diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 4 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-0.txt | 2124 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-0.zip | bin | 36538 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h.zip | bin | 539437 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h/52867-h.htm | 2541 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h/images/i_008.jpg | bin | 32819 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h/images/i_009.jpg | bin | 47953 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h/images/i_010.jpg | bin | 41206 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h/images/i_012.jpg | bin | 52972 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h/images/i_014.jpg | bin | 45065 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h/images/i_028a.jpg | bin | 49013 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h/images/i_028b.jpg | bin | 37441 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h/images/i_028c.jpg | bin | 48702 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h/images/i_028d.jpg | bin | 49969 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h/images/i_title.jpg | bin | 77528 -> 0 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/52867-h/images/logo.jpg | bin | 15739 -> 0 bytes |
18 files changed, 17 insertions, 4665 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..98d14b7 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #52867 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52867) diff --git a/old/52867-0.txt b/old/52867-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 64520b2..0000000 --- a/old/52867-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2124 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato -Ketchup, by A. W. Bitting - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato Ketchup - -Author: A. W. Bitting - -Release Date: August 21, 2016 [EBook #52867] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPERIMENTS--SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP *** - - - - -Produced by Larry B. Harrison, Chris Jordan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - Issued January 9, 1909. - - U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, - BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY--BULLETIN No. 119. - H. W. WILEY, Chief of Bureau. - - EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPOILAGE - OF TOMATO KETCHUP. - - BY - A. W. BITTING, - INSPECTOR, BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY. - - [Illustration: Shield of the United States Department of Agriculture] - - WASHINGTON: - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. - 1909. - - - - -LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. - - - U. S. Department of Agriculture, - Bureau of Chemistry, - _Washington, D. C., July 15, 1908_. - -Sir: I have the honor to submit for your approval a report made by -Inspector Bitting of experimental work on the spoilage of tomato -ketchup, the conditions contributing thereto, methods of prevention, -the action of preservatives, and the length of time that the product -will keep under varying conditions of manufacture and temperature, both -before and after opening. Every effort has been made to conduct the -work in a practical way, and the results obtained can not fail to be of -interest and profit both to the manufacturer and consumer. I recommend -that this report be published as Bulletin No. 119 of the Bureau of -Chemistry. - - Respectfully, H. W. Wiley, - _Chief_. - -Hon. James Wilson, - _Secretary of Agriculture_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - Page. - -Introduction 7 - -Process of manufacture 8 - Selection and preparation of stock 9 - Pulping 9 - Cooking and seasoning 10 - Evaporation and finishing 11 - Bottling 11 - Processing 11 - -Character of products 12 - First-class products 12 - Inferior products from “trimming stock” 13 - -Labels 14 - -Manufacturing experiments without the use of preservatives 15 - Outline of experiments 15 - Discussion of results 17 - Spoilage of ketchup after opening 17 - Spoilage of unopened ketchup 20 - Spoilage of market brands 20 - Sterility of ketchup 21 - -Experiments with preservatives 22 - Sodium benzoate 22 - Salt 23 - Sugar 23 - Spices 24 - Water infusions 24 - Acetic acid extracts 25 - Oil extracts 25 - Vinegar and acetic acid 26 - Oil 27 - -Study of Penicillium in ketchup 28 - Development 29 - Reproduction 29 - Growth in ketchup 30 - Temperature tests 31 - -Histological structure of ketchup 33 - -Microscopical examination of some commercial brands 34 - -Summary 35 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - -PLATES. - - Page. -PLATE I. Penicillium. Fig. 1.--Conidia, normal growth - and in various stages of germination, some with branching - hyphæ. Fig. 2.--Conidiophore, showing unusually large - development of conidia; from culture in moist chamber 28 - - II. Cultures from ketchup preserved with sodium - benzoate. Fig. 1.--Conidia and hyphæ from culture in - experimental ketchup containing one-sixteenth of 1 per cent - of sodium benzoate. Fig. 2.--Conidia and hyphæ from culture - in experimental ketchup containing one-tenth of 1 per cent - of sodium benzoate 28 - - -TEXT FIGURES. - -Fig. 1. A model receiving platform 8 - -2. Large receiving room showing the sorting belt 9 - -3. A section of a kitchen showing the copper cookers 10 - -4. An example of factory practice 12 - -5. Another factory interior 14 - - - - -EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -The tomato, _Lycopersicum esculentum_, is supposed to be native to -South or Central America. The large fruits commonly used grow only -under cultivation, but the variety with small, spherical fruits, -known as _L. cerasiforme_, has been found on the shore of Peru and is -considered by De Candolle[A] as belonging to the same species as _L. -esculentum_. Though grown extensively in Europe, there is nothing to -indicate that it was known there before the discovery of America. The -tomato was introduced into China and Japan at a comparatively recent -date. De Candolle is of the opinion that the tomato was taken to -Europe by the Spaniards from Peru and was later introduced into the -United States by Europeans. Tomatoes were brought to Salem, Mass., by -an Italian painter in 1802,[B] who is said to have had difficulty in -convincing the people that they were edible. They were used in New -Orleans in 1812, though as late as 1835 they were sold by the dozen in -Boston. After 1840 they came into general use in the Eastern States, -but it was later than this before tomatoes were used freely in the -Western States, many persons having the impression that, since they -belonged to the nightshade family, they must be unwholesome. The extent -to which tomatoes are used at the present time shows how completely -this prejudice has been overcome. - -[A] Origin of Cultivated Plants, 1890. - -[B] Webber, H. J., Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1899. - -The name _Lycopersicum_ is from two Greek words, meaning a wolf, and -a peach, the application of these terms not being apparent; the name -of the species, _esculentum_, is from the Latin, meaning eatable. -The common name “tomato” is of South or Central American origin, and -is believed to be the term used in an ancient American dialect to -designate the plant,[C] but its meaning is unknown. The English call -the tomato “love apple,” which in French is “pomme d’amour.” - -[C] U. S. Dept. Agr., Exper. Sta. Record, 1899-1900, 11: 250. - -The tomato is considered a typical berry, the ovary wall, free from the -calyx, forming the fleshy pericarp, which incloses chambers filled with -a clear matrix containing the seeds. The fruit measures from 1 to 5 -inches in diameter, and is red, pink, or yellow when mature. - -The plant sports freely, producing many varieties, which differ mainly -in the size, shape, and quality of the fruit. The varieties bearing -small fruits are _L. cerasiforme_ and _L. pyriforme_, each bearing a -two-celled fruit, the former being round, and somewhat larger than -a cherry, and the latter pear-shaped. These small tomatoes are used -ordinarily for preserves and pickles. - -The word “ketchup” is adopted in this bulletin as the form which ought -to be given preference. The derivation of the term is not definitely -known. The spelling “catchup” given in some of the leading dictionaries -appears to be based on the erroneous idea that the first syllable -“ketch” is a colloquial form of “catch.” Several authorities derive the -word from the East Indian or Malayan “kitjap,” because “ketchup” was -originally a kind of East Indian pickles. Some give the word a Chinese -origin, while others assert that it comes from the Japanese. A majority -of the manufacturers employ the word “catsup,” a spelling for which -there does not appear to be any warrant. - - -PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--A model receiving platform.] - -The making of tomato ketchup consists essentially in reducing tomatoes -to pulp, removing the skins, seeds, hard parts, and stems, adding -salt, sugar, condiments, and vinegar to suit the taste, and cooking -to a proper consistency. The methods and practices of the various -manufacturers differ, and the difference between the best and the -poorest procedure corresponds to that between the best and the worst -ketchup. No single factory has all of the best methods at every step -of manufacture. Some perform certain details well and are negligent -in others. In some, large amounts of money are spent on equipment to -improve a particular point considered advantageous by the trade, while -other details essential to the making of a good-keeping ketchup are -disregarded. A statement of the best practice as observed at a number -of factories, together with some facts obtained from experiments, will -be given. - - -SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF STOCK. - -The tomatoes should be home-grown, of a red variety having the minimum -of yellow and purple color, be picked when ripe, and delivered to -the factory promptly without mashing. All tomatoes should pass over -an inspection table, the rotten and otherwise unfit fruit should be -discarded, and the green tomatoes should be returned to crates to -ripen. The stems should be removed when the best color is desired, -and the tomatoes should be thoroughly washed to remove dirt and mold. -Dumping a crate of tomatoes into a hopper of dirty water and playing a -gentle spray of water on part of them merely wets the skin and makes -them appear bright. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Large receiving room showing the sorting belt.] - - -PULPING. - -The clean tomatoes should be conveyed to the steaming tanks and -subjected to steam heat until the skins burst and the meat softens. -After a short heating the tomatoes should be run through a “cyclone” -where the skins, seeds, etc., are removed and they are rubbed to a -pulp. To remove very small particles and fiber, the pulp may be run -through a sieving machine at once; or, if ketchup of the smoothest -possible kind is to be made, this procedure should be delayed until -after the cooking. The pulp is collected in a receiving vat, and -only such an amount should be provided in advance as will keep the -kettles full, as it is better to stop the tomatoes before going to -the washer than to have the pulp stand for some hours. In common -practice, however, the pulp is either sent to the cooker at once, or -it is allowed to stand and partially separate. If tall casks are used -for this separation the solids will rise to the top and the clear -watery portion is drawn off at the bottom, or the pulp may be strained -through cloth bags. The object of this separation is to secure greater -concentration of the solids, retain a brighter color, and shorten the -time of cooking. - - -COOKING AND SEASONING. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--A section of a kitchen showing the copper -cookers.] - -The cooking may be done in copper kettles, as shown in figure 3, though -these are being superseded by enamel tanks containing silver-plated -coils in order to secure the brightest color. By using the latter the -discoloration due to the splashing of the contents against the walls of -the copper vessel is avoided, and economy of space is secured. Whole -or ground spices, or acetic acid or oil extracts of the spices may be -added to the pulp in such proportion as the particular brand demands. -The spices most used are cloves, cinnamon, mace, and cayenne pepper; -but paprika, pepper, mustard, cardamon, coriander, ginger, celery, and -allspice are used by some manufacturers. When whole spices are used, -it is the practice to suspend them in a cloth bag or a wire basket and -to take them out after boiling. They tend to darken the color of the -ketchup, a result considered undesirable by some. The ground spices -are used sparingly, with the exception of cayenne pepper. The acetic -acid extracts of spices are used because they are economical and give -a brighter red color than is obtained with the whole spice. The oil -extracts produce no discoloration, but they are the most expensive and -give an objectionable flavor. Hungarian sweet paprika is now quite -largely used and adds to the color as well as to the flavor. Sugar, -salt, and vinegar are added in such proportion as may be desired, and -in some brands onions and garlic are used. - - -EVAPORATION AND FINISHING. - -The pulp is evaporated rapidly to such consistency as the grade and -price will warrant, the reduction in volume being from 40 to 60 per -cent. This is accomplished in about forty-five minutes. The cooking is -not continued longer than is necessary, as each minute added to the -cooking darkens the finished product. - -If the pulp has been run through the sieving machine before cooking, -the batch may be drawn off into the receiving tank for bottling. If the -finishing be done after cooking, the pulp is run into a receiving vat, -finished as quickly as possible, and drawn into the tank for bottling. -The ketchup may be kept at a high temperature--200° to 206° F.--in the -receiving tank by means of a small steam coil, or it may be drawn to -the bottling machine through a steam-jacketed tube. Finishing after -cooking yields a slightly smoother ketchup than sieving before cooking; -but it necessitates handling, reduces the temperature, and increases -the chances of infection. - - -BOTTLING. - -The bottles should be thoroughly cleaned as ketchup will not keep if -placed in bottles which have been merely rinsed to remove the straw; if -the ketchup is not to be given an after process the containers should -be sterilized. In the experimental work cork stoppers gave the best -results and these should be sterilized in a paraffin bath at 250° F. - - -PROCESSING. - -An after treatment or process is given to bottled goods either in a -water or steam bath, the important point being that the center of the -bottle be raised to the desired degree of heat. If the ketchup is thin -this can be effected quickly, but if it is thick and heavy the heat -penetrates the ketchup with surprising slowness. In a thin ketchup -the temperature may be raised from 140° to 190° F. in eighteen minutes -or less when the surrounding heat is 195° F; but in a heavy ketchup it -may take an hour or more to accomplish the same result. It is therefore -very important that the ketchup be processed immediately after it is -corked, before it has time to cool. The rate at which the heating is -effected for different goods can be determined by sealing a thermometer -in the cork and recording the readings. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--An example of factory practice showing the -top row of tanks from which pulp passes by gravity into the cookers, -then into the receiver, sieving machine, and final tub ready for the -bottling machine or jug filler.] - - - - -CHARACTER OF PRODUCTS. - - -FIRST-CLASS PRODUCTS. - -The factory at which the experiments were conducted has sanitary -buildings and surroundings, the floors are of concrete for flushing, -and the pipes used in conducting the pulp to the kitchens are -porcelain-lined to prevent discoloration from the iron and to insure -cleanliness. The tubes which carry the ketchup from the kettles to the -receiving tank, finishing machine, and bottler are silver-plated. Not -all of these measures are necessary to make a good ketchup, but they -show the care exercised in making an article of good appearance and of -the finest quality. - -The conditions under which ketchup is made and the care with which the -work is done at some of the better factories is equal to that used in -the manufacture of any food product. Whole selected fruit is used, -cleanliness is maintained at every point, the best grades of spices, -vinegar, granulated sugar, and salt are added for flavoring, and the -bottles are carefully washed. The ketchup put up under such conditions -will have a bright natural color, will remain good as long as the -container is unbroken, and will continue in that condition for some -time after opening if kept at a fairly cool temperature. - - -INFERIOR PRODUCTS FROM “TRIMMING STOCK.” - -In contrast with the strictly high-grade product is the great bulk -of the ketchup found on the market. The material is not whole ripe -tomatoes, but consists of the waste of the canning factory, commonly -designated as “trimming stock,” including the green, moldy, broken, -rotten, and generally unusable tomatoes, the skins, cores, and stems -from the peeling tables, and the surplus juice from the filling -machines, all of which may be allowed to stand during the day and be -run through the cyclone in the evening. At the end of the season, the -frosted and half-ripe fruits may be used. Part of this material can -not be considered “sound fruit” as contemplated by the food and drugs -act. The pulp is put up in barrels, preserved, and allowed to stand, -possibly in the sun, until a sufficient quantity has accumulated for -shipment. Old ketchup barrels may be used and be none too clean. As a -result, it is not uncommon to see an inch or more of pulp in the bottom -of a car at the end of shipment, caused by the blowing out of the -barrel heads from fermentation. The sanitary condition of the factory -may be poor, the handling of the goods be unclean, the spices be the -refuse from the spice houses, the sugar be of the cheapest grade, and -the bottles be only rinsed or be used without even that precaution. -The ketchup is a concoction so heavily spiced with hot spices that the -tomato flavor is lost and might as well be anything else. The color is -normally dirty brown. - -Between these two extremes are all grades, those for which whole -tomatoes, unsorted, are used, those for which trimming stock is worked -up promptly during the canning season, and those made from stock of -unknown history. Some manufacturers work under good and some under poor -sanitary conditions. There can be no doubt that with proper selection -and precaution much of the by-product of the canning factory and large -quantities of tomatoes which are unsuitable for canning might be used -to advantage in the manufacture of ketchup; but it requires a nicety -of practice not generally found at this time. The practice sometimes -followed of making some ketchup from whole stock and a large quantity -from refuse and using the former for advertising purposes, only serves -to emphasize the fact that the goods belong to two distinct classes. -One of the uses for a very considerable amount of pulp from refuse -stock is the making of sauce for baked beans and other canned goods -where the true character can not be observed by the consumer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Another factory interior, showing large pulp -tanks in the rear, cooking tanks on the right, and process tanks in -front containing thousands of bottles of ketchup.] - -During the season tomatoes come in at times in larger quantities than -can be made into ketchup promptly. The surplus must be worked up into -pulp for storage and may be stored in barrels or in tin cans. The pulp -stored in barrels will not have as good a color as that put into cans, -and the ketchup made from either will not be as bright as that made -from whole, fresh stock. The pulp put up in barrels is more liable -to spoilage than that put up in cans. The difference in the cost of -storage by the two methods is not very great, and some large concerns -are using the can exclusively instead of the barrel. - - - - -LABELS. - - -The labels on the ketchup bottles have been improved somewhat in the -last year as regards exactness in describing the contents. Formerly, -according to the labels, much of the ketchup was made from whole -ripe tomatoes. The question was, What became of the enormous amount -of ketchup which it was known had been made from “trimmings?” On this -year’s ketchup the labels make fewer claims, generally merely stating -that it is “tomato ketchup,” which is true whether made from whole -tomatoes or refuse. The brand is in most cases the guaranty for good -quality. It is not safe to judge the quality by the price, for, though -usually good quality can not be expected unless the higher price is -paid, some of the high-priced ketchup when placed under the microscope -has proven to be a very inferior product. - -The wide labels on the neck of the bottle are objectionable. Some of -these are 2 inches in height, and serve to cover the discolored and -spoiled ketchup. As spoilage begins usually in the neck of the bottle, -it is difficult to see it when the neck is wrapped with a label, and -thus it might easily be overlooked until the main body of the ketchup -is affected. The bottles which have the widest labels around the neck -are usually the ones provided with one or two large labels on the lower -part of the bottle, though some bottles have no other label but the one -around the neck. As a rule, however, these are narrow, close to the -stopper, and unobjectionable. - -In buying ketchup for experimental purposes it was difficult and -sometimes impossible to learn its age, as often the grocer does not -know it, and at other times he will not tell. It appeared, however, -that often the ketchup had been on the grocer’s shelf or in the -warehouse from one to four years. - - - - -MANUFACTURING EXPERIMENTS WITHOUT THE USE OF PRESERVATIVES. - - -OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTS. - -During September, 1907, ketchup was made in experimental batches to -determine whether it could be manufactured on a commercial scale -without the use of preservatives. These experiments were made to -determine (1) the keeping quality before opening the container and (2) -the length of time the product will keep without spoilage after the -bottle is opened. - -The ketchup was made in a factory in which the conditions of -manufacture and all the surroundings were sanitary; whole, ripe -tomatoes, the same as used in the regular grade of canned goods, -were used and the formula and process were for a mild ketchup giving -the maximum of tomato flavor. Each batch consisted of 50 gallons of -finished goods, from which 1 gross of pint bottles was retained for -observation. - -The term “regular ketchup” as used in these experiments means the -pulp of fully ripe tomatoes, to which was added granulated sugar, -80-grain, distilled vinegar, table salt, onions, garlic, whole -cinnamon, cloves, mace, and ground cayenne pepper. The pulp was cooked -in a steam-jacketed copper kettle for forty minutes and reduced -about 50 per cent. The finishing was done after cooking. The regular -bottles are pint sizes, washed in hot water, rinsed, and then heated -to a temperature of 190° F. for thirty minutes or more. The sterile -bottles referred to in the experiments were placed in a steam chamber -for twenty minutes at 230° F. The corks were sterilized by a bath in -paraffin at about 270° F. All of the work was accomplished quickly to -insure a smooth, even product with a bright, clean color. Acetic acid -extracts and oil extracts of spices were used in such quantities as -would give the same amount of spicing as when the whole spices were -employed. - -In all of the following experiments the ketchups discussed were made in -September, 1907, and the last examination reported was made ten months -later, in July, 1908: - - _Experiment No. 1._--Regular ketchup was made, but it was reheated - after finishing and bottled in sterile bottles at a temperature of - 205° F. No spoilage has occurred at the end of ten months. - - _Experiment No. 2._--Regular ketchup was made, and it was bottled - immediately after finishing in regular bottles at a temperature of - 165° F. An after process was given at 190° F. for twenty minutes. - No spoilage has occurred after ten months. - - _Experiment No. 3._--Regular ketchup was made, and was bottled in - regular bottles at 165° F., and given a subsequent process at 190° - F. for forty minutes. No spoilage has occurred. - - _Experiment No. 4._--Regular ketchup was made, was bottled in - regular bottles at a temperature of 165° F., and given an after - process at 212° F. for twenty minutes. No spoilage has occurred. - - _Experiment No. 5._--Regular ketchup was made, the same being - put up in regular bottles at a temperature of 165° F. and given - an after process at 212° F. for forty minutes. No spoilage has - occurred. - - _Experiment No. 6._--Ketchup was made in which the acetic acid - extracts took the place of whole spices, and the bottling was done - at a temperature of 165° F., no after treatment being given. No - spoilage has occurred. - - _Experiment No. 7._--Ketchup was made in which acetic acid - extracts were used, and the bottling was done at a temperature of - 165° F. in sterile bottles. No after treatment was given and no - spoilage has occurred. - - _Experiment No. 8._--Ketchup was made in which the oil extracts - were used instead of regular spices. The bottling was done in - regular bottles at a temperature of 165° F., no after treatment - being given. No spoilage has occurred. - - _Experiment No. 9._--Ketchup was made in which oil extracts were - used instead of whole spices. The bottling was done at 165° F. in - sterile bottles, no after treatment being given. No spoilage has - occurred. - - _Experiment No. 10._--Regular ketchup was made, but the pulp - was run through the sieving or finishing machine before instead - of after cooking, the object being to determine the effect upon - the character of the goods rather than upon the spoilage. This - practice could be followed to advantage in making all except the - very finest goods, and would give the same condition for bottling - as in experiment No. 1. - - _Experiment No. 11._--Pulp was made in the usual manner and run - into barrels while just below the boiling point. The barrels - had been thoroughly washed and then steamed for twenty minutes. - As soon as the pulp had cooled slightly the bung was driven in - tightly and the barrel was rolled into storage. At the end of - sixty days the barrels were opened and the pulp was found to be in - good condition. - - _Experiment No. 12._--Regular ketchup was drawn into 5-gallon jugs - which had been sterilized in the same manner as the bottles. These - were kept for sixty days and no spoilage occurred. - - -DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. - -Twelve hundred and ninety-six bottles were shipped from Terre Haute -to Lafayette, Ind., and some were reshipped in order to duplicate -the conditions in trade. Some were kept in a warm temperature and in -strong light, others in a comparatively cool place and in the original -shipping cases, in order to duplicate the conditions in the warehouse -and grocery store. There has been no spoilage after ten months other -than that resulting from four or five cork leaks and neck cracks. These -experiments have shown conclusively that ketchup can be put up on a -commercial scale and delivered to the consumer in perfect condition -without the use of a preservative. - -It was demonstrated by the first experiment that the goods could be -bottled at a high temperature without difficulty, and that subsequent -treatment was unnecessary. The after treatment at 190° was tried -because it had been found in small experiments that, in giving a higher -temperature, the internal pressure would cause more or less breakage of -bottles or loosening of corks. After treatment is practiced by some who -also use a small quantity of preservative as a further precaution. This -treatment is continued from two to three hours at the temperature of -high pasteurization. - -The process at 212° was given with little breakage, as the bottles -used were of good quality. At and above this temperature the breakage -may be reduced by either raising the temperature of the ketchup before -bottling or applying pressure upon the outside while giving the process. - -Neither the acetic acid nor the oil extracts showed any advantage over -whole spices in their preservative effects, as all kept. The color was -slightly improved, but the flavor was impaired, particularly when the -oil extracts were used. - - -SPOILAGE OF KETCHUP AFTER OPENING. - -The question of how long the ketchup should keep after opening the -container in order to satisfy the ordinary requirements of consumption -was also studied. A local restaurant, serving about two hundred meals -and using from one-half to a gallon of ketchup daily, was supplied with -the same kind of ketchup used in the experiments, as were also some -families. Instructions were given to use the ketchup as they would -ordinarily, with the result that none reported any loss from spoilage. - -To determine how long the ketchup would keep after opening, 8 bottles -from each of the first 9 experiments were kept in the kitchen at -a temperature of about 72° F., 5 were kept in an incubator at a -temperature of 95° F., 5 were kept in the laboratory at a temperature -of about 67° F., and 4 were kept in an inclosed porch where the -temperature ranged from 30° to 60° F. This made a total of 198 bottles. -No precautions, other than those of ordinary cleanliness, were taken -in opening the bottles, as it was desired to determine the keeping -properties under conditions of general usage. The first set of bottles -was opened November 5, immediately on being received at the laboratory, -all of the ketchup having been kept at the factory until the experiment -begun in September was completed. The bottles were covered loosely with -a metal cap and observed daily, a record being kept of the date and -character of spoilage. - -The results showed that the differences in the time and temperature -of processing had little, if any, effect in checking the spoilage; -neither did the use of acetic acid or oil extracts. The most important -precaution in checking the spoilage after opening seems to be to keep -the ketchup cool. This is shown by the average number of days which -elapsed before spoilage occurred in the sets kept under different -temperature conditions. For those kept in the kitchen the average -number of days was six, the minimum three, and the maximum eleven. -Those in the incubator kept for an average of five days, with a minimum -of two days, and a maximum of eight. Those in the laboratory had an -average of eight days, the minimum being four days and the maximum -twenty-two. Those kept in the porch lasted on an average twenty-seven -days, a minimum of twelve days, and a maximum of fifty-eight. - -These figures show the definite relation of temperature to spoilage -under the conditions of ordinary use. In making the observations, the -metal cap was removed each day, but no ketchup was poured off. The -spoilage in all cases was due to mold, and usually this formed in the -neck of the bottle where the ketchup had splashed, or at the junction -of the ketchup with the bottle. The spoilage was recorded as soon as -the slightest growth appeared. In actual use if the neck were wiped -out when the ketchup had been used and a growth of mold removed on its -first appearance with some of the proximate ketchup the time before -spoilage occurred could be prolonged. In these experiments the attempt -was made to determine how soon growth appeared under the various -conditions of temperature named. - -The unopened bottles of ketchup were kept in a basement room, the -temperature of which is fairly constant, being about 70° F. This is -approximately the condition in a grocery where the ketchup is kept on -the shelves. Another set of samples from the run of September, 1907, -was opened February 11, 1908, to determine if storing in a warm room -before opening had any effect on the length of time preceding spoilage. -Four bottles were taken from each of the first 9 experiments to make -up each of three sets, one of which was kept in the kitchen, one in -the incubator, and one in the porch, making a total of 108 bottles. The -average number of days for those kept in the incubator was four, the -minimum two, and the maximum six. The average number of days before -spoilage in the kitchen was five, the minimum being three and the -maximum nine. Those kept in the porch gave an average of twenty-three -days, the minimum number being eighteen days and the maximum -seventy-three days. Thus it is seen that the ketchup lasted nearly five -times as long at a temperature of 30° to 60° F. as it did at 72°; and -also that when ketchup is kept in a warm place before opening, spoilage -occurs somewhat sooner, the average for the fresh samples opened under -the same conditions being one day more with the incubator and kitchen -samples and four days more with the porch samples. - -A third set of bottles of the ketchup was opened on June 6, 1908, or -two hundred and sixty-five days after manufacture. They had been kept -in a basement at a temperature of about 70° F. - -One set was placed in the incubator at a temperature of 95° F., one -set in the kitchen at about 82° F., and one set in the refrigerator -at 46° F. The weather was warm and the conditions favorable to the -spoilage of fresh foods. The minimum time for spoilage in the incubator -was two days, the maximum time four days, and the average time three -and two-tenths days. The minimum time in the kitchen was two days, -the maximum time six days, and the average time four and four-tenths -days. The minimum time in the refrigerator was nine days, the maximum -time nineteen days, and the average time thirteen and sixty-six -one-hundredths days. - -These data are grouped in the following table for easier comparison: - - -_Time of spoilage of ketchup at different temperatures after opening._ - - -OPENED ON NOVEMBER 5, 1907, IMMEDIATELY UPON RECEIPT FROM FACTORY; -MAXIMUM AGE, FIVE WEEKS. - - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - Place of storage. | Temperature. | Lapse of time before spoilage. - | |------------------------------- - | | Average. | Minimum. | Maximum. - ------------------| |----------+----------+--------- - | _° F._ | _Days._ | _Days._ | _Days._ - Incubator | 95 | 5 | 2 | 8 - Kitchen | 72 | 6 | 3 | 11 - Laboratory | 67 | 8 | 4 | 22 - Porch | 30-60 | 27 | 12 | 58 - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - -KEPT AT 70° F. FOR ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY DAYS BEFORE OPENING ON -FEBRUARY 11. - - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - Incubator | 95 | 4 | 2 | 6 - Kitchen | 72 | 5 | 3 | 9 - Porch | 30-60 | 23 | 18 | 73 - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - -KEPT AT 70° F. FOR TWO HUNDRED AND SIXTY-FIVE DAYS BEFORE OPENING ON -JUNE 6. - - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - Incubator | 95 | 3.2 | 2 | 4 - Kitchen | 82 | 4.4 | 2 | 6 - Refrigerator | 46 | 13.66 | 9 | 19 - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - - -SPOILAGE OF UNOPENED KETCHUP. - -Another test was made to determine whether the ketchup would spoil -when kept in a warm place, but not opened. Three bottles from each -experimental batch were placed in the incubator November 7, 1907, and -were kept there until December 23, 1907--forty-six days--and in that -time there was no sign of spoilage. They were then opened and kept in -the laboratory; the average number of days before spoilage occurred is -indicated in the following table: - - -_Average number of days before spoilage of ketchup after opening (kept -46 days at 95° before opening)._ - - --------------------------------------- - Experiment No. | Days before spoilage. - ---------------+----------------------- - 1 | 2⅔ - 2 | 4⅔ - 3 | 3⅓ - 4 | 5 - 5 | 5⅓ - 6 | 4⅓ - 7 | 4⅓ - 8 | 4⅓ - 9 | 3⅔ - --------------------------------------- - -It will be observed that these samples spoiled in about the same length -of time as the bottles opened in February and tested in the incubator, -so that similar results were obtained by keeping unopened ketchup one -and one-half months at 95° F. and keeping it five months at 70° F. From -the results of the experiments it is evident that the ingredients of -the ketchup in the proportions used are not antiseptic, and it is also -apparent from the number of organisms found and the rapidity of their -multiplication that ketchup is a good, nutritive medium. Yeasts and -molds are the predominating organisms, and, as the ketchup is acid and -also contains sugar, and these organisms are found on tomatoes in the -field, their predominance in the ketchup is explained. - - -SPOILAGE OF MARKET BRANDS. - -To determine the keeping properties of the ketchup on the market, -various brands were obtained from the grocery stores. In the -majority of cases nothing was known of the ingredients or methods of -manufacture, except what appeared on the labels. No date of manufacture -was given, and in some cases the dealers did not know the age of the -product. - -There were 104 bottles of ketchup opened to find out how long they -would remain in good condition. These were kept in the laboratory, -though the temperature was higher than that at which ketchup should be -held. Of the 104 bottles there were 66 without preservative, according -to the labels, 46 of which spoiled. Of the 20 which did not spoil, 2 -formed crystals of benzoic acid on the covers of glass dishes during -evaporation. Of the 39 which, according to the labels, contained sodium -benzoate, 15 spoiled. The bottles of unspoiled ketchup after remaining -in the laboratory for about a month were placed in the incubator at -95° F. for three weeks, and were then taken out, and have been left in -the laboratory since. The metal cap had been taken off frequently for -observation, and the ketchup exposed, but the treatment did not cause -them to spoil. - -The average number of days after which spoilage occurred for the 46 -bottles without preservative was about fifteen, the minimum number -being four days, the maximum number ninety-four days. The average -number of days preceding spoilage in the case of 15 bottles with -preservative was twenty-four days, the minimum number being three and -the maximum sixty days. The majority of these had 0.1 per cent of -sodium benzoate present; the others had a smaller amount, according -to the manufacturer’s label. These data are not at all conclusive and -further work on material of known history will be necessary. - - -STERILITY OF KETCHUP. - -To determine the sterility of ketchup, cultures were made from 77 of -the bottles. The method used was to wipe the bottles and cork stoppers -with a damp towel and then remove the cork. The cork puller which -was used grasps the neck of the bottle in such a way as to cover the -opening and remove the cork without the inrush of air that occurs when -the ordinary corkscrew is used. A flame was then passed over the mouth -of the bottle, after which the upper layer of ketchup was poured out, -so as to discard any material which might have been contaminated in -handling. Tomato gelatin was used as a medium and cultures were made in -petri dishes. - -There were 17 plates on which no organisms developed, indicating -that the ketchup was sterile. Of the 60 plates having organisms, 54 -had molds, 22 of these having molds alone; 21 plates had yeast-like -organisms, 3 plates having these only; 29 plates had bacteria, 4 having -bacteria alone. Sometimes a plate would have only one form of organism, -but more often there was a mixture present. Of 15 plates having only -one form of organism, 3 had yeast alone, 2 bacteria alone, and 10 had -mold alone. Of the 77 bottles of ketchup from which the inoculations -were made, 41 were without and 36 with preservative, and of the 17 -sterile ketchups, 8 contained sodium benzoate and 9 were without -preservative. - -A considerable part of the experimental ketchup proved not to be -sterile. The organisms present were of the class which require oxygen -for their growth and therefore they had only been arrested in their -activity. No growth could take place so long as the air was excluded -and therefore no spoilage could occur. When the cork was drawn, the -organisms could grow and cause spoilage, and this is a much more -potent factor than the entrance of germs from without. Bottling and -sealing the ketchup quickly while hot so completely excludes the air -that only a few colonies of yeast or mold may be found on subsequent -microscopical examination. Filling at a low temperature and corking -while cool allows sufficient air to remain incorporated in the ketchup -and neck of the bottle to permit a considerable growth of the organisms -and a product derived from good stock may thus acquire the appearance -of ketchup derived from partially decayed material. A ketchup in which -bubbles of air are incorporated in filling may show a growth of mold -at each bubble throughout the mass. The foregoing statements apply to -ketchup containing sodium benzoate as well as to the non-preservative -goods of the character used in these experiments. - - - - -EXPERIMENTS WITH PRESERVATIVES. - - -SODIUM BENZOATE. - -The preservative in general use in ketchup is sodium benzoate. -Salicylic acid is used, but only to a limited extent. The amount -of sodium benzoate used, according to the labels, varies from -one-sixteenth to one-tenth of 1 per cent; but on some labels the amount -is not stated. Experiments were made to determine the amount necessary -to check the spoilage of ketchup. - -Two organisms, a mold and a yeast, were selected on which to make the -tests. The mold was the ordinary blue mold, Penicillium, which was -present in many of the brands of ketchup and is found commonly on acid -foods. It was selected on account of its prevalence and resistive -power. The yeast was obtained from ketchup and was also a vigorous -grower, forming a thick, wrinkled film on various media. Any effect on -the growth of the yeast could be seen readily in its manner of forming -the film. - -Portions of tomato gelatin to which 0.1, 0.5, 1, and 2 per cent, -respectively, of sodium benzoate were added, were first inoculated with -the mold. There was no development in those containing 1 and 2 per -cent; a retarded development resulted in that containing 0.5 per cent, -and the growth when 0.1 per cent was used was nearly normal, showing -very little difference from that in the gelatin without sodium benzoate. - -Ketchup was next tried as a medium, but the amount of benzoate was -reduced to one-sixteenth, one-twelfth, and one-tenth of 1 per cent, -as it was thought that some of the other constituents of the ketchup -were antiseptic to a slight degree. The growth in the ketchup was -irregular, though the benzoate checked development in all. Equal -amounts of benzoate were used in tomato bouillon, with practically the -same results as in the ketchup. The development was checked in all, -and in some plates one-sixteenth of 1 per cent seemed to be fully as -efficacious as one-tenth of 1 per cent. When the mold was examined -under the microscope, the filaments were found to be much swollen and -distorted in shape, and filled with a coarsely granular protoplasm, -containing much fat, as indicated by the blackening with osmic acid. -The culture containing the mold which gave the least development seemed -to show the least distortion and swelling of the filaments. - -The results indicated that in using sodium benzoate as a preservative -there is uncertainty as to results, even when using the maximum amount -allowed--one-tenth of 1 per cent. They also indicated that this -preservative had an injurious effect on the living matter of the mold. -(See Pl. II; compare with normal growth, Pl. I.) - - -SALT. - -The effect of salt in checking development was tested by using tomato -bouillon as a medium and adding 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 grams of -salt, respectively, to 100 cc. These were inoculated with the mold. The -5-gram solution seemed to have no effect on development. When 10 grams -were used growth appeared as soon as in the bouillon without salt, but -was not so extensive. In the 15-gram solution growth was retarded four -days, and most of that which did develop remained submerged, the mold -growing normally on the surface. With 20 grams the growth was five -days slower than the normal in starting, and after that there was only -a slight development. In the 25-gram solution, the growth started at -the same time as when 20 grams were employed, but remained stationary, -while with the 30-gram solution, no development occurred. - -The yeast was checked slightly by 5 grams, and very materially by the -10-gram solution, as it required two days for a thin, delicate film -to form, whereas in ordinary solutions a rather thick film is formed -within twenty-four hours or even in less time. There was no development -in the 15-gram solution. - - -SUGAR. - -The effect of sugar was tested on both the mold and the yeast by adding -it to tomato bouillon. It was supposed that a low percentage of sugar -like the salt would plasmolyze the cells, and in this way check growth, -but it seemed to have no effect until the amount was increased to 25 -grams per 100 cc of bouillon. In this solution growth appeared as soon -as with the weaker solutions, but there was a smaller amount. In the -25 to 40 gram solutions there was less development as the amount of -sugar increased. In the 70 and 75 gram solutions growth was delayed one -day in its appearance. In the 80, 85, and 90 gram solutions growth was -delayed two days, the colonies growing submerged at first, but after -a time forming on the surface. The mycelium remained very thin, but -a thick layer of spores formed. From this point on the amounts were -increased by 10 grams up to 200. The development became slower and less -successively until 170 grams were added. In this case a small colony -appeared on the surface in seven days, but seemed to grow less after -that. The solutions were held, and in time crystals separated from the -thick sirups. After two months dry-looking colonies developed along the -edges, forming a ring, and some formed on the surface, these occurring -also in the flasks containing 170, 180, 190, and 200 grams of sugar per -100 cc. The colonies were a dull greenish drab in spots, the remainder -being white. - -For the yeast the 80-gram solution of sugar was the strongest in which -any development took place. - - -SPICES. - -Experiments to determine the value of the spices as antiseptics were -made, using water infusions, acetic-acid extracts, and oil extracts. - - -WATER INFUSIONS. - -In making the water infusions 20 grams of the whole spices, with 200 -cc of water, were boiled for forty-five minutes. This is approximately -the length of time that the spices are cooked in the ketchup in the -factory. The liquid was then filtered and from 0.1 to 5 cc of the -filtrate was used in 10 cc of tomato bouillon. The same organisms were -used as in the former experiments. - -The tests showed that cinnamon and cloves were the strongest -antiseptically. These checked growth when used in small amounts, but -it required 3 cc of the cinnamon and 1 cc of the cloves to inhibit the -growth of the mold. Mustard, paprika, and cayenne pepper checked growth -also, but 5 cc, the highest strength used, did not inhibit growth. The -ginger, mace, and black pepper had no apparent effect in the quantities -used. - -The effect of the spices on the development of the yeast was somewhat -different from their effect on Penicillium. The cinnamon showed the -strongest action, 3 cc being effective, whereas 5 cc of the cloves was -required. The cayenne pepper came next in effectiveness, and after that -the black pepper. The ginger, mace, and mustard solutions had no effect -in the strengths used. - -The remainder of the spice infusions were kept in glass-stoppered -bottles in the laboratory, and in a few weeks’ time there was a coating -of mold formed over the surface of the mace, the mustard, and the -black and cayenne peppers. The paprika had small, stunted colonies -dotting the surface. - -At the time that these experiments were made a quantity of the ground -spices were placed in large petri dishes and water was added to make a -heavy paste. One set of these was inoculated with the mold, and another -set with the yeast, and all were kept in a warm place. No development -of either organism appeared on the cinnamon, cloves, or mustard; on the -others a growth first showed in three days. On a normal medium growth -appears in twenty-four hours. On the mace, paprika, and cayenne pepper -the Penicillium and yeast with which the pastes were inoculated were -overgrown in a few days with black mold (_Rhizopus nigricans_). - - -ACETIC-ACID EXTRACTS. - -In the manufacture of ketchup acetic-acid extracts of the spices -are sometimes used instead of the whole spices, on account of their -supposed antiseptic properties as well as their greater strength and -convenience in handling. One minim of the standard acetic-acid extracts -is equal in strength to 1 grain of the whole spices. The acid extracts -obtained included allspice, celery, cloves, coriander, garlic, and -black pepper. - -In the tests 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, and 1 cc, respectively, of the -extract was added to 10 cc of tomato bouillon. One set was inoculated -with the mold and another set with the yeast. In the case of the mold, -no growth occurred with the allspice and cloves; the celery checked -the growth materially, there being no indication of mold until the -sixth day. Normally a fairly strong growth occurs in twenty-four hours. -In the solution containing 0.3 cc there was only one small colony in -thirteen days, and no further development. In the solution containing -the coriander, the growth in the 0.5 cc solution did not appear for -three days, the 1 cc solution showing no growth. The garlic had -practically the same effect as the coriander, while the black pepper -was stronger, no growth appearing in the solution containing 0.5 cc. - -The yeast was slightly stronger in resisting the effect of the -extracts. No growth appeared with the allspice and cloves; 0.5 cc -of the celery and 1 cc of the coriander were required to inhibit -growth, and the garlic and black pepper gave similar results, a weak -development occurring in the solutions containing 1 cc. - - -OIL EXTRACTS. - -Oil extracts of the spices were tested in the same manner as the water -infusions and the acetic-acid extracts. The oils were so strong that -in order to handle them easily they were mixed with equal volumes of -alcohol, except that the mace, which was in the form of a paste, -was mixed with two-thirds its volume of alcohol. To 10 cc of tomato -bouillon were added 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5 cc, respectively, of -the oils of cinnamon, cloves, mace, mustard, and black pepper. - -In the case of the mold, there was no development in the solutions -containing cinnamon, cloves, and mustard; in those containing mace -and black pepper the development was slower than the normal, that in -the black pepper being more pronounced. On the yeast the effect was -similar, no development occurring in the cinnamon, cloves, and mustard, -and a retarded development taking place in the mace and black pepper, -that in the black pepper being the more pronounced. - -The experiments show that some of the spices, notably allspice, -cinnamon, and cloves have decided antiseptic value, but that the -peppers are not as valuable as is generally supposed. - -The oil extracts have been advocated for use in ketchup instead of the -whole spices, but in quantities which would be useful antiseptically -their use would be objectionable, for when present in approximately -the same proportions as are the whole-spice infusions, the flavor -is too strong and masks the more delicate flavor of the tomato. The -acetic-acid extracts are more effective than are the water infusions, -and they are not objectionable in the ketchup. - - -VINEGAR AND ACETIC ACID. - -An experiment was made to determine the antiseptic value of vinegar and -acetic acid. Commercial 50-grain distilled vinegar was used. It was -found that when 30 per cent of this vinegar was added to the tomato -bouillon the development of mold was checked and the extent to which -it was checked increased with the increased amounts of vinegar. The -development in the solution containing 30 per cent of the vinegar -was two days later than the normal in starting, while the solution -containing 100 per cent was eleven days delayed and showed but little -growth. - -An 80 per cent solution of glacial acetic acid was used. One-half of -1 per cent added to the tomato bouillon checked growth to the same -extent as 30 per cent of vinegar, and no development occurred when the -quantity was increased to 2 per cent. - -Experiments were then made in which vinegar was added to the ketchup -in proportions varying from 1 part in 32 to 1 part in 8, with the -result of greatly delaying the appearance of the mold as the proportion -increased. With the increase in vinegar it was necessary to add sugar -and slightly more spices to overcome the pungency of the acid and thus -insure good flavor. The addition of the vinegar to the pulp had the -effect of arresting the action of the oxidase and thus the bright color -was maintained. - -The usual custom in factory practice is to add the vinegar near the -close of the cooking process otherwise a considerable portion of the -acid will be driven off. This practice was followed in the experimental -work, but it has since been found that continued heating in the -presence of the acid has some effect upon sterilization, and therefore -the increased amount of vinegar is effective not only because of the -additional acid present, but also because the heating in the after -process is thereby rendered more efficacious. - -This line of experiments gives promise of practical results in -producing a ketchup which will not only keep while in the bottle, but -will also keep longer after it is opened. Each manufacturer must work -out the quantities that could be used with his formula and still retain -the character of his goods. - - -OIL. - -In ketchup manufacturing it is customary, if an agitator is not used, -to put a small amount of fat in the kettle to check the ebullition -during the reduction of the pulp. The amount used in this manner is not -sufficient, however, to be apparent in the ketchup. Brannt[D] states -that in some factories, where the trimmings are allowed to accumulate -for the season, they are given liberal doses of oils and condiments -when cooked, in order to disguise their defects, so that the product -can be placed on the market as “fresh tomato catchup.” That the use of -oils is increasing is evident from the comparison of the ketchup of the -past season with that of former years. - -[D] Brannt, W. L., A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, -1900, p. 455. - -When oil is used in ketchup, it is easily detected under the -microscope, as it appears in the form of shining, yellow globules which -blacken gradually when treated with osmic acid. Besides this, the oil -comes to the surface of the ketchup, where it can be seen readily, and -if considerable oil has been used a distinct layer is formed. When -the ketchup has been made for some time, the oil changes so that the -ketchup has a peculiar “greasy” odor, or the oil may be so changed as -to give a decidedly rancid smell to the ketchup. Oil usually causes a -deterioration in flavor and odor, though some of the ketchups to which -it has been added do not spoil readily. Olive oil, cottonseed oil, -and oleomargarine are used. That the oil is not considered one of the -regular known ingredients of the ketchup is shown by the failure to -declare its presence on the label. - -To test the antiseptic value of oils in ketchup, experiments were -made, using olive oil, cottonseed oil, and oleomargarine in the -proportions of 1 part of oil to 1,000, 750, and 500 parts of ketchup, -respectively. The ketchup was made in small quantities, 2 gallons -for each experiment. After bottling, all except the check bottles -were inoculated with Penicillium and kept at kitchen temperature. All -spoiled, and neither the quantity nor kind of oil used had any marked -effect in preventing spoilage. That the oils affected the development -of the mold was evident. The mold developed first at the junction of -the ketchup with the bottle forming a ring which spread gradually over -the surface developing a somewhat heavy mycelium. This remained white -longer than usual, spores forming very gradually, as indicated by the -change in color from white to a delicate blue. At the end of three -weeks only spots of color appeared on the surface and these were still -blue, though in ordinary development the blue color changes to green in -two or three days. - -Another test was made, using olive oil only, and in the proportions of -1 part of oil to 500, 400, and 300 parts, respectively, of the ketchup. -Reduction was made in a steam-jacketed kettle, the oil being added -when the ebullition of the ketchup was the strongest, after which the -boiling was continued for fifteen minutes. The ketchup was bottled, -unsterilized bottles being used, then covered loosely with the metal -caps. - -The time required for the ketchup to spoil was longer than in the first -set, but there was not sufficient difference nor enough uniformity in -the time to indicate that the use of oil in ketchup is desirable, even -if the change of flavor and odor be not taken into consideration. The -average number of days before spoilage for those containing 1 part of -oil to 500 parts of ketchup, was thirteen and two-thirds days; one -has not yet spoiled (a period of forty-five days), while the first -bottle spoiled in four days. Those having 1 part of oil to 400 parts -of ketchup had an average life of nine and three-fourths days, the -minimum being three days, and the maximum twenty-six days. Those having -1 part to 300 parts of ketchup on an average did not spoil for six and -three-fourths days, the minimum being four days, and the maximum eleven -days. - -The failure of some of the bottles to spoil, though similar in every -known respect to those which did spoil, is a feature peculiar to -ketchup and is familiar to manufacturers who make careful tests before -putting their product on the market. For this reason a rather large -number of bottles should be used in a test in order that the results -may be approximately accurate and represent general conditions. - - - - -STUDY OF PENICILLIUM IN KETCHUP. - - -Penicillium is a plant which is distributed widely and apparently is -able to grow wherever organic matter is found, though flourishing -best when the material contains acid. It causes loss in canneries, -breweries, distilleries, etc., the only use made of it being in the -manufacture of Roquefort cheese, the immature cheese being inoculated -with the conidia for the effect the mold produces in the maturing -process. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Conidia, Normal Size and in Various Stages of -Germination, Some with Branching Hyphæ (× 325).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Conidiophore, Showing Unusually Large -Development of Conidia, from Culture in Moist Chamber (× 325).] - -PENICILLIUM. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Conidia and Hyphæ from Culture in Experimental -Ketchup Containing One-sixteenth of One Per Cent of Sodium Benzoate (X -325).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Conidia and Hyphæ from Cultures in Experimental -Ketchup Containing One-tenth of One Per Cent of Sodium Benzoate (X -325).] - -CULTURES FROM KETCHUP PRESERVED WITH SODIUM BENZOATE. - - -DEVELOPMENT. - -In developing, the mold forms a white felt-like mass, covering the -medium on which it is growing; then as development proceeds, it changes -to bluish-green, and finally to a darker, duller color. The change in -color is accompanied by a change in structure, the surface becoming -powdery in appearance, a slight current of air being sufficient to -dislodge a cloud of fine dust. This fine dust is formed of small, -spherical bodies, the spores or conidia (from the Greek meaning -_dust_). These need no resting period, but are able to develop at -once. When the conidia lodge on a moist substance they swell to a much -greater size and then send out a tube from some part of their surface. -The tube lengthens and septa form, dividing the tube into sections, or -cells. At the same time branches are sent out, which again form other -branches. The original conidium sends out a second branch shortly after -the first one, and usually from the opposite side, and may even send -out a third one. The formation of the septa and the subbranching goes -on in all, so that in a short time the branches mat together and form a -felt-like cover. - - -REPRODUCTION. - -After a shorter or longer period of development, dependent on the -conditions, branches are sent perpendicularly from the substratum, and -into the air. These branches cease their growth in length, sending -out branches near the tip, which take the same general direction as -the original branch. Each of these subbranches is called a sterigma -(from the Greek word meaning _support_). In vigorous development the -sterigmata may form secondary branches, the whole forming a tassel-like -arrangement. The tip of a sterigma enlarges, a septum forms around the -enlargement, cutting it off from the sterigma, and forming a conidium. -The sterigma develops to the original length and another conidium is -formed, the operation being repeated many times, thus forming a chain -of spores. As the other sterigmata are also forming conidia in the same -manner, a series of these chains is formed close together. After the -cessation of conidial development, the filament below the sterigmata is -disorganized, setting free the conidia. The filament and head together -are called the conidiophore (Greek, dust-bearer). - -Penicillium forms spores sexually, but the conditions for their -formation are unknown. Brefeld obtained them by growing the mold on -damp bread placed between two glass plates, and excluding the air. -Lindner obtained carpospores on a wort gelatin culture in a petri dish, -from which the air was excluded. The writer has tried various methods -for obtaining carpospores, but so far without success. Moist chambers -were used with various media, excluding the air. The development of -the mold is seemingly dependent on the amount of air in the chamber -at the time of sealing. After the air is exhausted, the conidiophores -assume fantastic forms, developing only one or a few sterigmata, and -on these one or few conidia. In other cases the conidiophores are -fascicled, in no cases, however, forming the conidia as luxuriantly -as when air is supplied. The hyphæ become clear, much vacuolated, -and develop more septa, and some of the cells become much enlarged. -An enlarged cell will often contain two or three septa, thus forming -cells that are not larger than disks. In cultures from which the air -was excluded from the start, no development took place. In test-tube -cultures sealed with paraffin after twenty-four hours, the mold -developed on the surface of the gelatin, forming a felted white mass, -but no conidia nor carpospores were formed. - - -GROWTH IN KETCHUP. - -The form of Penicillium which was used in the experiments was isolated -from ketchup in which it grew luxuriantly. When conidia are first -formed on the ketchup, they are a delicate blue in color; they then -become bluish green, then green, and finally olive. The development of -the color of mold growing on ketchup is practically the same as when -grown in wort, tomato bouillon, pea bouillon, or gelatin made with -these solutions as a basis. In ketchup containing sodium benzoate, the -blue color appearing first remains for a long time, and in old cultures -the mold is a dull drab, not olive, as in normal development. - -In ordinary ketchup made without a preservative, the mold forms a -heavy, wrinkled mycelium, showing a large development of conidia. In -the bottles of ketchup, the mold pushes down into the ketchup, becoming -entirely submerged, a clear liquid covering the mold and separating it -from the ketchup. This occurred in more than one hundred bottles. No -secondary mycelium formed on the surface of the liquid, a method of -development which frequently occurs in ordinary media when a mass of -mold is submerged. - -An exception to this was shown in ketchup which had developed the mold -in the laboratory. The bottles were then put in the refrigerator for -two weeks. During this time scarcely any development took place; but -after they were again placed in the laboratory, the mycelium pushed -down into the ketchup and a new, very thin mycelium developed on the -surface. The filaments when seen under the microscope were swollen, had -irregular outlines, and a comparatively smaller number of septa, and -were filled with a coarsely granular protoplasm. The ends were blunt -and misshapen and the sterigmata were irregular, tending more toward a -fasciculated arrangement, and forming fewer conidia. The filaments from -the vinegar and acetic acid media had the same appearance as those -developed on ketchup, but had a smoother outline. - - -TEMPERATURE TESTS. - - -The limits for the germination of Penicillium, as given by W. J. -Sykes,[E] are 2° to 43° C. (35° to 110° F.), and the most favorable -temperature 22° to 26° C. (72° to 79° F.). This author states also that -according to Pasteur the dry spores retained their vitality at 108° -C. (226° F.), but that they were soon killed when immersed in boiling -water. Klöcker[F] quotes Pasteur as saying that the conidia are killed -if exposed to a temperature of 127° to 132° C. for half an hour, but -that they retain life at 119° to 121° C. - -[E] Principles and Practice of Brewing, 1907, p. 284. - -[F] Ibid., p. 281. - -A series of tests was made to determine the thermal death point of -the moist and dry conidia of the Penicillium used in the experiments, -a young, vigorous development on ketchup being used. The flasks were -kept under observation for a month after the tests were made, as in -many cases a development does not occur in the usual time. The high -temperatures applied for longer periods of time were tried first, but -both temperature and time were reduced as results from the series were -obtained. Only the conditions obtaining in the final tests are given in -the table. It was found that the Penicillium used did not have the high -resistance supposed. - -The tests were made in small flat-bottomed 10-cc flasks, tomato -bouillon being used for the tests on moist conidia. The bouillon was -used so as to have the conidia in a nutritive medium after the test was -made, without transferring. The time for those at 100° C. was estimated -from the time of ebullition. At the end of the specified time, the -flasks were cooled promptly under running water. As the flat bottoms -gave comparatively large surface, the heating and the cooling could be -effected in a short time. For the tests below 100° C. a vessel of water -was heated to the desired temperature, and the flasks were immersed in -it and shaken constantly. The dry conidia were placed in test tubes -which were immersed in boiling water for the desired time and cooled -under running water, after which 10 cc of sterilized tomato bouillon -was added. After determining the death point in this manner and finding -it to be much lower than had been supposed, it was decided to make the -test again, but using ketchup as the medium. Ten grams of ketchup were -sterilized, then inoculated from a vigorous growth of mold, and tested -with a set in which the tomato bouillon was used. For those below 100° -C. the two flasks which were to receive the same temperature were held -in the vessel of water at the same time, so that as nearly as possible -the treatment would be identical. The following results were obtained: - -_Thermal death point of moist and dry conidia of Penicillium._ - - PENICILLIUM IN 10 CC OF TOMATO BOUILLON. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - No. of |Temperature.| Time of |Time before |Period of observation - experiment.| | heating. |germination.| and developments. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - | _°C._ |_Minutes._| _Days._ | - 1 | 85 | ½ | 3 |Dark strings from - | | | |spores; 9 days; - | | | |no development. - 2 | 80 | 1 | | - 3 | 75 | 1 | | - 4 | 70 | 5 | | - 5 | 65 | 5 | 3 |Dark strings running - | | | |from spores; 9 days; - | | | |growth normal, spots - | | | |on surface. - 6 | 60 | 5 | 3 | Do. - 7 | 55 | 5 | 3 | Do. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - - PENICILLIUM IN 10 CC OF KETCHUP. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - 1 | 100 | 3 | | - 2 | 100 | 2 | | - 3 | 100 | 1 | | - 4 | 100 | ½ | | - 5 | 100 | Instant.| | - 6 | 85 | ½ | 2 |Colonies on sides; - | | | |8 days; surface - | | | |covered, green. - 7 | 80 | 1 | 2 | Do. - 8 | 75 | 1 | 2 | Do. - 9 | 70 | 5 | 8 |Colony on surface. - 10 | 65 | 5 | 9 | Do. - 11 | 60 | 5 | 3 |Colonies on sides; - | | | |8 days; surface - | | | |covered, green. - 12 | 55 | 5 | 4 | Do. - 13 | | | 2 |Ring around sides; - | | | |3 days; surface - | | | |nearly covered. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - - DRY CONIDIA. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - 1 | 100 | 10 | 4 |Rough appearance, - | | | |like that in ketchup. - 2 | 100 | 15 | 4 | Do. - 3 | 100 | 20 | 7 |Slight growth. - 4 | 100 | 25 | 10 |Growth barely - | | | |perceptible. - 5 | 100 | 30 | 10 | Do. - 6 | 100 | 35 | |Conidia stained - | | | |readily, showing they - | | | |were dead. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - - YEAST. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - 1 | 55 | 5 | 2 |Wrinkled film; liquid - | | | | turbid. - 2 | 60 | 5 | 2 | Do. - 3 | 65 | 5 | 2 |Thin, smooth film; - | | | |liquid clear. - 4 | 70 | 5 | | - 5 | 75 | 5 | | - 6 | 100 | Instant.| | - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - -The moist heat was very effective in destroying the vitality of the -conidia of Penicillium, the death point being 27° C. higher than the -maximum temperature for germination as given by Sykes. The heating was -more effective in destroying germs when applied to bouillon than to -ketchup, no development taking place for any temperature above 65° C., -even when applied for a short time. - -In the ketchup the lower temperatures for the longer periods of time -were more effective in checking the development, even though they did -not destroy the vitality. In the ketchup, with the exception of Nos. 9 -and 10, the colonies started invariably along the sides of the flasks. -The greater access of air to those on the sides would account for -this. The conidia on the sides of flasks Nos. 9 and 10 must have been -destroyed, as no development took place in either case except in the -center of the surface. - -The dry conidia were destroyed at 100° C. when heated for thirty-five -minutes; they did not reach a normal development in any case, even -when heated for only ten minutes, many of the conidia being destroyed -by this treatment. Where development failed to take place, the conidia -were stained with a water solution of eosin, so as to be sure that the -effect was death, and not an arrested development. - -The results of the tests do not agree with those obtained in factory -practice, where the ketchup is cooked at 100° C. for at least forty -minutes and sometimes for fifty or fifty-five minutes, depending on the -consistency of the pulp. - - - - -HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF KETCHUP. - - -In ketchup are found parts of all the various tissues of the tomato -broken into fine pieces by the action of the cyclone. Although the -sieves take out the seeds, skins, and any large pieces, particles of -the various tissues are present in size sufficient for identification. -Among the distinctive features are the red crystalline bodies in -the parenchyma, which serve to a certain extent to distinguish -the parenchyma from that of other plants which might be used for -adulteration, and serve also to differentiate the natural from the -artificially colored ketchup. Some of the red dye used colors all -protoplasm indiscriminately, even that of the fungi present, and as -a colored ketchup is usually poor stuff, containing many fungi, the -mold filaments, yeast cells, and bacteria receive their share of the -color. Other red dye used is in the form of fine powder, which does not -go into solution, but is distributed as irregular particles which are -distinct from the red crystalline bodies. - -Good ketchup made from whole tomatoes has a clean appearance readily -distinguishable under the microscope; but the poor ketchup has usually -a superabundance of fungi present, fully developed colonies of mold, -many forms of conidia, besides yeast-like cells, and different forms -of bacteria. All of these may be dead, but neither preservatives nor -dosage of odorous spices can disguise their presence. In some of the -ketchup examined, which was put up in attractive form and labeled -as being made from the whole tomatoes, and which had the appearance -and odor of good ketchup, the microscope showed the presence of such -quantities of fungi as to leave no doubt that the tomatoes were spoiled -when cooked. It is presumable that some of the dealers placing this -sort of stuff on the market do not know its condition themselves, and -either buy their pulp from other factories or trust its manufacture to -employees whose only care is that the ketchup shall have a bright color -and shall “keep.” Some of the mould filaments and conidia are distorted -in the same way as those of the Penicillium are when grown in ketchup -to which sodium benzoate has been added. - -The ketchup made from sound tomatoes and manufactured in a cleanly -manner has practically no fungi present. The ketchup that was used in -these experiments was made at different times during the season and was -of this character, no bottle examined showing mold filaments when first -opened. - - - - -MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF SOME COMMERCIAL BRANDS. - - -In examining ketchup the color, odor, amount of discoloration, -presence of foreign tissue, foreign coloring matter, oil, and fungi -were determined. If no preservative was mentioned, some of the ketchup -was put in petri dishes and inoculated with Penicillium to determine -whether growth could take place. The following examinations are -reported, as they represent some of the best known brands on the market: - - _No. 9._--Opened September 2, 1907; age unknown; pint bottle; no - preservative mentioned; not spoiled July 6 of following year. - This ketchup was guaranteed to be made from fresh, ripe, tomatoes - by a new process. The color is an unnatural red, has not faded, - and the odor is good. The microscope showed the presence of much - refuse, and large quantities of fungi, whole colonies of molds, - the filaments distorted, many yeast cells, and bacteria. The red - color was not confined to the red crystalline bodies, as is the - case in ripe tomatoes, but the whole of the protoplasm of the - cells, including the nucleus and nucleolus was red, as were also - most of the mold filaments and yeast, indicating the presence of - considerable artificial coloring matter. The structure indicated - that the stock had been manufactured from “trimmings,” and - further, that they were not fresh when used, but had fermented. - There was no oil present. The “new process” is a success in - keeping ketchup, as no preservative is mentioned. The price was 20 - cents. - - _No. 112._--Another bottle of the same brand of ketchup; examined - in April, 1908; presumably manufactured in 1907; one-twelfth of - 1 per cent of sodium benzoate declared on label; a bright red; - guaranteed to be from fresh ripe tomatoes and uncolored. The - microscope showed no dyeing of the tissues, few fungi, and no - extraneous matter. The price was 20 cents. - - _No. 17._--Opened September 28, 1907; age unknown; a pint bottle; - sodium benzoate declared on supplemental label, no amount being - stated; reddish brown color, badly discolored on top; greasy odor; - not spoiled July 6, 1908; refuse present; large amount of oil; - many fungi; the mold filaments enlarged and distorted. The price - was 15 cents. - - _No. 109._--Another bottle of the same brand examined in April, - 1908; presumably manufactured the preceding year; had one-tenth - of 1 per cent of sodium benzoate; not spoiled July 6, 1908; - reddish brown color, discolored near top; greasy odor. This was - practically the same as the first bottle examined, had fewer mold - filaments, but many bacteria. - - _No. 18._--Opened September 28, 1907; age unknown; pint bottle; - no preservative mentioned; not spoiled July 6, 1908. A neck label - stated that it is made from sound ripe tomatoes and uncolored. - Color reddish brown; greasy odor; many oil globules; too many mold - filaments and bacteria for sound tomatoes. Price 20 cents. - - _No. 113._--Another bottle of the same brand examined in April, - 1908; said to have been manufactured in 1908; no preservative - mentioned; not spoiled after standing open for seventy days; same - as No. 18 in color and odor; oil and many fungi again present. - - _No. 10._--Opened September 2, 1907; age unknown; half-pint - bottle; no preservative mentioned; not spoiled July 6, 1908. A - neck label 2 inches in height guaranteed the highest quality; an - extra label lower down on the neck stated the product to be the - natural color, and made from fresh, ripe tomatoes; the regular - label carried the brand, manufacturer’s name, etc. Color brown; - sweetish odor; colonies of mold; distorted filaments; many - bacteria; a few small oil globules. Price 25 cents. - - _No. 106._--Same brand; pint bottle; examined in April, 1908; said - to be manufactured in 1907; color red, discolored near surface; - 2-inch neck label in addition to regular label; no preservative - mentioned; did not spoil in seventy days; oil globules; particles - of red, amorphous matter; whole colonies of mold, as well as - fragments of filaments; teeming with bacteria. - - _No. 77._--Different brand, but same manufacturer as Nos. 10 and - 106; age unknown; pint bottle; one-twelfth of 1 per cent of sodium - benzoate declared; opened December 1; placed in incubator at 95° - F. for a month; not spoiled July 6; color reddish brown; greasy - odor; oil globules, many mold filaments, and bacteria present. - Price 20 cents. - - _No. 107._--Third brand from same manufacturer as preceding; said - to be manufactured in 1907; half-pint bottle; one-twelfth of 1 - per cent of benzoate of soda declared; layer of oil on surface; - sweet odor; reddish-brown color. Oil globules prominent feature - microscopically, whole colonies of distorted mold were present, - and sample contained many different forms of bacteria. Price 10 - cents. - - _No. 14._--Opened September 2, 1907; age unknown; no preservative - mentioned; not spoiled July 6, 1908; half-pint bottle; color red; - good odor; few bacteria; free from refuse. Price 25 cents. - - _No. 108._--Same brand as No. 14; said to be manufactured in 1907; - pint bottle; one-tenth of 1 per cent of benzoate of soda declared; - color red; good odor; few fungi; clean and free from refuse. - - _No. 33._--Opened October 24, 1907; age unknown; one-tenth of 1 - per cent of benzoate of soda declared; spoiled November 1; pint - bottle (14 ounces); sweetish odor; brown color; many molds, yeast - and bacteria. Price 10 cents. - - _No. 114._--Same brand as No. 33; said to be manufactured in 1907; - opened in April; not spoiled in seventy days; many molds, yeasts, - and bacteria; some green tissue, and filaments of algæ. The price - was 10 cents. - - - - -SUMMARY. - - -1. The experiments made during the season of 1907 on the manufacture -of tomato ketchup without chemical preservatives were conducted under -factory conditions and upon a commercial scale. The results prove that -such a ketchup can be made and delivered to the consumer in perfect -condition; the product in question having already stood ten months, -unopened, without showing the slightest indication of spoilage. - -2. The product is of excellent consistency, flavor, and color. The -formula employed regularly in the factory where the experiment was -conducted was used, but other recipes could be adapted without changing -the character of special brands. In the manufacture of such a product -the following precautions were observed: - -(_a_) Whole, sound, ripe tomatoes and high-grade salt, sugar, vinegar, -and spices were used; care and cleanliness were observed at every -step of the preparation, and the preservation accomplished by heat in -the following manner: The pulp was cooked in a steam kettle for about -forty minutes, until the mass was reduced to about one-half its volume. -Additional processing after bottling did not appear to be necessary to -keep the ketchup before opening, and had no effect in these experiments -in delaying spoilage after opening. - -(_b_) Ketchup was bottled directly from the cooker at a temperature -of 205° F. in bottles prepared in two ways: (1) Sterilized in a steam -chamber at 230° F.; (2) Washed in hot water, rinsed, and heated to 190° -F. in a dry heat for at least thirty minutes. Ketchup was also bottled -after the usual process of sieving at 165° F. in bottles prepared in a -similar manner. The corks for all bottles were sterilized in a paraffin -bath at 270° F. The same ketchup which was bottled at 165° F. was also -given subsequent processing at 190° F. and 212° F. for twenty and forty -minutes. All have kept without spoilage. - -3. Some of the condiments have a limited antiseptic value, but can -not be depended upon to prevent spoilage in the quantities used for -flavoring. While sugar and vinegar can be added in such amounts as -to delay the appearance of molds, and cinnamon and cloves can be -depended upon to check deterioration to some extent, these condimental -substances have only an incidental value for this purpose. - -4. The spoilage of ketchup after opening depends more upon the -temperature of the place in which it is kept than on any variation -in the manner of processing. Fresh ketchup held, after opening, at a -temperature of 95° F. kept for five days on an average without any -trace of mold appearing; at 72° it kept for six days; at 67° for eight -days; about 46° (refrigerator), fourteen days; and at from 30° to 60° -for twenty-seven days. These figures represent the time at which the -first trace of spoilage occurred in the neck of the bottle--had this -been removed the figures would be much increased--and by no means -represent the maximum time during which the ketchup could have been -used, the maximum figures, even under these conditions of observation, -varying from eight to fifty-eight days. The keeping of the ketchup -in warm storage at 70° for one hundred and fifty days before opening -hastened the average time of spoilage after opening about one day. The -advisability of using small containers, to get the best results with a -first-class ketchup, is apparent. - -5. Sodium benzoate, even when used in the proportion of 0.1 per -cent, is not always effective, and has an injurious effect upon the -living matter of the molds, shown by the distortion and swelling of -the filaments, which are filled with a coarse granular protoplasm -containing much fat. - -6. Artificially colored ketchup can be detected under the microscope -by the fact that certain tissues, normally colorless, are dyed red, or -by the presence of fine, red, amorphous particles which do not go into -solution. - -7. Ketchup made from whole ripe stock in a cleanly manner gives a clean -appearance under the microscope, but few molds, yeasts, and bacteria -being present. On the other hand, ketchup made from trimming stock, -or from tomatoes that have been allowed to spoil, contains immense -quantities of these growing organisms which may be killed in the -process of manufacture, but still give proof of the character of the -material used. Ketchup as ordinarily made from trimming stock should, -therefore, be designated, so as to differentiate it from that made from -sound fresh tomatoes, as the two products are radically different. -This exactness in labeling is due no less to the manufacturer than to -the consumer, as it is impossible to make the superior product in fair -competition with the inferior one, other conditions being equal, unless -the two are properly designated, there being naturally some difference -in the price. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - -In the text version, italics are represented by _underscores_. - -Missing or incorrect punctuation has been repaired. - -The following corrections have been made to the text:-- - - p.8. A majority of the manufacturers employ word, has been changed to - A majority of the manufacturers employ the word. - - p.28. one has has, the duplicate has been removed. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato -Ketchup, by A. W. Bitting - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPERIMENTS--SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP *** - -***** This file should be named 52867-0.txt or 52867-0.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/8/6/52867/ - -Produced by Larry B. Harrison, Chris Jordan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - diff --git a/old/52867-0.zip b/old/52867-0.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 84f4d12..0000000 --- a/old/52867-0.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52867-h.zip b/old/52867-h.zip Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 9201a0c..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h.zip +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52867-h/52867-h.htm b/old/52867-h/52867-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 58b165d..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h/52867-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2541 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" - "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=utf-8" /> - <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato Ketchup, by A. W. BITTING. - </title> - <link rel="coverpage" href="images/i_title.jpg" /> - <style type="text/css"> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2,h3,h4 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -.faux { - font-size: 0.1em; /*this font size could be anything */ - visibility: hidden; -} - -.section, -div.front, -div.chapter, -h2 { - page-break-before:always; -} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: .49em; -} - -.mt2 {margin-top: 2em;} -.mt4 {margin-top: 4em;} -.mb1 {margin-bottom: 1em} - -span.in2left {display: block; margin-left: 2em; text-align: left;} -span.in4left {display: block; margin-left: 4em; text-align: left;} -span.in2right {display: block; margin-right: 2em; text-align:right; margin-top:-1.2em;} - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.w20 {width: 20%; margin-left: 40%; margin-right: 40%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%; page-break-after:always;} - -.ph2 {font-size: 150%; font-weight: bold; margin: 2em auto; text-align: center;text-indent: 0;} - -.small {font-size: 0.90em;} -.smaller {font-size: 0.75em;} -.big {font-size: 1.2em; font-weight: bold;} -.bigger {font-size: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} - - .tdl {text-align: left;} - .tdl1 {text-align: left; text-indent: .5em;} - .tdl2 {text-align: left; text-indent: 1em;} - .tdl4 {text-align: left; text-indent: 2em;} - .tdr {text-align: right;} - .tdr2 {text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;} - .tdr3 {text-align: right; padding-right: 1.5em;} - .tdc {text-align: center;} - .vt {vertical-align: top;} - .vb {vertical-align: bottom;} - th {font-weight: normal;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; -} /* page numbers */ - -.bb {border-bottom: solid 1px;} - -.bt {border-top: solid 1px;} - -.br {border-right: solid 1px;} - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.right {text-align: right;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -.wide {letter-spacing:2em;} - -.caption {font-weight: bold;} - -/* epub */ -@media handheld { - .pagenum { - display: none; - } -.bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} - -.bt {border-top: solid 2px;} - -.br {border-right: solid 2px;} -} - -/* Images */ -img { - max-width: 100%; /* no image to be wider than screen or containing div */ - height:auto; /* keep height in proportion to width */ -} - -div.figcenter { - clear: both; - margin: 2em auto; - text-align: center; - max-width: 100%; /* div no wider than screen, even when screen is narrow */ -} - -/* Footnotes */ -.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} - -.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} - -.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: - none; -} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:smaller; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; } - </style> - </head> -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato -Ketchup, by A. W. Bitting - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato Ketchup - -Author: A. W. Bitting - -Release Date: August 21, 2016 [EBook #52867] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPERIMENTS--SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP *** - - - - -Produced by Larry B. Harrison, Chris Jordan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - -</pre> - - - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h1 class="faux"> EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP.</h1> - -<p class="right smaller"> Issued January 9, 1909.</p> - -<p class="center"> U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,<br /> - BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY—BULLETIN No. 119.<br /> -<span class="smaller">H. W. WILEY, Chief of Bureau.</span></p> - -<hr class="w20" /> - -<p class="center bigger"><b> EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPOILAGE<br /> - OF TOMATO KETCHUP.</b></p> - -<p class="center mt4 big"><span class="smaller"> BY</span><br /> - A. W. BITTING,<br /> - <span class="smaller"> INSPECTOR, BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY.</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 200px;"> -<img src="images/logo.jpg" width="200" height="200" alt="Shield of the United States Department of Agriculture" /> -</div> - -<p class="center mt2 big"> WASHINGTON:<br /> - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.<br /> - 1909. -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="LETTER_OF_TRANSMITTAL" id="LETTER_OF_TRANSMITTAL"></a>LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.</h2> - - -<p class="right"> -<span class="smcap">U. S. Department of Agriculture</span>,<br /> -<span class="smcap">Bureau of Chemistry</span>,<br /> -<span class="smaller"><i>Washington, D. C., July 15, 1908</i>.</span> -</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: I have the honor to submit for your approval a report made -by Inspector Bitting of experimental work on the spoilage of tomato -ketchup, the conditions contributing thereto, methods of prevention, -the action of preservatives, and the length of time that the product -will keep under varying conditions of manufacture and temperature, -both before and after opening. Every effort has been made to -conduct the work in a practical way, and the results obtained can -not fail to be of interest and profit both to the manufacturer and -consumer. I recommend that this report be published as Bulletin -No. 119 of the Bureau of Chemistry.</p> - -<p><span class="in2left">Respectfully,<span class="wide"> </span><span class="smcap">H. W. Wiley</span>,</span><br /> -<span class="in2right"><i>Chief</i>.</span><br /> -<br /> -<span class="in2left">Hon. <span class="smcap">James Wilson</span>,</span><br /> -<span class="in4left"><i>Secretary of Agriculture</i>.</span> -</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> - - -<div class="center"> -<table summary="TOC"> -<tr><td> </td><td class="tdr"> Page.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Introduction</td><td class="tdr vb"><a href="#INTRODUCTION">7</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Process of manufacture</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#PMAN">8</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Selection and preparation of stock </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SANDPSTOCK">9</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Pulping </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#PULPING">9</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Cooking and seasoning</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#CANDSEASON">10</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Evaporation and finishing </td> -<td class="tdr vb"><a href="#EVAP">11</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Bottling </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#BOTTLING">11</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Processing </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#PROCESSING">11</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Character of products </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#CHARACTER_OF_PRODUCTS">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> First-class products</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#FIRST-CLASS-P">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Inferior products from “trimming stock”</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#INFERIOR-P">13</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Labels </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#LABELS">14</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Manufacturing experiments without the use of preservatives</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#MANUFACTURING_EXPERIMENTS_WITHOUT_THE_USE_OF">15</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Outline of experiments </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#OUTLINE">15</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Discussion of results </td> -<td class="tdr vb"><a href="#DISCUSSION">17</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Spoilage of ketchup after opening </td> -<td class="tdr vb"><a href="#SPOILAGE">17</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Spoilage of unopened ketchup </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SPOILAGE">20</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Spoilage of market brands </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SPOILAGE2">20</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Sterility of ketchup </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#STERILITY">21</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Experiments with preservatives </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#EXPERIMENTS_WITH_PRESERVATIVES">22</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Sodium benzoate </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#NABENZ">22</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt">Salt </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SALT">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Sugar </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SUGAR">23</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt">Spices </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SPICES">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Water infusions </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#WATER">24</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Acetic acid extracts </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#ACETIC-ACID">25</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl4 vt"> Oil extracts </td> -<td class="tdr vb"><a href="#OIL">25</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt">Vinegar and acetic acid </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#VINEGAR">26</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Oil </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#OIL2">27</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Study of Penicillium in ketchup </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#STUDY_OF_PENICILLIUM_IN_KETCHUP">28</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt">Development </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#DEVELOPMENT">29</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Reproduction </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#REPRODUCTION">29</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Growth in ketchup </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#GROWTH">30</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl2 vt"> Temperature tests </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#TEMPERATURE">31</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Histological structure of ketchup</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#HISTOLOGICAL_STRUCTURE_OF_KETCHUP">33</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Microscopical examination of some commercial brands</td> -<td class="tdr vb"><a href="#MICROSCOPIC_EXAMINATION_OF_SOME_COMMERCIAL_BRANDS">34</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt">Summary </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#SUMMARY">35</a></td></tr> -</table> -</div> -<hr class="chap" /> - -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p> - - - - -<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> - - -<p class="center small"></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table summary="Table of Plates"> -<tr><td class="tdc small mb1" colspan="3"><b>PLATES.</b></td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class="tdr"> Page.</td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt"><span class="smcap">Plate</span> I. </td> -<td class="tdl vt">Penicillium.<br /> Fig. 1.—Conidia, normal growth - and in various stages of germination, some with branching - hyphæ.<br /> Fig. 2.—Conidiophore, showing unusually large - development of conidia; from culture in moist chamber </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#conidia1">28</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdr vt">II.</td> -<td class="tdl vt"> Cultures from ketchup preserved with sodium - benzoate.<br /> Fig. 1.—Conidia and hyphæ from culture in - experimental ketchup containing one-sixteenth of 1 per cent - of sodium benzoate.<br />Fig. 2.—Conidia and hyphæ from culture - in experimental ketchup containing one-tenth of 1 per cent - of sodium benzoate </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#conidia3">28</a></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="mt2 mb1" colspan="3"> </td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdc small" colspan="3"><b>TEXT FIGURES.</b></td></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl vt"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.</td> -<td class="tdl vt"> A model receiving platform </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#model">8</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr vt">2.</td> -<td class="tdl vt"> Large receiving room showing the sorting belt </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#large_rec">9</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr vt">3.</td> -<td class="tdl vt"> A section of a kitchen showing the copper cookers</td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#section">10</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr vt">4.</td> -<td class="tdl vt"> An example of factory practice </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#example">12</a></td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdr vt">5.</td> -<td class="tdl vt"> Another factory interior </td> -<td class="tdr vb"> <a href="#another">14</a></td></tr> -</table></div> - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> - - - - -<p class="ph2"><a name="EXPERIMENTS_ON_THE_SPOILAGE_OF_TOMATO_KETCHUP" id="EXPERIMENTS_ON_THE_SPOILAGE_OF_TOMATO_KETCHUP"></a> -EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP.</p> - - -<h2 class="nobreak mt2"><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h2> - - -<p>The tomato, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lycopersicum esculentum</i>, is supposed to be native to -South or Central America. The large fruits commonly used grow -only under cultivation, but the variety with small, spherical fruits, -known as <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">L. cerasiforme</i>, has been found on the shore of Peru and is -considered by De Candolle<a name="FNanchor_A" id="FNanchor_A"></a><a href="#Footnote_A" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> as belonging to the same species as -<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">L. esculentum</i>. Though grown extensively in Europe, there is nothing -to indicate that it was known there before the discovery of America. -The tomato was introduced into China and Japan at a comparatively -recent date. De Candolle is of the opinion that the tomato was -taken to Europe by the Spaniards from Peru and was later introduced -into the United States by Europeans. Tomatoes were brought to -Salem, Mass., by an Italian painter in 1802,<a name="FNanchor_B" id="FNanchor_B"></a><a href="#Footnote_B" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> who is said to have had -difficulty in convincing the people that they were edible. They were -used in New Orleans in 1812, though as late as 1835 they were sold by -the dozen in Boston. After 1840 they came into general use in the -Eastern States, but it was later than this before tomatoes were used -freely in the Western States, many persons having the impression that, -since they belonged to the nightshade family, they must be unwholesome. -The extent to which tomatoes are used at the present -time shows how completely this prejudice has been overcome.</p> - -<p>The name <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Lycopersicum</i> is from two Greek words, meaning a wolf, -and a peach, the application of these terms not being apparent; the -name of the species, <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">esculentum</i>, is from the Latin, meaning eatable. -The common name “tomato” is of South or Central American origin, -and is believed to be the term used in an ancient American dialect to -designate the plant,<a name="FNanchor_C" id="FNanchor_C"></a><a href="#Footnote_C" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> but its meaning is unknown. The English call -the tomato “love apple,” which in French is “pomme d’amour.”</p> - -<p>The tomato is considered a typical berry, the ovary wall, free from -the calyx, forming the fleshy pericarp, which incloses chambers filled -with a clear matrix containing the seeds. The fruit measures from 1 -to 5 inches in diameter, and is red, pink, or yellow when mature.</p> - -<p>The plant sports freely, producing many varieties, which differ -mainly in the size, shape, and quality of the fruit. The varieties<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> -bearing small fruits are <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">L. cerasiforme</i> and <i lang="la" xml:lang="la">L. pyriforme</i>, each bearing -a two-celled fruit, the former being round, and somewhat larger than -a cherry, and the latter pear-shaped. These small tomatoes are used -ordinarily for preserves and pickles.</p> - -<p>The word “ketchup” is adopted in this bulletin as the form which -ought to be given preference. The derivation of the term is not definitely -known. The spelling “catchup” given in some of the leading -dictionaries appears to be based on the erroneous idea that the first -syllable “ketch” is a colloquial form of “catch.” Several authorities -derive the word from the East Indian or Malayan “kitjap,” -because “ketchup” was originally a kind of East Indian pickles. -Some give the word a Chinese origin, while others assert that it comes -from the Japanese. A majority of the manufacturers employ the word -“catsup,” a spelling for which there does not appear to be any -warrant.</p> - - -<h3><a name="PMAN" id="PMAN"></a>PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE.</h3> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="model" id="model"></a><img src="images/i_008.jpg" width="600" height="374" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.—A model receiving platform.</div> -</div> - -<p>The making of tomato ketchup consists essentially in reducing -tomatoes to pulp, removing the skins, seeds, hard parts, and stems, -adding salt, sugar, condiments, and vinegar to suit the taste, and -cooking to a proper consistency. The methods and practices of the -various manufacturers differ, and the difference between the best -and the poorest procedure corresponds to that between the best and -the worst ketchup. No single factory has all of the best methods -at every step of manufacture. Some perform certain details well -and are negligent in others. In some, large amounts of money are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> -spent on equipment to improve a particular point considered advantageous -by the trade, while other details essential to the making of -a good-keeping ketchup are disregarded. A statement of the best -practice as observed at a number of factories, together with some -facts obtained from experiments, will be given.</p> - - -<h3><a name="SANDPSTOCK" id="SANDPSTOCK"></a>SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF STOCK.</h3> - -<p>The tomatoes should be home-grown, of a red variety having the -minimum of yellow and purple color, be picked when ripe, and delivered -to the factory promptly without mashing. All tomatoes should -pass over an inspection table, the rotten and otherwise unfit fruit -should be discarded, and the green tomatoes should be returned to -crates to ripen. The stems should be removed when the best color -is desired, and the tomatoes should be thoroughly washed to remove -dirt and mold. Dumping a crate of tomatoes into a hopper of dirty -water and playing a gentle spray of water on part of them merely -wets the skin and makes them appear bright.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="large_rec" id="large_rec"></a> -<img src="images/i_009.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Large receiving room showing the sorting belt.</div> -</div> - - -<h3><a name="PULPING" id="PULPING"></a>PULPING.</h3> - -<p>The clean tomatoes should be conveyed to the steaming tanks -and subjected to steam heat until the skins burst and the meat -softens. After a short heating the tomatoes should be run through -a “cyclone” where the skins, seeds, etc., are removed and they are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> -rubbed to a pulp. To remove very small particles and fiber, the -pulp may be run through a sieving machine at once; or, if ketchup -of the smoothest possible kind is to be made, this procedure should -be delayed until after the cooking. The pulp is collected in a receiving -vat, and only such an amount should be provided in advance as -will keep the kettles full, as it is better to stop the tomatoes before -going to the washer than to have the pulp stand for some hours. -In common practice, however, the pulp is either sent to the cooker -at once, or it is allowed to stand and partially separate. If tall -casks are used for this separation the solids will rise to the top -and the clear watery portion is drawn off at the bottom, or the -pulp may be strained through cloth bags. The object of this separation -is to secure greater concentration of the solids, retain a -brighter color, and shorten the time of cooking.</p> - - -<h3><a name="CANDSEASON" id="CANDSEASON"></a>COOKING AND SEASONING.</h3> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="section" id="section"></a><img src="images/i_010.jpg" width="600" height="396" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—A section of a kitchen showing the copper cookers.</div> -</div> - -<p>The cooking may be done in copper kettles, as shown in figure 3, -though these are being superseded by enamel tanks containing silver-plated -coils in order to secure the brightest color. By using the -latter the discoloration due to the splashing of the contents against -the walls of the copper vessel is avoided, and economy of space is -secured. Whole or ground spices, or acetic acid or oil extracts of the -spices may be added to the pulp in such proportion as the particular -brand demands. The spices most used are cloves, cinnamon, mace, -and cayenne pepper; but paprika, pepper, mustard, cardamon,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> -coriander, ginger, celery, and allspice are used by some manufacturers. -When whole spices are used, it is the practice to suspend -them in a cloth bag or a wire basket and to take them out after -boiling. They tend to darken the color of the ketchup, a result -considered undesirable by some. The ground spices are used sparingly, -with the exception of cayenne pepper. The acetic acid extracts -of spices are used because they are economical and give a brighter -red color than is obtained with the whole spice. The oil extracts -produce no discoloration, but they are the most expensive and give -an objectionable flavor. Hungarian sweet paprika is now quite -largely used and adds to the color as well as to the flavor. Sugar, -salt, and vinegar are added in such proportion as may be desired, -and in some brands onions and garlic are used.</p> - - -<h3><a name="EVAP" id="EVAP"></a>EVAPORATION AND FINISHING.</h3> - -<p>The pulp is evaporated rapidly to such consistency as the grade -and price will warrant, the reduction in volume being from 40 to 60 -per cent. This is accomplished in about forty-five minutes. The -cooking is not continued longer than is necessary, as each minute -added to the cooking darkens the finished product.</p> - -<p>If the pulp has been run through the sieving machine before cooking, -the batch may be drawn off into the receiving tank for bottling. -If the finishing be done after cooking, the pulp is run into a receiving -vat, finished as quickly as possible, and drawn into the tank for -bottling. The ketchup may be kept at a high temperature—200° to -206° F.—in the receiving tank by means of a small steam coil, or it -may be drawn to the bottling machine through a steam-jacketed tube. -Finishing after cooking yields a slightly smoother ketchup than -sieving before cooking; but it necessitates handling, reduces the -temperature, and increases the chances of infection.</p> - - -<h3><a name="BOTTLING" id="BOTTLING"></a>BOTTLING.</h3> - -<p>The bottles should be thoroughly cleaned as ketchup will not -keep if placed in bottles which have been merely rinsed to remove -the straw; if the ketchup is not to be given an after process the -containers should be sterilized. In the experimental work cork -stoppers gave the best results and these should be sterilized in a -paraffin bath at 250° F.</p> - - -<h3><a name="PROCESSING" id="PROCESSING"></a>PROCESSING.</h3> - -<p>An after treatment or process is given to bottled goods either in -a water or steam bath, the important point being that the center -of the bottle be raised to the desired degree of heat. If the -ketchup is thin this can be effected quickly, but if it is thick and -heavy the heat penetrates the ketchup with surprising slowness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> -In a thin ketchup the temperature may be raised from 140° to -190° F. in eighteen minutes or less when the surrounding heat is -195° F; but in a heavy ketchup it may take an hour or more to -accomplish the same result. It is therefore very important that -the ketchup be processed immediately after it is corked, before it -has time to cool. The rate at which the heating is effected for -different goods can be determined by sealing a thermometer in -the cork and recording the readings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="example" id="example"></a><img src="images/i_012.jpg" width="600" height="538" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—An example of factory practice showing the top row of tanks from which pulp passes by -gravity into the cookers, then into the receiver, sieving machine, and final tub ready for the bottling -machine or jug filler.</div> -</div> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="CHARACTER_OF_PRODUCTS" id="CHARACTER_OF_PRODUCTS"></a>CHARACTER OF PRODUCTS.</h2> - - -<h3><a name="FIRST-CLASS-P" id="FIRST-CLASS-P"></a>FIRST-CLASS PRODUCTS.</h3> - -<p>The factory at which the experiments were conducted has sanitary -buildings and surroundings, the floors are of concrete for flushing, -and the pipes used in conducting the pulp to the kitchens are porcelain-lined -to prevent discoloration from the iron and to insure -cleanliness. The tubes which carry the ketchup from the kettles -to the receiving tank, finishing machine, and bottler are silver-plated.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> -Not all of these measures are necessary to make a good ketchup, but -they show the care exercised in making an article of good appearance -and of the finest quality.</p> - -<p>The conditions under which ketchup is made and the care with -which the work is done at some of the better factories is equal to -that used in the manufacture of any food product. Whole selected -fruit is used, cleanliness is maintained at every point, the best grades -of spices, vinegar, granulated sugar, and salt are added for flavoring, -and the bottles are carefully washed. The ketchup put up under -such conditions will have a bright natural color, will remain good as -long as the container is unbroken, and will continue in that condition -for some time after opening if kept at a fairly cool temperature.</p> - - -<h3><a name="INFERIOR-P" id="INFERIOR-P"></a>INFERIOR PRODUCTS FROM “TRIMMING STOCK.”</h3> - -<p>In contrast with the strictly high-grade product is the great bulk -of the ketchup found on the market. The material is not whole -ripe tomatoes, but consists of the waste of the canning factory, -commonly designated as “trimming stock,” including the green, -moldy, broken, rotten, and generally unusable tomatoes, the skins, -cores, and stems from the peeling tables, and the surplus juice from -the filling machines, all of which may be allowed to stand during the -day and be run through the cyclone in the evening. At the end of the -season, the frosted and half-ripe fruits may be used. Part of this -material can not be considered “sound fruit” as contemplated by the -food and drugs act. The pulp is put up in barrels, preserved, and -allowed to stand, possibly in the sun, until a sufficient quantity has -accumulated for shipment. Old ketchup barrels may be used and -be none too clean. As a result, it is not uncommon to see an inch or -more of pulp in the bottom of a car at the end of shipment, caused -by the blowing out of the barrel heads from fermentation. The -sanitary condition of the factory may be poor, the handling of the -goods be unclean, the spices be the refuse from the spice houses, -the sugar be of the cheapest grade, and the bottles be only rinsed or -be used without even that precaution. The ketchup is a concoction -so heavily spiced with hot spices that the tomato flavor is lost and -might as well be anything else. The color is normally dirty brown.</p> - -<p>Between these two extremes are all grades, those for which whole -tomatoes, unsorted, are used, those for which trimming stock is -worked up promptly during the canning season, and those made -from stock of unknown history. Some manufacturers work under -good and some under poor sanitary conditions. There can be no -doubt that with proper selection and precaution much of the by-product -of the canning factory and large quantities of tomatoes -which are unsuitable for canning might be used to advantage in the -manufacture of ketchup; but it requires a nicety of practice not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> -generally found at this time. The practice sometimes followed of -making some ketchup from whole stock and a large quantity from -refuse and using the former for advertising purposes, only serves to -emphasize the fact that the goods belong to two distinct classes. One -of the uses for a very considerable amount of pulp from refuse stock -is the making of sauce for baked beans and other canned goods -where the true character can not be observed by the consumer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="another" id="another"></a><img src="images/i_014.jpg" width="600" height="472" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Another factory interior, showing large pulp tanks in the rear, cooking tanks on the right, -and process tanks in front containing thousands of bottles of ketchup.</div> -</div> - -<p>During the season tomatoes come in at times in larger quantities -than can be made into ketchup promptly. The surplus must be -worked up into pulp for storage and may be stored in barrels or in -tin cans. The pulp stored in barrels will not have as good a color as -that put into cans, and the ketchup made from either will not be as -bright as that made from whole, fresh stock. The pulp put up in -barrels is more liable to spoilage than that put up in cans. The -difference in the cost of storage by the two methods is not very -great, and some large concerns are using the can exclusively instead -of the barrel.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="LABELS" id="LABELS"></a>LABELS.</h2> - - -<p>The labels on the ketchup bottles have been improved somewhat -in the last year as regards exactness in describing the contents. Formerly, -according to the labels, much of the ketchup was made from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> -whole ripe tomatoes. The question was, What became of the -enormous amount of ketchup which it was known had been made -from “trimmings?” On this year’s ketchup the labels make fewer -claims, generally merely stating that it is “tomato ketchup,” which -is true whether made from whole tomatoes or refuse. The brand is -in most cases the guaranty for good quality. It is not safe to judge -the quality by the price, for, though usually good quality can not be -expected unless the higher price is paid, some of the high-priced -ketchup when placed under the microscope has proven to be a very -inferior product.</p> - -<p>The wide labels on the neck of the bottle are objectionable. Some -of these are 2 inches in height, and serve to cover the discolored and -spoiled ketchup. As spoilage begins usually in the neck of the -bottle, it is difficult to see it when the neck is wrapped with a label, -and thus it might easily be overlooked until the main body of the -ketchup is affected. The bottles which have the widest labels -around the neck are usually the ones provided with one or two large -labels on the lower part of the bottle, though some bottles have no -other label but the one around the neck. As a rule, however, these -are narrow, close to the stopper, and unobjectionable.</p> - -<p>In buying ketchup for experimental purposes it was difficult and -sometimes impossible to learn its age, as often the grocer does not -know it, and at other times he will not tell. It appeared, however, -that often the ketchup had been on the grocer’s shelf or in the warehouse -from one to four years.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="MANUFACTURING_EXPERIMENTS_WITHOUT_THE_USE_OF" id="MANUFACTURING_EXPERIMENTS_WITHOUT_THE_USE_OF"></a> -MANUFACTURING EXPERIMENTS WITHOUT THE USE OF -PRESERVATIVES.</h2> - - -<h3><a name="OUTLINE" id="OUTLINE"></a>OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTS.</h3> - -<p>During September, 1907, ketchup was made in experimental -batches to determine whether it could be manufactured on a commercial -scale without the use of preservatives. These experiments -were made to determine (1) the keeping quality before opening the -container and (2) the length of time the product will keep without -spoilage after the bottle is opened.</p> - -<p>The ketchup was made in a factory in which the conditions of -manufacture and all the surroundings were sanitary; whole, ripe -tomatoes, the same as used in the regular grade of canned goods, -were used and the formula and process were for a mild ketchup -giving the maximum of tomato flavor. Each batch consisted of 50 -gallons of finished goods, from which 1 gross of pint bottles was -retained for observation.</p> - -<p>The term “regular ketchup” as used in these experiments means -the pulp of fully ripe tomatoes, to which was added granulated<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> -sugar, 80-grain, distilled vinegar, table salt, onions, garlic, whole -cinnamon, cloves, mace, and ground cayenne pepper. The pulp -was cooked in a steam-jacketed copper kettle for forty minutes and -reduced about 50 per cent. The finishing was done after cooking. -The regular bottles are pint sizes, washed in hot water, rinsed, and -then heated to a temperature of 190° F. for thirty minutes or more. -The sterile bottles referred to in the experiments were placed in a -steam chamber for twenty minutes at 230° F. The corks were -sterilized by a bath in paraffin at about 270° F. All of the work -was accomplished quickly to insure a smooth, even product with a -bright, clean color. Acetic acid extracts and oil extracts of spices -were used in such quantities as would give the same amount of -spicing as when the whole spices were employed.</p> - -<p>In all of the following experiments the ketchups discussed were -made in September, 1907, and the last examination reported was -made ten months later, in July, 1908:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 1.</i>—Regular ketchup was made, but it was reheated after finishing -and bottled in sterile bottles at a temperature of 205° F. No spoilage has occurred -at the end of ten months.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 2.</i>—Regular ketchup was made, and it was bottled immediately -after finishing in regular bottles at a temperature of 165° F. An after process was -given at 190° F. for twenty minutes. No spoilage has occurred after ten months.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 3.</i>—Regular ketchup was made, and was bottled in regular bottles -at 165° F., and given a subsequent process at 190° F. for forty minutes. No spoilage -has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 4.</i>—Regular ketchup was made, was bottled in regular bottles at a -temperature of 165° F., and given an after process at 212° F. for twenty minutes. No -spoilage has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 5.</i>—Regular ketchup was made, the same being put up in regular -bottles at a temperature of 165° F. and given an after process at 212° F. for forty minutes. -No spoilage has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 6.</i>—Ketchup was made in which the acetic acid extracts took the -place of whole spices, and the bottling was done at a temperature of 165° F., no after -treatment being given. No spoilage has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 7.</i>—Ketchup was made in which acetic acid extracts were used, -and the bottling was done at a temperature of 165° F. in sterile bottles. No after -treatment was given and no spoilage has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 8.</i>—Ketchup was made in which the oil extracts were used instead -of regular spices. The bottling was done in regular bottles at a temperature of 165° F., -no after treatment being given. No spoilage has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 9.</i>—Ketchup was made in which oil extracts were used instead of -whole spices. The bottling was done at 165° F. in sterile bottles, no after treatment -being given. No spoilage has occurred.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 10.</i>—Regular ketchup was made, but the pulp was run through -the sieving or finishing machine before instead of after cooking, the object being to -determine the effect upon the character of the goods rather than upon the spoilage. -This practice could be followed to advantage in making all except the very finest -goods, and would give the same condition for bottling as in experiment No. 1.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 11.</i>—Pulp was made in the usual manner and run into barrels -while just below the boiling point. The barrels had been thoroughly washed and then -steamed for twenty minutes. As soon as the pulp had cooled slightly the bung was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> -driven in tightly and the barrel was rolled into storage. At the end of sixty days the -barrels were opened and the pulp was found to be in good condition.</p> - -<p><i>Experiment No. 12.</i>—Regular ketchup was drawn into 5-gallon jugs which had been -sterilized in the same manner as the bottles. These were kept for sixty days and no -spoilage occurred.</p></blockquote> - - -<h3><a name="DISCUSSION" id="DISCUSSION"></a>DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.</h3> - -<p>Twelve hundred and ninety-six bottles were shipped from Terre -Haute to Lafayette, Ind., and some were reshipped in order to duplicate -the conditions in trade. Some were kept in a warm temperature -and in strong light, others in a comparatively cool place and in the -original shipping cases, in order to duplicate the conditions in the -warehouse and grocery store. There has been no spoilage after ten -months other than that resulting from four or five cork leaks and -neck cracks. These experiments have shown conclusively that -ketchup can be put up on a commercial scale and delivered to the -consumer in perfect condition without the use of a preservative.</p> - -<p>It was demonstrated by the first experiment that the goods could -be bottled at a high temperature without difficulty, and that subsequent -treatment was unnecessary. The after treatment at 190° was -tried because it had been found in small experiments that, in giving -a higher temperature, the internal pressure would cause more or less -breakage of bottles or loosening of corks. After treatment is practiced -by some who also use a small quantity of preservative as a -further precaution. This treatment is continued from two to three -hours at the temperature of high pasteurization.</p> - -<p>The process at 212° was given with little breakage, as the bottles -used were of good quality. At and above this temperature the -breakage may be reduced by either raising the temperature of the -ketchup before bottling or applying pressure upon the outside while -giving the process.</p> - -<p>Neither the acetic acid nor the oil extracts showed any advantage -over whole spices in their preservative effects, as all kept. The color -was slightly improved, but the flavor was impaired, particularly when -the oil extracts were used.</p> - - -<h4><a name="SPOILAGE" id="SPOILAGE"></a>SPOILAGE OF KETCHUP AFTER OPENING.</h4> - -<p>The question of how long the ketchup should keep after opening -the container in order to satisfy the ordinary requirements of consumption -was also studied. A local restaurant, serving about two -hundred meals and using from one-half to a gallon of ketchup daily, -was supplied with the same kind of ketchup used in the experiments, -as were also some families. Instructions were given to use the -ketchup as they would ordinarily, with the result that none reported -any loss from spoilage.</p> - -<p>To determine how long the ketchup would keep after opening, 8 -bottles from each of the first 9 experiments were kept in the kitchen<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> -at a temperature of about 72° F., 5 were kept in an incubator at a -temperature of 95° F., 5 were kept in the laboratory at a temperature -of about 67° F., and 4 were kept in an inclosed porch where -the temperature ranged from 30° to 60° F. This made a total of -198 bottles. No precautions, other than those of ordinary cleanliness, -were taken in opening the bottles, as it was desired to determine -the keeping properties under conditions of general usage. The -first set of bottles was opened November 5, immediately on being -received at the laboratory, all of the ketchup having been kept at -the factory until the experiment begun in September was completed. -The bottles were covered loosely with a metal cap and observed daily, -a record being kept of the date and character of spoilage.</p> - -<p>The results showed that the differences in the time and temperature -of processing had little, if any, effect in checking the spoilage; neither -did the use of acetic acid or oil extracts. The most important precaution -in checking the spoilage after opening seems to be to keep -the ketchup cool. This is shown by the average number of days -which elapsed before spoilage occurred in the sets kept under different -temperature conditions. For those kept in the kitchen the average -number of days was six, the minimum three, and the maximum -eleven. Those in the incubator kept for an average of five days, with -a minimum of two days, and a maximum of eight. Those in the -laboratory had an average of eight days, the minimum being four -days and the maximum twenty-two. Those kept in the porch lasted -on an average twenty-seven days, a minimum of twelve days, and a -maximum of fifty-eight.</p> - -<p>These figures show the definite relation of temperature to spoilage -under the conditions of ordinary use. In making the observations, -the metal cap was removed each day, but no ketchup was poured off. -The spoilage in all cases was due to mold, and usually this formed in -the neck of the bottle where the ketchup had splashed, or at the -junction of the ketchup with the bottle. The spoilage was recorded -as soon as the slightest growth appeared. In actual use if the neck -were wiped out when the ketchup had been used and a growth of -mold removed on its first appearance with some of the proximate -ketchup the time before spoilage occurred could be prolonged. In -these experiments the attempt was made to determine how soon -growth appeared under the various conditions of temperature named.</p> - -<p>The unopened bottles of ketchup were kept in a basement room, -the temperature of which is fairly constant, being about 70° F. -This is approximately the condition in a grocery where the ketchup is -kept on the shelves. Another set of samples from the run of September, -1907, was opened February 11, 1908, to determine if storing -in a warm room before opening had any effect on the length of time -preceding spoilage. Four bottles were taken from each of the first 9 -experiments to make up each of three sets, one of which was kept in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> -the kitchen, one in the incubator, and one in the porch, making a -total of 108 bottles. The average number of days for those kept in -the incubator was four, the minimum two, and the maximum six. -The average number of days before spoilage in the kitchen was five, -the minimum being three and the maximum nine. Those kept in -the porch gave an average of twenty-three days, the minimum number -being eighteen days and the maximum seventy-three days. -Thus it is seen that the ketchup lasted nearly five times as long at a -temperature of 30° to 60° F. as it did at 72°; and also that when -ketchup is kept in a warm place before opening, spoilage occurs -somewhat sooner, the average for the fresh samples opened under -the same conditions being one day more with the incubator and -kitchen samples and four days more with the porch samples.</p> - -<p>A third set of bottles of the ketchup was opened on June 6, 1908, -or two hundred and sixty-five days after manufacture. They had -been kept in a basement at a temperature of about 70° F.</p> - -<p>One set was placed in the incubator at a temperature of 95° F., one -set in the kitchen at about 82° F., and one set in the refrigerator at -46° F. The weather was warm and the conditions favorable to the -spoilage of fresh foods. The minimum time for spoilage in the incubator -was two days, the maximum time four days, and the average -time three and two-tenths days. The minimum time in the kitchen -was two days, the maximum time six days, and the average time -four and four-tenths days. The minimum time in the refrigerator -was nine days, the maximum time nineteen days, and the average -time thirteen and sixty-six one-hundredths days.</p> - -<p>These data are grouped in the following table for easier comparison:</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Time of spoilage of ketchup at different temperatures after opening.</i></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table summary="Time of spoilage of ketchup at different temperatures after opening"> -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">OPENED ON NOVEMBER 5, 1907, IMMEDIATELY UPON RECEIPT FROM FACTORY; -MAXIMUM AGE, FIVE WEEKS.</span></th></tr> -<tr><th class="bb br" rowspan="2">Place of storage.</th> -<th class="bb br" rowspan="2"> Temperature.</th> -<th class="bb" colspan="3">Lapse of time before spoilage.</th></tr> -<tr><th class="bb br">Average.</th><th class="bb br"> Minimum.</th> - <th class="bb">Maximum.</th></tr> -<tr><th class="br"> </th> <th class="br"> <i>° F.</i></th><th class="br"> <i>Days.</i></th> - <th class="br"> <i>Days.</i></th> <th> <i>Days.</i></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Incubator</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 95</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 5 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br">2 </td><td class="tdr2"> 8</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Kitchen</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 72 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 6 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 3 </td><td class="tdr2"> 11</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Laboratory </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 67 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 8</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 4 </td><td class="tdr2"> 22</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br bb">Porch</td><td class="tdr2 br bb">30-60 </td><td class="tdr2 br bb"> 27</td> - <td class="tdr2 br bb"> 12</td><td class="tdr2 bb"> 58</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="5"> </td></tr> -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">KEPT AT 70° F. FOR ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY DAYS BEFORE OPENING ON -FEBRUARY 11.</span></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Incubator </td><td class="tdr2 br">95 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br">4 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 2</td> - <td class="tdr2"> 6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Kitchen</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 72</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 5</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 3 </td> - <td class="tdr2"> 9</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br bb">Porch </td><td class="tdr2 br bb"> 30-60</td> - <td class="tdr2 br bb"> 23 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br bb"> 18</td><td class="tdr2 bb"> 73</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="5"> </td></tr> -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">KEPT AT 70° F. FOR TWO HUNDRED AND SIXTY-FIVE DAYS BEFORE OPENING ON -JUNE 6.</span></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Incubator</td> -<td class="tdr2 br"> 95 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 3.2 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 2 </td><td class="tdr2"> 4</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">Kitchen</td> -<td class="tdr2 br"> 82 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 4.4</td><td class="tdr2 br "> 2 </td><td class="tdr2">6</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br bb">Refrigerator</td> -<td class="tdr2 br bb"> 46 </td><td class="tdr2 br bb"> 13.66 </td> -<td class="tdr2 bb br"> 9</td><td class="tdr2 bb"> 19</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> - - -<h4><a name="SPOILAGE2" id="SPOILAGE2"></a>SPOILAGE OF UNOPENED KETCHUP.</h4> - -<p>Another test was made to determine whether the ketchup would -spoil when kept in a warm place, but not opened. Three bottles -from each experimental batch were placed in the incubator November -7, 1907, and were kept there until December 23, 1907—forty-six -days—and in that time there was no sign of spoilage. They were -then opened and kept in the laboratory; the average number of -days before spoilage occurred is indicated in the following table:</p> - - -<p class="center"><i>Average number of days before spoilage of ketchup after opening (kept 46 days at 95° -before opening).</i></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table summary=" days before spoilage of ketchup after opening"> -<tr><th class="bb bt br">Experiment No.</th> -<th class="bb bt"> Days before spoilage.</th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">1</td><td class="tdr2">2⅔</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">2</td><td class="tdr2">4⅔</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">3</td><td class="tdr2">3⅓</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">4</td><td class="tdr3">5</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">5</td><td class="tdr2">5⅓</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">6</td><td class="tdr2">4⅓</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">7</td><td class="tdr2">4⅓</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">8</td><td class="tdr2">4⅓</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br bb">9</td><td class="tdr2 bb">3⅔</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>It will be observed that these samples spoiled in about the same -length of time as the bottles opened in February and tested in the -incubator, so that similar results were obtained by keeping unopened -ketchup one and one-half months at 95° F. and keeping it five -months at 70° F. From the results of the experiments it is evident -that the ingredients of the ketchup in the proportions used are not -antiseptic, and it is also apparent from the number of organisms -found and the rapidity of their multiplication that ketchup is a good, -nutritive medium. Yeasts and molds are the predominating organisms, -and, as the ketchup is acid and also contains sugar, and these -organisms are found on tomatoes in the field, their predominance in -the ketchup is explained.</p> - - -<h4><a name="SPOILAGE3" id="SPOILAGE3"></a>SPOILAGE OF MARKET BRANDS.</h4> - -<p>To determine the keeping properties of the ketchup on the market, -various brands were obtained from the grocery stores. In the -majority of cases nothing was known of the ingredients or methods -of manufacture, except what appeared on the labels. No date of -manufacture was given, and in some cases the dealers did not know -the age of the product.</p> - -<p>There were 104 bottles of ketchup opened to find out how long they -would remain in good condition. These were kept in the laboratory, -though the temperature was higher than that at which ketchup -should be held. Of the 104 bottles there were 66 without preservative, -according to the labels, 46 of which spoiled. Of the 20 which did not -spoil, 2 formed crystals of benzoic acid on the covers of glass dishes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> -during evaporation. Of the 39 which, according to the labels, contained -sodium benzoate, 15 spoiled. The bottles of unspoiled ketchup -after remaining in the laboratory for about a month were placed in the -incubator at 95° F. for three weeks, and were then taken out, and -have been left in the laboratory since. The metal cap had been taken -off frequently for observation, and the ketchup exposed, but the -treatment did not cause them to spoil.</p> - -<p>The average number of days after which spoilage occurred for the -46 bottles without preservative was about fifteen, the minimum -number being four days, the maximum number ninety-four days. -The average number of days preceding spoilage in the case of 15 bottles -with preservative was twenty-four days, the minimum number -being three and the maximum sixty days. The majority of these had -0.1 per cent of sodium benzoate present; the others had a smaller -amount, according to the manufacturer’s label. These data are -not at all conclusive and further work on material of known history -will be necessary.</p> - - -<h4><a name="STERILITY" id="STERILITY"></a>STERILITY OF KETCHUP.</h4> - -<p>To determine the sterility of ketchup, cultures were made from 77 -of the bottles. The method used was to wipe the bottles and cork -stoppers with a damp towel and then remove the cork. The cork -puller which was used grasps the neck of the bottle in such a way as to -cover the opening and remove the cork without the inrush of air that -occurs when the ordinary corkscrew is used. A flame was then passed -over the mouth of the bottle, after which the upper layer of ketchup -was poured out, so as to discard any material which might have been -contaminated in handling. Tomato gelatin was used as a medium and -cultures were made in petri dishes.</p> - -<p>There were 17 plates on which no organisms developed, indicating -that the ketchup was sterile. Of the 60 plates having organisms, 54 -had molds, 22 of these having molds alone; 21 plates had yeast-like -organisms, 3 plates having these only; 29 plates had bacteria, 4 having -bacteria alone. Sometimes a plate would have only one form of -organism, but more often there was a mixture present. Of 15 plates -having only one form of organism, 3 had yeast alone, 2 bacteria alone, -and 10 had mold alone. Of the 77 bottles of ketchup from which the -inoculations were made, 41 were without and 36 with preservative, and -of the 17 sterile ketchups, 8 contained sodium benzoate and 9 were -without preservative.</p> - -<p>A considerable part of the experimental ketchup proved not -to be sterile. The organisms present were of the class which -require oxygen for their growth and therefore they had only been -arrested in their activity. No growth could take place so long as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> -the air was excluded and therefore no spoilage could occur. When -the cork was drawn, the organisms could grow and cause spoilage, -and this is a much more potent factor than the entrance of germs -from without. Bottling and sealing the ketchup quickly while -hot so completely excludes the air that only a few colonies of -yeast or mold may be found on subsequent microscopical examination. -Filling at a low temperature and corking while cool -allows sufficient air to remain incorporated in the ketchup and -neck of the bottle to permit a considerable growth of the organisms -and a product derived from good stock may thus acquire the -appearance of ketchup derived from partially decayed material. -A ketchup in which bubbles of air are incorporated in filling may -show a growth of mold at each bubble throughout the mass. -The foregoing statements apply to ketchup containing sodium -benzoate as well as to the non-preservative goods of the character -used in these experiments.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="EXPERIMENTS_WITH_PRESERVATIVES" id="EXPERIMENTS_WITH_PRESERVATIVES"></a> -EXPERIMENTS WITH PRESERVATIVES.</h2> - - -<h3><a name="NABENZ" id="NABENZ"></a>SODIUM BENZOATE.</h3> - -<p>The preservative in general use in ketchup is sodium benzoate. -Salicylic acid is used, but only to a limited extent. The amount of -sodium benzoate used, according to the labels, varies from one-sixteenth -to one-tenth of 1 per cent; but on some labels the amount -is not stated. Experiments were made to determine the amount -necessary to check the spoilage of ketchup.</p> - -<p>Two organisms, a mold and a yeast, were selected on which to make -the tests. The mold was the ordinary blue mold, Penicillium, which -was present in many of the brands of ketchup and is found commonly -on acid foods. It was selected on account of its prevalence and -resistive power. The yeast was obtained from ketchup and was also -a vigorous grower, forming a thick, wrinkled film on various media. -Any effect on the growth of the yeast could be seen readily in its -manner of forming the film.</p> - -<p>Portions of tomato gelatin to which 0.1, 0.5, 1, and 2 per cent, respectively, -of sodium benzoate were added, were first inoculated with -the mold. There was no development in those containing 1 and 2 -per cent; a retarded development resulted in that containing 0.5 per -cent, and the growth when 0.1 per cent was used was nearly normal, -showing very little difference from that in the gelatin without sodium -benzoate.</p> - -<p>Ketchup was next tried as a medium, but the amount of benzoate -was reduced to one-sixteenth, one-twelfth, and one-tenth of 1 per cent, -as it was thought that some of the other constituents of the ketchup -were antiseptic to a slight degree. The growth in the ketchup was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> -irregular, though the benzoate checked development in all. Equal -amounts of benzoate were used in tomato bouillon, with practically -the same results as in the ketchup. The development was checked -in all, and in some plates one-sixteenth of 1 per cent seemed to be -fully as efficacious as one-tenth of 1 per cent. When the mold was -examined under the microscope, the filaments were found to be much -swollen and distorted in shape, and filled with a coarsely granular -protoplasm, containing much fat, as indicated by the blackening with -osmic acid. The culture containing the mold which gave the least -development seemed to show the least distortion and swelling of the -filaments.</p> - -<p>The results indicated that in using sodium benzoate as a preservative -there is uncertainty as to results, even when using the maximum -amount allowed—one-tenth of 1 per cent. They also indicated that -this preservative had an injurious effect on the living matter of the -mold. (See Pl. II; compare with normal growth, Pl. I.)</p> - - -<h3><a name="SALT" id="SALT"></a>SALT.</h3> - -<p>The effect of salt in checking development was tested by using -tomato bouillon as a medium and adding 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 -grams of salt, respectively, to 100 cc. These were inoculated with the -mold. The 5-gram solution seemed to have no effect on development. -When 10 grams were used growth appeared as soon as in the bouillon -without salt, but was not so extensive. In the 15-gram solution -growth was retarded four days, and most of that which did develop -remained submerged, the mold growing normally on the surface. -With 20 grams the growth was five days slower than the normal in -starting, and after that there was only a slight development. In the -25-gram solution, the growth started at the same time as when 20 -grams were employed, but remained stationary, while with the 30-gram -solution, no development occurred.</p> - -<p>The yeast was checked slightly by 5 grams, and very materially by -the 10-gram solution, as it required two days for a thin, delicate film -to form, whereas in ordinary solutions a rather thick film is formed -within twenty-four hours or even in less time. There was no development -in the 15-gram solution.</p> - - -<h3><a name="SUGAR" id="SUGAR"></a>SUGAR.</h3> - -<p>The effect of sugar was tested on both the mold and the yeast by -adding it to tomato bouillon. It was supposed that a low percentage -of sugar like the salt would plasmolyze the cells, and in this way check -growth, but it seemed to have no effect until the amount was increased -to 25 grams per 100 cc of bouillon. In this solution growth appeared -as soon as with the weaker solutions, but there was a smaller amount. -In the 25 to 40 gram solutions there was less development as the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> -amount of sugar increased. In the 70 and 75 gram solutions growth -was delayed one day in its appearance. In the 80, 85, and 90 gram -solutions growth was delayed two days, the colonies growing submerged -at first, but after a time forming on the surface. The mycelium -remained very thin, but a thick layer of spores formed. From -this point on the amounts were increased by 10 grams up to 200. The -development became slower and less successively until 170 grams -were added. In this case a small colony appeared on the surface in -seven days, but seemed to grow less after that. The solutions were -held, and in time crystals separated from the thick sirups. After two -months dry-looking colonies developed along the edges, forming a -ring, and some formed on the surface, these occurring also in the -flasks containing 170, 180, 190, and 200 grams of sugar per 100 cc. -The colonies were a dull greenish drab in spots, the remainder being -white.</p> - -<p>For the yeast the 80-gram solution of sugar was the strongest in -which any development took place.</p> - - -<h3><a name="SPICES" id="SPICES"></a>SPICES.</h3> - -<p>Experiments to determine the value of the spices as antiseptics -were made, using water infusions, acetic-acid extracts, and oil -extracts.</p> - - -<h4><a name="WATER" id="WATER"></a>WATER INFUSIONS.</h4> - -<p>In making the water infusions 20 grams of the whole spices, with -200 cc of water, were boiled for forty-five minutes. This is approximately -the length of time that the spices are cooked in the ketchup in -the factory. The liquid was then filtered and from 0.1 to 5 cc of the -filtrate was used in 10 cc of tomato bouillon. The same organisms -were used as in the former experiments.</p> - -<p>The tests showed that cinnamon and cloves were the strongest antiseptically. -These checked growth when used in small amounts, but -it required 3 cc of the cinnamon and 1 cc of the cloves to inhibit the -growth of the mold. Mustard, paprika, and cayenne pepper checked -growth also, but 5 cc, the highest strength used, did not inhibit -growth. The ginger, mace, and black pepper had no apparent effect -in the quantities used.</p> - -<p>The effect of the spices on the development of the yeast was somewhat -different from their effect on Penicillium. The cinnamon -showed the strongest action, 3 cc being effective, whereas 5 cc of the -cloves was required. The cayenne pepper came next in effectiveness, -and after that the black pepper. The ginger, mace, and mustard -solutions had no effect in the strengths used.</p> - -<p>The remainder of the spice infusions were kept in glass-stoppered -bottles in the laboratory, and in a few weeks’ time there was a coating -of mold formed over the surface of the mace, the mustard, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> -the black and cayenne peppers. The paprika had small, stunted colonies -dotting the surface.</p> - -<p>At the time that these experiments were made a quantity of the -ground spices were placed in large petri dishes and water was added -to make a heavy paste. One set of these was inoculated with the -mold, and another set with the yeast, and all were kept in a warm -place. No development of either organism appeared on the cinnamon, -cloves, or mustard; on the others a growth first showed in three -days. On a normal medium growth appears in twenty-four hours. -On the mace, paprika, and cayenne pepper the Penicillium and yeast -with which the pastes were inoculated were overgrown in a few days -with black mold (<i lang="la" xml:lang="la">Rhizopus nigricans</i>).</p> - - -<h4><a name="ACETIC-ACID" id="ACETIC-ACID"></a>ACETIC-ACID EXTRACTS.</h4> - -<p>In the manufacture of ketchup acetic-acid extracts of the spices -are sometimes used instead of the whole spices, on account of their -supposed antiseptic properties as well as their greater strength and -convenience in handling. One minim of the standard acetic-acid -extracts is equal in strength to 1 grain of the whole spices. The acid -extracts obtained included allspice, celery, cloves, coriander, garlic, -and black pepper.</p> - -<p>In the tests 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, and 1 cc, respectively, of the -extract was added to 10 cc of tomato bouillon. One set was inoculated -with the mold and another set with the yeast. In the case of the -mold, no growth occurred with the allspice and cloves; the celery -checked the growth materially, there being no indication of mold -until the sixth day. Normally a fairly strong growth occurs in -twenty-four hours. In the solution containing 0.3 cc there was only -one small colony in thirteen days, and no further development. In -the solution containing the coriander, the growth in the 0.5 cc solution -did not appear for three days, the 1 cc solution showing no -growth. The garlic had practically the same effect as the coriander, -while the black pepper was stronger, no growth appearing in the solution -containing 0.5 cc.</p> - -<p>The yeast was slightly stronger in resisting the effect of the extracts. -No growth appeared with the allspice and cloves; 0.5 cc of the celery -and 1 cc of the coriander were required to inhibit growth, and the -garlic and black pepper gave similar results, a weak development -occurring in the solutions containing 1 cc.</p> - - -<h4><a name="OIL" id="OIL"></a>OIL EXTRACTS.</h4> - -<p>Oil extracts of the spices were tested in the same manner as the -water infusions and the acetic-acid extracts. The oils were so strong -that in order to handle them easily they were mixed with equal volumes -of alcohol, except that the mace, which was in the form of a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> -paste, was mixed with two-thirds its volume of alcohol. To 10 cc of -tomato bouillon were added 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5 cc, respectively, -of the oils of cinnamon, cloves, mace, mustard, and black pepper.</p> - -<p>In the case of the mold, there was no development in the solutions -containing cinnamon, cloves, and mustard; in those containing mace -and black pepper the development was slower than the normal, that -in the black pepper being more pronounced. On the yeast the effect -was similar, no development occurring in the cinnamon, cloves, and -mustard, and a retarded development taking place in the mace and -black pepper, that in the black pepper being the more pronounced.</p> - -<p>The experiments show that some of the spices, notably allspice, -cinnamon, and cloves have decided antiseptic value, but that the -peppers are not as valuable as is generally supposed.</p> - -<p>The oil extracts have been advocated for use in ketchup instead of -the whole spices, but in quantities which would be useful antiseptically -their use would be objectionable, for when present in approximately -the same proportions as are the whole-spice infusions, the -flavor is too strong and masks the more delicate flavor of the tomato. -The acetic-acid extracts are more effective than are the water infusions, -and they are not objectionable in the ketchup.</p> - - -<h3><a name="VINEGAR" id="VINEGAR"></a>VINEGAR AND ACETIC ACID.</h3> - -<p>An experiment was made to determine the antiseptic value of -vinegar and acetic acid. Commercial 50-grain distilled vinegar -was used. It was found that when 30 per cent of this vinegar was -added to the tomato bouillon the development of mold was checked -and the extent to which it was checked increased with the increased -amounts of vinegar. The development in the solution containing 30 -per cent of the vinegar was two days later than the normal in -starting, while the solution containing 100 per cent was eleven -days delayed and showed but little growth.</p> - -<p>An 80 per cent solution of glacial acetic acid was used. One-half -of 1 per cent added to the tomato bouillon checked growth to the -same extent as 30 per cent of vinegar, and no development occurred -when the quantity was increased to 2 per cent.</p> - -<p>Experiments were then made in which vinegar was added to -the ketchup in proportions varying from 1 part in 32 to 1 part in -8, with the result of greatly delaying the appearance of the mold -as the proportion increased. With the increase in vinegar it was -necessary to add sugar and slightly more spices to overcome -the pungency of the acid and thus insure good flavor. The addition -of the vinegar to the pulp had the effect of arresting the -action of the oxidase and thus the bright color was maintained.</p> - -<p>The usual custom in factory practice is to add the vinegar near -the close of the cooking process otherwise a considerable portion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> -of the acid will be driven off. This practice was followed in the -experimental work, but it has since been found that continued -heating in the presence of the acid has some effect upon sterilization, -and therefore the increased amount of vinegar is effective not -only because of the additional acid present, but also because the -heating in the after process is thereby rendered more efficacious.</p> - -<p>This line of experiments gives promise of practical results in -producing a ketchup which will not only keep while in the bottle, -but will also keep longer after it is opened. Each manufacturer -must work out the quantities that could be used with his formula -and still retain the character of his goods.</p> - - -<h3><a name="OIL2" id="OIL2"></a>OIL.</h3> - -<p>In ketchup manufacturing it is customary, if an agitator is not -used, to put a small amount of fat in the kettle to check the ebullition -during the reduction of the pulp. The amount used in this -manner is not sufficient, however, to be apparent in the ketchup. -Brannt<a name="FNanchor_D" id="FNanchor_D"></a><a href="#Footnote_D" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> states that in some factories, where the trimmings are -allowed to accumulate for the season, they are given liberal doses -of oils and condiments when cooked, in order to disguise their defects, -so that the product can be placed on the market as “fresh tomato -catchup.” That the use of oils is increasing is evident from the -comparison of the ketchup of the past season with that of former -years.</p> - -<p>When oil is used in ketchup, it is easily detected under the microscope, -as it appears in the form of shining, yellow globules which -blacken gradually when treated with osmic acid. Besides this, -the oil comes to the surface of the ketchup, where it can be seen -readily, and if considerable oil has been used a distinct layer is -formed. When the ketchup has been made for some time, the oil -changes so that the ketchup has a peculiar “greasy” odor, or the oil -may be so changed as to give a decidedly rancid smell to the ketchup. -Oil usually causes a deterioration in flavor and odor, though some -of the ketchups to which it has been added do not spoil readily. -Olive oil, cottonseed oil, and oleomargarine are used. That the oil -is not considered one of the regular known ingredients of the ketchup -is shown by the failure to declare its presence on the label.</p> - -<p>To test the antiseptic value of oils in ketchup, experiments were -made, using olive oil, cottonseed oil, and oleomargarine in the proportions -of 1 part of oil to 1,000, 750, and 500 parts of ketchup, -respectively. The ketchup was made in small quantities, 2 gallons -for each experiment. After bottling, all except the check bottles -were inoculated with Penicillium and kept at kitchen temperature. -All spoiled, and neither the quantity nor kind of oil used had any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> -marked effect in preventing spoilage. That the oils affected the -development of the mold was evident. The mold developed first -at the junction of the ketchup with the bottle forming a ring which -spread gradually over the surface developing a somewhat heavy -mycelium. This remained white longer than usual, spores forming -very gradually, as indicated by the change in color from white to a -delicate blue. At the end of three weeks only spots of color appeared -on the surface and these were still blue, though in ordinary development -the blue color changes to green in two or three days.</p> - -<p>Another test was made, using olive oil only, and in the proportions -of 1 part of oil to 500, 400, and 300 parts, respectively, of the ketchup. -Reduction was made in a steam-jacketed kettle, the oil being added -when the ebullition of the ketchup was the strongest, after which -the boiling was continued for fifteen minutes. The ketchup was -bottled, unsterilized bottles being used, then covered loosely with -the metal caps.</p> - -<p>The time required for the ketchup to spoil was longer than in the -first set, but there was not sufficient difference nor enough uniformity -in the time to indicate that the use of oil in ketchup is desirable, even -if the change of flavor and odor be not taken into consideration. The -average number of days before spoilage for those containing 1 part of -oil to 500 parts of ketchup, was thirteen and two-thirds days; one has -not yet spoiled (a period of forty-five days), while the first bottle -spoiled in four days. Those having 1 part of oil to 400 parts of ketchup -had an average life of nine and three-fourths days, the minimum being -three days, and the maximum twenty-six days. Those having 1 part -to 300 parts of ketchup on an average did not spoil for six and three-fourths -days, the minimum being four days, and the maximum -eleven days.</p> - -<p>The failure of some of the bottles to spoil, though similar in every -known respect to those which did spoil, is a feature peculiar to ketchup -and is familiar to manufacturers who make careful tests before putting -their product on the market. For this reason a rather large number -of bottles should be used in a test in order that the results may be -approximately accurate and represent general conditions.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="STUDY_OF_PENICILLIUM_IN_KETCHUP" id="STUDY_OF_PENICILLIUM_IN_KETCHUP"></a>STUDY OF PENICILLIUM IN KETCHUP.</h2> - - -<p>Penicillium is a plant which is distributed widely and apparently -is able to grow wherever organic matter is found, though flourishing -best when the material contains acid. It causes loss in canneries, -breweries, distilleries, etc., the only use made of it being in the manufacture -of Roquefort cheese, the immature cheese being inoculated -with the conidia for the effect the mold produces in the maturing -process.</p> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="conidia1" id="conidia1"></a><img src="images/i_028a.jpg" width="600" height="616" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Conidia, Normal Size and in Various Stages of Germination, -Some with Branching Hyphæ (× 325).</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<img src="images/i_028b.jpg" width="600" height="616" alt="" /> -<a name="conidia2" id="conidia2"></a><div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Conidiophore, Showing Unusually Large Development -of Conidia, from Culture in Moist Chamber (× 325).</span></div> -</div> - -<p class="center">PENICILLIUM.</p> -<hr class="w20" /> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="conidia3" id="conidia3"></a><img src="images/i_028c.jpg" width="600" height="570" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.—Conidia and Hyphæ from Culture in Experimental -Ketchup Containing One-sixteenth of One Per Cent of -Sodium Benzoate (X 325).</span></div> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> -<a name="conidia4" id="conidia4"></a><img src="images/i_028d.jpg" width="600" height="570" alt="" /> -<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.—Conidia and Hyphæ from Cultures in Experimental -Ketchup Containing One-tenth of One Per Cent of Sodium -Benzoate (X 325).</span></div> -</div> - -<p class="center">CULTURES FROM KETCHUP PRESERVED WITH SODIUM BENZOATE.</p> -<hr class="w20" /> - - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> - - -<h3><a name="DEVELOPMENT" id="DEVELOPMENT"></a>DEVELOPMENT.</h3> - -<p>In developing, the mold forms a white felt-like mass, covering the -medium on which it is growing; then as development proceeds, it -changes to bluish-green, and finally to a darker, duller color. The -change in color is accompanied by a change in structure, the surface -becoming powdery in appearance, a slight current of air being sufficient -to dislodge a cloud of fine dust. This fine dust is formed of -small, spherical bodies, the spores or conidia (from the Greek meaning -<em>dust</em>). These need no resting period, but are able to develop at once. -When the conidia lodge on a moist substance they swell to a much -greater size and then send out a tube from some part of their surface. -The tube lengthens and septa form, dividing the tube into sections, -or cells. At the same time branches are sent out, which again form -other branches. The original conidium sends out a second branch -shortly after the first one, and usually from the opposite side, and -may even send out a third one. The formation of the septa and the -subbranching goes on in all, so that in a short time the branches mat -together and form a felt-like cover.</p> - - -<h3><a name="REPRODUCTION" id="REPRODUCTION"></a>REPRODUCTION.</h3> - -<p>After a shorter or longer period of development, dependent on the -conditions, branches are sent perpendicularly from the substratum, -and into the air. These branches cease their growth in length, sending -out branches near the tip, which take the same general direction as -the original branch. Each of these subbranches is called a sterigma -(from the Greek word meaning <em>support</em>). In vigorous development -the sterigmata may form secondary branches, the whole forming a -tassel-like arrangement. The tip of a sterigma enlarges, a septum -forms around the enlargement, cutting it off from the sterigma, and -forming a conidium. The sterigma develops to the original length -and another conidium is formed, the operation being repeated many -times, thus forming a chain of spores. As the other sterigmata are -also forming conidia in the same manner, a series of these chains is -formed close together. After the cessation of conidial development, -the filament below the sterigmata is disorganized, setting free the -conidia. The filament and head together are called the conidiophore -(Greek, dust-bearer).</p> - -<p>Penicillium forms spores sexually, but the conditions for their formation -are unknown. Brefeld obtained them by growing the mold -on damp bread placed between two glass plates, and excluding the -air. Lindner obtained carpospores on a wort gelatin culture in a -petri dish, from which the air was excluded. The writer has tried -various methods for obtaining carpospores, but so far without success. -Moist chambers were used with various media, excluding the air.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> -The development of the mold is seemingly dependent on the -amount of air in the chamber at the time of sealing. After the air is -exhausted, the conidiophores assume fantastic forms, developing only -one or a few sterigmata, and on these one or few conidia. In other -cases the conidiophores are fascicled, in no cases, however, forming the -conidia as luxuriantly as when air is supplied. The hyphæ become -clear, much vacuolated, and develop more septa, and some of the -cells become much enlarged. An enlarged cell will often contain two -or three septa, thus forming cells that are not larger than disks. In -cultures from which the air was excluded from the start, no development -took place. In test-tube cultures sealed with paraffin after -twenty-four hours, the mold developed on the surface of the gelatin, -forming a felted white mass, but no conidia nor carpospores were -formed.</p> - - -<h3><a name="GROWTH" id="GROWTH"></a>GROWTH IN KETCHUP.</h3> - -<p>The form of Penicillium which was used in the experiments was -isolated from ketchup in which it grew luxuriantly. When conidia -are first formed on the ketchup, they are a delicate blue in color; they -then become bluish green, then green, and finally olive. The development -of the color of mold growing on ketchup is practically the same -as when grown in wort, tomato bouillon, pea bouillon, or gelatin -made with these solutions as a basis. In ketchup containing sodium -benzoate, the blue color appearing first remains for a long time, and -in old cultures the mold is a dull drab, not olive, as in normal development.</p> - -<p>In ordinary ketchup made without a preservative, the mold forms -a heavy, wrinkled mycelium, showing a large development of conidia. -In the bottles of ketchup, the mold pushes down into the ketchup, -becoming entirely submerged, a clear liquid covering the mold and -separating it from the ketchup. This occurred in more than one hundred -bottles. No secondary mycelium formed on the surface of the -liquid, a method of development which frequently occurs in ordinary -media when a mass of mold is submerged.</p> - -<p>An exception to this was shown in ketchup which had developed -the mold in the laboratory. The bottles were then put in the refrigerator -for two weeks. During this time scarcely any development took -place; but after they were again placed in the laboratory, the mycelium -pushed down into the ketchup and a new, very thin mycelium -developed on the surface. The filaments when seen under the -microscope were swollen, had irregular outlines, and a comparatively -smaller number of septa, and were filled with a coarsely granular protoplasm. -The ends were blunt and misshapen and the sterigmata -were irregular, tending more toward a fasciculated arrangement, and -forming fewer conidia. The filaments from the vinegar and acetic<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> -acid media had the same appearance as those developed on ketchup, -but had a smoother outline.</p> - - -<h3><a name="TEMPERATURE" id="TEMPERATURE"></a>TEMPERATURE TESTS.</h3> - - -<p>The limits for the germination of Penicillium, as given by W. J. -Sykes,<a name="FNanchor_E" id="FNanchor_E"></a><a href="#Footnote_E" class="fnanchor">[E]</a> are 2° to 43° C. (35° to 110° F.), and the most favorable -temperature 22° to 26° C. (72° to 79° F.). This author states also -that according to Pasteur the dry spores retained their vitality at -108° C. (226° F.), but that they were soon killed when immersed in -boiling water. Klöcker<a name="FNanchor_F" id="FNanchor_F"></a><a href="#Footnote_F" class="fnanchor">[F]</a> quotes Pasteur as saying that the conidia -are killed if exposed to a temperature of 127° to 132° C. for half an -hour, but that they retain life at 119° to 121° C.</p> - -<p>A series of tests was made to determine the thermal death point of -the moist and dry conidia of the Penicillium used in the experiments, -a young, vigorous development on ketchup being used. The flasks -were kept under observation for a month after the tests were made, -as in many cases a development does not occur in the usual time. -The high temperatures applied for longer periods of time were tried -first, but both temperature and time were reduced as results from the -series were obtained. Only the conditions obtaining in the final tests -are given in the table. It was found that the Penicillium used did -not have the high resistance supposed.</p> - -<p>The tests were made in small flat-bottomed 10-cc flasks, tomato bouillon -being used for the tests on moist conidia. The bouillon was used -so as to have the conidia in a nutritive medium after the test was made, -without transferring. The time for those at 100° C. was estimated from -the time of ebullition. At the end of the specified time, the flasks were -cooled promptly under running water. As the flat bottoms gave comparatively -large surface, the heating and the cooling could be effected -in a short time. For the tests below 100° C. a vessel of water was heated -to the desired temperature, and the flasks were immersed in it and -shaken constantly. The dry conidia were placed in test tubes which -were immersed in boiling water for the desired time and cooled under -running water, after which 10 cc of sterilized tomato bouillon was -added. After determining the death point in this manner and finding -it to be much lower than had been supposed, it was decided to make -the test again, but using ketchup as the medium. Ten grams of -ketchup were sterilized, then inoculated from a vigorous growth of -mold, and tested with a set in which the tomato bouillon was used. -For those below 100° C. the two flasks which were to receive the same -temperature were held in the vessel of water at the same time, so that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> -as nearly as possible the treatment would be identical. The following -results were obtained:</p> - -<p class="center"><i>Thermal death point of moist and dry conidia of Penicillium.</i></p> - -<div class="center"> -<table summary="Thermal death point of moist and dry conidia of Penicillium"> -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">PENICILLIUM IN 10 CC OF TOMATO BOUILLON.</span></th></tr> -<tr><th class="bb br"> No. of experiment.</th> -<th class="bb br">Temperature.</th> -<th class="bb br">Time of heating.</th> -<th class="bb br">Time<br /> before<br /> germination.</th> -<th class="bb">Period of observation and developments.</th></tr> -<tr><th class="br"> </th> <th class="tdr2 br"><i>°C.</i></th> -<th class="br"><i>Minutes.</i></th> - <th class="br tdr2"> <i>Days.</i></th></tr> - -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt"> 1</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 85</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> ½</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 3 </td> - <td class="tdl vt">Dark strings from spores; 9 days; no development.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br"> 2</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 80</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 1 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> </td> - <td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br"> 3</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 75</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 1 </td><td class="br"> </td> - <td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br"> 4</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 70 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> </td> - <td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt"> 5</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 65</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 3 </td> - <td class="tdl vt">Dark strings running from spores; 9 days; growth normal, spots on surface.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br"> 6</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 60 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 3 </td> - <td class="tdl2"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br bb"> 7</td><td class="tdr2 br bb"> 55</td> - <td class="tdr2 br bb"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br bb"> 3 </td> - <td class="tdl2 bb"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="5"> </td></tr> - -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">PENICILLIUM IN 10 CC OF KETCHUP.</span></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">1</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 100</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 3</td><td class="br"> </td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">2</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 100</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 2 </td><td class="br"> </td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">3</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 100 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 1 </td><td class="br"> </td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">4</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 100</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> ½ </td><td class="br"> </td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">5</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 100</td> - <td class="tdc br"> Instant.</td><td class="br"> </td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">6 </td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 85 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> ½ </td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 2</td> - <td class="tdl vt">Colonies on sides; 8 days; surface covered, green.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">7 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 80 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 1</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 2 </td> - <td class="tdl2 vt"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">8</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 75 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 1 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 2 </td> - <td class="tdl2 vt"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">9 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 70</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 8 </td> - <td class="tdl vt">Colony on surface.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">10</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 65 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 9</td> - <td class="tdl2"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br vt">11</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 60 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 3</td> - <td class="tdl vt">Colonies on sides; 8 days; surface covered, green.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br">12 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 55</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br"> 4 </td> - <td class="tdl2 vt"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl br vt bb">13 </td><td class="tdr2 br vt bb"> </td> - <td class="br bb"> </td><td class="tdr2 br vt bb"> 2 </td> - <td class="tdl vt bb">Ring around sides; 3 days; surface nearly covered.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="5"> </td></tr> - -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">DRY CONIDIA.</span></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">1</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 100</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 10</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 4 </td> - <td class="tdl vt">Rough appearance,like that in ketchup.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">2 </td><td class="tdr2 br">100 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 15 </td><td class="tdr2 br">4 </td> - <td class="tdl2">Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">3 </td><td class="tdr2 br">100</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 20</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 7</td><td class="tdl">Slight growth.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">4</td><td class="tdr2 br">100</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 25</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 10</td> - <td class="tdl vt">Growth barely perceptible.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br">5</td><td class="tdr2 br"> 100</td><td class="tdr2 br">30</td> - <td class="tdr2 br"> 10</td><td class="tdl2"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt bb">6</td><td class="tdr2 br bb">100</td><td class="tdr2 br bb">35</td> - <td class="br bb"> </td> - <td class="tdl vt bb">Conidia stained readily, showing they were dead.</td></tr> -<tr><td colspan="5"> </td></tr> - -<tr><th class="bb" colspan="5"><span class="small">YEAST.</span></th></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">1</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 55</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 2</td> -<td class="tdl">Wrinkled film; liquid turbid.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">2</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 60</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 2</td> - <td class="tdl"> Do.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">3</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 65</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 2 </td> -<td class="tdl">Thin, smooth film; liquid clear.</td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">4</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 70 </td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"></td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt">5</td><td class="tdr2 br vt"> 75</td> - <td class="tdr2 br vt"> 5 </td><td class="tdr2 br vt"></td><td> </td></tr> -<tr><td class="tdl1 br vt bb">6</td><td class="tdr2 br vt bb"> 100</td> - <td class="tdc br vt bb"> Instant.</td><td class="tdr2 br vt bb"></td> - <td class="bb"> </td></tr> -</table></div> - -<p>The moist heat was very effective in destroying the vitality of the -conidia of Penicillium, the death point being 27° C. higher than -the maximum temperature for germination as given by Sykes. -The heating was more effective in destroying germs when applied to -bouillon than to ketchup, no development taking place for any temperature -above 65° C., even when applied for a short time.</p> - -<p>In the ketchup the lower temperatures for the longer periods of -time were more effective in checking the development, even though -they did not destroy the vitality. In the ketchup, with the exception -of Nos. 9 and 10, the colonies started invariably along the sides -of the flasks. The greater access of air to those on the sides would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> -account for this. The conidia on the sides of flasks Nos. 9 and 10 -must have been destroyed, as no development took place in either -case except in the center of the surface.</p> - -<p>The dry conidia were destroyed at 100° C. when heated for thirty-five -minutes; they did not reach a normal development in any case, -even when heated for only ten minutes, many of the conidia being -destroyed by this treatment. Where development failed to take -place, the conidia were stained with a water solution of eosin, so as -to be sure that the effect was death, and not an arrested development.</p> - -<p>The results of the tests do not agree with those obtained in factory -practice, where the ketchup is cooked at 100° C. for at least forty -minutes and sometimes for fifty or fifty-five minutes, depending on -the consistency of the pulp.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="HISTOLOGICAL_STRUCTURE_OF_KETCHUP" id="HISTOLOGICAL_STRUCTURE_OF_KETCHUP"></a> -HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF KETCHUP.</h2> - - -<p>In ketchup are found parts of all the various tissues of the tomato -broken into fine pieces by the action of the cyclone. Although the -sieves take out the seeds, skins, and any large pieces, particles of the -various tissues are present in size sufficient for identification. Among -the distinctive features are the red crystalline bodies in the parenchyma, -which serve to a certain extent to distinguish the parenchyma -from that of other plants which might be used for adulteration, -and serve also to differentiate the natural from the artificially -colored ketchup. Some of the red dye used colors all protoplasm -indiscriminately, even that of the fungi present, and as a colored -ketchup is usually poor stuff, containing many fungi, the mold -filaments, yeast cells, and bacteria receive their share of the color. -Other red dye used is in the form of fine powder, which does not go -into solution, but is distributed as irregular particles which are distinct -from the red crystalline bodies.</p> - -<p>Good ketchup made from whole tomatoes has a clean appearance -readily distinguishable under the microscope; but the poor -ketchup has usually a superabundance of fungi present, fully developed -colonies of mold, many forms of conidia, besides yeast-like -cells, and different forms of bacteria. All of these may be dead, -but neither preservatives nor dosage of odorous spices can disguise -their presence. In some of the ketchup examined, which was put -up in attractive form and labeled as being made from the whole -tomatoes, and which had the appearance and odor of good ketchup, -the microscope showed the presence of such quantities of fungi as -to leave no doubt that the tomatoes were spoiled when cooked. -It is presumable that some of the dealers placing this sort of -stuff on the market do not know its condition themselves, and -either buy their pulp from other factories or trust its manufacture<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> -to employees whose only care is that the ketchup shall have a -bright color and shall “keep.” Some of the mould filaments and -conidia are distorted in the same way as those of the Penicillium are -when grown in ketchup to which sodium benzoate has been added.</p> - -<p>The ketchup made from sound tomatoes and manufactured in a -cleanly manner has practically no fungi present. The ketchup that -was used in these experiments was made at different times during -the season and was of this character, no bottle examined showing -mold filaments when first opened.</p> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="MICROSCOPIC_EXAMINATION_OF_SOME_COMMERCIAL_BRANDS" id="MICROSCOPIC_EXAMINATION_OF_SOME_COMMERCIAL_BRANDS"></a> -MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF SOME COMMERCIAL BRANDS.</h2> - - -<p>In examining ketchup the color, odor, amount of discoloration, -presence of foreign tissue, foreign coloring matter, oil, and fungi -were determined. If no preservative was mentioned, some of the -ketchup was put in petri dishes and inoculated with Penicillium to -determine whether growth could take place. The following examinations -are reported, as they represent some of the best known brands -on the market:</p> - -<blockquote> - -<p><i>No. 9.</i>—Opened September 2, 1907; age unknown; pint bottle; no preservative -mentioned; not spoiled July 6 of following year. This ketchup was guaranteed to be -made from fresh, ripe, tomatoes by a new process. The color is an unnatural red, has -not faded, and the odor is good. The microscope showed the presence of much refuse, -and large quantities of fungi, whole colonies of molds, the filaments distorted, many -yeast cells, and bacteria. The red color was not confined to the red crystalline bodies, -as is the case in ripe tomatoes, but the whole of the protoplasm of the cells, including -the nucleus and nucleolus was red, as were also most of the mold filaments and yeast, -indicating the presence of considerable artificial coloring matter. The structure -indicated that the stock had been manufactured from “trimmings,” and further, -that they were not fresh when used, but had fermented. There was no oil present. -The “new process” is a success in keeping ketchup, as no preservative is mentioned. -The price was 20 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 112.</i>—Another bottle of the same brand of ketchup; examined in April, 1908; -presumably manufactured in 1907; one-twelfth of 1 per cent of sodium benzoate -declared on label; a bright red; guaranteed to be from fresh ripe tomatoes and uncolored. -The microscope showed no dyeing of the tissues, few fungi, and no extraneous -matter. The price was 20 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 17.</i>—Opened September 28, 1907; age unknown; a pint bottle; sodium benzoate -declared on supplemental label, no amount being stated; reddish brown color, -badly discolored on top; greasy odor; not spoiled July 6, 1908; refuse present; large -amount of oil; many fungi; the mold filaments enlarged and distorted. The price -was 15 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 109.</i>—Another bottle of the same brand examined in April, 1908; presumably -manufactured the preceding year; had one-tenth of 1 per cent of sodium benzoate; -not spoiled July 6, 1908; reddish brown color, discolored near top; greasy odor. -This was practically the same as the first bottle examined, had fewer mold filaments, -but many bacteria.</p> - -<p><i>No. 18.</i>—Opened September 28, 1907; age unknown; pint bottle; no preservative -mentioned; not spoiled July 6, 1908. A neck label stated that it is made from sound<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> -ripe tomatoes and uncolored. Color reddish brown; greasy odor; many oil globules; -too many mold filaments and bacteria for sound tomatoes. Price 20 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 113.</i>—Another bottle of the same brand examined in April, 1908; said to have -been manufactured in 1908; no preservative mentioned; not spoiled after standing -open for seventy days; same as No. 18 in color and odor; oil and many fungi again -present.</p> - -<p><i>No. 10.</i>—Opened September 2, 1907; age unknown; half-pint bottle; no preservative -mentioned; not spoiled July 6, 1908. A neck label 2 inches in height guaranteed -the highest quality; an extra label lower down on the neck stated the product to be -the natural color, and made from fresh, ripe tomatoes; the regular label carried the -brand, manufacturer’s name, etc. Color brown; sweetish odor; colonies of mold; -distorted filaments; many bacteria; a few small oil globules. Price 25 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 106.</i>—Same brand; pint bottle; examined in April, 1908; said to be manufactured -in 1907; color red, discolored near surface; 2-inch neck label in addition to -regular label; no preservative mentioned; did not spoil in seventy days; oil globules; -particles of red, amorphous matter; whole colonies of mold, as well as fragments of -filaments; teeming with bacteria.</p> - -<p><i>No. 77.</i>—Different brand, but same manufacturer as Nos. 10 and 106; age unknown; -pint bottle; one-twelfth of 1 per cent of sodium benzoate declared; opened December 1; -placed in incubator at 95° F. for a month; not spoiled July 6; color reddish brown; -greasy odor; oil globules, many mold filaments, and bacteria present. Price 20 -cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 107.</i>—Third brand from same manufacturer as preceding; said to be manufactured -in 1907; half-pint bottle; one-twelfth of 1 per cent of benzoate of soda declared; -layer of oil on surface; sweet odor; reddish-brown color. Oil globules prominent -feature microscopically, whole colonies of distorted mold were present, and sample -contained many different forms of bacteria. Price 10 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 14.</i>—Opened September 2, 1907; age unknown; no preservative mentioned; not -spoiled July 6, 1908; half-pint bottle; color red; good odor; few bacteria; free from -refuse. Price 25 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 108.</i>—Same brand as No. 14; said to be manufactured in 1907; pint bottle; -one-tenth of 1 per cent of benzoate of soda declared; color red; good odor; few fungi; -clean and free from refuse.</p> - -<p><i>No. 33.</i>—Opened October 24, 1907; age unknown; one-tenth of 1 per cent of benzoate -of soda declared; spoiled November 1; pint bottle (14 ounces); sweetish odor; -brown color; many molds, yeast and bacteria. Price 10 cents.</p> - -<p><i>No. 114.</i>—Same brand as No. 33; said to be manufactured in 1907; opened in April; -not spoiled in seventy days; many molds, yeasts, and bacteria; some green tissue, and -filaments of algæ. The price was 10 cents.</p></blockquote> - - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a name="SUMMARY" id="SUMMARY"></a>SUMMARY.</h2> - - -<p>1. The experiments made during the season of 1907 on the manufacture -of tomato ketchup without chemical preservatives were conducted -under factory conditions and upon a commercial scale. The -results prove that such a ketchup can be made and delivered to the -consumer in perfect condition; the product in question having already -stood ten months, unopened, without showing the slightest indication -of spoilage.</p> - -<p>2. The product is of excellent consistency, flavor, and color. The -formula employed regularly in the factory where the experiment was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> -conducted was used, but other recipes could be adapted without -changing the character of special brands. In the manufacture of -such a product the following precautions were observed:</p> - -<p>(<i>a</i>) Whole, sound, ripe tomatoes and high-grade salt, sugar, vinegar, -and spices were used; care and cleanliness were observed at every step -of the preparation, and the preservation accomplished by heat in the -following manner: The pulp was cooked in a steam kettle for about -forty minutes, until the mass was reduced to about one-half its volume. -Additional processing after bottling did not appear to be -necessary to keep the ketchup before opening, and had no effect in -these experiments in delaying spoilage after opening.</p> - -<p>(<i>b</i>) Ketchup was bottled directly from the cooker at a temperature -of 205° F. in bottles prepared in two ways: (1) Sterilized in a steam -chamber at 230° F.; (2) Washed in hot water, rinsed, and heated to -190° F. in a dry heat for at least thirty minutes. Ketchup was also -bottled after the usual process of sieving at 165° F. in bottles prepared in -a similar manner. The corks for all bottles were sterilized in a paraffin -bath at 270° F. The same ketchup which was bottled at 165° F. was -also given subsequent processing at 190° F. and 212° F. for twenty -and forty minutes. All have kept without spoilage.</p> - -<p>3. Some of the condiments have a limited antiseptic value, but can -not be depended upon to prevent spoilage in the quantities used for -flavoring. While sugar and vinegar can be added in such amounts as -to delay the appearance of molds, and cinnamon and cloves can be -depended upon to check deterioration to some extent, these condimental -substances have only an incidental value for this purpose.</p> - -<p>4. The spoilage of ketchup after opening depends more upon the -temperature of the place in which it is kept than on any variation in -the manner of processing. Fresh ketchup held, after opening, at a -temperature of 95° F. kept for five days on an average without any -trace of mold appearing; at 72° it kept for six days; at 67° for eight -days; about 46° (refrigerator), fourteen days; and at from 30° to 60° -for twenty-seven days. These figures represent the time at which the -first trace of spoilage occurred in the neck of the bottle—had this been -removed the figures would be much increased—and by no means -represent the maximum time during which the ketchup could have -been used, the maximum figures, even under these conditions of observation, -varying from eight to fifty-eight days. The keeping of the -ketchup in warm storage at 70° for one hundred and fifty days before -opening hastened the average time of spoilage after opening about -one day. The advisability of using small containers, to get the best -results with a first-class ketchup, is apparent.</p> - -<p>5. Sodium benzoate, even when used in the proportion of 0.1 per -cent, is not always effective, and has an injurious effect upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> -living matter of the molds, shown by the distortion and swelling of the -filaments, which are filled with a coarse granular protoplasm containing -much fat.</p> - -<p>6. Artificially colored ketchup can be detected under the microscope -by the fact that certain tissues, normally colorless, are dyed red, -or by the presence of fine, red, amorphous particles which do not go -into solution.</p> - -<p>7. Ketchup made from whole ripe stock in a cleanly manner gives -a clean appearance under the microscope, but few molds, yeasts, and -bacteria being present. On the other hand, ketchup made from -trimming stock, or from tomatoes that have been allowed to spoil, contains -immense quantities of these growing organisms which may be -killed in the process of manufacture, but still give proof of the character -of the material used. Ketchup as ordinarily made from trimming -stock should, therefore, be designated, so as to differentiate it -from that made from sound fresh tomatoes, as the two products are -radically different. This exactness in labeling is due no less to the -manufacturer than to the consumer, as it is impossible to make the -superior product in fair competition with the inferior one, other conditions -being equal, unless the two are properly designated, there being -naturally some difference in the price.</p> - - -<hr class="chap" /> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<h2><a name="FOOTNOTES" id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES:</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_A" id="Footnote_A"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A"> -<span class="label">[A]</span></a> Origin of Cultivated Plants, 1890.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_B" id="Footnote_B"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B"> -<span class="label">[B]</span></a> Webber, H. J., Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1899.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_C" id="Footnote_C"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C"> -<span class="label">[C]</span></a> U. S. Dept. Agr., Exper. Sta. Record, 1899-1900, 11: 250.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_D" id="Footnote_D"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D"> -<span class="label">[D]</span></a> Brannt, W. L., A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, -1900, p. 455.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_E" id="Footnote_E"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E"> -<span class="label">[E]</span></a> Principles and Practice of Brewing, 1907, p. 284.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a name="Footnote_F" id="Footnote_F"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F"> -<span class="label">[F]</span></a> Ibid., p. 281.</p></div> -</div> -</div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="transnote"> -<p class="ph2">Transcriber's notes:</p> - -<p>In the text version, italics are represented by _underscores_.</p> - -<p>Missing or incorrect punctuation has been repaired.</p> - -<p>The following corrections have been made to the text:--</p> - -<blockquote> -<p> p.8. A majority of the manufacturers employ word, has been changed to - A majority of the manufacturers employ the word.</p> - -<p> p.28. one has has, the duplicate has been removed.</p> -</blockquote> -</div> -</div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato -Ketchup, by A. W. Bitting - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPERIMENTS--SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP *** - -***** This file should be named 52867-h.htm or 52867-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/8/6/52867/ - -Produced by Larry B. Harrison, Chris Jordan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive -specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this -eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook -for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, -performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given -away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks -not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the -trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. - -START: FULL LICENSE - -THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE -PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK - -To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. - -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works - -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the -person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph -1.E.8. - -1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. - -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the -Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when -you share it without charge with others. - -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country outside the United States. - -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: - -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work -on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the -phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: - - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and - most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no - restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it - under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this - eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the - United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you - are located before using this ebook. - -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project -Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. - -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. - -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg-tm License. - -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format -other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain -Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. - -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. - -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works -provided that - -* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation." - -* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm - works. - -* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - -* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. - -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The -Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm -trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. - -1.F. - -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. - -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right -of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. - -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. - -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. - -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. - -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. - -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm - -Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. - -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at -www.gutenberg.org - - - -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation - -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. - -The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the -mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its -volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous -locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt -Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to -date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and -official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact - -For additional contact information: - - Dr. Gregory B. Newby - Chief Executive and Director - gbnewby@pglaf.org - -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg -Literary Archive Foundation - -Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide -spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. - -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular -state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate - -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. - -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. - -Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate - -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. - -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. - -Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. - -Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search -facility: www.gutenberg.org - -This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. - - - -</pre> - -</body> -</html> diff --git a/old/52867-h/images/i_008.jpg b/old/52867-h/images/i_008.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 778bf65..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h/images/i_008.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52867-h/images/i_009.jpg b/old/52867-h/images/i_009.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 1be0b34..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h/images/i_009.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52867-h/images/i_010.jpg b/old/52867-h/images/i_010.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 582b614..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h/images/i_010.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52867-h/images/i_012.jpg b/old/52867-h/images/i_012.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2479130..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h/images/i_012.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52867-h/images/i_014.jpg b/old/52867-h/images/i_014.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 88c5699..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h/images/i_014.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52867-h/images/i_028a.jpg b/old/52867-h/images/i_028a.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index ced78a0..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h/images/i_028a.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52867-h/images/i_028b.jpg b/old/52867-h/images/i_028b.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index b444161..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h/images/i_028b.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52867-h/images/i_028c.jpg b/old/52867-h/images/i_028c.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index e1d3b07..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h/images/i_028c.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52867-h/images/i_028d.jpg b/old/52867-h/images/i_028d.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 27dc007..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h/images/i_028d.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52867-h/images/i_title.jpg b/old/52867-h/images/i_title.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 328874a..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h/images/i_title.jpg +++ /dev/null diff --git a/old/52867-h/images/logo.jpg b/old/52867-h/images/logo.jpg Binary files differdeleted file mode 100644 index 2c1207d..0000000 --- a/old/52867-h/images/logo.jpg +++ /dev/null |
