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W. Bitting - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato Ketchup - -Author: A. W. Bitting - -Release Date: August 21, 2016 [EBook #52867] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPERIMENTS--SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP *** - - - - -Produced by Larry B. Harrison, Chris Jordan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h1 class="faux"> EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP.</h1> - -<p class="right smaller"> Issued January 9, 1909.</p> - -<p class="center"> U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,<br /> - BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY—BULLETIN No. 119.<br /> -<span class="smaller">H. W. WILEY, Chief of Bureau.</span></p> - -<hr class="w20" /> - -<p class="center bigger"><b> EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPOILAGE<br /> - OF TOMATO KETCHUP.</b></p> - -<p class="center mt4 big"><span class="smaller"> BY</span><br /> - A. W. BITTING,<br /> - <span class="smaller"> INSPECTOR, BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY.</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/logo.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt="Shield of the United States Department of Agriculture" /> -</div> - -<p class="center mt2 big"> WASHINGTON:<br /> - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.<br /> - 1909. -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="LETTER_OF_TRANSMITTAL" id="LETTER_OF_TRANSMITTAL"></a>LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.</h2> - - -<p class="right"> -<span class="smcap">U. S. Department of Agriculture</span>,<br /> -<span class="smcap">Bureau of Chemistry</span>,<br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>Washington, D. C., July 15, 1908</i>.</span> -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: I have the honor to submit for your approval a report made -by Inspector Bitting of experimental work on the spoilage of tomato -ketchup, the conditions contributing thereto, methods of prevention, -the action of preservatives, and the length of time that the product -will keep under varying conditions of manufacture and temperature, -both before and after opening. Every effort has been made to -conduct the work in a practical way, and the results obtained can -not fail to be of interest and profit both to the manufacturer and -consumer. I recommend that this report be published as Bulletin -No. 119 of the Bureau of Chemistry.</p> - -<p><span class="in2left">Respectfully,<span class="wide"> </span><span class="smcap">H. W. Wiley</span>,</span><br /> -<span class="in2right"><i>Chief</i>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="in2left">Hon. <span class="smcap">James Wilson</span>,</span><br /> -<span class="in4left"><i>Secretary of Agriculture</i>.</span> -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> - - -<div class="center"> -<table summary="TOC"> -<tr><td> </td><td class="tdr"> Page.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Introduction</td><td class="tdr vb"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">7</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Process of manufacture</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#PMAN">8</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Selection and preparation of stock </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SANDPSTOCK">9</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Pulping </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#PULPING">9</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Cooking and seasoning</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#CANDSEASON">10</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Evaporation and finishing </td> -<td class="tdr vb"><a href="#EVAP">11</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Bottling </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#BOTTLING">11</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Processing </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#PROCESSING">11</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Character of products </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#CHARACTER_OF_PRODUCTS">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> First-class products</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#FIRST-CLASS-P">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Inferior products from “trimming stock”</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#INFERIOR-P">13</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Labels </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#LABELS">14</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Manufacturing experiments without the use of preservatives</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#MANUFACTURING_EXPERIMENTS_WITHOUT_THE_USE_OF">15</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Outline of experiments </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#OUTLINE">15</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Discussion of results </td> -<td class="tdr vb"><a href="#DISCUSSION">17</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Spoilage of ketchup after opening </td> -<td class="tdr vb"><a href="#SPOILAGE">17</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Spoilage of unopened ketchup </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SPOILAGE">20</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Spoilage of market brands </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SPOILAGE2">20</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Sterility of ketchup </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#STERILITY">21</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Experiments with preservatives </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#EXPERIMENTS_WITH_PRESERVATIVES">22</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Sodium benzoate </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#NABENZ">22</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt">Salt </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SALT">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Sugar </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SUGAR">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt">Spices </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SPICES">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Water infusions </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#WATER">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Acetic acid extracts </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#ACETIC-ACID">25</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Oil extracts </td> -<td class="tdr vb"><a href="#OIL">25</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt">Vinegar and acetic acid </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#VINEGAR">26</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Oil </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#OIL2">27</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Study of Penicillium in ketchup </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#STUDY_OF_PENICILLIUM_IN_KETCHUP">28</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt">Development </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#DEVELOPMENT">29</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Reproduction </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#REPRODUCTION">29</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Growth in ketchup </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#GROWTH">30</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Temperature tests </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#TEMPERATURE">31</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Histological structure of ketchup</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#HISTOLOGICAL_STRUCTURE_OF_KETCHUP">33</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Microscopical examination of some commercial brands</td> -<td class="tdr vb"><a href="#MICROSCOPIC_EXAMINATION_OF_SOME_COMMERCIAL_BRANDS">34</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Summary </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SUMMARY">35</a></td></tr> -</table> -</div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> - - -<p class="center small"></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table summary="Table of Plates"> -<tr><td class="tdc small mb1" colspan="3"><b>PLATES.</b></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="tdr"> Page.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> I. </td> -<td class="tdl vt">Penicillium.<br /> Fig. 1.—Conidia, normal growth - and in various stages of germination, some with branching - hyphæ.<br /> Fig. 2.—Conidiophore, showing unusually large - development of conidia; from culture in moist chamber </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#conidia1">28</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr vt">II.</td> -<td class="tdl vt"> Cultures from ketchup preserved with sodium - benzoate.<br /> Fig. 1.—Conidia and hyphæ from culture in - experimental ketchup containing one-sixteenth of 1 per cent - of sodium benzoate.<br />Fig. 2.—Conidia and hyphæ from culture - in experimental ketchup containing one-tenth of 1 per cent - of sodium benzoate </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#conidia3">28</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="mt2 mb1" colspan="3"> </td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc small" colspan="3"><b>TEXT FIGURES.</b></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.</td> -<td class="tdl vt"> A model receiving platform </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#model">8</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr vt">2.</td> -<td class="tdl vt"> Large receiving room showing the sorting belt </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#large_rec">9</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr vt">3.</td> -<td class="tdl vt"> A section of a kitchen showing the copper cookers</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#section">10</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr vt">4.</td> -<td class="tdl vt"> An example of factory practice </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#example">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr vt">5.</td> -<td class="tdl vt"> Another factory interior </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#another">14</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="EXPERIMENTS_ON_THE_SPOILAGE_OF_TOMATO_KETCHUP" id="EXPERIMENTS_ON_THE_SPOILAGE_OF_TOMATO_KETCHUP"></a> -EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP.</p> - - -<h2 class="nobreak mt2"><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h2> - - -<p>The tomato, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lycopersicum esculentum</i>, is supposed to be native to -South or Central America. The large fruits commonly used grow -only under cultivation, but the variety with small, spherical fruits, -known as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">L. cerasiforme</i>, has been found on the shore of Peru and is -considered by De Candolle<a name="FNanchor_A" id="FNanchor_A"></a><a href="#Footnote_A" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> as belonging to the same species as -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">L. esculentum</i>. Though grown extensively in Europe, there is nothing -to indicate that it was known there before the discovery of America. -The tomato was introduced into China and Japan at a comparatively -recent date. De Candolle is of the opinion that the tomato was -taken to Europe by the Spaniards from Peru and was later introduced -into the United States by Europeans. Tomatoes were brought to -Salem, Mass., by an Italian painter in 1802,<a name="FNanchor_B" id="FNanchor_B"></a><a href="#Footnote_B" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> who is said to have had -difficulty in convincing the people that they were edible. They were -used in New Orleans in 1812, though as late as 1835 they were sold by -the dozen in Boston. After 1840 they came into general use in the -Eastern States, but it was later than this before tomatoes were used -freely in the Western States, many persons having the impression that, -since they belonged to the nightshade family, they must be unwholesome. -The extent to which tomatoes are used at the present -time shows how completely this prejudice has been overcome.</p> - -<p>The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lycopersicum</i> is from two Greek words, meaning a wolf, -and a peach, the application of these terms not being apparent; the -name of the species, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">esculentum</i>, is from the Latin, meaning eatable. -The common name “tomato” is of South or Central American origin, -and is believed to be the term used in an ancient American dialect to -designate the plant,<a name="FNanchor_C" id="FNanchor_C"></a><a href="#Footnote_C" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> but its meaning is unknown. The English call -the tomato “love apple,” which in French is “pomme d’amour.”</p> - -<p>The tomato is considered a typical berry, the ovary wall, free from -the calyx, forming the fleshy pericarp, which incloses chambers filled -with a clear matrix containing the seeds. The fruit measures from 1 -to 5 inches in diameter, and is red, pink, or yellow when mature.</p> - -<p>The plant sports freely, producing many varieties, which differ -mainly in the size, shape, and quality of the fruit. The varieties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> -bearing small fruits are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">L. cerasiforme</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">L. pyriforme</i>, each bearing -a two-celled fruit, the former being round, and somewhat larger than -a cherry, and the latter pear-shaped. These small tomatoes are used -ordinarily for preserves and pickles.</p> - -<p>The word “ketchup” is adopted in this bulletin as the form which -ought to be given preference. The derivation of the term is not definitely -known. The spelling “catchup” given in some of the leading -dictionaries appears to be based on the erroneous idea that the first -syllable “ketch” is a colloquial form of “catch.” Several authorities -derive the word from the East Indian or Malayan “kitjap,” -because “ketchup” was originally a kind of East Indian pickles. -Some give the word a Chinese origin, while others assert that it comes -from the Japanese. A majority of the manufacturers employ the word -“catsup,” a spelling for which there does not appear to be any -warrant.</p> - - -<h3><a name="PMAN" id="PMAN"></a>PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE.</h3> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="model" id="model"></a><img src="images/i_008.jpg" width="600" height="374" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.—A model receiving platform.</div> -</div> - -<p>The making of tomato ketchup consists essentially in reducing -tomatoes to pulp, removing the skins, seeds, hard parts, and stems, -adding salt, sugar, condiments, and vinegar to suit the taste, and -cooking to a proper consistency. The methods and practices of the -various manufacturers differ, and the difference between the best -and the poorest procedure corresponds to that between the best and -the worst ketchup. No single factory has all of the best methods -at every step of manufacture. Some perform certain details well -and are negligent in others. In some, large amounts of money are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -spent on equipment to improve a particular point considered advantageous -by the trade, while other details essential to the making of -a good-keeping ketchup are disregarded. A statement of the best -practice as observed at a number of factories, together with some -facts obtained from experiments, will be given.</p> - - -<h3><a name="SANDPSTOCK" id="SANDPSTOCK"></a>SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF STOCK.</h3> - -<p>The tomatoes should be home-grown, of a red variety having the -minimum of yellow and purple color, be picked when ripe, and delivered -to the factory promptly without mashing. All tomatoes should -pass over an inspection table, the rotten and otherwise unfit fruit -should be discarded, and the green tomatoes should be returned to -crates to ripen. The stems should be removed when the best color -is desired, and the tomatoes should be thoroughly washed to remove -dirt and mold. Dumping a crate of tomatoes into a hopper of dirty -water and playing a gentle spray of water on part of them merely -wets the skin and makes them appear bright.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="large_rec" id="large_rec"></a> -<img src="images/i_009.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Large receiving room showing the sorting belt.</div> -</div> - - -<h3><a name="PULPING" id="PULPING"></a>PULPING.</h3> - -<p>The clean tomatoes should be conveyed to the steaming tanks -and subjected to steam heat until the skins burst and the meat -softens. After a short heating the tomatoes should be run through -a “cyclone” where the skins, seeds, etc., are removed and they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -rubbed to a pulp. To remove very small particles and fiber, the -pulp may be run through a sieving machine at once; or, if ketchup -of the smoothest possible kind is to be made, this procedure should -be delayed until after the cooking. The pulp is collected in a receiving -vat, and only such an amount should be provided in advance as -will keep the kettles full, as it is better to stop the tomatoes before -going to the washer than to have the pulp stand for some hours. -In common practice, however, the pulp is either sent to the cooker -at once, or it is allowed to stand and partially separate. If tall -casks are used for this separation the solids will rise to the top -and the clear watery portion is drawn off at the bottom, or the -pulp may be strained through cloth bags. The object of this separation -is to secure greater concentration of the solids, retain a -brighter color, and shorten the time of cooking.</p> - - -<h3><a name="CANDSEASON" id="CANDSEASON"></a>COOKING AND SEASONING.</h3> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="section" id="section"></a><img src="images/i_010.jpg" width="600" height="396" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—A section of a kitchen showing the copper cookers.</div> -</div> - -<p>The cooking may be done in copper kettles, as shown in figure 3, -though these are being superseded by enamel tanks containing silver-plated -coils in order to secure the brightest color. By using the -latter the discoloration due to the splashing of the contents against -the walls of the copper vessel is avoided, and economy of space is -secured. Whole or ground spices, or acetic acid or oil extracts of the -spices may be added to the pulp in such proportion as the particular -brand demands. The spices most used are cloves, cinnamon, mace, -and cayenne pepper; but paprika, pepper, mustard, cardamon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -coriander, ginger, celery, and allspice are used by some manufacturers. -When whole spices are used, it is the practice to suspend -them in a cloth bag or a wire basket and to take them out after -boiling. They tend to darken the color of the ketchup, a result -considered undesirable by some. The ground spices are used sparingly, -with the exception of cayenne pepper. The acetic acid extracts -of spices are used because they are economical and give a brighter -red color than is obtained with the whole spice. The oil extracts -produce no discoloration, but they are the most expensive and give -an objectionable flavor. Hungarian sweet paprika is now quite -largely used and adds to the color as well as to the flavor. Sugar, -salt, and vinegar are added in such proportion as may be desired, -and in some brands onions and garlic are used.</p> - - -<h3><a name="EVAP" id="EVAP"></a>EVAPORATION AND FINISHING.</h3> - -<p>The pulp is evaporated rapidly to such consistency as the grade -and price will warrant, the reduction in volume being from 40 to 60 -per cent. This is accomplished in about forty-five minutes. The -cooking is not continued longer than is necessary, as each minute -added to the cooking darkens the finished product.</p> - -<p>If the pulp has been run through the sieving machine before cooking, -the batch may be drawn off into the receiving tank for bottling. -If the finishing be done after cooking, the pulp is run into a receiving -vat, finished as quickly as possible, and drawn into the tank for -bottling. The ketchup may be kept at a high temperature—200° to -206° F.—in the receiving tank by means of a small steam coil, or it -may be drawn to the bottling machine through a steam-jacketed tube. -Finishing after cooking yields a slightly smoother ketchup than -sieving before cooking; but it necessitates handling, reduces the -temperature, and increases the chances of infection.</p> - - -<h3><a name="BOTTLING" id="BOTTLING"></a>BOTTLING.</h3> - -<p>The bottles should be thoroughly cleaned as ketchup will not -keep if placed in bottles which have been merely rinsed to remove -the straw; if the ketchup is not to be given an after process the -containers should be sterilized. In the experimental work cork -stoppers gave the best results and these should be sterilized in a -paraffin bath at 250° F.</p> - - -<h3><a name="PROCESSING" id="PROCESSING"></a>PROCESSING.</h3> - -<p>An after treatment or process is given to bottled goods either in -a water or steam bath, the important point being that the center -of the bottle be raised to the desired degree of heat. If the -ketchup is thin this can be effected quickly, but if it is thick and -heavy the heat penetrates the ketchup with surprising slowness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -In a thin ketchup the temperature may be raised from 140° to -190° F. in eighteen minutes or less when the surrounding heat is -195° F; but in a heavy ketchup it may take an hour or more to -accomplish the same result. It is therefore very important that -the ketchup be processed immediately after it is corked, before it -has time to cool. The rate at which the heating is effected for -different goods can be determined by sealing a thermometer in -the cork and recording the readings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="example" id="example"></a><img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="600" height="538" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—An example of factory practice showing the top row of tanks from which pulp passes by -gravity into the cookers, then into the receiver, sieving machine, and final tub ready for the bottling -machine or jug filler.</div> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHARACTER_OF_PRODUCTS" id="CHARACTER_OF_PRODUCTS"></a>CHARACTER OF PRODUCTS.</h2> - - -<h3><a name="FIRST-CLASS-P" id="FIRST-CLASS-P"></a>FIRST-CLASS PRODUCTS.</h3> - -<p>The factory at which the experiments were conducted has sanitary -buildings and surroundings, the floors are of concrete for flushing, -and the pipes used in conducting the pulp to the kitchens are porcelain-lined -to prevent discoloration from the iron and to insure -cleanliness. The tubes which carry the ketchup from the kettles -to the receiving tank, finishing machine, and bottler are silver-plated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -Not all of these measures are necessary to make a good ketchup, but -they show the care exercised in making an article of good appearance -and of the finest quality.</p> - -<p>The conditions under which ketchup is made and the care with -which the work is done at some of the better factories is equal to -that used in the manufacture of any food product. Whole selected -fruit is used, cleanliness is maintained at every point, the best grades -of spices, vinegar, granulated sugar, and salt are added for flavoring, -and the bottles are carefully washed. The ketchup put up under -such conditions will have a bright natural color, will remain good as -long as the container is unbroken, and will continue in that condition -for some time after opening if kept at a fairly cool temperature.</p> - - -<h3><a name="INFERIOR-P" id="INFERIOR-P"></a>INFERIOR PRODUCTS FROM “TRIMMING STOCK.”</h3> - -<p>In contrast with the strictly high-grade product is the great bulk -of the ketchup found on the market. The material is not whole -ripe tomatoes, but consists of the waste of the canning factory, -commonly designated as “trimming stock,” including the green, -moldy, broken, rotten, and generally unusable tomatoes, the skins, -cores, and stems from the peeling tables, and the surplus juice from -the filling machines, all of which may be allowed to stand during the -day and be run through the cyclone in the evening. At the end of the -season, the frosted and half-ripe fruits may be used. Part of this -material can not be considered “sound fruit” as contemplated by the -food and drugs act. The pulp is put up in barrels, preserved, and -allowed to stand, possibly in the sun, until a sufficient quantity has -accumulated for shipment. Old ketchup barrels may be used and -be none too clean. As a result, it is not uncommon to see an inch or -more of pulp in the bottom of a car at the end of shipment, caused -by the blowing out of the barrel heads from fermentation. The -sanitary condition of the factory may be poor, the handling of the -goods be unclean, the spices be the refuse from the spice houses, -the sugar be of the cheapest grade, and the bottles be only rinsed or -be used without even that precaution. The ketchup is a concoction -so heavily spiced with hot spices that the tomato flavor is lost and -might as well be anything else. The color is normally dirty brown.</p> - -<p>Between these two extremes are all grades, those for which whole -tomatoes, unsorted, are used, those for which trimming stock is -worked up promptly during the canning season, and those made -from stock of unknown history. Some manufacturers work under -good and some under poor sanitary conditions. There can be no -doubt that with proper selection and precaution much of the by-product -of the canning factory and large quantities of tomatoes -which are unsuitable for canning might be used to advantage in the -manufacture of ketchup; but it requires a nicety of practice not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -generally found at this time. The practice sometimes followed of -making some ketchup from whole stock and a large quantity from -refuse and using the former for advertising purposes, only serves to -emphasize the fact that the goods belong to two distinct classes. One -of the uses for a very considerable amount of pulp from refuse stock -is the making of sauce for baked beans and other canned goods -where the true character can not be observed by the consumer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="another" id="another"></a><img src="images/i_014.jpg" width="600" height="472" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Another factory interior, showing large pulp tanks in the rear, cooking tanks on the right, -and process tanks in front containing thousands of bottles of ketchup.</div> -</div> - -<p>During the season tomatoes come in at times in larger quantities -than can be made into ketchup promptly. The surplus must be -worked up into pulp for storage and may be stored in barrels or in -tin cans. The pulp stored in barrels will not have as good a color as -that put into cans, and the ketchup made from either will not be as -bright as that made from whole, fresh stock. The pulp put up in -barrels is more liable to spoilage than that put up in cans. The -difference in the cost of storage by the two methods is not very -great, and some large concerns are using the can exclusively instead -of the barrel.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="LABELS" id="LABELS"></a>LABELS.</h2> - - -<p>The labels on the ketchup bottles have been improved somewhat -in the last year as regards exactness in describing the contents. Formerly, -according to the labels, much of the ketchup was made from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -whole ripe tomatoes. The question was, What became of the -enormous amount of ketchup which it was known had been made -from “trimmings?” On this year’s ketchup the labels make fewer -claims, generally merely stating that it is “tomato ketchup,” which -is true whether made from whole tomatoes or refuse. The brand is -in most cases the guaranty for good quality. It is not safe to judge -the quality by the price, for, though usually good quality can not be -expected unless the higher price is paid, some of the high-priced -ketchup when placed under the microscope has proven to be a very -inferior product.</p> - -<p>The wide labels on the neck of the bottle are objectionable. Some -of these are 2 inches in height, and serve to cover the discolored and -spoiled ketchup. As spoilage begins usually in the neck of the -bottle, it is difficult to see it when the neck is wrapped with a label, -and thus it might easily be overlooked until the main body of the -ketchup is affected. The bottles which have the widest labels -around the neck are usually the ones provided with one or two large -labels on the lower part of the bottle, though some bottles have no -other label but the one around the neck. As a rule, however, these -are narrow, close to the stopper, and unobjectionable.</p> - -<p>In buying ketchup for experimental purposes it was difficult and -sometimes impossible to learn its age, as often the grocer does not -know it, and at other times he will not tell. It appeared, however, -that often the ketchup had been on the grocer’s shelf or in the warehouse -from one to four years.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="MANUFACTURING_EXPERIMENTS_WITHOUT_THE_USE_OF" id="MANUFACTURING_EXPERIMENTS_WITHOUT_THE_USE_OF"></a> -MANUFACTURING EXPERIMENTS WITHOUT THE USE OF -PRESERVATIVES.</h2> - - -<h3><a name="OUTLINE" id="OUTLINE"></a>OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTS.</h3> - -<p>During September, 1907, ketchup was made in experimental -batches to determine whether it could be manufactured on a commercial -scale without the use of preservatives. These experiments -were made to determine (1) the keeping quality before opening the -container and (2) the length of time the product will keep without -spoilage after the bottle is opened.</p> - -<p>The ketchup was made in a factory in which the conditions of -manufacture and all the surroundings were sanitary; whole, ripe -tomatoes, the same as used in the regular grade of canned goods, -were used and the formula and process were for a mild ketchup -giving the maximum of tomato flavor. Each batch consisted of 50 -gallons of finished goods, from which 1 gross of pint bottles was -retained for observation.</p> - -<p>The term “regular ketchup” as used in these experiments means -the pulp of fully ripe tomatoes, to which was added granulated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -sugar, 80-grain, distilled vinegar, table salt, onions, garlic, whole -cinnamon, cloves, mace, and ground cayenne pepper. The pulp -was cooked in a steam-jacketed copper kettle for forty minutes and -reduced about 50 per cent. The finishing was done after cooking. -The regular bottles are pint sizes, washed in hot water, rinsed, and -then heated to a temperature of 190° F. for thirty minutes or more. -The sterile bottles referred to in the experiments were placed in a -steam chamber for twenty minutes at 230° F. The corks were -sterilized by a bath in paraffin at about 270° F. All of the work -was accomplished quickly to insure a smooth, even product with a -bright, clean color. Acetic acid extracts and oil extracts of spices -were used in such quantities as would give the same amount of -spicing as when the whole spices were employed.</p> - -<p>In all of the following experiments the ketchups discussed were -made in September, 1907, and the last examination reported was -made ten months later, in July, 1908:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 1.</i>—Regular ketchup was made, but it was reheated after finishing -and bottled in sterile bottles at a temperature of 205° F. No spoilage has occurred -at the end of ten months.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 2.</i>—Regular ketchup was made, and it was bottled immediately -after finishing in regular bottles at a temperature of 165° F. An after process was -given at 190° F. for twenty minutes. No spoilage has occurred after ten months.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 3.</i>—Regular ketchup was made, and was bottled in regular bottles -at 165° F., and given a subsequent process at 190° F. for forty minutes. No spoilage -has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 4.</i>—Regular ketchup was made, was bottled in regular bottles at a -temperature of 165° F., and given an after process at 212° F. for twenty minutes. No -spoilage has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 5.</i>—Regular ketchup was made, the same being put up in regular -bottles at a temperature of 165° F. and given an after process at 212° F. for forty minutes. -No spoilage has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 6.</i>—Ketchup was made in which the acetic acid extracts took the -place of whole spices, and the bottling was done at a temperature of 165° F., no after -treatment being given. No spoilage has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 7.</i>—Ketchup was made in which acetic acid extracts were used, -and the bottling was done at a temperature of 165° F. in sterile bottles. No after -treatment was given and no spoilage has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 8.</i>—Ketchup was made in which the oil extracts were used instead -of regular spices. The bottling was done in regular bottles at a temperature of 165° F., -no after treatment being given. No spoilage has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 9.</i>—Ketchup was made in which oil extracts were used instead of -whole spices. The bottling was done at 165° F. in sterile bottles, no after treatment -being given. No spoilage has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 10.</i>—Regular ketchup was made, but the pulp was run through -the sieving or finishing machine before instead of after cooking, the object being to -determine the effect upon the character of the goods rather than upon the spoilage. -This practice could be followed to advantage in making all except the very finest -goods, and would give the same condition for bottling as in experiment No. 1.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 11.</i>—Pulp was made in the usual manner and run into barrels -while just below the boiling point. The barrels had been thoroughly washed and then -steamed for twenty minutes. As soon as the pulp had cooled slightly the bung was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -driven in tightly and the barrel was rolled into storage. At the end of sixty days the -barrels were opened and the pulp was found to be in good condition.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 12.</i>—Regular ketchup was drawn into 5-gallon jugs which had been -sterilized in the same manner as the bottles. These were kept for sixty days and no -spoilage occurred.</p></blockquote> - - -<h3><a name="DISCUSSION" id="DISCUSSION"></a>DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.</h3> - -<p>Twelve hundred and ninety-six bottles were shipped from Terre -Haute to Lafayette, Ind., and some were reshipped in order to duplicate -the conditions in trade. Some were kept in a warm temperature -and in strong light, others in a comparatively cool place and in the -original shipping cases, in order to duplicate the conditions in the -warehouse and grocery store. There has been no spoilage after ten -months other than that resulting from four or five cork leaks and -neck cracks. These experiments have shown conclusively that -ketchup can be put up on a commercial scale and delivered to the -consumer in perfect condition without the use of a preservative.</p> - -<p>It was demonstrated by the first experiment that the goods could -be bottled at a high temperature without difficulty, and that subsequent -treatment was unnecessary. The after treatment at 190° was -tried because it had been found in small experiments that, in giving -a higher temperature, the internal pressure would cause more or less -breakage of bottles or loosening of corks. After treatment is practiced -by some who also use a small quantity of preservative as a -further precaution. This treatment is continued from two to three -hours at the temperature of high pasteurization.</p> - -<p>The process at 212° was given with little breakage, as the bottles -used were of good quality. At and above this temperature the -breakage may be reduced by either raising the temperature of the -ketchup before bottling or applying pressure upon the outside while -giving the process.</p> - -<p>Neither the acetic acid nor the oil extracts showed any advantage -over whole spices in their preservative effects, as all kept. The color -was slightly improved, but the flavor was impaired, particularly when -the oil extracts were used.</p> - - -<h4><a name="SPOILAGE" id="SPOILAGE"></a>SPOILAGE OF KETCHUP AFTER OPENING.</h4> - -<p>The question of how long the ketchup should keep after opening -the container in order to satisfy the ordinary requirements of consumption -was also studied. A local restaurant, serving about two -hundred meals and using from one-half to a gallon of ketchup daily, -was supplied with the same kind of ketchup used in the experiments, -as were also some families. Instructions were given to use the -ketchup as they would ordinarily, with the result that none reported -any loss from spoilage.</p> - -<p>To determine how long the ketchup would keep after opening, 8 -bottles from each of the first 9 experiments were kept in the kitchen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -at a temperature of about 72° F., 5 were kept in an incubator at a -temperature of 95° F., 5 were kept in the laboratory at a temperature -of about 67° F., and 4 were kept in an inclosed porch where -the temperature ranged from 30° to 60° F. This made a total of -198 bottles. No precautions, other than those of ordinary cleanliness, -were taken in opening the bottles, as it was desired to determine -the keeping properties under conditions of general usage. The -first set of bottles was opened November 5, immediately on being -received at the laboratory, all of the ketchup having been kept at -the factory until the experiment begun in September was completed. -The bottles were covered loosely with a metal cap and observed daily, -a record being kept of the date and character of spoilage.</p> - -<p>The results showed that the differences in the time and temperature -of processing had little, if any, effect in checking the spoilage; neither -did the use of acetic acid or oil extracts. The most important precaution -in checking the spoilage after opening seems to be to keep -the ketchup cool. This is shown by the average number of days -which elapsed before spoilage occurred in the sets kept under different -temperature conditions. For those kept in the kitchen the average -number of days was six, the minimum three, and the maximum -eleven. Those in the incubator kept for an average of five days, with -a minimum of two days, and a maximum of eight. Those in the -laboratory had an average of eight days, the minimum being four -days and the maximum twenty-two. Those kept in the porch lasted -on an average twenty-seven days, a minimum of twelve days, and a -maximum of fifty-eight.</p> - -<p>These figures show the definite relation of temperature to spoilage -under the conditions of ordinary use. In making the observations, -the metal cap was removed each day, but no ketchup was poured off. -The spoilage in all cases was due to mold, and usually this formed in -the neck of the bottle where the ketchup had splashed, or at the -junction of the ketchup with the bottle. The spoilage was recorded -as soon as the slightest growth appeared. In actual use if the neck -were wiped out when the ketchup had been used and a growth of -mold removed on its first appearance with some of the proximate -ketchup the time before spoilage occurred could be prolonged. In -these experiments the attempt was made to determine how soon -growth appeared under the various conditions of temperature named.</p> - -<p>The unopened bottles of ketchup were kept in a basement room, -the temperature of which is fairly constant, being about 70° F. -This is approximately the condition in a grocery where the ketchup is -kept on the shelves. Another set of samples from the run of September, -1907, was opened February 11, 1908, to determine if storing -in a warm room before opening had any effect on the length of time -preceding spoilage. Four bottles were taken from each of the first 9 -experiments to make up each of three sets, one of which was kept in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -the kitchen, one in the incubator, and one in the porch, making a -total of 108 bottles. The average number of days for those kept in -the incubator was four, the minimum two, and the maximum six. -The average number of days before spoilage in the kitchen was five, -the minimum being three and the maximum nine. Those kept in -the porch gave an average of twenty-three days, the minimum number -being eighteen days and the maximum seventy-three days. -Thus it is seen that the ketchup lasted nearly five times as long at a -temperature of 30° to 60° F. as it did at 72°; and also that when -ketchup is kept in a warm place before opening, spoilage occurs -somewhat sooner, the average for the fresh samples opened under -the same conditions being one day more with the incubator and -kitchen samples and four days more with the porch samples.</p> - -<p>A third set of bottles of the ketchup was opened on June 6, 1908, -or two hundred and sixty-five days after manufacture. They had -been kept in a basement at a temperature of about 70° F.</p> - -<p>One set was placed in the incubator at a temperature of 95° F., one -set in the kitchen at about 82° F., and one set in the refrigerator at -46° F. The weather was warm and the conditions favorable to the -spoilage of fresh foods. The minimum time for spoilage in the incubator -was two days, the maximum time four days, and the average -time three and two-tenths days. The minimum time in the kitchen -was two days, the maximum time six days, and the average time -four and four-tenths days. The minimum time in the refrigerator -was nine days, the maximum time nineteen days, and the average -time thirteen and sixty-six one-hundredths days.</p> - -<p>These data are grouped in the following table for easier comparison:</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Time of spoilage of ketchup at different temperatures after opening.</i></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table summary="Time of spoilage of ketchup at different temperatures after opening"> -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">OPENED ON NOVEMBER 5, 1907, IMMEDIATELY UPON RECEIPT FROM FACTORY; -MAXIMUM AGE, FIVE WEEKS.</span></th></tr> -<tr><th class="bb br" rowspan="2">Place of storage.</th> -<th class="bb br" rowspan="2"> Temperature.</th> -<th class="bb" colspan="3">Lapse of time before spoilage.</th></tr> -<tr><th class="bb br">Average.</th><th class="bb br"> Minimum.</th> - <th class="bb">Maximum.</th></tr> -<tr><th class="br"> </th> <th class="br"> <i>° F.</i></th><th class="br"> <i>Days.</i></th> - <th class="br"> <i>Days.</i></th> <th> <i>Days.</i></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Incubator</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 95</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 5 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br">2 </td><td class="tdr2"> 8</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Kitchen</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 72 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 6 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 3 </td><td class="tdr2"> 11</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Laboratory </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 67 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 8</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 4 </td><td class="tdr2"> 22</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br bb">Porch</td><td class="tdr2 br bb">30-60 </td><td class="tdr2 br bb"> 27</td> - <td class="tdr2 br bb"> 12</td><td class="tdr2 bb"> 58</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="5"> </td></tr> -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">KEPT AT 70° F. FOR ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY DAYS BEFORE OPENING ON -FEBRUARY 11.</span></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Incubator </td><td class="tdr2 br">95 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br">4 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 2</td> - <td class="tdr2"> 6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Kitchen</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 72</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 5</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 3 </td> - <td class="tdr2"> 9</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br bb">Porch </td><td class="tdr2 br bb"> 30-60</td> - <td class="tdr2 br bb"> 23 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br bb"> 18</td><td class="tdr2 bb"> 73</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="5"> </td></tr> -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">KEPT AT 70° F. FOR TWO HUNDRED AND SIXTY-FIVE DAYS BEFORE OPENING ON -JUNE 6.</span></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Incubator</td> -<td class="tdr2 br"> 95 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 3.2 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 2 </td><td class="tdr2"> 4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Kitchen</td> -<td class="tdr2 br"> 82 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 4.4</td><td class="tdr2 br "> 2 </td><td class="tdr2">6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br bb">Refrigerator</td> -<td class="tdr2 br bb"> 46 </td><td class="tdr2 br bb"> 13.66 </td> -<td class="tdr2 bb br"> 9</td><td class="tdr2 bb"> 19</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> - - -<h4><a name="SPOILAGE2" id="SPOILAGE2"></a>SPOILAGE OF UNOPENED KETCHUP.</h4> - -<p>Another test was made to determine whether the ketchup would -spoil when kept in a warm place, but not opened. Three bottles -from each experimental batch were placed in the incubator November -7, 1907, and were kept there until December 23, 1907—forty-six -days—and in that time there was no sign of spoilage. They were -then opened and kept in the laboratory; the average number of -days before spoilage occurred is indicated in the following table:</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Average number of days before spoilage of ketchup after opening (kept 46 days at 95° -before opening).</i></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table summary=" days before spoilage of ketchup after opening"> -<tr><th class="bb bt br">Experiment No.</th> -<th class="bb bt"> Days before spoilage.</th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">1</td><td class="tdr2">2⅔</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">2</td><td class="tdr2">4⅔</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">3</td><td class="tdr2">3⅓</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">4</td><td class="tdr3">5</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">5</td><td class="tdr2">5⅓</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">6</td><td class="tdr2">4⅓</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">7</td><td class="tdr2">4⅓</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">8</td><td class="tdr2">4⅓</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br bb">9</td><td class="tdr2 bb">3⅔</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>It will be observed that these samples spoiled in about the same -length of time as the bottles opened in February and tested in the -incubator, so that similar results were obtained by keeping unopened -ketchup one and one-half months at 95° F. and keeping it five -months at 70° F. From the results of the experiments it is evident -that the ingredients of the ketchup in the proportions used are not -antiseptic, and it is also apparent from the number of organisms -found and the rapidity of their multiplication that ketchup is a good, -nutritive medium. Yeasts and molds are the predominating organisms, -and, as the ketchup is acid and also contains sugar, and these -organisms are found on tomatoes in the field, their predominance in -the ketchup is explained.</p> - - -<h4><a name="SPOILAGE3" id="SPOILAGE3"></a>SPOILAGE OF MARKET BRANDS.</h4> - -<p>To determine the keeping properties of the ketchup on the market, -various brands were obtained from the grocery stores. In the -majority of cases nothing was known of the ingredients or methods -of manufacture, except what appeared on the labels. No date of -manufacture was given, and in some cases the dealers did not know -the age of the product.</p> - -<p>There were 104 bottles of ketchup opened to find out how long they -would remain in good condition. These were kept in the laboratory, -though the temperature was higher than that at which ketchup -should be held. Of the 104 bottles there were 66 without preservative, -according to the labels, 46 of which spoiled. Of the 20 which did not -spoil, 2 formed crystals of benzoic acid on the covers of glass dishes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -during evaporation. Of the 39 which, according to the labels, contained -sodium benzoate, 15 spoiled. The bottles of unspoiled ketchup -after remaining in the laboratory for about a month were placed in the -incubator at 95° F. for three weeks, and were then taken out, and -have been left in the laboratory since. The metal cap had been taken -off frequently for observation, and the ketchup exposed, but the -treatment did not cause them to spoil.</p> - -<p>The average number of days after which spoilage occurred for the -46 bottles without preservative was about fifteen, the minimum -number being four days, the maximum number ninety-four days. -The average number of days preceding spoilage in the case of 15 bottles -with preservative was twenty-four days, the minimum number -being three and the maximum sixty days. The majority of these had -0.1 per cent of sodium benzoate present; the others had a smaller -amount, according to the manufacturer’s label. These data are -not at all conclusive and further work on material of known history -will be necessary.</p> - - -<h4><a name="STERILITY" id="STERILITY"></a>STERILITY OF KETCHUP.</h4> - -<p>To determine the sterility of ketchup, cultures were made from 77 -of the bottles. The method used was to wipe the bottles and cork -stoppers with a damp towel and then remove the cork. The cork -puller which was used grasps the neck of the bottle in such a way as to -cover the opening and remove the cork without the inrush of air that -occurs when the ordinary corkscrew is used. A flame was then passed -over the mouth of the bottle, after which the upper layer of ketchup -was poured out, so as to discard any material which might have been -contaminated in handling. Tomato gelatin was used as a medium and -cultures were made in petri dishes.</p> - -<p>There were 17 plates on which no organisms developed, indicating -that the ketchup was sterile. Of the 60 plates having organisms, 54 -had molds, 22 of these having molds alone; 21 plates had yeast-like -organisms, 3 plates having these only; 29 plates had bacteria, 4 having -bacteria alone. Sometimes a plate would have only one form of -organism, but more often there was a mixture present. Of 15 plates -having only one form of organism, 3 had yeast alone, 2 bacteria alone, -and 10 had mold alone. Of the 77 bottles of ketchup from which the -inoculations were made, 41 were without and 36 with preservative, and -of the 17 sterile ketchups, 8 contained sodium benzoate and 9 were -without preservative.</p> - -<p>A considerable part of the experimental ketchup proved not -to be sterile. The organisms present were of the class which -require oxygen for their growth and therefore they had only been -arrested in their activity. No growth could take place so long as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -the air was excluded and therefore no spoilage could occur. When -the cork was drawn, the organisms could grow and cause spoilage, -and this is a much more potent factor than the entrance of germs -from without. Bottling and sealing the ketchup quickly while -hot so completely excludes the air that only a few colonies of -yeast or mold may be found on subsequent microscopical examination. -Filling at a low temperature and corking while cool -allows sufficient air to remain incorporated in the ketchup and -neck of the bottle to permit a considerable growth of the organisms -and a product derived from good stock may thus acquire the -appearance of ketchup derived from partially decayed material. -A ketchup in which bubbles of air are incorporated in filling may -show a growth of mold at each bubble throughout the mass. -The foregoing statements apply to ketchup containing sodium -benzoate as well as to the non-preservative goods of the character -used in these experiments.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="EXPERIMENTS_WITH_PRESERVATIVES" id="EXPERIMENTS_WITH_PRESERVATIVES"></a> -EXPERIMENTS WITH PRESERVATIVES.</h2> - - -<h3><a name="NABENZ" id="NABENZ"></a>SODIUM BENZOATE.</h3> - -<p>The preservative in general use in ketchup is sodium benzoate. -Salicylic acid is used, but only to a limited extent. The amount of -sodium benzoate used, according to the labels, varies from one-sixteenth -to one-tenth of 1 per cent; but on some labels the amount -is not stated. Experiments were made to determine the amount -necessary to check the spoilage of ketchup.</p> - -<p>Two organisms, a mold and a yeast, were selected on which to make -the tests. The mold was the ordinary blue mold, Penicillium, which -was present in many of the brands of ketchup and is found commonly -on acid foods. It was selected on account of its prevalence and -resistive power. The yeast was obtained from ketchup and was also -a vigorous grower, forming a thick, wrinkled film on various media. -Any effect on the growth of the yeast could be seen readily in its -manner of forming the film.</p> - -<p>Portions of tomato gelatin to which 0.1, 0.5, 1, and 2 per cent, respectively, -of sodium benzoate were added, were first inoculated with -the mold. There was no development in those containing 1 and 2 -per cent; a retarded development resulted in that containing 0.5 per -cent, and the growth when 0.1 per cent was used was nearly normal, -showing very little difference from that in the gelatin without sodium -benzoate.</p> - -<p>Ketchup was next tried as a medium, but the amount of benzoate -was reduced to one-sixteenth, one-twelfth, and one-tenth of 1 per cent, -as it was thought that some of the other constituents of the ketchup -were antiseptic to a slight degree. The growth in the ketchup was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -irregular, though the benzoate checked development in all. Equal -amounts of benzoate were used in tomato bouillon, with practically -the same results as in the ketchup. The development was checked -in all, and in some plates one-sixteenth of 1 per cent seemed to be -fully as efficacious as one-tenth of 1 per cent. When the mold was -examined under the microscope, the filaments were found to be much -swollen and distorted in shape, and filled with a coarsely granular -protoplasm, containing much fat, as indicated by the blackening with -osmic acid. The culture containing the mold which gave the least -development seemed to show the least distortion and swelling of the -filaments.</p> - -<p>The results indicated that in using sodium benzoate as a preservative -there is uncertainty as to results, even when using the maximum -amount allowed—one-tenth of 1 per cent. They also indicated that -this preservative had an injurious effect on the living matter of the -mold. (See Pl. II; compare with normal growth, Pl. I.)</p> - - -<h3><a name="SALT" id="SALT"></a>SALT.</h3> - -<p>The effect of salt in checking development was tested by using -tomato bouillon as a medium and adding 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 -grams of salt, respectively, to 100 cc. These were inoculated with the -mold. The 5-gram solution seemed to have no effect on development. -When 10 grams were used growth appeared as soon as in the bouillon -without salt, but was not so extensive. In the 15-gram solution -growth was retarded four days, and most of that which did develop -remained submerged, the mold growing normally on the surface. -With 20 grams the growth was five days slower than the normal in -starting, and after that there was only a slight development. In the -25-gram solution, the growth started at the same time as when 20 -grams were employed, but remained stationary, while with the 30-gram -solution, no development occurred.</p> - -<p>The yeast was checked slightly by 5 grams, and very materially by -the 10-gram solution, as it required two days for a thin, delicate film -to form, whereas in ordinary solutions a rather thick film is formed -within twenty-four hours or even in less time. There was no development -in the 15-gram solution.</p> - - -<h3><a name="SUGAR" id="SUGAR"></a>SUGAR.</h3> - -<p>The effect of sugar was tested on both the mold and the yeast by -adding it to tomato bouillon. It was supposed that a low percentage -of sugar like the salt would plasmolyze the cells, and in this way check -growth, but it seemed to have no effect until the amount was increased -to 25 grams per 100 cc of bouillon. In this solution growth appeared -as soon as with the weaker solutions, but there was a smaller amount. -In the 25 to 40 gram solutions there was less development as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -amount of sugar increased. In the 70 and 75 gram solutions growth -was delayed one day in its appearance. In the 80, 85, and 90 gram -solutions growth was delayed two days, the colonies growing submerged -at first, but after a time forming on the surface. The mycelium -remained very thin, but a thick layer of spores formed. From -this point on the amounts were increased by 10 grams up to 200. The -development became slower and less successively until 170 grams -were added. In this case a small colony appeared on the surface in -seven days, but seemed to grow less after that. The solutions were -held, and in time crystals separated from the thick sirups. After two -months dry-looking colonies developed along the edges, forming a -ring, and some formed on the surface, these occurring also in the -flasks containing 170, 180, 190, and 200 grams of sugar per 100 cc. -The colonies were a dull greenish drab in spots, the remainder being -white.</p> - -<p>For the yeast the 80-gram solution of sugar was the strongest in -which any development took place.</p> - - -<h3><a name="SPICES" id="SPICES"></a>SPICES.</h3> - -<p>Experiments to determine the value of the spices as antiseptics -were made, using water infusions, acetic-acid extracts, and oil -extracts.</p> - - -<h4><a name="WATER" id="WATER"></a>WATER INFUSIONS.</h4> - -<p>In making the water infusions 20 grams of the whole spices, with -200 cc of water, were boiled for forty-five minutes. This is approximately -the length of time that the spices are cooked in the ketchup in -the factory. The liquid was then filtered and from 0.1 to 5 cc of the -filtrate was used in 10 cc of tomato bouillon. The same organisms -were used as in the former experiments.</p> - -<p>The tests showed that cinnamon and cloves were the strongest antiseptically. -These checked growth when used in small amounts, but -it required 3 cc of the cinnamon and 1 cc of the cloves to inhibit the -growth of the mold. Mustard, paprika, and cayenne pepper checked -growth also, but 5 cc, the highest strength used, did not inhibit -growth. The ginger, mace, and black pepper had no apparent effect -in the quantities used.</p> - -<p>The effect of the spices on the development of the yeast was somewhat -different from their effect on Penicillium. The cinnamon -showed the strongest action, 3 cc being effective, whereas 5 cc of the -cloves was required. The cayenne pepper came next in effectiveness, -and after that the black pepper. The ginger, mace, and mustard -solutions had no effect in the strengths used.</p> - -<p>The remainder of the spice infusions were kept in glass-stoppered -bottles in the laboratory, and in a few weeks’ time there was a coating -of mold formed over the surface of the mace, the mustard, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -the black and cayenne peppers. The paprika had small, stunted colonies -dotting the surface.</p> - -<p>At the time that these experiments were made a quantity of the -ground spices were placed in large petri dishes and water was added -to make a heavy paste. One set of these was inoculated with the -mold, and another set with the yeast, and all were kept in a warm -place. No development of either organism appeared on the cinnamon, -cloves, or mustard; on the others a growth first showed in three -days. On a normal medium growth appears in twenty-four hours. -On the mace, paprika, and cayenne pepper the Penicillium and yeast -with which the pastes were inoculated were overgrown in a few days -with black mold (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rhizopus nigricans</i>).</p> - - -<h4><a name="ACETIC-ACID" id="ACETIC-ACID"></a>ACETIC-ACID EXTRACTS.</h4> - -<p>In the manufacture of ketchup acetic-acid extracts of the spices -are sometimes used instead of the whole spices, on account of their -supposed antiseptic properties as well as their greater strength and -convenience in handling. One minim of the standard acetic-acid -extracts is equal in strength to 1 grain of the whole spices. The acid -extracts obtained included allspice, celery, cloves, coriander, garlic, -and black pepper.</p> - -<p>In the tests 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, and 1 cc, respectively, of the -extract was added to 10 cc of tomato bouillon. One set was inoculated -with the mold and another set with the yeast. In the case of the -mold, no growth occurred with the allspice and cloves; the celery -checked the growth materially, there being no indication of mold -until the sixth day. Normally a fairly strong growth occurs in -twenty-four hours. In the solution containing 0.3 cc there was only -one small colony in thirteen days, and no further development. In -the solution containing the coriander, the growth in the 0.5 cc solution -did not appear for three days, the 1 cc solution showing no -growth. The garlic had practically the same effect as the coriander, -while the black pepper was stronger, no growth appearing in the solution -containing 0.5 cc.</p> - -<p>The yeast was slightly stronger in resisting the effect of the extracts. -No growth appeared with the allspice and cloves; 0.5 cc of the celery -and 1 cc of the coriander were required to inhibit growth, and the -garlic and black pepper gave similar results, a weak development -occurring in the solutions containing 1 cc.</p> - - -<h4><a name="OIL" id="OIL"></a>OIL EXTRACTS.</h4> - -<p>Oil extracts of the spices were tested in the same manner as the -water infusions and the acetic-acid extracts. The oils were so strong -that in order to handle them easily they were mixed with equal volumes -of alcohol, except that the mace, which was in the form of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -paste, was mixed with two-thirds its volume of alcohol. To 10 cc of -tomato bouillon were added 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5 cc, respectively, -of the oils of cinnamon, cloves, mace, mustard, and black pepper.</p> - -<p>In the case of the mold, there was no development in the solutions -containing cinnamon, cloves, and mustard; in those containing mace -and black pepper the development was slower than the normal, that -in the black pepper being more pronounced. On the yeast the effect -was similar, no development occurring in the cinnamon, cloves, and -mustard, and a retarded development taking place in the mace and -black pepper, that in the black pepper being the more pronounced.</p> - -<p>The experiments show that some of the spices, notably allspice, -cinnamon, and cloves have decided antiseptic value, but that the -peppers are not as valuable as is generally supposed.</p> - -<p>The oil extracts have been advocated for use in ketchup instead of -the whole spices, but in quantities which would be useful antiseptically -their use would be objectionable, for when present in approximately -the same proportions as are the whole-spice infusions, the -flavor is too strong and masks the more delicate flavor of the tomato. -The acetic-acid extracts are more effective than are the water infusions, -and they are not objectionable in the ketchup.</p> - - -<h3><a name="VINEGAR" id="VINEGAR"></a>VINEGAR AND ACETIC ACID.</h3> - -<p>An experiment was made to determine the antiseptic value of -vinegar and acetic acid. Commercial 50-grain distilled vinegar -was used. It was found that when 30 per cent of this vinegar was -added to the tomato bouillon the development of mold was checked -and the extent to which it was checked increased with the increased -amounts of vinegar. The development in the solution containing 30 -per cent of the vinegar was two days later than the normal in -starting, while the solution containing 100 per cent was eleven -days delayed and showed but little growth.</p> - -<p>An 80 per cent solution of glacial acetic acid was used. One-half -of 1 per cent added to the tomato bouillon checked growth to the -same extent as 30 per cent of vinegar, and no development occurred -when the quantity was increased to 2 per cent.</p> - -<p>Experiments were then made in which vinegar was added to -the ketchup in proportions varying from 1 part in 32 to 1 part in -8, with the result of greatly delaying the appearance of the mold -as the proportion increased. With the increase in vinegar it was -necessary to add sugar and slightly more spices to overcome -the pungency of the acid and thus insure good flavor. The addition -of the vinegar to the pulp had the effect of arresting the -action of the oxidase and thus the bright color was maintained.</p> - -<p>The usual custom in factory practice is to add the vinegar near -the close of the cooking process otherwise a considerable portion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -of the acid will be driven off. This practice was followed in the -experimental work, but it has since been found that continued -heating in the presence of the acid has some effect upon sterilization, -and therefore the increased amount of vinegar is effective not -only because of the additional acid present, but also because the -heating in the after process is thereby rendered more efficacious.</p> - -<p>This line of experiments gives promise of practical results in -producing a ketchup which will not only keep while in the bottle, -but will also keep longer after it is opened. Each manufacturer -must work out the quantities that could be used with his formula -and still retain the character of his goods.</p> - - -<h3><a name="OIL2" id="OIL2"></a>OIL.</h3> - -<p>In ketchup manufacturing it is customary, if an agitator is not -used, to put a small amount of fat in the kettle to check the ebullition -during the reduction of the pulp. The amount used in this -manner is not sufficient, however, to be apparent in the ketchup. -Brannt<a name="FNanchor_D" id="FNanchor_D"></a><a href="#Footnote_D" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> states that in some factories, where the trimmings are -allowed to accumulate for the season, they are given liberal doses -of oils and condiments when cooked, in order to disguise their defects, -so that the product can be placed on the market as “fresh tomato -catchup.” That the use of oils is increasing is evident from the -comparison of the ketchup of the past season with that of former -years.</p> - -<p>When oil is used in ketchup, it is easily detected under the microscope, -as it appears in the form of shining, yellow globules which -blacken gradually when treated with osmic acid. Besides this, -the oil comes to the surface of the ketchup, where it can be seen -readily, and if considerable oil has been used a distinct layer is -formed. When the ketchup has been made for some time, the oil -changes so that the ketchup has a peculiar “greasy” odor, or the oil -may be so changed as to give a decidedly rancid smell to the ketchup. -Oil usually causes a deterioration in flavor and odor, though some -of the ketchups to which it has been added do not spoil readily. -Olive oil, cottonseed oil, and oleomargarine are used. That the oil -is not considered one of the regular known ingredients of the ketchup -is shown by the failure to declare its presence on the label.</p> - -<p>To test the antiseptic value of oils in ketchup, experiments were -made, using olive oil, cottonseed oil, and oleomargarine in the proportions -of 1 part of oil to 1,000, 750, and 500 parts of ketchup, -respectively. The ketchup was made in small quantities, 2 gallons -for each experiment. After bottling, all except the check bottles -were inoculated with Penicillium and kept at kitchen temperature. -All spoiled, and neither the quantity nor kind of oil used had any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -marked effect in preventing spoilage. That the oils affected the -development of the mold was evident. The mold developed first -at the junction of the ketchup with the bottle forming a ring which -spread gradually over the surface developing a somewhat heavy -mycelium. This remained white longer than usual, spores forming -very gradually, as indicated by the change in color from white to a -delicate blue. At the end of three weeks only spots of color appeared -on the surface and these were still blue, though in ordinary development -the blue color changes to green in two or three days.</p> - -<p>Another test was made, using olive oil only, and in the proportions -of 1 part of oil to 500, 400, and 300 parts, respectively, of the ketchup. -Reduction was made in a steam-jacketed kettle, the oil being added -when the ebullition of the ketchup was the strongest, after which -the boiling was continued for fifteen minutes. The ketchup was -bottled, unsterilized bottles being used, then covered loosely with -the metal caps.</p> - -<p>The time required for the ketchup to spoil was longer than in the -first set, but there was not sufficient difference nor enough uniformity -in the time to indicate that the use of oil in ketchup is desirable, even -if the change of flavor and odor be not taken into consideration. The -average number of days before spoilage for those containing 1 part of -oil to 500 parts of ketchup, was thirteen and two-thirds days; one has -not yet spoiled (a period of forty-five days), while the first bottle -spoiled in four days. Those having 1 part of oil to 400 parts of ketchup -had an average life of nine and three-fourths days, the minimum being -three days, and the maximum twenty-six days. Those having 1 part -to 300 parts of ketchup on an average did not spoil for six and three-fourths -days, the minimum being four days, and the maximum -eleven days.</p> - -<p>The failure of some of the bottles to spoil, though similar in every -known respect to those which did spoil, is a feature peculiar to ketchup -and is familiar to manufacturers who make careful tests before putting -their product on the market. For this reason a rather large number -of bottles should be used in a test in order that the results may be -approximately accurate and represent general conditions.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="STUDY_OF_PENICILLIUM_IN_KETCHUP" id="STUDY_OF_PENICILLIUM_IN_KETCHUP"></a>STUDY OF PENICILLIUM IN KETCHUP.</h2> - - -<p>Penicillium is a plant which is distributed widely and apparently -is able to grow wherever organic matter is found, though flourishing -best when the material contains acid. It causes loss in canneries, -breweries, distilleries, etc., the only use made of it being in the manufacture -of Roquefort cheese, the immature cheese being inoculated -with the conidia for the effect the mold produces in the maturing -process.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="conidia1" id="conidia1"></a><img src="images/i_028a.jpg" width="600" height="616" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Conidia, Normal Size and in Various Stages of Germination, -Some with Branching Hyphæ (× 325).</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_028b.jpg" width="600" height="616" alt="" /> -<a name="conidia2" id="conidia2"></a><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Conidiophore, Showing Unusually Large Development -of Conidia, from Culture in Moist Chamber (× 325).</span></div> -</div> - -<p class="center">PENICILLIUM.</p> -<hr class="w20" /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="conidia3" id="conidia3"></a><img src="images/i_028c.jpg" width="600" height="570" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Conidia and Hyphæ from Culture in Experimental -Ketchup Containing One-sixteenth of One Per Cent of -Sodium Benzoate (X 325).</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="conidia4" id="conidia4"></a><img src="images/i_028d.jpg" width="600" height="570" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Conidia and Hyphæ from Cultures in Experimental -Ketchup Containing One-tenth of One Per Cent of Sodium -Benzoate (X 325).</span></div> -</div> - -<p class="center">CULTURES FROM KETCHUP PRESERVED WITH SODIUM BENZOATE.</p> -<hr class="w20" /> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><a name="DEVELOPMENT" id="DEVELOPMENT"></a>DEVELOPMENT.</h3> - -<p>In developing, the mold forms a white felt-like mass, covering the -medium on which it is growing; then as development proceeds, it -changes to bluish-green, and finally to a darker, duller color. The -change in color is accompanied by a change in structure, the surface -becoming powdery in appearance, a slight current of air being sufficient -to dislodge a cloud of fine dust. This fine dust is formed of -small, spherical bodies, the spores or conidia (from the Greek meaning -<em>dust</em>). These need no resting period, but are able to develop at once. -When the conidia lodge on a moist substance they swell to a much -greater size and then send out a tube from some part of their surface. -The tube lengthens and septa form, dividing the tube into sections, -or cells. At the same time branches are sent out, which again form -other branches. The original conidium sends out a second branch -shortly after the first one, and usually from the opposite side, and -may even send out a third one. The formation of the septa and the -subbranching goes on in all, so that in a short time the branches mat -together and form a felt-like cover.</p> - - -<h3><a name="REPRODUCTION" id="REPRODUCTION"></a>REPRODUCTION.</h3> - -<p>After a shorter or longer period of development, dependent on the -conditions, branches are sent perpendicularly from the substratum, -and into the air. These branches cease their growth in length, sending -out branches near the tip, which take the same general direction as -the original branch. Each of these subbranches is called a sterigma -(from the Greek word meaning <em>support</em>). In vigorous development -the sterigmata may form secondary branches, the whole forming a -tassel-like arrangement. The tip of a sterigma enlarges, a septum -forms around the enlargement, cutting it off from the sterigma, and -forming a conidium. The sterigma develops to the original length -and another conidium is formed, the operation being repeated many -times, thus forming a chain of spores. As the other sterigmata are -also forming conidia in the same manner, a series of these chains is -formed close together. After the cessation of conidial development, -the filament below the sterigmata is disorganized, setting free the -conidia. The filament and head together are called the conidiophore -(Greek, dust-bearer).</p> - -<p>Penicillium forms spores sexually, but the conditions for their formation -are unknown. Brefeld obtained them by growing the mold -on damp bread placed between two glass plates, and excluding the -air. Lindner obtained carpospores on a wort gelatin culture in a -petri dish, from which the air was excluded. The writer has tried -various methods for obtaining carpospores, but so far without success. -Moist chambers were used with various media, excluding the air.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -The development of the mold is seemingly dependent on the -amount of air in the chamber at the time of sealing. After the air is -exhausted, the conidiophores assume fantastic forms, developing only -one or a few sterigmata, and on these one or few conidia. In other -cases the conidiophores are fascicled, in no cases, however, forming the -conidia as luxuriantly as when air is supplied. The hyphæ become -clear, much vacuolated, and develop more septa, and some of the -cells become much enlarged. An enlarged cell will often contain two -or three septa, thus forming cells that are not larger than disks. In -cultures from which the air was excluded from the start, no development -took place. In test-tube cultures sealed with paraffin after -twenty-four hours, the mold developed on the surface of the gelatin, -forming a felted white mass, but no conidia nor carpospores were -formed.</p> - - -<h3><a name="GROWTH" id="GROWTH"></a>GROWTH IN KETCHUP.</h3> - -<p>The form of Penicillium which was used in the experiments was -isolated from ketchup in which it grew luxuriantly. When conidia -are first formed on the ketchup, they are a delicate blue in color; they -then become bluish green, then green, and finally olive. The development -of the color of mold growing on ketchup is practically the same -as when grown in wort, tomato bouillon, pea bouillon, or gelatin -made with these solutions as a basis. In ketchup containing sodium -benzoate, the blue color appearing first remains for a long time, and -in old cultures the mold is a dull drab, not olive, as in normal development.</p> - -<p>In ordinary ketchup made without a preservative, the mold forms -a heavy, wrinkled mycelium, showing a large development of conidia. -In the bottles of ketchup, the mold pushes down into the ketchup, -becoming entirely submerged, a clear liquid covering the mold and -separating it from the ketchup. This occurred in more than one hundred -bottles. No secondary mycelium formed on the surface of the -liquid, a method of development which frequently occurs in ordinary -media when a mass of mold is submerged.</p> - -<p>An exception to this was shown in ketchup which had developed -the mold in the laboratory. The bottles were then put in the refrigerator -for two weeks. During this time scarcely any development took -place; but after they were again placed in the laboratory, the mycelium -pushed down into the ketchup and a new, very thin mycelium -developed on the surface. The filaments when seen under the -microscope were swollen, had irregular outlines, and a comparatively -smaller number of septa, and were filled with a coarsely granular protoplasm. -The ends were blunt and misshapen and the sterigmata -were irregular, tending more toward a fasciculated arrangement, and -forming fewer conidia. The filaments from the vinegar and acetic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -acid media had the same appearance as those developed on ketchup, -but had a smoother outline.</p> - - -<h3><a name="TEMPERATURE" id="TEMPERATURE"></a>TEMPERATURE TESTS.</h3> - - -<p>The limits for the germination of Penicillium, as given by W. J. -Sykes,<a name="FNanchor_E" id="FNanchor_E"></a><a href="#Footnote_E" class="fnanchor">[E]</a> are 2° to 43° C. (35° to 110° F.), and the most favorable -temperature 22° to 26° C. (72° to 79° F.). This author states also -that according to Pasteur the dry spores retained their vitality at -108° C. (226° F.), but that they were soon killed when immersed in -boiling water. Klöcker<a name="FNanchor_F" id="FNanchor_F"></a><a href="#Footnote_F" class="fnanchor">[F]</a> quotes Pasteur as saying that the conidia -are killed if exposed to a temperature of 127° to 132° C. for half an -hour, but that they retain life at 119° to 121° C.</p> - -<p>A series of tests was made to determine the thermal death point of -the moist and dry conidia of the Penicillium used in the experiments, -a young, vigorous development on ketchup being used. The flasks -were kept under observation for a month after the tests were made, -as in many cases a development does not occur in the usual time. -The high temperatures applied for longer periods of time were tried -first, but both temperature and time were reduced as results from the -series were obtained. Only the conditions obtaining in the final tests -are given in the table. It was found that the Penicillium used did -not have the high resistance supposed.</p> - -<p>The tests were made in small flat-bottomed 10-cc flasks, tomato bouillon -being used for the tests on moist conidia. The bouillon was used -so as to have the conidia in a nutritive medium after the test was made, -without transferring. The time for those at 100° C. was estimated from -the time of ebullition. At the end of the specified time, the flasks were -cooled promptly under running water. As the flat bottoms gave comparatively -large surface, the heating and the cooling could be effected -in a short time. For the tests below 100° C. a vessel of water was heated -to the desired temperature, and the flasks were immersed in it and -shaken constantly. The dry conidia were placed in test tubes which -were immersed in boiling water for the desired time and cooled under -running water, after which 10 cc of sterilized tomato bouillon was -added. After determining the death point in this manner and finding -it to be much lower than had been supposed, it was decided to make -the test again, but using ketchup as the medium. Ten grams of -ketchup were sterilized, then inoculated from a vigorous growth of -mold, and tested with a set in which the tomato bouillon was used. -For those below 100° C. the two flasks which were to receive the same -temperature were held in the vessel of water at the same time, so that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -as nearly as possible the treatment would be identical. The following -results were obtained:</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Thermal death point of moist and dry conidia of Penicillium.</i></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table summary="Thermal death point of moist and dry conidia of Penicillium"> -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">PENICILLIUM IN 10 CC OF TOMATO BOUILLON.</span></th></tr> -<tr><th class="bb br"> No. of experiment.</th> -<th class="bb br">Temperature.</th> -<th class="bb br">Time of heating.</th> -<th class="bb br">Time<br /> before<br /> germination.</th> -<th class="bb">Period of observation and developments.</th></tr> -<tr><th class="br"> </th> <th class="tdr2 br"><i>°C.</i></th> -<th class="br"><i>Minutes.</i></th> - <th class="br tdr2"> <i>Days.</i></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt"> 1</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 85</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> ½</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 3 </td> - <td class="tdl vt">Dark strings from spores; 9 days; no development.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br"> 2</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 80</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 1 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> </td> - <td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br"> 3</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 75</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 1 </td><td class="br"> </td> - <td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br"> 4</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 70 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> </td> - <td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt"> 5</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 65</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 3 </td> - <td class="tdl vt">Dark strings running from spores; 9 days; growth normal, spots on surface.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br"> 6</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 60 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 3 </td> - <td class="tdl2"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br bb"> 7</td><td class="tdr2 br bb"> 55</td> - <td class="tdr2 br bb"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br bb"> 3 </td> - <td class="tdl2 bb"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="5"> </td></tr> - -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">PENICILLIUM IN 10 CC OF KETCHUP.</span></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">1</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 100</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 3</td><td class="br"> </td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">2</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 100</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 2 </td><td class="br"> </td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">3</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 100 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 1 </td><td class="br"> </td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">4</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 100</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> ½ </td><td class="br"> </td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">5</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 100</td> - <td class="tdc br"> Instant.</td><td class="br"> </td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">6 </td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 85 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> ½ </td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 2</td> - <td class="tdl vt">Colonies on sides; 8 days; surface covered, green.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">7 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 80 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 1</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 2 </td> - <td class="tdl2 vt"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">8</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 75 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 1 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 2 </td> - <td class="tdl2 vt"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">9 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 70</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 8 </td> - <td class="tdl vt">Colony on surface.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">10</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 65 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 9</td> - <td class="tdl2"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br vt">11</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 60 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 3</td> - <td class="tdl vt">Colonies on sides; 8 days; surface covered, green.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">12 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 55</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 4 </td> - <td class="tdl2 vt"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br vt bb">13 </td><td class="tdr2 br vt bb"> </td> - <td class="br bb"> </td><td class="tdr2 br vt bb"> 2 </td> - <td class="tdl vt bb">Ring around sides; 3 days; surface nearly covered.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="5"> </td></tr> - -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">DRY CONIDIA.</span></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">1</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 100</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 10</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 4 </td> - <td class="tdl vt">Rough appearance,like that in ketchup.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">2 </td><td class="tdr2 br">100 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 15 </td><td class="tdr2 br">4 </td> - <td class="tdl2">Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">3 </td><td class="tdr2 br">100</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 20</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 7</td><td class="tdl">Slight growth.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">4</td><td class="tdr2 br">100</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 25</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 10</td> - <td class="tdl vt">Growth barely perceptible.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">5</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 100</td><td class="tdr2 br">30</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 10</td><td class="tdl2"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt bb">6</td><td class="tdr2 br bb">100</td><td class="tdr2 br bb">35</td> - <td class="br bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl vt bb">Conidia stained readily, showing they were dead.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="5"> </td></tr> - -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">YEAST.</span></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">1</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 55</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 2</td> -<td class="tdl">Wrinkled film; liquid turbid.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">2</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 60</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 2</td> - <td class="tdl"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">3</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 65</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 2 </td> -<td class="tdl">Thin, smooth film; liquid clear.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">4</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 70 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"></td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">5</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 75</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br vt"></td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt bb">6</td><td class="tdr2 br vt bb"> 100</td> - <td class="tdc br vt bb"> Instant.</td><td class="tdr2 br vt bb"></td> - <td class="bb"> </td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The moist heat was very effective in destroying the vitality of the -conidia of Penicillium, the death point being 27° C. higher than -the maximum temperature for germination as given by Sykes. -The heating was more effective in destroying germs when applied to -bouillon than to ketchup, no development taking place for any temperature -above 65° C., even when applied for a short time.</p> - -<p>In the ketchup the lower temperatures for the longer periods of -time were more effective in checking the development, even though -they did not destroy the vitality. In the ketchup, with the exception -of Nos. 9 and 10, the colonies started invariably along the sides -of the flasks. The greater access of air to those on the sides would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -account for this. The conidia on the sides of flasks Nos. 9 and 10 -must have been destroyed, as no development took place in either -case except in the center of the surface.</p> - -<p>The dry conidia were destroyed at 100° C. when heated for thirty-five -minutes; they did not reach a normal development in any case, -even when heated for only ten minutes, many of the conidia being -destroyed by this treatment. Where development failed to take -place, the conidia were stained with a water solution of eosin, so as -to be sure that the effect was death, and not an arrested development.</p> - -<p>The results of the tests do not agree with those obtained in factory -practice, where the ketchup is cooked at 100° C. for at least forty -minutes and sometimes for fifty or fifty-five minutes, depending on -the consistency of the pulp.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="HISTOLOGICAL_STRUCTURE_OF_KETCHUP" id="HISTOLOGICAL_STRUCTURE_OF_KETCHUP"></a> -HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF KETCHUP.</h2> - - -<p>In ketchup are found parts of all the various tissues of the tomato -broken into fine pieces by the action of the cyclone. Although the -sieves take out the seeds, skins, and any large pieces, particles of the -various tissues are present in size sufficient for identification. Among -the distinctive features are the red crystalline bodies in the parenchyma, -which serve to a certain extent to distinguish the parenchyma -from that of other plants which might be used for adulteration, -and serve also to differentiate the natural from the artificially -colored ketchup. Some of the red dye used colors all protoplasm -indiscriminately, even that of the fungi present, and as a colored -ketchup is usually poor stuff, containing many fungi, the mold -filaments, yeast cells, and bacteria receive their share of the color. -Other red dye used is in the form of fine powder, which does not go -into solution, but is distributed as irregular particles which are distinct -from the red crystalline bodies.</p> - -<p>Good ketchup made from whole tomatoes has a clean appearance -readily distinguishable under the microscope; but the poor -ketchup has usually a superabundance of fungi present, fully developed -colonies of mold, many forms of conidia, besides yeast-like -cells, and different forms of bacteria. All of these may be dead, -but neither preservatives nor dosage of odorous spices can disguise -their presence. In some of the ketchup examined, which was put -up in attractive form and labeled as being made from the whole -tomatoes, and which had the appearance and odor of good ketchup, -the microscope showed the presence of such quantities of fungi as -to leave no doubt that the tomatoes were spoiled when cooked. -It is presumable that some of the dealers placing this sort of -stuff on the market do not know its condition themselves, and -either buy their pulp from other factories or trust its manufacture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -to employees whose only care is that the ketchup shall have a -bright color and shall “keep.” Some of the mould filaments and -conidia are distorted in the same way as those of the Penicillium are -when grown in ketchup to which sodium benzoate has been added.</p> - -<p>The ketchup made from sound tomatoes and manufactured in a -cleanly manner has practically no fungi present. The ketchup that -was used in these experiments was made at different times during -the season and was of this character, no bottle examined showing -mold filaments when first opened.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="MICROSCOPIC_EXAMINATION_OF_SOME_COMMERCIAL_BRANDS" id="MICROSCOPIC_EXAMINATION_OF_SOME_COMMERCIAL_BRANDS"></a> -MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF SOME COMMERCIAL BRANDS.</h2> - - -<p>In examining ketchup the color, odor, amount of discoloration, -presence of foreign tissue, foreign coloring matter, oil, and fungi -were determined. If no preservative was mentioned, some of the -ketchup was put in petri dishes and inoculated with Penicillium to -determine whether growth could take place. The following examinations -are reported, as they represent some of the best known brands -on the market:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>No. 9.</i>—Opened September 2, 1907; age unknown; pint bottle; no preservative -mentioned; not spoiled July 6 of following year. This ketchup was guaranteed to be -made from fresh, ripe, tomatoes by a new process. The color is an unnatural red, has -not faded, and the odor is good. The microscope showed the presence of much refuse, -and large quantities of fungi, whole colonies of molds, the filaments distorted, many -yeast cells, and bacteria. The red color was not confined to the red crystalline bodies, -as is the case in ripe tomatoes, but the whole of the protoplasm of the cells, including -the nucleus and nucleolus was red, as were also most of the mold filaments and yeast, -indicating the presence of considerable artificial coloring matter. The structure -indicated that the stock had been manufactured from “trimmings,” and further, -that they were not fresh when used, but had fermented. There was no oil present. -The “new process” is a success in keeping ketchup, as no preservative is mentioned. -The price was 20 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 112.</i>—Another bottle of the same brand of ketchup; examined in April, 1908; -presumably manufactured in 1907; one-twelfth of 1 per cent of sodium benzoate -declared on label; a bright red; guaranteed to be from fresh ripe tomatoes and uncolored. -The microscope showed no dyeing of the tissues, few fungi, and no extraneous -matter. The price was 20 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 17.</i>—Opened September 28, 1907; age unknown; a pint bottle; sodium benzoate -declared on supplemental label, no amount being stated; reddish brown color, -badly discolored on top; greasy odor; not spoiled July 6, 1908; refuse present; large -amount of oil; many fungi; the mold filaments enlarged and distorted. The price -was 15 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 109.</i>—Another bottle of the same brand examined in April, 1908; presumably -manufactured the preceding year; had one-tenth of 1 per cent of sodium benzoate; -not spoiled July 6, 1908; reddish brown color, discolored near top; greasy odor. -This was practically the same as the first bottle examined, had fewer mold filaments, -but many bacteria.</p> - -<p><i>No. 18.</i>—Opened September 28, 1907; age unknown; pint bottle; no preservative -mentioned; not spoiled July 6, 1908. A neck label stated that it is made from sound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -ripe tomatoes and uncolored. Color reddish brown; greasy odor; many oil globules; -too many mold filaments and bacteria for sound tomatoes. Price 20 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 113.</i>—Another bottle of the same brand examined in April, 1908; said to have -been manufactured in 1908; no preservative mentioned; not spoiled after standing -open for seventy days; same as No. 18 in color and odor; oil and many fungi again -present.</p> - -<p><i>No. 10.</i>—Opened September 2, 1907; age unknown; half-pint bottle; no preservative -mentioned; not spoiled July 6, 1908. A neck label 2 inches in height guaranteed -the highest quality; an extra label lower down on the neck stated the product to be -the natural color, and made from fresh, ripe tomatoes; the regular label carried the -brand, manufacturer’s name, etc. Color brown; sweetish odor; colonies of mold; -distorted filaments; many bacteria; a few small oil globules. Price 25 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 106.</i>—Same brand; pint bottle; examined in April, 1908; said to be manufactured -in 1907; color red, discolored near surface; 2-inch neck label in addition to -regular label; no preservative mentioned; did not spoil in seventy days; oil globules; -particles of red, amorphous matter; whole colonies of mold, as well as fragments of -filaments; teeming with bacteria.</p> - -<p><i>No. 77.</i>—Different brand, but same manufacturer as Nos. 10 and 106; age unknown; -pint bottle; one-twelfth of 1 per cent of sodium benzoate declared; opened December 1; -placed in incubator at 95° F. for a month; not spoiled July 6; color reddish brown; -greasy odor; oil globules, many mold filaments, and bacteria present. Price 20 -cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 107.</i>—Third brand from same manufacturer as preceding; said to be manufactured -in 1907; half-pint bottle; one-twelfth of 1 per cent of benzoate of soda declared; -layer of oil on surface; sweet odor; reddish-brown color. Oil globules prominent -feature microscopically, whole colonies of distorted mold were present, and sample -contained many different forms of bacteria. Price 10 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 14.</i>—Opened September 2, 1907; age unknown; no preservative mentioned; not -spoiled July 6, 1908; half-pint bottle; color red; good odor; few bacteria; free from -refuse. Price 25 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 108.</i>—Same brand as No. 14; said to be manufactured in 1907; pint bottle; -one-tenth of 1 per cent of benzoate of soda declared; color red; good odor; few fungi; -clean and free from refuse.</p> - -<p><i>No. 33.</i>—Opened October 24, 1907; age unknown; one-tenth of 1 per cent of benzoate -of soda declared; spoiled November 1; pint bottle (14 ounces); sweetish odor; -brown color; many molds, yeast and bacteria. Price 10 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 114.</i>—Same brand as No. 33; said to be manufactured in 1907; opened in April; -not spoiled in seventy days; many molds, yeasts, and bacteria; some green tissue, and -filaments of algæ. The price was 10 cents.</p></blockquote> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="SUMMARY" id="SUMMARY"></a>SUMMARY.</h2> - - -<p>1. The experiments made during the season of 1907 on the manufacture -of tomato ketchup without chemical preservatives were conducted -under factory conditions and upon a commercial scale. The -results prove that such a ketchup can be made and delivered to the -consumer in perfect condition; the product in question having already -stood ten months, unopened, without showing the slightest indication -of spoilage.</p> - -<p>2. The product is of excellent consistency, flavor, and color. The -formula employed regularly in the factory where the experiment was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -conducted was used, but other recipes could be adapted without -changing the character of special brands. In the manufacture of -such a product the following precautions were observed:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Whole, sound, ripe tomatoes and high-grade salt, sugar, vinegar, -and spices were used; care and cleanliness were observed at every step -of the preparation, and the preservation accomplished by heat in the -following manner: The pulp was cooked in a steam kettle for about -forty minutes, until the mass was reduced to about one-half its volume. -Additional processing after bottling did not appear to be -necessary to keep the ketchup before opening, and had no effect in -these experiments in delaying spoilage after opening.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Ketchup was bottled directly from the cooker at a temperature -of 205° F. in bottles prepared in two ways: (1) Sterilized in a steam -chamber at 230° F.; (2) Washed in hot water, rinsed, and heated to -190° F. in a dry heat for at least thirty minutes. Ketchup was also -bottled after the usual process of sieving at 165° F. in bottles prepared in -a similar manner. The corks for all bottles were sterilized in a paraffin -bath at 270° F. The same ketchup which was bottled at 165° F. was -also given subsequent processing at 190° F. and 212° F. for twenty -and forty minutes. All have kept without spoilage.</p> - -<p>3. Some of the condiments have a limited antiseptic value, but can -not be depended upon to prevent spoilage in the quantities used for -flavoring. While sugar and vinegar can be added in such amounts as -to delay the appearance of molds, and cinnamon and cloves can be -depended upon to check deterioration to some extent, these condimental -substances have only an incidental value for this purpose.</p> - -<p>4. The spoilage of ketchup after opening depends more upon the -temperature of the place in which it is kept than on any variation in -the manner of processing. Fresh ketchup held, after opening, at a -temperature of 95° F. kept for five days on an average without any -trace of mold appearing; at 72° it kept for six days; at 67° for eight -days; about 46° (refrigerator), fourteen days; and at from 30° to 60° -for twenty-seven days. These figures represent the time at which the -first trace of spoilage occurred in the neck of the bottle—had this been -removed the figures would be much increased—and by no means -represent the maximum time during which the ketchup could have -been used, the maximum figures, even under these conditions of observation, -varying from eight to fifty-eight days. The keeping of the -ketchup in warm storage at 70° for one hundred and fifty days before -opening hastened the average time of spoilage after opening about -one day. The advisability of using small containers, to get the best -results with a first-class ketchup, is apparent.</p> - -<p>5. Sodium benzoate, even when used in the proportion of 0.1 per -cent, is not always effective, and has an injurious effect upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -living matter of the molds, shown by the distortion and swelling of the -filaments, which are filled with a coarse granular protoplasm containing -much fat.</p> - -<p>6. Artificially colored ketchup can be detected under the microscope -by the fact that certain tissues, normally colorless, are dyed red, -or by the presence of fine, red, amorphous particles which do not go -into solution.</p> - -<p>7. Ketchup made from whole ripe stock in a cleanly manner gives -a clean appearance under the microscope, but few molds, yeasts, and -bacteria being present. On the other hand, ketchup made from -trimming stock, or from tomatoes that have been allowed to spoil, contains -immense quantities of these growing organisms which may be -killed in the process of manufacture, but still give proof of the character -of the material used. Ketchup as ordinarily made from trimming -stock should, therefore, be designated, so as to differentiate it -from that made from sound fresh tomatoes, as the two products are -radically different. This exactness in labeling is due no less to the -manufacturer than to the consumer, as it is impossible to make the -superior product in fair competition with the inferior one, other conditions -being equal, unless the two are properly designated, there being -naturally some difference in the price.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES:</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_A" id="Footnote_A"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A"> -<span class="label">[A]</span></a> Origin of Cultivated Plants, 1890.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_B" id="Footnote_B"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B"> -<span class="label">[B]</span></a> Webber, H. J., Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1899.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_C" id="Footnote_C"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C"> -<span class="label">[C]</span></a> U. S. Dept. Agr., Exper. Sta. Record, 1899-1900, 11: 250.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_D" id="Footnote_D"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D"> -<span class="label">[D]</span></a> Brannt, W. L., A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, -1900, p. 455.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_E" id="Footnote_E"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E"> -<span class="label">[E]</span></a> Principles and Practice of Brewing, 1907, p. 284.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_F" id="Footnote_F"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F"> -<span class="label">[F]</span></a> Ibid., p. 281.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="transnote"> -<p class="ph2">Transcriber's notes:</p> - -<p>In the text version, italics are represented by _underscores_.</p> - -<p>Missing or incorrect punctuation has been repaired.</p> - -<p>The following corrections have been made to the text:--</p> - -<blockquote> -<p> p.8. A majority of the manufacturers employ word, has been changed to - A majority of the manufacturers employ the word.</p> - -<p> p.28. one has has, the duplicate has been removed.</p> -</blockquote> -</div> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato -Ketchup, by A. W. Bitting - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPERIMENTS--SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP *** - -***** This file should be named 52867-h.htm or 52867-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/8/6/52867/ - -Produced by Larry B. 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