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-The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National
-Park, by Jack R. Williams
-
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions 
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at 
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-
-
-
-Title: The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National Park
-
-
-Author: Jack R. Williams
-
-
-
-Release Date: September 3, 2016  [eBook #52971]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-
-***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS OF CARLSBAD CAVERNS
-NATIONAL PARK***
-
-
-E-text prepared by Stephen Hutcheson, xteejx, and the Online Distributed
-Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
-
-
-
-Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
-      file which includes the original illustrations.
-      See 52971-h.htm or 52971-h.zip:
-      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52971/52971-h/52971-h.htm)
-      or
-      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/52971/52971-h.zip)
-
-
-Transcriber’s note:
-
-      Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).
-
-
-
-
-
-_The National Park Service is dedicated to preserving the scenic,
-scientific, and historic heritage of the United States for the benefit
-and enjoyment of its people. Help protect your Park from its new exotic
-the “LITTERBUG.”_
-
-    [Illustration: At work]
-
-
-THE INDIANS OF CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK
-
-by
-
-JACK R. WILLIAMS
-
-Cover by Phyllis Freeland Broyles
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS
-
-
-                                                                    Page
-  Acknowledgements                                                     2
-  The Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National Park                        5
-  Early Man                                                            9
-  The Carlsbad Basketmakers                                           10
-  The Mescalero Apaches                                               25
-  The Comanches                                                       34
-  Bibliography                                                        38
-  Footnotes                                                           38
-
-
-
-
-                            ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
-
-
-This booklet was prepared as an elementary basis for those interested in
-the Indians of this section. It is far from complete but if it answers
-only one question—the effort was well spent.
-
-It is rare that research into any subject is done alone. This is no
-exception, for many are responsible in their contributions.
-
-First, without the help, comments and criticism of Erik Reed this paper
-would have been nought. Then thanks must go to Charlie Steen and Stanley
-Stubbs for their pottery identification which helped establish the
-various time phases.
-
-The persons listed in the bibliography represent the true basis of
-learning and I unhesitatingly refer one and all to them.
-
-To Lynn Coffin for his encouragement and comments, grateful
-acknowledgement is made. To Bob Barrel for his help—talk, photos and
-all—thanks are extended.
-
-Especial thanks must go to Mary Pauline Smith for taking care of the
-grammatical errors as well as typing the manuscript. And, to Phyllis
-Broyles for her art work.
-
-The map, head sketches and photos not credited are by the author.
-
-
-This is dedicated to my wife, Marie.
-
-
-        Copyright 1956 by Jack R. Williams, Carlsbad, New Mexico
-
-    [Illustration: _Map showing distribution of Indian groups_]
-
-    [Illustration: _Natural entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns_]
-
-
-
-
-                             THE INDIANS OF
-                     CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK
-
-
-The Indian story of the Park is quite complicated for several reasons.
-First, we cannot confine our story to the man-made boundaries of today,
-but to the natural geographic features which are mainly the Guadalupe
-Mountains. Second, we must deal with more than one group of people and
-outside cultural influences of each group. These groups, however, will
-be confined mostly to New Mexico and north and west Texas. Then, too,
-long periods of time must be taken into consideration.
-
-So, let us start our story with man’s first entry into the new world
-some 15 to 25,000 years ago. Most archaeologists agree that man came
-from Asia via the Bering Straits, perhaps by a land bridge or over the
-ice. Undoubtedly many migrations over a long period of time were made by
-various small groups of peoples. These first people were nomadic
-followers of game and perhaps gatherers of seeds. Steadily moving
-southward, they eventually reached what is now southeastern New Mexico
-and north and west Texas. How long they lived here, where they went and
-who their ancestors were are unknown. Theory plus material evidence
-suggest that they may have evolved into what archaeologists call the
-Cochise complex to Basketmaker to Pueblo, with deviations in all groups.
-Yet, at the present time there is not enough evidence this last happened
-that simply, so we shall attempt to present the evidence as interpreted
-for each group or groups coming into contact with Carlsbad Caverns
-National Park and adjacent areas.
-
-There appears to be a long time-lag between Early Man and our next
-group, the Basketmakers. Positive proof indicates that the Basketmakers
-were here before 900 A.D., and possibly as early as 4000 years ago. Our
-Basketmakers, which are not to be confused in any manner with the San
-Juan Basketmakers, were a rather isolated group and tended to remain
-that way through numerous outside influences. While Pueblo groups to the
-west and north were progressing in agriculture, architecture, and
-esthetic arts, our group, because of their environment, remained more or
-less stable in their mode of life—hunter, and gatherers of seeds—in an
-area totally unsuitable for agriculture.
-
-Next to enter our area were the Apaches from the north after 1300
-A.D.(?) Whether they exerted pressure on the Basketmakers we do not
-know. After the Apaches acquired horses from the Spanish, thus making
-them mobile, different groups moved to other parts of New Mexico and
-Arizona. Branching to the south and southeast were the Mescalero and
-Lipan bands. The Mescalero band settled in an area which included the
-Guadalupe Mountains and surrounding districts whence they raided the
-Pueblo Indians and the Spanish until about 1725, when another Plains
-group, the Comanches, came into the country from the northeast. By
-pushing the Apaches north and west, the Comanches controlled a
-tremendous portion of the Southern Plains.
-
-Quite probably all of the mentioned Indian groups knew of the entrance
-to the Carlsbad Caverns. However, physical evidence that they did was
-left by only one group—the Basketmakers. On the south wall of the
-natural entrance may be seen pictographs or paintings of some weather
-worn figures in red (ocher) and black (probably carbon). On the surface
-just above the cave mouth is a distinct “midden circle” or cooking pit.
-Many of these midden circles are found throughout the entire area and
-will be explained more fully in the chapter on the Carlsbad
-Basketmakers.
-
-There is little physical evidence that any of the Indians went into the
-cave beyond the entrance which they obviously used as a means of
-shelter. It is very unlikely that they ventured beyond the now Bat Cave
-section of the cave for several logical reasons. Light is the paramount
-factor in cave exploration, and the Indians’ only means of light would
-have been from rather crude torches of bark, grass, or wood, none of
-which gives off much light, nor burns for any appreciable length of
-time. Probably the young and agile only would attempt the precarious
-descent, if only to break the humdrum of everyday existence.
-
-Upon first viewing the Caverns entrance, one readily notices the steep
-slope downward and the sheer drop to the floor of the Bat Cave section,
-and how, at the bottom of this drop, there is built up a sizeable pile
-of rubble. From this rubble and the bat guano deposits that led away
-from it in all directions have come numerous skeletal remains, burnt and
-worked stone, and fragments of woven articles, such as bags, sandals,
-and baskets. Burials were also found in the small solution pockets or
-holes seen in the vicinity of the paintings in the entrance proper.[1]
-
-The Indians living any length of time in this area were concerned
-primarily with obtaining food, and this was a constant struggle. So,
-from this practical point of view, they wouldn’t have any business going
-into what we now call the scenic sections of the cave. On the other hand
-we cannot say they did not go down, because we know man’s curiosity can
-get the better of him sometimes. It is very logical to assume that, over
-the long period of time man has been in and around the area, someone
-climbed down and looked.
-
-Some people are of the assumption that the superstitious nature of the
-Indians kept them out of the cave. True, man has always been somewhat
-afraid of the dark and will probably always be so. That the Indians were
-superstitious of the bats, which fly out the entrance each summer
-evening in search of night-flying insects, is very questionable. First
-of all, if the people were afraid of the bats they would not have lived
-under the entrance overhang. This writer could find only one instance
-where bats were regarded other than “little brothers,” and this was a
-myth among the Guiana Indians of South America that concerned “big bats
-that suck humans dry of blood,” and also a “large bat that would carry
-people off.” The bats and night owls raided together, but the people
-overcame their fear and killed them.
-
-Animals did not, as a rule, inhabit the cavern, so the Indians would not
-be down there hunting. Animals did from time to time stumble in; and, in
-1946, there was found the skeletal remains of an extinct ground sloth.
-Beneath the entrance have been found skeletons of many small animals
-that died either from the fall or starvation.
-
-Thus, we cannot say that the Indians went into the cave any distance,
-nor can we say that they did not, simply because we do not know.
-
-To fully understand and appreciate the story of any group or groups of
-people, one must be acquainted somewhat with the country in which they
-lived. The country inhabited by the Indians of Carlsbad Caverns National
-Park has a wide temperature and altitude range, and four life zones
-(Upper and Lower Sonoran, Canadian, and Transition). The Guadalupe
-Mountains developed from a limestone reef laid down in a shallow sea
-during the Permian period of the earth’s history, over 200 million years
-ago. They are cut with many deep canyons containing numerous caves, but
-have little permanent water. Plant and animal life are abundant and
-varied. Due mainly to the lack of water, agriculture was not practiced
-in this particular area. The economy was one known as “hunting and
-gathering.”
-
-Perhaps a brief description of each group that lived, hunted, and
-visited in this area will best picture how and why they did.
-
-
-
-
-                               EARLY MAN
-
-
-About all we can say for Early Man and the Park is that he was here. The
-only material remains found was a Folsom-like projectile point. This
-point was discovered in Burnet Cave in the Guadalupe Mountains in direct
-association with extinct animal bones.
-
-What he looked like, we have no idea; but he was apparently a nomadic
-hunter and follower of game. Because he followed game is probably the
-main reason he arrived here from Asia in late Pleistocene times—15 to
-25,000 years ago. He hunted the now extinct bison (_antiquus_), two
-species of the American horse (_Equus fraternus_ and _E. complicatus_),
-a rare four-horned antelope (_Tetrameryx_), the California condor,
-camel, ground sloth, and a muskox or caribou-like animal (_Bootherium_
-sp.). Undoubtedly these old ones utilized plants for food too.
-
-It is safe to assume that he dressed in skins, if he dressed at all.
-Whether caves were used as shelter we do not know; but quite probably
-they were, as the climate was pluvial.
-
-The method of projection for the point mentioned likely was done either
-via a lance or the atlatl (spearthrower and dart). The latter is nothing
-more than a stick with a nock for the dart on one end. It extends and
-gives more leverage to the arm for throwing.
-
-Where did he go? Some call him Folsom man; others say he is of the
-Cochise complex. He may have stayed where his descendants later became
-what we now call the “Basketmakers.”
-
-
-
-
-                       THE CARLSBAD BASKETMAKERS
-
-
-    [Illustration: Human head]
-
-The true occupants of Carlsbad Caverns National Park were a group of
-Indians known as “Basketmakers.” They may have been descendants of the
-early people, or perhaps a new and distinct group. This name was applied
-because these people made excellent baskets and other woven objects, and
-had some similarity in culture traits to the San Juan Basketmakers or
-Anasazi of the Four Corners area. Moreover, there is some similarity in
-culture traits to the Big Bend Basketmakers of Texas and the Ozark Bluff
-Dwellers. Perhaps the name best suited for this group would be “cave
-dwellers,” as they used caves of all sizes, from small overhangs to
-those of huge proportions, for shelter. Yet, it must be remembered that
-seasonally they lived in the open. However, to avoid later confusion, we
-shall refer to them as the Carlsbad Basketmakers.
-
-The Carlsbad Basketmakers were an unusual group only “here and there
-adopting a few cultural traits from their neighbors, but essentially
-remaining food gatherers and hunters,” a rather simple state of culture
-as compared to their contemporaries.
-
-Our group was in contact with the Mogollon people to the west before 900
-A.D., and possibly 600 years earlier. Pottery found here indicates this
-as well as other contacts. (See Map.) Pottery is somewhat like a
-fingerprint. There are certain features about it which are peculiar to
-only one particular area, and that is the area within which it was made.
-Consequently, pottery can show time, trade, contact, and movement of
-ceramic-making prehistoric peoples. At about this same time, social
-intercourse was also being carried on with the Hueco Basketmakers to the
-west and the Big Bend Basketmakers to the south.
-
-    [Illustration: _The combined use of metate and mortar was found
-    here_]
-
-After 1200, we find Chaco or true Anasazi influence coming into the Rio
-Grande valley to Gran Quivera, thence to southeastern New Mexico. This
-influence represents the Pueblo Indians who apparently changed the
-Carlsbad Basketmakers’ way of life more than any other. This continued
-until sometime between 1500 and 1600, when a drastic and complete change
-came over all the aboriginal peoples in this section.
-
-The Spanish entered the Southwest, bringing the horse, which prompted
-this change. The Apaches had slowly been working their way southward
-from sometime after 1300 A.D. By trade and theft they acquired horses
-from the Spanish, and, in so doing, the long and bloody career of the
-Apaches got under way. This freedom and rapidity of movement afforded by
-the horse allowed them to raid, pillage, and murder Indians and Spanish
-alike. It is about this time that we lose track of our Basketmakers.
-
-    [Illustration: _A small cave dwelling in Walnut Canyon_]
-
-What happened to them is pure supposition. The Carlsbad Basketmakers,
-for defense or economic reasons, probably joined the Pueblo groups of
-either the Gran Quivera or El Paso areas and became completely absorbed.
-Many Pueblo traits found here contribute to this supposition, such as
-pottery changes and physical changes of the people themselves. For
-example, the early Carlsbad Basketmakers were long-headed individuals
-(dolichocephalic). Near the end of their era the head shape changed by
-artificial deformation, or flattening, brought about by the use of a
-hard cradle board, to a broad head or brachycephalic type. All along the
-line there was an admixture of physical types, with the three types
-being present; long, medium (mesocephalic), and broad.
-
-The Carlsbad Basketmaker would very likely fit into practically any
-present Pueblo group and not be noticed. He was of medium stature, about
-5′4″-5′6″ in average height. His life span was between 30-35 years, and
-he suffered from arthritis, bad teeth, and broken bones quite often.
-
-The material culture of a people is, perhaps, their most important
-characteristic, as it represents the utilization of the natural
-resources in a particular area or environment. Caves were used for a
-number of purposes: burial, ceremonial, transitory living, etc. It is
-from these caves that archaeologists dig out the material objects left
-by prehistoric people and are able to reconstruct the story of the
-occupants.
-
-As previously mentioned, the name of our Carlsbad Caverns National Park
-Indians was applied because they made excellent baskets and woven
-objects. Coiled baskets of yucca with grass, sotol, or twigs of flexible
-wood as the binder were the most common. Most baskets have designs of
-various colors woven into them. Red-brown dye was probably made from
-mountain mahogany. The black was strips of Devil’s Claw (_Martynia
-arenaria_). Baskets were waterproofed by smearing pine pitch or mesquite
-gum on them.
-
-Sandals of yucca and grasses are found in abundance. The square-toed
-sandal is the most prominent, although the round fishtailed type is
-common. Both were woven with a variety of ply-thicknesses. They ranged
-from 5 to 11 inches in length, and 2½ to 4 inches in width. The only
-known sandal fragment found in the natural entrance to the Caverns is of
-the square-toed type and is classed as a two warp-two ply.
-
-    [Illustration: _The Basketmaker paintings on the south wall of the
-    natural entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns_]
-
-    [Illustration: Basketmaker paintings]
-
-Yucca seems to have been the most-used plant for weaving. Mats of yucca
-and beargrass were woven in a variety of ways. A coarse cloth netting
-and cordage of yucca fiber was used for snaring rabbits and other small
-game, and large bags of yucca fiber cordage were made for burial
-purposes. These cone-shaped, twine-woven bags were sometimes quite
-elaborately woven of red and white cords with horizontal black and
-yellow bands running completely around them.
-
-Cotton was grown to the west, and some combination of cotton and yucca
-fabrics was made here. Clothing or blankets of animal fur (usually
-rabbit) and feather (turkey) cloth was common. (This turkey cloth was
-probably traded from the Pueblos.) Too, plain fur, cloth, and skin robes
-were used for covering.
-
-Hair was woven into rope, as were mesquite fiber and agave. Raw material
-apparently kept on hand as fiber bundles and rings of grass were common
-finds. V-shaped cradles were made of grass, and sleeping pits were lined
-with it.
-
-Pottery is really incidental; and, for the most part, intrusive to
-southeastern New Mexico. It is questionable if the area inhabitants made
-pottery, but they probably did to some extent. There is found a
-considerable amount of plain brown ware, and it occurs from early to
-late times. This ware, although unnamed except for “plain Brown,” is
-thought to be of local manufacture. Practically all pottery found here
-was fired in the presence of oxygen (oxidizing atmosphere). A number of
-types, varying in color from a terracotta, through brown, to reddish
-tones, are all classed as brown ware.
-
-The earliest pottery found in southeastern New Mexico is Mogollon in
-origin. Mogollon pottery is a derivative from southwestern New Mexico
-and southeastern Arizona. The Mogollon brown and red wares found in this
-section are definitely pre-900 A.D., and possibly pre-700. These wares
-are found to have been used through 1150 A.D.
-
-The big influx of pottery came during late Pueblo III and Pueblo IV
-times from 1150 to 1450 A.D. From the west came Mimbres Black on White,
-which dates from 1050 to 1200 A.D., Jornada Brown, El Paso Polychrome,
-and Brown wares. From the north, northwest, and west, because of Pueblo
-expansion, came Three Rivers Red on Terracotta, St. Johns Polychrome
-(from the Zuni area), Chupadero Black on White (from Gran Quivira),
-Lincoln Black on Red, and Rio Grande glaze wares. It is interesting to
-note that pottery changes in this area parallel those of the Mogollon to
-some degree.
-
-Our Basketmakers were dependent primarily upon wild plant foods, as corn
-seems to be lacking; and they supplemented their diet by some hunting of
-game. To the south of the Park is the Black River. In this fertile
-valley, with its continuous water supply, it is logical to assume that
-corn was probably cultivated; but there is absolutely no evidence to
-prove this. Corn was grown about 50 miles north, near Hope, New Mexico,
-where Pueblo-like settlements were common from 1150 to 1300 A.D. Corn,
-beans, and squash may have been traded to our cave people by the
-Pueblos. Lack of practiced agriculture in the Guadalupe Mountain area
-was probably due to the scarcity of water. Water from seeps, springs,
-and shallow depressions in the limestone was, of course, utilized.
-
-The roasted young bud and heart of the mescal or agave plant apparently
-was the paramount food, with the cabbage-like base or heart of the sotol
-running a close second. Yucca pulp and seeds, mesquite beans (Tornillo
-or screwbean), grass seeds, piñon nuts, acorns, walnuts, cactus fruits
-(prickly pear and cholla), wild onions, wild potatoes and other bulb or
-tuber-bearing plants, grapes, berries and others were utilized. Herbs
-from true sage brush (_Artemisia_), wild tobacco, and possibly soap made
-from the roots of the yucca _radiosa_ were used. A favorite quick food
-was the young flower stalks of yucca in season.
-
-Mescal hearts and baked sotol leaves were stored in caves in cists lined
-with grass, twigs and bark. Stone slab-lined storage cists were known
-also.
-
-Mesquite beans were pulverized into meal, as substantiated by the many
-mortar holes throughout the area. The meal was probably fashioned by
-pounding the beans and pods together, winnowing out the pods, grinding
-until fairly uniform, and eating them either raw or molded into cakes
-and cooked in ashes, or into soups. Gourds were used for a household
-receptacle, probably as a ladle or dipper.
-
-The entire country is dotted with large “midden circles.” The one most
-seen by visitors is located at the natural entrance. For years these
-circles have erroneously been called “mescal pits” and were thought to
-have been used strictly for baking or roasting the mescal plant by both
-our Basketmakers and later the Apaches. In remote instances, it is
-possible that the Apaches used them, but not as a common practice.
-
-The main difference between the Basketmaker midden circle and the Apache
-mescal pit is that the true mescal pit or earth oven is a depression
-definitely sunk below the ground level, whereas the midden circle is on
-ground level. Consequently, the midden circle had other uses than the
-preparation of mescal hearts.
-
-There are three types of midden circles. The most common is the circular
-mound, which is found up to an altitude of 7500 feet, and out
-considerable distances into the flats. It is of interest to note that no
-midden circles of the Carlsbad Basketmakers are found east of the Pecos
-River. The circular ones will average from 30 to 35 feet in diameter in
-this area.
-
-“The first stage (of development) seems to have begun with the
-construction of a fireplace composed of fairly large rocks. When heat
-had cracked these into fragments too small to be useful, the broken bits
-were then cleared away from a circle about the fire and the hearth
-rebuilt with other large stones, which in turn were discarded when
-broken down by heat. When this process had been repeated many times, the
-cleared circle immediately around the fire was surrounded by a ring
-formed by an accumulation of the rejected small stones. In course of
-time and with constant additions of ash and discarded rock, the
-resulting mound grew to such height that it might even have proved
-serviceable as a wind break. That such a method was employed seems quite
-probable, because all the stones composing the outer ring show hard
-firing, while scattered through the mass are found ashes and rejecta of
-a camp. If this hypothesis is accepted, a large number of these
-structures would indicate an extended occupation or perhaps repeated
-occupation over a comparatively long period.” (Mera)
-
-    [Illustration: _This drawing shows the three stages of development
-    of the midden circle_]
-
-The second type is found on ledges or narrow terraces along canyon walls
-and was elongated in shape. The third is built out in front of caves and
-shelters and takes on a rough half-circle shape. The mescal pit as used
-by the Apaches is described in their section.
-
-    [Illustration: _A Basketmaker Midden Circle or cooking pit_]
-
-    [Illustration: _A cut-bank showing an elongated Basketmaker Midden
-    in Slaughter Canyon_]
-
-Practically all game was hunted, notably mule deer, elk, and buffalo;
-and next, if not the most important, rabbits, both the cottontail and
-jackrabbit. Also, antelope, plains white-tail deer, big horn sheep,
-peccary (Javelina), mountain lion, bobcat, wolf, fox, coyote, badger,
-porcupine, ring-tailed cat, opossum, prairie dog, armadillo, pack rat,
-kangaroo-rat, muskrat, field mouse, white-foot mouse, beaver, pocket
-mouse, ground squirrel, pocket gopher as well as fish, ducks, hawks,
-owls, quail, desert tortoise, pigeons, doves, large terrapin, lizards,
-and snakes were utilized.
-
-Our people had the dog and probably ate him in time of famine. Although
-some turkey bones have been found, it is quite certain that this bird
-was not domesticated here as it was among the Pueblos. Needless to say,
-leather was fashioned from the skins of practically all animals and was
-used for pouches, snares, etc.
-
-Usually the first thing to enter our minds when stone is mentioned in
-connection with aboriginal peoples is arrowheads or projectile points.
-Stone was used for many and varied purposes, and it would be difficult
-to list these in order of importance. Projectile points were, of course,
-important, though used primarily for hunting rather than warfare. Points
-of various sizes, shapes and materials were used by the Carlsbad
-Basketmakers. First were the dart and lance points, and later, as arrow
-points, after the introduction of the bow to the Southwest. Flints,
-cherts, and chalcedonies were the most common materials used for points
-and small tools, although rhyolite, felsite, etc., have been found.
-Stone was worked by grinding, pecking, drilling, and percussion and
-pressure flaking.
-
-Mortars were usually cut into stationary rock near camping places such
-as those seen near the natural entrance to the Caverns, although small
-portable mortars were used to some extent. The pestles were usually made
-of granite and were carried from camp to camp, as pestles with yucca
-leaf carrying-straps have been found.
-
-    [Illustration: _Projectile points, pottery, decorated sea shell, a
-    mano-pestle and a sandal fragment from Carlsbad Caverns National
-    Park_
-                                         (_National Park Service Photo_)
-    ]
-
-Metates or grinding bowls are less common. Metates were made from
-limestone, sandstone, and granite, while the mano, the small stone used
-for crushing and grinding on the metate, was composed of limestone,
-granite, and travertine. The metates are oval, circular, and semi-flat
-in appearance, and the manos are of the one-hand type.
-
-Leaf-shaped knives, end scrapers, side scrapers, drills, choppers,
-hammerstones, rubbing or smoothing stones, axes and stone pipes were
-made and used.
-
-Found throughout the Guadalupe Mountains, sometimes at the head of
-canyons, usually on the canyon floors, are small stone cairns and stone
-rings or circles. To date, no feasible explanation is given as to their
-function. These are not to be confused with the “midden circles”
-previously mentioned.
-
-For other than fuel, wood was widely used as clubs, digging sticks,
-atlatl, darts, spear foreshafts, bows, arrows, projectile points, fire
-sets (drill and hearth), seed storage tubes, fending sticks, throwing
-sticks (rabbit sticks), and wooden stoppers for canteens.
-
-    [Illustration: _One of the mortar holes near the mouth of the
-    entrance to the Carlsbad Caverns_
-                                         (_National Park Service Photo_)
-    ]
-
-Woodworking with stone tools consisted of seven methods: chopping,
-whittling, shaving and planing, sawing, splitting, gouging and scoring,
-scraping and sanding.
-
-Fire was made with the use of a wooden hearth. Friction was created by
-revolving the point of a stick with the hands in a small depression in
-the hearth, which contained tinder of punk wood, shredded inner bark or
-grass. Cedar or juniper bark was probably used for torches.
-
-Animal bone was used for awls, stone flaking tools, jewelry ornaments
-and weaving tools; animal horn or antler was used much the same. There
-is a slight possibility that bone gaming dice were made and used, as
-perhaps were horn ladles and dippers.
-
-In earlier times our Basketmakers used the atlatl as their predominant
-weapon or hunting implement. It was composed of two parts; the stick for
-throwing the dart, and the dart itself. Later the bow and arrow replaced
-this implement in importance. Atlatls were from 19 to 25 inches in
-length and were made of oak, mesquite, thorn growth Tornillo, sinew and
-buckskin. Occasionally a small stone was attached to add weight and
-balance. Atlatl dart shafts consisted of two parts. The foreshaft was of
-heavy oak or comparatively hard wood with a stone point. This was
-inserted into the main shaft of sotol bloom stalks. The idea being upon
-impact that the base would fall away from the foreshaft, thus allowing
-full penetration and less chance of the animal or man knocking or
-pulling it out. Both the atlatl and dart shafts were sometimes highly
-decorated. A variety of stone points were used as was the dart bunt,
-which possibly was used as a stunner as its appearance suggests. The
-dart bunt was a round wooden knob carved to insert into the main shaft.
-
-Bows and arrows were made of varied hardwoods and reeds. Bows had an
-average pull of about 40 pounds and were from 3½ to 5 feet in length.
-Arrows were 20 to 28 inches long, and the bowstring was either yucca
-fiber or sinew.
-
-The lance or spear, ordinary stick clubs, grooved fending sticks, round
-fending sticks, flattened and round throwing sticks found may also have
-been used as weapons.
-
-Disposition of the dead was accomplished by burying with offerings in a
-flexed or semi-flexed position on the back, or cremated with the burned
-remains being buried in bags or baskets.
-
-The graves are usually small and quite shallow. Burials are found in
-caves, midden circles, and open sites—practically any place where
-digging was easy. Quite often the unburned burials had a “kill hole”
-pottery bowl placed over the face. Cremation, from all appearances, was
-practiced earlier and was concurrent to inhumation.
-
-The few skeletal remains found in the natural entrance and Bat Cave
-section of the Carlsbad Caverns suggest midden type burials or
-accidental demise, perhaps by falling.
-
-Possibly one of the most interesting and still visible bits of evidence
-of the Carlsbad Basketmakers are the pictographs or paintings on the
-south wall of the Cave entrance. These markings are badly weathered, but
-one can distinguish what appears once to have been a red figure with
-black up-raised arms of a person, and blobs of red and black which may
-have been anything.
-
-In other caves over the area have been found other pictographs
-(paintings) and petroglyphs (pecked) designs. Paints were made from red
-hematite (red oxide of iron); red and yellow ochers; blue and green from
-copper carbonates, azurite and malachite; black carbon and white
-kaolinite.
-
-Occasionally there are found small pebbles with painted designs or lines
-on them, but their function is unknown.
-
-Jewelry consisted of wooden combs and wooden pin hair ornaments, beads
-and pendants of white and pink shell, gypsum, black beidellite,
-turquoise, bone, squash seeds and sections of reeds. Beads were strung
-on hair cord or yucca fiber cord. Bracelets of Glycimeris shell were
-worn.
-
-For the most part the shell tells of considerable trade to the Gulf of
-Mexico and the Gulf of California by our people. Fresh water mussel
-shells common to the Pecos River were also used for ornaments. Trade was
-carried on from Mexico into this general region as indicated by the
-finds of copper bells and macaw parrot feathers from Pueblo ruins in
-southern New Mexico.
-
-Ceremonial paraphernalia finds are rather rare. Fragments of a golden
-eagle feather headdress, rattles of gourds, and turtle or tortoise
-shells, pahos (prayer sticks), wooden wands and wooden painted tablitas
-(headdresses) have been unearthed in Guadalupe Mountain caves. Closely
-related to ceremonial purposes, and usually found in close association
-with the above, are reed cigarettes and whistles, prayer offerings of
-miniature fending sticks, fiber balls, gaming dice (sticks or counters),
-as well as possible ceremonial bow sets. As to how the ceremonial
-objects were used is, naturally, conjecture.
-
-
-
-
-                         THE MESCALERO APACHES
-
-
-    [Illustration: Human head]
-
-From the north they came, this much we know, and comparatively recently.
-About 600 years ago many tribes of Apaches slowly worked their way
-southward, following the game and gathering the wild plant food,
-eventually ranging over a great land area from the Pecos River on the
-east to the borders of the Papago country in southern Arizona on the
-west; from Colorado to northern Mexico, to the Gulf of Mexico in Texas.
-The Apaches, members of the Athapascan linguistic family, were first
-recorded historically on the southern plains by the Spanish in 1540-41,
-who called them Querecho. However, it is entirely possible that Cabeza
-de Baca in 1534-35 encountered them. The Mescalero, Lipan, and Tuetenene
-(a hybrid of the former two) were living in this area at that time. They
-were first called Apaches in 1598 by Oñate.
-
-The Mescalero Apaches ranged from the Rio Grande to the Staked Plains,
-and were closely allied with both the western Apache groups and tribes
-of the southern plains. The “Natohene” or “Natshene” (mescal people or
-water willow people), as they called themselves, were composed of three
-bands; the Kahoane, Ni’ahane, and Huskaane.
-
-The Ni’ahane band lived in the Sacramento, Guadalupe, Sierra Blanca, and
-Capitan Mountains, an area that included what is now Carlsbad Caverns
-National Park. Their name means “people of the terraced mountains.” To
-the south of this band were the Tuetenene; and southeast of them, in the
-Big Bend country, lived the Lipan Apaches (a true Plains Indian group).
-
-In order to avoid confusion between the various Apache tribes and bands
-to frequent the area of Carlsbad Caverns National Park, the term
-Mescalero will be used. It should be pointed out that actually very
-little is known about this group, so the material presented is far from
-complete and is only general information.
-
-Although of a war-like nature, the Mescaleros were never considered as
-dangerous as their brethren farther west. Yet, after acquiring horses
-from the Spanish, they raided and warred until about 1875, when subdued;
-and the Mescalero Reservation was established in the White Mountains
-northeast of the White Sands in New Mexico.
-
-Culturally speaking, the Mescaleros, Lipans, and their hybrid, the
-Tuetenenes, were basically Plains with some western Apache traits common
-only to the Mescaleros.
-
-    [Illustration: _The Painted Grotto, a highly painted Mescalero
-    Apache ceremonial cave located in Slaughter Canyon, Carlsbad Caverns
-    National Park, New Mexico_]
-
-Actual physical evidence left by the Mescalero Apaches in Carlsbad
-Caverns National Park is scant. Their most prominent calling card is
-found in a small cave in West Slaughter Canyon. About 4½ miles from the
-mouth of the canyon, some 65 feet above the dry stream bed, is the
-“Painted Grotto.” This little cave is approximately 57 feet across the
-front, 21 feet at the deepest point, and the ceiling slopes from 16 feet
-at the front to about 6 feet at the back. On the walls and ceiling are
-several hundred multicolored pictographs, all painted with earth ground
-ochers in red, yellow, white, golden yellow, and shades of pink. Caves
-of this type were used as shrines or media for ceremonies or religious
-dances, incantations, etc., and are considered very sacred. This bit of
-evidence definitely establishes the Mescalero on the Park proper, and a
-legend handed down to the Modern Apaches indicated that they knew of the
-main Caverns entrance as well. This legend tells of a medicine man who
-went into the cave to make “big medicine.” Supposedly, he was last seen
-wandering away from the entrance, beating his tom-tom; and yearly, on
-the anniversary of this exploit, the Apaches would come to the entrance
-to leave offerings of food for him.
-
-The Mescaleros were attracted to the Guadalupe Mountains area due to the
-abundance of plant and animal life and the many springs found here. The
-cooking of their favorite food, the mescal, arouses some curiosity.
-Found throughout the region are remains of the Carlsbad Basketmakers’
-midden circles previously mentioned. In remote instances perhaps the
-Apaches cooked in these so-called “mescal pits.” Quite likely though,
-they cooked on the surface without the aid of a pit. Today, in many
-places along the ridges, can be seen spaces of ground, devoid of
-vegetation, covered with rocks which have obviously been broken from
-fire. The Chiricahua Apaches to the west tell of a method of baking
-mescal without digging a pit. Rocks are heated and scattered on the
-level ground; the mescal crowns are put on them, and fresh grass and
-dirt are piled over all. This “oven” has the appearance of a mound when
-in use; but after the mescal is removed, and time has elapsed, it would
-appear to be simply a space of barren ground covered with burnt stones.
-
-To the north of the Guadalupe Mountains is found evidence of true Apache
-mescal pits, and they are just that, a pit dug into the ground. The pit
-is dug round, about 7 feet across and from 3 to 4 feet deep. “The method
-of using these pits is as follows: great fires are first kindled in
-them, after which, heated stones are thrown in; on these stones are
-laid, agave leaves, sometimes to a depth of 2 to 3 feet. Fire is kindled
-over this accumulation and by action of the heat below and above, the
-leaves are roasted without being burnt.” (Fewkes) Other plants and meats
-were also cooked in this type oven, and many families could and did cook
-in one pit at the same time by marking their food in some manner. From
-24 to 36 hours were required to cook the mescal heart. Mescal heads
-baked in this manner are somewhat like candied sweet potatoes.
-
-    [Illustration: _Close-up of the paintings in the Painted Grotto of
-    Slaughter Canyon_ (_photos courtesy of Lynn Coffin_)]
-
-Occasionally the Mescaleros farmed. Most farming was done to the north
-of the Park; but Rattlesnake Springs, (source of the Park’s water
-supply), about 7 miles south of the Caverns entrance, is said to have
-been an Apache campsite, and possibly some farming was done there.
-
-The Mescalero Apaches show a curious mixture of culture traits, both
-plains and western Apache. Following is a brief summary of some of these
-that may be of interest.
-
-They were great stalkers of game and frequently employed the use of
-animal mask decoys, driving, game calls, and the running down or wearing
-out of game. They smoked or flooded rodents from their dens, set snares
-of rope for game, and hunted from blinds or pits. Communal hunting was
-supervised by a hunt master; and game, such as rabbits, peccary, and
-buffalo were surrounded by people in a circle and clubbed, shot or
-driven to hidden hunters, lassoed or run over a cliff or bank. Dogs were
-used for hunting as well as for watch dogs and pets.
-
-Religious ceremony was practiced before, during, and after the hunt.
-Prayers, songs, tobacco, pollen, and meat were offered to the hunt
-deity; and an amulet for good hunting was worn.
-
-The Mescalero did not, as a rule, eat wildcat, wolf, coyote or turkey
-vultures. Dogs, hawks, turkeys and eagles were kept as pets. They were
-never eaten and were buried at death. Sometimes plucked eagles were
-released alive. Tortoise, turtles, and fish were eaten.
-
-Hardwood digging sticks were used for gathering bulbs, roots, etc., and
-a special stone knife was used for cutting mescal. Seeds were collected
-on a blanket and carried in a skin bag. Acorns were boiled like beans,
-parched (never leached), shelled and ground on a metate or stone mortar
-and stored in a skin bag. The meal was eaten with meat stew. Mesquite
-and screwbean mesquite pods were pounded either in stone or hide
-mortars; and the seeds were thrown away, and the pod flour was soaked or
-boiled and the juice drunk, eaten as mush, or stored in cake form.
-
-Mescal heads were pit-roasted as mentioned; a buffalo shoulder-blade was
-used as a shovel to scoop coals over the pit. The fire was usually lit
-by a lucky person. The cooked head and leaf bases were pounded and dried
-on frames and stored dry. Syrup was made from the flowers and the stalk
-above the head was eaten.
-
-Yucca fruit was eaten either cooked on coals or dried, and the root
-stalk was used for soap. This pertained to practically all of the yucca
-family. Most cacti fruit and some of the pulp was eaten.
-
-Pinon seeds were gathered and eaten raw, roasted or mashed into a
-butter. Pinon pitch was chewed as gum. Walnuts, wild plums, cherries,
-grass seeds, etc., tule and some greens (cooked) were used. Fruit
-juices, mescal, mesquite, and sotol juices were drunk either fresh, or
-boiled and fermented. In later years a maize wine was made. Salt and
-honey were gathered and used.
-
-Meat was sliced, dried and made into pemmican; bone marrow extracted;
-blood boiled in paunch and sausages were made in gut. Meat food was
-stored either in skin bag, parfleche or pot.
-
-Little agriculture was practiced. Irrigation with ditches from streams
-was known. Farming was confined to the sandy soil in the stream bottom
-land. All farming was a man’s job except the harvest when women helped.
-A two-handed planting stick was used. Corn was eaten green, roasted or
-dried and shelled by women. Two varieties of beans, pumpkins, squash and
-gourds were grown. Gourds were used as canteens, dishes and spoons.
-
-Mescal harvest camps were sometimes set up in small caves, but tipis or
-thatched wickiups were the permanent houses. Tipis were three-pole
-foundation, buffalo hide with ventilator flaps, faced east or downwind,
-and had a fireplace and smoke-hole in the center. They were pegged to
-the ground, had a covered door, and a dew-cloth inner liner. When moved,
-they were carried on a travois or drag with horse.
-
-Temporary lean-tos, shades, windbreaks, domed sweat houses, log rafts
-and log bridges were built and used. Swimming was done only when
-necessary, or when water was available.
-
-Grass and agave hair brushes were made. Horn, wood and shell were used
-as containers. Knives, awls, and needles were made from stone and bone.
-Wood was worked with stone hammers, mauls, axes and fire. Stone was
-flaked, ground and polished. Fire was made by stone or a pump drill.
-
-Bows were made of mulberry, oak, juniper, walnut and other woods. Bow
-strings were made of sinew and vegetable fiber. Arrows of willow and
-other woods—points were stone. Mescalero arrow points were supposedly
-stemmed base, or the base was side notched. These types of projectile
-points are common to the Carlsbad Basketmakers, too; so it is impossible
-to differentiate the two when found. Undoubtedly, those found on the
-Park fit into both cultures. Arrows were feathered with three feathers
-from the eagle, hawk, turkey and crow; and arrows were carried in an
-open-skinned, sewn quiver of deerskin, mountain lion or wildcat. They
-were carried on the back, under the arm, or on the belt.
-
-Spears, shields, warbonnets (short, Plains type), armour of hide and
-clubs were used in battle. Rabbitsticks of wood and slingshots were also
-used.
-
-Beads and ornaments were of shell, bone, wood, feathers, seeds, claws
-and hooves, bear ears, turquoise, red stone, cannel coal (jet), and
-porcupine quills. Paint from mineral and vegetable sources was used for
-decorating objects or the body, which was painted primarily to prevent
-sunburn.
-
-The hair was worn full length by both men and women, but beard and
-eyebrows were plucked completely with fingers or tweezers of willowwood.
-During periods of mourning, hair was cropped with a stone knife,
-sometimes to about the level of the chin by women. Hair was worn loose,
-tied in a bunch or with headband, in braids and decorated with pendants,
-feathers, flowers, etc.
-
-Ear lobes of children were pierced with a snakeweed stem, and nose
-straightening was practiced on babies if nose was too broad. There was
-no cradle deformation of the head known among the Mescaleros.
-
-Tattooing of the face and arms by these people was quite an ancient
-practice, and was performed with cactus spines and black mineral pigment
-only, not charcoal as other tribes might use.
-
-Clothing consisted of fur caps, robes, shawls, ponchos, and capes of
-animal skin with the hair either on or off the hide, and woven vegetable
-fibers. Highly painted and fringed buckskin-sleeved shirts were worn by
-the men. The women wore buckskin gowns or dresses, painted and fringed.
-Buckskin belts held up a skin wrapped around the waist to serve as a
-kilt for the men, or skirts of buckskin for the women. Hard-soled
-moccasins were worn by both sexes, while only the men wore a hip-length
-buckskin leggin. Hide overshoes were used in winter.
-
-The winter bed was usually composed of a grass and hide mattress with
-hide coverings, whereas the summer bed was a willow rack or mat with a
-rawhide twining bedstead supported by four forked posts covered with
-skins (Plains type).
-
-Burdens were transported with the aid of a tump line back pack or other
-slings, baskets, gourds, pottery, rawhide or leather bags or containers
-and horse travois. Baskets (water-proofed with pitch), mats, cradles,
-cordage of vegetable and animal materials, including hair and pottery,
-were manufactured by both men and women.
-
-A variety of games were played by all, including foot racing, shinny,
-hoop and pole, etc. Gambling by adults was done with a hand game of
-guessing with bones, moccasin game, drawing straws, dice, and heads or
-tails with flat stones (wet or dry). The children played games of war,
-wrestled, and had toys of guns, dolls, stones, etc.
-
-Tobacco was gathered and smoked in an elbow pipe. Both tobacco and pipe
-were kept in a buckskin bag which was usually highly decorated.
-
-The people assembled at the Chief’s dwelling or in an open space. Unlike
-most Plains tribes, the Mescaleros did not carry a medicine bundle but
-carried “medicine” inside themselves.
-
-For music and ceremony there were rattles of gourds or horn, drums of
-pottery and wood, a musical bow, whistles and flutes.
-
-The calendar was divided into four named seasons with daily and monthly
-tallies kept on a notched stick. Counting was done on the fingers, and
-some observations of astronomy were made. Various colors were symbolic.
-East was black; south, blue; west, yellow; and north, white. Their God,
-Nayiizone, when coming from or going to the sky, rode on a black ray to
-the east, on a blue horse to the south, on a yellow (sorrel) horse to
-the west, and on a white horse to the north.
-
-Mysticism, taboo, and definite procedure governed childbirth, naming,
-education of the young, marriage, affinal relations, death, mourning,
-labor by both sexes, slaves, land ownership, personal property, war,
-scalping, dances, ceremonies, political and clan organizations, peyote,
-kinship systems, religion and shaman ritual.
-
-Little is known about Mescalero pottery, except that it was tempered
-with vegetable material, made only by women, fired in an open fire, and
-made with pointed or rounded bottom for inserting into fire coals, and
-perhaps decorated with incised marks near the rim on occasion. The
-knowledge of when this art was first practiced is unknown, but is
-logically historic and very limited. No known sherds of this pottery
-have been found on the Park.
-
-In 1875, the Mescalero Apache Reservation was established for the
-Mescalero and Lipan tribes; but in 1913, a band of Geronimo’s
-Chiricahuas was released from Ft. Sill in Oklahoma and came to Mescalero
-where they now reside.
-
-Locally there is a rumor that the Apaches have a myth concerning the
-bats of Carlsbad Caverns. The bats are said to be an ancient lost war or
-hunting party, but research has failed to verify this story. Most of the
-Western Apaches regard BAT as an excellent horseman. The Chiricahua
-Apaches say, “If a bat bites you, you had better never ride a horse any
-more. If you do ride a horse after being bitten, you are just as good as
-dead.” They were cautious of bats but not superstitious of them.
-
-
-
-
-                             THE COMANCHES
-
-
-    [Illustration: Human head]
-
-Originally the Comanches lived far to the north of southeastern New
-Mexico; but about 1700, moved to the South Plains. By this time they
-were well adapted to their relatively new life of mobility brought about
-by the acquisition of horses directly or indirectly, and by hook or
-crook from the Spanish. With horses it was much easier to follow the
-buffalo, fight their enemies, raid, and trade.
-
-Comanche is a Ute Indian word meaning “enemy,” and it is often felt that
-they found their way to New Mexico under the tutelage of the Utes. Yet,
-sometime between 1747, and April, 1749, the two became deadly enemies.
-After 1750, the Utes joined the Apaches to fight the Comanches.
-
-Actually, there are about 20 different names given for Comanche, meaning
-everything from “enemies” to “snake people.” The Ute definition is more
-fitting, however; for from about 1705 to 1875, they raided and fought
-the Spanish, Utes, Apaches, Pueblos, Texans and the U. S. Army among
-others. They ranged from Kansas to Mexico in thirteen different bands.
-
-That they were practical and businesslike is perhaps best shown by their
-dealings with the French. The Comanches were first contacted about 1725
-by the French, who traded them guns and ammunition. Yet the Comanches
-would not let the French cross their territory to trade with the Apaches
-and others, thus monopolizing the source of firearms.
-
-These Shoshonean speaking people were a true South Plains horse Indian.
-They were often considered the finest horsemen of the plains, these
-nomadic buffalo hunters who lived in tipis of the skins from this
-animal. The Comanche tongue was universally spoken by numerous other
-Indian tribes of the South Plains; so little sign language was
-necessary, as was the case farther north.
-
-    [Illustration: _A general view of the rough terrain in the Carlsbad
-    Caverns—Guadalupe Mountains area_]
-
-Buffalo were reported on the South Plains in 1540-41, by the Spanish. As
-there was constant warfare between the Comanches and the Apaches, it may
-well have started over the bison.
-
-The words fighting and Comanche go hand in hand. They were spasmodically
-at war with most of their neighbors; yet if peace and alliance achieved
-a goal, they would concede, as is shown in their relationship with the
-Kiowa. Bitter enemies, these two, until 1790, when an alliance was made
-which lasted until sometime in the 1870s. Together they raided the
-Spanish, Pueblos, Apaches, and their first real enemy, the
-Anglo-Americans of Texas.
-
-Although the Park and Guadalupe Mountains area was not part of the
-Comanches positive range, which lay north, east and southeast of the
-Pecos River, it was frequently crossed by hunting and raiding parties.
-There is no reason to assume that the Kiowas did not accompany them from
-time to time, especially when raiding into Mexico.
-
-These “Lords of the South Plains,” as they were later called, looked and
-dressed every bit the now “Hollywood” Indian. In costumes of buckskins
-or buffalo hide, decorated with beads and gewgaws, wearing the typical
-warbonnet, the Comanches ruled a tremendous portion of the South Plains
-for 175 years. (See Map.) They were fearless fighters who rescued their
-dead and wounded in battle, who on occasion used poison from an unknown
-plant on their arrow-points, or stuck them in a dead, ripe skunk to
-create the same effect; and were great thieves and gamblers. The
-successful theft of horses from the enemy was a high mark of prestige to
-a man; yet this same man could and did lose his spoils to other
-Comanches through the media of dice and hand games.
-
-The Comanches were one of the few tribes of the South Plains who did not
-eat dog or human flesh. Their religion contained the belief of an after
-life in a “Happy Hunting Ground” beyond the sun. Naturally, these people
-utilized many wild plants. One among these that grows in the Park is
-mescal, which was used as a drug. (Quite a contrast to the Apaches,
-this.)
-
-A valiant but bloody chapter in the history of the Southwest was closed
-in June, 1875, when the Comanches surrendered to the U. S. Army at Ft.
-Sill, and went on to a reservation in the then Indian Territory of
-Oklahoma. It is said the introduction of the Colt revolver, in the hands
-of the Texas Rangers, was the deciding factor toward their surrender.
-
-    [Illustration: THE INDIANS OF
-    CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK
-    TIME RANGE]
-
-  Early Man                    25,000-15,000 B.P.? — 2,000 B.C.?
-  Carlsbad Basketmakers        2000 B.C.? — 1750 A.D.?
-  Pueblo Culture Influence     1000 B.C.? —
-  Mescalero Apache             1300 A.D.? —
-  Comanche                     1700 A.D.? —
-  Kiowa                        1800 A.D.? —
-
-
-
-
-                              BIBLIOGRAPHY
-
-
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-  Colton, Harold S. and Hargrave, L. L.—_Handbook of Northern Arizona
-          Pottery Types_, MNA, 1937.
-  Cosgrove, C. B.—_Caves of the Upper Gila and Hueco Areas in New Mexico
-          and Texas_, Papers of the Peabody Museum, 1947.
-  Dodge, Natt N.—_Flowers of the Southwest Deserts_, SMA, 1952.
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-  Fewkes, J. W.—_Casa Grande Arizona, Antiquities of the Upper Verde
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-          Development_, manuscript.
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-          Bul. Texas Arch. and Pal. Soc., Vol. 4, 1932.
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-          Bul. #17, 1948.
-  Mallery, Garrick—_Picture Writing of the American Indians_, B.A.E.
-          #10, 1888-89.
-  McGee, W. J.—_The Seri Indians_, B.A.E. #17, Part 2, 1895-96.
-  Mera, H. P.—_An Outline of Ceramic Developments in Southern and
-          Southeastern New Mexico_, Lab. of Anth., Tech. Series, Bul.
-          #11.
-      _Reconnaissance and Excavation in Southeastern New Mexico_, AAA
-          Memoir #51, 1938.
-  Mooney, James—_Myths of the Cherokee_, B.A.E. #19, 1897-98.
-      _The Ghost Dance Religion_, B.A.E. #14, 1892-93.
-      _Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians_, B.A.E. #17, 1895-96.
-  Neumann, George—_Analysis of the Skeletal Material_, Lab. of Anth.,
-          Tech. Series, Bul. #10, 1940.
-  Opler, Morris Edward—_An Apache Life-Way_, 1941.
-  Pearce, Dr. J. E.—_Kitchen Middens_, Bul. Texas Arch. and Pal. Soc.,
-          Vol. 4, 1932—See also Victor J. Smith.
-  Reed, Erik—_Historical Narrative and Archaeological Values_,
-          Interpretive Section, Master Plan, Carlsbad Caverns National
-          Park.
-  Roth, W. E.—_Animism and Folklore of Guiana Indians_, B.A.E. #30,
-          1908-09.
-  Schmitt, Martin F. and Brown, Dee—_Fighting Indians of the West_,
-          1948.
-  Swanton, John R.—_The Indian Tribes of North America_, B.A.E. Bul.
-          145, 1952.
-  Thomas, Alfred Barnaby—_The Plains Indians and New Mexico 1751-1778_,
-          1940.
-  Wallace, Ernest and Hoebel, E. Adamson—_The Comanches_, U. of Okla.,
-          1952.
-  Williams, Jack R.—_Papago_, manuscript, 1952.
-
-
-
-
-                               FOOTNOTES
-
-
-[1]Unfortunately, the National Park Service has been unable to obtain
-    any of these burials. However, Vernon Bailey in his _Animal Life of
-    Carlsbad Cavern_ points out that they were found. (Also, this has
-    been corroborated by writings of the late Carl B. Livingston, well
-    known attorney, writer, historian, and an outstanding authority on
-    history and prehistory of New Mexico. Too, present and former
-    employees of the National Park Service who played an important part
-    in the early stages of the development and operation of the Carlsbad
-    Caverns National Park are familiar with the evidences of prehistoric
-    man found in and around the Caverns. T. Cal Miller.)
-
-
-    [Illustration: Hunting]
-
-    [Illustration: Early Man, Carlsba Baketmaker, Mescalero Apache,
-    Comanche, Kiowa]
-
-
-
-
-      *      *      *      *      *      *
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s note:
-
-—Corrected a few obvious typographical errors.
-
-—Transcribed some text from illustrations, for the sake of the text
-  versions.
-
-—Added a Table of Contents based on headings in the text.
-
-
-
-***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE INDIANS OF CARLSBAD CAVERNS
-NATIONAL PARK***
-
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