the day of this festival a -youth was slain who for an entire year previously had been carefully -instructed in the rôle of victim. He was selected from among the best -war captives of the year, and must be without spot or blemish. He -assumed the name, garb, and attributes of Tezcatlipoca himself, and -was regarded with awe by the entire populace, who imagined him to be -the earthly representative of the deity. He rested during the day, -and ventured forth at night only, armed with the dart and shield of -the god, to scour the roads. This practice was, of course, symbolical -of the wind-god's progress over the night-bound highways. He carried -also the whistle symbolical of the deity, and made with it a noise -such as the weird wind of night makes when it hurries through the -streets. To his arms and legs small bells were attached. He was -followed by a retinue of pages, and at intervals rested upon the -stone seats which were placed upon the highways for the convenience -of Tezcatlipoca. Later in the year he was mated to four beautiful -maidens of high birth, with whom he passed the time in amusement of -every description. He was entertained at the tables of the nobility as -the earthly representative of Tezcatlipoca, and his latter days were -one constant round of feasting and excitement. At last the fatal day -upon which he must be sacrificed arrived. He took a tearful farewell -of the maidens whom he had espoused, and was carried to the teocalli -of sacrifice, upon the sides of which he broke the musical instruments -with which he had beguiled the time of his captivity. When he reached -the summit he was received by the high-priest, who speedily made him -one with the god whom he represented by tearing his heart out on the -stone of sacrifice. - - - -Huitzilopochtli, the War-God - -Huitzilopochtli occupied in the Aztec pantheon a place similar -to that of Mars in the Roman. His origin is obscure, but the myth -relating to it is distinctly original in character. It recounts how, -under the shadow of the mountain of Coatepec, near the Toltec city -of Tollan, there dwelt a pious widow called Coatlicue, the mother -of a tribe of Indians called Centzonuitznaua, who had a daughter -called Coyolxauhqui, and who daily repaired to a small hill with the -intention of offering up prayers to the gods in a penitent spirit of -piety. Whilst occupied in her devotions one day she was surprised by a -small ball of brilliantly coloured feathers falling upon her from on -high. She was pleased by the bright variety of its hues, and placed -it in her bosom, intending to offer it up to the sun-god. Some time -afterwards she learnt that she was to become the mother of another -child. Her sons, hearing of this, rained abuse upon her, being incited -to humiliate her in every possible way by their sister Coyolxauhqui. - -Coatlicue went about in fear and anxiety; but the spirit of her unborn -infant came and spoke to her and gave her words of encouragement, -soothing her troubled heart. Her sons, however, were resolved to -wipe out what they considered an insult to their race by the death -of their mother, and took counsel with one another to slay her. They -attired themselves in their war-gear, and arranged their hair after -the manner of warriors going to battle. But one of their number, -Quauitlicac, relented, and confessed the perfidy of his brothers to the -still unborn Huitzilopochtli, who replied to him: "O brother, hearken -attentively to what I have to say to you. I am fully informed of what -is about to happen." With the intention of slaying their mother, the -Indians went in search of her. At their head marched their sister, -Coyolxauhqui. They were armed to the teeth, and carried bundles of -darts with which they intended to kill the luckless Coatlicue. - -Quauitlicac climbed the mountain to acquaint Huitzilopochtli with -the news that his brothers were approaching to kill their mother. - -"Mark well where they are at," replied the infant god. "To what place -have they advanced?" - -"To Tzompantitlan," responded Quauitlicac. - -Later on Huitzilopochtli asked: "Where may they be now?" - -"At Coaxalco," was the reply. - -Once more Huitzilopochtli asked to what point his enemies had advanced. - -"They are now at Petlac," Quauitlicac replied. - -After a little while Quauitlicac informed Huitzilopochtli that the -Centzonuitznaua were at hand under the leadership of Coyolxauhqui. At -the moment of the enemy's arrival Huitzilopochtli was born, flourishing -a shield and spear of a blue colour. He was painted, his head was -surmounted by a panache, and his left leg was covered with feathers. He -shattered Coyolxauhqui with a flash of serpentine lightning, and then -gave chase to the Centzonuitznaua, whom he pursued four times round -the mountain. They did not attempt to defend themselves, but fled -incontinently. Many perished in the waters of the adjoining lake, -to which they had rushed in their despair. All were slain save a few -who escaped to a place called Uitzlampa, where they surrendered to -Huitzilopochtli and gave up their arms. - -The name Huitzilopochtli signifies "Humming-bird to the left," from -the circumstance that the god wore the feathers of the humming-bird, -or colibri, on his left leg. From this it has been inferred that he -was a humming-bird totem. The explanation of Huitzilopochtli's origin -is a little deeper than this, however. Among the American tribes, -especially those of the northern continent, the serpent is regarded -with the deepest veneration as the symbol of wisdom and magic. From -these sources come success in war. The serpent also typifies the -lightning, the symbol of the divine spear, the apotheosis of warlike -might. Fragments of serpents are regarded as powerful war-physic -among many tribes. Atatarho, a mythical wizard-king of the Iroquois, -was clothed with living serpents as with a robe, and his myth throws -light on one of the names of Huitzilopochtli's mother, Coatlantona -(Robe of Serpents). Huitzilopochtli's image was surrounded by serpents, -and rested on serpent-shaped supporters. His sceptre was a single -snake, and his great drum was of serpent-skin. - -In American mythology the serpent is closely associated with the -bird. Thus the name of the god Quetzalcoatl is translatable as -"Feathered Serpent," and many similar cases where the conception of -bird and serpent have been unified could be adduced. Huitzilopochtli -is undoubtedly one of these. We may regard him as a god the primary -conception of whom arose from the idea of the serpent, the symbol of -warlike wisdom and might, the symbol of the warrior's dart or spear, -and the humming-bird, the harbinger of summer, type of the season -when the snake or lightning god has power over the crops. - -Huitzilopochtli was usually represented as wearing on his head a -waving panache or plume of humming-birds' feathers. His face and limbs -were striped with bars of blue, and in his right hand he carried four -spears. His left hand bore his shield, on the surface of which were -displayed five tufts of down, arranged in the form of a quincunx. The -shield was made with reeds, covered with eagle's down. The spear he -brandished was also tipped with tufts of down instead of flint. These -weapons were placed in the hands of those who as captives engaged in -the sacrificial fight, for in the Aztec mind Huitzilopochtli symbolised -the warrior's death on the gladiatorial stone of combat. As has been -said, Huitzilopochtli was war-god of the Aztecs, and was supposed to -have led them to the site of Mexico from their original home in the -north. The city of Mexico took its name from one of its districts, -which was designated by a title of Huitzilopochtli's, Mexitli (Hare -of the Aloes). - - - -The War-God as Fertiliser - -But Huitzilopochtli was not a war-god alone. As the serpent-god of -lightning he had a connection with summer, the season of lightning, -and therefore had dominion to some extent over the crops and fruits -of the earth. The Algonquian Indians of North America believed -that the rattlesnake could raise ruinous storms or grant favourable -breezes. They alluded to it also as the symbol of life, for the serpent -has a phallic significance because of its similarity to the symbol of -generation and fructification. With some American tribes also, notably -the Pueblo Indians of Arizona, the serpent has a solar significance, -and with tail in mouth symbolises the annual round of the sun. The -Nahua believed that Huitzilopochtli could grant them fair weather for -the fructification of their crops, and they placed an image of Tlaloc, -the rain-god, near him, so that, if necessary, the war-god could compel -the rain-maker to exert his pluvial powers or to abstain from the -creation of floods. We must, in considering the nature of this deity, -bear well in mind the connection in the Nahua consciousness between the -pantheon, war, and the food-supply. If war was not waged annually the -gods must go without flesh food and perish, and if the gods succumbed -the crops would fail, and famine would destroy the race. So it was -small wonder that Huitzilopochtli was one of the chief gods of Mexico. - -Huitzilopochtli's principal festival was the Toxcatl, celebrated -immediately after the Toxcatl festival of Tezcatlipoca, to which it -bore a strong resemblance. Festivals of the god were held in May and -December, at the latter of which an image of him, moulded in dough -kneaded with the blood of sacrificed children, was pierced by the -presiding priest with an arrow--an act significant of the death of -Huitzilopochtli until his resurrection in the next year. - -Strangely enough, when the absolute supremacy of Tezcatlipoca -is remembered, the high-priest of Huitzilopochtli, the Mexicatl -Teohuatzin, was considered to be the religious head of the Mexican -priesthood. The priests of Huitzilopochtli held office by right -of descent, and their primate exacted absolute obedience from the -priesthoods of all the other deities, being regarded as next to the -monarch himself in power and dominion. - - - -Tlaloc, the Rain-God - -Tlaloc was the god of rain and moisture. In a country such as Mexico, -where the success or failure of the crops depends entirely upon the -plentiful nature or otherwise of the rainfall, he was, it will be -readily granted, a deity of high importance. It was believed that he -made his home in the mountains which surround the valley of Mexico, -as these were the source of the local rainfall, and his popularity -is vouched for by the fact that sculptured representations of him -occur more often than those of any other of the Mexican deities. He -is generally represented in a semi-recumbent attitude, with the upper -part of the body raised upon the elbows, and the knees half drawn up, -probably to represent the mountainous character of the country whence -comes the rain. He was espoused to Chalchihuitlicue (Emerald Lady), -who bore him a numerous progeny, the Tlalocs (Clouds). Many of the -figures which represented him were carved from the green stone called -chalchiuitl (jadeite), to typify the colour of water, and in some of -these he was shown holding a serpent of gold to typify the lightning, -for water-gods are often closely identified with the thunder, which -hangs over the hills and accompanies heavy rains. Tlaloc, like his -prototype, the Kiche god Hurakan, manifested himself in three forms, -as the lightning-flash, the thunderbolt, and the thunder. Although -his image faced the east, where he was supposed to have originated, -he was worshipped as inhabiting the four cardinal points and every -mountain-top. The colours of the four points of the compass, yellow, -green, red, and blue, whence came the rain-bearing winds, entered -into the composition of his costume, which was further crossed with -streaks of silver, typifying the mountain torrents. A vase containing -every description of grain was usually placed before his idol, an -offering of the growth which it was hoped he would fructify. He dwelt -in a many-watered paradise called Tlalocan (The Country of Tlaloc), -a place of plenty and fruitfulness, where those who had been drowned or -struck by lightning or had died from dropsical diseases enjoyed eternal -bliss. Those of the common people who did not die such deaths went to -the dark abode of Mictlan, the all-devouring and gloomy Lord of Death. - -In the native manuscripts Tlaloc is usually portrayed as having a dark -complexion, a large round eye, a row of tusks, and over the lips an -angular blue stripe curved downward and rolled up at the ends. The -latter character is supposed to have been evolved originally from -the coils of two snakes, their mouths with long fangs in the upper -jaw meeting in the middle of the upper lip. The snake, besides -being symbolised by lightning in many American mythologies, is also -symbolical of water, which is well typified in its sinuous movements. - -Many maidens and children were annually sacrificed to Tlaloc. If the -children wept it was regarded as a happy omen for a rainy season. The -Etzalqualiztli (When they eat Bean Food) was his chief festival, -and was held on a day approximating to May 13, about which date the -rainy season usually commenced. Another festival in his honour, -the Quauitleua, commenced the Mexican year on February 2. At the -former festival the priests of Tlaloc plunged into a lake, imitating -the sounds and movements of frogs, which, as denizens of water, were -under the special protection of the god. Chalchihuitlicue, his wife, -was often symbolised by the small image of a frog. - - - -Sacrifices to Tlaloc - -Human sacrifices also took place at certain points in the mountains -where artificial ponds were consecrated to Tlaloc. Cemeteries were -situated in their vicinity, and offerings to the god interred near the -burial-place of the bodies of the victims slain in his service. His -statue was placed on the highest mountain of Tezcuco, and an old -writer mentions that five or six young children were annually offered -to the god at various points, their hearts torn out, and their remains -interred. The mountains Popocatepetl and Teocuinani were regarded as -his special high places, and on the heights of the latter was built -his temple, in which stood his image carved in green stone. - -The Nahua believed that the constant production of food and rain -induced a condition of senility in those deities whose duty it was -to provide them. This they attempted to stave off, fearing that if -they failed in so doing the gods would perish. They afforded them, -accordingly, a period of rest and recuperation, and once in eight -years a festival called the Atamalqualiztli (Fast of Porridge-balls -and Water) was held, during which every one in the Nahua community -returned for the time being to the conditions of savage life. Dressed -in costumes representing all forms of animal and bird life, and -mimicking the sounds made by the various creatures they typified, the -people danced round the teocalli of Tlaloc for the purpose of diverting -and entertaining him after his labours in producing the fertilising -rains of the past eight years. A lake was filled with water-snakes and -frogs, and into this the people plunged, catching the reptiles in their -mouths and devouring them alive. The only grain food which might be -partaken during this season of rest was thin water-porridge of maize. - -Should one of the more prosperous peasants or yeomen deem a rainfall -necessary to the growth of his crops, or should he fear a drought, -he sought out one of the professional makers of dough or paste idols, -whom he desired to mould one of Tlaloc. To this image offerings -of maize-porridge and pulque were made. Throughout the night the -farmer and his neighbours danced, shrieking and howling round the -figure for the purpose of rousing Tlaloc from his drought-bringing -slumbers. Next day was spent in quaffing huge libations of pulque, -and in much-needed rest from the exertions of the previous night. - -In Tlaloc it is easy to trace resemblances to a mythological conception -widely prevalent among the indigenous American peoples. He is similar -to such deities as the Hurakan of the Kiche of Guatemala, the Pillan -of the aborigines of Chile, and Con, the thunder-god of the Collao of -Peru. Only his thunderous powers are not so apparent as his rain-making -abilities, and in this he differs somewhat from the gods alluded to. - - - -Quetzalcoatl - -It is highly probable that Quetzalcoatl was a deity of the pre-Nahua -people of Mexico. He was regarded by the Aztec race as a god of -somewhat alien character, and had but a limited following in Mexico, -the city of Huitzilopochtli. In Cholula, however, and others of the -older towns his worship flourished exceedingly. He was regarded as -"The Father of the Toltecs," and, legend says, was the seventh and -youngest son of the Toltec Abraham, Iztacmixcohuatl. Quetzalcoatl -(whose name means "Feathered Serpent" or "Feathered Staff") became, -at a relatively early period, ruler of Tollan, and by his enlightened -sway and his encouragement of the liberal arts did much to further the -advancement of his people. His reign had lasted for a period sufficient -to permit of his placing the cultivated arts upon a satisfactory basis -when the country was visited by the cunning magicians Tezcatlipoca -and Coyotlinaual, god of the Amantecas. Disentangled from its terms of -myth, this statement may be taken to imply that bands of invading Nahua -first began to appear within the Toltec territories. Tezcatlipoca, -descending from the sky in the shape of a spider by way of a fine web, -proffered him a draught of pulque, which so intoxicated him that -the curse of lust descended upon him, and he forgot his chastity -with Quetzalpetlatl. The doom pronounced upon him was the hard one -of banishment, and he was compelled to forsake Anahuac. His exile -wrought peculiar changes upon the face of the country. He secreted -his treasures of gold and silver, burned his palaces, transformed -the cacao-trees into mezquites, and banished all the birds from -the neighbourhood of Tollan. The magicians, nonplussed at these -unexpected happenings, begged him to return, but he refused on the -ground that the sun required his presence. He proceeded to Tabasco, -the fabled land of Tlapallan, and, embarking upon a raft made of -serpents, floated away to the east. A slightly different version -of this myth has already been given. Other accounts state that the -king cast himself upon a funeral pyre and was consumed, and that the -ashes arising from the conflagration flew upward, and were changed -into birds of brilliant plumage. His heart also soared into the sky, -and became the morning star. The Mexicans averred that Quetzalcoatl -died when the star became visible, and thus they bestowed upon him -the title "Lord of the Dawn." They further said that when he died he -was invisible for four days, and that for eight days he wandered in -the underworld, after which time the morning star appeared, when he -achieved resurrection, and ascended his throne as a god. - -It is the contention of some authorities that the myth of Quetzalcoatl -points to his status as god of the sun. That luminary, they say, begins -his diurnal journey in the east, whence Quetzalcoatl returned as to -his native home. It will be recalled that Montezuma and his subjects -imagined that Cortés was no other than Quetzalcoatl, returned to his -dominions, as an old prophecy declared he would do. But that he stood -for the sun itself is highly improbable, as will be shown. First of -all, however, it will be well to pay some attention to other theories -concerning his origin. - -Perhaps the most important of these is that which regards Quetzalcoatl -as a god of the air. He is connected, say some, with the cardinal -points, and wears the insignia of the cross, which symbolises -them. Dr. Seler says of him: "He has a protruding, trumpet-like -mouth, for the wind-god blows.... His figure suggests whirls and -circles. Hence his temples were built in circular form.... The -head of the wind-god stands for the second of the twenty day signs, -which was called Ehecatl (Wind)." The same authority, however, in -his essay on Mexican chronology, gives to Quetzalcoatl a dual nature, -"the dual nature which seems to belong to the wind-god Quetzalcoatl, -who now appears simply a wind-god, and again seems to show the true -characters of the old god of fire and light." [8] - -Dr. Brinton perceived in Quetzalcoatl a similar dual nature. "He is -both lord of the eastern light and of the winds," he writes (Myths -of the New World, p. 214). "Like all the dawn heroes, he too was -represented as of white complexion, clothed in long, white robes, and, -as many of the Aztec gods, with a full and flowing beard.... He had -been overcome by Tezcatlipoca, the wind or spirit of night, who had -descended from heaven by a spider's web, and presented his rival with -a draught supposed to confer immortality, but in fact producing an -intolerable longing for home. For the wind and the light both depart -when the gloaming draws near, or when the clouds spread their dark -and shadowy webs along the mountains, and pour the vivifying rain -upon the fields." - -The theory which derives Quetzalcoatl from a "culture-hero" who once -actually existed is scarcely reconcilable with probability. It is -more than likely that, as in the case of other mythical paladins, -the legend of a mighty hero arose from the somewhat weakened idea -of a great deity. Some of the early Spanish missionaries professed -to see in Quetzalcoatl the Apostle St. Thomas, who had journeyed to -America to effect its conversion! - - - -The Man of the Sun - -A more probable explanation of the origin of Quetzalcoatl and a more -likely elucidation of his nature is that which would regard him as the -Man of the Sun, who has quitted his abode for a season for the purpose -of inculcating in mankind those arts which represent the first steps -in civilisation, who fulfils his mission, and who, at a late period, -is displaced by the deities of an invading race. Quetzalcoatl was -represented as a traveller with staff in hand, and this is proof of his -solar character, as is the statement that under his rule the fruits of -the earth flourished more abundantly than at any subsequent period. The -abundance of gold said to have been accumulated in his reign assists -the theory, the precious metal being invariably associated with -the sun by most barbarous peoples. In the native pinturas it is -noticeable that the solar disc and semi-disc are almost invariably -found in connection with the feathered serpent as the symbolical -attributes of Quetzalcoatl. The Hopi Indians of Mexico at the present -day symbolise the sun as a serpent, tail in mouth, and the ancient -Mexicans introduced the solar disc in connection with small images of -Quetzalcoatl, which they attached to the head-dress. In still other -examples Quetzalcoatl is pictured as if emerging or stepping from -the luminary, which is represented as his dwelling-place. - -Several tribes tributary to the Aztecs were in the habit of imploring -Quetzalcoatl in prayer to return and free them from the intolerable -bondage of the conqueror. Notable among them were the Totonacs, who -passionately believed that the sun, their father, would send a god who -would free them from the Aztec yoke. On the coming of the Spaniards -the European conquerors were hailed as the servants of Quetzalcoatl, -thus in the eyes of the natives fulfilling the tradition that he -would return. - - - -Various Forms of Quetzalcoatl - -Various conceptions of Quetzalcoatl are noticeable in the mythology -of the territories which extended from the north of Mexico to the -marshes of Nicaragua. In Guatemala the Kiches recognised him as -Gucumatz, and in Yucatan proper he was worshipped as Kukulcan, both -of which names are but literal translations of his Mexican title of -"Feathered Serpent" into Kiche and Mayan. That the three deities are -one and the same there can be no shadow of doubt. Several authorities -have seen in Kukulcan a "serpent-and-rain god." He can only be such -in so far as he is a solar god also. The cult of the feathered snake -in Yucatan was unquestionably a branch of sun-worship. In tropical -latitudes the sun draws the clouds round him at noon. The rain falls -from the clouds accompanied by thunder and lightning--the symbols -of the divine serpent. Therefore the manifestations of the heavenly -serpent were directly associated with the sun, and no statement that -Kukulcan is a mere serpent-and-water god satisfactorily elucidates -his characteristics. - - - -Quetzalcoatl's Northern Origin - -It is by no means improbable that Quetzalcoatl was of northern -origin, and that on his adoption by southern peoples and tribes -dwelling in tropical countries his characteristics were gradually -and unconsciously altered in order to meet the exigencies of his -environment. The mythology of the Indians of British Columbia, -whence in all likelihood the Nahua originally came, is possessed of a -central figure bearing a strong resemblance to Quetzalcoatl. Thus the -Thlingit tribe worship Yetl; the Quaquiutl Indians, Kanikilak; the -Salish people of the coast, Kumsnöotl, Quäaqua, or Släalekam. It is -noticeable that these divine beings are worshipped as the Man of the -Sun, and totally apart from the luminary himself, as was Quetzalcoatl -in Mexico. The Quaquiutl believe that before his settlement among -them for the purpose of inculcating in the tribe the arts of life, -the sun descended as a bird, and assumed a human shape. Kanikilak -is his son, who, as his emissary, spreads the arts of civilisation -over the world. So the Mexicans believed that Quetzalcoatl descended -first of all in the form of a bird, and was ensnared in the fowler's -net of the Toltec hero Hueymatzin. - -The titles bestowed upon Quetzalcoatl by the Nahua show that in his -solar significance he was god of the vault of the heavens, as well as -merely son of the sun. He was alluded to as Ehecatl (The Air), Yolcuat -(The Rattlesnake), Tohil (The Rumbler), Nanihehecatl (Lord of the Four -Winds), Tlauizcalpantecutli (Lord of the Light of the Dawn). The whole -heavenly vault was his, together with all its phenomena. This would -seem to be in direct opposition to the theory that Tezcatlipoca was -the supreme god of the Mexicans. But it must be borne in mind that -Tezcatlipoca was the god of a later age, and of a fresh body of Nahua -immigrants, and as such inimical to Quetzalcoatl, who was probably -in a similar state of opposition to Itzamna, a Maya deity of Yucatan. - - - -The Worship of Quetzalcoatl - -The worship of Quetzalcoatl was in some degree antipathetic to -that of the other Mexican deities, and his priests were a separate -caste. Although human sacrifice was by no means so prevalent among -his devotees, it is a mistake to aver, as some authorities have -done, that it did not exist in connection with his worship. A more -acceptable sacrifice to Quetzalcoatl appears to have been the blood -of the celebrant or worshipper, shed by himself. When we come to -consider the mythology of the Zapotecs, a people whose customs and -beliefs appear to have formed a species of link between the Mexican and -Mayan civilisations, we shall find that their high-priests occasionally -enacted the legend of Quetzalcoatl in their own persons, and that their -worship, which appears to have been based upon that of Quetzalcoatl, -had as one of its most pronounced characteristics the shedding of -blood. The celebrant or devotee drew blood from the vessels lying -under the tongue or behind the ear by drawing across those tender -parts a cord made from the thorn-covered fibres of the agave. The -blood was smeared over the mouths of the idols. In this practice we -can perceive an act analogous to the sacrificial substitution of the -part for the whole, as obtaining in early Palestine and many other -countries--a certain sign that tribal or racial opinion has contracted -a disgust for human sacrifice, and has sought to evade the anger of -the gods by yielding to them a portion of the blood of each worshipper, -instead of sacrificing the life of one for the general weal. - - - -The Maize-Gods of Mexico - -A special group of deities called Centeotl presided over the -agriculture of Mexico, each of whom personified one or other of the -various aspects of the maize-plant. The chief goddess of maize, -however, was Chicomecohuatl (Seven-serpent), her name being an -allusion to the fertilising power of water, which element the Mexicans -symbolised by the serpent. As Xilonen she typified the xilote, or -green ear of the maize. But it is probable that Chicomecohuatl was the -creation of an older race, and that the Nahua new-comers adopted or -brought with them another growth-spirit, the "Earth-mother," Teteoinnan -(Mother of the Gods), or Tocitzin (Our Grandmother). This goddess had -a son, Centeotl, a male maize-spirit. Sometimes the mother was also -known as Centeotl, the generic name for the entire group, and this fact -has led to some confusion in the minds of Americanists. But this does -not mean that Chicomecohuatl was by any means neglected. Her spring -festival, held on April 5, was known as Hueytozoztli (The Great Watch), -and was accompanied by a general fast, when the dwellings of the -Mexicans were decorated with bulrushes which had been sprinkled with -blood drawn from the extremities of the inmates. The statues of the -little tepitoton (household gods) were also decorated. The worshippers -then proceeded to the maize-fields, where they pulled the tender -stalks of the growing maize, and, having decorated them with flowers, -placed them in the calpulli (the common house of the village). A -mock combat then took place before the altar of Chicomecohuatl. The -girls of the village presented the goddess with bundles of maize -of the previous season's harvesting, later restoring them to the -granaries in order that they might be utilised for seed for the coming -year. Chicomecohuatl was always represented among the household deities -of the Mexicans, and on the occasion of her festival the family placed -before the image a basket of provisions surmounted by a cooked frog, -bearing on its back a piece of cornstalk stuffed with pounded maize -and vegetables. This frog was symbolic of Chalchihuitlicue, wife -of Tlaloc, the rain-god, who assisted Chicomecohuatl in providing -a bountiful harvest. In order that the soil might further benefit, -a frog, the symbol of water, was sacrificed, so that its vitality -should recuperate that of the weary and much-burdened earth. - - - -The Sacrifice of the Dancer - -A more important festival of Chicomecohuatl, however, was the -Xalaquia, which lasted from June 28 to July 14, commencing when -the maize plant had attained its full growth. The women of the -pueblo (village) wore their hair unbound, and shook and tossed it -so that by sympathetic magic the maize might take the hint and grow -correspondingly long. Chian pinolli was consumed in immense quantities, -and maize-porridge was eaten. Hilarious dances were nightly performed -in the teopan (temple), the central figure in which was the Xalaquia, a -female captive or slave, with face painted red and yellow to represent -the colours of the maize-plant. She had previously undergone a long -course of training in the dancing-school, and now, all unaware of -the horrible fate awaiting her, she danced and pirouetted gaily -among the rest. Throughout the duration of the festival she danced, -and on its expiring night she was accompanied in the dance by the -women of the community, who circled round her, chanting the deeds of -Chicomecohuatl. When daybreak appeared the company was joined by the -chiefs and headmen, who, along with the exhausted and half-fainting -victim, danced the solemn death-dance. The entire community then -approached the teocalli (pyramid of sacrifice), and, its summit -reached, the victim was stripped to a nude condition, the priest -plunged a knife of flint into her bosom, and, tearing out the still -palpitating heart, offered it up to Chicomecohuatl. In this manner -the venerable goddess, weary with the labours of inducing growth in -the maize-plant, was supposed to be revivified and refreshed. Hence -the name Xalaquia, which signifies "She who is clothed with the -Sand." Until the death of the victim it was not lawful to partake of -the new corn. - -The general appearance of Chicomecohuatl was none too pleasing. Her -image rests in the National Museum in Mexico, and is girdled with -snakes. On the underside the symbolic frog is carved. The Americanists -of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were unequal to the -task of elucidating the origin of the figure, which they designated -Teoyaominqui. The first to point out the error was Payne, in his -History of the New World called America, vol. i. p. 424. The passage -in which he announces his discovery is of such real interest that it -is worth transcribing fully. - - - -An Antiquarian Mare's-Nest - -"All the great idols of Mexico were thought to have been destroyed -until this was disinterred among other relics in the course of making -new drains in the Plaza Mayor of Mexico in August 1790. The discovery -produced an immense sensation. The idol was dragged to the court of -the University, and there set up; the Indians began to worship it and -deck it with flowers; the antiquaries, with about the same degree of -intelligence, to speculate about it. What most puzzled them was that -the face and some other parts of the goddess are found in duplicate at -the back of the figure; hence they concluded it to represent two gods -in one, the principal of whom they further concluded to be a female, -the other, indicated by the back, a male. The standard author on -Mexican antiquities at that time was the Italian dilettante Boturini, -of whom it may be said that he is better, but not much better, than -nothing at all. From page 27 of his work the antiquaries learned -that Huitzilopochtli was accompanied by the goddess Teoyaominqui, -who was charged with collecting the souls of those slain in war and -sacrifice. This was enough. The figure was at once named Teoyaominqui -or Huitzilopochtli (The One plus the Other), and has been so called -ever since. The antiquaries next elevated this imaginary goddess to -the rank of the war-god's wife. 'A soldier,' says Bardolph, 'is better -accommodated than with a wife': a fortiori, so is a war-god. Besides, -as Torquemada (vol. ii. p. 47) says with perfect truth, the Mexicans -did not think so grossly of the divinity as to have married gods -or goddesses at all. The figure is undoubtedly a female. It has no -vestige of any weapon about it, nor has it any limbs. It differs -in every particular from the war-god Huitzilopochtli, every detail -of which is perfectly well known. There never was any goddess -called Teoyaominqui. This may be plausibly inferred from the fact -that such a goddess is unknown not merely to Sahagun, Torquemada, -Acosta, Tezozomoc, Duran, and Clavigero, but to all other writers -except Boturini. The blunder of the last-named writer is easily -explained. Antonio Leon y Gama, a Mexican astronomer, wrote an -account of the discoveries of 1790, in which, evidently puzzled -by the name of Teoyaominqui, he quotes a manuscript in Mexican, -said to have been written by an Indian of Tezcuco, who was born -in 1528, to the effect that Teoyaotlatohua and Teoyaominqui were -spirits who presided over the fifteenth of the twenty signs of the -fortune-tellers' calendar, and that those born in this sign would -be brave warriors, but would soon die. (As the fifteenth sign was -quauhtli, this is likely enough.) When their hour had come the former -spirit scented them out, the latter killed them. The rubbish printed -about Huitzilopochtli, Teoyaominqui, and Mictlantecutli in connection -with this statue would fill a respectable volume. The reason why -the features were duplicated is obvious. The figure was carried in -the midst of a large crowd. Probably it was considered to be an evil -omen if the idol turned away its face from its worshippers; this the -duplicate obviated. So when the dance was performed round the figure -(cf. Janus). This duplication of the features, a characteristic of -the very oldest gods, appears to be indicated when the numeral ome -(two) is prefixed to the title of the deity. Thus the two ancestors -and preservers of the race were called Ometecuhtli and Omecihuatl -(two-chief, two-woman), ancient Toltec gods, who at the conquest -become less prominent in the theology of Mexico, and who are best -represented in that of the Mexican colony of Nicaragua." - - - -The Offering to Centeotl - -During her last hours the victim sacrificed at the Xalaquia -wore a ritual dress made from the fibres of the aloe, and with -this garment the maize-god Centeotl was clothed. Robed in this -he temporarily represented the earth-goddess, so that he might -receive her sacrifice. The blood of victims was offered up to him -in a vessel decorated with that brilliant and artistic feather-work -which excited such admiration in the breasts of the connoisseurs and -æsthetes of the Europe of the sixteenth century. Upon partaking of this -blood-offering the deity emitted a groan so intense and terrifying that -it has been left on record that such Spaniards as were present became -panic-stricken. This ceremony was followed by another, the nitiçapoloa -(tasting of the soil), which consisted in raising a little earth on -one finger to the mouth and eating it. - -As has been said, Centeotl the son has been confounded with Centeotl -the mother, who is in reality the earth-mother Teteoinnan. Each of -these deities had a teopan (temple) of his or her own, but they were -closely allied as parent and child. But of the two, Centeotl the son -was the more important. On the death of the sacrificed victim her -skin was conveyed to the temple of Centeotl the son, and worn there -in the succeeding ritual by the officiating priests. This gruesome -dress is frequently depicted in the Aztec pinturas, where the skin -of the hands, and in some instances the feet, of the victims can be -seen dangling from the wrists and ankles of the priest. - - - -Importance of the Food-Gods - -To the Mexicans the deities of most importance to the community as -a whole were undoubtedly the food-gods. In their emergence from the -hunting to the agricultural state of life, when they began to exist -almost solely upon the fruits of the earth, the Mexicans were quick -to recognise that the old deities of the chase, such as Mixcoatl, -could not now avail them or succour them in the same manner as the -guardians of the crops and fertilisers of the soil. Gradually we see -these gods, then, advance in power and influence until at the time of -the Spanish invasion we find them paramount. Even the terrible war-god -himself had an agricultural significance, as we have pointed out. A -distinct bargain with the food-gods can be clearly traced, and is -none the less obvious because it was never written or codified. The -covenant was as binding to the native mind as any made betwixt god -and man in ancient Palestine, and included mutual assistance as -well as provision for mere alimentary supply. In no mythology is the -understanding between god and man so clearly defined as in the Nahuan, -and in none is its operation better exemplified. - - - -Xipe - -Xipe (The Flayed) was widely worshipped throughout Mexico, and -is usually depicted in the pinturas as being attired in a flayed -human skin. At his special festival, the "Man-flaying," the skins -were removed from the victims and worn by the devotees of the god -for the succeeding twenty days. He is usually represented as of a -red colour. In the later days of the Aztec monarchy the kings and -leaders of Mexico assumed the dress or classical garments of Xipe. This -dress consisted of a crown made of feathers of the roseate spoonbill, -the gilt timbrel, the jacket of spoonbill feathers, and an apron of -green feathers lapping over one another in a tile-like pattern. In the -Cozcatzin Codex we see a picture of King Axayacatl dressed as Xipe in -a feather skirt, and having a tiger-skin scabbard to his sword. The -hands of a flayed human skin also dangle over the monarch's wrists, -and the feet fall over his feet like gaiters. - -Xipe's shield is a round target covered with the rose-coloured feathers -of the spoonbill, with concentric circles of a darker hue on the -surface. There are examples of it divided into an upper and lower -part, the former showing an emerald on a blue field, and the latter -a tiger-skin design. Xipe was imagined as possessing three forms, -the first that of the roseate spoonbill, the second that of the -blue cotinga, and the last that of a tiger, the three shapes perhaps -corresponding to the regions of heaven, earth, and hell, or to the -three elements, fire, earth, and water. The deities of many North -American Indian tribes show similar variations in form and colour, -which are supposed to follow as the divinity changes his dwelling -to north, south, east, or west. But Xipe is seldom depicted in the -pinturas in any other form but that of the red god, the form in which -the Mexicans adopted him from the Yopi tribe of the Pacific slope. He -is the god of human sacrifice par excellence, and may be regarded as -a Yopi equivalent of Tezcatlipoca. - - - -Nanahuatl, or Nanauatzin - -Nanahuatl (Poor Leper) presided over skin diseases, such as leprosy. It -was thought that persons afflicted with these complaints were set -apart by the moon for his service. In the Nahua tongue the words for -"leprous" and "eczematous" also mean "divine." The myth of Nanahuatl -tells how before the sun was created humanity dwelt in sable and -horrid gloom. Only a human sacrifice could hasten the appearance of -the luminary. Metztli (The Moon) led forth Nanahuatl as a sacrifice, -and he was cast upon a funeral pyre, in the flames of which he was -consumed. Metztli also cast herself upon the mass of flame, and with -her death the sun rose above the horizon. There can be no doubt that -the myth refers to the consuming of the starry or spotted night, -and incidentally to the nightly death of the moon at the flaming hour -of dawn. - - - -Xolotl - -Xolotl is of southern, possibly Zapotec, origin. He represents either -fire rushing down from the heavens or light flaming upward. It is -noticeable that in the pinturas the picture of the setting sun being -devoured by the earth is nearly always placed opposite his image. He is -probably identical with Nanahuatl, and appears as the representative -of human sacrifice. He has also affinities with Xipe. On the whole -Xolotl may be best described as a sun-god of the more southerly -tribes. His head (quaxolotl) was one of the most famous devices for -warriors' use, as sacrifice among the Nahua was, as we have seen, -closely associated with warfare. - -Xolotl was a mythical figure quite foreign to the peoples of Anahuac -or Mexico, who regarded him as something strange and monstrous. He -is alluded to as the "God of Monstrosities," and, thinks Dr. Seler, -the word "monstrosity" may suitably translate his name. He is depicted -with empty eye-sockets, which circumstance is explained by the myth -that when the gods determined to sacrifice themselves in order to -give life and strength to the newly created sun, Xolotl withdrew, -and wept so much that his eyes fell out of their sockets. This was the -Mexican explanation of a Zapotec attribute. Xolotl was originally the -"Lightning Beast" of the Maya or some other southern folk, and was -represented by them as a dog, since that animal appeared to them to -be the creature which he most resembled. But he was by no means a -"natural" dog, hence their conception of him as unnatural. Dr. Seler -is inclined to identify him with the tapir, and indeed Sahagun speaks -of a strange animal-being, tlaca-xolotl, which has "a large snout, -large teeth, hoofs like an ox, a thick hide, and reddish hair"--not -a bad description of the tapir of Central America. Of course to the -Mexicans the god Xolotl was no longer an animal, although he had -evolved from one, and was imagined by them to have the form shown in -the accompanying illustration. - - - -The Fire-God - -This deity was known in Mexico under various names, notably Tata -(Our Father), Huehueteotl (Oldest of Gods), and Xiuhtecutli (Lord -of the Year). He was represented as of the colour of fire, with a -black face, a headdress of green feathers, and bearing on his back -a yellow serpent, to typify the serpentine nature of fire. He also -bore a mirror of gold to show his connection with the sun, from which -all heat emanates. On rising in the morning all Mexican families made -Xiuhtecutli an offering of a piece of bread and a drink. He was thus -not only, like Vulcan, the god of thunderbolts and conflagrations, -but also the milder deity of the domestic hearth. Once a year the fire -in every Mexican house was extinguished, and rekindled by friction -before the idol of Xiuhtecutli. When a Mexican baby was born it passed -through a baptism of fire on the fourth day, up to which time a fire, -lighted at the time of its birth, was kept burning in order to nourish -its existence. - - - -Mictlan - -Mictlantecutli (Lord of Hades) was God of the Dead and of the grim and -shadowy realm to which the souls of men repair after their mortal -sojourn. He is represented in the pinturas as a grisly monster -with capacious mouth, into which fall the spirits of the dead. His -terrible abode was sometimes alluded to as Tlalxicco (Navel of the -Earth), but the Mexicans in general seem to have thought that it was -situated in the far north, which they regarded as a place of famine, -desolation, and death. Here those who by the circumstances of their -demise were unfitted to enter the paradise of Tlaloc--namely, those -who had not been drowned or had not died a warrior's death, or, -in the case of women, had not died in childbed--passed a dreary and -meaningless existence. Mictlan was surrounded by a species of demons -called tzitzimimes, and had a spouse, Mictecaciuatl. When we come -to discuss the analogous deity of the Maya we shall see that in all -probability Mictlan was represented by the bat, the animal typical of -the underworld. In a preceding paragraph dealing with the funerary -customs we have described the journey of the soul to the abode of -Mictlan, and the ordeals through which the spirit of the defunct had -to pass ere entering his realm (see p. 37). - - - -Worship of the Planet Venus - -The Mexicans designated the planet Venus Citlalpol (The Great Star) -and Tlauizcalpantecutli (Lord of the Dawn). It seems to have been -the only star worshipped by them, and was regarded with considerable -veneration. Upon its rising they stopped up the chimneys of their -houses, so that no harm of any kind might enter with its light. A -column called Ilhuicatlan, meaning "In the Sky," stood in the court -of the great temple of Mexico, and upon this a symbol of the planet -was painted. On its reappearance during its usual circuit, captives -were taken before this representation and sacrificed to it. It will be -remembered that the myth of Quetzalcoatl states that the heart of that -deity flew upward from the funeral pyre on which he was consumed and -became the planet Venus. It is not easy to say whether or not this myth -is anterior to the adoption of the worship of the planet by the Nahua, -for it may be a tale of pre- or post-Nahuan growth. In the tonalamatl -Tlauizcalpantecutli is represented as lord of the ninth division of -thirteen days, beginning with Ce Coatl (the sign of "One Serpent"). In -several of the pinturas he is represented as having a white body with -long red stripes, while round his eyes is a deep black painting like a -domino mask, bordered with small white circles. His lips are a bright -vermilion. The red stripes are probably introduced to accentuate the -whiteness of his body, which is understood to symbolise the peculiar -half-light which emanates from the planet. The black paint on the face, -surrounding the eye, typifies the dark sky of night. In Mexican and -Central American symbolism the eye often represents light, and here, -surrounded by blackness as it is, it is perhaps almost hieroglyphic. As -the star of evening, Tlauizcalpantecutli is sometimes shown with the -face of a skull, to signify his descent into the underworld, whither -he follows the sun. That the Mexicans and Maya carefully and accurately -observed his periods of revolution is witnessed by the pinturas. - - - -Sun-Worship - -The sun was regarded by the Nahua, and indeed by all the Mexican and -Central American peoples, as the supreme deity, or rather the principal -source of subsistence and life. He was always alluded to as the teotl, -the god, and his worship formed as it were a background to that of -all the other gods. His Mexican name, Ipalnemohuani (He by whom Men -Live) shows that the Mexicans regarded him as the primal source of -being, and the heart, the symbol of life, was looked upon as his -special sacrifice. Those who rose at sunrise to prepare food for the -day held up to him on his appearance the hearts of animals they had -slain for cooking, and even the hearts of the victims to Tezcatlipoca -and Huitzilopochtli were first held up to the sun, as if he had a -primary right to the sacrifice, before being cast into the bowl of -copal which lay at the feet of the idol. It was supposed that the -luminary rejoiced in offerings of blood, and that it constituted the -only food which would render him sufficiently vigorous to undertake -his daily journey through the heavens. He is often depicted in the -pinturas as licking up the gore of the sacrificial victims with his -long tongue-like rays. The sun must fare well if he was to continue -to give life, light, and heat to mankind. - -The Mexicans, as we have already seen, believed that the luminary they -knew had been preceded by others, each of which had been quenched by -some awful cataclysm of nature. Eternity had, in fact, been broken -up into epochs, marked by the destruction of successive suns. In the -period preceding that in which they lived, a mighty deluge had deprived -the sun of life, and some such catastrophe was apprehended at the end -of every "sheaf" of fifty-two years. The old suns were dead, and the -current sun was no more immortal than they. At the end of one of the -"sheaves" he too would succumb. - - - -Sustaining the Sun - -It was therefore necessary to sustain the sun by the daily food -of human sacrifice, for by a tithe of human life alone would he -be satisfied. Naturally a people holding such a belief would look -elsewhere than within their own borders for the material wherewith -to placate their deity. This could be most suitably found among the -inhabitants of a neighbouring state. It thus became the business of -the warrior class in the Aztec state to furnish forth the altars of -the gods with human victims. The most suitable district of supply was -the pueblo of Tlaxcallan, or Tlascala, the people of which were of -cognate origin to the Aztecs. The communities had, although related, -been separated for so many generations that they had begun to regard -each other as traditional enemies, and on a given day in the year -their forces met at an appointed spot for the purpose of engaging in a -strife which should furnish one side or the other with a sufficiency -of victims for the purpose of sacrifice. The warrior who captured -the largest number of opponents alive was regarded as the champion -of the day, and was awarded the chief honours of the combat. The sun -was therefore the god of warriors, as he would give them victory in -battle in order that they might supply him with food. The rites of this -military worship of the luminary were held in the Quauhquauhtinchan -(House of the Eagles), an armoury set apart for the regiment of that -name. On March 17 and December 1 and 2, at the ceremonies known as -Nauhollin (The Four Motions--alluding to the quivering appearance of -the sun's rays), the warriors gathered in this hall for the purpose of -despatching a messenger to their lord the sun. High up on the wall of -the principal court was a great symbolic representation of the orb, -painted upon a brightly coloured cotton hanging. Before this copal -and other fragrant gums and spices were burned four times a day. The -victim, a war-captive, was placed at the foot of a long staircase -leading up to the Quauhxicalli (Cup of the Eagles), the name of the -stone on which he was to be sacrificed. He was clothed in red striped -with white and wore white plumes in his hair--colours symbolical of -the sun--while he bore a staff decorated with feathers and a shield -covered with tufts of cotton. He also carried a bundle of eagle's -feathers and some paint on his shoulders, to enable the sun, to whom -he was the emissary, to paint his face. He was then addressed by the -officiating priest in the following terms: "Sir, we pray you go to our -god the sun, and greet him on our behalf; tell him that his sons and -warriors and chiefs and those who remain here beg of him to remember -them and to favour them from that place where he is, and to receive -this small offering which we send him. Give him this staff to help -him on his journey, and this shield for his defence, and all the rest -that you have in this bundle." The victim, having undertaken to carry -the message to the sun-god, was then despatched upon his long journey. - -A Quauhxicalli is preserved in the National Museum of Mexico. It -consists of a basaltic mass, circular in form, on which are shown in -sculpture a series of groups representing Mexican warriors receiving -the submission of war-captives. The prisoner tenders a flower to his -captor, symbolical of the life he is about to offer up, for lives -were the "flowers" offered to the gods, and the campaign in which -these "blossoms" were captured was called Xochiyayotl (The War of -Flowers). The warriors who receive the submission of the captives are -represented in the act of tearing the plumes from their heads. These -bas-reliefs occupy the sides of the stone. The face of it is covered -by a great solar disc having eight rays, and the surface is hollowed -out in the middle to form a receptacle for blood--the "cup" alluded -to in the name of the stone. The Quauhxicalli must not be confounded -with the temalacatl (spindle stone), to which the alien warrior who -received a chance of life was secured. The gladiatorial combat gave -the war-captive an opportunity to escape through superior address in -arms. The temalacatl was somewhat higher than a man, and was provided -with a platform at the top, in the middle of which was placed a great -stone with a hole in it through which a rope was passed. To this the -war-captive was secured, and if he could vanquish seven of his captors -he was released. If he failed to do so he was at once sacrificed. - - - -A Mexican Valhalla - -The Mexican warriors believed that they continued in the service of the -sun after death, and, like the Scandinavian heroes in Valhalla, that -they were admitted to the dwelling of the god, where they shared all -the delights of his diurnal round. The Mexican warrior dreaded to die -in his bed, and craved an end on the field of battle. This explains the -desperate nature of their resistance to the Spaniards under Cortés, -whose officers stated that the Mexicans seemed to desire to die -fighting. After death they believed that they would partake of the -cannibal feasts offered up to the sun and imbibe the juice of flowers. - - - -The Feast of Totec - -The chief of the festivals to the sun was that held in spring at the -vernal equinox, before the representation of a deity known as Totec -(Our Great Chief). Although Totec was a solar deity he had been -adopted from the people of an alien state, the Zapotecs of Zalisco, -and is therefore scarcely to be regarded as the principal sun-god. His -festival was celebrated by the symbolical slaughter of all the other -gods for the purpose of providing sustenance to the sun, each of -the gods being figuratively slain in the person of a victim. Totec -was attired in the same manner as the warrior despatched twice a -year to assure the sun of the loyalty of the Mexicans. The festival -appears to have been primarily a seasonal one, as bunches of dried -maize were offered to Totec. But its larger meaning is obvious. It -was, indeed, a commemoration of the creation of the sun. This is -proved by the description of the image of Totec, which was robed and -equipped as the solar traveller, by the solar disc and tables of the -sun's progress carved on the altar employed in the ceremony, and by -the robes of the victims, who were dressed to represent dwellers in -the sun-god's halls. Perhaps Totec, although of alien origin, was -the only deity possessed by the Mexicans who directly represented -the sun. As a borrowed god he would have but a minor position in the -Mexican pantheon, but again as the only sun-god whom it was necessary -to bring into prominence during a strictly solar festival he would -be for the time, of course, a very important deity indeed. - - - -Tepeyollotl - -Tepeyollotl means Heart of the Mountain, and evidently alludes -to a deity whom the Nahua connected with seismic disturbances and -earthquakes. By the interpreter of the Codex Telleriano-Remensis he -is called Tepeolotlec, an obvious distortion of his real name. The -interpreter of the codex states that his name "refers to the -condition of the earth after the flood. The sacrifices of these -thirteen days were not good, and the literal translation of their -name is 'dirt sacrifices.' They caused palsy and bad humours.... This -Tepeolotlec was lord of these thirteen days. In them were celebrated -the feast to the jaguar, and the last four preceding days were days -of fasting.... Tepeolotlec means the 'Lord of Beasts.' The four feast -days were in honour of the Suchiquezal, who was the man that remained -behind on the earth upon which we now live. This Tepeolotlec was the -same as the echo of the voice when it re-echoes in a valley from one -mountain to another. This name 'jaguar' is given to the earth because -the jaguar is the boldest animal, and the echo which the voice awakens -in the mountains is a survival of the flood, it is said." - -From this we can see that Tepeyollotl is a deity of the earth pure -and simple, a god of desert places. It is certain that he was not a -Mexican god, or at least was not of Nahua origin, as he is mentioned -by none of those writers who deal with Nahua traditions, and we must -look for him among the Mixtecs and Zapotecs. - - - -Macuilxochitl, or Xochipilli - -This deity, whose names mean Five-Flower and Source of Flowers, was -regarded as the patron of luck in gaming. He may have been adopted by -the Nahua from the Zapotecs, but the converse may be equally true. The -Zapotecs represented him with a design resembling a butterfly about -the mouth, and a many-coloured face which looks out of the open -jaws of a bird with a tall and erect crest. The worship of this god -appears to have been very widespread. Sahagun says of him that a fête -was held in his honour, which was preceded by a rigorous fast. The -people covered themselves with ornaments and jewels symbolic of the -deity, as if they desired to represent him, and dancing and singing -proceeded gaily to the sound of the drum. Offerings of the blood of -various animals followed, and specially prepared cakes were submitted -to the god. This simple fare, however, was later followed by human -sacrifices, rendered by the notables, who brought certain of their -slaves for immolation. This completed the festival. - - - -Father and Mother Gods - -The Nahua believed that Ometecutli and Omeciuatl were the father -and mother of the human species. The names signify Lords of Duality -or Lords of the Two Sexes. They were also called Tonacatecutli and -Tonacaciuatl (Lord and Lady of Our Flesh, or of Subsistence). They -were in fact regarded as the sexual essence of the creative deity, -or perhaps more correctly of deity in general. They occupied the first -place in the Nahua calendar, to signify that they had existed from the -beginning, and they are usually represented as being clothed in rich -attire. Ometecutli (a literal translation of his name is Two-Lord) -is sometimes identified with the sky and the fire-god, the female -deity representing the earth or water--conceptions similar to those -respecting Kronos and Gæa. We refer again to these supreme divinities -in the following chapter (see p. 118). - - - -The Pulque-Gods - -When a man was intoxicated with the native Mexican drink of pulque, -a liquor made from the juice of the Agave Americana, he was believed -to be under the influence of a god or spirit. The commonest form -under which the drink-god was worshipped was the rabbit, that animal -being considered to be utterly devoid of sense. This particular -divinity was known as Ometochtli. The scale of debauchery which -it was desired to reach was indicated by the number of rabbits -worshipped, the highest number, four hundred, representing the most -extreme degree of intoxication. The chief pulque-gods apart from -these were Patecatl and Tequechmecauiani. If the drunkard desired -to escape the perils of accidental hanging during intoxication, it -was necessary to sacrifice to the latter, but if death by drowning -was apprehended Teatlahuiani, the deity who harried drunkards to a -watery grave, was placated. If the debauchee wished his punishment -not to exceed a headache, Quatlapanqui (The Head-splitter) was -sacrificed to, or else Papaztac (The Nerveless). Each trade or -profession had its own Ometochtli, but for the aristocracy there -was only one of these gods, Cohuatzincatl, a name signifying "He -who has Grandparents." Several of these drink-gods had names which -connected them with various localities; for example, Tepoxtecatl was -the pulque-god of Tepoztlan. The calendar day Ometochtli, which means -"Two-Rabbit," because of the symbol which accompanied it, was under -the special protection of these gods, and the Mexicans believed that -any one born on that day was almost inevitably doomed to become a -drunkard. All the pulque-gods were closely associated with the soil, -and with the earth-goddess. They wore the golden Huaxtec nose-ornament, -the yaca-metztli, of crescent shape, which characterised the latter, -and indeed this ornament was inscribed upon all articles sacred to -the pulque-gods. Their faces were painted red and black, as were -objects consecrated to them, their blankets and shields. After -the Indians had harvested their maize they drank to intoxication, -and invoked one or other of these gods. On the whole it is safe -to infer that they were originally deities of local husbandry who -imparted virtue to the soil as pulque imparted strength and courage -to the warrior. The accompanying sketch of the god Tepoxtecatl (see -p. 117) well illustrates the distinguishing characteristics of the -pulque-god class. Here we can observe the face painted in two colours, -the crescent-shaped nose-ornament, the bicoloured shield, the long -necklace made from the malinalli herb, and the ear-pendants. - -It is of course clear that the drink-gods were of the same class as -the food-gods--patrons of the fruitful soil--but it is strange that -they should be male whilst the food-gods are mostly female. - - - -The Goddesses of Mexico: Metztli - -Metztli, or Yohualticitl (The Lady of Night), was the Mexican goddess -of the moon. She had in reality two phases, one that of a beneficent -protectress of harvests and promoter of growth in general, and the -other that of a bringer of dampness, cold, and miasmic airs, ghosts, -mysterious shapes of the dim half-light of night and its oppressive -silence. - -To a people in the agricultural stage of civilisation the moon appears -as the great recorder of harvests. But she has also supremacy over -water, which is always connected by primitive peoples with the -moon. Citatli (Moon) and Atl (Water) are constantly confounded in -Nahua myth, and in many ways their characteristics were blended. It -was Metztli who led forth Nanahuatl the Leprous to the pyre whereon -he perished--a reference to the dawn, in which the starry sky of -night is consumed in the fires of the rising sun. - - - -Tlazolteotl - -Tlazolteotl (God of Ordure), or Tlaelquani (Filth-eater), was called -by the Mexicans the earth-goddess because she was the eradicator of -sins, to whose priests the people went to make confession so that -they might be absolved from their misdeeds. Sin was symbolised -by the Mexicans as excrement. Confession covered only the sins -of immorality. But if Tlazolteotl was the goddess of confession, -she was also the patroness of desire and luxury. It was, however, -as a deity whose chief office was the eradication of human sin that -she was pre-eminent. The process by which this was supposed to be -effected is quaintly described by Sahagun in the twelfth chapter of -his first book. The penitent addressed the confessor as follows: "Sir, -I desire to approach that most powerful god, the protector of all, that -is to say, Tezcatlipoca. I desire to tell him my sins in secret." The -confessor replied: "Be happy, my son: that which thou wishest to do -will be to thy good and advantage." The confessor then opened the -divinatory book known as the Tonalamatl (that is, the Book of the -Calendar) and acquainted the applicant with the day which appeared -the most suitable for his confession. The day having arrived, the -penitent provided himself with a mat, copal gum to burn as incense, -and wood whereon to burn it. If he was a person high in office the -priest repaired to his house, but in the case of lesser people the -confession took place in the dwelling of the priest. Having lighted -the fire and burned the incense, the penitent addressed the fire in -the following terms: "Thou, lord, who art the father and mother of -the gods, and the most ancient of them all, thy servant, thy slave -bows before thee. Weeping, he approaches thee in great distress. He -comes plunged in grief, because he has been buried in sin, having -backslidden, and partaken of those vices and evil delights which merit -death. O master most compassionate, who art the upholder and defence -of all, receive the penitence and anguish of thy slave and vassal." - -This prayer having concluded, the confessor then turned to the penitent -and thus addressed him: "My son, thou art come into the presence of -that god who is the protector and upholder of all; thou art come to -him to confess thy evil vices and thy hidden uncleannesses; thou art -come to him to unbosom the secrets of thy heart. Take care that thou -omit nothing from the catalogue of thy sins in the presence of our -lord who is called Tezcatlipoca. It is certain that thou art before -him who is invisible and impalpable, thou who art not worthy to be -seen before him, or to speak with him...." - -The allusions to Tezcatlipoca are, of course, to him in the shape -of Tlazolteotl. Having listened to a sermon by the confessor, the -penitent then confessed his misdeeds, after which the confessor said: -"My son, thou hast before our lord god confessed in his presence thy -evil actions. I wish to say in his name that thou hast an obligation -to make. At the time when the goddesses called Ciuapipiltin descend to -earth during the celebration of the feast of the goddesses of carnal -things, whom they name Ixcuiname, thou shalt fast during four days, -punishing thy stomach and thy mouth. When the day of the feast of -the Ixcuiname arrives thou shalt scarify thy tongue with the small -thorns of the osier [called teocalcacatl or tlazotl], and if that is -not sufficient thou shalt do likewise to thine ears, the whole for -penitence, for the remission of thy sin, and as a meritorious act. Thou -wilt apply to thy tongue the middle of a spine of maguey, and thou -wilt scarify thy shoulders.... That done, thy sins will be pardoned." - -If the sins of the penitent were not very grave the priest would -enjoin upon him a fast of a more or less prolonged nature. Only old -men confessed crimes in veneribus, as the punishment for such was -death, and younger men had no desire to risk the penalty involved, -although the priests were enjoined to strict secrecy. - -Father Burgoa describes very fully a ceremony of this kind which came -under his notice in 1652 in the Zapotec village of San Francisco de -Cajonos. He encountered on a tour of inspection an old native cacique, -or chief, of great refinement of manners and of a stately presence, -who dressed in costly garments after the Spanish fashion, and who -was regarded by the Indians with much veneration. This man came to -the priest for the purpose of reporting upon the progress in things -spiritual and temporal in his village. Burgoa recognised his urbanity -and wonderful command of the Spanish language, but perceived by certain -signs that he had been taught to look for by long experience that -the man was a pagan. He communicated his suspicions to the vicar of -the village, but met with such assurances of the cacique's soundness -of faith that he believed himself to be in error for once. Shortly -afterwards, however, a wandering Spaniard perceived the chief in -a retired place in the mountains performing idolatrous ceremonies, -and aroused the monks, two of whom accompanied him to the spot where -the cacique had been seen indulging in his heathenish practices. They -found on the altar "feathers of many colours, sprinkled with blood -which the Indians had drawn from the veins under their tongues and -behind their ears, incense spoons and remains of copal, and in the -middle a horrible stone figure, which was the god to whom they had -offered this sacrifice in expiation of their sins, while they made -their confessions to the blasphemous priests, and cast off their -sins in the following manner: they had woven a kind of dish out of -a strong herb, specially gathered for this purpose, and casting this -before the priest, said to him that they came to beg mercy of their -god, and pardon for their sins that they had committed during that -year, and that they brought them all carefully enumerated. They then -drew out of a cloth pairs of thin threads made of dry maize husks, -that they had tied two by two in the middle with a knot, by which -they represented their sins. They laid these threads on the dishes of -grass, and over them pierced their veins, and let the blood trickle -upon them, and the priest took these offerings to the idol, and in a -long speech he begged the god to forgive these, his sons, their sins -which were brought to him, and to permit them to be joyful and hold -feasts to him as their god and lord. Then the priest came back to -those who had confessed, delivered a long discourse on the ceremonies -they had still to perform, and told them that the god had pardoned -them and that they might be glad again and sin anew." - - - -Chalchihuitlicue - -This goddess was the wife of Tlaloc, the god of rain and moisture. The -name means Lady of the Emerald Robe, in allusion to the colour of -the element over which the deity partly presided. She was specially -worshipped by the water-carriers of Mexico, and all those whose -avocation brought them into contact with water. Her costume was -peculiar and interesting. Round her neck she wore a wonderful collar -of precious stones, from which hung a gold pendant. She was crowned -with a coronet of blue paper, decorated with green feathers. Her -eyebrows were of turquoise, set in as mosaic, and her garment was a -nebulous blue-green in hue, recalling the tint of sea-water in the -tropics. The resemblance was heightened by a border of sea-flowers -or water-plants, one of which she also carried in her left hand, -whilst in her right she bore a vase surmounted by a cross, emblematic -of the four points of the compass whence comes the rain. - - - -Mixcoatl - -Mixcoatl was the Aztec god of the chase, and was probably a deity -of the Otomi aborigines of Mexico. The name means Cloud Serpent, -and this originated the idea that Mixcoatl was a representation of -the tropical whirlwind. This is scarcely correct, however, as the -hunter-god is identified with the tempest and thunder-cloud, and the -lightning is supposed to represent his arrows. Like many other gods -of the chase, he is figured as having the characteristics of a deer or -rabbit. He is usually depicted as carrying a sheaf of arrows, to typify -thunderbolts. It may be that Mixcoatl was an air and thunder deity of -the Otomi, older in origin than either Quetzalcoatl or Tezcatlipoca, -and that his inclusion in the Nahua pantheon becoming necessary in -order to quieten Nahua susceptibilities, he received the status of -god of the chase. But, on the other hand, the Mexicans, unlike the -Peruvians, who adopted many foreign gods for political purposes, -had little regard for the feelings of other races, and only accepted -an alien deity into the native circle for some good reason, most -probably because they noted the omission of the figure in their own -divine system. Or, again, dread of a certain foreign god might force -them to adopt him as their own in the hope of placating him. Their -worship of Quetzalcoatl is perhaps an instance of this. - - - -Camaxtli - -This deity was the war-god of the Tlascalans, who were constantly -in opposition to the Aztecs of Mexico. He was to the warriors of -Tlascala practically what Huitzilopochtli was to those of Mexico. He -was closely identified with Mixcoatl, and with the god of the morning -star, whose colours are depicted on his face and body. But in all -probability Camaxtli was a god of the chase, who in later times was -adopted as a god of war because of his possession of the lightning -dart, the symbol of divine warlike prowess. In the mythologies of -North America we find similar hunter-gods, who sometimes evolve into -gods of war for a like reason, and again gods of the chase who have -all the appearance and attributes of the creatures hunted. - - - -Iztlilton - -Ixtlilton (The Little Black One) was the Mexican god of medicine -and healing, and therefore was often alluded to as the brother of -Macuilxochitl, the god of well-being or good luck. From the account of -the general appearance of his temple--an edifice of painted boards--it -would seem to have evolved from the primitive tent or lodge of the -medicine-man, or shaman. It contained several water-jars called tlilatl -(black water), the contents of which were administered to children in -bad health. The parents of children who benefited from the treatment -bestowed a feast on the deity, whose idol was carried to the residence -of the grateful father, where ceremonial dances and oblations were -made before it. It was then thought that Ixtlilton descended to -the courtyard to open fresh jars of pulque liquor provided for the -feasters, and the entertainment concluded by an examination by the -Aztec Æsculapius of such of the pulque jars dedicated to his service -as stood in the courtyard for everyday use. Should these be found in -an unclean condition, it was understood that the master of the house -was a man of evil life, and he was presented by the priest with a -mask to hide his face from his scoffing friends. - - - -Omacatl - -Omacatl was the Mexican god of festivity and joy. The name signifies -Two Reeds. He was worshipped chiefly by bon-vivants and the rich, -who celebrated him in splendid feasts and orgies. The idol of the -deity was invariably placed in the chamber where these functions were -to take place, and the Aztecs were known to regard it as a heinous -offence if anything derogatory to the god were performed during the -convivial ceremony, or if any omission were made from the prescribed -form which these gatherings usually took. It was thought that if the -host had been in any way remiss Omacatl would appear to the startled -guests, and in tones of great severity upbraid him who had given the -feast, intimating that he would regard him no longer as a worshipper -and would henceforth abandon him. A terrible malady, the symptoms of -which were akin to those of falling-sickness, would shortly afterwards -seize the guests; but as such symptoms are not unlike those connected -with acute indigestion and other gastric troubles, it is probable -that the gourmets who paid homage to the god of good cheer may have -been suffering from a too strenuous instead of a lukewarm worship of -him. But the idea of communion which underlay so many of the Mexican -rites undoubtedly entered into the worship of Omacatl, for prior -to a banquet in his honour those who took part in it formed a great -bone out of maize paste, pretending that it was one of the bones of -the deity whose merry rites they were about to engage in. This they -devoured, washing it down with great draughts of pulque. The idol of -Omacatl was provided with a recess in the region of the stomach, and -into this provisions were stuffed. He was represented as a squatting -figure, painted black and white, crowned with a paper coronet, and -hung with coloured paper. A flower-fringed cloak and sceptre were -the other symbols of royalty worn by this Mexican Dionysus. - - - -Opochtli - -Opochtli (The Left-handed) was the god sacred to fishers and -bird-catchers. At one period of Aztec history he must have been a deity -of considerable consequence, since for generations the Aztecs were -marsh-dwellers and depended for their daily food on the fish netted -in the lakes and the birds snared in the reeds. They credited the god -with the invention of the harpoon or trident for spearing fish and the -fishing-rod and bird-net. The fishermen and bird-catchers of Mexico -held on occasion a special feast in honour of Opochtli, at which a -certain liquor called octli was consumed. A procession was afterwards -formed, in which marched old people who had dedicated themselves to -the worship of the god, probably because they could obtain no other -means of subsistence than that afforded by the vocation of which he -was tutelar and patron. He was represented as a man painted black, -his head decorated with the plumes of native wild birds, and crowned -by a paper coronet in the shape of a rose. He was clad in green paper -which fell to the knee, and was shod with white sandals. In his left -hand he held a shield painted red, having in the centre a white flower -with four petals placed crosswise, and in his right hand he held a -sceptre in the form of a cup. - - - -Yacatecutli - -Yacatecutli was the patron of travellers of the merchant class, who -worshipped him by piling their staves together and sprinkling on the -heap blood from their noses and ears. The staff of the traveller was -his symbol, to which prayer was made and offerings of flowers and -incense tendered. - - - -The Aztec Priesthood - -The Aztec priesthood was a hierarchy in whose hands resided a goodly -portion of the power of the upper classes, especially that connected -with education and endowment. The mere fact that its members possessed -the power of selecting victims for sacrifice must have been sufficient -to place them in an almost unassailable position, and their prophetic -utterances, founded upon the art of divination--so great a feature in -the life of the Aztec people, who depended upon it from the cradle -to the grave--probably assisted them in maintaining their hold upon -the popular imagination. But withal the evidence of unbiased Spanish -ecclesiastics, such as Sahagun, tends to show that they utilised their -influence for good, and soundly instructed the people under their -charge in the cardinal virtues; "in short," says the venerable friar, -"to perform the duties plainly pointed out by natural religion." - - - -Priestly Revenues - -The establishment of the national religion was, as in the case of the -mediæval Church in Europe, based upon a land tenure from which the -priestly class derived a substantial though, considering their numbers, -by no means inordinate revenue. The principal temples possessed -lands which sufficed for the maintenance of the priests attached to -them. There was, besides, a system of first-fruits fixed by law for the -priesthood, the surplusage therefrom being distributed among the poor. - - - -Education - -Education was entirely conducted by the priesthood, which undertook the -task in a manner highly creditable to it, when consideration is given -to surrounding conditions. Education was, indeed, highly organised. It -was divided into primary and secondary grades. Boys were instructed -by priests, girls by holy women or "nuns." The secondary schools -were called calmecac, and were devoted to the higher branches of -education, the curriculum including the deciphering of the pinturas, -or manuscripts, astrology and divination, with a wealth of religious -instruction. - - - -Orders of the Priesthood - -At the head of the Aztec priesthood stood the Mexicatl Teohuatzin -(Mexican Lord of Divine Matters). He had a seat on the emperor's -council, and possessed power which was second only to the royal -authority. Next in rank to him was the high-priest of Quetzalcoatl, who -dwelt in almost entire seclusion, and who had authority over his own -caste only. This office was in all probability a relic from "Toltec" -times. The priests of Quetzalcoatl were called by name after their -tutelar deity. The lesser grades included the Tlenamacac (Ordinary -Priests), who were habited in black, and wore their hair long, covering -it with a kind of mantilla. The lowest order was that of the Lamacazton -(Little Priests), youths who were graduating in the priestly office. - - - -An Exacting Ritual - -The priesthood enjoyed no easy existence, but led an austere life -of fasting, penance, and prayer, with constant observance of an -arduous and exacting ritual, which embraced sacrifice, the upkeep -of perpetual fires, the chanting of holy songs to the gods, dances, -and the superintendence of the ever-recurring festivals. They were -required to rise during the night to render praise, and to maintain -themselves in a condition of absolute cleanliness by means of constant -ablutions. We have seen that blood-offering--the substitution of -the part for the whole--was a common method of sacrifice, and in -this the priests engaged personally on frequent occasions. If the -caste did not spare the people it certainly did not spare itself, -and its outlook was perhaps only a shade more gloomy and fanatical -than that of the Spanish hierarchy which succeeded it in the land. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER III: MYTHS AND LEGENDS OF THE ANCIENT MEXICANS - - -The Mexican Idea of the Creation - -"In the year and in the day of the clouds," writes Garcia in his Origin -de los Indias, professing to furnish the reader with a translation -of an original Mixtec picture-manuscript, "before ever were years -or days, the world lay in darkness. All things were orderless, and -a water covered the slime and ooze that the earth then was." This -picture is common to almost all American creation-stories. [9] -The red man in general believed the habitable globe to have been -created from the slime which arose above the primeval waters, and -there can be no doubt that the Nahua shared this belief. We encounter -in Nahua myth two beings of a bisexual nature, known to the Aztecs -as Ometecutli-Omeciuatl (Lords of Duality), who were represented as -the deities dominating the genesis of things, the beginning of the -world. We have already become acquainted with them in Chapter II (see -p. 104), but we may recapitulate. These beings, whose individual names -were Tonacatecutli and Tonacaciuatl (Lord and Lady of our Flesh), -occupy the first place in the calendar, a circumstance which makes -it plain that they were regarded as responsible for the origin of all -created things. They were invariably represented as being clothed in -rich, variegated garments, symbolical of light. Tonacatecutli, the male -principle of creation or world-generation, is often identified with the -sun- or fire-god, but there is no reason to consider him as symbolical -of anything but the sky. The firmament is almost universally regarded -by American aboriginal peoples as the male principle of the cosmos, -in contradistinction to the earth, which they think of as possessing -feminine attributes, and which is undoubtedly personified in this -instance by Tonacaciuatl. - -In North American Indian myths we find the Father Sky brooding upon -the Mother Earth, just as in early Greek creation-story we see the -elements uniting, the firmament impregnating the soil and rendering -it fruitful. To the savage mind the growth of crops and vegetation -proceeds as much from the sky as from the earth. Untutored man beholds -the fecundation of the soil by rain, and, seeing in everything the -expression of an individual and personal impulse, regards the genesis -of vegetable growth as analogous to human origin. To him, then, the -sky is the life-giving male principle, the fertilising seed of which -descends in rain. The earth is the receptive element which hatches -that with which the sky has impregnated her. - - - -Ixtlilxochitl's Legend of the Creation - -One of the most complete creation-stories in Mexican mythology is -that given by the half-blood Indian author Ixtlilxochitl, who, we -cannot doubt, received it directly from native sources. He states -that the Toltecs credited a certain Tloque Nahuaque (Lord of All -Existence) with the creation of the universe, the stars, mountains, -and animals. At the same time he made the first man and woman, from -whom all the inhabitants of the earth are descended. This "first -earth" was destroyed by the "water-sun." At the commencement of the -next epoch the Toltecs appeared, and after many wanderings settled -in Huehue Tlapallan (Very Old Tlapallan). Then followed the second -catastrophe, that of the "wind-sun." The remainder of the legend -recounts how mighty earthquakes shook the world and destroyed the -earth-giants. These earth-giants (Quinames) were analogous to the Greek -Titans, and were a source of great uneasiness to the Toltecs. In the -opinion of the old historians they were descended from the races who -inhabited the more northerly portion of Mexico. - - - -Creation-Story of the Mixtecs - -It will be well to return for a moment to the creation-story of the -Mixtecs, which, if emanating from a somewhat isolated people in the -extreme south of the Mexican Empire, at least affords us a vivid -picture of what a folk closely related to the Nahua race regarded -as a veritable account of the creative process. When the earth had -arisen from the primeval waters, one day the deer-god, who bore the -surname Puma-Snake, and the beautiful deer-goddess, or Jaguar-Snake, -appeared. They had human form, and with their great knowledge (that -is, with their magic) they raised a high cliff over the water, and -built on it fine palaces for their dwelling. On the summit of this -cliff they laid a copper axe with the edge upward, and on this edge -the heavens rested. The palaces stood in Upper Mixteca, close to -Apoala, and the cliff was called Place where the Heavens Stood. The -gods lived happily together for many centuries, when it chanced that -two little boys were born to them, beautiful of form and skilled -and experienced in the arts. From the days of their birth they were -named Wind-Nine-Snake (Viento de Neuve Culebras) and Wind-Nine-Cave -(Viento de Neuve Cavernas). Much care was given to their education, -and they possessed the knowledge of how to change themselves into -an eagle or a snake, to make themselves invisible, and even to pass -through solid bodies. - -After a time these youthful gods decided to make an offering and a -sacrifice to their ancestors. Taking incense vessels made of clay, -they filled them with tobacco, to which they set fire, allowing it to -smoulder. The smoke rose heavenward, and that was the first offering -(to the gods). Then they made a garden with shrubs and flowers, -trees and fruit-bearing plants, and sweet-scented herbs. Adjoining -this they made a grass-grown level place (un prado), and equipped -it with everything necessary for sacrifice. The pious brothers lived -contentedly on this piece of ground, tilled it, burned tobacco, and -with prayers, vows, and promises they supplicated their ancestors to -let the light appear, to let the water collect in certain places and -the earth be freed from its covering (water), for they had no more -than that little garden for their subsistence. In order to strengthen -their prayer they pierced their ears and their tongues with pointed -knives of flint, and sprinkled the blood on the trees and plants with -a brush of willow twigs. - -The deer-gods had more sons and daughters, but there came a flood in -which many of these perished. After the catastrophe was over the god -who is called the Creator of All Things formed the heavens and the -earth, and restored the human race. - - - -Zapotec Creation-Myth - -Among the Zapotecs, a people related to the Mixtecs, we find a similar -conception of the creative process. Cozaana is mentioned as the creator -and maker of all beasts in the valuable Zapotec dictionary of Father -Juan de Cordova, and Huichaana as the creator of men and fishes. Thus -we have two separate creations for men and animals. Cozaana would -appear to apply to the sun as the creator of all beasts, but, strangely -enough, is alluded to in Cordova's dictionary as "procreatrix," whilst -he is undoubtedly a male deity. Huichaana, the creator of men and -fishes, is, on the other hand, alluded to as "water," or "the element -of water," and "goddess of generation." She is certainly the Zapotec -female part of the creative agency. In the Mixtec creation-myth we can -see the actual creator and the first pair of tribal gods, who were also -considered the progenitors of animals--to the savage equal inhabitants -of the world with himself. The names of the brothers Nine-Snake and -Nine-Cave undoubtedly allude to light and darkness, day and night. It -may be that these deities are the same as Quetzalcoatl and Xolotl -(the latter a Zapotec deity), who were regarded as twins. In some -ways Quetzalcoatl was looked upon as a creator, and in the Mexican -calendar followed the Father and Mother, or original sexual deities, -being placed in the second section as the creator of the world and man. - - - -The Mexican Noah - -Flood-myths, curiously enough, are of more common occurrence among -the Nahua and kindred peoples than creation-myths. The Abbé Brasseur -de Bourbourg has translated one from the Codex Chimalpopoca, a work -in Nahuatl dating from the latter part of the sixteenth century. It -recounts the doings of the Mexican Noah and his wife as follows: - -"And this year was that of Ce-calli, and on the first day all was -lost. The mountain itself was submerged in the water, and the water -remained tranquil for fifty-two springs. - -"Now toward the close of the year Titlacahuan had forewarned the -man named Nata and his wife Nena, saying, 'Make no more pulque, -but straightway hollow out a large cypress, and enter it when in the -month Tozoztli the water shall approach the sky.' They entered it, -and when Titlacahuan had closed the door he said, 'Thou shalt eat -but a single ear of maize, and thy wife but one also.' - -"As soon as they had finished eating, they went forth, and the water -was tranquil; for the log did not move any more; and opening it they -saw many fish. - -"Then they built a fire, rubbing together pieces of wood, and they -roasted fish. The gods Citallinicue and Citallatonac, looking below, -exclaimed, 'Divine Lord, what means that fire below? Why do they thus -smoke the heavens?' - -"Straightway descended Titlacahuan-Tezcatlipoca, and commenced to -scold, saying, 'What is this fire doing here?' And seizing the fishes -he moulded their hinder parts and changed their heads, and they were -at once transformed into dogs." - - - -The Myth of the Seven Caverns - -But other legends apart from the creation-stories of the world pure -and simple deal with the origin of mankind. The Aztecs believed that -the first men emerged from a place known as Chicomoztoc (The Seven -Caverns), located north of Mexico. Various writers have seen in these -mythic recesses the fabulous "seven cities of Cibola" and the Casas -Grandes, ruins of extensive character in the valley of the river Gila, -and so forth. But the allusion to the magical number seven in the myth -demonstrates that the entire story is purely imaginary and possesses -no basis of fact. A similar story occurs among the myths of the Kiche -of Guatemala and the Peruvians. - - - -The Sacrificed Princess - -Coming to semi-historical times, we find a variety of legends connected -with the early story of the city of Mexico. These for the most part -are of a weird and gloomy character, and throw much light on the dark -fanaticism of a people which could immolate its children on the altars -of implacable gods. It is told how after the Aztecs had built the city -of Mexico they raised an altar to their war-god Huitzilopochtli. In -general the lives rendered to this most sanguinary of deities -were those of prisoners of war, but in times of public calamity he -demanded the sacrifice of the noblest in the land. On one occasion -his oracle required that a royal princess should be offered on the -high altar. The Aztec king, either possessing no daughters of his -own or hesitating to sacrifice them, sent an embassy to the monarch -of Colhuacan to ask for one of his daughters to become the symbolical -mother of Huitzilopochtli. The King of Colhuacan, suspecting nothing -amiss, and highly flattered at the distinction, delivered up the girl, -who was escorted to Mexico, where she was sacrificed with much pomp, -her skin being flayed off to clothe the priest who represented the -deity in the festival. The unhappy father was invited to this hideous -orgy, ostensibly to witness his daughter's deification. In the gloomy -chambers of the war-god's temple he was at first unable to mark the -trend of the horrid ritual. But, given a torch of copal-gum, he saw -the officiating priest clothed in his daughter's skin, receiving the -homage of the worshippers. Recognising her features, and demented -with grief and horror, he fled from the temple, a broken man, to -spend the remainder of his days in mourning for his murdered child. - - - -The Fugitive Prince - -One turns with relief from such a sanguinary tale to the consideration -of the pleasing semi-legendary accounts of Ixtlilxochitl regarding -the civilisation of Tezcuco, Mexico's neighbour and ally. We have seen -in the sketch of Nahua history which has been given how the Tecpanecs -overcame the Acolhuans of Tezcuco and slew their king about the year -1418. Nezahualcoyotl (Fasting Coyote), the heir to the Tezcucan throne, -beheld the butchery of his royal father from the shelter of a tree -close by, and succeeded in making his escape from the invaders. His -subsequent thrilling adventures have been compared with those of the -Young Pretender after the collapse of the "Forty-five" resistance. He -had not enjoyed many days of freedom when he was captured by those -who had set out in pursuit of him, and, being haled back to his native -city, was cast into prison. He found a friend in the governor of the -place, who owed his position to the prince's late father, and by means -of his assistance he succeeded in once more escaping from the hostile -Tecpanecs. For aiding Nezahualcoyotl, however, the governor promptly -paid the penalty of death. The royal family of Mexico interceded for -the hunted youth, and he was permitted to find an asylum at the Aztec -court, whence he later proceeded to his own city of Tezcuco, occupying -apartments in the palace where his father had once dwelt. For eight -years he remained there, existing unnoticed on the bounty of the -Tecpanec chief who had usurped the throne of his ancestors. - - - -Maxtla the Fierce - -In course of time the original Tecpanec conqueror was gathered to -his fathers, and was succeeded by his son Maxtla, a ruler who could -ill brook the studious prince, who had journeyed to the capital -of the Tecpanecs to do him homage. He refused Nezahualcoyotl's -advances of friendship, and the latter was warned by a favourably -disposed courtier to take refuge in flight. This advice he adopted, -and returned to Tezcuco, where, however, Maxtla set a snare for his -life. A function which took place in the evening afforded the tyrant -his chance. But the prince's preceptor frustrated the conspiracy, by -means of substituting for his charge a youth who strikingly resembled -him. This second failure exasperated Maxtla so much that he sent a -military force to Tezcuco, with orders to despatch Nezahualcoyotl -without delay. But the same vigilant person who had guarded the -prince so well before became apprised of his danger and advised him -to fly. To this advice, however, Nezahualcoyotl refused to listen, -and resolved to await the approach of his enemies. - - - -A Romantic Escape - -When they arrived he was engaged in the Mexican ball-game of -tlachtli. With great politeness he requested them to enter and to -partake of food. Whilst they refreshed themselves he betook himself -to another room, but his action excited no surprise, as he could be -seen through the open doorway by which the apartments communicated -with each other. A huge censer, however, stood in the vestibule, -and the clouds of incense which arose from it hid his movements from -those who had been sent to slay him. Thus obscured, he succeeded -in entering a subterranean passage which led to a large disused -water-pipe, through which he crawled and made his escape. - - - -A Thrilling Pursuit - -For a season Nezahualcoyotl evaded capture by hiding in the hut of a -zealous adherent. The hut was searched, but the pursuers neglected to -look below a heap of maguey fibre used for making cloth, under which -he lay concealed. Furious at his enemy's escape, Maxtla now ordered a -rigorous search, and a regular battue of the country round Tezcuco was -arranged. A large reward was offered for the capture of Nezahualcoyotl -dead or alive, along with a fair estate and the hand of a noble lady, -and the unhappy prince was forced to seek safety in the mountainous -country between Tezcuco and Tlascala. He became a wretched outcast, -a pariah lurking in caves and woods, prowling about after nightfall in -order to satisfy his hunger, and seldom having a whole night's rest, -because of the vigilance of his enemies. Hotly pursued by them, he -was compelled to seek some curious places of concealment in order to -save himself. On one occasion he was hidden by some friendly soldiers -inside a large drum, and on another he was concealed beneath some -chia stalks by a girl who was engaged in reaping them. The loyalty -of the Tezcucan peasantry to their hunted prince was extraordinary, -and rather than betray his whereabouts to the creatures of Maxtla -they on many occasions suffered torture, and even death itself. At a -time when his affairs appeared most gloomy, however, Nezahualcoyotl -experienced a change of fortune. The tyrannous Maxtla had rendered -himself highly unpopular by his many oppressions, and the people in the -territories he had annexed were by no means contented under his rule. - - - -The Defeat of Maxtla - -These malcontents decided to band themselves together to defy -the tyrant, and offered the command of the force thus raised to -Nezahualcoyotl. This he accepted, and the Tecpanec usurper was -totally defeated in a general engagement. Restored to the throne of -his fathers, Nezahualcoyotl allied himself with Mexico, and with the -assistance of its monarch completely routed the remaining force of -Maxtla, who was seized in the baths of Azcapozalco, haled forth and -sacrificed, and his city destroyed. - - - -The Solon of Anahuac - -Nezahualcoyotl profited by the hard experiences he had undergone, -and proved a wise and just ruler. The code of laws framed by him was -an exceedingly drastic one, but so wise and enlightened was his rule -that on the whole he deserves the title which has been conferred upon -him of "the Solon of Anahuac." He generously encouraged the arts, -and established a Council of Music, the purpose of which was to -supervise artistic endeavour of every description. In Nezahualcoyotl -Mexico found, in all probability, her greatest native poet. An ode -of his on the mutability of life displays much nobility of thought, -and strikingly recalls the sentiments expressed in the verses of -Omar Khayyám. - - - -Nezahualcoyotl's Theology - -Nezahualcoyotl is said to have erected a temple to the Unknown God, -and to have shown a marked preference for the worship of one deity. In -one of his poems he is credited with expressing the following exalted -sentiments: "Let us aspire to that heaven where all is eternal, and -corruption cannot come. The horrors of the tomb are the cradle of -the sun, and the dark shadows of death are brilliant lights for the -stars." Unfortunately these ideas cannot be verified as the undoubted -sentiments of the royal bard of Tezcuco, and we are regretfully -forced to regard the attribution as spurious. We must come to such a -conclusion with very real disappointment, as to discover an untutored -and spontaneous belief in one god in the midst of surroundings so -little congenial to its growth would have been exceedingly valuable -from several points of view. - - - -The Poet Prince - -We find Nezahualcoyotl's later days stained by an act which was -unworthy of such a great monarch and wise man. His eldest son, the heir -to the crown, entered into an intrigue with one of his father's wives, -and dedicated many passionate poems to her, to which she replied with -equal ardour. The poetical correspondence was brought before the king, -who prized the lady highly because of her beauty. Outraged in his most -sacred feelings, Nezahualcoyotl had the youth arraigned before the -High Court, which passed sentence of death upon him--a sentence which -his father permitted to be carried out. After his son's execution he -shut himself up in his palace for some months, and gave orders that -the doors and windows of the unhappy young man's residence should be -built up so that never again might its walls echo to the sound of a -human voice. - - - -The Queen with a Hundred Lovers - -In his History of the Chichimeca Ixtlilxochitl tells the following -gruesome tale regarding the dreadful fate of a favourite wife of -Nezahualpilli, the son of Nezahualcoyotl: When Axaiacatzin, King of -Mexico, and other lords sent their daughters to King Nezahualpilli, -for him to choose one to be his queen and lawful wife, whose son -might succeed to the inheritance, she who had the highest claims among -them, for nobility of birth and rank, was Chachiuhnenetzin, the young -daughter of the Mexican king. She had been brought up by the monarch -in a separate palace, with great pomp, and with numerous attendants, -as became the daughter of so great a monarch. The number of servants -attached to her household exceeded two thousand. Young as she was, -she was exceedingly artful and vicious; so that, finding herself -alone, and seeing that her people feared her on account of her rank -and importance, she began to give way to an unlimited indulgence of -her power. Whenever she saw a young man who pleased her fancy she gave -secret orders that he should be brought to her, and shortly afterwards -he would be put to death. She would then order a statue or effigy of -his person to be made, and, adorning it with rich clothing, gold, and -jewellery, place it in the apartment in which she lived. The number -of statues of those whom she thus sacrificed was so great as to almost -fill the room. When the king came to visit her, and inquired respecting -these statues, she answered that they were her gods; and he, knowing -how strict the Mexicans were in the worship of their false deities, -believed her. But, as no iniquity can be long committed with entire -secrecy, she was finally found out in this manner: Three of the young -men, for some reason or other, she had left alive. Their names were -Chicuhcoatl, Huitzilimitzin, and Maxtla, one of whom was lord of -Tesoyucan and one of the grandees of the kingdom, and the other two -nobles of high rank. It happened that one day the king recognised on -the apparel of one of these a very precious jewel which he had given -to the queen; and although he had no fear of treason on her part it -gave him some uneasiness. Proceeding to visit her that night, her -attendants told him she was asleep, supposing that the king would -then return, as he had done at other times. But the affair of the -jewel made him insist on entering the chamber in which she slept; -and, going to wake her, he found only a statue in the bed, adorned -with her hair, and closely resembling her. Seeing this, and noticing -that the attendants around were in much trepidation and alarm, the -king called his guards, and, assembling all the people of the house, -made a general search for the queen, who was shortly found at an -entertainment with the three young lords, who were arrested with -her. The king referred the case to the judges of his court, in order -that they might make an inquiry into the matter and examine the parties -implicated. These discovered many individuals, servants of the queen, -who had in some way or other been accessory to her crimes--workmen who -had been engaged in making and adorning the statues, others who had -aided in introducing the young men into the palace, and others, again, -who had put them to death and concealed their bodies. The case having -been sufficiently investigated, the king despatched ambassadors to the -rulers of Mexico and Tlacopan, giving them information of the event, -and signifying the day on which the punishment of the queen and her -accomplices was to take place; and he likewise sent through the empire -to summon all the lords to bring their wives and their daughters, -however young they might be, to be witnesses of a punishment which -he designed for a great example. He also made a truce with all the -enemies of the empire, in order that they might come freely to see -it. The time having arrived, the number of people gathered together -was so great that, large as was the city of Tezcuco, they could -scarcely all find room in it. The execution took place publicly, in -sight of the whole city. The queen was put to the garrotte (a method -of strangling by means of a rope twisted round a stick), as well as -her three gallants; and, from their being persons of high birth, their -bodies were burned, together with the effigies before mentioned. The -other parties who had been accessory to the crimes, who numbered more -than two thousand persons, were also put to the garrotte, and burned -in a pit made for the purpose in a ravine near a temple of the Idol -of Adulterers. All applauded so severe and exemplary a punishment, -except the Mexican lords, the relatives of the queen, who were much -incensed at so public an example, and, although for the time they -concealed their resentment, meditated future revenge. It was not -without reason, says the chronicler, that the king experienced this -disgrace in his household, since he was thus punished for an unworthy -subterfuge made use of by his father to obtain his mother as a wife! - -This Nezahualpilli, the successor of Nezahualcoyotl, was a monarch -of scientific tastes, and, as Torquemada states, had a primitive -observatory erected in his palace. - - - -The Golden Age of Tezcuco - -The period embraced by the life of this monarch and his predecessor may -be regarded as the Golden Age of Tezcuco, and as semi-mythical. The -palace of Nezahualcoyotl, according to the account of Ixtlilxochitl, -extended east and west for 1234 yards, and for 978 yards from north -to south. Enclosed by a high wall, it contained two large courts, one -used as the municipal market-place, whilst the other was surrounded -by administrative offices. A great hall was set apart for the special -use of poets and men of talent, who held symposiums under its classic -roof, or engaged in controversy in the surrounding corridors. The -chronicles of the kingdom were also kept in this portion of the -palace. The private apartments of the monarch adjoined this College -of Bards. They were gorgeous in the extreme, and their description -rivals that of the fabled Toltec city of Tollan. Rare stones and -beautifully coloured plaster mouldings alternated with wonderful -tapestries of splendid feather-work to make an enchanting display of -florid decoration, and the gardens which surrounded this marvellous -edifice were delightful retreats, where the lofty cedar and cypress -overhung sparkling fountains and luxurious baths. Fish darted hither -and thither in the ponds, and the aviaries echoed to the songs of -birds of wonderful plumage. - - - -A Fairy Villa - -According to Ixtlilxochitl, the king's villa of Tezcotzinco was a -residence which for sheer beauty had no equal in Persian romance, -or in those dream-tales of Araby which in childhood we feel to be -true, and in later life regretfully admit can only be known again by -sailing the sea of Poesy or penetrating the mist-locked continent of -Dream. The account of it which we have from the garrulous half-blood -reminds us of the stately pleasure-dome decreed by Kubla Khan on the -turbulent banks of the sacred Alph. A conical eminence was laid out in -hanging gardens reached by an airy flight of five hundred and twenty -marble steps. Gigantic walls contained an immense reservoir of water, -in the midst of which was islanded a great rock carved with hieroglyphs -describing the principal events in the reign of Nezahualcoyotl. In -each of three other reservoirs stood a marble statue of a woman, -symbolical of one of the three provinces of Tezcuco. These great -basins supplied the gardens beneath with a perennial flow of water, -so directed as to leap in cascades over artificial rockeries or -meander among mossy retreats with refreshing whisper, watering the -roots of odoriferous shrubs and flowers and winding in and out of the -shadow of the cypress woods. Here and there pavilions of marble arose -over porphyry baths, the highly polished stone of which reflected the -bodies of the bathers. The villa itself stood amidst a wilderness of -stately cedars, which shielded it from the torrid heat of the Mexican -sun. The architectural design of this delightful edifice was light and -airy in the extreme, and the perfume of the surrounding gardens filled -the spacious apartments with the delicious incense of nature. In this -paradise the Tezcucan monarch sought in the company of his wives repose -from the oppression of rule, and passed the lazy hours in gamesome -sport and dance. The surrounding woods afforded him the pleasures of -the chase, and art and nature combined to render his rural retreat -a centre of pleasant recreation as well as of repose and refreshment. - - - -Disillusionment - -That some such palace existed on the spot in question it would be -absurd to deny, as its stupendous pillars and remains still litter -the terraces of Tezcotzinco. But, alas! we must not listen to the -vapourings of the untrustworthy Ixtlilxochitl, who claims to have -seen the place. It will be better to turn to a more modern authority, -who visited the site about seventy-five years ago, and who has given -perhaps the best account of it. He says: - -"Fragments of pottery, broken pieces of obsidian knives and arrows, -pieces of stucco, shattered terraces, and old walls were thickly -dispersed over its whole surface. We soon found further advance -on horseback impracticable, and, attaching our patient steeds to -the nopal bushes, we followed our Indian guide on foot, scrambling -upwards over rock and through tangled brushwood. On gaining the -narrow ridge which connects the conical hill with one at the rear, -we found the remains of a wall and causeway; and, a little higher, -reached a recess, where, at the foot of a small precipice, overhung -with Indian fig and grass, the rock had been wrought by hand into -a flat surface of large dimensions. In this perpendicular wall of -rock a carved Toltec calendar existed formerly; but the Indians, -finding the place visited occasionally by foreigners from the capital, -took it into their heads that there must be a silver vein there, and -straightway set to work to find it, obliterating the sculpture, and -driving a level beyond it into the hard rock for several yards. From -this recess a few minutes' climb brought us to the summit of the -hill. The sun was on the point of setting over the mountains on the -other side of the valley, and the view spread beneath our feet was -most glorious. The whole of the lake of Tezcuco, and the country and -mountains on both sides, lay stretched before us. - -"But, however disposed, we dare not stop long to gaze and admire, -but, descending a little obliquely, soon came to the so-called bath, -two singular basins, of perhaps two feet and a half diameter, cut -into a bastion-like solid rock, projecting from the general outline -of the hill, and surrounded by smooth carved seats and grooves, -as we supposed--for I own the whole appearance of the locality -was perfectly inexplicable to me. I have a suspicion that many of -these horizontal planes and grooves were contrivances to aid their -astronomical observations, one like that I have mentioned having been -discovered by de Gama at Chapultepec. - -"As to Montezuma's Bath, it might be his foot-bath if you will, but -it would be a moral impossibility for any monarch of larger dimensions -than Oberon to take a duck in it. - -"The mountain bears the marks of human industry to its very apex, -many of the blocks of porphyry of which it is composed being quarried -into smooth horizontal planes. It is impossible to say at present -what portion of the surface is artificial or not, such is the state -of confusion observable in every part. - -"By what means nations unacquainted with the use of iron constructed -works of such a smooth polish, in rocks of such hardness, it is -extremely difficult to say. Many think tools of mixed tin and copper -were employed; others, that patient friction was one of the main means -resorted to. Whatever may have been the real appropriation of these -inexplicable ruins, or the epoch of their construction, there can be -no doubt but the whole of this hill, which I should suppose rises -five or six hundred feet above the level of the plain, was covered -with artificial works of one kind or another. They are doubtless -rather of Toltec than of Aztec origin, and perhaps with still more -probability attributable to a people of an age yet more remote." - - - -The Noble Tlascalan - -As may be imagined regarding a community where human sacrifice was -rife, tales concerning those who were consigned to this dreadful fate -were abundant. Perhaps the most striking of these is that relating to -the noble Tlascalan warrior Tlalhuicole, who was captured in combat -by the troops of Montezuma. Less than a year before the Spaniards -arrived in Mexico war broke out between the Huexotzincans and the -Tlascalans, to the former of whom the Aztecs acted as allies. On -the battlefield there was captured by guile a very valiant Tlascalan -leader called Tlalhuicole, so renowned for his prowess that the mere -mention of his name was generally sufficient to deter any Mexican -hero from attempting his capture. He was brought to Mexico in a cage, -and presented to the Emperor Montezuma, who, on learning of his name -and renown, gave him his liberty and overwhelmed him with honours. He -further granted him permission to return to his own country, a boon -he had never before extended to any captive. But Tlalhuicole refused -his freedom, and replied that he would prefer to be sacrificed to the -gods, according to the usual custom. Montezuma, who had the highest -regard for him, and prized his life more than any sacrifice, would -not consent to his immolation. At this juncture war broke out between -Mexico and the Tarascans, and Montezuma announced the appointment -of Tlalhuicole as chief of the expeditionary force. He accepted the -command, marched against the Tarascans, and, having totally defeated -them, returned to Mexico laden with an enormous booty and crowds of -slaves. The city rang with his triumph. The emperor begged him to -become a Mexican citizen, but he replied that on no account would he -prove a traitor to his country. Montezuma then once more offered him -his liberty, but he strenuously refused to return to Tlascala, having -undergone the disgrace of defeat and capture. He begged Montezuma -to terminate his unhappy existence by sacrificing him to the gods, -thus ending the dishonour he felt in living on after having undergone -defeat, and at the same time fulfilling the highest aspiration of his -life--to die the death of a warrior on the stone of combat. Montezuma, -himself the noblest pattern of Aztec chivalry, touched at his request, -could not but agree with him that he had chosen the most fitting fate -for a hero, and ordered him to be chained to the stone of combat, -the blood-stained temalacatl. The most renowned of the Aztec warriors -were pitted against him, and the emperor himself graced the sanguinary -tournament with his presence. Tlalhuicole bore himself in the combat -like a lion, slew eight warriors of renown, and wounded more than -twenty. But at last he fell, covered with wounds, and was haled by the -exulting priests to the altar of the terrible war-god Huitzilopochtli, -to whom his heart was offered up. - - - -The Haunting Mothers - -It is only occasionally that we encounter either the gods or -supernatural beings of any description in Mexican myth. But -occasionally we catch sight of such beings as the Ciuapipiltin -(Honoured Women), the spirits of those women who had died in childbed, -a death highly venerated by the Mexicans, who regarded the woman -who perished thus as the equal of a warrior who met his fate in -battle. Strangely enough, these spirits were actively malevolent, -probably because the moon-goddess (who was also the deity of evil -exhalations) was evil in her tendencies, and they were regarded as -possessing an affinity to her. It was supposed that they afflicted -infants with various diseases, and Mexican parents took every -precaution not to permit their offspring out of doors on the days when -their influence was believed to be strong. They were said to haunt -the cross-roads, and even to enter the bodies of weakly people, the -better to work their evil will. The insane were supposed to be under -their especial visitation. Temples were raised at the cross-roads in -order to placate them, and loaves of bread, shaped like butterflies, -were dedicated to them. They were represented as having faces of -a dead white, and as blanching their arms and hands with a white -powder known as tisatl. Their eyebrows were of a golden hue, and -their raiment was that of Mexican ladies of the ruling class. - - - -The Return of Papantzin [10] - -One of the weirdest legends in Mexican tradition recounts how -Papantzin, the sister of Montezuma II, returned from her tomb to -prophesy to her royal brother concerning his doom and the fall of -his empire at the hands of the Spaniards. On taking up the reins -of government Montezuma had married this lady to one of his most -illustrious servants, the governor of Tlatelulco, and after his death -it would appear that she continued to exercise his almost viceregal -functions and to reside in his palace. In course of time she died, -and her obsequies were attended by the emperor in person, accompanied -by the greatest personages of his court and kingdom. The body was -interred in a subterranean vault of his own palace, in close proximity -to the royal baths, which stood in a sequestered part of the extensive -grounds surrounding the royal residence. The entrance to the vault -was secured by a stone slab of moderate weight, and when the numerous -ceremonies prescribed for the interment of a royal personage had been -completed the emperor and his suite retired. At daylight next morning -one of the royal children, a little girl of some six years of age, -having gone into the garden to seek her governess, espied the Princess -Papan standing near the baths. The princess, who was her aunt, called -to her, and requested her to bring her governess to her. The child -did as she was bid, but her governess, thinking that imagination had -played her a trick, paid little attention to what she said. As the -child persisted in her statement, the governess at last followed her -into the garden, where she saw Papan sitting on one of the steps of -the baths. The sight of the supposed dead princess filled the woman -with such terror that she fell down in a swoon. The child then went to -her mother's apartment, and detailed to her what had happened. She at -once proceeded to the baths with two of her attendants, and at sight -of Papan was also seized with affright. But the princess reassured -her, and asked to be allowed to accompany her to her apartments, -and that the entire affair should for the present be kept absolutely -secret. Later in the day she sent for Tiçotzicatzin, her major-domo, -and requested him to inform the emperor that she desired to speak -with him immediately on matters of the greatest importance. The man, -terrified, begged to be excused from the mission, and Papan then -gave orders that her uncle Nezahualpilli, King of Tezcuco, should -be communicated with. That monarch, on receiving her request that -he should come to her, hastened to the palace. The princess begged -him to see the emperor without loss of time and to entreat him to -come to her at once. Montezuma heard his story with surprise mingled -with doubt. Hastening to his sister, he cried as he approached her: -"Is it indeed you, my sister, or some evil demon who has taken your -likeness?" "It is I indeed, your Majesty," she replied. Montezuma and -the exalted personages who accompanied him then seated themselves, -and a hush of expectation fell upon all as they were addressed by -the princess in the following words: - -"Listen attentively to what I am about to relate to you. You have seen -me dead, buried, and now behold me alive again. By the authority of -our ancestors, my brother, I am returned from the dwellings of the -dead to prophesy to you certain things of prime importance. - - - -Papantzin's Story - -"At the moment after death I found myself in a spacious valley, which -appeared to have neither commencement nor end, and was surrounded -by lofty mountains. Near the middle I came upon a road with many -branching paths. By the side of the valley there flowed a river of -considerable size, the waters of which ran with a loud noise. By the -borders of this I saw a young man clothed in a long robe, fastened with -a diamond, and shining like the sun, his visage bright as a star. On -his forehead was a sign in the figure of a cross. He had wings, the -feathers of which gave forth the most wonderful and glowing reflections -and colours. His eyes were as emeralds, and his glance was modest. He -was fair, of beautiful aspect and imposing presence. He took me by the -hand and said: 'Come hither. It is not yet time for you to cross the -river. You possess the love of God, which is greater than you know -or can comprehend.' He then conducted me through the valley, where -I espied many heads and bones of dead men. I then beheld a number -of black folk, horned, and with the feet of deer. They were engaged -in building a house, which was nearly completed. Turning toward the -east for a space, I beheld on the waters of the river a vast number -of ships manned by a great host of men dressed differently from -ourselves. Their eyes were of a clear grey, their complexions ruddy, -they carried banners and ensigns in their hands and wore helmets on -their heads. They called themselves 'Sons of the Sun.' The youth who -conducted me and caused me to see all these things said that it was -not yet the will of the gods that I should cross the river, but that I -was to be reserved to behold the future with my own eyes, and to enjoy -the benefits of the faith which these strangers brought with them; -that the bones I beheld on the plain were those of my countrymen who -had died in ignorance of that faith, and had consequently suffered -great torments; that the house being builded by the black folk was an -edifice prepared for those who would fall in battle with the seafaring -strangers whom I had seen; and that I was destined to return to my -compatriots to tell them of the true faith, and to announce to them -what I had seen that they might profit thereby." - -Montezuma hearkened to these matters in silence, and felt greatly -troubled. He left his sister's presence without a word, and, regaining -his own apartments, plunged into melancholy thoughts. - -Papantzin's resurrection is one of the best authenticated incidents -in Mexican history, and it is a curious fact that on the arrival -of the Spanish Conquistadores one of the first persons to embrace -Christianity and receive baptism at their hands was the Princess Papan. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IV: THE MAYA RACE AND MYTHOLOGY - - -The Maya - -It was to the Maya--the people who occupied the territory between -the isthmus of Tehuantepec and Nicaragua--that the civilisation of -Central America owed most. The language they spoke was quite distinct -from the Nahuatl spoken by the Nahua of Mexico, and in many respects -their customs and habits were widely different from those of the -people of Anahuac. It will be remembered that the latter were the -heirs of an older civilisation, that, indeed, they had entered the -valley of Mexico as savages, and that practically all they knew of -the arts of culture was taught them by the remnants of the people -whom they dispossessed. It was not thus with the Maya. Their arts -and industries were of their own invention, and bore the stamp of -an origin of considerable antiquity. They were, indeed, the supreme -intellectual race of America, and on their coming into contact with -the Nahua that people assimilated sufficient of their culture to -raise them several grades in the scale of civilisation. - - - -Were the Maya Toltecs? - -It has already been stated that many antiquarians see in the Maya -those Toltecs who because of the inroads of barbarous tribes quitted -their native land of Anahuac and journeyed southward to seek a new -home in Chiapas and Yucatan. It would be idle to attempt to uphold -or refute such a theory in the absolute dearth of positive evidence -for or against it. The architectural remains of the older race of -Anahuac do not bear any striking likeness to Maya forms, and if the -mythologies of the two peoples are in some particulars alike, that may -well be accounted for by their mutual adoption of deities and religious -customs. On the other hand, it is distinctly noteworthy that the cult -of the god Quetzalcoatl, which was regarded in Mexico as of alien -origin, had a considerable vogue among the Maya and their allied races. - - - -The Maya Kingdom - -On the arrival of the Spaniards (after the celebrated march of Cortés -from Mexico to Central America) the Maya were divided into a number -of subsidiary states which remind us somewhat of the numerous little -kingdoms of Palestine. That these had hived off from an original -and considerably greater state there is good evidence to show, but -internal dissension had played havoc with the polity of the central -government of this empire, the disintegration of which had occurred -at a remote period. In the semi-historical legends of this people -we catch glimpses of a great kingdom, occasionally alluded to as -the "Kingdom of the Great Snake," or the empire of Xibalba, realms -which have been identified with the ruined city-centres of Palenque -and Mitla. These identifications must be regarded with caution, -but the work of excavation will doubtless sooner or later assist -theorists in coming to conclusions which will admit of no doubt. The -sphere of Maya civilisation and influence is pretty well marked, -and embraces the peninsula of Yucatan, Chiapas, to the isthmus of -Tehuantepec on the north, and the whole of Guatemala to the boundaries -of the present republic of San Salvador. The true nucleus of Maya -civilisation, however, must be looked for in that part of Chiapas -which skirts the banks of the Usumacinta river and in the valleys of -its tributaries. Here Maya art and architecture reached a height of -splendour unknown elsewhere, and in this district, too, the strange -Maya system of writing had its most skilful exponents. Although the -arts and industries of the several districts inhabited by people of -Maya race exhibited many superficial differences, these are so small -as to make us certain of the fact that the various areas inhabited -by Maya stock had all drawn their inspiration toward civilisation -from one common nucleus, and had equally passed through a uniform -civilisation and drawn sap from an original culture-centre. - - - -The Maya Dialects - -Perhaps the most effectual method of distinguishing the various -branches of the Maya people from one another consists in dividing -them into linguistic groups. The various dialects spoken by the folk -of Maya origin, although they exhibit some considerable difference, -yet display strongly that affinity of construction and resemblance -in root which go to prove that they all emanate from one common -mother-tongue. In Chiapas the Maya tongue itself is the current -dialect, whilst in Guatemala no less than twenty-four dialects are in -use, the principal of which are the Quiche, or Kiche, the Kakchiquel, -the Zutugil, Coxoh Chol, and Pipil. These dialects and the folk who -speak them are sufficient to engage our attention, as in them are -enshrined the most remarkable myths and legends of the race, and by -the men who used them were the greatest acts in Maya history achieved. - - - -Whence Came the Maya? - -Whence came these folk, then, who raised a civilisation by no means -inferior to that of ancient Egypt, which, if it had had scope, -would have rivalled in its achievements the glory of old Assyria? We -cannot tell. The mystery of its entrance into the land is as deep -as the mystery of the ancient forests which now bury the remnants -of its mighty monuments and enclose its temples in impenetrable -gloom. Generations of antiquarians have attempted to trace the origin -of this race to Egypt, Phoenicia, China, Burma. But the manifest -traces of indigenous American origin are present in all its works, -and the writers who have beheld in these likenesses to the art of -Asiatic or African peoples have been grievously misled by superficial -resemblances which could not have betrayed any one who had studied -Maya affinities deeply. - - - -Civilisation of the Maya - -At the risk of repetition it is essential to point out that -civilisation, which was a newly acquired thing with the Nahua peoples, -was not so with the Maya. They were indisputably an older race, -possessing institutions which bore the marks of generations of use, -whereas the Nahua had only too obviously just entered into their -heritage of law and order. When we first catch sight of the Maya -kingdoms they are in the process of disintegration. Such strong young -blood as the virile folk of Anahuac possessed did not flow in the veins -of the people of Yucatan and Guatemala. They were to the Nahua much -as the ancient Assyrians were to the hosts of Israel at the entrance -of the latter into national existence. That there was a substratum of -ethnical and cultural relationship, however, it would be impossible to -deny. The institutions, architecture, habits, even the racial cast of -thought of the two peoples, bore such a general resemblance as to show -that many affinities of blood and cultural relationship existed between -them. But it will not do to insist too strongly upon these. It may be -argued with great probability that these relationships and likenesses -exist because of the influence of Maya civilisation upon Mexican alone, -or from the inheritance by both Mexican and Maya people of a still -older culture of which we are ignorant, and the proofs of which lie -buried below the forests of Guatemala or the sands of Yucatan. - - - -The Zapotecs - -The influence of the Maya upon the Nahua was a process of exceeding -slowness. The peoples who divided them one from another were themselves -benefited by carrying Maya culture into Anahuac, or rather it might be -said that they constituted a sort of filter through which the southern -civilisation reached the northern. These peoples were the Zapotecs, -the Mixtecs, and the Kuikatecs, by far the most important of whom were -the first-mentioned. They partook of the nature and civilisation of -both races, and were in effect a border people who took from and gave -to both Maya and Nahua, much as the Jews absorbed and disseminated the -cultures of Egypt and Assyria. They were, however, of Nahua race, but -their speech bears the strongest marks of having borrowed extensively -from the Maya vocabulary. For many generations these people wandered -in a nomadic condition from Maya to Nahua territory, thus absorbing -the customs, speech, and mythology of each. - - - -The Huasteca - -But we should be wrong if we thought that the Maya had never -attempted to expand, and had never sought new homes for their surplus -population. That they had is proved by an outlying tribe of Maya, -the Huasteca, having settled at the mouth of the Panuco river, on -the north coast of Mexico. The presence of this curious ethnological -island has of course given rise to all sorts of queer theories -concerning Toltec relationship, whereas it simply intimates that -before the era of Nahua expansion the Maya had attempted to colonise -the country to the north of their territories, but that their efforts -in this direction had been cut short by the influx of savage Nahua, -against whom they found themselves unable to contend. - - - -The Type of Maya Civilisation - -Did the civilisation of the Maya differ, then, in type from that of -the Nahua, or was it merely a larger expression of that in vogue in -Anahuac? We may take it that the Nahua civilisation characterised -the culture of Central America in its youth, whilst that of the Maya -displayed it in its bloom, and perhaps in its senility. The difference -was neither essential nor radical, but may be said to have arisen for -the most part from climatic and kindred causes. The climate of Anahuac -is dry and temperate, that of Yucatan and Guatemala is tropical, -and we shall find even such religious conceptions of the two peoples -as were drawn from a common source varying from this very cause, -and coloured by differences in temperature and rainfall. - - - -Maya History - -Before entering upon a consideration of the art, architecture, or -mythology of this strange and highly interesting people it will -be necessary to provide the reader with a brief sketch of their -history. Such notices of this as exist in English are few, and their -value doubtful. For the earlier history of the people of Maya stock we -depend almost wholly upon tradition and architectural remains. The net -result of the evidence wrung from these is that the Maya civilisation -was one and homogeneous, and that all the separate states must have -at one period passed through a uniform condition of culture, to which -they were all equally debtors, and that this is sufficient ground for -the belief that all were at one time beneath the sway of one central -power. For the later history we possess the writings of the Spanish -fathers, but not in such profusion as in the case of Mexico. In fact -the trustworthy original authors who deal with Maya history can almost -be counted on the fingers of one hand. We are further confused in -perusing these, and, indeed, throughout the study of Maya history, -by discovering that many of the sites of Maya cities are designated -by Nahua names. This is due to the fact that the Spanish conquerors -were guided in their conquest of the Maya territories by Nahua, who -naturally applied Nahuatlac designations to those sites of which the -Spaniards asked the names. These appellations clung to the places -in question; hence the confusion, and the blundering theories which -would read in these place-names relics of Aztec conquest. - - - -The Nucleus of Maya Power - -As has been said, the nucleus of Maya power and culture is probably -to be found in that part of Chiapas which slopes down from the steep -Cordilleras. Here the ruined sites of Palenque, Piedras Negras, and -Ocosingo are eloquent of that opulence of imagination and loftiness -of conception which go hand in hand with an advanced culture. The -temples and palaces of this region bear the stamp of a dignity -and consciousness of metropolitan power which are scarcely to be -mistaken, so broad, so free is their architectural conception, so -full to overflowing the display of the desire to surpass. But upon -the necessities of religion and central organisation alone was this -architectural artistry lavished. Its dignities were not profaned by -its application to mere domestic uses, for, unless what were obviously -palaces are excepted, not a single example of Maya domestic building -has survived. This is of course accounted for by the circumstance -that the people were sharply divided into the aristocratic and -labouring classes, the first of which was closely identified with -religion or kingship, and was housed in the ecclesiastical or royal -buildings, whilst those of less exalted rank were perforce content -with the shelter afforded by a hut built of perishable materials, -the traces of which have long since passed away. The temples were, -in fact, the nuclei of the towns, the centres round which the Maya -communities were grouped, much in the same manner as the cities of -Europe in the Middle Ages clustered and grew around the shadow of -some vast cathedral or sheltering stronghold. - - - -Early Race Movements - -We shall leave the consideration of Maya tradition until we come to -speak of Maya myth proper, and attempt to glean from the chaos of -legend some veritable facts connected with Maya history. According to -a manuscript of Kuikatec origin recently discovered, it is probable -that a Nahua invasion of the Maya states of Chiapas and Tabasco took -place about the ninth century of our era, and we must for the present -regard that as the starting-point of Maya history. The south-western -portions of the Maya territory were agitated about the same time by -race movements, which turned northward toward Tehuantepec, and, flowing -through Guatemala, came to rest in Acalan, on the borders of Yucatan, -retarded, probably, by the inhospitable and waterless condition of -that country. This Nahua invasion probably had the effect of driving -the more peaceful Maya from their northerly settlements and forcing -them farther south. Indeed, evidence is not wanting to show that -the warlike Nahua pursued the pacific Maya into their new retreats, -and for a space left them but little peace. This struggle it was -which finally resulted in the breaking up of the Maya civilisation, -which even at that relatively remote period had reached its apogee, -its several races separating into numerous city-states, which bore -a close political resemblance to those of Italy on the downfall of -Rome. At this period, probably, began the cleavage between the Maya -of Yucatan and those of Guatemala, which finally resolved itself -into such differences of speech, faith, and architecture as almost -to constitute them different peoples. - - - -The Settlement of Yucatan - -As the Celts of Wales and Scotland were driven into the less hospitable -regions of their respective countries by the inroads of the Saxons, -so was one branch of the Maya forced to seek shelter in the almost -desert wastes of Yucatan. There can be no doubt that the Maya did not -take to this barren and waterless land of their own accord. Thrifty -and possessed of high agricultural attainments, this people would -view with concern a removal to a sphere so forbidding after the rich -and easily developed country they had inhabited for generations. But -the inexorable Nahua were behind, and they were a peaceful folk, -unused to the horrors of savage warfare. So, taking their courage -in both hands, they wandered into the desert. Everything points to -a late occupation of Yucatan by the Maya, and architectural effort -exhibits deterioration, evidenced in a high conventionality of design -and excess of ornamentation. Evidences of Nahua influence also are -not wanting, a fact which is eloquent of the later period of contact -which is known to have occurred between the peoples, and which alone -is almost sufficient to fix the date of the settlement of the Maya in -Yucatan. It must not be thought that the Maya in Yucatan formed one -homogeneous state recognising a central authority. On the contrary, as -is often the case with colonists, the several Maya bands of immigrants -formed themselves into different states or kingdoms, each having its -own separate traditions. It is thus a matter of the highest difficulty -to so collate and criticise these traditions as to construct a history -of the Maya race in Yucatan. As may be supposed, we find the various -city-sites founded by divine beings who play a more or less important -part in the Maya pantheon. Kukulcan, for example, is the first king -of Mayapan, whilst Itzamna figures as the founder of the state of -Itzamal. The gods were the spiritual leaders of these bands of Maya, -just as Jehovah was the spiritual leader and guide of the Israelites -in the desert. One is therefore not surprised to find in the Popol -Vuh, the saga of the Kiche-Maya of Guatemala, that the god Tohil -(The Rumbler) guided them to the site of the first Kiche city. Some -writers on the subject appear to think that the incidents in such -migration myths, especially the tutelage and guidance of the tribes -by gods and the descriptions of desert scenery which they contain, -suffice to stamp them as mere native versions of the Book of Exodus, -or at the best myths sophisticated by missionary influence. The truth -is that the conditions of migration undergone by the Maya were similar -to those described in the Scriptures, and by no means merely reflect -the Bible story, as short-sighted collators of both aver. - - - -The Septs of Yucatan - -The priest-kings of Mayapan, who claimed descent from Kukulcan or -Quetzalcoatl, soon raised their state into a position of prominence -among the surrounding cities. Those who had founded Chichen-Itza, -and who were known as Itzaes, were, on the other hand, a caste of -warriors who do not appear to have cherished the priestly function -with such assiduity. The rulers of the Itzaes, who were known as the -Tutul Xius, seem to have come, according to their traditions, from the -western Maya states, perhaps from Nonohualco in Tabasco. Arriving from -thence at the southern extremity of Yucatan, they founded the city -of Ziyan Caan, on Lake Bacalar, which had a period of prosperity for -at least a couple of generations. At the expiry of that period for -some unaccountable reason they migrated northward, perhaps because -at that particular time the incidence of power was shifting toward -Northern Yucatan, and took up their abode in Chichen-Itza, eventually -the sacred city of the Maya, which they founded. - - - -The Cocomes - -But they were not destined to remain undisturbed in their new -sphere. The Cocomes of Mayapan, when at the height of their power, -viewed with disfavour the settlement of the Tutul Xius. After it had -flourished for a period of about 120 years it was overthrown by the -Cocomes, who resolved it into a dependency, permitting the governors -and a certain number of the people to depart elsewhere. - - - -Flight of the Tutul Xius - -Thus expelled, the Tutul Xius fled southward, whence they had -originally come, and settled in Potonchan or Champoton, where they -reigned for nearly 300 years. From this new centre, with the aid of -Nahua mercenaries, they commenced an extension of territory northward, -and entered into diplomatic relations with the heads of the other -Maya states. It was at this time that they built Uxmal, and their -power became so extensive that they reconquered the territory they had -lost to the Cocomes. This on the whole appears to have been a period -when the arts flourished under an enlightened policy, which knew how -to make and keep friendly relations with surrounding states, and the -splendid network of roads with which the country was covered and the -many evidences of architectural excellence go to prove that the race -had had leisure to achieve much in art and works of utility. Thus -the city of Chichen-Itza was linked up with the island of Cozumel -by a highway whereon thousands of pilgrims plodded to the temples of -the gods of wind and moisture. From Itzamal, too, roads branched in -every direction, in order that the people should have every facility -for reaching the chief shrine of the country situated there. But the -hand of the Cocomes was heavy upon the other Maya states which were -tributary to them. As in the Yucatan of to-day, where the wretched -henequen-picker leads the life of a veritable slave, a crushing system -of helotage obtained. The Cocomes made heavy demands upon the Tutul -Xius, who in their turn sweated the hapless folk under their sway past -the bounds of human endurance. As in all tottering civilisations, the -feeling of responsibility among the upper classes became dormant, and -they abandoned themselves to the pleasures of life without thought of -the morrow. Morality ceased to be regarded as a virtue, and rottenness -was at the core of Maya life. Discontent quickly spread on every hand. - - - -The Revolution in Mayapan - -The sequel was, naturally, revolution. Ground down by the tyranny of -a dissolute oligarchy, the subject states rose in revolt. The Cocomes -surrounded themselves by Nahua mercenaries, who succeeded in beating -off the first wave of revolt, led by the king or regulus of Uxmal, -who was defeated, and whose people in their turn rose against him, a -circumstance which ended in the abandonment of the city of Uxmal. Once -more were the Tutul Xius forced to go on pilgrimage, and this time -they founded the city of Mani, a mere shadow of the splendour of -Uxmal and Chichen. - - - -Hunac Eel - -If the aristocracy of the Cocomes was composed of weaklings, its -ruler was made of sterner stuff. Hunac Eel, who exercised royal sway -over this people, and held in subjection the lesser principalities of -Yucatan, was not only a tyrant of harsh and vindictive temperament, -but a statesman of judgment and experience, who courted the assistance -of the neighbouring Nahua, whom he employed in his campaign against the -new assailant of his absolutism, the ruler of Chichen-Itza. Mustering -a mighty host of his vassals, Hunac Eel marched against the devoted -city whose prince had dared to challenge his supremacy, and succeeded -in inflicting a crushing defeat upon its inhabitants. But apparently -the state was permitted to remain under the sovereignty of its -native princes. The revolt, however, merely smouldered, and in the -kingdom of Mayapan itself, the territory of the Cocomes, the fires of -revolution began to blaze. This state of things continued for nearly -a century. Then the crash came. The enemies of the Cocomes effected a -junction. The people of Chichen-Itza joined hands with the Tutul Xius, -who had sought refuge in the central highlands of Yucatan and those -city-states which clustered around the mother-city of Mayapan. A fierce -concerted attack was made, beneath which the power of the Cocomes -crumpled up completely. Not one stone was left standing upon another -by the exasperated allies, who thus avenged the helotage of nearly -300 years. To this event the date 1436 is assigned, but, like most -dates in Maya history, considerable uncertainty must be attached to it. - - - -The Last of the Cocomes - -Only a remnant of the Cocomes survived. They had been absent in -Nahua territory, attempting to raise fresh troops for the defence of -Mayapan. These the victors spared, and they finally settled in Zotuta, -in the centre of Yucatan, a region of almost impenetrable forest. - -It would not appear that the city of Chichen-Itza, the prince -of which was ever the head and front of the rebellion against the -Cocomes, profited in any way from the fall of the suzerain power. On -the contrary, tradition has it that the town was abandoned by its -inhabitants, and left to crumble into the ruinous state in which the -Spaniards found it on their entrance into the country. The probability -is that its people quitted it because of the repeated attacks made -upon it by the Cocomes, who saw in it the chief obstacle to their -universal sway; and this is supported by tradition, which tells that a -prince of Chichen-Itza, worn out with conflict and internecine strife, -left it to seek the cradle of the Maya race in the land of the setting -sun. Indeed, it is further stated that this prince founded the city -of Peten-Itza, on the lake of Peten, in Guatemala. - - - -The Maya Peoples of Guatemala - -When the Maya peoples of Guatemala, the Kiches and the Kakchiquels, -first made their way into that territory, they probably found there -a race of Maya origin of a type more advanced and possessed of more -ancient traditions than themselves. By their connection with this -folk they greatly benefited in the direction of artistic achievement -as well as in the industrial arts. Concerning these people we have -a large body of tradition in the Popol Vuh, a native chronicle, the -contents of which will be fully dealt with in the chapter relating -to the Maya myths and legendary matter. We cannot deal with it as a -veritable historical document, but there is little doubt that a basis -of fact exists behind the tradition it contains. The difference between -the language of these people and that of their brethren in Yucatan was, -as has been said, one of dialect only, and a like slight distinction -is found in their mythology, caused, doubtless, by the incidence of -local conditions, and resulting in part from the difference between a -level and comparatively waterless land and one of a semi-mountainous -character covered with thick forests. We shall note further differences -when we come to examine the art and architecture of the Maya race, -and to compare those of its two most distinctive branches. - - - -The Maya Tulan - -It was to the city of Tulan, probably in Tabasco, that the Maya -of Guatemala referred as being the starting-point of all their -migrations. We must not confound this place with the Tollan of the -Mexican traditions. It is possible that the name may in both cases -be derived from a root meaning a place from which a tribe set forth, -a starting-place, but geographical connection there is none. From here -Nima-Kiche, the great Kiche, started on his migration to the mountains, -accompanied by his three brothers. Tulan, says the Popol Vuh, had been -a place of misfortune to man, for he had suffered much from cold and -hunger, and, as at the building of Babel, his speech was so confounded -that the first four Kiches and their wives were unable to comprehend -one another. Of course this is a native myth created to account for the -difference in dialect between the various branches of the Maya folk, -and can scarcely have any foundation in fact, as the change in dialect -would be a very gradual process. The brothers, we are told, divided -the land so that one received the districts of Mames and Pocomams, -another Verapaz, and the third Chiapas, while Nima-Kiche obtained -the country of the Kiches, Kakchiquels, and Tzutuhils. It would be -extremely difficult to say whether or not this tradition rests on any -veritable historical basis. If so, it refers to a period anterior to -the Nahua irruption, for the districts alluded to as occupied by these -tribes were not so divided among them at the coming of the Spaniards. - - - -Doubtful Dynasties - -As with the earlier dynasties of Egypt, considerable doubt surrounds -the history of the early Kiche monarchs. Indeed, a period of such -uncertainty occurs that even the number of kings who reigned is -lost in the hopeless confusion of varying estimates. From this chaos -emerge the facts that the Kiche monarchs held the supreme power among -the peoples of Guatemala, that they were the contemporaries of the -rulers of Mexico city, and that they were often elected from among the -princes of the subject states. Acxopil, the successor of Nima-Kiche, -invested his second son with the government of the Kakchiquels, and -placed his youngest son over the Tzutuhils, whilst to his eldest -son he left the throne of the Kiches. Icutemal, his eldest son, -on succeeding his father, gifted the kingdom of Kakchiquel to his -eldest son, displacing his own brother and thus mortally affronting -him. The struggle which ensued lasted for generations, embittered -the relations between these two branches of the Maya in Guatemala, -and undermined their joint strength. Nahua mercenaries were employed -in the struggle on both sides, and these introduced many of the -uglinesses of Nahua life into Maya existence. - - - -The Coming of the Spaniards - -This condition of things lasted up to the time of the coming of the -Spaniards. The Kakchiquels dated the commencement of a new chronology -from the episode of the defeat of Cay Hun-Apu by them in 1492. They -may have saved themselves the trouble; for the time was at hand when -the calendars of their race were to be closed, and its records written -in another script by another people. One by one, and chiefly by reason -of their insane policy of allying themselves with the invader against -their own kin, the old kingdoms of Guatemala fell as spoil to the -daring Conquistadores, and their people passed beneath the yoke of -Spain--bondsmen who were to beget countless generations of slaves. - - - -The Riddle of Ancient Maya Writing - -What may possibly be the most valuable sources of Maya history -are, alas! sealed to us at present. We allude to the native Maya -manuscripts and inscriptions, the writing of which cannot be deciphered -by present-day scholars. Some of the old Spanish friars who lived in -the times which directly succeeded the settlement of the country by -the white man were able to read and even to write this script, but -unfortunately they regarded it either as an invention of the Father -of Evil or, as it was a native system, as a thing of no value. In -a few generations all knowledge of how to decipher it was totally -lost, and it remains to the modern world almost as a sealed book, -although science has lavished all its wonderful machinery of logic -and deduction upon it, and men of unquestioned ability have dedicated -their lives to the problem of unravelling what must be regarded as -one of the greatest and most mysterious riddles of which mankind ever -attempted the solution. - -The romance of the discovery of the key to the Egyptian hieroglyphic -system of writing is well known. For centuries the symbols displayed -upon the temples and monuments of the Nile country were so many -meaningless pictures and signs to the learned folk of Europe, until -the discovery of the Rosetta stone a hundred years ago made their -elucidation possible. This stone bore the same inscription in Greek, -demotic, and hieroglyphics, and so the discovery of the "alphabet" of -the hidden script became a comparatively easy task. But Central America -has no Rosetta stone, nor is it possible that such an aid to research -can ever be found. Indeed, such "keys" as have been discovered or -brought forward by scientists have proved for the most part unavailing. - - - -The Maya Manuscripts - -The principal Maya manuscripts which have escaped the ravages of time -are the codices in the libraries of Dresden, Paris, and Madrid. These -are known as the Codex Perezianus, preserved in the Bibliothèque -Nationale at Paris, the Dresden Codex, long regarded as an Aztec -manuscript, and the Troano Codex, so called from one of its owners, -Señor Tro y Ortolano, found at Madrid in 1865. These manuscripts deal -principally with Maya mythology, but as they cannot be deciphered -with any degree of accuracy they do not greatly assist our knowledge -of the subject. - - - -The System of the Writing - -The "Tablet of the Cross" gives a good idea of the general appearance -of the writing system of the ancient peoples of Central America. The -style varies somewhat in most of the manuscripts and inscriptions, -but it is generally admitted that all of the systems employed sprang -originally from one common source. The square figures which appear -as a tangle of faces and objects are said to be "calculiform," or -pebble-shaped, a not inappropriate description, and it is known from -ancient Spanish manuscripts that they were read from top to bottom, -and two columns at a time. The Maya tongue, like all native American -languages, was one which, in order to express an idea, gathered a -whole phrase into a single word, and it has been thought that the -several symbols or parts in each square or sketch go to make up such -a compound expression. - -The first key (so called) to the hieroglyphs of Central America -was that of Bishop Landa, who about 1575 attempted to set down the -Maya alphabet from native sources. He was highly unpopular with the -natives, whose literary treasures he had almost completely destroyed, -and who in revenge deliberately misled him as to the true significance -of the various symbols. - -The first real step toward reading the Maya writing was made in -1876 by Léon de Rosny, a French student of American antiquities, who -succeeded in interpreting the signs which denote the four cardinal -points. As has been the case in so many discoveries of importance, -the significance of these signs was simultaneously discovered by -Professor Cyrus Thomas in America. In two of these four signs was -found the symbol which meant "sun," almost, as de Rosny acknowledged, -as a matter of course. However, the Maya word for "sun" (kin) also -denotes "day," and it was later proved that this sign was also used -with the latter meaning. The discovery of the sign stimulated further -research to a great degree, and from the material now at their disposal -Drs. Förstemann and Schellhas of Berlin were successful in discovering -the sign for the moon and that for the Maya month of twenty days. - - - -Clever Elucidations - -In 1887 Dr. Seler discovered the sign for night (akbal), and in 1894 -Förstemann unriddled the symbols for "beginning" and "end." These -are two heads, the first of which has the sign akbal, just mentioned, -for an eye. Now akbal means, as well as "night," "the beginning of the -month," and below the face which contains it can be seen footsteps, or -spots which resemble their outline, signifying a forward movement. The -sign in the second head means "seventh," which in Maya also signifies -"the end." From the frequent contrast of these terms there can be -little doubt that their meaning is as stated. - -"Union" is denoted by the sting of a rattlesnake, the coils of that -reptile signifying to the Maya the idea of tying together. In contrast -to this sign is the figure next to it, which represents a knife, -and means "division" or "cutting." An important "letter" is the -hand, which often occurs in both manuscripts and inscriptions. It is -drawn sometimes in the act of grasping, with the thumb bent forward, -and sometimes as pointing in a certain direction. The first seems -to denote a tying together or joining, like the rattlesnake symbol, -and the second Förstemann believes to represent a lapse of time. That -it may represent futurity occurs as a more likely conjecture to the -present writer. - -The figure denoting the spring equinox was traced because of -its obvious representation of a cloud from which three streams of -water are falling upon the earth. The square at the top represents -heaven. The obsidian knife underneath denotes a division or period -of time cut off, as it were, from other periods of the year. That -the sign means "spring" is verified by its position among the other -signs of the seasons. - -The sign for "week" was discovered by reason of its almost constant -accompaniment of the sign for the number thirteen, the number of days -in the Maya sacred week. The symbol of the bird's feather indicates the -plural, and when affixed to certain signs signifies that the object -indicated is multiplied. A bird's feather, when one thinks of it, -is one of the most fitting symbols provided by nature to designate -the plural, if the number of shoots on both sides of the stem are -taken as meaning "many" or "two." - -Water is depicted by the figure of a serpent, which reptile typifies -the undulating nature of the element. The sign entitled "the -sacrificial victim" is of deep human interest. The first portion of -the symbol is the death-bird, and the second shows a crouching and -beaten captive, ready to be immolated to one of the terrible Maya -deities whose sanguinary religion demanded human sacrifice. The -drawing which means "the day of the new year," in the month Ceh, -was unriddled by the following means: The sign in the upper left-hand -corner denotes the word "sun" or "day," that in the upper right-hand -corner is the sign for "year." In the lower right-hand corner is the -sign for "division," and in the lower left-hand the sign for the Maya -month Ceh, already known from the native calendars. - -From its accompaniment of a figure known to be a deity of the four -cardinal points, whence all American tribes believed the wind to come, -the symbol entitled "wind" has been determined. - - - -Methods of Study - -The method employed by those engaged in the elucidation of these -hieroglyphs is typical of modern science. The various signs and symbols -are literally "worn out" by a process of indefatigable examination. For -hours the student sits staring at a symbol, drinking in every detail, -however infinitesimal, until the drawing and all its parts are wholly -and separately photographed upon the tablets of his memory. He then -compares the several portions of the symbol with similar portions in -other signs the value of which is known. From these he may obtain a -clue to the meaning of the whole. Thus proceeding from the known to -the unknown, he advances logically toward a complete elucidation of all -the hieroglyphs depicted in the various manuscripts and inscriptions. - -The method by which Dr. Seler discovered the hieroglyphs or -symbols relating to the various gods of the Maya was both simple -and ingenious. He says: "The way in which this was accomplished is -strikingly simple. It amounts essentially to that which in ordinary -life we call 'memory of persons,' and follows almost naturally -from a careful study of the manuscripts. For, by frequently looking -tentatively at the representations, one learns by degrees to recognise -promptly similar and familiar figures of gods by the characteristic -impression they make as a whole or by certain details, and the same -is true of the accompanying hieroglyphs." - - - -The Maya Numeral System - -If Bishop Landa was badly hoaxed regarding the alphabet of the Maya, -he was successful in discovering and handing down their numeral system, -which was on a very much higher basis than that of many civilised -peoples, being, for example, more practical and more fully evolved -than that of ancient Rome. This system employed four signs altogether, -the point for unity, a horizontal stroke for the number 5, and two -signs for 20 and 0. Yet from these simple elements the Maya produced a -method of computation which is perhaps as ingenious as anything which -has ever been accomplished in the history of mathematics. In the Maya -arithmetical system, as in ours, it is the position of the sign that -gives it its value. The figures were placed in a vertical line, and -one of them was employed as a decimal multiplier. The lowest figure -of the column had the arithmetical value which it represented. The -figures which appeared in the second, fourth, and each following -place had twenty times the value of the preceding figures, while -figures in the third place had eighteen times the value of those in -the second place. This system admits of computation up to millions, -and is one of the surest signs of Maya culture. - -Much controversy has raged round the exact nature of the Maya -hieroglyphs. Were they understood by the Indians themselves as -representing ideas or merely pictures, or did they convey a given sound -to the reader, as does our alphabet? To some extent controversy upon -the point is futile, as those of the Spanish clergy who were able to -learn the writing from the native Maya have confirmed its phonetic -character, so that in reality each symbol must have conveyed a sound -or sounds to the reader, not merely an idea or a picture. Recent -research has amply proved this, so that the full elucidation of the -long and painful puzzle on which so much learning and patience have -been lavished may perhaps be at hand. - - - -Mythology of the Maya - -The Maya pantheon, although it bears a strong resemblance to that of -the Nahua, differs from it in so many respects that it is easy to -observe that at one period it must have been absolutely free from -all Nahua influence. We may, then, provisionally accept the theory -that at some relatively distant period the mythologies of the Nahua -and Maya were influenced from one common centre, if they were not -originally identical, but that later the inclusion in the cognate -but divided systems of local deities and the superimposition of the -deities and rites of immigrant peoples had caused such differentiation -as to render somewhat vague the original likeness between them. In -the Mexican mythology we have as a key-note the custom of human -sacrifice. It has often been stated as exhibiting the superior status -in civilisation of the Maya that their religion was free from the -revolting practices which characterised the Nahua faith. This, -however, is totally erroneous. Although the Maya were not nearly -so prone to the practice of human sacrifice as were the Nahua, they -frequently engaged in it, and the pictures which have been drawn of -their bloodless offerings must not lead us to believe that they never -indulged in this rite. It is known, for example, that they sacrificed -maidens to the water-god at the period of the spring florescence, -by casting them into a deep pool, where they were drowned. - - - -Quetzalcoatl among the Maya - -One of the most obvious of the mythological relationships between -the Maya and Nahua is exhibited in the Maya cult of the god -Quetzalcoatl. It seems to have been a general belief in Mexico -that Quetzalcoatl was a god foreign to the soil; or at least -relatively aboriginal to his rival Tezcatlipoca, if not to the -Nahua themselves. It is amusing to see it stated by authorities of -the highest standing that his worship was free from bloodshed. But -it does not appear whether the sanguinary rites connected with the -name of Quetzalcoatl in Mexico were undertaken by his priests of -their own accord or at the instigation and pressure of the pontiff of -Huitzilopochtli, under whose jurisdiction they were. The designation by -which Quetzalcoatl was known to the Maya was Kukulcan, which signifies -"Feathered Serpent," and is exactly translated by his Mexican name. In -Guatemala he was called Gucumatz, which word is also identical in -Kiche with his other native appellations. But the Kukulcan of the -Maya appears to be dissimilar from Quetzalcoatl in several of his -attributes. The difference in climate would probably account for most -of these. In Mexico Quetzalcoatl, as we have seen, was not only the -Man of the Sun, but the original wind-god of the country. The Kukulcan -of the Maya has more the attributes of a thunder-god. In the tropical -climate of Yucatan and Guatemala the sun at midday appears to draw the -clouds around it in serpentine shapes. From these emanate thunder and -lightning and the fertilising rain, so that Kukulcan would appear to -have appealed to the Maya more as a god of the sky who wielded the -thunderbolts than a god of the atmosphere proper like Quetzalcoatl, -though several of the stelæ in Yucatan represent Kukulcan as he is -portrayed in Mexico, with wind issuing from his mouth. - - - -An Alphabet of Gods - -The principal sources of our knowledge of the Maya deities are the -Dresden, Madrid, and Paris codices alluded to previously, all of -which contain many pictorial representations of the various members -of the Maya pantheon. Of the very names of some of these gods we are -so ignorant, and so difficult is the process of affixing to them the -traditional names which are left to us as those of the Maya gods, -that Dr. Paul Schellhas, a German student of Maya antiquities, has -proposed that the figures of deities appearing in the Maya codices -or manuscripts should be provisionally indicated by the letters of -the alphabet. The figures of gods which thus occur are fifteen in -number, and therefore take the letters of the alphabet from A to P, -the letter J being omitted. - - - -Difficulties of Comparison - -Unluckily the accounts of Spanish authors concerning Maya mythology -do not agree with the representations of the gods delineated in -the codices. That the three codices have a mythology in common is -certain. Again, great difficulty is found in comparing the deities of -the codices with those represented by the carved and stucco bas-reliefs -of the Maya region. It will thus be seen that very considerable -difficulties beset the student in this mythological sphere. So few data -have yet been collected regarding the Maya mythology that to dogmatise -upon any subject connected with it would indeed be rash. But much -has been accomplished in the past few decades, and evidence is slowly -but surely accumulating from which sound conclusions can be drawn. - - - -The Conflict between Light and Darkness - -We witness in the Maya mythology a dualism almost as complete as that -of ancient Persia--the conflict between light and darkness. Opposing -each other we behold on the one hand the deities of the sun, the -gods of warmth and light, of civilisation and the joy of life, -and on the other the deities of darksome death, of night, gloom, -and fear. From these primal conceptions of light and darkness all -the mythologic forms of the Maya are evolved. When we catch the first -recorded glimpses of Maya belief we recognise that at the period when -it came under the purview of Europeans the gods of darkness were in -the ascendant and a deep pessimism had spread over Maya thought and -theology. Its joyful side was subordinated to the worship of gloomy -beings, the deities of death and hell, and if the cult of light -was attended with such touching fidelity it was because the benign -agencies who were worshipped in connection with it had promised not -to desert mankind altogether, but to return at some future indefinite -period and resume their sway of radiance and peace. - - - -The Calendar - -Like that of the Nahua, the Maya mythology was based almost entirely -upon the calendar, which in its astronomic significance and duration -was identical with that of the Mexicans. The ritual year of twenty -"weeks" of thirteen days each was divided into four quarters, each -of these being under the auspices of a different quarter of the -heavens. Each "week" was under the supervision of a particular deity, -as will be seen when we come to deal separately with the various gods. - - - -Traditional Knowledge of the Gods - -The heavenly bodies had important representation in the Maya -pantheon. In Yucatan the sun-god was known as Kinich-ahau (Lord of -the Face of the Sun). He was identified with the Fire-bird, or Arara, -and was thus called Kinich-Kakmo (Fire-bird; lit. Sun-bird). He was -also the presiding genius of the north. - -Itzamna, one of the most important of the Maya deities, was a -moon-god, the father of gods and men. In him was typified the -decay and recurrence of life in nature. His name was derived from -the words he was supposed to have given to men regarding himself: -"Itz en caan, itz en muyal" ("I am the dew of the heaven, I am the -dew of the clouds"). He was tutelar deity of the west. - -Chac, the rain-god, is the possessor of an elongated nose, not unlike -the proboscis of a tapir, which of course is the spout whence comes the -rain which he blows over the earth. He is one of the best represented -gods on both manuscripts and monuments, and presides over the east. The -black god Ekchuah was the god of merchants and cacao-planters. He is -represented in the manuscripts several times. - -Ix ch'el was the goddess of medicine, and Ix chebel yax was identified -by the priest Hernandez with the Virgin Mary. There were also several -deities, or rather genii, called Bacabs, who were the upholders -of the heavens in the four quarters of the sky. The names of these -were Kan, Muluc, Ix, and Cauac, representing the east, north, west, -and south. Their symbolic colours were yellow, white, black, and red -respectively. They corresponded in some degree to the four variants of -the Mexican rain-god Tlaloc, for many of the American races believed -that rain, the fertiliser of the soil, emanated from the four points of -the compass. We shall find still other deities when we come to discuss -the Popol Vuh, the saga-book of the Kiche, but it is difficult to say -how far these were connected with the deities of the Maya of Yucatan, -concerning whom we have little traditional knowledge, and it is better -to deal with them separately, pointing out resemblances where these -appear to exist. - - - -Maya Polytheism - -On the whole the Maya do not seem to have been burdened with an -extensive pantheon, as were the Nahua, and their polytheism appears -to have been of a limited character. Although they possessed a number -of divinities, these were in a great measure only different forms of -one and the same divine power--probably localised forms of it. The -various Maya tribes worshipped similar gods under different names. They -recognised divine unity in the god Hunabku, who was invisible and -supreme, but he does not bulk largely in their mythology, any more than -does the universal All-Father in other early faiths. The sun is the -great deity in Maya religion, and the myths which tell of the origin -of the Maya people are purely solar. As the sun comes from the east, -so the hero-gods who bring with them culture and enlightenment have -an oriental origin. As Votan, as Kabil, the "Red Hand" who initiates -the people into the arts of writing and architecture, these gods are -civilising men of the sun as surely as is Quetzalcoatl. - - - -The Bat-God - -A sinister figure, the prince of the Maya legions of darkness, is -the bat-god, Zotzilaha Chimalman, who dwelt in the "House of Bats," -a gruesome cavern on the way to the abodes of darkness and death. He -is undoubtedly a relic of cave-worship pure and simple. "The Maya," -says an old chronicler, "have an immoderate fear of death, and they -seem to have given it a figure peculiarly repulsive." We shall find -this deity alluded to in the Popol Vuh, under the name Camazotz, -in close proximity to the Lords of Death and Hell, attempting to -bar the journey of the hero-gods across these dreary realms. He -is frequently met with on the Copan reliefs, and a Maya clan, the -Ah-zotzils, were called by his name. They were of Kakchiquel origin, -and he was probably their totem. - - - -Modern Research - -We must now turn to the question of what modern research has done to -elucidate the character of the various Maya deities. We have already -seen that they have been provisionally named by the letters of the -alphabet until such proof is forthcoming as will identify them with -the traditional gods of the Maya, and we will now briefly examine -what is known concerning them under their temporary designations. - - - -God A - -In the Dresden and other codices god A is represented as a figure -with exposed vertebræ and skull-like countenance, with the marks of -corruption on his body, and displaying every sign of mortality. On -his head he wears a snail-symbol, the Aztec sign of birth, perhaps to -typify the connection between birth and death. He also wears a pair of -cross-bones. The hieroglyph which accompanies his figure represents a -corpse's head with closed eyes, a skull, and a sacrificial knife. His -symbol is that for the calendar day Cimi, which means death. He -presides over the west, the home of the dead, the region toward -which they invariably depart with the setting sun. That he is a -death-god there can be no doubt, but of his name we are ignorant. He -is probably identical with the Aztec god of death and hell, Mictlan, -and is perhaps one of those Lords of Death and Hell who invite the -heroes to the celebrated game of ball in the Kiche Popol Vuh, and -hold them prisoners in their gloomy realm. - -God B is the deity who appears most frequently in the manuscripts. He -has a long, truncated nose, like that of a tapir, and we find in -him every sign of a god of the elements. He walks the waters, wields -fiery torches, and seats himself on the cruciform tree of the four -winds which appears so frequently in American myth. He is evidently a -culture-god or hero, as he is seen planting maize, carrying tools, and -going on a journey, a fact which establishes his solar connection. He -is, in fact, Kukulcan or Quetzalcoatl, and on examining him we feel -that at least there can be no doubt concerning his identity. - -Concerning god C matter is lacking, but he is evidently a god of the -pole-star, as in one of the codices he is surrounded by planetary -signs and wears a nimbus of rays. - -God D is almost certainly a moon-god. He is represented as an aged -man, with sunken cheeks and wrinkled forehead on which hangs the -sign for night. His hieroglyph is surrounded by dots, to represent a -starry sky, and is followed by the number 20, to show the duration -of the moon. Like most moon deities he is connected with birth, -for occasionally he wears the snail, symbol of parturition, on his -head. It is probable that he is Itzamna, one of the greatest of Maya -gods, who was regarded as the universal life-giver, and was probably -of very ancient origin. - - - -The Maize-God - -God E is another deity whom we have no difficulty in identifying. He -wears the leafed ear of maize as his head-dress. In fact, his head has -been evolved out of the conventional drawings of the ear of maize, so -we may say at once without any difficulty that he is a maize-god pure -and simple, and a parallel with the Aztec maize-god Centeotl. Brinton -calls this god Ghanan, and Schellhas thinks he may be identical with -a deity Yum Kaax, whose name means "Lord of the Harvest Fields." - -A close resemblance can be noticed between gods F and A, and it is -thought that the latter resembles the Aztec Xipe, the god of human -sacrifice. He is adorned with the same black lines running over the -face and body, typifying gaping death-wounds. - - - -The Sun-God - -In G we may be sure that we have found a sun-god par excellence. His -hieroglyph is the sun-sign, kin. But we must be careful not to -confound him with deities like Quetzalcoatl or Kukulcan. He is, like -the Mexican Totec, the sun itself, and not the Man of the Sun, the -civilising agent, who leaves his bright abode to dwell with man and -introduce him to the arts of cultured existence. He is the luminary -himself, whose only acceptable food is human blood, and who must be -fed full with this terrible fare or perish, dragging the world of men -with him into a fathomless abyss of gloom. We need not be surprised, -therefore, to see god G occasionally wearing the symbols of death. - -God H would seem to have some relationship to the serpent, but what -it may be is obscure, and no certain identification can be made. - -I is a water-goddess, an old woman with wrinkled brown body and -claw-like feet, wearing on her head a grisly snake twisted into -a knot, to typify the serpent-like nature of water. She holds in -her hands an earthenware pot from which water flows. We cannot say -that she resembles the Mexican water-goddess, Chalchihuitlicue, -wife of Tlaloc, who was in most respects a deity of a beneficent -character. I seems a personification of water in its more dreadful -aspect of floods and water-spouts, as it must inevitably have appeared -to the people of the more torrid regions of Central America, and that -she was regarded as an agent of death is shown from her occasionally -wearing the cross-bones of the death-god. - - - -"The God with the Ornamented Nose" - -God K is scientifically known as "the god with the ornamented nose," -and is probably closely related to god B. Concerning him no two -authorities are at one, some regarding him as a storm-god, whose -proboscis, like that of Kukulcan, is intended to represent the blast of -the tempest. But we observe certain stellar signs in connection with -K which would go to prove that he is, indeed, one of the Quetzalcoatl -group. His features are constantly to be met with on the gateways and -corners of the ruined shrines of Central America, and have led many -"antiquarians" to believe in the existence of an elephant-headed god, -whereas his trunk-like snout is merely a funnel through which he -emitted the gales over which he had dominion, as a careful study of -the pinturas shows, the wind being depicted issuing from the snout -in question. At the same time, the snout may have been modelled on -that of the tapir. "If the rain-god Chac is distinguished in the Maya -manuscript by a peculiarly long nose curving over the mouth, and if -in the other forms of the rain-god, to which, as it seems, the name -of Balon Zacab belongs, the nose widens out and sends out shoots, -I believe that the tapir which was employed identically with Chac, -the Maya rain-god, furnished the model," says Dr. Seler. Is K, then, -the same as Chac? Chac bears every sign of affinity with the Mexican -rain-god Tlaloc, whose face was evolved from the coils of two snakes, -and also some resemblance to the snouted features of B and K. But, -again, the Mexican pictures of Quetzalcoatl are not at all like -those of Tlaloc, so that there can be no affinity between Tlaloc and -K. Therefore if the Mexican Tlaloc and the Maya Chac be identical, -and Tlaloc differs from Quetzalcoatl, who in turn is identical with -B and K, it is clear that Chac has nothing to do with K. - - - -The Old Black God - -God L Dr. Schellhas has designated "the Old Black God," from the -circumstance that he is depicted as an old man with sunken face -and toothless gums, the upper, or sometimes the lower, part of his -features being covered with black paint. He is represented in the -Dresden MS. only. Professor Cyrus Thomas, of New York, thinks that -he is the god Ekchuah, who is traditionally described as black, but -Schellhas fits this designation to god M. The more probable theory -is that of Förstemann, who sees in L the god Votan, who is identical -with the Aztec earth-god, Tepeyollotl. Both deities have similar face -markings, and their dark hue is perhaps symbolical of the subterranean -places where they were supposed to dwell. - - - -The Travellers' God - -God M is a veritable black god, with reddish lips. On his head he -bears a roped package resembling the loads carried by the Maya porter -class, and he is found in violent opposition with F, the enemy of -all who wander into the unknown wastes. A god of this description -has been handed down by tradition under the name of Ekchuah, and his -blackness is probably symbolical of the black or deeply bronzed skin -of the porter class among the natives of Central America, who are -constantly exposed to the sun. He would appear to be a parallel to -the Aztec Yacatecutli, god of travelling merchants or chapmen. - - - -The God of Unlucky Days - -God N is identified by Schellhas with the demon Uayayab, who presided -over the five unlucky days which it will be recollected came at -the end of the Mexican and Maya year. He was known to the Maya as -"He by whom the year is poisoned." After modelling his image in clay -they carried it out of their villages, so that his baneful influence -might not dwell therein. - -Goddess O is represented as an old woman engaged in the avocation -of spinning, and is probably a goddess of the domestic virtues, -the tutelar of married females. - - - -The Frog-God - -God P is shown with the body and fins of a frog on a blue background, -evidently intended to represent water. Like all other frog-gods -he is, of course, a deity of water, probably in its agricultural -significance. We find him sowing seed and making furrows, and -when we remember the important part played by frog deities in the -agriculture of Anahuac we should have no difficulty in classing him -with these. Seler asserts his identity with Kukulcan, but no reason -except the circumstance of his being a rain-god can be advanced to -establish the identity. He wears the year-sign on his head, probably -with a seasonal reference. - - - -Maya Architecture - -It was in the wonderful architectural system which it developed -without outside aid that the Maya people most individually expressed -itself. As has been said, those buildings which still remain, and -which have excited the admiration of generations of archæologists, are -principally confined to examples of ecclesiastical and governmental -architecture, the dwellings of the common people consisting merely -of the flimsiest of wattle-and-daub structures, which would fall to -pieces shortly after they were abandoned. - -Buried in dense forests or mouldering on the sun-exposed plains -of Yucatan, Honduras, and Guatemala, the cities which boasted these -edifices are for the most part situated away from modern trade routes, -and are not a little difficult to come at. It is in Yucatan, the old -home of the Cocomes and Tutul Xius, that the most perfect specimens -of Maya architecture are to be found, especially as regards its later -development, and here, too, it may be witnessed in its decadent phase. - - - -Methods of Building - -The Maya buildings were almost always erected upon a mound or ku, -either natural or artificial, generally the latter. In this we discover -affinities with the Mexican teocalli type. Often these kus stood alone, -without any superincumbent building save a small altar to prove their -relation to the temple type of Anahuac. The typical Maya temple was -built on a series of earth terraces arranged in exact parallel order, -the buildings themselves forming the sides of a square. The mounds -are generally concealed by plaster or faced with stone, the variety -employed being usually a hard sandstone, of which the Maya had a good -supply in the quarries of Chiapas and Honduras. Moderate in weight, -the difficulty of transport was easily overcome, whilst large blocks -could be readily quarried. It will thus be seen that the Maya had -no substantial difficulties to surmount in connection with building -the large edifices and temples they raised, except, perhaps, the -lack of metal tools to shape and carve and quarry the stone which -they used. And although they exhibit considerable ingenuity in such -architectural methods as they employed, they were still surprisingly -ignorant of some of the first essentials and principles of the art. - - - -No Knowledge of the Arch - -For example, they were totally ignorant of the principles upon which -the arch is constructed. This difficulty they overcame by making -each course of masonry overhang the one beneath it, after the method -employed by a boy with a box of bricks, who finds that he can only -make "doorways" by this means, or by the simple expedient--also -employed by the Maya--of placing a slab horizontally upon two -upright pillars. In consequence it will readily be seen that the -superimposition of a second story upon such an insecure foundation -was scarcely to be thought of, and that such support for the roof as -towered above the doorway would necessarily require to be of the most -substantial description. Indeed, this portion of the building often -appears to be more than half the size of the rest of the edifice. This -space gave the Maya builders a splendid chance for mural decoration, -and it must be said they readily seized it and made the most of it, -ornamental façades being perhaps the most typical features in the -relics of Maya architecture. - - - -Pyramidal Structures - -But the Maya possessed another type of building which permitted of -their raising more than one story. This was the pyramidal type, of -which many examples remain. The first story was built in the usual -manner, and the second was raised by increasing the height of the -mound at the back of the building until it was upon a level with the -roof--another device well known to the boy with the box of bricks. In -the centre of the space thus made another story could be erected, -which was entered by a staircase outside the building. Hampered by -their inability to build to any appreciable height, the Maya architects -made up for the deficiency by constructing edifices of considerable -length and breadth, the squat appearance of which is counterbalanced -by the beautiful mural decoration of the sides and façade. - - - -Definiteness of Design - -He would be a merely superficial observer who would form the conclusion -that these specimens of an architecture spontaneously evolved were -put together without survey, design, or previous calculation. That -as much thought entered into their construction as is lavished upon -his work by a modern architect is proved by the manner in which the -carved stones fit into one another. It would be absurd to suppose -that these tremendous façades bristling with scores of intricate -designs could have been first placed in position and subsequently -laden with the bas-reliefs they exhibit. It is plain that they were -previously worked apart and separately from one entire design. Thus -we see that the highest capabilities of the architect were essential -in a measure to the erection of these imposing structures. - - - -Architectural Districts - -Although the mason-craft of the Maya peoples was essentially similar -in all the regions populated by its various tribes and offshoots, -there existed in the several localities occupied by them certain -differences in construction and ornamentation which would almost -justify us in dividing them into separate architectural spheres. In -Chiapas, for example, we find the bas-relief predominant, whether -in stone or stucco. In Honduras we find a stiffness of design which -implies an older type of architecture, along with caryatides and -memorial pillars of human shape. In Guatemala, again, we find traces -of the employment of wood. As the civilisation of the Maya cannot -be well comprehended without some knowledge of their architecture, -and as that art was unquestionably their national forte and the thing -which most sharply distinguished them from the semi-savage peoples -that surrounded them, it will be well to consider it for a space as -regards its better-known individual examples. - - - -Fascination of the Subject - -He would indeed be dull of imagination and of spirit who could enter -into the consideration of such a subject as this without experiencing -some thrill from the mystery which surrounds it. Although familiarised -with the study of the Maya antiquities by reason of many years of -close acquaintance with it, the author cannot approach the theme -without a feeling of the most intense awe. We are considering the -memorials of a race isolated for countless thousands of years from -the rest of humanity--a race which by itself evolved a civilisation -in every respect capable of comparison with those of ancient Egypt or -Assyria. In these impenetrable forests and sun-baked plains mighty -works were raised which tell of a culture of a lofty type. We are -aware that the people who reared them entered into religious and -perhaps philosophical considerations their interpretations of which -place them upon a level with the most enlightened races of antiquity; -but we have only stepped upon the margin of Maya history. What dread -secrets, what scenes of orgic splendour have those carven walls -witnessed? What solemn priestly conclave, what magnificence of rite, -what marvels of initiation, have these forest temples known? These -things we shall never learn. They are hidden from us in a gloom as -palpable as that of the tree-encircled depths in which we find these -shattered works of a once powerful hierarchy. - - - -Mysterious Palenque - -One of the most famous of these ancient centres of priestly domination -is Palenque, situated in the modern state of Chiapas. This city -was first brought into notice by Don José Calderon in 1774, when he -discovered no less than eighteen palaces, twenty great buildings, and -a hundred and sixty houses, which proves that in his day the primeval -forest had not made such inroads upon the remaining buildings as it -has during the past few generations. There is good evidence besides -this that Palenque was standing at the time of Cortés' conquest of -Yucatan. And here it will be well at once to dispel any conception the -reader may have formed concerning the vast antiquity of these cities -and the structures they contain. The very oldest of them cannot be of -a date anterior to the thirteenth century, and few Americanists of -repute would admit such an antiquity for them. There may be remains -of a fragmentary nature here and there in Central America which -are relatively more ancient. But no temple or edifice which remains -standing can claim a greater antiquity. - -Palenque is built in the form of an amphitheatre, and nestles on the -lowest slopes of the Cordilleras. Standing on the central pyramid, -the eye is met by a ring of ruined palaces and temples raised upon -artificial terraces. Of these the principal and most imposing is the -Palace, a pile reared upon a single platform, forming an irregular -quadrilateral, with a double gallery on the east, north, and west -sides, surrounding an inner structure with a similar gallery and -two courtyards. It is evident that there was little system or plan -observed in the construction of this edifice, an unusual circumstance -in Maya architecture. The dwelling apartments were situated on the -southern side of the structure, and here there is absolute confusion, -for buildings of all sorts and sizes jostle each other, and are reared -on different levels. - -Our interest is perhaps at first excited by three subterraneous -apartments down a flight of gloomy steps. Here are to be found three -great stone tables, the edges of which are fretted with sculptured -symbols. That these were altars admits of little doubt, although -some visitors have not hesitated to call them dining-tables! These -constitute only one of the many puzzles in this building of 228 feet -frontage, with a depth of 180 feet, which at the same time is only -about 25 feet high! - -On the north side of the Palace pyramid the façade of the Palace has -crumbled into complete ruin, but some evidences of an entrance are -still noticeable. There were probably fourteen doorways in all in the -frontage, with a width of about 9 feet each, the piers of which were -covered with figures in bas-relief. The inside of the galleries is -also covered at intervals with similar designs, or medallions, many -of which are probably representations of priests or priestesses who -once dwelt within the classic shades and practised strange rites in -the worship of gods long since forgotten. One of these is of a woman -with delicate features and high-bred countenance, and the frame or rim -surrounding it is decorated in a manner recalling the Louis XV style. - -The east gallery is 114 feet long, the north 185 feet, and the west 102 -feet, so that, as remarked above, a lack of symmetry is apparent. The -great court is reached by a Mayan arch which leads on to a staircase, -on each side of which grotesque human figures of the Maya type are -sculptured. Whom they are intended to portray or what rite they are -engaged in it would indeed be difficult to say. That they are priests -may be hazarded, for they appear to be dressed in the ecclesiastical -maxtli (girdle), and one seems to be decorated with the beads seen -in the pictures of the death-god. Moreover, they are mitred. - -The courtyard is exceedingly irregular in shape. To the south side -is a small building which has assisted our knowledge of Maya mural -decoration; especially valuable is the handsome frieze with which -it is adorned, on which we observe the rather familiar feathered -serpent (Kukulcan or Quetzalcoatl). Everywhere we notice the flat -Maya head--a racial type, perhaps brought about by deformation of the -cranium in youth. One of the most important parts of the Palace from -an architectural point of view is the east front of the inner wing, -which is perhaps the best preserved, and exhibits the most luxurious -ornamentation. Two roofed galleries supported by six pillars covered -with bas-reliefs are reached by a staircase on which hieroglyphic -signs still remain. The reliefs in cement are still faintly to be -discerned on the pillars, and must have been of great beauty. They -represent mythological characters in various attitudes. Above, seven -enormous heads frown on the explorer in grim menace. The effect of the -entire façade is rich in the extreme, even in ruin, and from it we can -obtain a faint idea of the splendours of this wonderful civilisation. - - - -An Architectural Curiosity - -One of the few towers to be seen among the ruins of Maya architecture -stands at Palenque. It is square in shape and three stories in height, -with sloping roof, and is not unlike the belfry of some little English -village church. - -The building we have been describing, although traditionally known -as a "palace," was undoubtedly a great monastery or ecclesiastical -habitation. Indeed, the entire city of Palenque was solely a -priestly centre, a place of pilgrimage. The bas-reliefs with their -representations of priests and acolytes prove this, as does the -absence of warlike or monarchical subjects. - - - -The Temple of Inscriptions - -The Temple of Inscriptions, perched on an eminence some 40 feet -high, is the largest edifice in Palenque. It has a façade 74 feet -long by 25 feet deep, composed of a great gallery which runs along -the entire front of the fane. The building has been named from the -inscriptions with which certain flagstones in the central apartment -are covered. Three other temples occupy a piece of rising ground -close by. These are the Temple of the Sun, closely akin in type to -many Japanese temple buildings; the Temple of the Cross, in which -a wonderful altar-piece was discovered; and the Temple of the Cross -No. II. In the Temple of the Cross the inscribed altar gave its name -to the building. In the central slab is a cross of the American -pattern, its roots springing from the hideous head of the goddess -Chicomecohuatl, the Earth-mother, or her Maya equivalent. Its branches -stretch to where on the right and left stand two figures, evidently -those of a priest and acolyte, performing some mysterious rite. On -the apex of the tree is placed the sacred turkey, or "Emerald Fowl," -to which offerings of maize paste are made. The whole is surrounded -by inscriptions. (See illustration facing p. 160.) - - - -Aké and Itzamal - -Thirty miles east of Merida lies Aké, the colossal and primeval -ruins of which speak of early Maya occupation. Here are pyramids, -tennis-courts, and gigantic pillars which once supported immense -galleries, all in a state of advanced ruin. Chief among these is the -great pyramid and gallery, a mighty staircase rising toward lofty -pillars, and somewhat reminiscent of Stonehenge. For what purpose it -was constructed is quite unknown. - - - -The House of Darkness - -One ruin, tradition calls "The House of Darkness." Here no light -enters save that which filters in by the open doorway. The vaulted roof -is lost in a lofty gloom. So truly have the huge blocks of which the -building is composed been laid that not even a needle could be inserted -between them. The whole is coated with a hard plaster or cement. - - - -The Palace of Owls - -The Knuc (Palace of Owls), where a beautiful frieze of diamond-shaped -stones intermingling with spheres may be observed, is noteworthy. All -here is undoubtedly of the first Yucatec era, the time when the Maya -first overran the country. - -At Itzamal the chief object of interest is the great pyramid of -Kinich-Kakmo (The Sun's Face with Fiery Rays), the base of which -covers an area of nearly 650 square feet. To this shrine thousands -were wont to come in times of panic or famine, and from the summit, -where was housed the glittering idol, the smoke of sacrifice ascended -to the cloudless sky, whilst a multitude of white-robed priests and -augurs chanted and prophesied. To the south of this mighty pile stand -the ruins of the Ppapp-Hol-Chac (The House of Heads and Lightnings), -the abode of the chief priest. - - - -Itzamna's Fane - -At Itzamal, too, stood one of the chief temples of the great god -Itzamna, the legendary founder of the Maya Empire. Standing on a -lofty pyramid, four roads radiated from it, leading to Tabasco, -Guatemala, and Chiapas; and here they brought the halt, the maimed, -and the blind, aye, even the dead, for succour and resurrection, -such faith had they in the mighty power of Kab-ul (The Miraculous -Hand), as they designated the deity. The fourth road ran to the -sacred isle of Cozumel, where first the men of Spain found the Maya -cross, and supposed it to prove that St. Thomas had discovered the -American continent in early times, and had converted the natives to -a Christianity which had become debased. - - - -Bearded Gods - -To the west arose another pyramid, on the summit of which was built the -palace of Hunpictok (The Commander-in-chief of Eight Thousand Flints), -in allusion, probably, to the god of lightning, Hurakan, whose gigantic -face, once dominating the basement wall, has now disappeared. This face -possessed huge mustachios, appendages unknown to the Maya race; and, -indeed, we are struck with the frequency with which Mexican and Mayan -gods and heroes are adorned with beards and other hirsute ornaments -both on the monuments and in the manuscripts. Was the original -governing class a bearded race? It is scarcely probable. Whence, -then, the ever-recurring beard and moustache? These may have been -developed in the priestly class by constant ceremonial shaving, -which often produces a thin beard in the Mongolians--as witness the -modern Japanese, who in imitating a custom of the West often succeed -in producing quite respectable beards. - - - -A Colossal Head - -Not far away is to be found a gigantic head, probably that of the -god Itzamna. It is 13 feet in height, and the features were formed -by first roughly tracing them in rubble, and afterwards coating the -whole with plaster. The figure is surrounded by spirals, symbols of -wind or speech. On the opposite side of the pyramid alluded to above -is found a wonderful bas-relief representing a tiger couchant, with -a human head of the Maya type, probably depicting one of the early -ancestors of the Maya, Balam-Quitze (Tiger with the Sweet Smile), -of whom we read in the Popol Vuh. - - - -Chichen-Itza - -At Chichen-Itza, in Yucatan, the chief wonder is the gigantic -pyramid-temple known as El Castillo. It is reached by a steep flight -of steps, and from it the vast ruins of Chichen radiate in a circular -manner. To the east is the market-place, to the north a mighty -temple, and a tennis-court, perhaps the best example of its kind in -Yucatan, whilst to the west stand the Nunnery and the Chichan-Chob, -or prison. Concerning Chichen-Itza Cogolludo tells the following story: -"A king of Chichen called Canek fell desperately in love with a young -princess, who, whether she did not return his affection or whether she -was compelled to obey a parental mandate, married a more powerful -Yucatec cacique. The discarded lover, unable to bear his loss, -and moved by love and despair, armed his dependents and suddenly -fell upon his successful rival. Then the gaiety of the feast was -exchanged for the din of war, and amidst the confusion the Chichen -prince disappeared, carrying off the beautiful bride. But conscious -that his power was less than his rival's, and fearing his vengeance, -he fled the country with most of his vassals." It is a historical -fact that the inhabitants of Chichen abandoned their city, but whether -for the reason given in this story or not cannot be discovered. - - - -The Nunnery - -The Nunnery at Chichen is a building of great beauty of outline and -decoration, the frieze above the doorway and the fretted ornamentation -of the upper story exciting the admiration of most writers on the -subject. Here dwelt the sacred women, the chief of whom, like their -male prototypes, were dedicated to Kukulcan and regarded with much -reverence. The base of the building is occupied by eight large figures, -and over the door is the representation of a priest with a panache, -whilst a row of gigantic heads crowns the north façade. Here, too, are -figures of the wind-god, with projecting lips, which many generations -of antiquarians took for heads of elephants with waving trunks! The -entire building is one of the gems of Central American architecture, -and delights the eye of archæologist and artist alike. In El Castillo -are found wonderful bas-reliefs depicting bearded men, evidently the -priests of Quetzalcoatl, himself bearded, and to the practised eye -one of these would appear to be wearing a false hirsute appendage, as -kings were wont to do in ancient Egypt. Were these beards artificial -and symbolical? - - - -The "Writing in the Dark" - -The Akab-sib (Writing in the Dark) is a bas-relief found on the lintel -of an inner door at the extremity of the building. It represents a -figure seated before a vase, with outstretched forefinger, and whence -it got its traditional appellation it would be hard to say, unless -the person represented is supposed to be in the act of writing. The -figure is surrounded by inscriptions. At Chichen were found a statue of -Tlaloc, the god of rain or moisture, and immense torsos representing -Kukulcan. There also was a terrible well into which men were cast in -time of drought as a propitiation to the rain-god. - - - -Kabah - -At Kabah there is a marvellous frontage which strikingly recalls -that of a North American Indian totem-house in its fantastic wealth -of detail. The ruins are scattered over a large area, and must all -have been at one time painted in brilliant colours. Here two horses' -heads in stone were unearthed, showing that the natives had copied -faithfully the steeds of the conquering Spaniards. Nothing is known of -the history of Kabah, but its neighbour, Uxmal, fifteen miles distant, -is much more famous. - - - -Uxmal - -The imposing pile of the Casa del Gobernador (Governor's Palace, so -called) at Uxmal is perhaps the best known and described of all the -aboriginal buildings of Central America. It occupies three successive -colossal terraces, and its frieze runs in a line of 325 feet, and -is divided into panels, each of which frames a gigantic head of -priest or deity. The striking thing concerning this edifice is that -although it has been abandoned for over three hundred years it is -still almost as fresh architecturally as when it left the builder's -hands. Here and there a lintel has fallen, or stones have been removed -in a spirit of vandalism to assist in the erection of a neighbouring -hacienda, but on the whole we possess in it the most unspoiled piece -of Yucatec building in existence. On the side of the palace where -stands the main entrance, directly over the gateway, is the most -wonderful fretwork and ornamentation, carried out in high relief, -above which soar three eagles in hewn stone, surmounted by a plumed -human head. In the plinth are three heads, which in type recall the -Roman, surrounded by inscriptions. A clear proof of the comparative -lateness of the period in which Uxmal was built is found in the -circumstance that all the lintels over the doorways are of wood, -of which much still exists in a good state of preservation. Many of -the joists of the roofs were also of timber, and were fitted into -the stonework by means of specially carved ends. - - - -The Dwarf's House - -There is also a nunnery which forcibly recalls that at Chichen, and is -quite as elaborate and flamboyant in its architectural design. But the -real mystery at Uxmal is the Casa del Adivino (The Prophet's House), -also locally known as "The Dwarf's House." It consists of two portions, -one of which is on the summit of an artificial pyramid, whilst the -other, a small but beautifully finished chapel, is situated lower down -facing the town. The loftier building is reached by an exceedingly -steep staircase, and bears every evidence of having been used as a -sanctuary, for here were discovered cacao and copal, recently burnt, -by Cogolludo as late as 1656, which is good evidence that the Yucatecs -did not all at once abandon their ancient faith at the promptings of -the Spanish fathers. - - - -The Legend of the Dwarf - -In his Travels in Yucatan Stephens has a legend relating to this house -which may well be given in his own words: "An old woman," he says, -"lived alone in her hut, rarely leaving her chimney-corner. She was -much distressed at having no children, and in her grief one day took an -egg, wrapped it up carefully in cotton cloth, and put it in a corner of -her hut. She looked every day in great anxiety, but no change in the -egg was observable. One morning, however, she found the shell broken, -and a lovely tiny creature was stretching out its arms to her. The -old woman was in raptures. She took it to her heart, gave it a nurse, -and was so careful of it that at the end of a year the baby walked -and talked as well as a grown-up man. But he stopped growing. The good -old woman in her joy and delight exclaimed that the baby should be a -great chief. One day she told him to go to the king's palace and engage -him in a trial of strength. The dwarf begged hard not to be sent on -such an enterprise. But the old woman insisted on his going, and he -was obliged to obey. When ushered into the presence of the sovereign -he threw down his gauntlet. The latter smiled, and asked him to lift -a stone of three arobes (75 lb.). The child returned crying to his -mother, who sent him back, saying, 'If the king can lift the stone, you -can lift it too.' The king did take it up, but so did the dwarf. His -strength was tried in many other ways, but all the king did was as -easily done by the dwarf. Wroth at being outdone by so puny a creature, -the prince told the dwarf that unless he built a palace loftier than -any in the city he should die. The affrighted dwarf returned to the -old woman, who bade him not to despair, and the next morning they -both awoke in the palace which is still standing. The king saw the -palace with amazement. He instantly sent for the dwarf, and desired -him to collect two bundles of cogoiol (a kind of hard wood), with -one of which he would strike the dwarf on the head, and consent to be -struck in return by his tiny adversary. The latter again returned to -his mother moaning and lamenting. But the old woman cheered him up, -and, placing a tortilla on his head, sent him back to the king. The -trial took place in the presence of all the state grandees. The king -broke the whole of his bundle on the dwarf's head without hurting him -in the least, seeing which he wished to save his own head from the -impending ordeal; but his word had been passed before his assembled -court, and he could not well refuse. The dwarf struck, and at the -second blow the king's skull was broken to pieces. The spectators -immediately proclaimed the victorious dwarf their sovereign. After -this the old woman disappeared. But in the village of Mani, fifty -miles distant, is a deep well leading to a subterraneous passage which -extends as far as Merida. In this passage is an old woman sitting -on the bank of a river shaded by a great tree, having a serpent by -her side. She sells water in small quantities, accepting no money, -for she must have human beings, innocent babies, which are devoured -by the serpent. This old woman is the dwarf's mother." - -The interpretation of this myth is by no means difficult. The old -woman is undoubtedly the rain-goddess, the dwarf the Man of the Sun -who emerges from the cosmic egg. In Yucatan dwarfs were sacred to the -sun-god, and were occasionally sacrificed to him, for reasons which -appear obscure. - - - -The Mound of Sacrifice - -Another building at Uxmal the associations of which render it of more -than passing interest is the Pyramid of Sacrifice, an edifice built -on the plan of the Mexican teocalli. Indeed, it is probably of Aztec -origin, and may even have been erected by the mercenaries who during -the fifteenth century swarmed from Mexico into Yucatan and Guatemala -to take service with the rival chieftains who carried on civil war -in those states. Beside this is another mound which was crowned -by a very beautiful temple, now in an advanced state of ruin. The -"Pigeon House" is an ornate pile with pinnacles pierced by large -openings which probably served as dovecotes. The entire architecture -of Uxmal displays a type more primitive than that met elsewhere in -Yucatan. There is documentary evidence to prove that so late as 1673 -the Indians still worshipped in the ruins of Uxmal, where they burnt -copal, and performed "other detestable sacrifices." So that even a -hundred and fifty years of Spanish rule had not sufficed to wean the -natives from the worship of the older gods to whom their fathers had -for generations bowed down. This would also seem conclusive evidence -that the ruins of Uxmal at least were the work of the existing race. - - - -The Phantom City - -In his Travels in Central America Stephens recounts a fascinating -story told him by a priest of Santa Cruz del Quiche, to the effect -that four days' journey from that place a great Indian city was to be -seen, densely populated, and preserving the ancient civilisation of -the natives. He had, indeed, beheld it from the summit of a cliff, -shining in glorious whiteness many leagues away. This was perhaps -Lorillard City, discovered by Suarez, and afterwards by Charnay. In -general type Lorillard closely resembles Palenque. Here was found a -wonderfully executed stone idol, which Charnay thought represented a -different racial type from that seen in the other Central American -cities. The chief finds of interest in this ancient city were the -intricate bas-reliefs, one over the central door of a temple, probably -a symbolic representation of Quetzalcoatl, who holds the rain-cross, -in both hands, and is seen vis-à-vis with an acolyte, also holding the -symbol, though it is possible that the individual represented may have -been the high-priest of Quetzalcoatl or Kukulcan. Another bas-relief -represents a priest sacrificing to Kukulcan by passing a rope of -maguey fibre over his tongue for the purpose of drawing blood--an -instance of the substitution in sacrifice of the part for the whole. - - - -The Horse-God - -At Peten-Itza, Cortés left his horse, which had fallen sick, to the -care of the Indians. The animal died under their mismanagement and -because of the food offered it, and the terrified natives, fancying -it a divine being, raised an image of it, and called it Izimin Chac -(Thunder and Lightning), because they had seen its rider discharge a -firearm, and they imagined that the flash and the report had proceeded -from the creature. The sight of the idol aroused such wrath in the -zealous bosom of a certain Spanish monk that he broke it with a -huge stone--and, but for the interference of the cacique, would have -suffered death for his temerity. Peten was a city "filled with idols," -as was Tayasal, close at hand, where in the seventeenth century no -less than nine new temples were built, which goes to prove that the -native religion was by no means extinct. One of these new temples, -according to Villagutierre, had a Spanish balcony of hewn stone! In -the Temple of the Sun at Tikal, an adjoining city, is a wonderful -altar panel, representing an unknown deity, and here also are many of -those marvellously carved idols of which Stephens gives such capital -illustrations in his fascinating book. - - - -Copan - -Copan, one of the most interesting of these wondrous city-centres, -the name of which has, indeed, become almost a household word, is in -the same district as the towns just described, and abounds chiefly in -monolithic images. It yielded after a desperate struggle to Hernandez -de Chaves, one of Alvarado's lieutenants, in 1530. The monolithic -images so abundantly represented here are evolved from the stelæ and -the bas-relief, and are not statues in the proper sense of the term, -as they are not completely cut away from the stone background out -of which they were carved. An altar found at Copan exhibits real -skill in sculpture, the head-dresses, ornaments, and expressions of -the eight figures carved on its sides being elaborate in the extreme -and exceedingly lifelike. Here again we notice a fresh racial type, -which goes to prove that one race alone cannot have been responsible -for these marvellous ruined cities and all that they contain and -signify. We have to imagine a shifting of races and a fluctuation -of peoples in Central America such as we know took place in Europe -and Asia before we can rightly understand the ethnological problems -of the civilised sphere of the New World, and any theory which does -not take due account of such conditions is doomed to failure. - - - -Mitla - -We now come to the last of these stupendous remnants of a vanished -civilisation--Mitla, by no means the least of the works of civilised -man in Central America. At the period of the conquest the city -occupied a wide area, but at the present time only six palaces and -three ruined pyramids are left standing. The great palace is a vast -edifice in the shape of the letter T, and measures 130 feet in its -greater dimension, with an apartment of a like size. Six monolithic -columns which supported the roof still stand in gigantic isolation, -but the roof itself has long fallen in. A dark passage leads to the -inner court, and the walls of this are covered with mosaic work -in panels which recalls somewhat the pattern known as the "Greek -fret." The lintels over the doorways are of huge blocks of stone -nearly eighteen feet long. Of this building Viollet-le-Duc says: -"The monuments of Greece and Rome in their best time can alone compare -with the splendour of this great edifice." - - - -A Place of Sepulture - -The ruins at Mitla bear no resemblance to those of Mexico or Yucatan, -either as regards architecture or ornamentation, for whereas the -Yucatec buildings possess overlapping walls, the palaces of Mitla -consist of perpendicular walls intended to support flat roofs. Of -these structures the second and fourth palaces alone are in such a -state of preservation as to permit of general description. The second -palace shows by its sculptured lintel and two inner columns that the -same arrangement was observed in its construction as in the great -palace just described. The fourth palace has on its southern façade -oblong panels and interesting caryatides or pillars in the shape of -human figures. These palaces consisted of four upper apartments, -finely sculptured, and a like number of rooms on the lower story, -which was occupied by the high-priest, and to which the king came -to mourn on the demise of a relative. Here, too, the priests were -entombed, and in an adjoining room the idols were kept. Into a huge -underground chamber the bodies of eminent warriors and sacrificial -victims were cast. Attempts have been made to identify Mitla with -Mictlan, the Mexican Hades, and there is every reason to suppose -that the identification is correct. It must be borne in mind that -Mictlan was as much a place of the dead as a place of punishment, -as was the Greek Hades, and therefore might reasonably signify a -place of sepulture, such as Mitla undoubtedly was. The following -passages from the old historians of Mitla, Torquemada and Burgoa, -throw much light on this aspect of the city, and besides are full of -the most intense interest and curious information, so that they may -be given in extenso. But before passing on to them we should for a -moment glance at Seler's suggestion that the American race imagined -that their ancestors had originally issued from the underworld through -certain caverns into the light of day, and that this was the reason -why Mitla was not only a burial-place but a sanctuary. - - - -An Old Description of Mitla - -Of Mitla Father Torquemada writes: - -"When some monks of my order, the Franciscan, passed, preaching -and shriving, through the province of Zapoteca, whose capital city -is Tehuantepec, they came to a village which was called Mictlan, -that is, Underworld [Hell]. Besides mentioning the large number -of people in the village they told of buildings which were prouder -and more magnificent than any which they had hitherto seen in New -Spain. Among them was a temple of the evil spirit and living-rooms -for his demoniacal servants, and among other fine things there was -a hall with ornamented panels, which were constructed of stone in a -variety of arabesques and other very remarkable designs. There were -doorways there, each one of which was built of but three stones, -two upright at the sides and one across them, in such a manner that, -although these doorways were very high and broad, the stones sufficed -for their entire construction. They were so thick and broad that we -were assured there were few like them. There was another hall in these -buildings, or rectangular temples, which was erected entirely on round -stone pillars, very high and very thick, so thick that two grown men -could scarcely encircle them with their arms, nor could one of them -reach the finger-tips of the other. These pillars were all in one -piece, and, it was said, the whole shaft of a pillar measured 5 ells -from top to bottom, and they were very much like those of the Church -of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, very skilfully made and polished." - -Father Burgoa gives a more exact description. He says: - -"The Palace of the Living and of the Dead was built for the use -of this person [the high-priest of the Zapotecs].... They built -this magnificent house or pantheon in the shape of a rectangle, with -portions rising above the earth and portions built down into the earth, -the latter in the hole or cavity which was found below the surface -of the earth, and ingeniously made the chambers of equal size by the -manner of joining them, leaving a spacious court in the middle; and in -order to secure four equal chambers they accomplished what barbarian -heathen (as they were) could only achieve by the powers and skill -of an architect. It is not known in what stone-pit they quarried the -pillars, which are so thick that two men can scarcely encircle them -with their arms. These are, to be sure, mere shafts without capital -or pedestal, but they are wonderfully regular and smooth, and they -are about 5 ells high and in one piece. These served to support the -roof, which consists of stone slabs instead of beams. The slabs are -about 2 ells long, 1 ell broad, and half an ell thick, extending from -pillar to pillar. The pillars stand in a row, one behind the other, -in order to receive the weight. The stone slabs are so regular and so -exactly fitted that, without any mortar or cement, at the joints they -resemble mortised beams. The four rooms, which are very spacious, -are arranged in exactly the same way and covered with the same -kind of roofing. But in the construction of the walls the greatest -architects of the earth have been surpassed, as I have not found this -kind of architecture described either among the Egyptians or among -the Greeks, for they begin at the base with a narrow outline and, -as the structure rises in height, spread out in wide copings at the -top, so that the upper part exceeds the base in breadth and looks -as if it would fall over. The inner side of the walls consists of a -mortar or stucco of such hardness that no one knows with what kind of -liquid it could have been mixed. The outside is of such extraordinary -workmanship that on a masonry wall about an ell in height there are -placed stone slabs with a projecting edge, which form the support -for an endless number of small white stones, the smallest of which -are a sixth of an ell long, half as broad, and a quarter as thick, -and which are as smooth and regular as if they had all come from one -mould. They had so many of these stones that, setting them in, one -beside the other, they formed with them a large number of different -beautiful geometric designs, each an ell broad and running the whole -length of the wall, each varying in pattern up to the crowning piece, -which was the finest of all. And what has always seemed inexplicable -to the greatest architects is the adjustment of these little stones -without a single handful of mortar, and the fact that without tools, -with nothing but hard stones and sand, they could achieve such solid -work that, though the whole structure is very old and no one knows -who made it, it has been preserved until the present day. - - - -Human Sacrifice at Mitla - -"I carefully examined these monuments some thirty years ago in the -chambers above ground, which are constructed of the same size and in -the same way as those below ground, and, though single pieces were in -ruins because some stones had become loosened, there was still much -to admire. The doorways were very large, the sides of each being of -single stones of the same thickness as the wall, and the lintel was -made out of another stone which held the two lower ones together at -the top. There were four chambers above ground and four below. The -latter were arranged according to their purpose in such a way that -one front chamber served as chapel and sanctuary for the idols, -which were placed on a great stone which served as an altar. And -for the more important feasts which they celebrated with sacrifices, -or at the burial of a king or great lord, the high-priest instructed -the lesser priests or the subordinate temple officials who served -him to prepare the chapel and his vestments and a large quantity of -the incense used by them. And then he descended with a great retinue, -while none of the common people saw him or dared to look in his face, -convinced that if they did so they would fall dead to the earth as a -punishment for their boldness. And when he entered the chapel they put -on him a long white cotton garment made like an alb, and over that a -garment shaped like a dalmatic, which was embroidered with pictures -of wild beasts and birds; and they put a cap on his head, and on his -feet a kind of shoe woven of many coloured feathers. And when he had -put on these garments he walked with solemn mien and measured step to -the altar, bowed low before the idols, renewed the incense, and then in -quite unintelligible murmurs he began to converse with these images, -these depositories of infernal spirits, and continued in this sort -of prayer with hideous grimaces and writhings, uttering inarticulate -sounds, which filled all present with fear and terror, till he came -out of that diabolical trance and told those standing around the lies -and fabrications which the spirit had imparted to him or which he had -invented himself. When human beings were sacrificed the ceremonies were -multiplied, and the assistants of the high-priest stretched the victim -out upon a large stone, baring his breast, which they tore open with -a great stone knife, while the body writhed in fearful convulsions, -and they laid the heart bare, ripping it out, and with it the soul, -which the devil took, while they carried the heart to the high-priest -that he might offer it to the idols by holding it to their mouths, -among other ceremonies; and the body was thrown into the burial-place -of their 'blessed,' as they called them. And if after the sacrifice -he felt inclined to detain those who begged any favour he sent them -word by the subordinate priests not to leave their houses till their -gods were appeased, and he commanded them to do penance meanwhile, -to fast and to speak with no woman, so that, until this father of sin -had interceded for the absolution of the penitents and had declared -the gods appeased, they did not dare to cross their thresholds. - -"The second (underground) chamber was the burial-place of these -high-priests, the third that of the kings of Theozapotlan, whom they -brought hither richly dressed in their best attire, feathers, jewels, -golden necklaces, and precious stones, placing a shield in the left -hand and a javelin in the right, just as they used them in war. And -at their burial rites great mourning prevailed; the instruments which -were played made mournful sounds; and with loud wailing and continuous -sobbing they chanted the life and exploits of their lord until they -laid him on the structure which they had prepared for this purpose. - - - -Living Sacrifices - -"The last (underground) chamber had a second door at the rear, which -led to a dark and gruesome room. This was closed with a stone slab, -which occupied the whole entrance. Through this door they threw the -bodies of the victims and of the great lords and chieftains who had -fallen in battle, and they brought them from the spot where they fell, -even when it was very far off, to this burial-place; and so great was -the barbarous infatuation of those Indians that, in the belief of the -happy life which awaited them, many who were oppressed by diseases -or hardships begged this infamous priest to accept them as living -sacrifices and allow them to enter through that portal and roam about -in the dark interior of the mountain, to seek the feasting-places of -their forefathers. And when any one obtained this favour the servants -of the high-priest led him thither with special ceremonies, and after -they allowed him to enter through the small door they rolled the -stone before it again and took leave of him, and the unhappy man, -wandering in that abyss of darkness, died of hunger and thirst, -beginning already in life the pain of his damnation, and on account -of this horrible abyss they called this village Liyobaa. - - - -The Cavern of Death - -"When later there fell upon these people the light of the Gospel, -its servants took much trouble to instruct them, and to find out -whether this error, common to all these nations, still prevailed; -and they learned from the stories which had been handed down that -all were convinced that this damp cavern extended more than thirty -leagues underground, and that its roof was supported by pillars. And -there were people, zealous prelates anxious for knowledge, who, in -order to convince these ignorant people of their error, went into this -cave accompanied by a large number of people bearing lighted torches -and firebrands, and descended several large steps. And they soon came -upon many great buttresses which formed a kind of street. They had -prudently brought a quantity of rope with them to use as guiding-lines, -that they might not lose themselves in this confusing labyrinth. And -the putrefaction and the bad odour and the dampness of the earth -were very great, and there was also a cold wind which blew out -their torches. And after they had gone a short distance, fearing -to be overpowered by the stench, or to step on poisonous reptiles, -of which some had been seen, they resolved to go out again, and to -completely wall up this back door of hell. The four buildings above -ground were the only ones which still remained open, and they had -a court and chambers like those underground; and the ruins of these -have lasted even to the present day. - - - -Palace of the High-Priest - -"One of the rooms above ground was the palace of the high-priest, -where he sat and slept, for the apartment offered room and opportunity -for everything. The throne was like a high cushion, with a high back -to lean against, all of tiger-skin, stuffed entirely with delicate -feathers, or with fine grass which was used for this purpose. The other -seats were smaller, even when the king came to visit him. The authority -of this devilish priest was so great that there was no one who dared -to cross the court, and to avoid this the other three chambers had -doors in the rear, through which even the kings entered. For this -purpose they had alleys and passage-ways on the outside above and -below, by which people could enter and go out when they came to see -the high-priest.... - -"The second chamber above ground was that of the priests and the -assistants of the high-priest. The third was that of the king when -he came. The fourth was that of the other chieftains and captains, -and though the space was small for so great a number, and for so -many different families, yet they accommodated themselves to each -other out of respect for the place, and avoided dissensions and -factions. Furthermore, there was no other administration of justice -in this place than that of the high-priest, to whose unlimited power -all bowed. - - - -Furniture of the Temples - -"All the rooms were clean, and well furnished with mats. It was not -the custom to sleep on bedsteads, however great a lord might be. They -used very tastefully braided mats, which were spread on the floor, -and soft skins of animals and delicate fabrics for coverings. Their -food consisted usually of animals killed in the hunt--deer, rabbits, -armadillos, &c., and also birds, which they killed with snares -or arrows. The bread, made of their maize, was white and well -kneaded. Their drinks were always cold, made of ground chocolate, -which was mixed with water and pounded maize. Other drinks were -made of pulpy and of crushed fruits, which were then mixed with the -intoxicating drink prepared from the agave; for since the common people -were forbidden the use of intoxicating drinks, there was always an -abundance of these on hand." - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER V: MYTHS OF THE MAYA - - -Mythology of the Maya - -Our knowledge of the mythology of the Maya is by no means so full and -comprehensive as in the case of Mexican mythology. Traditions are -few and obscure, and the hieroglyphic matter is closed to us. But -one great mine of Maya-Kiche mythology exists which furnishes us -with much information regarding Kiche cosmogony and pseudo-history, -with here and there an interesting allusion to the various deities -of the Kiche pantheon. This is the Popol Vuh, a volume in which a -little real history is mingled with much mythology. It was composed -in the form in which we now possess it by a Christianised native -of Guatemala in the seventeenth century, and copied in Kiche, in -which it was originally written, by one Francisco Ximenes, a monk, -who also added to it a Spanish translation. - - - -The Lost "Popol Vuh" - -For generations antiquarians interested in this wonderful compilation -were aware that it existed somewhere in Guatemala, and many were the -regrets expressed regarding their inability to unearth it. A certain -Don Felix Cabrera had made use of it early in the nineteenth century, -but the whereabouts of the copy he had seen could not be discovered. A -Dr. C. Scherzer, of Austria, resolved, if possible, to discover it, and -paid a visit to Guatemala in 1854 for that purpose. After a diligent -search he succeeded in finding the lost manuscript in the University -of San Carlos in the city of Guatemala. Ximenes, the copyist, had -placed it in the library of the convent of Chichicastenango, whence -it passed to the San Carlos library in 1830. - - - -Genuine Character of the Work - -Much doubt has been cast upon the genuine character of the Popol Vuh, -principally by persons who were almost if not entirely ignorant of the -problems of pre-Columbian history in America. Its genuine character, -however, is by no means difficult to prove. It has been stated that -it is a mere réchauffé of the known facts of Maya history coloured by -Biblical knowledge, a native version of the Christian Bible. But such -a theory will not stand when it is shown that the matter it contains -squares with the accepted facts of Mexican mythology, upon which the -Popol Vuh throws considerable light. Moreover, the entire work bears -the stamp of being a purely native compilation, and has a flavour of -great antiquity. Our knowledge of the general principles of mythology, -too, prepares us for the unqualified acceptance of the material of the -Popol Vuh, for we find there the stories and tales, the conceptions -and ideas connected with early religion which are the property of no -one people, but of all peoples and races in an early social state. - - - -Likeness to other Pseudo-Histories - -We find in this interesting book a likeness to many other works of -early times. The Popol Vuh is, indeed, of the same genre and class -as the Heimskringla of Snorre, the history of Saxo Grammaticus, -the Chinese history in the Five Books, the Japanese Nihongi, and -many other similar compilations. But it surpasses all these in pure -interest because it is the only native American work that has come -down to us from pre-Columbian times. - -The name "Popol Vuh" means "The Collection of Written Leaves," which -proves that the book must have contained traditional matter reduced -to writing at a very early period. It is, indeed, a compilation of -mythological character, interspersed with pseudo-history, which, as -the account reaches modern times, shades off into pure history and -tells the deeds of authentic personages. The language in which it was -written, the Kiche, was a dialect of the Maya-Kiche tongue spoken at -the time of the conquest in Guatemala, Honduras, and San Salvador, -and still the tongue of the native populations in these districts. - - - -The Creation-Story - -The beginning of this interesting book is taken up with the Kiche -story of the creation, and what occurred directly subsequent to that -event. We are told that the god Hurakan, the mighty wind, a deity in -whom we can discern a Kiche equivalent to Tezcatlipoca, passed over the -universe, still wrapped in gloom. He called out "Earth," and the solid -land appeared. Then the chief gods took counsel among themselves as to -what should next be made. These were Hurakan, Gucumatz or Quetzalcoatl, -and Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, the mother and father gods. They agreed -that animals should be created. This was accomplished, and they next -turned their attention to the framing of man. They made a number -of mannikins carved out of wood. But these were irreverent and -angered the gods, who resolved to bring about their downfall. Then -Hurakan (The Heart of Heaven) caused the waters to be swollen, and -a mighty flood came upon the mannikins. Also a thick resinous rain -descended upon them. The bird Xecotcovach tore out their eyes, the -bird Camulatz cut off their heads, the bird Cotzbalam devoured their -flesh, the bird Tecumbalam broke their bones and sinews and ground -them into powder. Then all sorts of beings, great and small, abused -the mannikins. The household utensils and domestic animals jeered at -them, and made game of them in their plight. The dogs and hens said: -"Very badly have you treated us and you have bitten us. Now we bite -you in turn." The millstones said: "Very much were we tormented by you, -and daily, daily, night and day, it was squeak, screech, screech, holi, -holi, huqi, huqi, [11] for your sake. Now you shall feel our strength, -and we shall grind your flesh and make meal of your bodies." And -the dogs growled at the unhappy images because they had not been -fed, and tore them with their teeth. The cups and platters said: -"Pain and misery you gave us, smoking our tops and sides, cooking us -over the fire, burning and hurting us as if we had no feeling. Now -it is your turn, and you shall burn." The unfortunate mannikins ran -hither and thither in their despair. They mounted upon the roofs of -the houses, but the houses crumbled beneath their feet; they tried -to climb to the tops of the trees, but the trees hurled them down; -they were even repulsed by the caves, which closed before them. Thus -this ill-starred race was finally destroyed and overthrown, and the -only vestiges of them which remain are certain of their progeny, -the little monkeys which dwell in the woods. - - - -Vukub-Cakix, the Great Macaw - -Ere the earth was quite recovered from the wrathful flood which had -descended upon it there lived a being orgulous and full of pride, -called Vukub-Cakix (Seven-times-the-colour-of-fire--the Kiche name -for the great macaw bird). His teeth were of emerald, and other -parts of him shone with the brilliance of gold and silver. In short, -it is evident that he was a sun-and-moon god of prehistoric times. He -boasted dreadfully, and his conduct so irritated the other gods that -they resolved upon his destruction. His two sons, Zipacna and Cabrakan -(Cockspur or Earth-heaper, and Earthquake), were earthquake-gods of -the type of the Jötuns of Scandinavian myth or the Titans of Greek -legend. These also were prideful and arrogant, and to cause their -downfall the gods despatched the heavenly twins Hun-Apu and Xbalanque -to earth, with instructions to chastise the trio. - -Vukub-Cakix prided himself upon his possession of the wonderful -nanze-tree, the tapal, bearing a fruit round, yellow, and aromatic, -upon which he breakfasted every morning. One morning he mounted to its -summit, whence he could best espy the choicest fruits, when he was -surprised and infuriated to observe that two strangers had arrived -there before him, and had almost denuded the tree of its produce. On -seeing Vukub, Hun-Apu raised a blow-pipe to his mouth and blew a dart -at the giant. It struck him on the mouth, and he fell from the top of -the tree to the ground. Hun-Apu leapt down upon Vukub and grappled -with him, but the giant in terrible anger seized the god by the arm -and wrenched it from the body. He then returned to his house, where -he was met by his wife, Chimalmat, who inquired for what reason he -roared with pain. In reply he pointed to his mouth, and so full of -anger was he against Hun-Apu that he took the arm he had wrenched -from him and hung it over a blazing fire. He then threw himself down -to bemoan his injuries, consoling himself, however, with the idea -that he had avenged himself upon the disturbers of his peace. - -Whilst Vukub-Cakix moaned and howled with the dreadful pain which he -felt in his jaw and teeth (for the dart which had pierced him was -probably poisoned) the arm of Hun-Apu hung over the fire, and was -turned round and round and basted by Vukub's spouse, Chimalmat. The -sun-god rained bitter imprecations upon the interlopers who had -penetrated to his paradise and had caused him such woe, and he gave -vent to dire threats of what would happen if he succeeded in getting -them into his power. - -But Hun-Apu and Xbalanque were not minded that Vukub-Cakix should -escape so easily, and the recovery of Hun-Apu's arm must be made at -all hazards. So they went to consult two great and wise magicians, -Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, in whom we see two of the original Kiche creative -deities, who advised them to proceed with them in disguise to the -dwelling of Vukub, if they wished to recover the lost arm. The old -magicians resolved to disguise themselves as doctors, and dressed -Hun-Apu and Xbalanque in other garments to represent their sons. - -Shortly they arrived at the mansion of Vukub, and while still some way -off they could hear his groans and cries. Presenting themselves at -the door, they accosted him. They told him that they had heard some -one crying out in pain, and that as famous doctors they considered -it their duty to ask who was suffering. - -Vukub appeared quite satisfied, but closely questioned the old wizards -concerning the two young men who accompanied them. - -"They are our sons," they replied. - -"Good," said Vukub. "Do you think you will be able to cure me?" - -"We have no doubt whatever upon that head," answered Xpiyacoc. "You -have sustained very bad injuries to your mouth and eyes." - -"The demons who shot me with an arrow from their blow-pipe are the -cause of my sufferings," said Vukub. "If you are able to cure me I -shall reward you richly." - -"Your Highness has many bad teeth, which must be removed," said -the wily old magician. "Also the balls of your eyes appear to me to -be diseased." - -Vukub appeared highly alarmed, but the magicians speedily reassured -him. - -"It is necessary," said Xpiyacoc, "that we remove your teeth, but we -will take care to replace them with grains of maize, which you will -find much more agreeable in every way." - -The unsuspicious giant agreed to the operation, and very quickly -Xpiyacoc, with the help of Xmucane, removed his teeth of emerald, and -replaced them by grains of white maize. A change quickly came over -the Titan. His brilliancy speedily vanished, and when they removed -the balls of his eyes he sank into insensibility and died. - -All this time the wife of Vukub was turning Hun-Apu's arm over the -fire, but Hun-Apu snatched the limb from above the brazier, and -with the help of the magicians replaced it upon his shoulder. The -discomfiture of Vukub was then complete. The party left his dwelling -feeling that their mission had been accomplished. - - - -The Earth-Giants - -But in reality it was only partially accomplished, because Vukub's two -sons, Zipacna and Cabrakan, still remained to be dealt with. Zipacna -was daily employed in heaping up mountains, while Cabrakan, his -brother, shook them in earthquake. The vengeance of Hun-Apu and -Xbalanque was first directed against Zipacna, and they conspired with -a band of young men to bring about his death. - -The young men, four hundred in number, pretended to be engaged in -building a house. They cut down a large tree, which they made believe -was to be the roof-tree of their dwelling, and waited in a part of -the forest through which they knew Zipacna must pass. After a while -they could hear the giant crashing through the trees. He came into -sight, and when he saw them standing round the giant tree-trunk, -which they could not lift, he seemed very much amused. - -"What have you there, O little ones?" he said laughing. - -"Only a tree, your Highness, which we have felled for the roof-tree -of a new house we are building." - -"Cannot you carry it?" asked the giant disdainfully. - -"No, your Highness," they made answer; "it is much too heavy to be -lifted even by our united efforts." - -With a good-natured laugh the Titan stooped and lifted the great -trunk upon his shoulder. Then, bidding them lead the way, he trudged -through the forest, evidently not disconcerted in the least by his -great burden. Now the young men, incited by Hun-Apu and Xbalanque, -had dug a great ditch, which they pretended was to serve for the -foundation of their new house. Into this they requested Zipacna to -descend, and, scenting no mischief, the giant readily complied. On his -reaching the bottom his treacherous acquaintances cast huge trunks -of trees upon him, but on hearing them coming down he quickly took -refuge in a small side tunnel which the youths had constructed to -serve as a cellar beneath their house. - -Imagining the giant to be killed, they began at once to express their -delight by singing and dancing, and to lend colour to his stratagem -Zipacna despatched several friendly ants to the surface with strands -of hair, which the young men concluded had been taken from his dead -body. Assured by the seeming proof of his death, the youths proceeded -to build their house upon the tree-trunks which they imagined covered -Zipacna's body, and, producing a quantity of pulque, they began to -make merry over the end of their enemy. For some hours their new -dwelling rang with revelry. - -All this time Zipacna, quietly hidden below, was listening to the -hubbub and waiting his chance to revenge himself upon those who had -entrapped him. - -Suddenly arising in his giant might, he cast the house and all its -inmates high in the air. The dwelling was utterly demolished, and the -band of youths were hurled with such force into the sky that they -remained there, and in the stars we call the Pleiades we can still -discern them wearily waiting an opportunity to return to earth. - - - -The Undoing of Zipacna - -But Hun-Apu and Xbalanque, grieved that their comrades had so perished, -resolved that Zipacna must not be permitted to escape so easily. He, -carrying the mountains by night, sought his food by day on the shore -of the river, where he wandered catching fish and crabs. The brothers -made a large artificial crab, which they placed in a cavern at the -bottom of a ravine. They then cunningly undermined a huge mountain, -and awaited events. Very soon they saw Zipacna wandering along the -side of the river, and asked him where he was going. - -"Oh, I am only seeking my daily food," replied the giant. - -"And what may that consist of?" asked the brothers. - -"Only of fish and crabs," replied Zipacna. - -"Oh, there is a crab down yonder," said the crafty brothers, pointing -to the bottom of the ravine. "We espied it as we came along. Truly, -it is a great crab, and will furnish you with a capital breakfast." - -"Splendid!" cried Zipacna, with glistening eyes. "I must have it -at once," and with one bound he leapt down to where the cunningly -contrived crab lay in the cavern. - -No sooner had he reached it than Hun-Apu and Xbalanque cast the -mountain upon him; but so desperate were his efforts to get free that -the brothers feared he might rid himself of the immense weight of -earth under which he was buried, and to make sure of his fate they -turned him into stone. Thus at the foot of Mount Meahuan, near Vera -Paz, perished the proud Mountain-Maker. - - - -The Discomfiture of Cabrakan - -Now only the third of this family of boasters remained, and he was -the most proud of any. - -"I am the Overturner of Mountains!" said he. - -But Hun-Apu and Xbalanque had made up their minds that not one of -the race of Vukub should be left alive. - -At the moment when they were plotting the overthrow of Cabrakan he -was occupied in moving mountains. He seized the mountains by their -bases and, exerting his mighty strength, cast them into the air; and -of the smaller mountains he took no account at all. While he was so -employed he met the brothers, who greeted him cordially. - -"Good day, Cabrakan," said they. "What may you be doing?" - -"Bah! nothing at all," replied the giant. "Cannot you see that I am -throwing the mountains about, which is my usual occupation? And who -may you be that ask such stupid questions? What are your names?" - -"We have no names," replied they. "We are only hunters, and here we -have our blow-pipes, with which we shoot the birds that live in these -mountains. So you see that we do not require names, as we meet no one." - -Cabrakan looked at the brothers disdainfully, and was about to -depart when they said to him: "Stay; we should like to behold these -mountain-throwing feats of yours." - -This aroused the pride of Cabrakan. - -"Well, since you wish it," said he, "I will show you how I can move -a really great mountain. Now, choose the one you would like to see -me destroy, and before you are aware of it I shall have reduced it -to dust." - -Hun-Apu looked around him, and espying a great peak pointed toward -it. "Do you think you could overthrow that mountain?" he asked. - -"Without the least difficulty," replied Cabrakan, with a great -laugh. "Let us go toward it." - -"But first you must eat," said Hun-Apu. "You have had no food since -morning, and so great a feat can hardly be accomplished fasting." - -The giant smacked his lips. "You are right," he said, with a hungry -look. Cabrakan was one of those people who are always hungry. "But -what have you to give me?" - -"We have nothing with us," said Hun-Apu. - -"Umph!" growled Cabrakan, "you are a pretty fellow. You ask me what -I will have to eat, and then tell me you have nothing," and in his -anger he seized one of the smaller mountains and threw it into the sea, -so that the waves splashed up to the sky. - -"Come," said Hun-Apu, "don't get angry. We have our blow-pipes with -us, and will shoot a bird for your dinner." - -On hearing this Cabrakan grew somewhat quieter. - -"Why did you not say so at first?" he growled. "But be quick, because -I am hungry." - -Just at that moment a large bird passed overhead, and Hun-Apu and -Xbalanque raised their blow-pipes to their mouths. The darts sped -swiftly upward, and both of them struck the bird, which came tumbling -down through the air, falling at the feet of Cabrakan. - -"Wonderful, wonderful!" cried the giant. "You are clever fellows -indeed," and, seizing the dead bird, he was going to eat it raw when -Hun-Apu stopped him. - -"Wait a moment," said he. "It will be much nicer when cooked," and, -rubbing two sticks together, he ordered Xbalanque to gather some dry -wood, so that a fire was soon blazing. - -The bird was then suspended over the fire, and in a short time a -savoury odour mounted to the nostrils of the giant, who stood watching -the cooking with hungry eyes and watering lips. - -Before placing the bird over the fire to cook, however, Hun-Apu had -smeared its feathers with a thick coating of mud. The Indians in -some parts of Central America still do this, so that when the mud -dries with the heat of the fire the feathers will come off with it, -leaving the flesh of the bird quite ready to eat. But Hun-Apu had -done this with a purpose. The mud that he spread on the feathers was -that of a poisoned earth, called tizate, the elements of which sank -deeply into the flesh of the bird. - -When the savoury mess was cooked, he handed it to Cabrakan, who -speedily devoured it. - -"Now," said Hun-Apu, "let us go toward that great mountain and see -if you can lift it as you boast." - -But already Cabrakan began to feel strange pangs. - -"What is this?" said he, passing his hand across his brow. "I do not -seem to see the mountain you mean." - -"Nonsense," said Hun-Apu. "Yonder it is, see, to the east there." - -"My eyes seem dim this morning," replied the giant. - -"No, it is not that," said Hun-Apu. "You have boasted that you could -lift this mountain, and now you are afraid to try." - -"I tell you," said Cabrakan, "that I have difficulty in seeing. Will -you lead me to the mountain?" - -"Certainly," said Hun-Apu, giving him his hand, and with several -strides they were at the foot of the eminence. - -"Now," said Hun-Apu, "see what you can do, boaster." - -Cabrakan gazed stupidly at the great mass in front of him. His knees -shook together so that the sound was like the beating of a war-drum, -and the sweat poured from his forehead and ran in a little stream -down the side of the mountain. - -"Come," cried Hun-Apu derisively, "are you going to lift the mountain -or not?" - -"He cannot," sneered Xbalanque. "I knew he could not." - -Cabrakan shook himself into a final effort to regain his senses, -but all to no purpose. The poison rushed through his blood, and with -a groan he fell dead before the brothers. - -Thus perished the last of the earth-giants of Guatemala, whom Hun-Apu -and Xbalanque had been sent to destroy. - - - -The Second Book - -The second book of the Popol Vuh outlines the history of the hero-gods -Hun-Apu and Xbalanque. We are told that Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, the -father and mother gods, had two sons, Hunhun-Apu and Vukub-Hunapu, -the first of whom had by his wife Xbakiyalo two sons, Hunbatz and -Hunchouen. The weakness of the whole family was the native game -of ball, possibly the Mexican-Mayan game of tlachtli, a sort of -hockey. To this pastime the natives of Central America were greatly -addicted, and numerous remains of tlachtli courts are to be found in -the ruined cities of Yucatan and Guatemala. The object of the game was -to "putt" the ball through a small hole in a circular stone or goal, -and the player who succeeded in doing this might demand from the -audience all their clothes and jewels. The game, as we have said, -was exceedingly popular in ancient Central America, and there is -good reason to believe that inter-city matches took place between -the various city-states, and were accompanied by a partisanship and -rivalry as keen as that which finds expression among the crowd at -our principal football matches to-day. - - - -A Challenge from Hades - -On one occasion Hunhun-Apu and Vukub-Hunapu played a game of ball which -in its progress took them into the vicinity of the realm of Xibalba -(the Kiche Hades). The rulers of that drear abode, imagining that they -had a chance of capturing the brothers, extended a challenge to them -to play them at ball, and this challenge Hun-Came and Vukub-Came, -the sovereigns of the Kiche Hell, despatched by four messengers -in the shape of owls. The brothers accepted the challenge, and, -bidding farewell to their mother Xmucane and their respective sons -and nephews, followed the feathered messengers down the long hill -which led to the Underworld. - - - -The Fooling of the Brethren - -The American Indian is grave and taciturn. If there is one thing -he fears and dislikes more than another it is ridicule. To his -austere and haughty spirit it appears as something derogatory to his -dignity, a slur upon his manhood. The hero-brothers had not been -long in Xibalba when they discovered that it was the intention of -the Lords of Hades to fool them and subject them to every species -of indignity. After crossing a river of blood, they came to the -palace of the Lords of Xibalba, where they espied two seated figures -in front of them. Thinking that they recognised in them Hun-Came -and Vukub-Came, they saluted them in a becoming manner, only to -discover to their mortification that they were addressing figures of -wood. This incident excited the ribald jeers of the Xibalbans, who -scoffed at the brothers. Next they were invited to sit on the seat -of honour, which they found to their dismay to be a red-hot stone, -a circumstance which caused unbounded amusement to the inhabitants -of the Underworld. Then they were imprisoned in the House of Gloom, -where they were sacrificed and buried. The head of Hunhun-Apu was, -however, suspended from a tree, upon the branches of which grew a crop -of gourds so like the dreadful trophy as to be indistinguishable from -it. The fiat went forth that no one in Xibalba must eat of the fruit -of that tree. But the Lords of Xibalba had reckoned without feminine -curiosity and its unconquerable love of the forbidden. - - - -The Princess Xquiq - -One day--if day ever penetrated to that gloomy and unwholesome place--a -princess of Xibalba called Xquiq (Blood), daughter of Cuchumaquiq, -a notability of Xibalba, passed under the tree, and, observing the -desirable fruit with which it was covered, stretched out her hand -to pluck one of the gourds. Into the outstretched palm the head of -Hunhun-Apu spat, and told Xquiq that she would become a mother. Before -she returned home, however, the hero-god assured her that no harm would -come to her, and that she must not be afraid. In a few months' time -the princess's father heard of her adventure, and she was doomed to be -slain, the royal messengers of Xibalba, the owls, receiving commands -to despatch her and to bring back her heart in a vase. But on the way -she overcame the scruples of the owls by splendid promises, and they -substituted for her heart the coagulated sap of the bloodwort plant. - - - -The Birth of Hun-Apu and Xbalanque - -Xmucane, left at home, looked after the welfare of the young -Hunbatz and Hunchouen, and thither, at the instigation of the head -of Hunhun-Apu, went Xquiq for protection. At first Xmucane would not -credit her story, but upon Xquiq appealing to the gods a miracle was -performed on her behalf, and she was permitted to gather a basket of -maize where no maize grew to prove the authenticity of her claim. As -a princess of the Underworld, it is not surprising that she should be -connected with such a phenomenon, as it is from deities of that region -that we usually expect the phenomena of growth to proceed. Shortly -afterwards, when she had won the good graces of the aged Xmucane, -her twin sons were born, the Hun-Apu and Xbalanque whom we have -already met as the central figures of the first book. - - - -The Divine Children - -But the divine children were both noisy and mischievous. They -tormented their venerable grandmother with their shrill uproar -and tricky behaviour. At last Xmucane, unable to put up with their -habits, turned them out of doors. They took to an outdoor life with -surprising ease, and soon became expert hunters and skilful in the use -of the serbatana (blow-pipe), with which they shot birds and small -animals. They were badly treated by their half-brothers Hunbatz and -Hunchouen, who, jealous of their fame as hunters, annoyed them in every -possible manner. But the divine children retaliated by turning their -tormentors into hideous apes. The sudden change in the appearance of -her grandsons caused Xmucane the most profound grief and dismay, and -she begged that they who had brightened her home with their singing -and flute-playing might not be condemned to such a dreadful fate. She -was informed by the divine brothers that if she could behold their -antics unmoved by mirth her wish would be granted. But the capers -they cut and their grimaces caused her such merriment that on three -separate occasions she was unable to restrain her laughter, and the -men-monkeys took their leave. - - - -The Magic Tools - -The childhood of Hun-Apu and Xbalanque was full of such episodes as -might be expected from these beings. We find, for example, that on -attempting to clear a milpa (maize plantation) they employed magic -tools which could be trusted to undertake a good day's work whilst they -were absent at the chase. Returning at night, they smeared soil over -their hands and faces, for the purpose of deluding Xmucane into the -belief that they had been toiling all day in the fields. But the wild -beasts met in conclave during the night, and replaced all the roots -and shrubs which the magic tools had cleared away. The twins recognised -the work of the various animals, and placed a large net on the ground, -so that if the creatures came to the spot on the following night they -might be caught in its folds. They did come, but all made good their -escape save the rat. The rabbit and deer lost their tails, however, -and that is why these animals possess no caudal appendages! The rat, -in gratitude for their sparing its life, told the brothers the history -of their father and uncle, of their heroic efforts against the powers -of Xibalba, and of the existence of a set of clubs and balls with -which they might play tlachtli on the ball-ground at Ninxor-Carchah, -where Hunhun-Apu and Vukub-Hunapu had played before them. - - - -The Second Challenge - -But the watchful Hun-Came and Vukub-Came soon heard that the sons and -nephews of their first victims had adopted the game which had led these -last into the clutches of the cunning Xibalbans, and they resolved to -send a similar challenge to Hun-Apu and Xbalanque, thinking that the -twins were unaware of the fate of Hunhun-Apu and Vukub-Hunapu. They -therefore despatched messengers to the home of Xmucane with a challenge -to play them at the ball-game, and Xmucane, alarmed by the nature of -the message, sent a louse to warn her grandsons. The louse, unable to -proceed as quickly as he wished, permitted himself to be swallowed by -a toad, the toad by a serpent, and the serpent by the bird Voc, the -messenger of Hurakan. At the end of the journey the other animals duly -liberated each other, but the toad could not rid himself of the louse, -who had in reality hidden himself in the toad's gums, and had not been -swallowed at all. At last the message was delivered, and the twins -returned to the abode of Xmucane, to bid farewell to their grandmother -and mother. Before leaving they each planted a cane in the midst of -the hut, saying that it would wither if any fatal accident befell them. - - - -The Tricksters Tricked - -They then proceeded to Xibalba, on the road trodden by Hunhun-Apu -and Vukub-Hunapu, and passed the river of blood as the others -had done. But they adopted the precaution of despatching ahead an -animal called Xan as a sort of spy or scout. They commanded this -animal to prick all the Xibalbans with a hair from Hun-Apu's leg, -in order that they might discover which of them were made of wood, -and incidentally learn the names of the others as they addressed one -another when pricked by the hair. They were thus enabled to ignore the -wooden images on their arrival at Xibalba, and they carefully avoided -the red-hot stone. Nor did the ordeal of the House of Gloom affright -them, and they passed through it scatheless. The inhabitants of the -Underworld were both amazed and furious with disappointment. To add -to their annoyance, they were badly beaten in the game of ball which -followed. The Lords of Hell then requested the twins to bring them four -bouquets of flowers from the royal garden of Xibalba, at the same time -commanding the gardeners to keep good watch over the flowers so that -none of them might be removed. But the brothers called to their aid a -swarm of ants, who succeeded in returning with the flowers. The anger -of the Xibalbans increased to a white fury, and they incarcerated -Hun-Apu and Xbalanque in the House of Lances, a dread abode where -demons armed with sharp spears thrust at them fiercely. But they -bribed the lancers and escaped. The Xibalbans slit the beaks of the -owls who guarded the royal gardens, and howled in fury. - - - -The Houses of the Ordeals - -They were next thrust into the House of Cold. Here they escaped -a dreadful death from freezing by warming themselves with burning -pine-cones. Into the House of Tigers and the House of Fire they were -thrown for a night each, but escaped from both. But they were not so -lucky in the House of Bats. As they threaded this place of terror, -Camazotz, Ruler of the Bats, descended upon them with a whirring -of leathern wings, and with one sweep of his sword-like claws cut -off Hun-Apu's head. (See Mictlan, pp. 95, 96.) But a tortoise which -chanced to pass the severed neck of the hero's prostrate body and -came into contact with it was immediately turned into a head, and -Hun-Apu arose from his terrible experience not a whit the worse. - -These various houses in which the brothers were forced to pass a -certain time forcibly recall to our minds the several circles of -Dante's Hell. Xibalba was to the Kiche not a place of punishment, -but a dark place of horror and myriad dangers. No wonder the Maya had -what Landa calls "an immoderate fear of death" if they believed that -after it they would be transported to such a dread abode! - -With the object of proving their immortal nature to their adversaries, -Hun-Apu and Xbalanque, first arranging for their resurrection with -two sorcerers, Xulu and Pacaw, stretched themselves upon a bier and -died. Their bones were ground to powder and thrown into the river. They -then went through a kind of evolutionary process, appearing on the -fifth day after their deaths as men-fishes and on the sixth as old -men, ragged and tatterdemalion in appearance, killing and restoring -each other to life. At the request of the princes of Xibalba, they -burned the royal palace and restored it to its pristine splendour, -killed and resuscitated the king's dog, and cut a man in pieces, -bringing him to life again. The Lords of Hell were curious about -the sensation of death, and asked to be killed and resuscitated. The -first portion of their request the hero-brothers speedily granted, -but did not deem it necessary to pay any regard to the second. - -Throwing off all disguise, the brothers assembled the now thoroughly -cowed princes of Xibalba, and announced their intention of punishing -them for their animosity against themselves, their father and -uncle. They were forbidden to partake in the noble and classic -game of ball--a great indignity in the eyes of Maya of the higher -caste--they were condemned to menial tasks, and they were to have sway -over the beasts of the forest alone. After this their power rapidly -waned. These princes of the Underworld are described as being owl-like, -with faces painted black and white, as symbolical of their duplicity -and faithless disposition. - -As some reward for the dreadful indignities they had undergone, the -souls of Hunhun-Apu and Vukub-Hunapu, the first adventurers into the -darksome region of Xibalba, were translated to the skies, and became -the sun and moon, and with this apotheosis the second book ends. - -We can have no difficulty, in the light of comparative mythology, -in seeing in the matter of this book a version of "the harrying of -hell" common to many mythologies. In many primitive faiths a hero or -heroes dares the countless dangers of Hades in order to prove to the -savage mind that the terrors of death can be overcome. In Algonquian -mythology Blue-Jay makes game of the Dead Folk whom his sister Ioi -has married, and Balder passes through the Scandinavian Helheim. The -god must first descend into the abyss and must emerge triumphant if -humble folk are to possess assurance of immortality. - - - -The Reality of Myth - -It is from such matter as that found in the second book of the Popol -Vuh that we are enabled to discern how real myth can be on occasion. It -is obvious, as has been pointed out, that the dread of death in the -savage mind may give rise to such a conception of its vanquishment as -appears in the Popol Vuh. But there is reason to suspect that other -elements have also entered into the composition of the myth. It is -well known that an invading race, driving before them the remnants -of a conquered people, are prone to regard these in the course of a -few generations as almost supernatural and as denizens of a sphere -more or less infernal. Their reasons for this are not difficult -of comprehension. To begin with, a difference in ceremonial ritual -gives rise to the belief that the inimical race practises magic. The -enemy is seldom seen, and, if perceived, quickly takes cover or -"vanishes." The majority of aboriginal races were often earth- or -cave-dwellers, like the Picts of Scotland, and such the originals of -the Xibalbans probably were. - -The invading Maya-Kiche, encountering such a folk in the cavernous -recesses of the hill-slopes of Guatemala, would naturally refer them -to the Underworld. The cliff-dwellings of Mexico and Colorado exhibit -manifest signs of the existence of such a cave-dwelling race. In -the latter state is the Cliff Palace Cañon, a huge natural recess, -within which a small city was actually built, which still remains in -excellent preservation. In some such semi-subterranean recess, then, -may the city of "Xibalba" have stood. - - - -The Xibalbans - -We can see, too, that the Xibalbans were not merely a plutonic -race. Xibalba is not a Hell, a place of punishment for sin, but a -place of the dead, and its inhabitants were scarcely "devils," nor evil -gods. The transcriber of the Popol Vuh says of them: "In the old times -they did not have much power. They were but annoyers and opposers of -men, and, in truth, they were not regarded as gods." The word Xibalba -is derived from a root meaning "to fear," from which comes the name -for a ghost or phantom. Xibalba was thus the "Place of Phantoms." - - - -The Third Book - -The opening of the third book finds the gods once more deliberating as -to the creation of man. Four men are evolved as the result of these -deliberations. These beings were moulded from a paste of yellow and -white maize, and were named Balam-Quitze (Tiger with the Sweet Smile), -Balam-Agab (Tiger of the Night), Mahacutah (The Distinguished Name), -and Iqi-Balam (Tiger of the Moon). - -But the god Hurakan who had formed them was not overpleased with his -handiwork, for these beings were too much like the gods themselves. The -gods once more took counsel, and agreed that man must be less perfect -and possess less knowledge than this new race. He must not become -as a god. So Hurakan breathed a cloud over their eyes in order that -they might only see a portion of the earth, whereas before they had -been able to see the whole round sphere of the world. After this the -four men were plunged into a deep sleep, and four women were created, -who were given them as wives. These were Caha-Paluma (Falling Water), -Choima (Beautiful Water), Tzununiha (House of the Water), and Cakixa -(Water of Parrots, or Brilliant Water), who were espoused to the men -in the respective order given above. - -These eight persons were the ancestors of the Kiche only, after -which were created the forerunners of the other peoples. At this -time there was no sun, and comparative darkness lay over the face -of the earth. Men knew not the art of worship, but blindly lifted -their eyes to heaven and prayed the Creator to send them quiet lives -and the light of day. But no sun came, and dispeace entered their -hearts. So they journeyed to a place called Tulan-Zuiva (The Seven -Caves)--practically the same as Chicomoztoc in the Aztec myth--and -there gods were vouchsafed to them. The names of these were Tohil, -whom Balam-Quitze received; Avilix, whom Balam-Agab received; and -Hacavitz, granted to Mahacutah. Iqi-Balam received a god, but as he -had no family his worship and knowledge died out. - - - -The Granting of Fire - -Grievously did the Kiche feel the want of fire in the sunless world -they inhabited, but this the god Tohil (The Rumbler, the Fire-god) -quickly provided them with. However, a mighty rain descended and -extinguished all the fires in the land. These, however, were always -supplied again by Tohil, who had only to strike his feet together -to produce fire. In this figure there is no difficulty in seeing a -fully developed thunder-god. - - - -The Kiche Babel - -Tulan-Zuiva was a place of great misfortune to the Kiche, for here -the race suffered alienation in its different branches by reason of a -confounding of their speech, which recalls the story of Babel. Owing -to this the first four men were no longer able to comprehend each -other, and determined to leave the place of their mischance and to -seek the leadership of the god Tohil into another and more fortunate -sphere. In this journey they met with innumerable hardships. They -had to cross many lofty mountains, and on one occasion had to make -a long détour across the bed of the ocean, the waters of which were -miraculously divided to permit of their passage. At last they arrived -at a mountain which they called Hacavitz, after one of their deities, -and here they remained, for it had been foretold that here they -should see the sun. At last the luminary appeared. Men and beasts -went wild with delight, although his beams were by no means strong, -and he appeared more like a reflection in a mirror than the strong -sun of later days whose fiery beams speedily sucked up the blood of -victims on the altar. As he showed his face the three tribal gods -of the Kiche were turned into stone, as were the gods or totems -connected with the wild animals. Then arose the first Kiche town, -or permanent dwelling-place. - - - -The Last Days of the First Men - -Time passed, and the first men of the Kiche race grew old. Visions -came to them, in which they were exhorted by the gods to render human -sacrifices, and in order to obey the divine injunctions they raided the -neighbouring lands, the folk of which made a spirited resistance. But -in a great battle the Kiche were miraculously assisted by a horde of -wasps and hornets, which flew in the faces of their foes, stinging -and blinding them, so that they could not wield weapon nor see to -make any effective resistance. After this battle the surrounding -races became tributary to them. - - - -Death of the First Men - -Now the first men felt that their death-day was nigh, and they called -their kin and dependents around them to hear their dying words. In the -grief of their souls they chanted the song "Kamucu," the song "We see," -that they had sung so joyfully when they had first seen the light -of day. Then they parted from their wives and sons one by one. And -of a sudden they were not, and in their place was a great bundle, -which was never opened. It was called the "Majesty Enveloped." So -died the first men of the Kiche. - -In this book it is clear that we have to deal with the problem which -the origin and creation of man presented to the Maya-Kiche mind. The -several myths connected with it bear a close resemblance to those -of other American peoples. In the mythology of the American Indian -it is rare to find an Adam, a single figure set solitary in a world -without companionship of some sort. Man is almost invariably the -child of Mother Earth, and emerges from some cavern or subterranean -country fully grown and fully equipped for the upper earth-life. We -find this type of myth in the mythologies of the Aztecs, Peruvians, -Choctaws, Blackfeet Indians, and those of many other American tribes. - - - -American Migrations - -We also find in the story of the Kiche migration a striking similarity -to the migration myths of other American races. But in the Kiche myth -we can trace a definite racial movement from the cold north to the -warm south. The sun is not at first born. There is darkness. When he -does appear he is weak and his beams are dull and watery like those -of the luminary in a northern clime. Again, there are allusions to -the crossing of rivers by means of "shining sand" which covered them, -which might reasonably be held to imply the presence upon them of -ice. In this connection we may quote from an Aztec migration myth -which appears almost a parallel to the Kiche story. - -"This is the beginning of the record of the coming of the Mexicans -from the place called Aztlan. It is by means of the water that -they came this way, being four tribes, and in coming they rowed in -boats. They built their huts on piles at the place called the grotto -of Quineveyan. It is there from which the eight tribes issued. The -first tribe is that of the Huexotzincos, the second the Chalcas, -the third the Xochimilcos, the fourth the Cuitlavacas, the fifth the -Mallinalcas, the sixth the Chichimecas, the seventh the Tepanecas, -the eighth the Matlatzincas. It is there where they were founded in -Colhuacan. They were the colonists of it since they landed there, -coming from Aztlan.... It is there that they soon afterwards went -away from, carrying with them their god Vitzillopochtli.... There -the eight tribes opened up our road by water." - -The "Wallum Olum," or painted calendar records, of the Leni-Lenape -Indians contain a similar myth. "After the flood," says the story, -"the Lenape with the manly turtle beings dwelt close together at the -cave house and dwelling of Talli.... They saw that the snake-land was -bright and wealthy. Having all agreed, they went over the water of -the frozen sea to possess the land. It was wonderful when they all -went over the smooth deep water of the frozen sea at the gap of the -snake sea in the great ocean." - -Do these myths contain any essence of the truth? Do they refer to -an actual migration when the ancestors of certain American tribes -crossed the frozen ocean of the Kamchatka Strait and descended from -the sunless north and the boreal night of these sub-Arctic regions to a -more genial clime? Can such a tradition have been preserved throughout -the countless ages which must have passed between the arrival of -proto-Mongolian man in America and the writing or composition of the -several legends cited? Surely not. But may there not have been later -migrations from the north? May not hordes of folk distantly akin to -the first Americans have swept across the frozen strait, and within -a few generations have made their way into the warmer regions, as we -know the Nahua did? The Scandinavian vikings who reached north-eastern -America in the tenth century found there a race totally distinct from -the Red Man, and more approaching the Esquimaux, whom they designated -Skrellingr, or "Chips," so small and misshapen were they. Such a -description could hardly have been applied to the North American -Indian as we know him. From the legends of the Red race of North -America we may infer that they remained for a number of generations -in the Far West of the North American continent before they migrated -eastward. And a guess might be hazarded to the effect that, arriving -in America somewhere about the dawn of the Christian era, they spread -slowly in a south-easterly direction, arriving in the eastern parts -of North America about the end of the eleventh century, or even a -little later. This would mean that such a legend as that which we have -just perused would only require to have survived a thousand years, -provided the Popol Vuh was first composed about the eleventh century, -as appears probable. But such speculations are somewhat dangerous in -the face of an almost complete lack of evidence, and must be met with -the utmost caution and treated as surmises only. - - - -Cosmogony of the "Popol Vuh" - -We have now completed our brief survey of the mythological portion -of the Popol Vuh, and it will be well at this point to make some -inquiries into the origin and nature of the various gods, heroes, -and similar personages who fill its pages. Before doing so, however, -let us glance at the creation-myth which we find detailed in the first -book. We can see by internal evidence that this must be the result of -the fusion of more than one creation-story. We find in the myth that -mention is made of a number of beings each of whom appears to exercise -in some manner the functions of a creator or "moulder." These beings -also appear to have similar attributes. There is evidently here the -reconciliation of early rival faiths. We know that this occurred in -Peruvian cosmogony, which is notoriously composite, and many another -mythology, European and Asiatic, exhibits a like phenomenon. Even in -the creation-story as given in Genesis we can discover the fusion of -two separate accounts from the allusion to the creative power as both -"Jahveh" and "Elohim," the plural ending of the second name proving -the presence of polytheistic as well as monotheistic conceptions. - - - -Antiquity of the "Popol Vuh" - -These considerations lead to the assumption that the Popol Vuh is -a mythological collection of very considerable antiquity, as the -fusion of religious beliefs is a comparatively slow process. It is, -of course, in the absence of other data, impossible to fix the date -of its origin, even approximately. We possess only the one version of -this interesting work, so that we are compelled to confine ourselves -to the consideration of that alone, and are without the assistance -which philology would lend us by a comparison of two versions of -different dates. - - - -The Father-Mother Gods - -We discover a pair of dual beings concerned in the Kiche -creation. These are Xpiyacoc and Xmucane, the Father-Mother -deities, and are obviously Kiche equivalents to the Mexican -Ometecutli-Omeciuatl, whom we have already noticed (pp. 103-4). The -former is the male fructifier, whilst the name of the latter -signifies "Female Vigour." These deities were probably regarded as -hermaphroditic, as numerous North American Indian gods appear to be, -and may be analogous to the "Father Sky" and "Mother Earth" of so -many mythologies. - - - -Gucumatz - -We also find Gucumatz concerned in the Kiche scheme of creation. He -was a Maya-Kiche form of the Mexican Quetzalcoatl, or perhaps the -converse was the case. The name signifies, like its Nahua equivalent, -"Serpent with Green Feathers." - - - -Hurakan - -Hurakan, the wind-god, "He who hurls below," whose name perhaps -signifies "The One-legged," is probably the same as the Nahua -Tezcatlipoca. It has been suggested that the word "hurricane" has been -evolved from the name of this god, but the derivation seems rather too -fortuitous to be real. Hurakan had the assistance of three sub-gods, -Cakulha-Hurakan (Lightning), Chipi-Cakulha (Lightning-flash), and -Raxa-Cakulha (Track of the Lightning). - - - -Hun-Apu and Xbalanque - -Hun-Apu and Xbalanque, the hero-gods, appear to have the attributes of -demi-gods in general. The name Hun-Apu means "Master" or "Magician," -and Xbalanque "Little Tiger." We find many such figures in American -myth, which is rich in hero-gods. - - - -Vukub-Cakix and his Sons - -Vukub-Cakix and his progeny are, of course, earth-giants like the -Titans of Greek mythology or the Jötuns of Scandinavian story. The -removal of the emerald teeth of Vukub-Cakix and their replacement by -grains of maize would seem to be a mythical interpretation or allegory -of the removal of the virgin turf of the earth and its replacement by -maize-seed. Therefore it is possible that Vukub-Cakix is an earth-god, -and not a prehistoric sun-and-moon god, as stated by Dr. Seler. [12] - - - -Metrical Origin of the "Popol Vuh" - -There is reason to believe that the Popol Vuh was originally a metrical -composition. This would assist the hypothesis of its antiquity, on -the ground that it was for generations recited before being reduced to -writing. Passages here and there exhibit a decided metrical tendency, -and one undoubtedly applies to a descriptive dance symbolical of -sunrise. It is as follows: - - - "'Ama x-u ch'ux ri Vuch?' - 'Ve,' x-cha ri mama. - Ta chi xaquinic. - Quate ta chi gecumarchic. - Cahmul xaquin ri mama. - 'Ca xaquin-Vuch,' ca cha vinak vacamic." - - -This may be rendered freely: - - - "'Is the dawn about to be?' - 'Yes,' answered the old man. - Then he spread apart his legs. - Again the darkness appeared. - Four times the old man spread his legs. - 'Now the opossum spreads his legs,' - Say the people." - - -It is obvious that many of these lines possess the well-known quality -of savage dance-poetry, which displays itself in a rhythm of one -long foot followed by two short ones. We know that the Kiche were -very fond of ceremonial dances, and of repeating long chants which -they called nugum tzih, or "garlands of words," and the Popol Vuh, -along with other matter, probably contained many of these. - - - -Pseudo-History of the Kiche - -The fourth book of the Popol Vuh contains the pseudo-history of -the Kiche kings. It is obviously greatly confused, and it would be -difficult to say how much of it originally belonged to the Popol Vuh -and how much had been added or invented by its latest compiler. One -cannot discriminate between saga and history, or between monarchs -and gods, the real and the fabulous. Interminable conflicts are the -theme of most of the book, and many migrations are recounted. - - - -Queen Móo - -Whilst dealing with Maya pseudo-history it will be well to glance -for a moment at the theories of the late Augustus Le Plongeon, who -lived and carried on excavations in Yucatan for many years. Dr. Le -Plongeon was obsessed with the idea that the ancient Maya spread their -civilisation all over the habitable globe, and that they were the -originators of the Egyptian, Palestinian, and Hindu civilisations, -besides many others. He furthermore believed himself to be the true -elucidator of the Maya system of hieroglyphs, which in his estimation -were practically identical with the Egyptian. We will not attempt to -refute his theories, as they are based on ignorance of the laws which -govern philology, anthropology, and mythology. But he possessed a -thorough knowledge of the Maya tongue, and his acquaintance with Maya -customs was extensive and peculiar. One of his ideas was that a certain -hall among the ruins of Chichen-Itza had been built by a Queen Móo, -a Maya princess who after the tragic fate of her brother-husband -and the catastrophe which ended in the sinking of the continent -of Atlantis fled to Egypt, where she founded the ancient Egyptian -civilisation. It would be easy to refute this theory. But the tale as -told by Dr. Le Plongeon possesses a sufficiency of romantic interest -to warrant its being rescued from the little-known volume in which -he published it. [13] - -We do not learn from Dr. Le Plongeon's book by what course of -reasoning he came to discover that the name of his heroine was the -rather uneuphonious one of Móo. Probably he arrived at it by the same -process as that by which he discovered that certain Mayan architectural -ornaments were in reality Egyptian letters. But it will be better to -let him tell his story in his own words. It is as follows: - - - -The Funeral Chamber - -"As we are about to enter the funeral chamber hallowed by the love of -the sister-wife, Queen Móo, the beauty of the carvings on the zapote -beam that forms the lintel of the doorway calls our attention. Here -is represented the antagonism of the brothers Aac and Coh, that -led to the murder of the latter by the former. Carved on the lintel -are the names of these personages, represented by their totems--a -leopard head for Coh, and a boar head as well as a turtle for Aac, -this word meaning both boar and turtle in Maya. Aac is pictured -within the disk of the sun, his protective deity which he worshipped, -according to mural inscriptions at Uxmal. Full of anger he faces his -brother. In his right hand there is a badge ornamented with feathers -and flowers. The threatening way in which this is held suggests a -concealed weapon.... The face of Coh also expresses anger. With him is -the feathered serpent, emblematic of royalty, thence of the country, -more often represented as a winged serpent protecting Coh. In his left -hand he holds his weapon down, whilst his right hand clasps his badge -of authority, with which he covers his breasts as for protection, -and demanding the respect due to his rank.... - -"Passing between the figures of armed chieftains sculptured on the -jambs of the doorway, and seeming like sentinels guarding the entrance -of the funeral chamber, we notice one wearing a headdress similar -to the crown of Lower Egypt, which formed part of the pshent of the -Egyptian monarchs. - - - -The Frescoes - -"The frescoes in the funeral chamber of Prince Coh's Memorial -Hall, painted in water-colours taken from the vegetable kingdom, -are divided into a series of tableaux separated by blue lines. The -plinths, the angles of the room, and the edges of the ceiling, -being likewise painted blue, indicate that this was intended for a -funeral chamber.... The first scene represents Queen Móo while yet a -child. She is seated on the back of a peccary, or American wild boar, -under the royal umbrella of feathers, emblem of royalty in Mayach, as -it was in India, Chaldea, and other places. She is consulting a h-men, -or wise man; listening with profound attention to the decrees of fate -as revealed by the cracking of the shell of an armadillo exposed -to a slow fire on a brazier, the condensing on it of the vapour, -and the various tints it assumes. This mode of divination is one of -the customs of the Mayas.... - - - -The Soothsayers - -"In front of the young Queen Móo, and facing her, is seated the -soothsayer, evidently a priest of high rank, judging from the colours, -blue and yellow, of the feathers of his ceremonial mantle. He reads -the decrees of fate on the shell of the armadillo, and the scroll -issuing from his throat says what they are. By him stands the winged -serpent, emblem and protective genius of the Maya Empire. His head -is turned towards the royal banner, which he seems to caress. His -satisfaction is reflected in the mild and pleased expression of -his face. Behind the priest, the position of whose hand is the -same as that of Catholic priests in blessing their congregation, -and the significance of which is well known to occultists, are the -ladies-in-waiting of the young Queen. - - - -The Royal Bride - -"In another tableau we again see Queen Móo, no longer a child, but -a comely young woman. She is not seated under the royal umbrella or -banner, but she is once more in the presence of the h-men, whose face -is concealed by a mask representing an owl's head. She, pretty and -coquettish, has many admirers, who vie with each other for the honour -of her hand. In company with one of her wooers she comes to consult -the priest, accompanied by an old lady, her grandmother probably, -and her female attendants. According to custom the old lady is the -spokeswoman. She states to the priest that the young man, he who sits -on a low stool between two female attendants, desires to marry the -Queen. The priest's attendant, seated also on a stool, back of all, -acts as crier, and repeats in a loud voice the speech of the old lady. - - - -Móo's Refusal - -"The young Queen refuses the offer. The refusal is indicated by -the direction of the scroll issuing from her mouth. It is turned -backward, instead of forward towards the priest, as would be the -case if she assented to the marriage. The h-men explains that Móo, -being a daughter of the royal family, by law and custom must marry one -of her brothers. The youth listens to the decision with due respect -to the priest, as shown by his arm being placed across his breast, -the left hand resting on the right shoulder. He does not accept -the refusal in a meek spirit, however. His clenched fist, his foot -raised as in the act of stamping, betoken anger and disappointment, -while the attendant behind him expostulates, counselling patience and -resignation, judging by the position and expression of her left-hand -palm upward. - - - -The Rejected Suitor - -"In another tableau we see the same individual whose offer of marriage -was rejected by the young Queen in consultation with a nubchi, or -prophet, a priest whose exalted rank is indicated by his headdress, -and the triple breastplate he wears over his mantle of feathers. The -consulter, evidently a person of importance, has come attended by -his hachetail, or confidential friend, who sits behind him on a -cushion. The expression on the face of the said consulter shows that -he does not accept patiently the decrees of fate, although conveyed by -the interpreter in as conciliatory a manner as possible. The adverse -decision of the gods is manifested by the sharp projecting centre -part of the scroll, but it is wrapped in words as persuasive and -consoling, preceded by as smooth a preamble as the rich and beautiful -Maya language permits and makes easy. His friend is addressing the -prophet's assistant. Reflecting the thoughts of his lord, he declares -that the nubchi's fine discourse and his pretended reading of the will -of the gods are all nonsense, and exclaims 'Pshaw!' which contemptuous -exclamation is pictured by the yellow scroll, pointed at both ends, -escaping from his nose like a sneeze. The answer of the priest's -assistant, evidenced by the gravity of his features, the assertive -position of his hand, and the bluntness of his speech, is evidently -'It is so!' - - - -Aac's Fierce Wooing - -"Her brother Aac is madly in love with Móo. He is portrayed approaching -the interpreter of the will of the gods, divested of his garments -in token of humility in presence of their majesty and of submission -to their decrees. He comes full of arrogance, arrayed in gorgeous -attire, and with regal pomp. He comes not as a suppliant to ask and -accept counsel, but haughty, he makes bold to dictate. He is angered -at the refusal of the priest to accede to his demand for his sister -Móo's hand, to whose totem, an armadillo on this occasion, he points -imperiously. It was on an armadillo's shell that the fates wrote her -destiny when consulted by the performance of the Pou ceremony. The -yellow flames of wrath darting from all over his person, the sharp -yellow scroll issuing from his mouth, symbolise Aac's feelings. The -pontiff, however, is unmoved by them. In the name of the gods with -serene mien he denies the request of the proud nobleman, as his speech -indicates. The winged serpent, genius of the country, that stands erect -and ireful by Aac, is also wroth at his pretensions, and shows in its -features and by sending its dart through Aac's royal banner a decided -opposition to them, expressed by the ends of his speech being turned -backwards, some of them terminating abruptly, others in sharp points. - - - -Prince Coh - -"Prince Coh sits behind the priest as one of his attendants. He -witnesses the scene, hears the calm negative answer, sees the anger -of his brother and rival, smiles at his impotence, is happy at his -discomfiture. Behind him, however, sits a spy who will repeat his -words, report his actions to his enemy. He listens, he watches. The -high-priest himself, Cay, their elder brother, sees the storm that -is brewing behind the dissensions of Coh and Aac. He trembles at the -thought of the misfortunes that will surely befall the dynasty of -the Cans, of the ruin and misery of the country that will certainly -follow. Divested of his priestly raiment, he comes nude and humble -as it is proper for men in the presence of the gods, to ask their -advice how best to avoid the impending calamities. The chief of the -auspices is in the act of reading their decrees on the palpitating -entrails of a fish. The sad expression on his face, that of humble -resignation on that of the pontiff, of deferential astonishment on -that of the assistant, speak of the inevitable misfortunes which are -to come in the near future. - -"We pass over interesting battle scenes ... in which the defenders have -been defeated by the Mayas. Coh will return to his queen loaded with -spoils that he will lay at her feet with his glory, which is also hers. - - - -The Murder of Coh - -"We next see him in a terrible altercation with his brother Aac. The -figures in that scene are nearly life-size, but so much disfigured -and broken as to make it impossible to obtain good tracings. Coh is -portrayed without weapons, his fists clenched, looking menacingly -at his foe, who holds three spears, typical of the three wounds he -inflicted in his brother's back when he killed him treacherously. Coh -is now laid out, being prepared for cremation. His body has been -opened at the ribs to extract the viscera and heart, which, after -being charred, are to be preserved in a stone urn with cinnabar, -where the writer found them in 1875. His sister-wife, Queen Móo, -in sad contemplation of the remains of the beloved, ... kneels at -his feet.... The winged serpent, protective genius of the country, is -pictured without a head. The ruler of the country has been slain. He -is dead. The people are without a chief." - - - -The Widowhood of Móo - -The widowhood of Móo is then said to be portrayed in subsequent -pictures. Other suitors, among them Aac, make their proposals to -her, but she refuses them all. "Aac's pride being humiliated, his -love turned to hatred. His only wish henceforth was to usurp the -supreme power, to wage war against the friend of his childhood. He -made religious disagreement the pretext. He proclaimed that the -worship of the sun was to be superior to that of the winged serpent, -the genius of the country; also to that of the worship of ancestors, -typified by the feathered serpent, with horns and a flame or halo on -the head.... Prompted by such evil passions, he put himself at the -head of his own vassals, and attacked those who had remained faithful -to Queen Móo and to Prince Coh's memory. At first Móo's adherents -successfully opposed her foes. The contending parties, forgetting in -the strife that they were children of the same soil, blinded by their -prejudices, let their passions have the better of their reason. At -last Queen Móo fell a prisoner in the hands of her enemy." - - - -The Manuscript Troano - -Dr. Le Plongeon here assumes that the story is taken up by the -Manuscript Troano. As no one is able to decipher this manuscript -completely, he is pretty safe in his assertion. Here is what the -pintura alluded to says regarding Queen Móo, according to our author: - -"The people of Mayach having been whipped into submission and cowed, -no longer opposing much resistance, the lord seized her by the hair, -and, in common with others, caused her to suffer from blows. This -happened on the ninth day of the tenth month of the year Kan. Being -completely routed, she passed to the opposite sea-coast in the southern -parts of the country, which had already suffered much injury." - -Here we shall leave the Queen, and those who have been sufficiently -credulous to create and believe in her and her companions. We do not -aver that the illustrations on the walls of the temple at Chichen do -not allude to some such incident, or series of incidents, as Dr. Le -Plongeon describes, but to bestow names upon the dramatis personæ in -the face of almost complete inability to read the Maya script and a -total dearth of accompanying historical manuscripts is merely futile, -and we must regard Dr. Le Plongeon's narrative as a quite fanciful -rendering of probability. At the same time, the light which he -throws--if some obviously unscientific remarks be deducted--on the -customs of the Maya renders his account of considerable interest, -and that must be our excuse for presenting it here at some length. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VI: THE CIVILISATION OF OLD PERU - - -Old Peru - -If the civilisation of ancient Peru did not achieve the standard of -general culture reached by the Mexicans and Maya, it did not fall far -short of the attainment of these peoples. But the degrading despotism -under which the peasantry groaned in Inca times, and the brutal -and sanguinary tyranny of the Apu-Ccapac Incas, make the rulers of -Mexico at their worst appear as enlightened when compared with the -Peruvian governing classes. The Quichua-Aymara race which inhabited -Peru was inferior to the Mexican in general mental culture, if not in -mental capacity, as is proved by its inability to invent any method -of written communication or any adequate time-reckoning. In imitative -art, too, the Peruvians were weak, save in pottery and rude modelling, -and their religion savoured much more of the materialistic, and was -altogether of a lower cultus. - - - -The Country - -The country in which the interesting civilisation of the Inca race -was evolved presents physical features which profoundly affected the -history of the race. In fact, it is probable that in no country in -the world has the configuration of the land so modified the events in -the life of the people dwelling within its borders. The chain of the -Andes divides into two branches near the boundary between Bolivia and -Chili, and, with the Cordillera de la Costa, encloses at a height of -over 3000 feet the Desaguadero, a vast tableland with an area equal -to France. To the north of this is Cuzco, the ancient capital of the -Incas, to the south Potosi, the most elevated town in the world, -whilst between them lies Lake Titicaca, the largest body of fresh -water in South America. The whole country is dreary and desolate in -the extreme. Cereals cannot ripen, and animals are rare. Yet it was in -these desolate regions that the powerful and highly organised empire -of Peru arose--an empire extending over an area 3000 miles long by -400 broad. - - - -The Andeans - -The prehistoric natives of the Andean region had evolved a civilisation -long before the days of the Inca dynasties, and the cyclopean ruins -of their edifices are to be found at intervals scattered over a wide -field on the slopes of the range under the shadow of which they -dwelt. Their most extraordinary achievement was probably the city -of Tiahuanaco, on the southern shore of Lake Titicaca, built at a -level 13,000 feet above the sea, occupying nearly half an acre in -extent, and constructed of enormous megalithic blocks of trachytic -rock. The great doorway, carved out of a single block of rock, is 7 -feet in height by 13-1/2 feet wide, and 1-1/2 feet thick. The upper -portion of this massive portal is carved with symbolic figures. In the -centre is a figure in high relief, the head surrounded by solar rays, -and in each hand a sceptre, the end of which terminates in the head -of a condor. This figure is flanked on either side by three tiers of -kneeling suppliants, each of whom is winged and bears a sceptre similar -in design to the central ones. Elsewhere are mighty blocks of stone, -some 36 feet long, remains of enormous walls, standing monoliths, -and in earlier times colossal statues were seen on the site. When -the Spanish conquerors arrived no tradition remained regarding -the founders of these structures, and their origin still remains a -mystery; but that they represent the remains of the capital of some -mighty prehistoric kingdom is practically admitted. - - - -A Strange Site - -The greatest mystery of all regarding the ruins at Tiahuanaco is the -selection of the site. For what reason did the prehistoric rulers -of Peru build here? The surroundings are totally unsuitable for -the raising of such edifices, and the tableland upon which they are -placed is at once desolate and difficult of access. The snow-line is -contiguous, and breathing at such a height is no easy matter. There -is no reason to suppose that climatic conditions in the day of these -colossal builders were different from those which obtain at the present -time. In face of these facts the position of Tiahuanaco remains an -insoluble riddle. - - - -Sacsahuaman and Ollantay - -Other remains of these prehistoric people are found in various parts -of Peru. At Sacsahuaman, perched on a hill above the city of Cuzco, is -an immense fortified work six hundred yards long, built in three lines -of wall consisting of enormous stones, some of which are twenty-seven -feet in length. Pissac is also the site of wonderful ruined masonry -and an ancient observatory. At Ollantay-tampu, forty-five miles to -the north of Cuzco, is another of these gigantic fortresses, built to -defend the valley of the Yucay. This stronghold is constructed for the -most part of red porphyry, and its walls average twenty-five feet in -height. The great cliff on which Ollantay is perched is covered from -end to end with stupendous walls which zigzag from point to point -of it like the salient angles of some modern fortalice. At intervals -are placed round towers of stone provided with loopholes, from which -doubtless arrows were discharged at the enemy. This outwork embraces a -series of terraces, world-famous because of their gigantic outline and -the problem of the use to which they were put. It is now practically -agreed that these terraces were employed for the production of maize, -in order that during a prolonged investment the beleaguered troops and -country-folk might not want for a sufficiency of provender. The stone -of which this fortress was built was quarried at a distance of seven -miles, in a spot upwards of three thousand feet above the valley, -and was dragged up the steep declivity of Ollantay by sheer human -strength. The nicety with which the stones were fitted is marvellous. - - - -The Drama-Legend of Ollantay - -Among the dramatic works with which the ancient Incas were credited -is that of Apu-Ollanta, which may recount the veritable story of a -chieftain after whom the great stronghold was named. It was probably -divided into scenes and supplied with stage directions at a later -period, but the dialogue and songs are truly aboriginal. The period -is that of the reign of the Inca Yupanqui Pachacutic, one of the -most celebrated of the Peruvian monarchs. The central figure of the -drama is a chieftain named Ollanta, who conceived a violent passion -for a daughter of the Inca named Curi-Coyllur (Joyful Star). This -passion was deemed unlawful, as no mere subject who was not of the -blood-royal might aspire to the hand of a daughter of the Inca. As -the play opens we overhear a dialogue between Ollanta and his -man-servant Piqui-Chaqui (Flea-footed), who supplies what modern -stage-managers would designate the "comic relief." They are talking -of Ollanta's love for the princess, when they are confronted by the -high-priest of the Sun, who tries to dissuade the rash chieftain -from the dangerous course he is taking by means of a miracle. In the -next scene Curi-Coyllur is seen in company with her mother, sorrowing -over the absence of her lover. A harvest song is here followed by a -love ditty of undoubtedly ancient origin. The third scene represents -Ollanta's interview with the Inca in which he pleads his suit and -is slighted by the scornful monarch. Ollanta defies the king in a -resounding speech, with which the first act concludes. In the first -scene of the second act we are informed that the disappointed chieftain -has raised the standard of rebellion, and the second scene is taken -up with the military preparations consequent upon the announcement -of a general rising. In the third scene Rumi-ñaui as general of the -royal forces admits defeat by the rebels. - - - -The Love-Story of Curi-Coyllur - -Curi-Coyllur gives birth to a daughter, and is imprisoned in the -darksome Convent of Virgins. Her child, Yma Sumac (How Beautiful), -is brought up in the same building, but is ignorant of the near -presence of her mother. The little girl tells her guardian of groans -and lamentations which she has heard in the convent garden, and of the -tumultuous emotions with which these sad sounds fill her heart. The -Inca Pachacutic's death is announced, and the accession of his son, -Yupanqui. Rebellion breaks out once more, and the suppression of the -malcontents is again entrusted to Rumi-ñaui. That leader, having -tasted defeat already, resorts to cunning. He conceals his men in -a valley close by, and presents himself covered with blood before -Ollanta, who is at the head of the rebels. He states that he has been -barbarously used by the royal troops, and that he desires to join the -rebels. He takes part with Ollanta and his men in a drunken frolic, -in which he incites them to drink heavily, and when they are overcome -with liquor he brings up his troops and makes them prisoners. - - - -Mother and Child - -Yma Sumac, the beautiful little daughter of Curi-Coyllur, requests -her guardian, Pitu Salla, so pitifully to be allowed to visit her -mother in her dungeon that the woman consents, and mother and child -are united. Ollanta is brought as a prisoner before the new Inca, -who pardons him. At that juncture Yma Sumac enters hurriedly, and begs -the monarch to free her mother, Curi-Coyllur. The Inca proceeds to the -prison, restores the princess to her lover, and the drama concludes -with the Inca bestowing his blessing upon the pair. - -The play was first put into written form in the seventeenth century, -has often been printed, and is now recognised as a genuine aboriginal -production. - - - -The Races of Peru - -Many races went to make up the Peruvian people as they existed when -first discovered by the conquering Spaniards. From the south came a -civilising race which probably found a number of allied tribes, each -existing separately in its own little valley, speaking a different -dialect, or even language, from its neighbours, and in many instances -employing different customs. Although tradition alleged that these -invaders came from the north by sea within historical times, the more -probable theory of their origin is one which states that they had -followed the course of the affluents of the Amazon to the valleys -where they dwelt when the more enlightened folk from the south came -upon them. The remains of this aboriginal people--for, though they -spoke diverse languages, the probability is that they were of one or -not more than two stocks--are still found scattered over the coastal -valleys in pyramidal mounds and adobe-built dwellings. - - - -The Coming of the Incas - -The arrival of the dominant race rudely broke in upon the peaceful -existence of the aboriginal folk. This race, the Quichua-Aymara, -probably had its place of origin in the Altaplanicie highlands of -Bolivia, the eastern cordillera of the Andes. This they designated -Tucuman (World's End), just as the Kiche of Guatemala were wont -to describe the land of their origin as Ki Pixab (Corner of the -Earth). The present republic of Argentina was at a remote period -covered by a vast, partially land-locked sea, and beside the shores -of this the ancestors of the Quichua-Aymara race may have settled as -fishers and fowlers. They found a more permanent settlement on the -shores of Lake Titicaca, where their traditions state that they made -considerable advances in the arts of civilisation. It was, indeed, -from Titicaca that the sun emerged from the sacred rock where he -had erstwhile hidden himself. Here, too, the llama and paco were -domesticated and agricultural life initiated, or perfected. The arts -of irrigation and terrace-building--so marked as features of Peruvian -civilisation--were also invented in this region, and the basis of a -composite advancement laid. - - - -The Quichua-Aymara - -This people consisted of two groups, the Quichua and Aymara, so called -from the two kindred tongues spoken by each respectively. These possess -a common grammatical structure, and a great number of words are common -to both. They are in reality varying forms of one speech. From the -valley of Titicaca the Aymara spread from the source of the Amazon -river to the higher parts of the Andes range, so that in course of -time they exhibited those qualities which stamp the mountaineer in -every age and clime. The Quichua, on the other hand, occupied the -warm valleys beyond the river Apurimac, to the north-west of the -Aymara-speaking people--a tract equal to the central portion of the -modern republic of Peru. The name "Quichua" implies a warm valley or -sphere, in contradistinction to the "Yunca," or tropical districts -of the coast and lowlands. - - - -The Four Peoples - -The metropolitan folk of Cuzco considered Peru to be divided into -four sections--that of the Colla-suyu, with the valley of Titicaca -as its centre, and stretching from the Bolivian highlands to Cuzco; -the Conti-suyu, between the Colla-suyu and the ocean; the Quichua -Chinchay-suyu, of the north-west; and the Anti-suyu, of the montaña -region. The Inca people, coming suddenly into these lands, annexed them -with surprising rapidity, and, making the aboriginal tribes dependent -upon their rule, spread themselves over the face of the country. Thus -the ancient chroniclers. But it is obvious that such rapid conquest was -a practical impossibility, and it is now understood that the Inca power -was consolidated only some hundred years before the coming of Pizarro. - - - -The Coming of Manco Ccapac - -Peruvian myth has its Quetzalcoatl in Manco Ccapac, a veritable son of -the sun. The Life-giver, observing the deplorable condition of mankind, -who seemed to exist for war and feasting alone, despatched his son, -Manco Ccapac, and his sister-wife, Mama Oullo Huaca, to earth for the -purpose of instructing the degraded peoples in the arts of civilised -life. The heavenly pair came to earth in the neighbourhood of Lake -Titicaca, and were provided with a golden wedge which they were -assured would sink into the earth at the precise spot on which they -should commence their missionary labours. This phenomenon occurred at -Cuzco, where the wedge disappeared. The derivation of the name Cuzco, -which means "Navel," or, in more modern terms, "Hub of the Universe," -proves that it was regarded as a great culture-centre. On this spot -the civilising agents pitched their camp, gathering the uncultured -folk of the country around them. Whilst Manco taught the men the -arts of agriculture, Mama Oullo instructed the women in those of -weaving and spinning. Great numbers gathered in the vicinity of Cuzco, -and the foundations of a city were laid. Under the mild rule of the -heavenly pair the land of Peru abounded in every desirable thing, -like the Eden of Genesis. The legend of Manco Ccapac as we have -it from an old Spanish source is worth giving. It is as follows: -"There [in Tiahuanaco] the creator began to raise up the people and -nations that are in that region, making one of each nation in clay, -and painting the dresses that each one was to wear; those that were -to wear their hair, with hair, and those that were to be shorn, -with hair cut. And to each nation was given the language that was -to be spoken, and the songs to be sung, and the seeds and food that -they were to sow. When the creator had finished painting and making -the said nations and figures of clay, he gave life and soul to each -one, as well man as woman, and ordered that they should pass under -the earth. Thence each nation came up in the places to which he -ordered them to go. Thus they say that some came out of caves, others -issued from hills, others from fountains, others from the trunks of -trees. From this cause and others, and owing to having come forth and -multiplied from those places, and to having had the beginning of their -lineage in them, they made huacas [14] and places of worship of them, -in memory of the origin of their lineage. Thus each nation uses the -dress with which they invest their huaca; and they say that the first -that was born in that place was there turned into stone. Others say -that they were turned into falcons, condors, and other animals and -birds. Hence the huacas they use are in different shapes." - - - -The Peruvian Creation-Story - -The Incan Peruvians believed that all things emanated from Pachacamac, -the all-pervading spirit, who provided the plants and animals (which -they believed to be produced from the earth) with "souls." The earth -itself they designated Pachacamama (Earth-Mother). Here we observe -that Pachacamac was more the maker and moulder than the originator of -matter, a view common to many American mythologies. Pachacamac it was -who breathed the breath of life into man, but the Peruvian conception -of him was only evolved in later Inca times, and by no means existed -in the early days of Inca rule, although he was probably worshipped -before this under another and less exalted shape. The mere exercise -of will or thought was sufficient, according to the Peruvians, to -accomplish the creative act. In the prayers to the creator, and in -other portions of Inca rite, we read such expressions as "Let a man -be," "Let a woman be," and "The creative word," which go to prove that -the Peruvian consciousness had fully grasped the idea of a creator -capable of evolving matter out of nothingness. Occasionally we find the -sun acting as a kind of demiurge or sub-creator. He it is who in later -legend founds the city of Cuzco, and sends thither three eggs composed -of gold, silver, and copper, from which spring the three classes of -Peruvians, kings, priests, and slaves. The inevitable deluge occurs, -after which we find the prehistoric town of Tiahuanaco regarded as -the theatre of a new creation of man. Here the creator made man, -and separated him into nations, making one of each nation out of the -clay of the earth, painting the dresses that each was to wear, and -endowing them with national songs, languages, seeds to sow suitable to -the environment of each, and food such as they would require. Then he -gave the peoples life and soul, and commanded them to enter the bowels -of the earth, whence they came upward in the places where he ordered -them to go. Perhaps this is one of the most complete ("wholesale" -would be a better word) creation-myths in existence, and we can glean -from its very completeness that it is by no means of simple origin, but -of great complexity. It is obviously an attempt to harmonise several -conflicting creation-stories, notably those in which the people are -spoken of as emanating from caves, and the later one of the creation -of men at Tiahuanaco, probably suggested to the Incas by the immense -ruins at that place, for which they could not otherwise account. - - - -Local Creation-Myths - -In some of the more isolated valleys of Peru we discover local -creation-myths. For example, in the coastal valley of Irma Pachacamac -was not considered to be the creator of the sun, but to be himself a -descendant of it. The first human beings created by him were speedily -separated, as the man died of hunger, but the woman supported herself -by living on roots. The sun took compassion upon her and gave her a -son, whom Pachacamac slew and buried. But from his teeth there grew -maize, from his ribs the long white roots of the manioc plant, and -from his flesh various esculent plants. - - - -The Character of Inca Civilisation - -Apart from the treatment which they meted out to the subject races -under their sway, the rule of the Inca monarchs was enlightened and -contained the elements of high civilisation. It is scarcely clear -whether the Inca race arrived in the country at such a date as would -have permitted them to profit by adopting the arts and sciences of the -Andean people who preceded them. But it may be affirmed that their -arrival considerably post-dated the fall of the megalithic empire -of the Andeans, so that in reality their civilisation was of their -own manufacture. As architects they were by no means the inferiors -of the prehistoric race, if the examples of their art did not bulk -so massively, and the engineering skill with which they pushed -long, straight tunnels through vast mountains and bridged seemingly -impassable gorges still excites the wonder of modern experts. They -also made long, straight roads after the most improved macadamised -model. Their temples and palaces were adorned with gold and silver -images and ornaments; sumptuous baths supplied with hot and cold water -by means of pipes laid in the earth were to be found in the mansions -of the nobility, and much luxury and real comfort prevailed. - - - -An Absolute Theocracy - -The empire of Peru was the most absolute theocracy the world has -ever seen. The Inca was the direct representative of the sun upon -earth, the head of a socio-religious edifice intricate and highly -organised. This colossal bureaucracy had ramifications into the -very homes of the people. The Inca was represented in the provinces -by governors of the blood-royal. Officials were placed above ten -thousand families, a thousand families, and even ten families, upon -the principle that the rays of the sun enter everywhere, and that -therefore the light of the Inca must penetrate to every corner of -the empire. There was no such thing as personal freedom. Every man, -woman, and child was numbered, branded, and under surveillance as -much as were the llamas in the royal herds. Individual effort or -enterprise was unheard of. Some writers have stated that a system -of state socialism obtained in Peru. If so, then state surveillance -in Central Russia might also be branded as socialism. A man's life -was planned for him by the authorities from the age of five years, -and even the woman whom he was to marry was selected for him by the -Government officials. The age at which the people should marry was -fixed at not earlier than twenty-four years for a man and eighteen -for a woman. Coloured ribbons worn round the head indicated the place -of a person's birth or the province to which he belonged. - - - -A Golden Temple - -One of the most remarkable monuments of the Peruvian civilisation -was the Coricancha (Town of Gold) at Cuzco, the principal fane of the -sun-god. Its inner and outer walls were covered with plates of pure -gold. Situated upon an eminence eighty feet high, the temple looked -down upon gardens filled, according to the conquering Spaniards, -with treasures of gold and silver. The animals, insects, the very -trees, say the chroniclers, were of the precious metals, as were the -spades, hoes, and other implements employed for keeping the ground in -cultivation. Through the pleasances rippled the river Huatenay. Such -was the glittering Intipampa (Field of the Sun). That the story is -true, at least in part, is proved by the traveller Squier, who speaks -of having seen in several houses in Cuzco sheets of gold preserved -as relics which came from the Temple of the Sun. These, he says, -were scarcely as thick as paper, and were stripped off the walls of -the Coricancha by the exultant Spanish soldiery. - - - -The Great Altar - -But this house of gold had but a roof of thatch! The Peruvians were -ignorant of the principle of the arch, or else considered the feature -unsuitable, for some reason best known to their architects. The -doorways were formed of huge monoliths, and the entire aspect of the -building was cyclopean. The interior displayed an ornate richness -which impressed even the Spaniards, who had seen the wealth of many -lands and Oriental kingdoms, and the gold-lust must have swelled -within their hearts at sight of the great altar, behind which was -a huge plate of the shining metal engraved with the features of the -sun-god. The surface of this plate was enriched by a thousand gems, -the scintillation of which was, according to eye-witnesses, almost -insupportable. Around this dazzling sphere were seated the mummified -corpses of the Inca kings, each on his throne, with sceptre in hand. - - - -Planetary Temples - -Surrounding the Coricancha several lesser temples clustered, all -of them dedicated to one or other of the planetary bodies--to the -moon, to Cuycha, the rainbow, to Chasca, the planet Venus. In the -temple of the moon, the mythic mother of the Inca dynasty, a great -plate of silver, like the golden one which represented the face of -the sun-god, depicted the features of the moon-goddess, and around -this the mummies of the Inca queens sat in a semicircle, like their -spouses in the greater neighbouring fane. In the rainbow temple of -Cuycha the seven-hued arch of heaven was depicted by a great arc -of gold skilfully tempered or painted in suitable colours. All the -utensils in these temples were of gold or silver. In the principal -building twelve large jars of silver held the sacred grain, and even -the pipes which conducted the water-supply through the earth to the -sanctuary were of silver. Pedro Pizarro himself, besides other credible -eye-witnesses, vouched for these facts. The colossal representation of -the sun became the property of a certain Mancio Serra de Leguicano, -a reckless cavalier and noted gambler, who lost it on a single throw -of the dice! Such was the spirit of the adventurers who conquered this -golden realm for the crown of Spain. The walls of the Coricancha are -still standing, and this marvellous shrine of the chief luminary of -heaven, the great god of the Peruvians, is now a Christian church. - - - -The Mummies of Peru - -The fact that the ancient Peruvians had a method of mummification -has tempted many "antiquarians" to infer therefrom that they had some -connection with ancient Egypt. These theories are so numerous as to -give the unsophisticated reader the idea that a regular system of -immigration was carried on between Egypt and America. As a matter -of fact the method of mummification in vogue in Peru was entirely -different from that employed by the ancient Egyptians. Peruvian -mummies are met with at apparently all stages of the history of -the native races. Megalithic tombs and monuments contain them in -the doubled-up posture so common among early peoples all over the -world. These megalithic tombs, or chulpas, as they are termed, are -composed of a mass of rough stones and clay, faced with huge blocks -of trachyte or basalt, so put together as to form a cist, in which -the mummy was placed. The door invariably faces the east, so that it -may catch the gleams of the rising sun--a proof of the prevalence of -sun-worship. Squier alludes to one more than 24 feet high. An opening -18 inches square gave access to the sepulchral chamber, which was 11 -feet square by 13 feet high. But the tomb had been entered before, -and after getting in with much difficulty the explorer was forced to -retreat empty-handed. - -Many of these chulpas are circular, and painted in gay primary -colours. They are very numerous in Bolivia, an old Peruvian province, -and in the basin of Lake Titicaca they abound. The dead were wrapped -in llama-skins, on which the outlines of the eyes and mouth were -carefully marked. The corpse was then arrayed in other garments, -and the door of the tomb walled up. In some parts of Peru the dead -were mummified and placed in the dwelling-houses beside the living. In -the rarefied air of the plateaus the bodies rapidly became innocuous, -and the custom was not the insanitary one we might imagine it to be. - -On the Pacific coast the method of mummification was somewhat -different. The body was reduced to a complete state of desiccation, -and was deposited in a tomb constructed of stone or adobe. Vases -intended to hold maize or chicha liquor were placed beside the -corpse, and copper hatchets, mirrors of polished stone, earrings, -and bracelets have been discovered in these burial-places. Some of -the remains are wrapped in rich cloth, and vases of gold and silver -were placed beside them. Golden plaques are often discovered in the -mouths, probably symbolic of the sun. The bodies exhibit no traces -of embalming, and are usually in a sitting posture. Some of them have -evidently been dried before inhumation, whilst others are covered with -a resinous substance. They are generally accompanied by the various -articles used during life; the men have their weapons and ornaments, -women their household implements, and children their toys. The dryness -of the climate, as in Egypt, keeps these relics in a wonderful state -of preservation. In the grave of a woman were found not only vases -of every shape, but also some cloth she had commenced to weave, -which her death had perhaps prevented her from completing. Her light -brown hair was carefully combed and plaited, and the legs from the -ankle to the knee were painted red, after the fashion in vogue among -Peruvian beauties, while little bladders of toilet-powder and gums -were thoughtfully placed beside her for her use in the life to come. - - - -Laws and Customs - -The legal code of the Incas was severe in the extreme. Murderers and -adulterers were punished by death, and the unpardonable sin appears to -have been blasphemy against the sun, or his earthly representative, -the Inca. The Virgin of the Sun (or nun) who broke her vow was -buried alive, and the village from whence she came was razed to the -ground. Flogging was administered for minor offences. A peculiar and -very trying punishment must have been that of carrying a heavy stone -for a certain time. - -On marriage a home was apportioned to each couple, and land assigned -to them sufficient for their support. When a child was born a separate -allowance was given it--one fanega for a boy, and half that amount for -a girl, the fanega being equal to the area which could be sown with a -hundred pounds of maize. There is something repulsive in the Inca code, -with its grandmotherly legislation; and if this tyranny was beneficent, -it was devised merely to serve its own ends and hound on the unhappy -people under its control like dumb, driven cattle. The outlook of -the average native was limited in the extreme. The Inca class of -priests and warriors retained every vestige of authority; and that -they employed their power unmercifully to grind down the millions -beneath them was a sufficient excuse for the Spanish Conquistadores -in dispossessing them of the empire they had so harshly administered. - -The public ground was divided afresh every year according to the -number of the members of each family, and agrarian laws were strictly -fixed. Private property did not exist among the people of the lower -classes, who merely farmed the lot which each year was placed at -their disposal. Besides this, the people had perforce to cultivate -the lands sacred to the Inca, and only the aged and the sick could -evade this duty. - - - -The Peruvian Calendar - -The standard chronology known to the Peru of the Incas was a simple -lunar reckoning. But the four principal points in the sun's course -were denoted by means of the intihuatana, a device consisting -of a large rock surmounted by a small cone, the shadow of which, -falling on certain notches on the stone below, marked the date of -the great sun-festivals. The Peruvians, however, had no definite -calendar. At Cuzco, the capital, the solstices were gauged by pillars -called pachacta unanchac, or indicators of time, which were placed -in four groups (two pillars to a group) on promontories, two in the -direction of sunrise and two in that of sunset, to mark the extreme -points of the sun's rising and setting. By this means they were -enabled to distinguish the arrival and departure of the solstices, -during which the sun never went beyond the middle pair of pillars. The -Inca astronomer's approximation to the year was 360 days, which were -divided into twelve moons of thirty days each. These moons were not -calendar months in the correct sense, but simply a succession of -lunations, which commenced with the winter solstice. This method, -which must ultimately have proved confusing, does not seem to have -been altered to co-ordinate with the reckoning of the succession of -years. The names of the twelve moons, which had some reference to -the daily life of the Peruvian, were as follows: - - - Huchuy Pucuy Quilla (Small Growing Moon), approximately January. - Hatun Pucuy Quilla (Great Growing Moon), approximately February. - Pancar Pucuy Quilla (Flower-growing Moon), approximately March. - Ayrihua Quilla (Twin Ears Moon), approximately April. - Aymuray Quilla (Harvest Moon), approximately May. - Auray Cusqui Quilla (Breaking Soil), approximately June. - Chahua Huarqui Quilla (Irrigation Moon), approximately July. - Tarpuy Quilla (Sowing Moon), approximately August. - Ccoya Raymi Quilla (Moon of the Moon Feast), approximately - September. - Uma Raymi Quilla (Moon of the Feast of the Province of Uma), - approximately October. - Ayamarca Raymi Quilla (Moon of the Feast of the Province of - Ayamarca), approximately November. - Ccapac Raymi Quilla (Moon of the Great Feast of the Sun), - approximately December. - - - -The Festivals - -That the Peruvian standard of time, as with all American people, -was taken from the natural course of the moon is known chiefly from -the fact that the principal religious festivals began on the new moon -following a solstice or equinox. The ceremonies connected with the -greatest festival, the Ccapac Raymi, were made to date near the lunar -phases, the two stages commencing with the ninth day of the December -moon and twenty-first day, or last quarter. But while these lunar -phases indicated certain festivals, it very often happened that the -civil authorities followed a reckoning of their own, in preference -to accepting ecclesiastical rule. Considerable significance was -attached to each month by the Peruvians regarding the nature of -their festivals. The solstices and equinoxes were the occasions of -established ceremonies. The arrival of the winter solstice, which in -Peru occurs in June, was celebrated by the Intip Raymi (Great Feast of -the Sun). The principal Peruvian feast, which took place at the summer -solstice, when the new year was supposed to begin, was the national -feast of the great god Pachacamac, and was called Ccapac Raymi. Molina, -Fernandez, and Garcilasso, however, date the new year from the winter -solstice. The third festival of the Inca year, the Ccapac Situa, -or Ccoya Raymi (Moon Feast), which is signalled by the beginning of -the rainy season, occurred in September. In general character these -festivals appear to have been simple, and even childlike. The sacrifice -of animals taken from sacred herds of llamas was doubtless a principal -feature of the ceremony, accompanied by the offering up of maguey, -or maize spirit, and followed by the performance of symbolic dances. - - - -The Llama - -The llama was the chief domestic animal of Peru. All llamas were -the property of the Inca. Like the camel, its distant relative, this -creature can subsist for long periods upon little nourishment, and it -is suitable for the carriage of moderate loads. Each year a certain -amount of llama wool was given to the Peruvian family, according to -the number of women it contained, and these wove it into garments, -whatever was over being stored away in the public cloth-magazines -for the general use. The large flocks of llamas and alpacas also -afforded a supply of meat for the people such as the Mexicans never -possessed. Naturally much attention was given to the breeding of these -animals, and the alpaca was as carefully regarded by the Peruvian -as the sheep by the farmer of to-day. The guanacos and vicuñas, wild -animals of the llama or auchenia family, were also sources of food- -and wool-supply. - - - -Architecture of the Incas - -The art in which the Incan Peruvians displayed the greatest advance -was that of architecture. The earlier style of Inca building shows -that it was closely modelled, as has already been pointed out, on that -of the megalithic masons of the Tiahuanaco district, but the later -style shows stones laid in regular courses, varying in length. No -cement or mortar of any kind was employed, the structure depending -for stability upon the accuracy with which the stones were fitted to -each other. An enormous amount of labour must have been expended upon -this part of the work, for in the monuments of Peruvian architecture -which still exist it is impossible to insert even a needle between -the stones of which they are composed. The palaces and temples were -built around a courtyard, and most of the principal buildings had -a hall of considerable dimensions attached to them, which, like the -baronial halls of the England of the Middle Ages, served for feasting -or ceremony. In this style is built the front of the palace on the -Colcampata, overlooking the city of Cuzco, under the fortress which -is supposed to have been the dwelling of Manco Ccapac, the first -Inca. Palaces at Yucay and Chinchero are also of this type. - - - -Unsurpassed Workmanship - -In an illuminating passage upon Inca architecture Sir Clements Markham, -the greatest living authority upon matters Peruvian, says: - -"In Cuzco the stone used is a dark trachyte, and the coarse grain -secured greater adhesion between the blocks. The workmanship -is unsurpassed, and the world has nothing to show in the way of -stone-cutting and fitting to equal the skill and accuracy displayed -in the Ynca structures of Cuzco. No cement is used, and the larger -stones are in the lowest row, each ascending course being narrower, -which presents a most pleasing effect. The edifices were built round -a court, upon which the rooms opened, and some of the great halls -were 200 paces long by 60 wide, the height being 35 to 40 feet, -besides the spring of the roof. The roofs were thatch; and we are -able to form an idea of their construction from one which is still -preserved, after a lapse of three centuries. This is on a circular -building called the Sondor-huasi, at Azangaro, and it shows that even -thatch in the hands of tasteful builders will make a sightly roof for -imposing edifices, and that the interior ornament of such a roof may -be exceedingly beautiful." - - - -The Temple of Viracocha - -The temple of Viracocha, at Cacha, in the valley of the Vilcamayu, -is built on a plan different from that of any other sacred building -in Peru. Its ruins consist of a wall of adobe or clay 40 feet high -and 330 long, built on stone foundations 8 feet in height. The roof -was supported on twenty-five columns, and the width of the structure -was 87 feet. It was a place of pilgrimage, and the caravanserais where -the Faithful were wont to be housed still stand around the ruined fane. - - - -Titicaca - -The most sacred of the Peruvian shrines, however, was Titicaca, -an island on the lake of that name. The island of Coati, hard -by, enjoyed an equal reverence. Terraced platforms on the former, -reached by flights of steps, support two buildings provided for the -use of pilgrims about to proceed to Coati. On Titicaca there are the -ruins of an extensive palace which commands a splendid view of the -surrounding barren country. A great bath or tank is situated half-way -down a long range of terraces supported by cut stone masonry, and -the pool, 40 feet long by 10, and 5 feet deep, has similar walls on -three sides. Below this tank the water is made to irrigate terrace -after terrace until it falls into the lake. - - - -Coati - -The island of Coati is about six miles distant. The principal building -is on one of the loftiest of seven terraces, once radiant with flowers -and shrubs, and filled with rich loam transported from a more fertile -region. It is placed on three sides of a square, 183 feet long by -80, and is of stone laid in clay and coated with plaster. "It has," -says Markham, "thirty-five chambers, only one of which is faced with -hewn stones. The ornament on the façade consists of elaborate niches, -which agreeably break the monotony of the wall, and above them runs a -projecting cornice. The walls were painted yellow, and the niches red; -and there was a high-pitched roof, broken here and there by gables. The -two largest chambers are 20 long by 12, and loftier than the rest, -each with a great niche in the wall facing the entrance. These were -probably the holy places or shrines of the temple. The beautiful -series of terraces falls off from the esplanade of the temple to the -shores of the lake." - - - -Mysterious Chimu - -The coast folk, of a different race from the Incas, had their centre of -civilisation near the city of Truxillo, on the plain of Chimu. Here the -ruins of a great city litter the plain for many acres. Arising from the -mass of ruin, at intervals stand huacas, or artificial hills. The city -was supplied with water by means of small canals, which also served to -irrigate the gardens. The mounds alluded to were used for sepulture, -and the largest, at Moche, is 800 feet long by 470 feet in breadth, -and 200 feet in height. It is constructed of adobes. Besides serving -the purpose of a cemetery, this mound probably supported a large -temple on its summit. - - - -The Palace - -A vast palace occupied a commanding position. Its great hall was 100 -feet long by 52 broad, and its walls were covered with a highly ornate -series of arabesques in relief done in stucco, like the fretwork on -the walls of Palenque. Another hall close at hand is ornamented in -coloured stucco, and from it branch off many small rooms, which were -evidently dormitories. From the first hall a long corridor leads to -secret storehouses, where many vessels of gold and silver have been -discovered hidden away, as if to secure them either from marauding -bands or the gaze of the vulgar. All of these structures are hollowed -out of a vast mound covering several acres, so that the entire building -may be said to be partially subterranean in character. "About a hundred -yards to the westward of this palace there was a sepulchral mound -where many relics were discovered. The bodies were wrapped in cloths, -woven in ornamental figures and patterns of different colours. On some -of the cloths were sewn plates of silver, and they were edged with -borders of feathers, the silver being occasionally cut in the shape -of fishes. Among the ruins of the city there are great rectangular -areas enclosed by massive walls, and containing courts, streets, -dwellings, and reservoirs for water. The largest is about a mile -south of the mound-palace, and is 550 yards long by 400. The outer -wall is about 30 feet high, 10 feet thick at the base, with sides -inclining toward each other. Some of the interior walls are highly -ornamented in stuccoed patterns; and in one part there is an edifice -containing forty-five chambers or cells, in five rows of nine each, -which is supposed to have been a prison. The enclosure also contained -a reservoir 450 feet long by 195 broad, and 60 feet deep." - - - -The Civilisation of Chimu - -The ruins of Chimu are undoubtedly the outcome of a superior standard -of civilisation. The buildings are elaborate, as are their internal -arrangements. The extent of the city is great, and the art displayed -in the manufacture of the utensils discovered within it and the taste -evinced in the numerous wall-patterns show that a people of advanced -culture inhabited it. The jeweller's work is in high relief, and the -pottery and plaques found exhibit much artistic excellence. - - - -Pachacamac - -The famous ruins of the temple and city of Pachacamac, near the -valley of Lurin, to the south of Lima, overlook the Pacific Ocean -from a height of 500 feet. Four vast terraces still bear mighty -perpendicular walls, at one time painted red. Here was found the only -perfect Peruvian arch, built of large adobe bricks--a proof that the -Peruvian mind did not stand still in matters architectural at least. - - - -Irrigation Works - -It was in works of irrigation, however, that the race exhibited its -greatest engineering genius. In the valley of Nasca the Incas cut -deep trenches to reinforce the irrigating power of a small river, -and carried the system high up into the mountains, in order that -the rainfall coming therefrom might be conducted into the needful -channel. Lower down the valley the main watercourse is deflected into -many branches, which irrigate each estate by feeding the small surface -streams. This system adequately serves the fifteen estates of Nasca -to-day! Another high-level canal for the irrigation of pasture-lands -was led for more than a hundred and fifty miles along the eastern -slope of the central cordillera. - - - -A Singular Discovery - -In Peru, as in Mexico, it is probable that the cross was employed as -a symbol of the four winds. An account of the expedition of Fuentes -to the valley of Chichas recounts the discovery of a wooden cross as -follows: [15] - -"When the settlers who accompanied Fuentes in his glorious expedition -approached the valley they found a wooden cross, hidden, as if -purposely, in the most intricate part of the mountains. As there is -not anything more flattering to the vanity of a credulous man than -to be enabled to bring forward his testimony in the relation of a -prodigy, the devotion of these good conquerors was kindled to such a -degree by the discovery of this sacred memorial that they instantly -hailed it as miraculous and divine. They accordingly carried it in -procession to the town, and placed it in the church belonging to the -convent of San Francisco, where it is still worshipped. It appears -next to impossible that there should not, at that time, have been -any individual among them sufficiently enlightened to combat such a -persuasion, since, in reality, there was nothing miraculous in the -finding of this cross, there having been other Christian settlers, -before the arrival of Fuentes, in the same valley. The opinion, -notwithstanding, that the discovery was altogether miraculous, instead -of having been abandoned at the commencement, was confirmed still more -and more with the progress of time. The Jesuits Antonio Ruiz and Pedro -Lozano, in their respective histories of the missions of Paraguay, -&c., undertook to demonstrate that the Apostle St. Thomas had been in -America. This thesis, which was so novel, and so well calculated to -draw the public attention, required, more than any other, the aid of -the most powerful reasons, and of the most irrefragable documents, -to be able to maintain itself, even in an hypothetical sense; but -nothing of all this was brought forward. Certain miserable conjectures, -prepossession, and personal interest, supplied the place of truth -and criticism. The form of a human foot, which they fancied they saw -imprinted on the rock, and the different fables of this description -invented by ignorance at every step, were the sole foundations on -which all the relations on this subject were made to repose. The one -touching the peregrinations of St. Thomas from Brazil to Quito must -be deemed apocryphal, when it is considered that the above reverend -fathers describe the Apostle with the staff in the hand, the black -cassock girt about the waist, and all the other trappings which -distinguish the missionaries of the society. The credit which these -histories obtained at the commencement was equal to that bestowed on -the cross of Tarija, which remained in the predicament of being the -one St. Thomas had planted in person, in the continent of America." - - - -The Chibchas - -A people called the Chibchas dwelt at a very high point of the Andes -range. They were brave and industrious, and possessed a culture of -their own. They defended themselves against much stronger native -races, but after the Spanish conquest their country was included in -New Granada, and is now part of the United States of Colombia. Less -experienced than the Peruvians or Aztecs, they could, however, weave -and dye, carve and engrave, make roads, build temples, and work in -stone, wood, and metals. They also worked in pottery and jewellery, -making silver pendants and collars of shells and collars of precious -stones. They were a wealthy folk, and their Spanish conquerors obtained -much spoil. Little is known concerning them or their language, and -there is not much of interest in the traditions relating to them. Their -mythology was simple. They believed the moon was the wife of Bochica, -who represented the sun, and as she tried to destroy men Bochica only -allowed her to give light during the night. When the aborigines were -in a condition of barbarism Bochica taught them and civilised them. The -legends about Bochica resemble in many points those about Quetzalcoatl -or Manco Ccapac, as well as those relating to the founder of Buddhism -and the first Inca of Peru. The Chibchas offered human sacrifices to -their gods at certain intervals, and kept the wretched victim for -some years in preparation for his doom. They venerated greatly the -Lake of Quatavita, and are supposed to have flung their treasures -into it when they were conquered. Although many attempts have been -made to recover these, little of value has been found. - -The Chibchas appear to have given allegiance to two leaders, one the -Zippa, who lived at Bogota, the other the Zoque, who lived at Hunsa, -now Tunja. These chiefs ruled supreme. Like the Incas, they could -only have one lawful wife, and their sons did not succeed them--their -power passed, as in some Central African tribes, to the eldest son -of the sister. - -When the Zippa died, sweet-smelling resin took the place of his -internal parts, and the body was put in a wooden coffin, with sheets -of gold for ornamentation. The coffin was hidden in an unknown -sepulchre, and these tombs have never been discovered--at least, -so say the Spaniards. Their weapons, garments, objects of daily use, -even jars of chicha, were buried with these chiefs. It is very likely -that a cave where rows of mummies richly dressed were found, and many -jewels, was the secret burying-place of the Zippas and the Zoques. To -these folk death meant only a continuation of the life on earth. - - - -A Severe Legal Code - -The laws of the Chibchas were severe--death was meted out to the -murderer, and bodily punishment for stealing. A coward was made to -look like a woman and do her work, while to an unfaithful wife was -administered a dose of red pepper, which, if swallowed, released -the culprit from the penalty of death and entitled her to an apology -from her husband. The Chibchas made no use of cattle, and lived on -honey. Their houses were built of clay, and were set in the midst of an -enclosure guarded by watch-towers. The roofs were of a conical shape, -covered with reed mats, and skilfully interlaced rushes were used to -close the openings. - -The Chibchas were skilful in working bronze, lead, copper, tin, gold, -and silver, but not iron. The Saint-Germain Museum has many specimens -of gold and silver articles made by these people. M. Uricaechea has -still more uncommon specimens in his collection, such as two golden -masks of the human face larger than life, and a great number of -statuettes of men, and images of monkeys and frogs. - -The Chibchas traded with what they made, exporting the rock salt -they found in their own country and receiving in exchange cereals -with which to cultivate their own poor soil. They also made -curious little ornaments which might have passed for money, but -they are not supposed to have understood coinage. They had few stone -columns--only large granite rocks covered with huge figures of tigers -and crocodiles. Humboldt mentions these, and two very high columns, -covered with sculpture, at the junction of the Carare and Magdalena, -greatly revered by the natives, were raised probably by the Chibchas. - - - -A Strange Mnemonic System - -On the arrival of the Spaniards the Peruvians were unacquainted with -any system of writing or numeration. The only means of recording -events they possessed was that provided by quipos, knotted pieces of -string or hide of varying length and colour. According to the length -or colour of these cords the significance of the record varied; it -was sometimes historical and sometimes mathematical. Quipos relating -to the history of the Incas were carefully preserved by an officer -called Quipo Camayol--literally, "The Guardian of the Quipos." The -greater number were destroyed as monuments of idolatry by the fanatical -Spanish monks who came over with the Conquistadores, but their loss is -by no means important, as no study, however profound, could possibly -unriddle the system upon which they were based. The Peruvians, however, -long continued to use them in secret. - - - -Practical Use of the Quipos - -The Marquis de Nadaillac has placed on record a use to which the quipos -were put in more modern times. He says: "A great revolt against the -Spaniards was organised in 1792. As was found out later, the revolt -had been organised by means of messengers carrying a piece of wood -in which were enclosed threads the ends of which were formed of red, -black, blue, or white fringes. The black thread had four knots, which -signified that the messenger had started from Vladura, the residence -of the chief of the conspiracy, four days after full moon. The white -thread had ten knots, which signified that the revolt would break out -ten days after the arrival of the messenger. The person to whom the -keeper was sent had in his turn to make a knot in the red thread if -he agreed to join the confederates; in the red and blue threads, on -the contrary, if he refused." It was by means of these quipos that the -Incas transmitted their instructions. On all the roads starting from -the capital, at distances rarely exceeding five miles, rose tambos, -or stations for the chasquis or couriers, who went from one post to -another. The orders of the Inca thus became disseminated with great -rapidity. Orders which emanated directly from the sovereign were -marked with a red thread of the royal llantu (mantle), and nothing, -as historians assure us, could equal the respect with which these -messages were received. - - - -The Incas as Craftsmen - -The Incan Peruvians had made some progress in the metallurgic, ceramic, -and textile arts. By washing the sands of the rivers of Caravaya they -obtained large quantities of gold, and they extracted silver from -the ore by means of blast-furnaces. Copper also was abundant, and was -employed to manufacture bronze, of which most of their implements were -made. Although it is difficult to know at what period their mining -operations were carried on, it is evident that they could only have -learned the art through long experience. Many proofs are to be found -of their skill in jewellery, and amongst these are wonderful statuettes -which they made from an amalgam of gold and mercury, afterwards exposed -to great heat. A number of curious little ornaments made of various -substances, with a little hole bored through them, were frequently -found under the huacas--probably talismans. The finest handiwork of -the Incas was undoubtedly in jewellery; but unfortunately most of the -examples of their work in this craft were melted down to assuage the -insatiable avarice of the Spanish conquerors, and are therefore for -ever lost to us. The spade and chisel employed in olden times by the -Peruvians are much the same as the people use now, but some of their -tools were clumsy. Their javelins, tomahawks, and other military -arms were very futile weapons. Some found near the mines of Pasco -were made of stone. - -The spinning, weaving, and dyeing of the Peruvians were unequalled in -aboriginal America, their cloths and tapestries being both graceful -in design and strong in texture. - -Stamps of bark or earthenware were employed to fix designs upon -their woollen stuffs, and feathers were added to the garments made -from these, the combination producing a gay effect much admired by -the Spaniards. The British Museum possesses some good specimens of -these manufactures. - - - -Pottery - -The Peruvians excelled in the potter's art. The pottery was baked -in a kiln, and was varied in colour, red, black, and grey being the -favourite shades. It was varnished outside, and the vases were moulded -in two pieces and joined before heating. Much of the work is of great -grace and elegance, and the shapes of animals were very skilfully -imitated. Many drinking-cups of elegant design have been discovered, -and some vases are of considerable size, measuring over three feet in -height. A simple geometric pattern is usually employed for decoration, -but sometimes rows of birds and insects figure in the ceramics. The -pottery of the coast people is more rich and varied than that of the -Inca race proper, and among its types we find vases moulded in the -form of human faces, many of them exhibiting so much character that -we are forced to conclude that they are veritable portraits. Fine -stone dishes are often found, as well as platters of wood, and -these frequently bear as ornament tasteful carvings representing -serpents. On several cups and vases are painted representations of -battles between the Inca forces and the savages of the eastern forests -using bows and arrows; below wander the animals of the forest region, -a brightly painted group. - -The Archæological Museum of Madrid gives a representation of very -varied kinds of Peruvian pottery, including some specimens modelled -upon a series of plants, interesting to botanists. The Louvre -collections have one or two interesting examples of earthenware, -as well as the Ethnographical Museum of St. Petersburg, and in all -these collections there are types which are believed to be peculiar -to the Old World. - -The Trocadero Museum has a very curious specimen with two necks -called the "Salvador." A drawing on the vase represents a man with -a tomahawk. The Peruvians, like the Mexicans, also made musical -instruments out of earthenware, and heavy ornaments, principally for -the ear. - - - -Historical Sketch of the Incan Peruvians - -The Inca dominion, as the Spaniards found it, was instituted only -about a century before the coming of the white man. Before that -time Inca sway held good over scattered portions of the country, -but had not extended over the entire territory which in later -times was connected with the Inca name. That it was founded on the -wreck of a more ancient power which once existed in the district -of Chinchay-suyu there can be little doubt. This power was wielded -over a space bounded by the lake of Chinchay-cocha on the north -and Abancay on the south, and extended to the Pacific at the valley -of Chincha. It was constituted by an alliance of tribes under the -leadership of the chief of Pucara, in the Huanca country. A branch of -this confederacy, the Chanca, pushing southward in a general movement, -encountered the Inca people of Colla-suyu, who, under their leader, -Pachacutic, a young but determined chieftain, defeated the invaders -in a decisive battle near Cuzco. In consequence of this defeat the -Chanca deserted their former allies and made common cause with their -victors. Together the armies made a determined attack on the Huanca -alliance, which they broke up, and conquered the northern districts -of the Chinchay-suyu. Thus Central Peru fell to the Inca arms. - - - -The Inca Monarchs - -Inca history, or rather tradition, as we must call it in the light -of an unparalleled lack of original documentary evidence, spoke -of a series of eleven monarchs from Manco Ccapac to Huaina Ccapac, -who died shortly before the Spanish conquest. These had reigned for a -collective period of nearly 350 years. The evidence that these chiefs -had reigned was of the best, for their mummified bodies were preserved -in the great Temple of the Sun at Cuzco, already described. There they -received the same daily service as when in the flesh. Their private -herds of llamas and slaves were still understood to belong to them, -and food and drink were placed before them at stated intervals. Clothes -were made for them, and they were carried about in palanquins as if for -daily exercise. The descendants of each at periodical intervals feasted -on the produce of their ancestor's private estate, and his mummy was -set in the centre of the diners and treated as the principal guest. - - - -The First Incas - -After Manco Ccapac and his immediate successor, Sinchi Roca (Wise -Chief), Lloque Yupanqui comes third in the series. He died while -his son was still a child. Concerning Mayta Ccapac, who commenced -his reign while yet a minor, but little is known. He was followed by -Ccapac Yupanqui, who defeated the Conti-suyu, who had grown alarmed at -the great power recently attained by Cuzco. The Inca and his men were -attacked whilst about to offer sacrifice. A second attempt to sack -Cuzco and divide its spoil and the women attached to the great Temple -of the Sun likewise ended in the total discomfiture of the jealous -invaders. With Inca Roca, the next Inca, a new dynasty commences, -but it is well-nigh impossible to trace the connection between it and -the preceding one. Of the origin of Inca Roca nothing is related save -that he claimed descent from Manco Ccapac. Roca, instead of waiting -to be attacked in his own dominions, boldly confronted the Conti-suyu -in their own territory, defeated them decisively at Pumatampu, and -compelled them to yield him tribute. His successor, Yahuarhuaccac, -initiated a similar campaign against the Colla-suyu people, against -whom he had the assistance of the conquered Conti-suyu. But at a -feast which he held in Cuzco before setting out he was attacked by -his allies, and fled to the Coricancha, or Golden Temple of the Sun, -for refuge, along with his wives. Resistance was unavailing, and the -Inca and many of his favourites were slaughtered. The allied tribes -which had overrun Central Peru now threatened Cuzco, and had they -advanced with promptitude the Inca dynasty would have been wiped out -and the city reduced to ruins. A strong man was at hand, however, -who was capable of dealing with the extremely dangerous situation -which had arisen. This was Viracocha, a chieftain chosen by the vote -of the assembled warriors of Cuzco. By a prudent conciliation of -the Conti-suyu and Colla-suyu he established a confederation which -not only put an end to all threats of invasion, but so menaced the -invaders that they were glad to return to their own territory and -place it in a suitable state of defence. - - - -Viracocha the Great - -With Viracocha the Great, or "Godlike," the period of true Inca -ascendancy commences. He was the real founder of the enlarged Inca -dominion. He was elected Inca on his personal merits, and during a -vigorous reign succeeded in making the influence of Cuzco felt in -the contiguous southern regions. In his old age he retired to his -country seats at Yucay and Xaquixahuana, and left the conduct of the -realm to his son and successor, Urco-Inca, a weak-minded voluptuary, -who neglected his royal duties, and was superseded by his younger -brother, Pachacutic, a famous character in Inca history. - - - -The Plain of Blood - -The commencement of Pachacutic's reign witnessed one of the -most sanguinary battles in the history of Peru. Hastu-huaraca, -chief of the Antahuayllas, in the Chanca country, invaded the Inca -territory, and encamped on the hills of Carmenca, which overlooks -Cuzco. Pachacutic held a parley with him, but all to no purpose, -for the powerful invader was determined to humble the Inca dynasty -to the dust. Battle was speedily joined. The first day's fight was -indecisive, but on the succeeding day Pachacutic won a great victory, -the larger part of the invading force being left dead on the field -of battle, and Hastu-huaraca retreating with five hundred followers -only. The battle of Yahuar-pampa (Plain of Blood) was the turning-point -in Peruvian history. The young Inca, formerly known as Yupanqui, was -now called Pachacutic (He who changes the World). The warriors of the -south made full submission to him, and came in crowds to offer him -their services and seek his alliance and friendship, and he shortly -found himself supreme in the territories over which his predecessors -had exercised merely a nominal control. - - - -The Conquest of Middle Peru - -Hastu-huaraca, who had been commissioned by the allied tribesmen of -Chinchay-suyu to reduce the Incas, now threw in his lot with them, -and together conqueror and conquered proceeded to the liberation of the -district of Chinchay-suyu from the tyranny of the Huanca alliance. The -reduction of the southern portion of that territory was speedily -accomplished. In the valley of Xauxa the invaders came upon the army -of the Huanca, on which they inflicted a final defeat. The Inca spared -and liberated the prisoners of war, who were numerous. Once more, -at Tarma, were the Huanca beaten, after which all resistance appears -to have been overcome. The city-state of Cuzco was now the dominant -power throughout the whole of Central Peru, a territory 300 miles in -length, whilst it exercised a kind of suzerainty over a district of -equal extent toward the south-east, which it shortly converted into -actual dominion. - - - -Fusion of Races - -This conquest of Central Peru led to the fusing of the Quichua-speaking -tribes on the left bank of the Apurimac with the Aymara-speaking -folk on the right bank, with the result that the more numerous -Quichua speedily gained linguistic ascendancy over their brethren the -Aymara. Subsequently to this the peoples of Southern and Central Peru, -led by Inca headmen, swept in a great wave of migration over Cerro de -Pasco, where they met with little or no resistance, and Pachacutic -lived to be lord over a dominion extending for a thousand miles to -the northward, and founder of a great Inca colony south of the equator -almost identical in outline with the republic of Ecuador. - - - -Two Branches of the Incas - -These conquests, or rather race-movements, split up the Inca -people into two separate portions, the respective centres of -which were well-nigh a thousand miles apart. The centre of the -northern district was at Tumipampa, Riopampa, and Quito at different -periods. The political separation of these areas was only a question of -time. Geographical conditions almost totally divided the two portions -of the empire, a sparsely populated stretch of country 400 miles in -extent lying between them (see map, p. 333.) - - - -The Laws of Pachacutic - -Pachacutic united to his fame as a warrior the reputation of a wise -and liberal ruler. He built the great Temple of the Sun at Cuzco, -probably on the site of a still older building, and established in -its walls the convent in which five hundred maidens were set apart -for the service of the god. He also, it is said, instituted the great -rite of the Ccapac-cocha, at which maize, cloth, llamas, and children -were sacrificed in honour of the sun-god. He devised a kind of census, -by which governors were compelled periodically to render an account -of the population under their rule. This statement was made by means -of quipos. Agriculture was his peculiar care, and he was stringent -in the enforcement of laws regarding the tilling of the soil, the -foundation and upkeep of stores and granaries, and the regulation -of labour in general. As an architect he took upon himself the task -of personally designing the principal buildings of the city of Cuzco, -which were rebuilt under his instructions and in accordance with models -moulded from clay by his own hands. He appears to have had a passion -for order, and to him we may be justified in tracing the rigorous and -almost grandmotherly system under which the Peruvians were living at -the time of the arrival of their Spanish conquerors. To Pachacutic, -too, is assigned the raising of the immense fortress of Sacsahuaman, -already described. He further instituted the order of knighthood known -as Auqui, or "Warrior," entrance to which was granted to suitable -applicants at the great feast of Ccapac Raymi, or Festival of the -Sun. He also named the succession of moons, and erected the pillars -on the hill of Carmenca by which the season of solstice was found. In -short, all law and order which had a place in the Peruvian social -economy were attributed to him, and we may designate him the Alfred -of his race. - - - -Tupac-Yupanqui - -Pachacutic's son, Tupac-Yupanqui, for some time before his father's -death acted as his lieutenant. His name signifies "Bright" or -"Shining." His activity extended to every portion of the Inca dominion, -the borders of which he enlarged, suppressing revolts, subjugating -tribes not wholly brought within the pale of Inca influence, and -generally completing the work so ably begun by his father. - - - -"The Gibbet" - -A spirit of cruelty and excess such as was unknown to Pachacutic -marked the military exploits of Tupac. In the valley of Huarco, near -the Pacific coast, for example, he was repulsed by the natives, who -were well supplied with food and stores of all sorts, and whose town -was well fortified and very strongly situated. Tupac constructed an -immense camp, or rather town, the outlines of which recalled those of -his capital of Cuzco, on a hill opposite the city, and here he calmly -sat down to watch the gradual starvation of the enemy. This siege -continued for three years, until the wretched defenders, driven to -despair through want of food, capitulated, relying on the assurance -of their conqueror that they should become a part of the Inca nation -and that their daughters should become the wives of Inca youths. The -submission of their chiefs having been made, Tupac ordered a general -massacre of the warriors and principal civilians. At the conquest the -Spaniards could still see the immense heaps of bones which littered -the spot where this heartless holocaust took place, and the name Huarco -(The Gibbet) became indissolubly associated with the district. - - - -Huaina Ccapac - -Tupac died in 1493, and was succeeded by his son Huaina Ccapac -(The Young Chief). Huaina was about twenty-two years of age at the -time of his father's death, and although the late Inca had named -Ccapac-Huari, his son by another wife, as his successor, the claims of -Huaina were recognised. His reign was peaceful, and was marked by wise -administrative improvements and engineering effort. At the same time -he was busily employed in holding the savage peoples who surrounded -his empire in check. He favoured the northern colony, and rebuilt -Tumipampa, but resided at Quito. Here he dwelt for some years with a -favourite son by a wife of the lower class, named Tupac-atau-huallpa -(The Sun makes Good Fortune). Huaina was the victim of an epidemic -raging in Peru at the time. He was greatly feared by his subjects, -and was the last Inca who held undisputed sway over the entire -dominion. Like Nezahualcoyotl in Mexico, he attempted to set up the -worship of one god in Peru, to the detriment of all other huacas, -or sacred beings. - - - -The Inca Civil War - -On the death of Huaina his two sons, Huascar and Atauhuallpa, [16] -strove for the crown. Before his demise Huaina had divided his dominion -between his two sons, but it was said that he had wrested Quito from -a certain chieftain whose daughter he had married, and by whom he had -Atauhuallpa, who was therefore rightful heir to that province. The -other son, Huascar, or Tupac-cusi-huallpa (The Sun makes Joy), was -born to his principal sister-wife--for, according to Inca custom, -the monarchs of Peru, like those of certain Egyptian dynasties, -filled with pride of race, and unwilling to mingle their blood with -that of plebeians, took spouses from among their sisters. This is the -story as given by many Spanish chroniclers, but it has no foundation -in fact. Atauhuallpa was in reality the son of a woman of the people, -and Huascar was not the son of Huaina's sister-wife, but of a wife of -less intimate relationship. Therefore both sons were on an equality as -regards descent. Huascar, however, was nearer the throne by virtue of -his mother's status, which was that of a royal princess, whereas the -mother of Atauhuallpa was not officially recognised. Huascar by his -excesses and his outrages on religion and public decency aroused the -people to revolt against his power, and Atauhuallpa, discerning his -opportunity in this émeute, made a determined attack on the royal -forces, and succeeded in driving them slowly back, until at last -Tumipampa was razed to the ground, and shortly afterwards the important -southerly fortress of Caxamarca fell into the hands of the rebels. - - - -A Dramatic Situation - -Atauhuallpa remained at Caxamarca, and despatched the bulk of his -forces into the enemy's country. These drove the warriors of Huascar -back until the upper courses of the Apurimac were reached. Huascar fled -from Cuzco, but was captured, and carried a prisoner with his mother, -wife, and children to Atauhuallpa. Not many days afterwards news -of the landing of the Spaniards was received by the rebel Inca. The -downfall of the Peruvian Empire was at hand. - - - -A Worthless Despotism - -If the blessings of a well-regulated government were dispensed -by the Incas, these benefits were assuredly counterbalanced by the -degrading despotism which accompanied them. The political organisation -of the Peruvian Empire was in every sense more complete than that -of Mexico. But in a state where individual effort and liberty are -entirely crushed even such an effective organisation as the Peruvian -can avail the people little, and is merely a device for the support -of a calculated tyranny. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VII: THE MYTHOLOGY OF PERU - - -The Religion of Ancient Peru - -The religion of the ancient Peruvians had obviously developed in a much -shorter time than that of the Mexicans. The more ancient character -inherent in it was displayed in the presence of deities many of -which were little better than mere totems, and although a definite -monotheism or worship of one god appears to have been reached, it -was not by the efforts of the priestly caste that this was achieved, -but rather by the will of the Inca Pachacutic, who seems to have been -a monarch gifted with rare insight and ability--a man much after the -type of the Mexican Nezahualcoyotl. - -In Inca times the religion of the people was solely directed by the -state, and regulated in such a manner that independent theological -thought was permitted no outlet. But it must not be inferred from this -that no change had ever come over the spirit of Peruvian religion. As -a matter of fact sweeping changes had been effected, but these had been -solely the work of the Inca race, the leaders of which had amalgamated -the various faiths of the peoples whom they had conquered into one -official belief. - - - -Totemism - -Garcilasso el Inca de la Vega, an early Spanish writer on matters -Peruvian, states that tradition ran that in ante-Inca times every -district, family, and village possessed its own god, each different -from the others. These gods were usually such objects as trees, -mountains, flowers, herbs, caves, large stones, pieces of jasper, -and animals. The jaguar, puma, and bear were worshipped for their -strength and fierceness, the monkey and fox for their cunning, the -condor for its size and because several tribes believed themselves to -be descended from it. The screech-owl was worshipped for its beauty, -and the common owl for its power of seeing in the dark. Serpents, -particularly the larger and more dangerous varieties, were especially -regarded with reverence. - -Although Payne classes all these gods together as totems, it is plain -that those of the first class--the flowers, herbs, caves, and pieces -of jasper--are merely fetishes. A fetish is an object in which the -savage believes to be resident a spirit which, by its magic, will -assist him in his undertakings. A totem is an object or an animal, -usually the latter, with which the people of a tribe believe themselves -to be connected by ties of blood and from which they are descended. It -later becomes the type or symbol of the tribe. - - - -Paccariscas - -Lakes, springs, rocks, mountains, precipices, and caves were all -regarded by the various Peruvian tribes as paccariscas--places -whence their ancestors had originally issued to the upper world. The -paccarisca was usually saluted with the cry, "Thou art my birthplace, -thou art my life-spring. Guard me from evil, O Paccarisca!" In the -holy spot a spirit was supposed to dwell which served the tribe as a -kind of oracle. Naturally the paccarisca was looked upon with extreme -reverence. It became, indeed, a sort of life-centre for the tribe, -from which they were very unwilling to be separated. - - - -Worship of Stones - -The worship of stones appears to have been almost as universal in -ancient Peru as it was in ancient Palestine. Man in his primitive -state believes stones to be the framework of the earth, its -bony structure. He considers himself to have emerged from some -cave--in fact, from the entrails of the earth. Nearly all American -creation-myths regard man as thus emanating from the bowels of the -great terrestrial mother. Rocks which were thus chosen as paccariscas -are found, among many other places, at Callca, in the valley of the -Yucay, and at Titicaca there is a great mass of red sandstone on -the top of a high ridge with almost inaccessible slopes and dark, -gloomy recesses where the sun was thought to have hidden himself at -the time of the great deluge which covered all the earth. The rock -of Titicaca was, in fact, the great paccarisca of the sun itself. - -We are thus not surprised to find that many standing stones were -worshipped in Peru in aboriginal times. Thus Arriaga states that rocks -of great size which bore some resemblance to the human figure were -imagined to have been at one time gigantic men or spirits who, because -they disobeyed the creative power, were turned into stone. According -to another account they were said to have suffered this punishment for -refusing to listen to the words of Thonapa, the son of the creator, -who, like Quetzalcoatl or Manco Ccapac, had taken upon himself the -guise of a wandering Indian, so that he might have an opportunity of -bringing the arts of civilisation to the aborigines. At Tiahuanaco -a certain group of stones was said to represent all that remained of -the villagers of that place, who, instead of paying fitting attention -to the wise counsel which Thonapa the Civiliser bestowed upon them, -continued to dance and drink in scorn of the teachings he had brought -to them. - -Again, some stones were said to have become men, as in the old Greek -creation-legend of Deucalion and Pyrrha. In the legend of Ccapac Inca -Pachacutic, when Cuzco was attacked in force by the Chancas an Indian -erected stones to which he attached shields and weapons so that they -should appear to represent so many warriors in hiding. Pachacutic, -in great need of assistance, cried to them with such vehemence to come -to his help that they became men, and rendered him splendid service. - - - -Huacas - -Whatever was sacred, of sacred origin, or of the nature of a relic -the Peruvians designated a huaca, from the root huacan, to howl, -native worship invariably taking the form of a kind of howl, or -weird, dirge-like wailing. All objects of reverence were known as -huacas, although those of a higher class were also alluded to as -viracochas. The Peruvians had, naturally, many forms of huaca, the -most popular of which were those of the fetish class which could be -carried about by the individual. These were usually stones or pebbles, -many of which were carved and painted, and some made to represent -human beings. The llama and the ear of maize were perhaps the most -usual forms of these sacred objects. Some of them had an agricultural -significance. In order that irrigation might proceed favourably a huaca -was placed at intervals in proximity to the acequias, or irrigation -canals, which was supposed to prevent them leaking or otherwise failing -to supply a sufficiency of moisture to the parched maize-fields. Huacas -of this sort were known as ccompas, and were regarded as deities of -great importance, as the food-supply of the community was thought to -be wholly dependent upon their assistance. Other huacas of a similar -kind were called chichics and huancas, and these presided over the -fortunes of the maize, and ensured that a sufficient supply of rain -should be forthcoming. Great numbers of these agricultural fetishes -were destroyed by the zealous commissary Hernandez de Avendaño. - - - -The Mamas - -Spirits which were supposed to be instrumental in forcing the growth of -the maize or other plants were the mamas. We find a similar conception -among many Brazilian tribes to-day, so that the idea appears to have -been a widely accepted one in South American countries. The Peruvians -called such agencies "mothers," adding to the generic name that of -the plant or herb with which they were specially associated. Thus -acsumama was the potato-mother, quinuamama the quinua-mother, saramama -the maize-mother, and cocamama the mother of the coca-shrub. Of these -the saramama was naturally the most important, governing as it did -the principal source of the food-supply of the community. Sometimes -an image of the saramama was carved in stone, in the shape of an ear -of maize. The saramama was also worshipped in the form of a doll, -or huantaysara, made out of stalks of maize, renewed at each harvest, -much as the idols of the great corn-mother of Mexico were manufactured -at each harvest-season. After having been made, the image was watched -over for three nights, and then sacrifice was done to it. The priest -or medicine-man of the tribe would then inquire of it whether or not -it was capable of existing until that time in the next year. If its -spirit replied in the affirmative it was permitted to remain where -it was until the following harvest. If not it was removed, burnt, -and another figure took its place, to which similar questions were put. - - - -The Huamantantac - -Connected with agriculture in some degree was the Huamantantac (He -who causes the Cormorants to gather themselves together). This was -the agency responsible for the gathering of sea-birds, resulting in -the deposits of guano to be found along the Peruvian coast which are -so valuable in the cultivation of the maize-plant. He was regarded as -a most beneficent spirit, and was sacrificed to with exceeding fervour. - - - -Huaris - -The huaris, or "great ones," were the ancestors of the aristocrats of -a tribe, and were regarded as specially favourable toward agricultural -effort, possibly because the land had at one time belonged to them -personally. They were sometimes alluded to as the "gods of strength," -and were sacrificed to by libations of chicha. Ancestors in general -were deeply revered, and had an agricultural significance, in that -considerable tracts of land were tilled in order that they might be -supplied with suitable food and drink offerings. As the number of -ancestors increased more and more land was brought into cultivation, -and the hapless people had their toil added to immeasurably by these -constant demands upon them. - - - -Huillcas - -The huillcas were huacas which partook of the nature of oracles. Many -of these were serpents, trees, and rivers, the noises made by -which appeared to the primitive Peruvians--as, indeed, they do to -primitive folk all over the world--to be of the quality of articulate -speech. Both the Huillcamayu and the Apurimac rivers at Cuzco were -huillca oracles of this kind, as their names, "Huillca-river" and -"Great Speaker," denote. These oracles often set the mandate of the -Inca himself at defiance, occasionally supporting popular opinion -against his policy. - - - -The Oracles of the Andes - -The Peruvian Indians of the Andes range within recent generations -continued to adhere to the superstitions they had inherited from their -fathers. A rare and interesting account of these says that they "admit -an evil being, the inhabitant of the centre of the earth, whom they -consider as the author of their misfortunes, and at the mention of -whose name they tremble. The most shrewd among them take advantage -of this belief to obtain respect, and represent themselves as his -delegates. Under the denomination of mohanes, or agoreros, they are -consulted even on the most trivial occasions. They preside over the -intrigues of love, the health of the community, and the taking of -the field. Whatever repeatedly occurs to defeat their prognostics, -falls on themselves; and they are wont to pay for their deceptions -very dearly. They chew a species of vegetable called piripiri, and -throw it into the air, accompanying this act by certain recitals -and incantations, to injure some, to benefit others, to procure rain -and the inundation of the rivers, or, on the other hand, to occasion -settled weather, and a plentiful store of agricultural productions. Any -such result, having been casually verified on a single occasion, -suffices to confirm the Indians in their faith, although they may -have been cheated a thousand times. Fully persuaded that they cannot -resist the influence of the piripiri, as soon as they know that -they have been solicited in love by its means, they fix their eyes -on the impassioned object, and discover a thousand amiable traits, -either real or fanciful, which indifference had before concealed from -their view. But the principal power, efficacy, and it may be said -misfortune of the mohanes consist in the cure of the sick. Every -malady is ascribed to their enchantments, and means are instantly -taken to ascertain by whom the mischief may have been wrought. For -this purpose, the nearest relative takes a quantity of the juice of -floripondium, and suddenly falls intoxicated by the violence of the -plant. He is placed in a fit posture to prevent suffocation, and -on his coming to himself, at the end of three days, the mohane who -has the greatest resemblance to the sorcerer he saw in his visions -is to undertake the cure, or if, in the interim, the sick man has -perished, it is customary to subject him to the same fate. When not -any sorcerer occurs in the visions, the first mohane they encounter -has the misfortune to represent his image." [17] - - - -Lake-Worship in Peru - -At Lake Titicaca the Peruvians believed the inhabitants of the earth, -animals as well as men, to have been fashioned by the creator, -and the district was thus sacrosanct in their eyes. The people of -the Collao called it Mamacota (Mother-water), because it furnished -them with supplies of food. Two great idols were connected with this -worship. One called Copacahuana was made of a bluish-green stone -shaped like a fish with a human head, and was placed in a commanding -position on the shores of the lake. On the arrival of the Spaniards -so deeply rooted was the worship of this goddess that they could only -suppress it by raising an image of the Virgin in place of the idol. The -Christian emblem remains to this day. Mamacota was venerated as the -giver of fish, with which the lake abounded. The other image, Copacati -(Serpent-stone), represented the element of water as embodied in the -lake itself in the form of an image wreathed in serpents, which in -America are nearly always symbolical of water. - - - -The Lost Island - -A strange legend is recounted of this lake-goddess. She was chiefly -worshipped as the giver of rain, but Huaina Ccapac, who had modern -ideas and journeyed through the country casting down huacas, had -determined to raise on an island of Lake Titicaca a temple to Yatiri -(The Ruler), the Aymara name of the god Pachacamac in his form of -Pachayachachic. He commenced by raising the new shrine on the island of -Titicaca itself. But the deity when called upon refused to vouchsafe -any reply to his worshippers or priests. Huaina then commanded that -the shrine should be transferred to the island of Apinguela. But the -same thing happened there. He then inaugurated a temple on the island -of Paapiti, and lavished upon it many sacrifices of llamas, children, -and precious metals. But the offended tutelary goddess of the lake, -irritated beyond endurance by this invasion of her ancient domain, -lashed the watery waste into such a frenzy of storm that the island -and the shrine which covered it disappeared beneath the waves and -were never thereafter beheld by mortal eye. - - - -The Thunder-God of Peru - -The rain-and-thunder god of Peru was worshipped in various parts -of the country under various names. Among the Collao he was known -as Con, and in that part of the Inca dominions now known as Bolivia -he was called Churoquella. Near the cordilleras of the coast he was -probably known as Pariacaca, who expelled the huaca of the district -by dreadful tempests, hurling rain and hail at him for three days and -nights in such quantities as to form the great lake of Pariacaca. Burnt -llamas were offered to him. But the Incas, discontented with this local -worship, which by no means suited their system of central government, -determined to create one thunder-deity to whom all the tribes in the -empire must bow as the only god of his class. We are not aware what -his name was, but we know from mythological evidence that he was -a mixture of all the other gods of thunder in the Peruvian Empire, -first because he invariably occupied the third place in the triad -of greater deities, the creator, sun, and thunder, all of whom were -more or less amalgamations of provincial and metropolitan gods, and -secondly because a great image of him was erected in the Coricancha at -Cuzco, in which he was represented in human form, wearing a headdress -which concealed his face, symbolic of the clouds, which ever veil the -thunder-god's head. He had a special temple of his own, moreover, and -was assigned a share in the sacred lands by the Inca Pachacutic. He was -accompanied by a figure of his sister, who carried jars of water. An -unknown Quichuan poet composed on the myth the following graceful -little poem, which was translated by the late Daniel Garrison Brinton, -an enthusiastic Americanist and professor of American archæology in -the University of Pennsylvania: - - - Bounteous Princess, - Lo, thy brother - Breaks thy vessel - Now in fragments. - From the blow come - Thunder, lightning, - Strokes of lightning; - And thou, Princess, - Tak'st the water, - With it rainest, - And the hail or - Snow dispensest, - Viracocha, - World-constructor. - - -It will be observed that the translator here employs the name Viracocha -as if it were that of the deity. But it was merely a general expression -in use for a more than usually sacred being. Brinton, commenting upon -the legend, says: "In this pretty waif that has floated down to us -from the wreck of a literature now for ever lost there is more than -one point to attract the notice of the antiquary. He may find in it -a hint to decipher those names of divinities so common in Peruvian -legends, Contici and Illatici. Both mean 'the Thunder Vase,' and both -doubtless refer to the conception here displayed of the phenomena -of the thunderstorm." Alluding to Peruvian thunder-myth elsewhere, -he says in an illuminating passage: "Throughout the realms of the -Incas the Peruvians venerated as maker of all things and ruler of the -firmament the god Ataguju. The legend was that from him proceeded -the first of mortals, the man Guamansuri, who descended to the -earth and there wedded the sister of certain Guachimines, rayless -ones or Darklings, who then possessed it. They destroyed him, but -their sister gave birth to twin sons, Apocatequil and Piguerao. The -former was the more powerful. By touching the corpse of his mother -he brought her to life, he drove off and slew the Guachimines, and, -directed by Ataguju, released the race of Indians from the soil by -turning it up with a spade of gold. For this reason they adored him -as their maker. He it was, they thought, who produced the thunder and -the lightning by hurling stones with his sling. And the thunderbolts -that fall, said they, are his children. Few villages were willing -to be without one or more of these. They were in appearance small, -round stones, but had the admirable properties of securing fertility -to the fields, protecting from lightning, and, by a transition easy -to understand, were also adored as gods of fire as well material as -of the passions, and were capable of kindling the dangerous flames -of desire in the most frigid bosoms. Therefore they were in great -esteem as love-charms. Apocatequil's statue was erected on the -mountains, with that of his mother on one hand and his brother on -the other. 'He was Prince of Evil, and the most respected god of the -Peruvians. From Quito to Cuzco not an Indian but would give all he -possessed to conciliate him. Five priests, two stewards, and a crowd -of slaves served his image. And his chief temple was surrounded by a -very considerable village, whose inhabitants had no other occupation -but to wait on him.'" In memory of these brothers twins in Peru were -always deemed sacred to the lightning. - -There is an instance on record of how the huillca could refuse on -occasion to recognise even royalty itself. Manco, the Inca who had -been given the kingly power by Pizarro, offered a sacrifice to one of -these oracular shrines. The oracle refused to recognise him, through -the medium of its guardian priest, stating that Manco was not the -rightful Inca. Manco therefore caused the oracle, which was in the -shape of a rock, to be thrown down, whereupon its guardian spirit -emerged in the form of a parrot and flew away. It is probable that -the bird thus liberated had been taught by the priests to answer -to the questions of those who came to consult the shrine. But we -learn that on Manco commanding that the parrot should be pursued it -sought another rock, which opened to receive it, and the spirit of -the huillca was transferred to this new abode. - - - -The Great God Pachacamac - -Later Peruvian mythology recognised only three gods of the first -rank, the earth, the thunder, and the creative agency. Pachacamac, -the great spirit of earth, derived his name from a word pacha, which -may be best translated as "things." In its sense of visible things it -is equivalent to "world," applied to things which happen in succession -it denotes "time," and to things connected with persons "property," -especially clothes. The world of visible things is thus Mamapacha -(Earth-Mother), under which name the ancient Peruvians worshipped -the earth. Pachacamac, on the other hand, is not the earth itself, -the soil, but the spirit which animates all things that emerge -therefrom. From him proceed the spirits of the plants and animals -which come from the earth. Pachamama is the mother-spirit of the -mountains, rocks, and plains, Pachacamac the father-spirit of the -grain-bearing plants, animals, birds, and man. In some localities -Pachacamac and Pachamama were worshipped as divine mates. Possibly -this practice was universal in early times, gradually lapsing into -desuetude in later days. Pachamama was in another phase intended to -denote the land immediately contiguous to a settlement, on which the -inhabitants depended for their food-supply. - - - -Peruvian Creation-Stories - -It is easy to see how such a conception as Pachacamac, the spirit -of animated nature, would become one with the idea of a universal or -even a partial creator. That there was a pre-existing conception of a -creative agency can be proved from the existence of the Peruvian name -Conticsi-viracocha (He who gives Origin, or Beginning). This conception -and that of Pachacamac must at some comparatively early period have -clashed, and been amalgamated probably with ease when it was seen how -nearly akin were the two ideas. Indeed, Pachacamac was alternatively -known as Pacharurac, the "maker" of all things--sure proof of his -amalgamation with the conception of the creative agency. As such he -had his symbol in the great Coricancha at Cuzco, an oval plate of gold, -suspended between those of the sun and the moon, and placed vertically, -it may be hazarded with some probability, to represent in symbol that -universal matrix from which emanated all things. Elsewhere in Cuzco -the creator was represented by a stone statue in human form. - - - -Pachayachachic - -In later Inca days this idea of a creator assumed that of a direct -ruler of the universe, known as Pachayachachic. This change was -probably due to the influence of the Inca Pachacutic, who is known to -have made several other doctrinal innovations in Peruvian theology. He -commanded a great new temple to the creator-god to be built at the -north angle of the city of Cuzco, in which he placed a statue of -pure gold, of the size of a boy of ten years of age. The small size -was to facilitate its removal, as Peruvian worship was nearly always -carried out in the open air. In form it represented a man with his -right arm elevated, the hand partially closed and the forefinger -and thumb raised, as if in the act of uttering the creative word. To -this god large possessions and revenues were assigned, for previously -service rendered to him had been voluntary only. - - - -Ideas of Creation - -It is from aboriginal sources as preserved by the first Spanish -colonists that we glean our knowledge of what the Incas believed the -creative process to consist. By means of his word (ñisca) the creator, -a spirit, powerful and opulent, made all things. We are provided with -the formulæ of his very words by the Peruvian prayers still extant: -"Let earth and heaven be," "Let a man be; let a woman be," "Let there -be day," "Let there be night," "Let the light shine." The sun is here -regarded as the creative agency, and the ruling caste as the objects -of a special act of creation. - - - -Pacari Tampu - -Pacari Tampu (House of the Dawn) was the place of origin, according to -the later Inca theology, of four brothers and sisters who initiated the -four Peruvian systems of worship. The eldest climbed a neighbouring -mountain, and cast stones to the four points of the compass, thus -indicating that he claimed all the land within sight. But his youngest -brother succeeded in enticing him into a cave, which he sealed up with -a great stone, thus imprisoning him for ever. He next persuaded his -second brother to ascend a lofty mountain, from which he cast him, -changing him into a stone in his descent. On beholding the fate of -his brethren the third member of the quartette fled. It is obvious -that we have here a legend concocted by the later Inca priesthood -to account for the evolution of Peruvian religion in its different -stages. The first brother would appear to represent the oldest religion -in Peru, that of the paccariscas, the second that of a fetishistic -stone-worship, the third perhaps that of Viracocha, and the last -sun-worship pure and simple. There was, however, an "official" legend, -which stated that the sun had three sons, Viracocha, Pachacamac, and -Manco Ccapac. To the last the dominion of mankind was given, whilst -the others were concerned with the workings of the universe. This -politic arrangement placed all the power, temporal and spiritual, -in the hands of the reputed descendants of Manco Ccapac--the Incas. - - - -Worship of the Sea - -The ancient Peruvians worshipped the sea as well as the earth, the -folk inland regarding it as a menacing deity, whilst the people of the -coast reverenced it as a god of benevolence, calling it Mama-cocha, -or Mother-sea, as it yielded them subsistence in the form of fish, -on which they chiefly lived. They worshipped the whale, fairly common -on that coast, because of its enormous size, and various districts -regarded with adoration the species of fish most abundant there. This -worship can have partaken in no sense of the nature of totemism, -as the system forbade that the totem animal should be eaten. It was -imagined that the prototype of each variety of fish dwelt in the upper -world, just as many tribes of North American Indians believe that the -eponymous ancestors of certain animals dwell at the four points of the -compass or in the sky above them. This great fish-god engendered the -others of his species, and sent them into the waters of the deep that -they might exist there until taken for the use of man. Birds, too, had -their eponymous counterparts among the stars, as had animals. Indeed, -among many of the South American races, ancient and modern, the -constellations were called after certain beasts and birds. - - - -Viracocha - -The Aymara-Quichua race worshipped Viracocha as a great culture -hero. They did not offer him sacrifices or tribute, as they thought -that he, being creator and possessor of all things, needed nothing -from men, so they only gave him worship. After him they idolised the -sun. They believed, indeed, that Viracocha had made both sun and moon, -after emerging from Lake Titicaca, and that then he made the earth and -peopled it. On his travels westward from the lake he was sometimes -assailed by men, but he revenged himself by sending terrible storms -upon them and destroying their property, so they humbled themselves -and acknowledged him as their lord. He forgave them and taught them -everything, obtaining from them the name of Pachayachachic. In the -end he disappeared in the western ocean. He either created or there -were born with him four beings who, according to mythical beliefs, -civilised Peru. To them he assigned the four quarters of the earth, -and they are thus known as the four winds, north, south, east, and -west. One legend avers they came from the cave Pacari, the Lodging -of the Dawn. - - - -Sun-Worship in Peru - -The name "Inca" means "People of the Sun," which luminary the -Incas regarded as their creator. But they did not worship him -totemically--that is, they did not claim him as a progenitor, although -they regarded him as possessing the attributes of a man. And here we -may observe a difference between Mexican and Peruvian sun-worship. For -whereas the Nahua primarily regarded the orb as the abode of the -Man of the Sun, who came to earth in the shape of Quetzalcoatl, -the Peruvians looked upon the sun itself as the deity. The Inca -race did not identify their ancestors as children of the sun until -a comparatively late date. Sun-worship was introduced by the Inca -Pachacutic, who averred that the sun appeared to him in a dream -and addressed him as his child. Until that time the worship of the -sun had always been strictly subordinated to that of the creator, -and the deity appeared only as second in the trinity of creator, -sun, and thunder. But permanent provision was made for sacrifices -to the sun before the other deities were so recognised, and as the -conquests of the Incas grew wider and that provision extended to -the new territories they came to be known as "the Lands of the Sun," -the natives observing the dedication of a part of the country to the -luminary, and concluding therefrom that it applied to the whole. The -material reality of the sun would enormously assist his cult among a -people who were too barbarous to appreciate an unseen god, and this -colonial conception reacting upon the mother-land would undoubtedly -inspire the military class with a resolve to strengthen a worship so -popular in the conquered provinces, and of which they were in great -measure the protagonists and missionaries. - - - -The Sun's Possessions - -In every Peruvian village the sun had considerable possessions. His -estates resembled those of a territorial chieftain, and consisted of -a dwelling-house, a chacra, or portion of land, flocks of llamas and -pacos, and a number of women dedicated to his service. The cultivation -of the soil within the solar enclosure devolved upon the inhabitants -of the neighbouring village, the produce of their toil being stored -in the inti-huasi, or sun's house. The Women of the Sun prepared the -daily food and drink of the luminary, which consisted of maize and -chicha. They also spun wool and wove it into fine stuff, which was -burned in order that it might ascend to the celestial regions, where -the deity could make use of it. Each village reserved a portion of -its solar produce for the great festival at Cuzco, and it was carried -thither on the backs of llamas which were destined for sacrifice. - - - -Inca Occupation of Titicaca - -The Rock of Titicaca, the renowned place of the sun's origin, naturally -became an important centre of his worship. The date at which the -worship of the sun originated at this famous rock is extremely remote, -but we may safely assume that it was long before the conquest of -the Collao by the Apu-Ccapac-Inca Pachacutic, and that reverence for -the luminary as a war-god by the Colla chiefs was noticed by Tupac, -who in suppressing the revolt concluded that the local observance at -the rock had some relationship to the disturbance. It is, however, -certain that Tupac proceeded after the reconquest to establish at -this natural centre of sun-worship solar rites on a new basis, with -the evident intention of securing on behalf of the Incas of Cuzco such -exclusive benefit as might accrue from the complete possession of the -sun's paccarisca. According to a native account, a venerable colla -(or hermit), consecrated to the service of the sun, had proceeded -on foot from Titicaca to Cuzco for the purpose of commending this -ancient seat of sun-worship to the notice of Tupac. The consequence -was that Apu-Ccapac-Inca, after visiting the island and inquiring -into the ancient local customs, re-established them in a more regular -form. His accounts can hardly be accepted in face of the facts which -have been gathered. Rather did it naturally follow that Titicaca -became subservient to Tupac after the revolt of the Collao had been -quelled. Henceforth the worship of the sun at the place of his origin -was entrusted to Incas resident in the place, and was celebrated -with Inca rites. The island was converted into a solar estate and -the aboriginal inhabitants removed. The land was cultivated and the -slopes of the hills levelled, maize was sown and the soil consecrated, -the grain being regarded as the gift of the sun. This work produced -considerable change in the island. Where once was waste and idleness -there was now fertility and industry. The harvests were skilfully -apportioned, so much being reserved for sacrificial purposes, the -remainder being sent to Cuzco, partly to be sown in the chacras, -or estates of the sun, throughout Peru, partly to be preserved in -the granary of the Inca and the huacas as a symbol that there would -be abundant crops in the future and that the grain already stored -would be preserved. A building of the Women of the Sun was erected -about a mile from the rock, so that the produce might be available -for sacrifices. For their maintenance, tribute of potatoes, ocas, and -quinua was levied upon the inhabitants of the villages on the shores -of the lake, and of maize upon the people of the neighbouring valleys. - - - -Pilgrimages to Titicaca - -Titicaca at the time of the conquest was probably more frequented -than Pachacamac itself. These two places were held to be the -cardinal shrines of the two great huacas, the creator and the sun -respectively. A special reason for pilgrimage to Titicaca was to -sacrifice to the sun, as the source of physical energy and the giver -of long life; and he was especially worshipped by the aged, who -believed he had preserved their lives, Then followed the migration -of pilgrims to Titicaca, for whose shelter houses were built at -Capacahuana, and large stores of maize were provided for their use. The -ceremonial connected with the sacred rites of the rock was rigorously -observed. The pilgrim ere embarking on the raft which conveyed him -to the island must first confess his sins to a huillac (a speaker -to an object of worship); then further confessions were required -at each of the three sculptured doors which had successively to be -passed before reaching the sacred rock. The first door (Puma-puncu) -was surmounted by the figure of a puma; the others (Quenti-puncu and -Pillco-puncu) were ornamented with feathers of the different species of -birds commonly sacrificed to the sun. Having passed the last portal, -the traveller beheld at a distance of two hundred paces the sacred -rock itself, the summit glittering with gold-leaf. He was permitted -to proceed no further, for only the officials were allowed entry into -it. The pilgrim on departing received a few grains of the sacred maize -grown on the island. These he kept with care and placed with his own -store, believing they would preserve his stock, The confidence the -Indian placed in the virtue of the Titicaca maize may be judged from -the prevalent belief that the possessor of a single grain would not -suffer from starvation during the whole of his life. - - - -Sacrifices to the New Sun - -The Intip-Raymi, or Great Festival of the Sun, was celebrated by -the Incas at Cuzco at the winter solstice. In connection with it -the Tarpuntaita-cuma, or sacrificing Incas, were charged with a -remarkable duty, the worshippers journeying eastward to meet one of -these functionaries on his way. On the principal hill-tops between -Cuzco and Huillcanuta, on the road to the rock of Titicaca, burnt -offerings of llamas, coca, and maize were made at the feast to greet -the arrival of the young sun from his ancient birthplace. Molina -has enumerated more than twenty of these places of sacrifice. The -striking picture of the celebration of the solar sacrifice on these -bleak mountains in the depth of the Peruvian winter has, it seems, -no parallel in the religious rites of the ancient Americans. Quitting -their thatched houses at early dawn, the worshippers left the valley -below, carrying the sacrificial knife and brazier, and conducting -the white llama, heavily laden with fuel, maize, and coca leaves, -wrapped in fine cloth, to the spot where the sacrifice was to be -made. When sunrise appeared the pile was lighted. The victim was slain -and thrown upon it. The scene then presented a striking contrast to -the bleak surrounding wilderness. As the flames grew in strength and -the smoke rose higher and thicker the clear atmosphere was gradually -illuminated from the east. When the sun advanced above the horizon the -sacrifice was at its height. But for the crackling of the flames and -the murmur of a babbling stream on its way down the hill to join the -river below, the silence had hitherto been unbroken. As the sun rose -the Incas marched slowly round the burning mass, plucking the wool -from the scorched carcase, and chanting monotonously: "O Creator, -Sun and Thunder, be for ever young! Multiply the people; let them -ever be in peace!" - - - -The Citoc Raymi - -The most picturesque if not the most important solar festival was -that of the Citoc Raymi (Gradually Increasing Sun), held in June, -when nine days were given up to the ceremonial. A rigorous fast was -observed for three days previous to the event, during which no fire -must be kindled. On the fourth day the Inca, accompanied by the people -en masse, proceeded to the great square of Cuzco to hail the rising -sun, which they awaited in silence. On its appearance they greeted -it with a joyous tumult, and, joining in procession, marched to the -Golden Temple of the Sun, where llamas were sacrificed, and a new -fire was kindled by means of an arched mirror, followed by sacrificial -offerings of grain, flowers, animals, and aromatic gums. This festival -may be taken as typical of all the seasonal celebrations. The Inca -calendar was purely agricultural in its basis, and marked in its great -festivals the renewal or abandonment of the labours of the field. Its -astronomical observations were not more advanced than those of the -calendars of many American races otherwise inferior in civilisation. - - - -Human Sacrifice in Peru - -Writers ignorant of their subject have often dwelt upon the absence -of human sacrifice in ancient Peru, and have not hesitated to -draw comparisons between Mexico and the empire of the Incas in this -respect, usually not complimentary to the former. Such statements are -contradicted by the clearest evidence. Human sacrifice was certainly -not nearly so prevalent in Peru, but that it was regular and by no -means rare is well authenticated. Female victims to the sun were -taken from the great class of Acllacuna (Selected Ones), a general -tribute of female children regularly levied throughout the Inca -Empire. Beautiful girls were taken from their parents at the age of -eight by the Inca officials, and were handed over to certain female -trainers called mamacuna (mothers). These matrons systematically -trained their protégées in housewifery and ritual. Residences or -convents called aclla-huasi (houses of the Selected) were provided -for them in the principal cities. - - - -Methods of Medicine-Men - -A quaint account of the methods of the medicine-men of the Indians -of the Peruvian Andes probably illustrates the manner in which the -superstitions of a barbarian people evolve into a more stately ritual. - -"It cannot be denied," it states, "that the mohanes [priests] have, -by practice and tradition, acquired a knowledge of many plants and -poisons, with which they effect surprising cures on the one hand, -and do much mischief on the other, but the mania of ascribing the -whole to a preternatural virtue occasions them to blend with their -practice a thousand charms and superstitions. The most customary -method of cure is to place two hammocks close to each other, either -in the dwelling, or in the open air: in one of them the patient -lies extended, and in the other the mohane, or agorero. The latter, -in contact with the sick man, begins by rocking himself, and then -proceeds, by a strain in falsetto, to call on the birds, quadrupeds, -and fishes to give health to the patient. From time to time he rises -on his seat, and makes a thousand extravagant gestures over the sick -man, to whom he applies his powders and herbs, or sucks the wounded -or diseased parts. If the malady augments, the agorero, having been -joined by many of the people, chants a short hymn, addressed to the -soul of the patient, with this burden: 'Thou must not go, thou must -not go.' In repeating this he is joined by the people, until at length -a terrible clamour is raised, and augmented in proportion as the sick -man becomes still fainter and fainter, to the end that it may reach -his ears. When all the charms are unavailing, and death approaches, -the mohane leaps from his hammock, and betakes himself to flight, amid -the multitude of sticks, stones, and clods of earth which are showered -on him. Successively all those who belong to the nation assemble, -and, dividing themselves into bands, each of them (if he who is in -his last agonies is a warrior) approaches him, saying: 'Whither goest -thou? Why dost thou leave us? With whom shall we proceed to the aucas -[the enemies]?' They then relate to him the heroical deeds he has -performed, the number of those he has slain, and the pleasures he -leaves behind him. This is practised in different tones: while some -raise the voice, it is lowered by others; and the poor sick man is -obliged to support these importunities without a murmur, until the -first symptoms of approaching dissolution manifest themselves. Then -it is that he is surrounded by a multitude of females, some of whom -forcibly close the mouth and eyes, others envelop him in the hammock, -oppressing him with the whole of their weight, and causing him to -expire before his time, and others, lastly, run to extinguish the -candle, and dissipate the smoke, that the soul, not being able to -perceive the hole through which it may escape, may remain entangled -in the structure of the roof. That this may be speedily effected, and -to prevent its return to the interior of the dwelling, they surround -the entrances with filth, by the stench of which it may be expelled. - - - -Death by Suffocation - -"As soon as the dying man is suffocated by the closing of the mouth, -nostrils, &c., and wrapt up in the covering of his bed, the most -circumspect Indian, whether male or female, takes him in the arms in -the best manner possible, and gives a gentle shriek, which echoes to -the bitter lamentations of the immediate relatives, and to the cries of -a thousand old women collected for the occasion. As long as this dismal -howl subsists, the latter are subjected to a constant fatigue, raising -the palm of the hand to wipe away the tears, and lowering it to dry it -on the ground. The result of this alternate action is, that a circle -of earth, which gives them a most hideous appearance, is collected -about the eyelids and brows, and they do not wash themselves until -the mourning is over. These first clamours conclude by several good -pots of masato, to assuage the thirst of sorrow, and the company next -proceed to make a great clatter among the utensils of the deceased: -some break the kettles, and others the earthen pots, while others, -again, burn the apparel, to the end that his memory may be the sooner -forgotten. If the defunct has been a cacique, or powerful warrior, his -exequies are performed after the manner of the Romans: they last for -many days, all the people weeping in concert for a considerable space -of time, at daybreak, at noon, in the evening, and at midnight. When -the appointed hour arrives, the mournful music begins in front of the -house of the wife and relatives, the heroical deeds of the deceased -being chanted to the sound of instruments. All the inhabitants of -the vicinity unite in chorus from within their houses, some chirping -like birds, others howling like tigers, and the greater part of them -chattering like monkeys, or croaking like frogs. They constantly -leave off by having recourse to the masato, and by the destruction -of whatever the deceased may have left behind him, the burning of his -dwelling being that which concludes the ceremonies. Among some of the -Indians, the nearest relatives cut off their hair as a token of their -grief, agreeably to the practice of the Moabites, and other nations.... - - - -The Obsequies of a Chief - -"On the day of decease, they put the body, with its insignia, into a -large earthen vessel, or painted jar, which they bury in one of the -angles of the quarter, laying over it a covering of potter's clay, and -throwing in earth until the grave is on a level with the surface of the -ground. When the obsequies are over, they forbear to pay a visit to it, -and lose every recollection of the name of the warrior. The Roamaynas -disenterre their dead, as soon as they think that the fleshy parts -have been consumed, and having washed the bones from the skeleton, -which they place in a coffin of potter's clay, adorned with various -symbols of death, like the hieroglyphics on the wrappers of the -Egyptian mummies. In this state the skeleton is carried home, to the -end that the survivors may bear the deceased in respectful memory, -and not in imitation of those extraordinary voluptuaries of antiquity, -who introduced into their most splendid festivals a spectacle of -this nature, which, by reminding them of their dissolution, might -stimulate them to taste, before it should overtake them, all the -impure pleasures the human passions could afford them. A space of -time of about a year being elapsed, the bones are once more inhumed, -and the individual to whom they belonged forgotten for ever." [18] - - - -Peruvian Myths - -Peru is not so rich in myths as Mexico, but the following legends -well illustrate the mythological ideas of the Inca race: - - - -The Vision of Yupanqui - -The Inca Yupanqui before he succeeded to the sovereignty is said to -have gone to visit his father, Viracocha Inca. On his way he arrived -at a fountain called Susur-pugaio. There he saw a piece of crystal -fall into the fountain, and in this crystal he saw the figure of an -Indian, with three bright rays as of the sun coming from the back of -his head. He wore a hautu, or royal fringe, across the forehead like -the Inca. Serpents wound round his arms and over his shoulders. He -had ear-pieces in his ears like the Incas, and was also dressed like -them. There was the head of a lion between his legs, and another lion -was about his shoulders. Inca Yupanqui took fright at this strange -figure, and was running away when a voice called to him by name telling -him not to be afraid, because it was his father, the sun, whom he -beheld, and that he would conquer many nations, but he must remember -his father in his sacrifices and raise revenues for him, and pay him -great reverence. Then the figure vanished, but the crystal remained, -and the Inca afterwards saw all he wished in it. When he became king -he had a statue of the sun made, resembling the figure as closely -as possible, and ordered all the tribes he had conquered to build -splendid temples and worship the new deity instead of the creator. - - - -The Bird Bride - -The Canaris Indians are named from the province of Canaribamba, in -Quito, and they have several myths regarding their origin. One recounts -that at the deluge two brothers fled to a very high mountain called -Huacaquan, and as the waters rose the hill ascended simultaneously, -so that they escaped drowning. When the flood was over they had to -find food in the valleys, and they built a tiny house and lived on -herbs and roots. They were surprised one day when they went home -to find food already prepared for them and chicha to drink. This -continued for ten days. Then the elder brother decided to hide himself -and discover who brought the food. Very soon two birds, one Aqua, -the other Torito (otherwise quacamayo birds), appeared dressed as -Canaris, and wearing their hair fastened in the same way. The larger -bird removed the llicella, or mantle the Indians wear, and the man -saw that they had beautiful faces and discovered that the bird-like -beings were in reality women. When he came out the bird-women were -very angry and flew away. When the younger brother came home and found -no food he was annoyed, and determined to hide until the bird-women -returned. After ten days the quacamayos appeared again on their old -mission, and while they were busy the watcher contrived to close the -door, and so prevented the younger bird from escaping. She lived with -the brothers for a long time, and became the mother of six sons and -daughters, from whom all the Canaris proceed. Hence the tribe look -upon the quacamayo birds with reverence, and use their feathers at -their festivals. - - - -Thonapa - -Some myths tell of a divine personage called Thonapa, who appears -to have been a hero-god or civilising agent like Quetzalcoatl. He -seems to have devoted his life to preaching to the people in the -various villages, beginning in the provinces of Colla-suya. When -he came to Yamquisupa he was treated so badly that he would not -remain there. He slept in the open air, clad only in a long shirt -and a mantle, and carried a book. He cursed the village. It was soon -immersed in water, and is now a lake. There was an idol in the form -of a woman to which the people offered sacrifice at the top of a high -hill, Cachapucara. This idol Thonapa detested, so he burnt it, and -also destroyed the hill. On another occasion Thonapa cursed a large -assembly of people who were holding a great banquet to celebrate a -wedding, because they refused to listen to his preaching. They were -all changed into stones, which are visible to this day. Wandering -through Peru, Thonapa came to the mountain of Caravaya, and after -raising a very large cross he put it on his shoulders and took it to -the hill Carapucu, where he preached so fervently that he shed tears. A -chief's daughter got some of the water on her head, and the Indians, -imagining that he was washing his head (a ritual offence), took him -prisoner near the Lake of Carapucu. Very early the next morning a -beautiful youth appeared to Thonapa, and told him not to fear, for he -was sent from the divine guardian who watched over him. He released -Thonapa, who escaped, though he was well guarded. He went down into -the lake, his mantle keeping him above the water as a boat would have -done. After Thonapa had escaped from the barbarians he remained on -the rock of Titicaca, afterwards going to the town of Tiya-manacu, -where again he cursed the people and turned them into stones. They -were too bent upon amusement to listen to his preaching. He then -followed the river Chacamarca till it reached the sea, and, like -Quetzalcoatl, disappeared. This is good evidence that he was a solar -deity, or "man of the sun," who, his civilising labours completed, -betook himself to the house of his father. - - - -A Myth of Manco Ccapac Inca - -When Manco Ccapac Inca was born a staff which had been given to his -father turned into gold. He had seven brothers and sisters, and at -his father's death he assembled all his people in order to see how -much he could venture in making fresh conquests. He and his brothers -supplied themselves with rich clothing, new arms, and the golden -staff called tapac-yauri (royal sceptre). He had also two cups of -gold from which Thonapa had drunk, called tapacusi. They proceeded -to the highest point in the country, a mountain where the sun rose, -and Manco Ccapac saw several rainbows, which he interpreted as a -sign of good fortune. Delighted with the favouring symbols, he sang -the song of Chamayhuarisca (The Song of Joy). Manco Ccapac wondered -why a brother who had accompanied him did not return, and sent one -of his sisters in search of him, but she also did not come back, -so he went himself, and found both nearly dead beside a huaca. They -said they could not move, as the huaca, a stone, retarded them. In -a great rage Manco struck this stone with his tapac-yauri. It spoke, -and said that had it not been for his wonderful golden staff he would -have had no power over it. It added that his brother and sister had -sinned, and therefore must remain with it (the huaca) in the lower -regions, but that Manco was to be "greatly honoured." The sad fate of -his brother and sister troubled Manco exceedingly, but on going back -to the place where he first saw the rainbows he got comfort from them -and strength to bear his grief. - - - -Coniraya Viracocha - -Coniraya Viracocha was a tricky nature spirit who declared he was -the creator, but who frequently appeared attired as a poor ragged -Indian. He was an adept at deceiving people. A beautiful woman, -Cavillaca, who was greatly admired, was one day weaving a mantle at -the foot of a lucma tree. Coniraya, changing himself into a beautiful -bird, climbed the tree, took some of his generative seed, made it into -a ripe lucma, and dropped it near the beautiful virgin, who saw and -ate the fruit. Some time afterwards a son was born to Cavillaca. When -the child was older she wished that the huacas and gods should meet -and declare who was the father of the boy. All dressed as finely as -possible, hoping to be chosen as her husband. Coniraya was there, -dressed like a beggar, and Cavillaca never even looked at him. The -maiden addressed the assembly, but as no one immediately answered -her speech she let the child go, saying he would be sure to crawl -to his father. The infant went straight up to Coniraya, sitting in -his rags, and laughed up to him. Cavillaca, extremely angry at the -idea of being associated with such a poor, dirty creature, fled to -the sea-shore. Coniraya then put on magnificent attire and followed -her to show her how handsome he was, but still thinking of him in -his ragged condition she would not look back. She went into the sea -at Pachacamac and was changed into a rock. Coniraya, still following -her, met a condor, and asked if it had seen a woman. On the condor -replying that it had seen her quite near, Coniraya blessed it, and said -whoever killed it would be killed himself. He then met a fox, who said -he would never meet Cavillaca, so Coniraya told him he would always -retain his disagreeable odour, and on account of it he would never be -able to go abroad except at night, and that he would be hated by every -one. Next came a lion, who told Coniraya he was very near Cavillaca, -so the lover said he should have the power of punishing wrongdoers, -and that whoever killed him would wear the skin without cutting off -the head, and by preserving the teeth and eyes would make him appear -still alive; his skin would be worn at festivals, and thus he would be -honoured after death. Then another fox who gave bad news was cursed, -and a falcon who said Cavillaca was near was told he would be highly -esteemed, and that whoever killed him would also wear his skin at -festivals. The parrots, giving bad news, were to cry so loud that -they would be heard far away, and their cries would betray them to -enemies. Thus Coniraya blessed the animals which gave him news he -liked, and cursed those which gave the opposite. When at last he -came to the sea he found Cavillaca and the child turned into stone, -and there he encountered two beautiful young daughters of Pachacamac, -who guarded a great serpent. He made love to the elder sister, but -the younger one flew away in the form of a wild pigeon. At that time -there were no fishes in the sea, but a certain goddess had reared a -few in a small pond, and Coniraya emptied these into the ocean and -thus peopled it. The angry deity tried to outwit Coniraya and kill -him, but he was too wise and escaped. He returned to Huarochiri, -and played tricks as before on the villagers. - -Coniraya slightly approximates to the Jurupari of the Uapès Indians -of Brazil, especially as regards his impish qualities. [19] - - - -The Llama's Warning - -An old Peruvian myth relates how the world was nearly left without -an inhabitant. A man took his llama to a fine place for feeding, but -the beast moaned and would not eat, and on its master questioning it, -it said there was little wonder it was sad, because in five days the -sea would rise and engulf the earth. The man, alarmed, asked if there -was no way of escape, and the llama advised him to go to the top of -a high mountain, Villa-coto, taking food for five days. When they -reached the summit of the hill all kinds of birds and animals were -already there. When the sea rose the water came so near that it washed -the tail of a fox, and that is why foxes' tails are black! After five -days the water fell, leaving only this one man alive, and from him -the Peruvians believed the present human race to be descended. - - - -The Myth of Huathiacuri - -After the deluge the Indians chose the bravest and richest man -as leader. This period they called Purunpacha (the time without a -king). On a high mountain-top appeared five large eggs, from one of -which Paricaca, father of Huathiacuri, later emerged. Huathiacuri, -who was so poor that he had not means to cook his food properly, -learned much wisdom from his father, and the following story shows -how this assisted him. A certain man had built a most curious house, -the roof being made of yellow and red birds' feathers. He was very -rich, possessing many llamas, and was greatly esteemed on account -of his wealth. So proud did he become that he aspired to be the -creator himself; but when he became very ill and could not cure -himself his divinity seemed doubtful. Just at this time Huathiacuri -was travelling about, and one day he saw two foxes meet and listened -to their conversation. From this he heard about the rich man and -learned the cause of his illness, and forthwith he determined to -go on to find him. On arriving at the curious house he met a lovely -young girl, one of the rich man's daughters. She told him about her -father's illness, and Huathiacuri, charmed with her, said he would -cure her father if she would only give him her love. He looked so -ragged and dirty that she refused, but she took him to her father -and informed him that Huathiacuri said he could cure him. Her father -consented to give him an opportunity to do so. Huathiacuri began his -cure by telling the sick man that his wife had been unfaithful, and -that there were two serpents hovering above his house to devour it, -and a toad with two heads under his grinding-stone. His wife at first -indignantly denied the accusation, but on Huathiacuri reminding her -of some details, and the serpents and toad being discovered, she -confessed her guilt. The reptiles were killed, the man recovered, -and the daughter was married to Huathiacuri. - -Huathiacuri's poverty and raggedness displeased the girl's -brother-in-law, who suggested to the bridegroom a contest in dancing -and drinking. Huathiacuri went to seek his father's advice, and the old -man told him to accept the challenge and return to him. Paricaca then -sent him to a mountain, where he was changed into a dead llama. Next -morning a fox and its vixen carrying a jar of chicha came, the fox -having a flute of many pipes. When they saw the dead llama they laid -down their things and went toward it to have a feast, but Huathiacuri -then resumed his human form and gave a loud cry that frightened away -the foxes, whereupon he took possession of the jar and flute. By the -aid of these, which were magically endowed, he beat his brother-in-law -in dancing and drinking. - -Then the brother-in-law proposed a contest to prove who was the -handsomer when dressed in festal attire. By the aid of Paricaca -Huathiacuri found a red lion-skin, which gave him the appearance of -having a rainbow round his head, and he again won. - -The next trial was to see who could build a house the quickest and -best. The brother-in-law got all his men to help, and had his house -nearly finished before the other had his foundation laid. But here -again Paricaca's wisdom proved of service, for Huathiacuri got animals -and birds of all kinds to help him during the night, and by morning -the building was finished except the roof. His brother-in-law got -many llamas to come with straw for his roof, but Huathiacuri ordered -an animal to stand where its loud screams frightened the llamas away, -and the straw was lost. Once more Huathiacuri won the day. At last -Paricaca advised Huathiacuri to end this conflict, and he asked -his brother-in-law to see who could dance best in a blue shirt with -white cotton round the loins. The rich man as usual appeared first, -but when Huathiacuri came in he made a very loud noise and frightened -him, and he began to run away. As he ran Huathiacuri turned him into -a deer. His wife, who had followed him, was turned into a stone, -with her head on the ground and her feet in the air, because she had -given her husband such bad advice. - -The four remaining eggs on the mountain-top then opened, and four -falcons issued, which turned into four great warriors. These warriors -performed many miracles, one of which consisted in raising a storm -which swept away the rich Indian's house in a flood to the sea. - - - -Paricaca - -Having assisted in the performance of several miracles, Paricaca set -out determined to do great deeds. He went to find Caruyuchu Huayallo, -to whom children were sacrificed. He came one day to a village where -a festival was being celebrated, and as he was in very poor clothes no -one took any notice of him or offered him anything, till a young girl, -taking pity on him, brought him chicha to drink. In gratitude Paricaca -told her to seek a place of safety for herself, as the village would be -destroyed after five days, but she was to tell no one of this. Annoyed -at the inhospitality of the people, Paricaca then went to a hill-top -and sent down a fearful storm and flood, and the whole village was -destroyed. Then he came to another village, now San Lorenzo. He saw a -very beautiful girl, Choque Suso, crying bitterly. Asking her why she -wept, she said the maize crop was dying for want of water. Paricaca -at once fell in love with this girl, and after first damming up the -little water there was, and thus leaving none for the crop, he told -her he would give her plenty of water if she would only return his -love. She said he must get water not only for her own crop but for all -the other farms before she could consent. He noticed a small rill, -from which, by opening a dam, he thought he might get a sufficient -supply of water for the farms. He then got the assistance of the -birds in the hills, and animals such as snakes, lizards, and so on, -in removing any obstacles in the way, and they widened the channel so -that the water irrigated all the land. The fox with his usual cunning -managed to obtain the post of engineer, and carried the canal to near -the site of the church of San Lorenzo. Paricaca, having accomplished -what he had promised, begged Choque Suso to keep her word, which she -willingly did, but she proposed living at the summit of some rocks -called Yanacaca. There the lovers stayed very happily, at the head of -the channel called Cocochallo, the making of which had united them; -and as Choque Suso wished to remain there always, Paricaca eventually -turned her into a stone. - -In all likelihood this myth was intended to account for the invention -of irrigation among the early Peruvians, and from being a local legend -probably spread over the length and breadth of the country. - - - -Conclusion - -The advance in civilisation attained by the peoples of America must -be regarded as among the most striking phenomena in the history -of mankind, especially if it be viewed as an example of what can -be achieved by isolated races occupying a peculiar environment. It -cannot be too strongly emphasised that the cultures and mythologies -of old Mexico and Peru were evolved without foreign assistance or -intervention, that, in fact, they were distinctively and solely the -fruit of American aboriginal thought evolved upon American soil. An -absorbing chapter in the story of human advancement is provided -by these peoples, whose architecture, arts, graphic and plastic, -laws and religions prove them to have been the equals of most of the -Asiatic nations of antiquity, and the superiors of the primitive races -of Europe, who entered into the heritage of civilisation through the -gateway of the East. The aborigines of ancient America had evolved for -themselves a system of writing which at the period of their discovery -was approaching the alphabetic type, a mathematical system unique -and by no means despicable, and an architectural science in some -respects superior to any of which the Old World could boast. Their -legal codes were reasonable and founded upon justice; and if their -religions were tainted with cruelty, it was a cruelty which they -regarded as inevitable, and as the doom placed upon them by sanguinary -and insatiable deities and not by any human agency. - -In comparing the myths of the American races with the deathless -stories of Olympus or the scarcely less classic tales of India, -frequent resemblances and analogies cannot fail to present themselves, -and these are of value as illustrating the circumstance that in -every quarter of the globe the mind of man has shaped for itself a -system of faith based upon similar principles. But in the perusal of -the myths and beliefs of Mexico and Peru we are also struck with the -strangeness and remoteness alike of their subject-matter and the type -of thought which they present. The result of centuries of isolation -is evident in a profound contrast of "atmosphere." It seems almost -as if we stood for a space upon the dim shores of another planet, -spectators of the doings of a race of whose modes of thought and -feeling we were entirely ignorant. - -For generations these stories have been hidden, along with the memory -of the gods and folk of whom they tell, beneath a thick dust of -neglect, displaced here and there only by the efforts of antiquarians -working singly and unaided. Nowadays many well-equipped students -are striving to add to our knowledge of the civilisations of Mexico -and Peru. To the mythical stories of these peoples, alas! we cannot -add. The greater part of them perished in the flames of the Spanish -autos-de-fé. But for those which have survived we must be grateful, -as affording so many casements through which we may catch the glitter -and gleam of civilisations more remote and bizarre than those of the -Orient, shapes dim yet gigantic, misty yet many-coloured, the ghosts -of peoples and beliefs not the least splendid and solemn in the roll -of dead nations and vanished faiths. - - - - - - - - -BIBLIOGRAPHY - - -The following bibliography is not intended to be exhaustive, but merely -to indicate to those who desire to follow up the matter provided in -the preceding pages such works as will best repay their attention. - - - -Mexico - -Acosta, José de: Historia Natural y Moral de las Yndias. Seville, 1580. - -Alzate y Ramirez: Descripcion de las Antiguedades de Xochicalco. 1791. - -Bancroft, H. H.: Native Races of the Pacific States of America. 1875. A -compilation of historical matter relating to aboriginal America, -given almost without comment. Useful to beginners. - -Boturini Benaduci, L.: Idea de una Nueva Historia General de la -America Septentrional. Madrid, 1746. Contains a number of valuable -original manuscripts. - -Bourbourg, Abbé Brasseur de: Histoire des Nations Civilisées du Mexique -et de l'Amérique Centrale. Paris, 1857-59. The Abbé possessed much -knowledge of the peoples of Central America and their ancient history, -but had a leaning toward the marvellous which renders his works of -doubtful value. - -Charnay, Désiré: Ancient Cities of the New World. London, 1887. This -translation from the French is readable and interesting, and is of -assistance to beginners. It is, however, of little avail as a serious -work of reference, and has been superseded. - -Chevalier, M.: Le Mexique Ancien et Moderne. Paris, 1886. - -Clavigero, Abbé: Storia Antica del Messico. Cesena, 1780. English -translation, London, 1787. Described in text. - -Diaz, Bernal: Historia Verdadera de la Conquista de Nueva -España. 1837. An eye-witness's account of the conquest of Mexico. - -Enock, C. Reginald: Mexico, its Ancient and Modern Civilisation, -&c. London, 1909. - -Gomara, F. L. de: Historia General de las Yndias. Madrid, 1749. - -Herrera, Antonio de: Historia General de los Hechos de los Castellanos -en las Islas y Tierra Firme del Mar Oceano. 4 vols. Madrid, 1601. - -Humboldt, Alex. von: Vues des Cordillères. Paris, 1816. English -translation by Mrs. Williams. - -Ixtlilxochitl, F. de Alva: Historia Chichimeca; Relaciones. Edited -by A. Chavero. Mexico, 1891-92. - -Kingsborough, Lord: Antiquities of Mexico. London, 1830. - -Lumholtz, C.: Unknown Mexico. 1903. - -MacNutt, F. C.: Letters of Cortés to Charles V. London, 1908. - -Nadaillac, Marquis de: Prehistoric America. Translation. London, 1885. - -Noll, A. H.: A Short History of Mexico. Chicago, 1903. - -Nuttall, Zelia: The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World -Civilisations. 1901. - -Payne, E. J.: History of the New World called America. London, -1892-99. By far the best and most exhaustive work in English upon -the subject. It is, however, unfinished. - -Peñafiel, F.: Monumentos del Arte Mexicano Antiguo. Berlin, 1890. - -Prescott, W. H.: History of the Conquest of Mexico. Of romantic -interest only. Prescott did not study Mexican history for more than -two years, and his work is now quite superseded from a historical -point of view. Its narrative charm, however, is unassailable. - -Sahagun, Bernardino de: Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva -España. Mexico, 1829. - -Seler, E.: Mexico and Guatemala. Berlin, 1896. - -Serra, Justo (Editor): Mexico, its Social Evolution, &c. 2 -vols. Mexico, 1904. - -Spence, Lewis: The Civilization of Ancient Mexico. A digest of the -strictly verifiable matter of Mexican history and antiquities. All -tradition is eliminated, the author's aim being to present the beginner -and the serious student with a series of unembellished facts. - -Starr, F.: The Indians of Southern Mexico. 1899. - -Thomas, Cyrus, and Magee, W. J.: The History of North America. 1908. - -Torquemada, Juan de: Monarquia Indiana. Madrid, 1723. - -Bulletin 28 of the Bureau of American Ethnology contains translations -of valuable essays by the German scholars Seler, Schellhas, Förstemann, -&c. - -Many of the above works deal with Central America as well as with -Mexico proper. - - - -Central America - -Cogolludo, D. Lopez: Historia de Yucathan. 1688. Very scarce. - -Diego de Landa: Relacion de Cosas de Yucatan. Paris, 1836. Translation -by Brasseur. - -Dupaix, Colonel: Antiquités Mexicaines. Paris, 1834-36. - -Maudslay, A. P.: Biologia Centrali-Americana. Publication -proceeding. Contains many excellent sketches of ruins, &c. - -Spence, Lewis: The Popol Vuh. London, 1908. - - - -Peru - -Enock, C. R.: Peru: its Former and Present Civilisation, &c. London, -1908. - -Markham, Sir Clements R.: History of Peru. Chicago, 1892. - -Prescott, W. H.: History of the Conquest of Peru. 3 vols. Philadelphia, -1868. - -Squier, E. G.: Peru: Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land -of the Incas. London, 1877. - -Tschudi, J. J. von: Reisen durch Südamerika. 5 vols. Leipsic, -1866-68. Travels in Peru. London, 1847. - -Vega, Garcilasso el Inca de la: Royal Commentaries of the Incas, -1609. Hakluyt Society's Publications. - -In seeking the original sources of Peruvian history we must refer to -the early Spanish historians who visited the country, either at the -period of the conquest or immediately subsequent to it. From those -Spaniards who wrote at a time not far distant from that event we have -gained much valuable knowledge concerning the contemporary condition -of Peru, and a description of the principal works of these pioneers -will materially assist the reader who is bent on pursuing the study -of Peruvian antiquities. - -Pedro de Cieza de Leon composed a geographical account of Peru in -1554, devoting the latter part of his chronicle to the subject of the -Inca civilisation. This work has been translated into English by Sir -Clements R. Markham, and published by the Hakluyt Society. - -Juan José de Betanzos, who was well acquainted with the Quichua -language, and who married an Inca princess, wrote an account of the -Incas in 1551, which was edited and printed by Señor Jimenes de la -Espada in 1880. - -Polo de Ondegardo, a lawyer and politician, wrote his two Relaciones -in 1561 and 1571, making valuable reports on the laws and system of -administration of the Incas. One of these works has been translated -by Sir Clements R. Markham, and printed by the Hakluyt Society. - -Augustin de Zarate, accountant, who arrived in Peru with Blasco Nuñez -Vela, the first Viceroy, is the author of the Provincia del Peru, -which was published at Antwerp in 1555. - -Fernando de Santillan, judge of the Linia Audience, contributed an -interesting Relacion in 1550, edited and printed in 1879 by Señor -Jimenes de la Espada. - -Juan de Matienzo, a lawyer contemporary with Ondegardo, was the author -of the valuable work Gobierno de el Peru, not yet translated. - -Christoval de Molina, priest of Cuzco, wrote an interesting story of -Inca ceremonial and religion between 1570 and 1584, which has been -published by the Hakluyt Society. The translator is Sir C. R. Markham. - -Miguel Cavello Balboa, of Quito, gives us the only particulars we -possess of Indian coast history, and the most valuable information on -the war between Huascar and Atauhuallpa, in his splendid Miscellanea -Austral, 1576, translated into French in 1840 by Ternaux-Compans. - -A Jesuit priest, José de Acosta, compiled a Natural History of the -Indies, which was published for the first time in 1588. An English -translation of the work is provided by the Hakluyt Society. - -Fernando Montesinos in his Memorias Antiguas Historiales del Peru and -Anales Memorias Nuevas del Peru quotes a long line of sovereigns who -preceded the Incas. These works were translated into French in 1840. - -Relacion de los Costombras Antiguas de los Naturales del Peru, written -by an anonymous Jesuit, records an account of Inca civilisation. The -work was published in Spain in 1879. Another Jesuit, Francisco de -Avila, wrote on the superstitions of the Indians of Huarochiri and -their gods. His work was translated into English and published by -the Hakluyt Society. - -Pablo José de Arriaga, a priest who policed the country, destroying -the false gods, compiled in 1621 Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Peru, -describing the downfall of the ancient Inca religion. - -Antonio de la Calancha compiled an interesting history of the Incas -in his work on the Order of St. Augustine in Peru (1638-1653). - -In his Historia de Copacabana y de su Milagrosa Imagen (1620) Alonzo -Ramos Gavilan disclosed much information concerning the colonists -during the time of the Inca rule. - -A valuable history of the Incas is provided by Garcilasso el Inca de -la Vega in his Commentarios Reales. The works of previous authors -are reviewed, and extracts are given from the compilations of the -Jesuit Blas Valera, whose writings are lost. The English translation -is published by the Hakluyt Society. - -Relacion de Antiguedades deste Reyno del Peru, by Pachacuti Yamqui -Salcamayhua, an Indian of the Collao, was translated into English by -Sir C. R. Markham, and published by the Hakluyt Society. - -The Historia del Reino del Quinto, compiled by Juan de Velasco, -was translated into French by Ternaux-Compans in 1840. - -Antonio de Herrera gives a brief account of the history and -civilisation of the Inca people in his General History of the Indies. - -In his History of America Robertson was the first to compile a thorough -account of the Incas. Prescott, however, in 1848 eclipsed his work -by his own fascinating account. Sir Arthur Helps has also given a -résumé of Inca progress in his Spanish Conquest (1855). - -The Peruvian Sebastian Lorente published in 1860 a history of ancient -Peru, which presents the subject more broadly than the narratives -of the American and English authors, and as the result of many years -of further research he contributed a series of essays to the Revista -Peruana. - -One of the best works dealing with the antiquities of the Inca period -is Antiguedades Peruanas, by Don Mariano Rivero (English translation -by Dr. Hawkes, 1853). The compilation on Peru by E. G. Squier (1877), -and a similar narrative by C. Weiner (Paris, 1880), both of which -stand in accuracy above the others, are also worthy of mention. - -The work of Reiss and Stubel, narrating their excavations at Ancon, -is richly presented in three volumes, with 119 plates. - -The works of Sir Clements Markham are the best guide to English -scholars on the subject. - - - - - - - - -INDEX AND GLOSSARY - -NOTE ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE MEXICAN, MAYAN, AND PERUVIAN LANGUAGES - - -Mexican - -As the Spanish alphabet was that first employed to represent Mexican -or Nahuatl phonology, so Mexican words and names must be pronounced, -for the most part, according to the Castilian system. An exception -is the letter x, which in Spanish is sometimes written as j and -pronounced as h aspirate; and in Nahuatl sometimes as in English, -at other times as sh or s. Thus the word "Mexico" is pronounced -by the aboriginal Mexican with the hard x, but by the Spaniard -as "May-hee-co." The name of the native author Ixtlilxochitl is -pronounced "Ishtlilshotshitl," the ch being articulated as tsh, -for euphony. Xochicalco is "So-chi-cal-co." The vowel sounds are -pronounced as in French or Italian. The tl sound is pronounced with -almost a click of the tongue. - - - -Mayan - -The Maya alphabet consists of twenty-two letters, of which c, ch, -k, pp, th, tz are peculiar to the language, and cannot be properly -pronounced by Europeans. It is deficient in the letters d, f, g, j, q, -r, s. The remaining letters are sounded as in Spanish. The letter x -occurring at the beginning of a word is pronounced ex. For example, -Xbalanque is pronounced "Exbalanke." The frequent occurrence of -elisions in spoken Maya renders its pronunciation a matter of great -difficulty, and the few grammars on the language agree as to the -hopelessness of conveying any true idea of the exact articulation -of the language by means of written directions. Norman in his work -entitled Rambles in Yucatan remarks: "This perhaps accounts for the -disappearance of all grammars and vocabularies of the Maya tongue from -the peninsula of Yucatan, the priests finding it much easier to learn -the language directly from the Indian than to acquire it from books." - - - -Peruvian - -The two languages spoken in Peru in ancient times were the Quichua, -or Inca, and the Aymara. These still survive. The former was the -language of the Inca rulers of the country, but both sprang from one -common linguistic stock. As these languages were first reduced to -writing by means of a European alphabet, their pronunciation presents -but little difficulty, the words practically begin pronounced as they -are written, having regard to the "Continental" pronunciation of the -vowels. In Quichua the same sound is give to the intermediate c before -a consonant and to the final c, as in "chacra" and "Pachacamac." The -general accent is most frequently on the penultimate syllable. - - - - - - - - -INDEX AND GLOSSARY - - -A - -Aac, Prince. In the story of Queen Móo, 240, 244-245, 246 - -Acalan. District in Guatemala; - race-movements and, 150 - -Acllacuna (Selected Ones). Body of maidens from whom victims for -sacrifice were taken in Peru, 313 - -Aclla-huasi. Houses in which the Acllacuna lived, 313 - -Acolhuacan. District in Mexico, 26 - -Acolhuans (or Acolhuaque) (People of the Broad Shoulder). Mexican -race, 26; - said to have founded Mexico, 26; - a pure Nahua race, perhaps the Toltecs, 26; - their supremacy, 48 - -Acolhuaque. See Acolhuans - -Acosta, José de. Work on Mexican lore, 58 - -Acsumama. Guardian spirit of the potato plant in Peru, 295 - -Acxitl. Toltec king, son of Huemac II, 17, 19 - -Acxopil. Ruler of the Kiche, 158-159 - -Agoreros (or Mohanes). Members of Peruvian tribes who claimed power -as oracles, 297-298, 314 - -Ahuizotl. Mexican king, 30 - -Ah-zotzils. A Maya tribe, 172 - -Akab-sib (Writing in the Dark). A bas-relief at El Castillo, -Chichen-Itza, 190 - -Aké. Maya ruins at, 186-187 - -America. Superficial resemblance between peoples, customs, and -art-forms of Asia and, 1; - civilisation, native origin of, 1-2, 3, 328; - animal and plant life peculiar to, 2; - man, origin of, in, 2; - geographical connection between Asia and, 3; - traditions of intercourse between Asia and, 3; - Chinese Fu-Sang and, 3; - possible Chinese and Japanese visits to, 3-4; - Coronado's expedition to, 4; - legends of intercourse between Europe and, 4; - "Great Ireland" probably the same as, 4; - St. Brandan's voyage and, 4; - reached by early Norsemen, 5; - the legend of Madoc and, 5-6; - early belief in, respecting incursions from the east, 6; - prophecy of Chilan Balam re coming of white men to, 8 - -America, Central. Indigenous origin of civilisation of, 1; - legend of Toltec migration to, 20 - -Anahuac (By the Water). Native name of the Mexican plateau, 18. - See Mexico - -Ancestor-worship in Peru, 296 - -Andeans. The prehistoric civilisation of, 249-250; - architectural remains of, 250 - -Antahuayllas. Peruvian tribe, 284 - -Antilia. Legends of, have no connection with American myth, 6 - -Anti-suyu. One of the four racial divisions of ancient Peru, 255 - -Apinguela. Island on Lake Titicaca; Huaina Ccapac and the lake-goddess -and, 299 - -Apocatequil. Peruvian thunder-god, the "Prince of Evil"; - in a creation-myth, 301-302 - -Apu-Ccapac (Sovereign Chief). Title of the Inca rulers, 248 - -"Apu-Ollanta." A drama-legend of the Incas, 251-253 - -Apurimac (Great Speaker). River in Peru; - regarded as an oracle, 296 - -Aqua. A bird-maiden; in the myth of origin of the Canaris, 319 - -Arara (Fire-bird). Same as Kinich-ahau, which see - -Architecture. I. Of the Nahua, 31-34. - II. Of the Maya, 149-150, 178-198; - the most individual expression of the people, 178; - Yucatan exhibits the most perfect specimens, and the decadent - phase, 178; - methods of building, 178-179; - ignorance of some first principles, 179; - mural decoration, 179; - pyramidal buildings, 180; - definiteness of design, 180; - architectural districts, 181; - not of great antiquity, 182; - Father Burgoa on the palace at Mitla, 199-201. - III. Of the Incas, 268-269; - the art in which the race showed greatest advance, 268; - Sir Clements Markham on, 269 - -Arriaga, P. J. de. On stone-worship in Peru, 293 - -Art. Early American, superficial resemblance to that of Asia, 1; - native origin and unique character of American, 1-2; - Toltec, 23; - Peruvians weak in, 248 - -Asia. Origin of early American culture erroneously attributed to, 1; - man originally came to America from, 2; - former land-connection between America and, 3; - traditions of intercourse between America and, 3 - -Ataguju. Supreme divinity of the Peruvians; in a creation-myth, 301 - -Atamalqualiztli (Fast of Porridge-balls and Water). Nahua festival, 77 - -Atatarho. Mythical wizard-king of the Iroquois, 72 - -Atauhuallpa. Son of the Inca Huaina Ccapac; strives for the crown -with Huascar, 289-290 - -Atl (Water). Mexican deity; often confounded with the moon-goddess, 106 - -Atlantis. Legends of, have no connection with American myth, 6 - -Auqui (Warrior). Peruvian order of knighthood; instituted by -Pachacutic, 287 - -Avendaño, Hernandez de. And Peruvian fetishes, 295 - -Avilix. The god assigned to Balam-Agab in the Kiche story of the -creation, 230; - turned into stone, 231 - -Axaiacatzin, King. Father of Chachiuhnenetzin, the vicious wife of -Nezahualpilli, 129 - -Axayacatl. Mexican king, 92 - -Aymara. Peruvian race, 254-255; - fusion with Quichua, 285-286 - -Azangaro. The Sondor-huasi at, 269 - -Azcapozalco. Mexican town, 26; - rivalry with Tezcuco, 49; - Aztecs and, 52 - -Aztecs (or Aztecâ) (Crane People). A nomad Mexican tribe, 27, 50-51; - racial affinities, 27; - character, 27-28; - Tlascalans and, 26; - founders of Tenochtitlan (Mexico), 27; - their science, 43; - in bondage to Colhuacan, 51; - allied with Tecpanecs, 51; - war with Tecpanecs, 52; - development of the empire, 52; - commercial expansion, 52; - their tyranny, 52-53; - their conception of eternity, 55; - the priesthood, 114-117; - idea of the origin of mankind, 123; - a migration myth of, 233 - -Aztlan (Crane Land). Traditional place of origin of Nahua, 11; - Aztecs and, 50, 233 - - - -B - -Bacabs. Genii in Maya mythology, 170 - -Balam-Agab (Tiger of the Night). One of the first men of the Popol -Vuh myth, 229, 230 - -Balam-Quitze (Tiger with the Sweet Smile). - An ancestor of the Maya, 188; - one of the first men of the Popol Vuh myth, 229, 230 - -Balon Zacab. Form of the Maya rain-god, 176 - -Bat. Typical of the underworld, 96 - -Bat-god. Maya deity, known also as Camazotz, 171-172 - -Birth-cycle. In Mexican calendar, 39, 41 - -Bochica. Sun-god of the Chibchas, 276 - -Bogota. City at which the Zippa of the Chibchas lived, 276 - -Boturini Benaduci, L. His work on Mexican lore, 58 - -Bourbourg, The Abbé Brasseur de. Version of Nahua flood-myth, 122-123 - -Brandan, St. Probable voyage to America, 4 - -Brinton, D. G. Theory as to the Toltecs, 21; - on Quetzalcoatl, 81; - translation of a poem on the Peruvian thunder-god myth, and comments - on the myth, 300-301 - -Burgoa, Father. Account of a confession ceremony, 108-110; - description of Mitla, 199-206 - - - -C - -Cabrakan (Earthquake). Son of Vukub-Cakix; in a Kiche myth in the -Popol Vuh, 211, 213, 216-219 - -Cabrera, Don Felix. And the Popol Vuh, 207 - -Cachapucara. Hill; Thonapa and, 319-320 - -Caha-Paluma (Falling Water). One of the first women of the Popol Vuh -myth, 230 - -Cakixa (Water of Parrots). One of the first women of the Popol Vuh -myth, 230 - -Cakulha-Hurakan (Lightning). A sub-god of Hurakan, 237 - -Calderon, Don José. And Palenque, 182 - -Calendar. I. The Mexican, 38-41; - an essential feature in the national life, 38; - resemblance to Maya and Zapotec calendric systems, 38, 169; - possible Toltec origin, 39; - the year, 39; - the "binding of years," 39, 40; - the solar year, 39; - the nemontemi, 39; - the "birth-cycle," 39, 41; - the cempohualli, or "months," 39-40; - the ecclesiastical system, 40; - the xiumalpilli, 40; - the ceremony of toxilmolpilia, 41. - II. The Maya; similarities to calendar of the Nahua, 38, 169. - III. The Peruvian, 265-266, 313 - -Callca. Place in Peru; sacred rocks found at, 293 - -Camaxtli. War-god of the Tlascalans, 111 - -Camazotz. The bat-god, called also Zotzilaha Chimalman, 171-172, 226; - a totem of the Ahzotzils, a Maya tribe, 172 - -Camulatz. Bird in the Kiche story of the creation, 209 - -Canaris. Indian tribe; the myth of their origin, 318-319 - -Canek. King of Chichen-Itza; the story of, 189 - -Cannibalism. Among the Mexicans, 45 - -Capacahuana. Houses for pilgrims to Titicaca at, 311 - -Carapucu. I. Hill; in myth of Thonapa, 320. - II. Lake; in myth of Thonapa, 320 - -Caravaya. Mountain; in myth of Thonapa, 320 - -Carmenca. The hill of, at Cuzco; pillars on, for determining the -solstices, 265-266, 287 - -Caruyuchu Huayallo. Peruvian deity to whom children were sacrificed; -in a myth of Paricaca, 326 - -Casa del Adivino (The Prophet's House). Ruin at Uxmal, called also -"The Dwarf's House," 192; - the legend relating to, 192-194 - -Casa del Gobernador (Governor's Palace). Ruin at Uxmal, 191 - -Casas Grandes (Large Houses). Mexican ruin, 32 - -Castillo, El. Ruined pyramid-temple at Chichen-Itza, 188, 190 - -Cauac. A minor Maya deity, 170 - -Cavillaca. A maiden; the myth of Coniraya Viracocha and, 321-323 - -Caxamarca. Inca fortress, 290 - -Cay Hun-Apu (Royal Hunter). The Kakchiquels and the defeat of, 159 - -Ccapac-cocha. Sacrificial rite, instituted by Pachacutic, 286 - -Ccapac-Huari. Eleventh Inca, 288, 289 - -Ccapac Raymi. The chief Peruvian festival, 267; - Auqui, order of knighthood, conferred at, 287 - -Ccapac Situa (or Ccoya Raymi) (Moon Feast). Peruvian festival, 267 - -Ccapac Yupanqui. Fifth Inca, 283 - -Ccompas. Agricultural fetishes of the Peruvians, 294 - -Cempohualli. The Mexican month, 40 - -Centeotl. I. Group of maize-gods, 85. - II. A male maize-spirit, 85, 90; - God E similar to, 174. - III. Mother of II, known also as Teteoinnan and Tocitzin, 85, 90 - -Centzonuitznaua. Mythical Indian tribe; in myth of Huitzilopochtli's -origin, 70-72 - -Chac. Maya rain-god, tutelar of the cast, 170; - has affinities with Tlaloc, 176; - God K not identical with, 176 - -Chacamarca. River in Peru; Thonapa and, 320 - -Chachiuhnenetzin. Wife of Nezahualpilli, 129-132 - -Chacras. Estates dedicated to the sun by the Peruvians, 310 - -Chalcas. Aztec tribe, 233 - -Chalchihuitlicue (Lady of the Emerald Robe). Wife of Tlaloc, 75, -77, 110; - assists the maize-goddess, 86 - -Chalchiuh Tlatonac (Shining Precious Stone). First king of the -Toltecs, 14 - -"Chamayhuarisca" (The Song of Joy). Manco Ccapac sings, 321 - -Chanca. A Peruvian people; and the Incas, 282 - -Charnay, D. Excavations on the site of Teotihuacan, 33; - excavations at Tollan, 34; - and Lorillard, 195 - -Chasca. The Peruvian name for the planet Venus; the temple of, at -Cuzco, 262 - -Chiapas. Mexican province; the nucleus of Maya civilisation lay in, -144, 149 - -Chibchas. A Peruvian race, 275-277 - -Chichan-Chob. Ruin at Chichen-Itza, 189 - -Chichen-Itza. Sacred city of the Maya; founded by Itzaes, 153; - overthrown by Cocomes, 153, 155; - assists in conquering Cocomes, 156; - abandoned, 156; - ruins at, 188-190; - and the story of Canek, 189 - -Chichicastenango. The Convent of; and the Popol Vuh, 207 - -Chichics. Agricultural fetishes of the Peruvians, 294 - -Chichimecs. Aztec tribe; invade Toltec territory, 18; - the great migration, 20; - supreme in Toltec country, 20; - probably related to Otomi, 25; - allied with Nahua and adopt Nahua language, 26; - conquered by Tecpanecs, 51 - -Chicomecohuatl (Seven-serpent). Chief maize-goddess of Mexico, 85-88; - image of, erroneously called Teoyaominqui by early Americanists, - 88-90 - -Chicomoztoc (The Seven Caverns). Nahua said to have originated at, 11; - and Aztec idea of origin of mankind, 123; - identified with "seven cities of Cibola" and the Casas Grandes, 123; - parallel with the Kiche Tulan-Zuiva, 230 - -Chicuhcoatl. In the story of the vicious princess, 130 - -Chihuahua. Mexican province, 31 - -Chilan Balam. Maya priest; the prophecy of, 8 - -Chimalmat. Wife of Vukub-Cakix; in a Kiche myth, 211-213 - -Chimalpahin. Mexican chronicler, 42 - -Chimu. The plain of; ruined city on, 271; - the palace, 271-272; - the ruins display an advanced civilisation, 272-273 - -Chinchero. Inca ruins at, 269 - -Chipi-Cakulha (Lightning-flash). A sub-god of Hurakan, 237 - -Choima (Beautiful Water). One of the first women of the Popol Vuh -myth, 230 - -Cholula. Sacred city inhabited by Acolhuans, 47, 48; - the pottery of, 23 - -Chontals. Aboriginal Mexican race, 23 - -Choque Suso. Maiden; the myth of Paricaca and, 327 - -Chulpas. Megalithic mummy tombs of Peru, 263 - -Churoquella. A name of the Peruvian thunder-god, 299 - -"Citadel," The, at Teotihuacan, 33 - -Citallatonac. Mexican deity; in a flood-myth, 123 - -Citallinicue. Mexican deity; in a flood-myth, 123 - -Citatli (Moon). A form of the Mexican moon-goddess, 106 - -Citlalpol (The Great Star). Mexican name of the planet Venus, 96 - -Citoc Raymi (Gradually Increasing Sun). Peruvian festival, 312-313 - -Ciuapipiltin (Honoured Women). Spirits of women who had died in -childbed, 108, 138 - -Civilisation. - I. Of Mexico, 1-53; - indigenous origin of, 1; - type of, 9. - II. Of Peru, 248-290; - indigenous origin of, 1, 259; - inferior to the Mexican and Mayan, 248. - III. Of the Andeans, 249 - -Clavigero, The Abbé. His work on Mexican lore, 57-58 - -"Cliff-dwellers." Mexican race related to the Nahua, 24, 25 - -Cliff Palace Cañon, Colorado, 229 - -Coaapan. Place in Mexico, 65 - -Coatepec. - I. Mexican province, 62, 63. - II. Mountain, 70 - -Coati. An island on Lake Titicaca; ruined temple on, 270-271 - -Coatlantona (Robe of Serpents). A name of Coatlicue, Huitzilopochtli's -mother, 73 - -Coatlicue. Mother of Huitzilopochtli, 70-71; - as Coatlantona, 73 - -Cocamama. Guardian spirit of the coca-shrub in Peru, 295 - -Cochtan. Place in Mexico, 65 - -Cocochallo. An irrigation channel; in a myth of Paricaca, 327 - -Cocomes. A tribe inhabiting Mayapan; overthrow Chichen-Itza, 153; - their tyranny and sway, 154-155; - conquered by allies, 156; - remnant found Zotuta, 156 - -Codex Perezianus. Maya manuscript, 160 - -Cogolludo, D. Lopez. And the story of Canek, 189 - -Coh, Prince. In the story of Queen Móo, 240, 244, 246 - -Cohuatzincatl (He who has Grandparents). A pulque-god, 105 - -Colcampata, The, at Cuzco. The palace on, 269 - -Colhuacan. - I. Mexican city, 20, 26, 233. - II. King of; father of the sacrificed princess, 124 - -Colla-suyu. One of the four racial divisions of ancient Peru, 255 - -Con. Thunder-god of Collao of Peru, 78, 299 - -Confession among the Mexicans, 106, 108; - Tlazolteotl the goddess of, 106; - accounts of the ceremony, 106-110 - -Coniraya Viracocha. A Peruvian nature-spirit; the myth of Cavillaca -and, 321-323 - -Contici (The Thunder Vase). Peruvian deity representing the -thunderstorm, 301 - -Conticsi-viracocha (He who gives Origin). Peruvian conception of the -creative agency, 304 - -Conti-suyu. One of the four racial divisions of ancient Peru, 255 - -Copacahuana. Idol associated with the worship of Lake Titicaca, 298 - -Copacati. Idol associated with the worship of Lake Titicaca, 298 - -Copal. Prince; in legend of foundation of Mexico, 28 - -Copan. Maya city; sculptural remains at, 196; - evidence at, of a new racial type, 196-197 - -Coricancha (Town of Gold). Temple of the sun at Cuzco, 260-262; - built by Pachacutic, 286; - image of the thunder-god in, 300 - -Cortés. Lands at Vera Cruz, 7; - mistaken for Quetzalcoatl, 7, 80; - the incident of the death of his horse at Peten-Itza, 195 - -Cotzbalam. Bird in the Kiche story of the creation, 209 - -Coxoh Chol dialect, 145 - -Coyohuacan. Mexican city, 50 - -Coyolxauhqui. Daughter of Coatlicue, 70-72 - -Coyotl inaual. A god of the Amantecas; and Quetzalcoatl, 79 - -Cozaana. A Zapotec deity; in creation-myth, 121 - -Cozcaapa (Water of Precious Stones). A fountain; in a Quetzalcoatl -myth, 65 - -Cozcatzin Codex, 92 - -Cozumel. The island of, 154 - -Creation. Mexican conceptions of, 118-120; - the legend given by Ixtlilxochitl, 119-120; - the Mixtec legend of, 120-121; - the Zapotec legend of, 121-122; - the Kiche story of, in the Popol Vuh, 209; - of man, the Popol Vuh myth of, 229-230; - of man, a Peruvian myth of, 256; - the Inca conception of, 257-258, 305; - local Peruvian myths, 258-259 - -Cross, The. A symbol of the four winds in Mexico and Peru, 273; - account of the discovery of a wooden, 274-275 - -Cuchumaquiq. Father of Xquiq; in Popol Vuh myth, 222 - -Cuitlavacas. Aztec tribe, 233 - -Curi-Coyllur (Joyful Star). Daughter of Yupanqui Pachacutic; in the -drama Apu-Ollanta, 251-253 - -Cuycha. Peruvian name for the rainbow; temple of, at Cuzco, 262 - -Cuzco (Navel of the Universe). The ancient capital of the Incas, 248; - and the racial division of Peru, 255; - in the legend of Manco Ccapac, 256; - a great culture-centre, 256; - founded by the sun-god, 258; - the Coricancha at, 260-262; - power under Pachacutic, 285 - - - -D - -Discovery. American myths relating to the, 6 - -Dresden Codex. Maya manuscript, 160 - -Drink-gods, Mexican, 104-105 - -"Dwarf's House, The." Ruin at Uxmal, 192; - legend relating to, 192-194 - - - -E - -Earth-Mother. See Teteoinnan - -Education. In Mexico, 115-116 - -Ehecatl (The Air). Form of Quetzalcoatl, 84 - -Ekchuah. Maya god of merchants and cacao-planters, 170, 177; - God L thought to be, 176; - probably parallel to Yacatecutli, 177 - -"Emerald Fowl," The, 186 - -Etzalqualiztli (When they eat Bean Food). Festival of Tlaloc, 77 - - - -F - -Father and Mother Gods, Mexican, 103-104 - -Fire-god, Mexican, 95 - -Fish-gods, Peruvian, 306 - -Flood-myths, 122-123, 323-324 - -Food-gods, Mexican, 91 - -Förstemann, Dr. And the Maya writing, 162, 163; - on God L, 176 - -Fu Sang and America, 3 - - - -G - -Gama, Antonio. His work on Mexican lore and antiquities, 58 - -Ghanan. Name given to God E by Brinton, 174 - -God A of Dr. Schellhas' system; a death-god, 172-173; - thought to resemble the Aztec Xipe, 174 - -God B. Doubtless Quetzalcoatl, 173 - -God C. A god of the pole-star, 173 - -God D. A moon-god, probably Itzamna, 173 - -God E. A maize-god, similar to Centeotl, 174 - -God F. Resembles God A, 174 - -God G. A sun-god, 174 - -God H. 174 - -God K. Probably a god of the Quetzalcoatl group, 175-176 - -God L. Probably an earth-god, 176 - -God M. Probably a god of travelling merchants, 176-177 - -God N. Probably god of the "unlucky days," 177 - -God P. A frog-god, 177 - -Goddess I. A water-goddess, 175 - -Goddess O. Probably tutelar of married women, 177 - -Gods. Connection of, with war and the food-supply, 74; - Nahua conception of the limited productivity of food and rain - deities, 77; - American myth rich in hero-gods, 237 - -Gomara, F. L. de. Work on Mexican lore, 58 - -Guachimines (Darklings). Inhabitants of the primeval earth in Peruvian -myth, 301 - -Guamansuri. The first of mortals in Peruvian myth, 301 - -Guatemala. - I. The state; the Maya of, 157-159. - II. The city; the lost Popol Vuh found in, 207 - -Gucumatz (Serpent with Green Feathers). Kiche form of Quetzalcoatl, -worshipped in Guatemala, 83, 167, 236; - in the Kiche story of the creation, 209 - -Gwyneth, Owen, father of Madoc, 5 - - - -H - -Hacavitz. - I. The god assigned to Mahacutah in the Kiche story of the creation, - 230; - turned into stone, 231. - II. Mountain at which the Kiche first saw the sun, 231 - -Hakluyt. His English Voyages, cited, 5 - -Hastu-huaraca. Chieftain of the Antahuayllas; defeated by Pachacutic, -284-285; - joins with Pachacutic, 285 - -Henry VII. His patronage of early American explorers, 6 - -Hernandez, Father. And the goddess Ix chebel yax, 170 - -House of Bats. Abode of the bat-god, 171; - mentioned in Popol Vuh myth, 226 - -House of Cold. In the Kiche Hades, 226 - -House of Darkness. Ruin at Aké, 186 - -House of Feathers. Toltec edifice, 15 - -House of Fire. In the Kiche Hades, 226 - -House of Gloom. In the Kiche Hades, 221, 225 - -House of Lances. In the Kiche Hades, 226 - -House of Tigers. In the Kiche Hades, 226 - -Hrdlicka, Dr. And Mexican cliff-dwellings, 24 - -Huacaquan. Mountain; in the myth of origin of the Canaris, 318 - -Huacas. Sacred objects of the Peruvians, 294 - -Huaina Ccapac (The Young Chief). Eleventh Inca, 7, 288-289; - and the lake-goddess of Titicaca, 299 - -Huamantantac. Peruvian deity responsible for the gathering of -sea-birds, 296 - -Huanca. Peruvian race; allied against the Incas, 282, 285 - -Huancas. Agricultural fetishes of the Peruvians, 294 - -Huantay-sara. Idol representing the tutelary spirit of the maize -plant, 295 - -Huarcans. The Inca Tupac and, 288 - -Huarco (The Gibbet). The valley of; the Inca Tupac and the natives -of, 288 - -Huaris (Great Ones). Ancestors of the aristocrats of a tribe in Peru; -reverence paid to, 296 - -Huarochiri. Village; in Coniraya myth, 323 - -Huascar, or Tupac-cusi-huallpa (The Sun makes Joy). Son of the Inca -Huaina Ccapac, 7; - strives for the crown with Atauhuallpa, 289-290 - -Huasteca. Aboriginal Mexican race of Maya stock, 23, 147-148; - probably represent early Maya efforts at colonisation, 147 - -Huatenay. River in Peru; runs through the Intipampa at Cuzco, 261 - -Huathiacuri. A hero, son of Paricaca; a myth of, 324-326 - -Huatulco. Place in Mexico; Toltecs at, 12 - -Huehuequauhtitlan. Place in Mexico; Quetzalcoatl at, 64 - -Huehueteotl (Oldest of Gods). A name of the Mexican fire-god, 95 - -Huehue Tlapallan (Very Old Tlapallan). In Toltec creation-myth, 119 - -Huehuetzin. Toltec chieftain; rebels against Acxitl, 18, 19 - -Huemac II. Toltec king, 15, 16; - abdicates, 17; - opposes Huehuetzin, 19 - -Huexotzinco. Mexican city, 48, 49 - -Huexotzincos. Aztec tribe, 233 - -Hueymatzin (Great Hand). Toltec necromancer and sage, 14; - reputed author of the Teo-Amoxtli, 46; - and Quetzalcoatl, 84 - -Hueytozoztli (The Great Watch). Festival of Chicomecohuatl, 86 - -Huichaana. Zapotec deity; in creation-myth, 121, 122 - -Huillcamayu (Huillca-river). River in Peru; regarded as an oracle, 296 - -Huillcanuta. Place in Peru, 311 - -Huillcas. Sacred objects of the nature of oracles, in Peru, 296 - -Huitzilimitzin. In the story of the vicious princess, 130 - -Huitzilopocho. Mexican city, 50 - -Huitzilopochtli (Humming-bird to the Left). Aztec god of war, -originally a chieftain, 28, 70; - and the foundation of Mexico, 28; - the great temple of, at Mexico, 30, 31; - plots against the Toltecs and Quetzalcoatl, 60; - and the legend of the amusing infant and the pestilence, 63-64; - myth of the origin of, 70-72; - associated with the serpent and the humming-bird, 72-73; - as usually represented, 73; - associated with the gladiatorial stone, 73; - as Mexitli, 74; - as serpent-god of lightning, associated with the summer, 74; - in connection with Tlaloc, 74; - the Toxcatl festival of, 74; - the priesthood of, 75; - in connection with the legend of the sacrificed princess, 124 - -Hun-Apu (Master, or Magician). A hero-god, twin with Xbalanque; -in a Kiche myth, 211-219; - in the myth in the second book of the Popol Vuh, 220, 223-227; - mentioned, 237 - -Hun-Came. One of the rulers of Xibalba, the Kiche Hades, 220, 221, 224 - -Hunabku. God of the Maya, representing divine unity, 171 - -Hunac Eel. Ruler of the Cocomes, 155 - -Hunbatz. Son of Hunhun-Apu, 220, 222, 223 - -Hunchouen. Son of Hunhun-Apu, 220, 222, 223 - -Hunhun-Apu. Son of Xpiyacoc and Xmucane; in the myth in the second -book of the Popol Vuh, 220-222, 224, 225, 227 - -Hunpictok (Commander-in-Chief of Eight Thousand Flints). The palace -of, at Itzamal, 187-188 - -Hunsa. City at which the Zoque of the Chibchas lived, 276 - -Hurakan (The One-legged). Maya god of lightning; - prototype of Tlaloc, 76, 78; - the mustachioed image of, at Itzamal, 188; - = the mighty wind, in the Kiche story of the creation, 209; - and the creation of man in the second book of the Popol Vuh, 229-230; - probably same as Nahua Tezcatlipoca, 237; - his sub-gods, 237 - - - -I - -Icutemal. Ruler of the Kiche, 159 - -Ilhuicatlan (In the Sky). Column in temple at Mexico, connected with -the worship of the planet Venus, 96 - -Illatici (The Thunder Vase). Peruvian deity representing the -thunderstorm, 301 - -Inca Roca. Sixth Inca, 283 - -Incas (People of the Sun). The Peruvian ruling race; a composite -people, 254; - place of origin, 254; - inferior to the Mexicans in general culture, 248; - mythology of, 255-258, 317-327; - character of their civilisation, 259; - no personal freedom, 260; - age of marriage, 260; - their system of mummification, 262-264; - severity of their legal code, 264; - social system, 264-265; - calendar, 265-266; - religious festivals, 267; - architecture, 268-269; - architectural remains, 270-273; - irrigation works, 273; - possessed no system of writing, 278; - the quipos, 278-279; - as craftsmen, 279-281; - the pottery of, 280-281; - period and extent of their dominion, 281-282; - fusion of the constituent peoples, 285-286; - splitting of the race, 286; - their despotism, 290; - religion of, 291; - sun-worship of, 307-313 - -Incas. The rulers of Peru, 282-290; - the Inca the representative of the sun, 260; - unlimited power of, 260; - the moon the mythic mother of the dynasty, 262 - -Inti-huasi. Building sacred to the sun in Peruvian villages, 308 - -Intihuatana. Inca device for marking the date of the sun-festivals, 265 - -Intip Raymi (Great Feast of the Sun). Peruvian festival, 267, 311-312 - -Intipampa (Field of the Sun). Garden in which the Coricancha of Cuzco -stood, 260-261 - -Ipalnemohuani (He by whom Men Live). Mexican name of the sun-god, 97 - -Iqi-Balam (Tiger of the Moon). One of the first men of the Popol Vuh -myth, 229, 230 - -Irma. District in Peru; local creation-myth of, 258-259 - -Itzaes. A warlike race, founders of Chichen-Itza, 153 - -Itzamal. Maya city-state in Yucatan, 8, 152, 154; - ruins at, 187-188 - -Itzamna. Maya moon-god, father of gods and men, tutelar of the west, -170; - founder of the state of Itzamal, 152; - God D probably is, 173; - the temple of, at Itzamal, 187; - called also Kab-ul (The Miraculous Hand), 187; - the gigantic image of, at Itzamal, 188 - -Ix. A minor Maya deity, 170 - -Ix chebel yax. Maya goddess; identified with Virgin Mary by Hernandez, -170 - -Ix ch'el. Maya goddess of medicine, 170 - -Ixcoatl. Mexican king, 35 - -Ixcuiname. Mexican goddesses of carnal things, 108 - -Ixtlilton (The Little Black One). Mexican god of medicine and healing, -112; - called brother of Macuilxochitl, 112 - -Ixtlilxochitl, Don Fernando de Alva. Mexican chronicler, 11, 46; - account of the early Toltec migrations, 11, 12; - and myths of the Toltecs, 13; - reference to the Teo-Amoxtli, 45; - his Historia Chichimeca and Relaciones, 46, 58; - his value as historian, 46; - legend of the creation related by, 119-120 - -Izimin Chac. The image of Cortés' horse, 195 - -Izpuzteque. Demon in the Mexican Other-world, 38 - -Iztacmixcohuatl. Father of Quetzalcoatl, 79 - - - -J - -Jaguar-Snake. Mixtec deer-goddess; in creation-myth, 120 - -Jalisco. Mexican province; cliff-dwellings in, 24, 25 - - - -K - -Kabah. Maya city; ruins at, 190-191 - -Kab-ul (The Miraculous Hand). Name given to Itzamna, 187 - -Kakchiquel dialect, 145 - -Kakchiquels. A Maya people of Guatemala, 157-159; - and the episode of the defeat of Cay Hun-Apu, 159 - -"Kamucu" (We see). The song of the Kiche at the first appearance of -the sun, and at death of the first men, 232 - -Kan. A minor Maya deity, 170 - -Kanikilak. Indian deity, 83, 84 - -Ki Pixab (Corner of the Earth). Name given by the Kiche to their land -of origin, 254 - -Kiche. A Maya people of Guatemala, 157-159; - their rulers supreme in Guatemala, 158; - their story of the creation as related in the Popol Vuh, 209; - origin of, as related in the Popol Vuh, 229-230; - fond of ceremonial dances and chants, 238 - -Kiche (or Quiche) dialect, 145, 209; - the Popol Vuh originally written in, 207, 209 - -"Kingdom of the Great Snake." Semi-historical Maya empire, 144 - -Kinich-ahau (Lord of the Face of the Sun). Same as Arara and -Kinich-Kakmo. Sun-god of the Maya of Yucatan, tutelar of the north, 170 - -Kinich-Kakmo (Sun-bird). - I. Same as Kinich-ahau, which see. - II. The pyramid of, ruin at Itzamal, 187 - -Klaproth, H. J. von. And the Fu Sang fallacy, 3 - -Knuc (Palace of Owls). Ruin at Aké, 186 - -Kuicatecs. Aboriginal Mexican race, 24; - a medium through which Maya civilisation filtered to the north, 147 - -Kukulcan. Maya form of Quetzalcoatl, 83, 167; - regarded as King of Mayapan, 152 - -Kumsnöotl. God of the Salish Indians, 83 - - - -L - -Lamacazton (Little Priests). Lowest order of the Aztec priesthood, 116 - -Landa, Bishop. And the Maya alphabet, 161; - discovers the Maya numeral system, 165 - -"Lands of the Sun." Name given to Inca territories, 308 - -Language. Mexican or Nahuan, 42-43, 342; - Mayan, 161, 342; - Peruvian, 342 - -Le Plongeon, Dr. Augustus. His theories as to the Maya, 239; - and the Maya hieroglyphs, 239; - his story of Queen Móo, 239-247 - -Leguicano, Mancio Serra de. And the golden plate from the Coricancha, -262 - -Liyobaa. Village near Mitla; mentioned by Father Burgoa, 204 - -Lizana, Father. And the prophecy of Chilan Balam, 8 - -Llama. Importance of, among the Incas, 268 - -Lloque Yupanqui. The third Inca, 283 - -Lorillard. Maya city; architectural remains found at, 195 - - - -M - -Macuilxochitl (or Xochipilli) (Five-Flower, Source of Flowers). God -of luck in gaming, 103; - Ixtlilton called brother of, 112 - -Madoc. The legend of, 5, 6 - -Mahacutah (The Distinguished Name). One of the first men of the Popol -Vuh myth, 229, 230 - -Maize-gods. Mexican, 85-91; - Peruvian, 295 - -Mallinalcas. Aztec tribe, 233 - -Mama Oullo Huaca. Wife of Manco Ccapac, 256 - -Mama-cocha (Mother-sea). Conception under which the Peruvians -worshipped the sea, 306 - -Mamacota. Name given to Lake Titicaca by people of the Collao, 298 - -Mamacuna. Matrons who had charge of the Acllacuna, in Peru, 313 - -Mamapacha (or Pachamama). The Peruvian earth-goddess, 303 - -Mamas (Mothers). Tutelary spirits of the maize and other plants in -Peru, 295 - -Mames. District in Guatemala, 158 - -Man of the Sun. Quetzalcoatl as, 81; - other conceptions of, 83 - -Manco. The Inca appointed by Pizarro; and an oracle, 302-303 - -Manco Ccapac. - I. Divine being, son of the Life-giver; sent to instruct the - primitive Peruvians, 255-256; - a legend in connection with, 256. - II. The first Inca, identical with the foregoing, 282, 283; - regarded as son of the sun, 306; - a myth of, 320-321 - -Mani. Mexican city, founded by the Tutul Xius, 155 - -Mannikins. In the Kiche story of the creation related in the Popol -Vuh, 209-210 - -Markham, Sir Clements. On Inca architecture, 269 - -Matlatzincas. Aztec tribe, 233 - -Maxtla. - I. King of the Tecpanecs; and Nezahualcoyotl, 125-128. - II. A noble; in the story of the vicious princess, 130 - -Maya. The most highly civilised of ancient American peoples, 1, 143; - their culture erroneously stated to be of Asiatic origin, 1; - theory as to Toltec relationship, 143; - sphere of the civilisation, 144; - the nucleus of the civilisation, 144-145, 149; - the dialects, 145; - origin of the race, 145; - their civilisation self-developed, 143, 146; - blood and cultural relationships with Nahua, 146-147; - efforts at expansion, 147-148; - climatic influence on the civilisation and religion, 148; - sources of their history, 148-149; - division of the aristocratic and labouring classes, 150; - influence of the Nahua invasions, 151; - cleavage between Yucatan and Guatemala peoples, 151; - the Yucatec race, 151-152; - incidents in migration myths represent genuine experience, 152; - the race in Guatemala, 157; - the writing system, 159-166; - the manuscripts, 160-161; - the numeral system, 165; - the mythology, 166-169, 207-247; - the calendar, 38, 39, 169; - the pantheon, 168, 170-177; - architecture, 178-198; - relationship of the mythology to that of the Nahua, 166; - Dr. Le Plongeon's theories as to, 239 - -Mayapan. City-state in Yucatan, 152; - rises into prominence, 153, 155; - overthrown by allies, 156 - -Mayta Ccapac. The fourth Inca, 283 - -Meahuan, Mount. In the Kiche myth of Vukub-Cakix, 216 - -Medicine-men. Account of the methods of, among Peruvians, 314-315 - -Metztli (or Yohualticitl) (The Lady of Night). Mexican goddess of -the moon, 106; - in myth of Nanahuatl, 93, 106 - -Mexicatl Teohuatzin (Mexican Lord of Divine Matters). Head of the -Aztec priesthood, 116 - -Mexico. - I. The city; capital of the Aztecs, native name Tenochtitlan, 26, 47; - origin of the name, 73; - said to have been founded by Acolhuans, 26; - Huitzilopochtli and, 28, 73; - legends of the foundation of, 28-29; - at the period of the conquest, 29-30; - the annual "bloodless battle" with Tlascala, 48. - II. The state; the civilisation of, 1, 9; - possibly reached by early Norsemen, 5 - -Mexico-Tenochtitlan. Native name of city of Mexico, 29 - -Mexitli (Hare of the Aloes). A name of Huitzilopochtli, 74 - -Mictecaciuatl. Wife of Mictlan, 96 - -Mictlan (or Mictlantecutli) (Lord of Hades). - I. Mexican god of the dead and the underworld, 37, 76, 95-96; - God A probably identical with, 173. - II. The abode of the god Mictlan; Mitla identified with, 198. - III. Village mentioned by Torquemada, 199 - -Migration Myths. Probably reflect actual migrations, 234-235 - -Mitla. Maya city, 31, 144; - ruins at, 197-198; - identified with Mictlan, the Mexican Hades, 198; - description of, by Father Torquemada, 199; - description of, by Father Burgoa, 199-206 - -Mixcoatl (Cloud Serpent). Aztec god of the chase, 110-111; - Camaxtli identified with, 111 - -Mixe. Aboriginal Mexican race, 24 - -Mixteca. Aboriginal Mexican race, 23; - creation-myth of, 120-121; - a medium through which Maya civilisation passed north, 147 - -Moche. Place in Peru; sepulchral mound at, 271 - -Mohanes (or Agoreros). Members of Peruvian tribes who claimed power -as oracles, 297-298, 314 - -Moneneque (The Claimer of Prayer). A name of Tezcatlipoca, 67 - -Montezuma II. Mexican emperor, native name Motequauhzoma; mentioned, -35, 44; - and the coming of Cortés, 7; - in the story of Tlalhuicole, 136-137; - in the story of Princess Papan, 139-142 - -Móo, Queen. The story of, 239-247 - -Moon, The. Mythic mother of the Inca dynasty, 262; - temple of, at Cuzco, 261-262; - wife of the sun, in the mythology of the Chibchas, 276 - -Muluc. A minor Maya deity, 170 - -Mummification. Among the Peruvians, 262-264 - - - -N - -Nadaillac, Marquis de. Account of the use of quipos, 278-279 - -Nahua (Those who live by Rule). Ancient Mexican race, 9; - civilisation, features in, and character of, 9, 146, 148; - compared with Oriental peoples, 10; - meaning of the name, 10; - place of origin, 10-11; - route of migrations to Mexico, 12; - theory of Toltec influence upon, 22; - and cliff-dwellers, 24-25; - territories occupied by, 25; - writing system of, 34-35; - calendric system of, 38-41; - language of, 42-43; - science of, 43; - form of government, 43-44; - domestic life of, 44-45; - distribution of the component tribes, 47; - authentic history of the nation, 48-53; - religion, 54; - Tezcatlipoca and, 67; - influence of the Maya civilisation upon, 147; - culture and religion influenced by climatic conditions, 148; - invade Maya territory, 150-151; - influence Maya cleavage, 151; - in the Maya conflict in Guatemala, 159; - the relationship of the mythology of, to that of the Maya, 166; - difference in sun-worship of, from Peruvian, 307-308 - -Nahuatlatolli. The Nahua tongue, 25 - -Nanahuatl (Poor Leper) (or Nanauatzin). Mexican god of skin diseases, -93; - the myth of, 93; - Xolotl probably identical with, 93 - -Nanauatzin. Same as Nanahuatl, which see - -Nanihehecatl. Form of Quetzalcoatl, 84 - -Nata. The Mexican Noah, 122-123 - -Nauhollin (The Four Motions). Mexican sacrificial ceremonies, 99 - -Nauhyotl. Toltec ruler of Colhuacan, 20 - -Nemontemi (unlucky days). In Mexican calendar, 39, 40 - -Nena. Wife of Nata, the Mexican Noah, 122-123 - -Nexiuhilpilitztli (binding of years). In Mexican calendar, 39, 40 - -Nextepehua. Fiend in the Mexican Other-world, 38 - -Nezahualcoyotl (Fasting Coyote). King of Tezcuco; the story of, -125-128; - his enlightened rule, 128; - as a poet, 128; - his theology, 128; - and his son's offence, 129; - his palace, 132; - his villa of Tezcotzinco, 133-136 - -Nezahualpilli (The Hungry Chief). - I. A manifestation of Tezcatlipoca, 66. - II. Son of Nezahualcoyotl; story of his wife's crime, 129-132; - in the story of Princess Papan, 140 - -Nima-Kiche. The ancestor of the Kiche race; the legend of, 158 - -Ninxor-Carchah. Place in Guatemala; mentioned in Popol Vuh myth, 224 - -Nitiçapoloa. Ceremony connected with worship of Centeotl the son, 90 - -Nonohualco. Place in Mexico; Tutul Xius may have come from, 153 - -Norsemen. Voyages of the, to America, 5 - -Nunnery. The ruin at Chichen-Itza, 189-190 - - - -O - -Obsequies. In Peru; a description of, 316-317 - -Ocosingo. Ruined Maya city, 149 - -Ollanta. Inca chieftain; in the drama Apu-Ollanta, 251-253 - -Ollantay-tampu. Prehistoric ruins at, 250-251; - Apu-Ollanta, the drama legend of, 251-253 - -Omacatl (Two Reeds). Mexican god of festivity, 112-113 - -Omeciuatl. Mexican mother god of the human species, associated with -Ometecutli, 103-104, 118; - Xmucane the Kiche equivalent of, 236 - -Ometecutli (Two-Lord). Father god of the human species, associated -with Omeciuatl, 103-104, 118; - Xpiyacoc the Kiche equivalent of, 236 - -Ometochtli. - I. A pulque-god, 104. - II. A day in the Mexican calendar, 105 - -Opochtli (The Left-handed). Mexican god of fishers and bird-catchers, -113-114 - -Oracles in Peru, 296-297; - a legend connected with an oracle, 302-303 - -Otomi. Aboriginal Mexican race, 23, 25, 50 - -Owen, Guttyn. Mentioned, 6 - -Oxford Codex, 37 - - - -P - -Paapiti. Island on Lake Titicaca; Huaina Ccapac and the lake-goddess -and, 299 - -Pacari Tampu (House of the Dawn). Place of origin of four brothers -and sisters who initiated the systems of worship and civilised Peru, -305, 307 - -Pacaw. A sorcerer mentioned in Popol Vuh myth, 227 - -Paccariscas. Holy places of origin of the Peruvian tribes, 292, -293, 305 - -Pachacamac. - I. The supreme divinity of the Incas, known also as Pacharurac, - 257, 303-304; - not a primitive conception, 257; - in the local creation-myth of Irma, 258-259; - the Ccapac Raymi the national festival of, 267; - Yatiri the Aymara name for, 299; - symbol of, in the Coricancha, 304; - regarded as son of the sun, 306; - daughters of, in the Coniraya myth, 323. - II. Sacred city of the Incas, 310; - ruins of, 273; - in the Coniraya myth, 322 - -Pachacamama (Earth-Mother). Name given by the Incas to their conception -of the earth, 257 - -Pachacta unanchac. Inca device for determining the solstices, 265-266 - -Pachacutic (or Yupanqui Pachacutic) (He who changes the World). Ninth -Inca; in the drama Apu-Ollanta, 251-252; - defeats Hastu-huaraca, 282, 284-285; - formerly known as Yupanqui, 285; - his extensive dominion, 286; - his achievements as ruler, 286-287; - a man like the Mexican Nezahualcoyotl, 291; - and the legend of the stones that turned into warriors, 294; - and the thunder-god, 300; - and the conception of the creator, 304; - introduces sun-worship, 308; - the vision of, 317-318 - -Pachamama (or Mamapacha) (Earth-Mother). The Peruvian earth-goddess, -303 - -Pacharurac. A name of Pachacamac, which see - -Pachayachachic. A form of Pachacamac, regarded as direct ruler of -the universe, 299, 304; - Viracocha called, 307 - -"Palace of Owls." Ruin at Aké, 186 - -Palace, The, at Palenque, 183-185 - -Palenque. Maya city, 144, 149, 182-186; - the Palace at, 183-185; - Temple of Inscriptions at, 185; - Temple of the Sun, 185; - Temple of the Cross, 185; - Temple of the Cross No. II, 186; - "Tablet of the Cross" at, 161, 185-186 - -Palpan. Hill near Tollan; excavations at, 34 - -Papantzin. Sister of Montezuma II; the story of her return from the -tomb, 139-142 - -Papaztac (The Nerveless). A pulque-god, 104 - -Pariacaca. - I. A name of the Peruvian thunder-god, 299-300; - and the lake of Pariacaca, 300. - II. The lake of, 300 - -Paricaca. A hero, father of Huathiacuri; in the Huathiacuri myth, -324-326; - in a flood-myth, 326-327; - and the Choque Suso myth, 327 - -Paris (or Tellerio-Remensis) Codex, 37 - -Patecatl. A pulque-god, 104 - -"Path of the Dead, The," at Teotihuacan, 33 - -Payne, E. J. On the origin of the Maya culture, 1; - on the origin of the Nahua, 10; - on the Toltecs, 21; - on the Teoyaominqui fallacy, 88-90 - -Peru. The civilisation of, 1, 248-290; - the country, 248-249; - the people, 253-255; - the mythology, 255-259, 291-327; - government, 259-260, 290; - laws and customs, 264-265; - the calendar, 265-266; - the festivals, 267; - architecture and architectural remains, 259, 268-273; - irrigation works, 273; - no writing or numeral system, 278; - craftsmanship, 259, 279-281; - history, 281-290; - religion, 291-313; - human sacrifice, 313 - -Peten-Itza. Maya city, founded by a prince of Chichen-Itza, 156; - the incident of Cortés and his horse at, 195-196; - a city "filled with idols," 196 - -Petlac. Place mentioned in myth of Huitzilopochtli's origin, 72 - -Piedras Negras. Ruined Maya city, 149 - -"Pigeon House." Ruin at Uxmal, 194 - -Piguerao. Peruvian deity, brother of Apocatequil; in a creation-myth, -301 - -Pillan. Thunder-god of aborigines of Chile, analogous to Tlaloc, 78 - -Pillco-puncu. Door to be passed before reaching Rock of Titicaca, 311 - -Pinturas. Mexican hieroglyphs, or picture-writing, 7, 34-37 - -Pipil dialect, 145 - -Piqui-Chaqui (Flea-footed). Servant of Ollanta, 251 - -Pissac. Ruined Inca fortress at, 250 - -Pitu Salla. Guardian of Yma Sumac, 253 - -Pizarro, Francisco. Conqueror of Peru, 255 - -Pizarro, Pedro. Cousin of Francisco Pizarro, 262 - -"Place of Fruits." Valley in which Tollan stood, 14 - -Pleiades. Kiche myth of the origin of, 215 - -Pocomams. District in Guatemala, 158 - -Popocatepetl. The mountain; sacred to Tlaloc, 77 - -Popolcan. Aboriginal Mexican race, 24 - -"Popol Vuh" (The Collection of Written Leaves). A volume of Maya-Kiche -mythology and history, 152, 157, 158; - description, 207-209; - genuine character, 208; - probable date of composition, 235; - antiquity, 236, 238; - the gods and others mentioned in, 236-237; - probably a metrical composition originally, 237-238. - The first book: - The creation, 209; - the downfall of man, 209-210; - story of Vukub-Cakix, 210-213; - the undoing of Zipacna, 213-216; - the overthrow of Cabrakan, 216-219; - the creation-story probably the result of the fusion of several - myths, 235. - The second book: - Hunhun-Apu and Vukub-Hunapu descend to the Underworld, 220-221; - Hunhun-Apu and Xquiq, 222; - birth and exploits of Hun-Apu and Xbalanque, 223-224; - the hero-brothers in Xibalba, and the discomfiture of the Lords - of Hell, 225-227; - the conception in this book common to other mythologies, 228; - the savage dread of death probably responsible for the conception - of its vanquishment, 228; - other sources of the myth, 228. - The third book: - Man is created, 229; - woman is created, 230; - gods are vouchsafed to man, 230; - Tohil provides fire, 230-231; - the race is confounded in speech and migrates, 231; - the sun appears, 231; - death of the first men, 232; - resemblance of the myth to those of other American peoples, 232; - similarity of the migration-story to others, 233-234; - probable origin of the migration-myth, 234-235. - The fourth book, 238-239 - -Potosi. Peruvian city, 248 - -Powel. History of Wales, cited, 5 - -Poyauhtecatl, Mount. In Quetzalcoatl myth, 65 - -Ppapp-Hol-Chac (The House of Heads and Lightnings). Ruin at Itzamal, -187 - -Priesthood, Mexican, 114-117; - power of, 114; - beneficent ministrations of, 115; - revenues of, 115; - education conducted by, 115-116; - orders of, 116; - rigorous existence of, 116-117 - -Pucara. Peruvian fortress-city; leader in the Huanca alliance, 282 - -Pueblo Indians. Probably related to Nahua, 24 - -Pulque. The universal Mexican beverage, 45 - -Pulque-gods, 104-105 - -Puma-puncu. Door to be passed before reaching Rock of Titicaca, 311 - -Puma-Snake. Mixtec deer-god; in creation-myth, 120 - -Pumatampu. Place in Peru; Inca Roca defeats the Conti-suyu at, 283 - -Purunpacha. The period after the deluge when there was no king, -in Peru, 324 - -Pyramid of Sacrifice. Ruin at Uxmal, 194 - - - -Q - -Quäaqua. Sun-god of the Salish Indians, 83 - -Quacamayo Birds. In a myth of the Canaris Indians, 319 - -Quaquiutl. Indian tribe, 83 - -Quatlapanqui (The Head-splitter). A pulque-god, 104 - -Quatavita, The Lake of. The Chibchas and, 276 - -Quauhquauhtinchan (House of the Eagles). Sacrifice to the sun in, 99 - -Quauhtitlan. Place mentioned in legend of Quetzalcoatl's journey from -Tollan, 64 - -Quauhxicalli (Cup of the Eagles). Mexican sacrificial stone, 99, 100 - -Quauitleua. Festival of Tlaloc, 77 - -Quauitlicac. In myth of Huitzilopochtli's origin, 71, 72 - -Quemada. Place in Mexico; cyclopean ruins at, 32 - -Quenti-puncu. Door to be passed before reaching Rock of Titicaca, 311 - -Quetzalcoatl ("Feathered Serpent" or "Feathered Staff"). The Kukulcan -of the Maya, god of the sun, the wind, and thunder, common to Mexican -and Maya mythologies; Mexican legend of, 6-7; - probably cognate with Yetl, 12; - king of the Toltecs in Nahua myth, 21; - Tezcatlipoca and, 60, 79; - Huitzilopochtli, Tezcatlipoca, and Tlacahuepan plot against, 60; - quits Tollan and proceeds to Tlapallan, 64-65, 79; - probably a god of pre-Nahua people, 78; - "Father of the Toltecs," 79; - enlightened sway as ruler of Tollan, 79; - consequences of his exile, 79; - legend of, in connection with the morning star, 80, 96; - whether rightly considered god of the sun, 80; - conception of, as god of the air, 80; - as wind-god and god of fire and light, 80-81; - whether originating from a "culture-hero," 81; - the "St. Thomas" idea, 81; - as Man of the Sun, 81-82; - as usually represented, 82; - regarded as a liberator, 82; - various conceptions of, 82-84, 167; - probable northern origin, 83; - Hueymatzin and, 84; - the worship of, 84-85; - the priesthood of, 116; - place in the Mexican calendar, 122; - vogue among Maya, 144, 167; - regarded as foreign to the soil in Mexico, 167; - differences in the Maya and Nahua conceptions of, 167; - called Kukulcan by the Maya, 167; - called Gucumatz in Guatemala, 167, 236; - God B probably is, 173 - -Quetzalpetlatl. Female counterpart of Quetzalcoatl, 79 - -Quiche. Same as Kiche, which see - -Quichua. Peruvian race, 254-255; - fusion of, with Aymara, 285-286 - -Quichua-Aymara. The Inca race. See Incas - -Quichua Chinchay-suyu. One of the four racial divisions of ancient -Peru, 255 - -Quinames. Earth-giants; in Toltec creation-myth, 120 - -Quineveyan. Grotto, mentioned in Aztec migration-myth, 233 - -Quinuamama. Guardian spirit of the quinua plant, in Peru, 295 - -Quipos. Cords used by the Incas for records and communications, -278-279; - account of the use of, by the Marquis de Nadaillac, 278-279 - -Quito. Sometime centre of the northern district of Peru, 286, 289 - - - -R - -Raxa-Cakulha. A sub-god of Hurakan, 237 - -Religion. - I. Of the Nahua, 54-55; - the worship of one god, 58-59. - II. Of the Peruvians, 291; - inferior to the Mexican, 248; - the legend relating to the evolution of, 305-306 - -Riopampa. Sometime centre of the northern district of Peru, 286 - -Rosny, Léon de. Research on the Maya writing by, 161-162 - -Rumi-ñaui. Inca general; in the drama Apu-Ollanta, 252-253 - - - -S - -Sacrifice, Human. In connection with Teotleco festival, 69; - with Toxcatl festival, 69-70; - with Tlaloc, 76-77; - displaced by "substitution of part for whole," 85, 116; - in the Xalaquia festival, 87; - in connection with Xipe, 92; - Xolotl the representative of, 93; - in worship of the planet Venus, 96; - in sun-worship, 98-100, 101; - the keynote of Nahua mythology, 166; - among the Maya, 166; - at Mitla, described by Father Burgoa, 202-203; - among the Chibchas, 276; - in Peru, 313 - -Sacrificed Princess, the legend of the, 123-124 - -Sacsahuaman. Inca fortress; the ruins of, 250; - built by Pachacutic, 287 - -Sahagun, Father Bernardino. His work on Mexican lore, 56-57; - account of the Teotleco festival, 68-69; - account of a confession ceremony, 106-108 - -Salish Indians, 83 - -"Salvador," The. A curious Inca vase, 281 - -San Carlos. The University of, in Guatemala; the lost Popol Vuh found -in, 207 - -San Lorenzo. Village; in a myth of Paricaca, 327 - -Saramama. Guardian spirit of the maize plant, in Peru, 295 - -Schellhas, Dr. And the Maya writing, 162; - and names of the Maya deities, 168 - -Scherzer, Dr. C. Finds the lost Popol Vuh, 207 - -Sea. Worshipped by the Peruvians as Mama-cocha, 306 - -Seler, Dr. On Quetzalcoatl, 80-81; - on Xolotl, 93-94; - and the Maya writing, 162, 164; - on God K, 175-176; - on God P, 177; - on Mitla and the origin of the American race, 198 - -Serpent. Varied significance of the, 72, 74, 76; - association of Huitzilopochtli with, 72-73; - associated with the bird, 73 - -Seven Caverns. Myth of the, 123 - -Sierra Nevada (Mountain of Snow). In legend of Quetzalcoatl's -migration, 65 - -Sinchi Roca (Wise Chief). The second Inca, 283 - -Skinner, J. Account of the discovery of a wooden cross, 274-275; - on mohanes, 297-298; - account of the methods of medicine men in Peru, 314-315; - account of obsequies among a Peruvian tribe, 315-317 - -Släalekam. Sun-god of the Salish Indians, 83 - -Sondor-huasi. An Inca building bearing a thatched roof, 269 - -Soto, Hernando de. Mentioned, 7 - -Squier, E. G. On the Coricancha, 261 - -Stephens, J. L. Legend of the dwarf related by, 192-194; - story of the unknown city, 195 - -Stones, worship of, in Peru, 292-293 - -Suarez. Lorillard City discovered by, 195 - -Sun. Prophecy as to coming of white men from, 7; - symbolised as a serpent by Hopi Indians, 82; - pictured as abode of Quetzalcoatl, 82; - "father" of Totonacs, 82; - Quaquiutl myth respecting, 83-84; - worship of the, in Mexico, 97-102; - the supreme Mexican deity, 97; - the heart his special sacrifice, 97; - blood his especial food, 98; - destruction of successive suns, 98; - human sacrifice to, in Mexico, 98-100; - as god of warriors, 99; - conception of the warrior's after-life with, 101; - the feast of Totec, the chief Mexican festival of, 101-102; - the supreme Maya deity, 171; - in Inca creation-myth, 258, 305; - in the mythology of the Chibchas, 276; - worship of, in Peru, 306, 307-313; - the possessions of, and service rendered to, 308-309; - and the Rock of Titicaca, 309-311; - especially worshipped by the aged, 310; - the Intip-Raymi festival of, 311-312; - the Citoc-Raymi festival, 312-313; - human sacrifice to, in Peru, 313 - -Sunrise, Land of. In early American belief, 6 - -"Suns," the Four. In Aztec theology, 55 - -Susur-pugaio. A fountain; and the vision of Yupanqui, 318 - - - -T - -Tabasco. Same as Tlapallan, which see - -"Tablet of the Cross," 161, 185-186 - -Tancah. Maya city, 8 - -Tapac-yauri. The royal sceptre of the Incas, 321 - -Tarahumare. Mexican tribe; and cliff-dwellings, 25 - -Tarma. Place in Peru; Huanca defeated at, 285 - -Tarpuntaita-cuma. Incas who conducted sacrifice, 311 - -Tata (Our Father). A name of the Mexican fire-god, 95 - -Tayasal. Maya city, 196 - -Teatlahuiani. A pulque-god, 104 - -Tecpanecs. Confederacy of Nahua tribes, 26, 50; - significance of the name, 26, 50; - rivals of the Chichimecs, 27; - of Huexotzinco, defeated by Tlascaltecs, 49; - Aztecs allies of, 51; - growth of their empire, 51; - conquer Tezcuco and Chichimecs, 51 - -Tecumbalam. Bird in the Kiche story of the creation, 209 - -Telpochtli (The Youthful Warrior). A name of Tezcatlipoca, 66 - -Temacpalco. Place mentioned in the myth of Quetzalcoatl's journey to -Tlapallan, 65 - -Temalacatl. The Mexican gladiatorial stone of combat, 100 - -Temple of the Cross No. I, The, at Palenque, 185, 186; - No. II, 186 - -Temple of Inscriptions, The, at Palenque, 185 - -Temple of the Sun, The. - I. At Palenque, 185. - II. At Tikal, 196 - -Tenayucan. Chichimec city, 26 - -Tenochtitlan. Same as Mexico, which see - -Teo-Amoxtli (Divine Book). A Nahua native chronicle, 45-46 - -Teocalli. The Mexican temple, 30 - -Teocuinani. Mountain; sacred to Tlaloc, 77 - -Teohuatzin. High-priest of Huitzilopochtli, 75 - -Teotihuacan. Sacred city of the Toltecs, 18, 47; - the fiend at the convention at, 18; - the Mecca of the Nahua races, 32; - architectural remains at, 32, 33; - rebuilt by Xolotl, Chichimec king, 33; - Charnay's excavations at, 33 - -Teotleco (Coming of the Gods). Mexican festival, 68-69 - -Teoyaominqui. Name given to the image of Chicomecohuatl by early -investigators, 88; - Payne on the error, 88-90 - -Tepeolotlec. A distortion of the name of Tepeyollotl, 102 - -Tepeyollotl (Heart of the Mountain). A god of desert places, 102-103; - called Tepeolotlec, 102 - -Tepoxtecatl. The pulque-god of Tepoztlan, 105, 117 - -Tepoztlan. Mexican city, 105 - -Tequechmecauiani. A pulque-god, 104 - -Tequiua. Disguise of Tezcatlipoca, 63 - -Ternaux-Compans, H. Cited, 4 - -Teteoinnan (Mother of the Gods). Mexican maize-goddess, known also -as Tocitzin, and identical with Centeotl the mother, 85, 90 - -Tezcatlipoca (Fiery Mirror). Same as Titlacahuan and Tlamatzincatl. The -Mexican god of the air, the Jupiter of the Nahua pantheon, 37, 59, 67; - tribal god of the Tezcucans, 59; - development of the conception, 59-60; - in legends of the overthrow of Tollan, 60; - adversary of Quetzalcoatl, 60, 79; - plots against Quetzalcoatl, and overcomes him, 60-61; - as Toueyo, and the daughter of Uemac, 61-62; - and the dance at the feast in Tollan, 63; - as Tequiua, and the garden of Xochitla, 63; - and the legend of the amusing infant and the pestilence, 63-64; - as Nezahualpilli, 66; - as Yaotzin, 66; - as Telpochtli, 66; - as usually depicted, 66; - Aztec conception of, as wind-god, 66; - as Yoalli Ehecatl, 66; - extent and development of the cult of, 67-68; - as Moneneque, 67; - and the Teotleco festival, 68-69; - the Toxcatl festival of, 69-70, 74; - in the character of Tlazolteotl, 107, 108 - -Tezcotzinco. The villa of Nezahualcoyotl, 133-136 - -Tezcuco. - I. Chichimec city, 26, 47; - rivalry with Azcapozalco, 49; - its hegemony, 49; - conquered by Tecpanecs, 51; - allied with Aztecs, 52; - Tezcatlipoca the tribal god, 59; - the story of Nezahualcoyotl, the prince of, 125-128. - II. Lake, 26; - in legend of the foundation of Mexico, 28; - the cities upon, 47, 49-50 - -Tezozomoc, F. de A. On Mexican mythology, 58 - -Theozapotlan. Mexican city, 203 - -Thlingit. Indian tribe, 83 - -Thomas, Professor C. Research on Maya writing, 162; - on God L, 176 - -Thomas, St. The Apostle; Cortés believed to be, 7; - associated with the Maya cross, 187, 275; - and the wooden cross found in the valley of the Chichas, 274 - -Thonapa. Son of the creator in Peruvian myth; in connection with -stone-worship, 293; - myths of, 319-320 - -Thunder-god, Peruvian, 299-302 - -Tiahuanaco. Prehistoric city of the Andeans, 249-250; - the great doorway at, 249; - in a legend of Manco Ccapac, 256; - in Inca creation-myth, 258; - and legend of Thonapa the Civiliser, 293 - -Tiçotzicatzin. In the story of Princess Papan, 140 - -Tikal. Maya city; architectural remains at, 196 - -Titicaca. - I. Lake, 249; - settlements of the Quichua-Aymara on the shores of, 254; - Manco Ccapac and Mama Oullo Huaca descend to earth near, 256; - regarded by Peruvians as place where men and animals were created, - 298; - called Mamacota by people of the Collao, 298; - idols connected with, 298-299. - II. Island on Lake Titicaca; - the most sacred of the Peruvian shrines, 270; - ruined palace on, 270; - sacred rock on, the paccarisca of the sun, 293, 309; - sun-worship and the Rock of Titicaca, 309-311; - the Inca Tupac and the Rock, 309-310; - effect on the island of the Inca worship of the Rock, 310; - pilgrimage to, 310-311; - Thonapa on, 320 - -Titlacahuan. Same as Tezcatlipoca, which see - -Titlacahuan-Tezcatlipoca, 123 - -Tiya-manacu. Town in Peru; Thonapa at, 320 - -Tlacahuepan. Mexican deity; plots against Quetzalcoatl, 60; - and the legend of the amusing infant and the pestilence, 63-64 - -Tlachtli. National ball-game of the Nahua and Maya, 33, 220, 224, 227 - -Tlacopan. Mexican city, 26, 50; - Aztecs allied with, 52 - -Tlaelquani (Filth-eater). A name of Tlazolteotl, which see - -Tlalhuicole. Tlascalan warrior; the story of, 136-138 - -Tlaloc. The Mexican rain-god,or god of waters, 29, 75; - and the foundation of Mexico, 29; - in association with Huitzilopochtli, 74; - as usually represented, 75-76; - espoused to Chalchihuitlicue, 75; - Tlalocs his offspring, 75; - Kiche god Hurakan his prototype, 76; - manifestations of, 76; - festivals of, 77; - human sacrifice in connection with, 76-77; - and Atamalqualiztli festival, 77-78; - similarities to, in other mythologies, 78 - -Tlalocan (The Country of Tlaloc). Abode of Tlaloc, 76 - -Tlalocs. Gods of moisture; and Huemac II, 16; - offspring of Tlaloc, 75 - -Tlalxicco (Navel of the Earth). Name of the abode of Mictlan, 95 - -Tlamatzincatl. Same as Tezcatlipoca, which see - -Tlapallan (The Country of Bright Colours). Legendary region, 11; - Nahua said to have originated at, 11; - the Toltecs and, 11; - Quetzalcoatl proceeds to, from Tollan, 64-65, 79 - -Tlapallan, Huehue (Very Old Tlapallan). In Toltec creation-myth, 119 - -Tlapallantzinco. Place in Mexico; Toltecs at, 12 - -Tlascala (or Tlaxcallan). Mexican city, 47, 48; - and the "bloodless battle" with Mexico, 48, 98, 99; - decline, 49 - -Tlascalans. Mexican race, offshoot of the Acolhuans, 26; - helped Cortés against Aztecs, 26, 47 - -Tlauizcalpantecutli (Lord of the Dawn). Name of the planet Venus; -myth of Quetzalcoatl and, 80, 96; - Quetzalcoatl called, 84; - worship of, 96; - in the Mexican calendar, 96 - -Tlaxcallan. Same as Tlascala, which see - -Tlazolteotl (God of Ordure) (or Tlaelquani). Mexican goddess of -confession, 106-108 - -Tlenamacac (Ordinary Priests). Lesser order of the Mexican priesthood, -116 - -Tloque Nahuaque (Lord of All Existence). Toltec deity, 119 - -Tobacco. Use of, among the Nahua, 45 - -Tochtepec. Place in Mexico; Toltecs at, 12 - -Tocitzin (Our Grandmother). See Teteoinnan - -Tohil (The Rumbler). Form of Quetzalcoatl, 84; - guides the Kiche-Maya to their first city, 152; - the god assigned to Balam-Quitze in the Kiche myth of the creation, - 230; - gives fire to the Kiche, 230-231; - turned into stone, 231 - -Tollan. Toltec city, modern Tula; founded, 13, 26; - its magnificence, 14; - afflicted by the gods, 16-17; - Huehuetzin's rebellions, 18, 19; - overthrown, 19; - Charnay's excavations at, 34; - Tezcatlipoca and the overthrow of, 60; - Quetzalcoatl leaves, 64, 79 - -Tollantzinco. City of the Acolhuans, 48; - Toltecs at, 12 - -Toltecs. First Nahua immigrants to Mexico, 11; - whether a real or a mythical race, 11, 20-22; - at Tlapallan, 11, 12; - migration route, 12; - their migration a forced one, 12; - imaginative quality of their myths, 13; - elect a king, 14; - progress in arts and crafts, 14, 23; - under plagues, 17; - their empire destroyed, 19, 20; - and the civilisation of Central America, 20; - Dr. Brinton's theory, 21; - Quetzalcoatl king of, 21; - possible influence upon Nahua civilisation, 22; - Acolhuans may have been, 26; - Tezcatlipoca opposes, and plots against, 60-65; - and creation-myth recounted by Ixtlilxochitl, 119; - theory that the Maya were, 143 - -Tonacaciuatl (Lady of our Flesh). A name of Omeciuatl, which see - -Tonacatecutli (Lord of our Flesh). A name of Ometecutli, which see - -Tonalamatl (Book of the Calendar), 107 - -Torito. A bird-maiden; in the myth of origin of the Canaris, 319 - -Torquemada, Father. His work on Mexican lore, 57; - on Mitla, 199 - -Totec (Our Great Chief). A sun-god, 101-102; - his feast, the chief solar festival, 101-102 - -Totemism. Among the primitive Peruvians, 291-292 - -Totonacs. Aboriginal Mexican race, 23; - and the sun, 82 - -Toueyo. Tezcatlipoca's disguise, 61-63 - -Toveyo. Toltec sorcerer; and the magic drum, 16 - -Toxcatl. Festival; of Tezcatlipoca, 69-70; - of Huitzilopochtli, 74 - -Toxilmolpilia. Mexican calendar ceremony; and the native dread of -the last day, 41 - -Troano Codex. Maya manuscript, 160; - Dr. Le Plongeon and the reference to Queen Móo in, 246 - -Tucuman (World's End). Name given by the Quichua-Aymara to their land -of origin, 254 - -Tulan (or Tulan-Zuiva). City; the starting-point of the Kiche -migrations, 157-158, 231; - the Kiche arrive at, and receive their gods, 230; - parallel with the Mexican Chicomoztoc, 230; - the Kiche confounded in their speech at, 231 - -Tumipampa. Sometime centre of the northern district of Peru, 286, -289, 290 - -Tupac-atau-huallpa (The Sun makes Good Fortune). Son of Huaina -Ccapac, 289 - -Tupac-Yupanqui (Bright). Tenth Inca, son of Pachacutic, 252-253, -287-288; - achievements as ruler, 287; - and the Huarcans, 288; - and the Rock of Titicaca, 309-310 - -Tutul Xius. Ruling caste among the Itzaes; found Ziyan Caan and -Chichen-Itza, 153; - expelled from Chichen-Itza by Cocomes, 153; - settle in Potonchan, build Uxmal, and regain power, 154; - again overthrown, and found Mani, 155; - finally assist in conquering the Cocomes, 156 - -Tzitzimimes. Demons attendant on Mictlan, 96 - -Tzompantitlan. Place mentioned in the myth of Huitzilopochtli's -origin, 71 - -Tzompantli (Pyramid of Skulls). Minor temple of Huitzilopochtli, 31 - -Tzununiha (House of the Water). One of the first women of the Popol -Vuh myth, 230 - -Tzutuhils. A Maya people of Guatemala, 158, 159 - - - -U - -Uayayab. Demon who presided over the nemontemi (unlucky days), 177; - God N identified with, 177 - -Uemac. Tezcatlipoca and the daughter of, 61-63 - -Uitzlampa. Place in Mexico; in myth of Huitzilopochtli's origin, 72 - -Urco-Inca. Inca superseded by Pachacutic, 284 - -Uricaechea, M. His collection of Chibcha antiquities, 277 - -Uxmal. Mexican city, founded by Tutul Xius, 154; - abandoned, 155; - ruins at, 191-194; - primitive type of its architecture, 194 - - - -V - -Vatican MSS., 37; - description of the journey of the soul in, 37-38 - -Vega, Garcilasso el Inca de la. Hist. des Incas, cited, 7; - on the gods of the early Peruvians, 291 - -Venus. The planet; worship of, 96-97; - the only star worshipped by Mexicans, 96; - Camaxtli identified with, 111; - temple of, at Cuzco, 262 - -Vera Cruz. Quetzalcoatl lands at, 6 - -Verapaz. District in Guatemala, 158 - -Vetancurt, A. de. On Mexican mythology, 58 - -Villa-coto. Mountain; in a Peruvian flood-myth, 323-324 - -Villagutierre, J. de Soto-Mayor. And the prophecy of Chilan Balam, 8 - -Viollet-le-Duc, E. On the ruined palace at Mitla, 197 - -Viracocha. - I. Eighth Inca, 284, 318. - II. Peruvian deity; - temple of, at Cacha, 270; - regarded as son of the sun, 306; - worshipped by Quichua-Aymara as a culture hero, and called - Pachayachachic, 307. - III. A higher class of sacred objects of the Peruvians, 294. - IV. Name given to any more than usually sacred being, 301 - -Vitzillopochtli. Same as Huitzilopochtli; in an Aztec migration-myth, -233 - -Voc. A bird, the messenger of Hurakan; in Popol Vuh myth, 225 - -Votan. Maya god, identical with Tepeyollotl; God L probably is, 176 - -Vukub-Cakix (Seven-times-the-colour-of-fire). A sun-and-moon god -(Dr. Seler); in a Kiche myth recounted in the Popol Vuh, 210-213; - possibly an earth-god, 237 - -Vukub-Came. One of the rulers of Xibalba, the Kiche Hades, 220, -221, 224 - -Vukub-Hunapu. Son of Xpiyacoc and Xmucane; in the myth in the second -book of the Popol Vuh, 220-221, 224, 225, 227 - - - -W - -"Wallum Olum." Records of the Leni-Lenape Indians; a migration-myth -in, resembles Kiche and Aztec myths, 233-234 - -Wind-Nine-Cave. Mixtec deity; in creation-myth, 120-121, 122 - -Wind-Nine-Snake. Mixtec deity; in creation-myth, 120-121, 122 - -Women of the Sun. Women dedicated to the service of the sun in -Peru, 308 - -Writing. Of the Nahua, 34-35; - of the Maya, 159-166; - Dr. Le Plongeon and the Maya hieroglyphs, 239 - - - -X - -Xalaquia. - I. Festival of Chicomecohuatl, 86-87. - II. The victim sacrificed at the Xalaquia festival, 87, 90 - -Xalisco. District in Mexico Toltecs in, 12 - -Xaltocan. Mexican city, 50 - -Xan. An animal mentioned in Popol Vuh myth, 225 - -Xaquixahuana. Place in Peru, 284 - -Xauxa. Place in Peru, 285 - -Xbakiyalo. Wife of Hunhun-Apu, 220 - -Xbalanque (Little Tiger). A hero-god, twin with Hun-Apu; in a Kiche -myth, 211-219; - in the myth in the second book of the Popol Vuh, 220, 223-227; - mentioned, 237 - -Xecotcovach. Bird in the Kiche story of the creation, 209 - -Xibalba. - I. A semi-legendary empire of the Maya, 144. - II. The Kiche Hades, "Place of Phantoms"; in the myth in the second - book of the Popol Vuh, 220-222, 225-227; - possible origin of the conception, 229; - properly a "place of the dead," 229; - origin of the name, 229 - -Xibalbans. In the myth in the second book of the Popol Vuh, 221, -225-227; - the originals of, 228-229; - nature of, 229 - -Xilonen. Form of Chicomecohuatl, 85 - -Ximenes, Francisco. Copied and translated the Popol Vuh, 207 - -Xipe (The Flayed). Mexican god, 91-92; - his dress assumed by Aztec monarchs and leaders, 91-92; - Xolotl has affinities with, 95; - God A thought to resemble, 174 - -Xiuhtecutli (Lord of the Year). A name of the Mexican fire-god, 95 - -Xiumalpilli. In Mexican calendar, 40 - -Xiyan Caan. City in Yucatan, 153 - -Xmucane (Female Vigour). The mother-god in the Kiche story of the -creation in the Popol Vuh, 209; - in the Vukub-Cakix myth, 212-213; - in the myth in the second book of the Popol Vuh, 220-225; - equivalent to the Mexican Omeciuatl, 236 - -Xochicalco (The Hill of Flowers). A teocalli near Tezcuco, 33-34 - -Xochimilcos. Aztec tribe, 233 - -Xochipilli. A name of Macuilxochitl, which see - -Xochitla. A flower-garden near Tollan; the legend of Tezcatlipoca -and, 63 - -Xochitonal. Monster in the Mexican Other-world, 38 - -Xochiyayotl (The War of Flowers). Campaign for the capture of victims -for sacrifice, 98-99, 100 - -Xolotl. - I. King of the Chichimecs, 20; - Teotihuacan rebuilt by, 33. - II. A sun-god, 93-94; - of southern origin and foreign to Mexico, 93; - probably identical with Nanahuatl, 93; - representative of human sacrifice, 93; - has affinities with Xipe, 93; - representations of, 94 - -Xpiyacoc. The father god in the Popol Vuh story of the creation, 209; - in the Vukub-Cakix myth, 212-213; - in the myth in the second book of the Popol Vuh, 220; - equivalent to the Mexican Ometecutli, 236 - -Xquiq (Blood). A princess of Xibalba, daughter of Cuchumaquiq; in -Popol Vuh myth, 222 - -Xulu. A sorcerer mentioned in Popol Vuh myth, 227 - - - -Y - -Yacatecutli. Tutelar god of travellers of the merchant class in -Mexico, 114; - the Maya Ekchuah probably parallel with, 177 - -Yahuarhuaccac. Seventh Inca, 283 - -Yahuar-pampa (Plain of Blood). Battle of, 285 - -Yamquisupa. Village; Thonapa and, 319 - -Yanacaca. Rocks; in a myth of Paricaca, 327 - -Yaotzin (The Enemy). A manifestation of Tezcatlipoca, 66 - -Yatiri (The Ruler). Aymara name of Pachacamac in his form of -Pachayachachic; Huaina Ccapac and, 299 - -Year. The Mexican, 39, 40 - -Yetl. God of natives of British Columbia, 12; - probably cognate with Quetzalcoatl, 12, 83 - -Yma Sumac (How Beautiful). Daughter of Curi-Coyllur; in the drama -Apu-Ollanta, 252-253 - -Yoalli Ehecatl (The Night Wind). A manifestation of Tezcatlipoca, 66 - -Yohualticitl. A name of Metztli, which see - -Yolcuat. Form of Quetzalcoatl, 84 - -Yopi. Indian tribe; Xipe adopted from, 92 - -Yucatan. Settlement of the Maya in, 151-152; - architectural remains in, 178 - -Yucay. Inca ruins at, 269 - -Yum Kaax (Lord of the Harvest Fields). Maya deity; God E probably -identical with, 174 - -Yunca. Name given to the tropical and lowland districts of Peru, 255 - -Yupanqui Pachacutic. Ninth Inca, known also as Pachacutic. See -Pachacutic - - - -Z - -Zacatecas. Mexican province, 32 - -Zapoteca. Aboriginal Mexican race, 23; - builders of Mitla, 31; - their calendric system, 38; - and Quetzalcoatl, 84-85; - creation-myth of, 121-122; - Maya influences transmitted to the Nahua through, 147; - in effect a border people, influenced by and influencing Maya and - Nahua, 147; - of Nahua stock, 147 - -Zaque. Aboriginal Mexican race, 24 - -Zipacna (Cockspur or Earth-heaper). Son of Vukub-Cakix; in a Kiche -myth in the Popol Vuh, 211-213, 216 - -Zippa. A chieftain of the Chibchas, 276 - -Zoque. A chieftain of the Chibchas, 276 - -Zotuta. Region in Yucatan inhabited by remnant of Cocomes, 156 - -Zotzilaha Chimalman. The Maya bat-god, called also Camazotz, 171-172 - -Zumarraga. Mexican chronicler, 13 - -Zutugil dialect, 145 - - - - - - - - -NOTES - - -[1] By Payne in The New World called America, London, 1892-99. - -[2] Garcilasso el Inca de la Vega, Hist. des Incas, lib. ix. cap. 15. - -[3] See Payne, History of the New World called America, -vol. ii. pp. 373 et seq. - -[4] See Spence, Civilisation of Ancient Mexico, chap. ii. - -[5] See Civilisation of Ancient Mexico, chap. ii. - -[6] Payne, Hist. New World, vol. ii. p. 430. - -[7] Unknown Mexico, vol. i., 1902; also see Bulletin 30, Bureau of -American Ethnology, p. 309. - -[8] Bulletin 28 of the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology. - -[9] See the author's article on "American Creation-Myths" in the -Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, vol. iv. - -[10] The suffix tzin after a Mexican name denotes either "lord" or -"lady," according to the sex of the person alluded to. - -[11] These words are obviously onomatopoetic, and are evidently -intended to imitate the sound made by a millstone. - -[12] See my remarks on this subject in The Popol Vuh, pp. 41, 52 -(London, 1908). - -[13] Queen Móo and the Egyptian Sphinx (London, 1896). - -[14] Sacred things. - -[15] Skinner's State of Peru, p. 313 (1805). - -[16] This is the name by which he is generally alluded to in Peruvian -history. - -[17] Skinner, State of Peru, p. 275. - -[18] Skinner, State of Peru, pp. 271 et seq. - -[19] See Spence, article "Brazil" in Encyclopædia of Religion and -Ethics, vol. ii. - - - - - - -End of Project Gutenberg's The Myths of Mexico & Peru, by Lewis Spence - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MYTHS OF MEXICO & PERU *** - -***** This file should be named 53080-8.txt or 53080-8.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/3/0/8/53080/ - -Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project -Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously -made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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