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diff --git a/old/52971-0.txt b/old/52971-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index faaa6af..0000000 --- a/old/52971-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1534 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National -Park, by Jack R. Williams - - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - - -Title: The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National Park - - -Author: Jack R. Williams - - - -Release Date: September 3, 2016 [eBook #52971] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - - -***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS OF CARLSBAD CAVERNS -NATIONAL PARK*** - - -E-text prepared by Stephen Hutcheson, xteejx, and the Online Distributed -Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) - - - -Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this - file which includes the original illustrations. - See 52971-h.htm or 52971-h.zip: - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52971/52971-h/52971-h.htm) - or - (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52971/52971-h.zip) - - -Transcriber’s note: - - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). - - - - - -_The National Park Service is dedicated to preserving the scenic, -scientific, and historic heritage of the United States for the benefit -and enjoyment of its people. Help protect your Park from its new exotic -the “LITTERBUG.”_ - - [Illustration: At work] - - -THE INDIANS OF CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK - -by - -JACK R. WILLIAMS - -Cover by Phyllis Freeland Broyles - - - - -CONTENTS - - - Page - Acknowledgements 2 - The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National Park 5 - Early Man 9 - The Carlsbad Basketmakers 10 - The Mescalero Apaches 25 - The Comanches 34 - Bibliography 38 - Footnotes 38 - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - - -This booklet was prepared as an elementary basis for those interested in -the Indians of this section. It is far from complete but if it answers -only one question—the effort was well spent. - -It is rare that research into any subject is done alone. This is no -exception, for many are responsible in their contributions. - -First, without the help, comments and criticism of Erik Reed this paper -would have been nought. Then thanks must go to Charlie Steen and Stanley -Stubbs for their pottery identification which helped establish the -various time phases. - -The persons listed in the bibliography represent the true basis of -learning and I unhesitatingly refer one and all to them. - -To Lynn Coffin for his encouragement and comments, grateful -acknowledgement is made. To Bob Barrel for his help—talk, photos and -all—thanks are extended. - -Especial thanks must go to Mary Pauline Smith for taking care of the -grammatical errors as well as typing the manuscript. And, to Phyllis -Broyles for her art work. - -The map, head sketches and photos not credited are by the author. - - -This is dedicated to my wife, Marie. - - - Copyright 1956 by Jack R. Williams, Carlsbad, New Mexico - - [Illustration: _Map showing distribution of Indian groups_] - - [Illustration: _Natural entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns_] - - - - - THE INDIANS OF - CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK - - -The Indian story of the Park is quite complicated for several reasons. -First, we cannot confine our story to the man-made boundaries of today, -but to the natural geographic features which are mainly the Guadalupe -Mountains. Second, we must deal with more than one group of people and -outside cultural influences of each group. These groups, however, will -be confined mostly to New Mexico and north and west Texas. Then, too, -long periods of time must be taken into consideration. - -So, let us start our story with man’s first entry into the new world -some 15 to 25,000 years ago. Most archaeologists agree that man came -from Asia via the Bering Straits, perhaps by a land bridge or over the -ice. Undoubtedly many migrations over a long period of time were made by -various small groups of peoples. These first people were nomadic -followers of game and perhaps gatherers of seeds. Steadily moving -southward, they eventually reached what is now southeastern New Mexico -and north and west Texas. How long they lived here, where they went and -who their ancestors were are unknown. Theory plus material evidence -suggest that they may have evolved into what archaeologists call the -Cochise complex to Basketmaker to Pueblo, with deviations in all groups. -Yet, at the present time there is not enough evidence this last happened -that simply, so we shall attempt to present the evidence as interpreted -for each group or groups coming into contact with Carlsbad Caverns -National Park and adjacent areas. - -There appears to be a long time-lag between Early Man and our next -group, the Basketmakers. Positive proof indicates that the Basketmakers -were here before 900 A.D., and possibly as early as 4000 years ago. Our -Basketmakers, which are not to be confused in any manner with the San -Juan Basketmakers, were a rather isolated group and tended to remain -that way through numerous outside influences. While Pueblo groups to the -west and north were progressing in agriculture, architecture, and -esthetic arts, our group, because of their environment, remained more or -less stable in their mode of life—hunter, and gatherers of seeds—in an -area totally unsuitable for agriculture. - -Next to enter our area were the Apaches from the north after 1300 -A.D.(?) Whether they exerted pressure on the Basketmakers we do not -know. After the Apaches acquired horses from the Spanish, thus making -them mobile, different groups moved to other parts of New Mexico and -Arizona. Branching to the south and southeast were the Mescalero and -Lipan bands. The Mescalero band settled in an area which included the -Guadalupe Mountains and surrounding districts whence they raided the -Pueblo Indians and the Spanish until about 1725, when another Plains -group, the Comanches, came into the country from the northeast. By -pushing the Apaches north and west, the Comanches controlled a -tremendous portion of the Southern Plains. - -Quite probably all of the mentioned Indian groups knew of the entrance -to the Carlsbad Caverns. However, physical evidence that they did was -left by only one group—the Basketmakers. On the south wall of the -natural entrance may be seen pictographs or paintings of some weather -worn figures in red (ocher) and black (probably carbon). On the surface -just above the cave mouth is a distinct “midden circle” or cooking pit. -Many of these midden circles are found throughout the entire area and -will be explained more fully in the chapter on the Carlsbad -Basketmakers. - -There is little physical evidence that any of the Indians went into the -cave beyond the entrance which they obviously used as a means of -shelter. It is very unlikely that they ventured beyond the now Bat Cave -section of the cave for several logical reasons. Light is the paramount -factor in cave exploration, and the Indians’ only means of light would -have been from rather crude torches of bark, grass, or wood, none of -which gives off much light, nor burns for any appreciable length of -time. Probably the young and agile only would attempt the precarious -descent, if only to break the humdrum of everyday existence. - -Upon first viewing the Caverns entrance, one readily notices the steep -slope downward and the sheer drop to the floor of the Bat Cave section, -and how, at the bottom of this drop, there is built up a sizeable pile -of rubble. From this rubble and the bat guano deposits that led away -from it in all directions have come numerous skeletal remains, burnt and -worked stone, and fragments of woven articles, such as bags, sandals, -and baskets. Burials were also found in the small solution pockets or -holes seen in the vicinity of the paintings in the entrance proper.[1] - -The Indians living any length of time in this area were concerned -primarily with obtaining food, and this was a constant struggle. So, -from this practical point of view, they wouldn’t have any business going -into what we now call the scenic sections of the cave. On the other hand -we cannot say they did not go down, because we know man’s curiosity can -get the better of him sometimes. It is very logical to assume that, over -the long period of time man has been in and around the area, someone -climbed down and looked. - -Some people are of the assumption that the superstitious nature of the -Indians kept them out of the cave. True, man has always been somewhat -afraid of the dark and will probably always be so. That the Indians were -superstitious of the bats, which fly out the entrance each summer -evening in search of night-flying insects, is very questionable. First -of all, if the people were afraid of the bats they would not have lived -under the entrance overhang. This writer could find only one instance -where bats were regarded other than “little brothers,” and this was a -myth among the Guiana Indians of South America that concerned “big bats -that suck humans dry of blood,” and also a “large bat that would carry -people off.” The bats and night owls raided together, but the people -overcame their fear and killed them. - -Animals did not, as a rule, inhabit the cavern, so the Indians would not -be down there hunting. Animals did from time to time stumble in; and, in -1946, there was found the skeletal remains of an extinct ground sloth. -Beneath the entrance have been found skeletons of many small animals -that died either from the fall or starvation. - -Thus, we cannot say that the Indians went into the cave any distance, -nor can we say that they did not, simply because we do not know. - -To fully understand and appreciate the story of any group or groups of -people, one must be acquainted somewhat with the country in which they -lived. The country inhabited by the Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National -Park has a wide temperature and altitude range, and four life zones -(Upper and Lower Sonoran, Canadian, and Transition). The Guadalupe -Mountains developed from a limestone reef laid down in a shallow sea -during the Permian period of the earth’s history, over 200 million years -ago. They are cut with many deep canyons containing numerous caves, but -have little permanent water. Plant and animal life are abundant and -varied. Due mainly to the lack of water, agriculture was not practiced -in this particular area. The economy was one known as “hunting and -gathering.” - -Perhaps a brief description of each group that lived, hunted, and -visited in this area will best picture how and why they did. - - - - - EARLY MAN - - -About all we can say for Early Man and the Park is that he was here. The -only material remains found was a Folsom-like projectile point. This -point was discovered in Burnet Cave in the Guadalupe Mountains in direct -association with extinct animal bones. - -What he looked like, we have no idea; but he was apparently a nomadic -hunter and follower of game. Because he followed game is probably the -main reason he arrived here from Asia in late Pleistocene times—15 to -25,000 years ago. He hunted the now extinct bison (_antiquus_), two -species of the American horse (_Equus fraternus_ and _E. complicatus_), -a rare four-horned antelope (_Tetrameryx_), the California condor, -camel, ground sloth, and a muskox or caribou-like animal (_Bootherium_ -sp.). Undoubtedly these old ones utilized plants for food too. - -It is safe to assume that he dressed in skins, if he dressed at all. -Whether caves were used as shelter we do not know; but quite probably -they were, as the climate was pluvial. - -The method of projection for the point mentioned likely was done either -via a lance or the atlatl (spearthrower and dart). The latter is nothing -more than a stick with a nock for the dart on one end. It extends and -gives more leverage to the arm for throwing. - -Where did he go? Some call him Folsom man; others say he is of the -Cochise complex. He may have stayed where his descendants later became -what we now call the “Basketmakers.” - - - - - THE CARLSBAD BASKETMAKERS - - - [Illustration: Human head] - -The true occupants of Carlsbad Caverns National Park were a group of -Indians known as “Basketmakers.” They may have been descendants of the -early people, or perhaps a new and distinct group. This name was applied -because these people made excellent baskets and other woven objects, and -had some similarity in culture traits to the San Juan Basketmakers or -Anasazi of the Four Corners area. Moreover, there is some similarity in -culture traits to the Big Bend Basketmakers of Texas and the Ozark Bluff -Dwellers. Perhaps the name best suited for this group would be “cave -dwellers,” as they used caves of all sizes, from small overhangs to -those of huge proportions, for shelter. Yet, it must be remembered that -seasonally they lived in the open. However, to avoid later confusion, we -shall refer to them as the Carlsbad Basketmakers. - -The Carlsbad Basketmakers were an unusual group only “here and there -adopting a few cultural traits from their neighbors, but essentially -remaining food gatherers and hunters,” a rather simple state of culture -as compared to their contemporaries. - -Our group was in contact with the Mogollon people to the west before 900 -A.D., and possibly 600 years earlier. Pottery found here indicates this -as well as other contacts. (See Map.) Pottery is somewhat like a -fingerprint. There are certain features about it which are peculiar to -only one particular area, and that is the area within which it was made. -Consequently, pottery can show time, trade, contact, and movement of -ceramic-making prehistoric peoples. At about this same time, social -intercourse was also being carried on with the Hueco Basketmakers to the -west and the Big Bend Basketmakers to the south. - - [Illustration: _The combined use of metate and mortar was found - here_] - -After 1200, we find Chaco or true Anasazi influence coming into the Rio -Grande valley to Gran Quivera, thence to southeastern New Mexico. This -influence represents the Pueblo Indians who apparently changed the -Carlsbad Basketmakers’ way of life more than any other. This continued -until sometime between 1500 and 1600, when a drastic and complete change -came over all the aboriginal peoples in this section. - -The Spanish entered the Southwest, bringing the horse, which prompted -this change. The Apaches had slowly been working their way southward -from sometime after 1300 A.D. By trade and theft they acquired horses -from the Spanish, and, in so doing, the long and bloody career of the -Apaches got under way. This freedom and rapidity of movement afforded by -the horse allowed them to raid, pillage, and murder Indians and Spanish -alike. It is about this time that we lose track of our Basketmakers. - - [Illustration: _A small cave dwelling in Walnut Canyon_] - -What happened to them is pure supposition. The Carlsbad Basketmakers, -for defense or economic reasons, probably joined the Pueblo groups of -either the Gran Quivera or El Paso areas and became completely absorbed. -Many Pueblo traits found here contribute to this supposition, such as -pottery changes and physical changes of the people themselves. For -example, the early Carlsbad Basketmakers were long-headed individuals -(dolichocephalic). Near the end of their era the head shape changed by -artificial deformation, or flattening, brought about by the use of a -hard cradle board, to a broad head or brachycephalic type. All along the -line there was an admixture of physical types, with the three types -being present; long, medium (mesocephalic), and broad. - -The Carlsbad Basketmaker would very likely fit into practically any -present Pueblo group and not be noticed. He was of medium stature, about -5′4″-5′6″ in average height. His life span was between 30-35 years, and -he suffered from arthritis, bad teeth, and broken bones quite often. - -The material culture of a people is, perhaps, their most important -characteristic, as it represents the utilization of the natural -resources in a particular area or environment. Caves were used for a -number of purposes: burial, ceremonial, transitory living, etc. It is -from these caves that archaeologists dig out the material objects left -by prehistoric people and are able to reconstruct the story of the -occupants. - -As previously mentioned, the name of our Carlsbad Caverns National Park -Indians was applied because they made excellent baskets and woven -objects. Coiled baskets of yucca with grass, sotol, or twigs of flexible -wood as the binder were the most common. Most baskets have designs of -various colors woven into them. Red-brown dye was probably made from -mountain mahogany. The black was strips of Devil’s Claw (_Martynia -arenaria_). Baskets were waterproofed by smearing pine pitch or mesquite -gum on them. - -Sandals of yucca and grasses are found in abundance. The square-toed -sandal is the most prominent, although the round fishtailed type is -common. Both were woven with a variety of ply-thicknesses. They ranged -from 5 to 11 inches in length, and 2½ to 4 inches in width. The only -known sandal fragment found in the natural entrance to the Caverns is of -the square-toed type and is classed as a two warp-two ply. - - [Illustration: _The Basketmaker paintings on the south wall of the - natural entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns_] - - [Illustration: Basketmaker paintings] - -Yucca seems to have been the most-used plant for weaving. Mats of yucca -and beargrass were woven in a variety of ways. A coarse cloth netting -and cordage of yucca fiber was used for snaring rabbits and other small -game, and large bags of yucca fiber cordage were made for burial -purposes. These cone-shaped, twine-woven bags were sometimes quite -elaborately woven of red and white cords with horizontal black and -yellow bands running completely around them. - -Cotton was grown to the west, and some combination of cotton and yucca -fabrics was made here. Clothing or blankets of animal fur (usually -rabbit) and feather (turkey) cloth was common. (This turkey cloth was -probably traded from the Pueblos.) Too, plain fur, cloth, and skin robes -were used for covering. - -Hair was woven into rope, as were mesquite fiber and agave. Raw material -apparently kept on hand as fiber bundles and rings of grass were common -finds. V-shaped cradles were made of grass, and sleeping pits were lined -with it. - -Pottery is really incidental; and, for the most part, intrusive to -southeastern New Mexico. It is questionable if the area inhabitants made -pottery, but they probably did to some extent. There is found a -considerable amount of plain brown ware, and it occurs from early to -late times. This ware, although unnamed except for “plain Brown,” is -thought to be of local manufacture. Practically all pottery found here -was fired in the presence of oxygen (oxidizing atmosphere). A number of -types, varying in color from a terracotta, through brown, to reddish -tones, are all classed as brown ware. - -The earliest pottery found in southeastern New Mexico is Mogollon in -origin. Mogollon pottery is a derivative from southwestern New Mexico -and southeastern Arizona. The Mogollon brown and red wares found in this -section are definitely pre-900 A.D., and possibly pre-700. These wares -are found to have been used through 1150 A.D. - -The big influx of pottery came during late Pueblo III and Pueblo IV -times from 1150 to 1450 A.D. From the west came Mimbres Black on White, -which dates from 1050 to 1200 A.D., Jornada Brown, El Paso Polychrome, -and Brown wares. From the north, northwest, and west, because of Pueblo -expansion, came Three Rivers Red on Terracotta, St. Johns Polychrome -(from the Zuni area), Chupadero Black on White (from Gran Quivira), -Lincoln Black on Red, and Rio Grande glaze wares. It is interesting to -note that pottery changes in this area parallel those of the Mogollon to -some degree. - -Our Basketmakers were dependent primarily upon wild plant foods, as corn -seems to be lacking; and they supplemented their diet by some hunting of -game. To the south of the Park is the Black River. In this fertile -valley, with its continuous water supply, it is logical to assume that -corn was probably cultivated; but there is absolutely no evidence to -prove this. Corn was grown about 50 miles north, near Hope, New Mexico, -where Pueblo-like settlements were common from 1150 to 1300 A.D. Corn, -beans, and squash may have been traded to our cave people by the -Pueblos. Lack of practiced agriculture in the Guadalupe Mountain area -was probably due to the scarcity of water. Water from seeps, springs, -and shallow depressions in the limestone was, of course, utilized. - -The roasted young bud and heart of the mescal or agave plant apparently -was the paramount food, with the cabbage-like base or heart of the sotol -running a close second. Yucca pulp and seeds, mesquite beans (Tornillo -or screwbean), grass seeds, piñon nuts, acorns, walnuts, cactus fruits -(prickly pear and cholla), wild onions, wild potatoes and other bulb or -tuber-bearing plants, grapes, berries and others were utilized. Herbs -from true sage brush (_Artemisia_), wild tobacco, and possibly soap made -from the roots of the yucca _radiosa_ were used. A favorite quick food -was the young flower stalks of yucca in season. - -Mescal hearts and baked sotol leaves were stored in caves in cists lined -with grass, twigs and bark. Stone slab-lined storage cists were known -also. - -Mesquite beans were pulverized into meal, as substantiated by the many -mortar holes throughout the area. The meal was probably fashioned by -pounding the beans and pods together, winnowing out the pods, grinding -until fairly uniform, and eating them either raw or molded into cakes -and cooked in ashes, or into soups. Gourds were used for a household -receptacle, probably as a ladle or dipper. - -The entire country is dotted with large “midden circles.” The one most -seen by visitors is located at the natural entrance. For years these -circles have erroneously been called “mescal pits” and were thought to -have been used strictly for baking or roasting the mescal plant by both -our Basketmakers and later the Apaches. In remote instances, it is -possible that the Apaches used them, but not as a common practice. - -The main difference between the Basketmaker midden circle and the Apache -mescal pit is that the true mescal pit or earth oven is a depression -definitely sunk below the ground level, whereas the midden circle is on -ground level. Consequently, the midden circle had other uses than the -preparation of mescal hearts. - -There are three types of midden circles. The most common is the circular -mound, which is found up to an altitude of 7500 feet, and out -considerable distances into the flats. It is of interest to note that no -midden circles of the Carlsbad Basketmakers are found east of the Pecos -River. The circular ones will average from 30 to 35 feet in diameter in -this area. - -“The first stage (of development) seems to have begun with the -construction of a fireplace composed of fairly large rocks. When heat -had cracked these into fragments too small to be useful, the broken bits -were then cleared away from a circle about the fire and the hearth -rebuilt with other large stones, which in turn were discarded when -broken down by heat. When this process had been repeated many times, the -cleared circle immediately around the fire was surrounded by a ring -formed by an accumulation of the rejected small stones. In course of -time and with constant additions of ash and discarded rock, the -resulting mound grew to such height that it might even have proved -serviceable as a wind break. That such a method was employed seems quite -probable, because all the stones composing the outer ring show hard -firing, while scattered through the mass are found ashes and rejecta of -a camp. If this hypothesis is accepted, a large number of these -structures would indicate an extended occupation or perhaps repeated -occupation over a comparatively long period.” (Mera) - - [Illustration: _This drawing shows the three stages of development - of the midden circle_] - -The second type is found on ledges or narrow terraces along canyon walls -and was elongated in shape. The third is built out in front of caves and -shelters and takes on a rough half-circle shape. The mescal pit as used -by the Apaches is described in their section. - - [Illustration: _A Basketmaker Midden Circle or cooking pit_] - - [Illustration: _A cut-bank showing an elongated Basketmaker Midden - in Slaughter Canyon_] - -Practically all game was hunted, notably mule deer, elk, and buffalo; -and next, if not the most important, rabbits, both the cottontail and -jackrabbit. Also, antelope, plains white-tail deer, big horn sheep, -peccary (Javelina), mountain lion, bobcat, wolf, fox, coyote, badger, -porcupine, ring-tailed cat, opossum, prairie dog, armadillo, pack rat, -kangaroo-rat, muskrat, field mouse, white-foot mouse, beaver, pocket -mouse, ground squirrel, pocket gopher as well as fish, ducks, hawks, -owls, quail, desert tortoise, pigeons, doves, large terrapin, lizards, -and snakes were utilized. - -Our people had the dog and probably ate him in time of famine. Although -some turkey bones have been found, it is quite certain that this bird -was not domesticated here as it was among the Pueblos. Needless to say, -leather was fashioned from the skins of practically all animals and was -used for pouches, snares, etc. - -Usually the first thing to enter our minds when stone is mentioned in -connection with aboriginal peoples is arrowheads or projectile points. -Stone was used for many and varied purposes, and it would be difficult -to list these in order of importance. Projectile points were, of course, -important, though used primarily for hunting rather than warfare. Points -of various sizes, shapes and materials were used by the Carlsbad -Basketmakers. First were the dart and lance points, and later, as arrow -points, after the introduction of the bow to the Southwest. Flints, -cherts, and chalcedonies were the most common materials used for points -and small tools, although rhyolite, felsite, etc., have been found. -Stone was worked by grinding, pecking, drilling, and percussion and -pressure flaking. - -Mortars were usually cut into stationary rock near camping places such -as those seen near the natural entrance to the Caverns, although small -portable mortars were used to some extent. The pestles were usually made -of granite and were carried from camp to camp, as pestles with yucca -leaf carrying-straps have been found. - - [Illustration: _Projectile points, pottery, decorated sea shell, a - mano-pestle and a sandal fragment from Carlsbad Caverns National - Park_ - (_National Park Service Photo_) - ] - -Metates or grinding bowls are less common. Metates were made from -limestone, sandstone, and granite, while the mano, the small stone used -for crushing and grinding on the metate, was composed of limestone, -granite, and travertine. The metates are oval, circular, and semi-flat -in appearance, and the manos are of the one-hand type. - -Leaf-shaped knives, end scrapers, side scrapers, drills, choppers, -hammerstones, rubbing or smoothing stones, axes and stone pipes were -made and used. - -Found throughout the Guadalupe Mountains, sometimes at the head of -canyons, usually on the canyon floors, are small stone cairns and stone -rings or circles. To date, no feasible explanation is given as to their -function. These are not to be confused with the “midden circles” -previously mentioned. - -For other than fuel, wood was widely used as clubs, digging sticks, -atlatl, darts, spear foreshafts, bows, arrows, projectile points, fire -sets (drill and hearth), seed storage tubes, fending sticks, throwing -sticks (rabbit sticks), and wooden stoppers for canteens. - - [Illustration: _One of the mortar holes near the mouth of the - entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns_ - (_National Park Service Photo_) - ] - -Woodworking with stone tools consisted of seven methods: chopping, -whittling, shaving and planing, sawing, splitting, gouging and scoring, -scraping and sanding. - -Fire was made with the use of a wooden hearth. Friction was created by -revolving the point of a stick with the hands in a small depression in -the hearth, which contained tinder of punk wood, shredded inner bark or -grass. Cedar or juniper bark was probably used for torches. - -Animal bone was used for awls, stone flaking tools, jewelry ornaments -and weaving tools; animal horn or antler was used much the same. There -is a slight possibility that bone gaming dice were made and used, as -perhaps were horn ladles and dippers. - -In earlier times our Basketmakers used the atlatl as their predominant -weapon or hunting implement. It was composed of two parts; the stick for -throwing the dart, and the dart itself. Later the bow and arrow replaced -this implement in importance. Atlatls were from 19 to 25 inches in -length and were made of oak, mesquite, thorn growth Tornillo, sinew and -buckskin. Occasionally a small stone was attached to add weight and -balance. Atlatl dart shafts consisted of two parts. The foreshaft was of -heavy oak or comparatively hard wood with a stone point. This was -inserted into the main shaft of sotol bloom stalks. The idea being upon -impact that the base would fall away from the foreshaft, thus allowing -full penetration and less chance of the animal or man knocking or -pulling it out. Both the atlatl and dart shafts were sometimes highly -decorated. A variety of stone points were used as was the dart bunt, -which possibly was used as a stunner as its appearance suggests. The -dart bunt was a round wooden knob carved to insert into the main shaft. - -Bows and arrows were made of varied hardwoods and reeds. Bows had an -average pull of about 40 pounds and were from 3½ to 5 feet in length. -Arrows were 20 to 28 inches long, and the bowstring was either yucca -fiber or sinew. - -The lance or spear, ordinary stick clubs, grooved fending sticks, round -fending sticks, flattened and round throwing sticks found may also have -been used as weapons. - -Disposition of the dead was accomplished by burying with offerings in a -flexed or semi-flexed position on the back, or cremated with the burned -remains being buried in bags or baskets. - -The graves are usually small and quite shallow. Burials are found in -caves, midden circles, and open sites—practically any place where -digging was easy. Quite often the unburned burials had a “kill hole” -pottery bowl placed over the face. Cremation, from all appearances, was -practiced earlier and was concurrent to inhumation. - -The few skeletal remains found in the natural entrance and Bat Cave -section of the Carlsbad Caverns suggest midden type burials or -accidental demise, perhaps by falling. - -Possibly one of the most interesting and still visible bits of evidence -of the Carlsbad Basketmakers are the pictographs or paintings on the -south wall of the Cave entrance. These markings are badly weathered, but -one can distinguish what appears once to have been a red figure with -black up-raised arms of a person, and blobs of red and black which may -have been anything. - -In other caves over the area have been found other pictographs -(paintings) and petroglyphs (pecked) designs. Paints were made from red -hematite (red oxide of iron); red and yellow ochers; blue and green from -copper carbonates, azurite and malachite; black carbon and white -kaolinite. - -Occasionally there are found small pebbles with painted designs or lines -on them, but their function is unknown. - -Jewelry consisted of wooden combs and wooden pin hair ornaments, beads -and pendants of white and pink shell, gypsum, black beidellite, -turquoise, bone, squash seeds and sections of reeds. Beads were strung -on hair cord or yucca fiber cord. Bracelets of Glycimeris shell were -worn. - -For the most part the shell tells of considerable trade to the Gulf of -Mexico and the Gulf of California by our people. Fresh water mussel -shells common to the Pecos River were also used for ornaments. Trade was -carried on from Mexico into this general region as indicated by the -finds of copper bells and macaw parrot feathers from Pueblo ruins in -southern New Mexico. - -Ceremonial paraphernalia finds are rather rare. Fragments of a golden -eagle feather headdress, rattles of gourds, and turtle or tortoise -shells, pahos (prayer sticks), wooden wands and wooden painted tablitas -(headdresses) have been unearthed in Guadalupe Mountain caves. Closely -related to ceremonial purposes, and usually found in close association -with the above, are reed cigarettes and whistles, prayer offerings of -miniature fending sticks, fiber balls, gaming dice (sticks or counters), -as well as possible ceremonial bow sets. As to how the ceremonial -objects were used is, naturally, conjecture. - - - - - THE MESCALERO APACHES - - - [Illustration: Human head] - -From the north they came, this much we know, and comparatively recently. -About 600 years ago many tribes of Apaches slowly worked their way -southward, following the game and gathering the wild plant food, -eventually ranging over a great land area from the Pecos River on the -east to the borders of the Papago country in southern Arizona on the -west; from Colorado to northern Mexico, to the Gulf of Mexico in Texas. -The Apaches, members of the Athapascan linguistic family, were first -recorded historically on the southern plains by the Spanish in 1540-41, -who called them Querecho. However, it is entirely possible that Cabeza -de Baca in 1534-35 encountered them. The Mescalero, Lipan, and Tuetenene -(a hybrid of the former two) were living in this area at that time. They -were first called Apaches in 1598 by Oñate. - -The Mescalero Apaches ranged from the Rio Grande to the Staked Plains, -and were closely allied with both the western Apache groups and tribes -of the southern plains. The “Natohene” or “Natshene” (mescal people or -water willow people), as they called themselves, were composed of three -bands; the Kahoane, Ni’ahane, and Huskaane. - -The Ni’ahane band lived in the Sacramento, Guadalupe, Sierra Blanca, and -Capitan Mountains, an area that included what is now Carlsbad Caverns -National Park. Their name means “people of the terraced mountains.” To -the south of this band were the Tuetenene; and southeast of them, in the -Big Bend country, lived the Lipan Apaches (a true Plains Indian group). - -In order to avoid confusion between the various Apache tribes and bands -to frequent the area of Carlsbad Caverns National Park, the term -Mescalero will be used. It should be pointed out that actually very -little is known about this group, so the material presented is far from -complete and is only general information. - -Although of a war-like nature, the Mescaleros were never considered as -dangerous as their brethren farther west. Yet, after acquiring horses -from the Spanish, they raided and warred until about 1875, when subdued; -and the Mescalero Reservation was established in the White Mountains -northeast of the White Sands in New Mexico. - -Culturally speaking, the Mescaleros, Lipans, and their hybrid, the -Tuetenenes, were basically Plains with some western Apache traits common -only to the Mescaleros. - - [Illustration: _The Painted Grotto, a highly painted Mescalero - Apache ceremonial cave located in Slaughter Canyon, Carlsbad Caverns - National Park, New Mexico_] - -Actual physical evidence left by the Mescalero Apaches in Carlsbad -Caverns National Park is scant. Their most prominent calling card is -found in a small cave in West Slaughter Canyon. About 4½ miles from the -mouth of the canyon, some 65 feet above the dry stream bed, is the -“Painted Grotto.” This little cave is approximately 57 feet across the -front, 21 feet at the deepest point, and the ceiling slopes from 16 feet -at the front to about 6 feet at the back. On the walls and ceiling are -several hundred multicolored pictographs, all painted with earth ground -ochers in red, yellow, white, golden yellow, and shades of pink. Caves -of this type were used as shrines or media for ceremonies or religious -dances, incantations, etc., and are considered very sacred. This bit of -evidence definitely establishes the Mescalero on the Park proper, and a -legend handed down to the Modern Apaches indicated that they knew of the -main Caverns entrance as well. This legend tells of a medicine man who -went into the cave to make “big medicine.” Supposedly, he was last seen -wandering away from the entrance, beating his tom-tom; and yearly, on -the anniversary of this exploit, the Apaches would come to the entrance -to leave offerings of food for him. - -The Mescaleros were attracted to the Guadalupe Mountains area due to the -abundance of plant and animal life and the many springs found here. The -cooking of their favorite food, the mescal, arouses some curiosity. -Found throughout the region are remains of the Carlsbad Basketmakers’ -midden circles previously mentioned. In remote instances perhaps the -Apaches cooked in these so-called “mescal pits.” Quite likely though, -they cooked on the surface without the aid of a pit. Today, in many -places along the ridges, can be seen spaces of ground, devoid of -vegetation, covered with rocks which have obviously been broken from -fire. The Chiricahua Apaches to the west tell of a method of baking -mescal without digging a pit. Rocks are heated and scattered on the -level ground; the mescal crowns are put on them, and fresh grass and -dirt are piled over all. This “oven” has the appearance of a mound when -in use; but after the mescal is removed, and time has elapsed, it would -appear to be simply a space of barren ground covered with burnt stones. - -To the north of the Guadalupe Mountains is found evidence of true Apache -mescal pits, and they are just that, a pit dug into the ground. The pit -is dug round, about 7 feet across and from 3 to 4 feet deep. “The method -of using these pits is as follows: great fires are first kindled in -them, after which, heated stones are thrown in; on these stones are -laid, agave leaves, sometimes to a depth of 2 to 3 feet. Fire is kindled -over this accumulation and by action of the heat below and above, the -leaves are roasted without being burnt.” (Fewkes) Other plants and meats -were also cooked in this type oven, and many families could and did cook -in one pit at the same time by marking their food in some manner. From -24 to 36 hours were required to cook the mescal heart. Mescal heads -baked in this manner are somewhat like candied sweet potatoes. - - [Illustration: _Close-up of the paintings in the Painted Grotto of - Slaughter Canyon_ (_photos courtesy of Lynn Coffin_)] - -Occasionally the Mescaleros farmed. Most farming was done to the north -of the Park; but Rattlesnake Springs, (source of the Park’s water -supply), about 7 miles south of the Caverns entrance, is said to have -been an Apache campsite, and possibly some farming was done there. - -The Mescalero Apaches show a curious mixture of culture traits, both -plains and western Apache. Following is a brief summary of some of these -that may be of interest. - -They were great stalkers of game and frequently employed the use of -animal mask decoys, driving, game calls, and the running down or wearing -out of game. They smoked or flooded rodents from their dens, set snares -of rope for game, and hunted from blinds or pits. Communal hunting was -supervised by a hunt master; and game, such as rabbits, peccary, and -buffalo were surrounded by people in a circle and clubbed, shot or -driven to hidden hunters, lassoed or run over a cliff or bank. Dogs were -used for hunting as well as for watch dogs and pets. - -Religious ceremony was practiced before, during, and after the hunt. -Prayers, songs, tobacco, pollen, and meat were offered to the hunt -deity; and an amulet for good hunting was worn. - -The Mescalero did not, as a rule, eat wildcat, wolf, coyote or turkey -vultures. Dogs, hawks, turkeys and eagles were kept as pets. They were -never eaten and were buried at death. Sometimes plucked eagles were -released alive. Tortoise, turtles, and fish were eaten. - -Hardwood digging sticks were used for gathering bulbs, roots, etc., and -a special stone knife was used for cutting mescal. Seeds were collected -on a blanket and carried in a skin bag. Acorns were boiled like beans, -parched (never leached), shelled and ground on a metate or stone mortar -and stored in a skin bag. The meal was eaten with meat stew. Mesquite -and screwbean mesquite pods were pounded either in stone or hide -mortars; and the seeds were thrown away, and the pod flour was soaked or -boiled and the juice drunk, eaten as mush, or stored in cake form. - -Mescal heads were pit-roasted as mentioned; a buffalo shoulder-blade was -used as a shovel to scoop coals over the pit. The fire was usually lit -by a lucky person. The cooked head and leaf bases were pounded and dried -on frames and stored dry. Syrup was made from the flowers and the stalk -above the head was eaten. - -Yucca fruit was eaten either cooked on coals or dried, and the root -stalk was used for soap. This pertained to practically all of the yucca -family. Most cacti fruit and some of the pulp was eaten. - -Pinon seeds were gathered and eaten raw, roasted or mashed into a -butter. Pinon pitch was chewed as gum. Walnuts, wild plums, cherries, -grass seeds, etc., tule and some greens (cooked) were used. Fruit -juices, mescal, mesquite, and sotol juices were drunk either fresh, or -boiled and fermented. In later years a maize wine was made. Salt and -honey were gathered and used. - -Meat was sliced, dried and made into pemmican; bone marrow extracted; -blood boiled in paunch and sausages were made in gut. Meat food was -stored either in skin bag, parfleche or pot. - -Little agriculture was practiced. Irrigation with ditches from streams -was known. Farming was confined to the sandy soil in the stream bottom -land. All farming was a man’s job except the harvest when women helped. -A two-handed planting stick was used. Corn was eaten green, roasted or -dried and shelled by women. Two varieties of beans, pumpkins, squash and -gourds were grown. Gourds were used as canteens, dishes and spoons. - -Mescal harvest camps were sometimes set up in small caves, but tipis or -thatched wickiups were the permanent houses. Tipis were three-pole -foundation, buffalo hide with ventilator flaps, faced east or downwind, -and had a fireplace and smoke-hole in the center. They were pegged to -the ground, had a covered door, and a dew-cloth inner liner. When moved, -they were carried on a travois or drag with horse. - -Temporary lean-tos, shades, windbreaks, domed sweat houses, log rafts -and log bridges were built and used. Swimming was done only when -necessary, or when water was available. - -Grass and agave hair brushes were made. Horn, wood and shell were used -as containers. Knives, awls, and needles were made from stone and bone. -Wood was worked with stone hammers, mauls, axes and fire. Stone was -flaked, ground and polished. Fire was made by stone or a pump drill. - -Bows were made of mulberry, oak, juniper, walnut and other woods. Bow -strings were made of sinew and vegetable fiber. Arrows of willow and -other woods—points were stone. Mescalero arrow points were supposedly -stemmed base, or the base was side notched. These types of projectile -points are common to the Carlsbad Basketmakers, too; so it is impossible -to differentiate the two when found. Undoubtedly, those found on the -Park fit into both cultures. Arrows were feathered with three feathers -from the eagle, hawk, turkey and crow; and arrows were carried in an -open-skinned, sewn quiver of deerskin, mountain lion or wildcat. They -were carried on the back, under the arm, or on the belt. - -Spears, shields, warbonnets (short, Plains type), armour of hide and -clubs were used in battle. Rabbitsticks of wood and slingshots were also -used. - -Beads and ornaments were of shell, bone, wood, feathers, seeds, claws -and hooves, bear ears, turquoise, red stone, cannel coal (jet), and -porcupine quills. Paint from mineral and vegetable sources was used for -decorating objects or the body, which was painted primarily to prevent -sunburn. - -The hair was worn full length by both men and women, but beard and -eyebrows were plucked completely with fingers or tweezers of willowwood. -During periods of mourning, hair was cropped with a stone knife, -sometimes to about the level of the chin by women. Hair was worn loose, -tied in a bunch or with headband, in braids and decorated with pendants, -feathers, flowers, etc. - -Ear lobes of children were pierced with a snakeweed stem, and nose -straightening was practiced on babies if nose was too broad. There was -no cradle deformation of the head known among the Mescaleros. - -Tattooing of the face and arms by these people was quite an ancient -practice, and was performed with cactus spines and black mineral pigment -only, not charcoal as other tribes might use. - -Clothing consisted of fur caps, robes, shawls, ponchos, and capes of -animal skin with the hair either on or off the hide, and woven vegetable -fibers. Highly painted and fringed buckskin-sleeved shirts were worn by -the men. The women wore buckskin gowns or dresses, painted and fringed. -Buckskin belts held up a skin wrapped around the waist to serve as a -kilt for the men, or skirts of buckskin for the women. Hard-soled -moccasins were worn by both sexes, while only the men wore a hip-length -buckskin leggin. Hide overshoes were used in winter. - -The winter bed was usually composed of a grass and hide mattress with -hide coverings, whereas the summer bed was a willow rack or mat with a -rawhide twining bedstead supported by four forked posts covered with -skins (Plains type). - -Burdens were transported with the aid of a tump line back pack or other -slings, baskets, gourds, pottery, rawhide or leather bags or containers -and horse travois. Baskets (water-proofed with pitch), mats, cradles, -cordage of vegetable and animal materials, including hair and pottery, -were manufactured by both men and women. - -A variety of games were played by all, including foot racing, shinny, -hoop and pole, etc. Gambling by adults was done with a hand game of -guessing with bones, moccasin game, drawing straws, dice, and heads or -tails with flat stones (wet or dry). The children played games of war, -wrestled, and had toys of guns, dolls, stones, etc. - -Tobacco was gathered and smoked in an elbow pipe. Both tobacco and pipe -were kept in a buckskin bag which was usually highly decorated. - -The people assembled at the Chief’s dwelling or in an open space. Unlike -most Plains tribes, the Mescaleros did not carry a medicine bundle but -carried “medicine” inside themselves. - -For music and ceremony there were rattles of gourds or horn, drums of -pottery and wood, a musical bow, whistles and flutes. - -The calendar was divided into four named seasons with daily and monthly -tallies kept on a notched stick. Counting was done on the fingers, and -some observations of astronomy were made. Various colors were symbolic. -East was black; south, blue; west, yellow; and north, white. Their God, -Nayiizone, when coming from or going to the sky, rode on a black ray to -the east, on a blue horse to the south, on a yellow (sorrel) horse to -the west, and on a white horse to the north. - -Mysticism, taboo, and definite procedure governed childbirth, naming, -education of the young, marriage, affinal relations, death, mourning, -labor by both sexes, slaves, land ownership, personal property, war, -scalping, dances, ceremonies, political and clan organizations, peyote, -kinship systems, religion and shaman ritual. - -Little is known about Mescalero pottery, except that it was tempered -with vegetable material, made only by women, fired in an open fire, and -made with pointed or rounded bottom for inserting into fire coals, and -perhaps decorated with incised marks near the rim on occasion. The -knowledge of when this art was first practiced is unknown, but is -logically historic and very limited. No known sherds of this pottery -have been found on the Park. - -In 1875, the Mescalero Apache Reservation was established for the -Mescalero and Lipan tribes; but in 1913, a band of Geronimo’s -Chiricahuas was released from Ft. Sill in Oklahoma and came to Mescalero -where they now reside. - -Locally there is a rumor that the Apaches have a myth concerning the -bats of Carlsbad Caverns. The bats are said to be an ancient lost war or -hunting party, but research has failed to verify this story. Most of the -Western Apaches regard BAT as an excellent horseman. The Chiricahua -Apaches say, “If a bat bites you, you had better never ride a horse any -more. If you do ride a horse after being bitten, you are just as good as -dead.” They were cautious of bats but not superstitious of them. - - - - - THE COMANCHES - - - [Illustration: Human head] - -Originally the Comanches lived far to the north of southeastern New -Mexico; but about 1700, moved to the South Plains. By this time they -were well adapted to their relatively new life of mobility brought about -by the acquisition of horses directly or indirectly, and by hook or -crook from the Spanish. With horses it was much easier to follow the -buffalo, fight their enemies, raid, and trade. - -Comanche is a Ute Indian word meaning “enemy,” and it is often felt that -they found their way to New Mexico under the tutelage of the Utes. Yet, -sometime between 1747, and April, 1749, the two became deadly enemies. -After 1750, the Utes joined the Apaches to fight the Comanches. - -Actually, there are about 20 different names given for Comanche, meaning -everything from “enemies” to “snake people.” The Ute definition is more -fitting, however; for from about 1705 to 1875, they raided and fought -the Spanish, Utes, Apaches, Pueblos, Texans and the U. S. Army among -others. They ranged from Kansas to Mexico in thirteen different bands. - -That they were practical and businesslike is perhaps best shown by their -dealings with the French. The Comanches were first contacted about 1725 -by the French, who traded them guns and ammunition. Yet the Comanches -would not let the French cross their territory to trade with the Apaches -and others, thus monopolizing the source of firearms. - -These Shoshonean speaking people were a true South Plains horse Indian. -They were often considered the finest horsemen of the plains, these -nomadic buffalo hunters who lived in tipis of the skins from this -animal. The Comanche tongue was universally spoken by numerous other -Indian tribes of the South Plains; so little sign language was -necessary, as was the case farther north. - - [Illustration: _A general view of the rough terrain in the Carlsbad - Caverns—Guadalupe Mountains area_] - -Buffalo were reported on the South Plains in 1540-41, by the Spanish. As -there was constant warfare between the Comanches and the Apaches, it may -well have started over the bison. - -The words fighting and Comanche go hand in hand. They were spasmodically -at war with most of their neighbors; yet if peace and alliance achieved -a goal, they would concede, as is shown in their relationship with the -Kiowa. Bitter enemies, these two, until 1790, when an alliance was made -which lasted until sometime in the 1870s. Together they raided the -Spanish, Pueblos, Apaches, and their first real enemy, the -Anglo-Americans of Texas. - -Although the Park and Guadalupe Mountains area was not part of the -Comanches positive range, which lay north, east and southeast of the -Pecos River, it was frequently crossed by hunting and raiding parties. -There is no reason to assume that the Kiowas did not accompany them from -time to time, especially when raiding into Mexico. - -These “Lords of the South Plains,” as they were later called, looked and -dressed every bit the now “Hollywood” Indian. In costumes of buckskins -or buffalo hide, decorated with beads and gewgaws, wearing the typical -warbonnet, the Comanches ruled a tremendous portion of the South Plains -for 175 years. (See Map.) They were fearless fighters who rescued their -dead and wounded in battle, who on occasion used poison from an unknown -plant on their arrow-points, or stuck them in a dead, ripe skunk to -create the same effect; and were great thieves and gamblers. The -successful theft of horses from the enemy was a high mark of prestige to -a man; yet this same man could and did lose his spoils to other -Comanches through the media of dice and hand games. - -The Comanches were one of the few tribes of the South Plains who did not -eat dog or human flesh. Their religion contained the belief of an after -life in a “Happy Hunting Ground” beyond the sun. Naturally, these people -utilized many wild plants. One among these that grows in the Park is -mescal, which was used as a drug. (Quite a contrast to the Apaches, -this.) - -A valiant but bloody chapter in the history of the Southwest was closed -in June, 1875, when the Comanches surrendered to the U. S. Army at Ft. -Sill, and went on to a reservation in the then Indian Territory of -Oklahoma. It is said the introduction of the Colt revolver, in the hands -of the Texas Rangers, was the deciding factor toward their surrender. - - [Illustration: THE INDIANS OF - CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK - TIME RANGE] - - Early Man 25,000-15,000 B.P.? — 2,000 B.C.? - Carlsbad Basketmakers 2000 B.C.? — 1750 A.D.? - Pueblo Culture Influence 1000 B.C.? — - Mescalero Apache 1300 A.D.? — - Comanche 1700 A.D.? — - Kiowa 1800 A.D.? — - - - - - BIBLIOGRAPHY - - - Bailey, Vernon—_Animal Life of the Carlsbad Cavern_, 1928. - Bourke, John G.—_Medicine Men of the Apache_, B.A.E. #9, 1887-88. - Colton, Harold S. and Hargrave, L. L.—_Handbook of Northern Arizona - Pottery Types_, MNA, 1937. - Cosgrove, C. B.—_Caves of the Upper Gila and Hueco Areas in New Mexico - and Texas_, Papers of the Peabody Museum, 1947. - Dodge, Natt N.—_Flowers of the Southwest Deserts_, SMA, 1952. - Ferdon, Edwin N., Jr.—_An Excavation of Hermit’s Cave, New Mexico_, - 1946. - Fewkes, J. W.—_Casa Grande Arizona, Antiquities of the Upper Verde - River and Walnut Creek, Arizona_, B.A.E. #28, 1906-07. - Gale, Bennett T.—_Historical Sketch Carlsbad Caverns National Park_, - manuscript, 1952. - _Carlsbad Caverns—An Interpretation of Their Origin and - Development_, manuscript. - Gifford, E. W.—_Culture Element Distributions: XII Apache-Pueblo_, - Anthropological Records, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1940. - Hawley, Florence M.—_Field Manual of Prehistoric Southwestern Pottery - Types_, U. of N. M., 1936. - Henshaw, Henry W.—_Animal Carvings from the Mounds of the Mississippi - Valley_, B.A.E. #2, 1880-81. - Howard, E. B.—_Caves Along the Slopes of the Guadalupe Mountains_, - Bul. Texas Arch. and Pal. Soc., Vol. 4, 1932. - Jennings, J. D.—_A Variation of Southwestern Pueblo Culture_, Lab. of - Anth., Tech. Series, Bul. #10, 1940. - Lehmer, Donald J.—_The Jornada Branch of the Mogollon_, U. of Ariz. SS - Bul. #17, 1948. - Mallery, Garrick—_Picture Writing of the American Indians_, B.A.E. - #10, 1888-89. - McGee, W. J.—_The Seri Indians_, B.A.E. #17, Part 2, 1895-96. - Mera, H. P.—_An Outline of Ceramic Developments in Southern and - Southeastern New Mexico_, Lab. of Anth., Tech. Series, Bul. - #11. - _Reconnaissance and Excavation in Southeastern New Mexico_, AAA - Memoir #51, 1938. - Mooney, James—_Myths of the Cherokee_, B.A.E. #19, 1897-98. - _The Ghost Dance Religion_, B.A.E. #14, 1892-93. - _Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians_, B.A.E. #17, 1895-96. - Neumann, George—_Analysis of the Skeletal Material_, Lab. of Anth., - Tech. Series, Bul. #10, 1940. - Opler, Morris Edward—_An Apache Life-Way_, 1941. - Pearce, Dr. J. E.—_Kitchen Middens_, Bul. Texas Arch. and Pal. Soc., - Vol. 4, 1932—See also Victor J. Smith. - Reed, Erik—_Historical Narrative and Archaeological Values_, - Interpretive Section, Master Plan, Carlsbad Caverns National - Park. - Roth, W. E.—_Animism and Folklore of Guiana Indians_, B.A.E. #30, - 1908-09. - Schmitt, Martin F. and Brown, Dee—_Fighting Indians of the West_, - 1948. - Swanton, John R.—_The Indian Tribes of North America_, B.A.E. Bul. - 145, 1952. - Thomas, Alfred Barnaby—_The Plains Indians and New Mexico 1751-1778_, - 1940. - Wallace, Ernest and Hoebel, E. Adamson—_The Comanches_, U. of Okla., - 1952. - Williams, Jack R.—_Papago_, manuscript, 1952. - - - - - FOOTNOTES - - -[1]Unfortunately, the National Park Service has been unable to obtain - any of these burials. However, Vernon Bailey in his _Animal Life of - Carlsbad Cavern_ points out that they were found. (Also, this has - been corroborated by writings of the late Carl B. Livingston, well - known attorney, writer, historian, and an outstanding authority on - history and prehistory of New Mexico. Too, present and former - employees of the National Park Service who played an important part - in the early stages of the development and operation of the Carlsbad - Caverns National Park are familiar with the evidences of prehistoric - man found in and around the Caverns. T. Cal Miller.) - - - [Illustration: Hunting] - - [Illustration: Early Man, Carlsba Baketmaker, Mescalero Apache, - Comanche, Kiowa] - - - - - * * * * * * - - - - -Transcriber’s note: - -—Corrected a few obvious typographical errors. - -—Transcribed some text from illustrations, for the sake of the text - versions. - -—Added a Table of Contents based on headings in the text. - - - -***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS OF CARLSBAD CAVERNS -NATIONAL PARK*** - - -******* This file should be named 52971-0.txt or 52971-0.zip ******* - - -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: -http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/5/2/9/7/52971 - - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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