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diff --git a/old/52867-0.txt b/old/52867-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 64520b2..0000000 --- a/old/52867-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,2124 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato -Ketchup, by A. W. Bitting - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato Ketchup - -Author: A. W. Bitting - -Release Date: August 21, 2016 [EBook #52867] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EXPERIMENTS--SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP *** - - - - -Produced by Larry B. Harrison, Chris Jordan and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - Issued January 9, 1909. - - U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, - BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY--BULLETIN No. 119. - H. W. WILEY, Chief of Bureau. - - EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPOILAGE - OF TOMATO KETCHUP. - - BY - A. W. BITTING, - INSPECTOR, BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY. - - [Illustration: Shield of the United States Department of Agriculture] - - WASHINGTON: - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. - 1909. - - - - -LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. - - - U. S. Department of Agriculture, - Bureau of Chemistry, - _Washington, D. C., July 15, 1908_. - -Sir: I have the honor to submit for your approval a report made by -Inspector Bitting of experimental work on the spoilage of tomato -ketchup, the conditions contributing thereto, methods of prevention, -the action of preservatives, and the length of time that the product -will keep under varying conditions of manufacture and temperature, both -before and after opening. Every effort has been made to conduct the -work in a practical way, and the results obtained can not fail to be of -interest and profit both to the manufacturer and consumer. I recommend -that this report be published as Bulletin No. 119 of the Bureau of -Chemistry. - - Respectfully, H. W. Wiley, - _Chief_. - -Hon. James Wilson, - _Secretary of Agriculture_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - Page. - -Introduction 7 - -Process of manufacture 8 - Selection and preparation of stock 9 - Pulping 9 - Cooking and seasoning 10 - Evaporation and finishing 11 - Bottling 11 - Processing 11 - -Character of products 12 - First-class products 12 - Inferior products from “trimming stock” 13 - -Labels 14 - -Manufacturing experiments without the use of preservatives 15 - Outline of experiments 15 - Discussion of results 17 - Spoilage of ketchup after opening 17 - Spoilage of unopened ketchup 20 - Spoilage of market brands 20 - Sterility of ketchup 21 - -Experiments with preservatives 22 - Sodium benzoate 22 - Salt 23 - Sugar 23 - Spices 24 - Water infusions 24 - Acetic acid extracts 25 - Oil extracts 25 - Vinegar and acetic acid 26 - Oil 27 - -Study of Penicillium in ketchup 28 - Development 29 - Reproduction 29 - Growth in ketchup 30 - Temperature tests 31 - -Histological structure of ketchup 33 - -Microscopical examination of some commercial brands 34 - -Summary 35 - - - - -ILLUSTRATIONS. - - -PLATES. - - Page. -PLATE I. Penicillium. Fig. 1.--Conidia, normal growth - and in various stages of germination, some with branching - hyphæ. Fig. 2.--Conidiophore, showing unusually large - development of conidia; from culture in moist chamber 28 - - II. Cultures from ketchup preserved with sodium - benzoate. Fig. 1.--Conidia and hyphæ from culture in - experimental ketchup containing one-sixteenth of 1 per cent - of sodium benzoate. Fig. 2.--Conidia and hyphæ from culture - in experimental ketchup containing one-tenth of 1 per cent - of sodium benzoate 28 - - -TEXT FIGURES. - -Fig. 1. A model receiving platform 8 - -2. Large receiving room showing the sorting belt 9 - -3. A section of a kitchen showing the copper cookers 10 - -4. An example of factory practice 12 - -5. Another factory interior 14 - - - - -EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPOILAGE OF TOMATO KETCHUP. - - - - -INTRODUCTION. - - -The tomato, _Lycopersicum esculentum_, is supposed to be native to -South or Central America. The large fruits commonly used grow only -under cultivation, but the variety with small, spherical fruits, -known as _L. cerasiforme_, has been found on the shore of Peru and is -considered by De Candolle[A] as belonging to the same species as _L. -esculentum_. Though grown extensively in Europe, there is nothing to -indicate that it was known there before the discovery of America. The -tomato was introduced into China and Japan at a comparatively recent -date. De Candolle is of the opinion that the tomato was taken to -Europe by the Spaniards from Peru and was later introduced into the -United States by Europeans. Tomatoes were brought to Salem, Mass., by -an Italian painter in 1802,[B] who is said to have had difficulty in -convincing the people that they were edible. They were used in New -Orleans in 1812, though as late as 1835 they were sold by the dozen in -Boston. After 1840 they came into general use in the Eastern States, -but it was later than this before tomatoes were used freely in the -Western States, many persons having the impression that, since they -belonged to the nightshade family, they must be unwholesome. The extent -to which tomatoes are used at the present time shows how completely -this prejudice has been overcome. - -[A] Origin of Cultivated Plants, 1890. - -[B] Webber, H. J., Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1899. - -The name _Lycopersicum_ is from two Greek words, meaning a wolf, and -a peach, the application of these terms not being apparent; the name -of the species, _esculentum_, is from the Latin, meaning eatable. -The common name “tomato” is of South or Central American origin, and -is believed to be the term used in an ancient American dialect to -designate the plant,[C] but its meaning is unknown. The English call -the tomato “love apple,” which in French is “pomme d’amour.” - -[C] U. S. Dept. Agr., Exper. Sta. Record, 1899-1900, 11: 250. - -The tomato is considered a typical berry, the ovary wall, free from the -calyx, forming the fleshy pericarp, which incloses chambers filled with -a clear matrix containing the seeds. The fruit measures from 1 to 5 -inches in diameter, and is red, pink, or yellow when mature. - -The plant sports freely, producing many varieties, which differ mainly -in the size, shape, and quality of the fruit. The varieties bearing -small fruits are _L. cerasiforme_ and _L. pyriforme_, each bearing a -two-celled fruit, the former being round, and somewhat larger than -a cherry, and the latter pear-shaped. These small tomatoes are used -ordinarily for preserves and pickles. - -The word “ketchup” is adopted in this bulletin as the form which ought -to be given preference. The derivation of the term is not definitely -known. The spelling “catchup” given in some of the leading dictionaries -appears to be based on the erroneous idea that the first syllable -“ketch” is a colloquial form of “catch.” Several authorities derive the -word from the East Indian or Malayan “kitjap,” because “ketchup” was -originally a kind of East Indian pickles. Some give the word a Chinese -origin, while others assert that it comes from the Japanese. A majority -of the manufacturers employ the word “catsup,” a spelling for which -there does not appear to be any warrant. - - -PROCESS OF MANUFACTURE. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--A model receiving platform.] - -The making of tomato ketchup consists essentially in reducing tomatoes -to pulp, removing the skins, seeds, hard parts, and stems, adding -salt, sugar, condiments, and vinegar to suit the taste, and cooking -to a proper consistency. The methods and practices of the various -manufacturers differ, and the difference between the best and the -poorest procedure corresponds to that between the best and the worst -ketchup. No single factory has all of the best methods at every step -of manufacture. Some perform certain details well and are negligent -in others. In some, large amounts of money are spent on equipment to -improve a particular point considered advantageous by the trade, while -other details essential to the making of a good-keeping ketchup are -disregarded. A statement of the best practice as observed at a number -of factories, together with some facts obtained from experiments, will -be given. - - -SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF STOCK. - -The tomatoes should be home-grown, of a red variety having the minimum -of yellow and purple color, be picked when ripe, and delivered to -the factory promptly without mashing. All tomatoes should pass over -an inspection table, the rotten and otherwise unfit fruit should be -discarded, and the green tomatoes should be returned to crates to -ripen. The stems should be removed when the best color is desired, -and the tomatoes should be thoroughly washed to remove dirt and mold. -Dumping a crate of tomatoes into a hopper of dirty water and playing a -gentle spray of water on part of them merely wets the skin and makes -them appear bright. - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Large receiving room showing the sorting belt.] - - -PULPING. - -The clean tomatoes should be conveyed to the steaming tanks and -subjected to steam heat until the skins burst and the meat softens. -After a short heating the tomatoes should be run through a “cyclone” -where the skins, seeds, etc., are removed and they are rubbed to a -pulp. To remove very small particles and fiber, the pulp may be run -through a sieving machine at once; or, if ketchup of the smoothest -possible kind is to be made, this procedure should be delayed until -after the cooking. The pulp is collected in a receiving vat, and -only such an amount should be provided in advance as will keep the -kettles full, as it is better to stop the tomatoes before going to -the washer than to have the pulp stand for some hours. In common -practice, however, the pulp is either sent to the cooker at once, or -it is allowed to stand and partially separate. If tall casks are used -for this separation the solids will rise to the top and the clear -watery portion is drawn off at the bottom, or the pulp may be strained -through cloth bags. The object of this separation is to secure greater -concentration of the solids, retain a brighter color, and shorten the -time of cooking. - - -COOKING AND SEASONING. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--A section of a kitchen showing the copper -cookers.] - -The cooking may be done in copper kettles, as shown in figure 3, though -these are being superseded by enamel tanks containing silver-plated -coils in order to secure the brightest color. By using the latter the -discoloration due to the splashing of the contents against the walls of -the copper vessel is avoided, and economy of space is secured. Whole -or ground spices, or acetic acid or oil extracts of the spices may be -added to the pulp in such proportion as the particular brand demands. -The spices most used are cloves, cinnamon, mace, and cayenne pepper; -but paprika, pepper, mustard, cardamon, coriander, ginger, celery, and -allspice are used by some manufacturers. When whole spices are used, -it is the practice to suspend them in a cloth bag or a wire basket and -to take them out after boiling. They tend to darken the color of the -ketchup, a result considered undesirable by some. The ground spices -are used sparingly, with the exception of cayenne pepper. The acetic -acid extracts of spices are used because they are economical and give -a brighter red color than is obtained with the whole spice. The oil -extracts produce no discoloration, but they are the most expensive and -give an objectionable flavor. Hungarian sweet paprika is now quite -largely used and adds to the color as well as to the flavor. Sugar, -salt, and vinegar are added in such proportion as may be desired, and -in some brands onions and garlic are used. - - -EVAPORATION AND FINISHING. - -The pulp is evaporated rapidly to such consistency as the grade and -price will warrant, the reduction in volume being from 40 to 60 per -cent. This is accomplished in about forty-five minutes. The cooking is -not continued longer than is necessary, as each minute added to the -cooking darkens the finished product. - -If the pulp has been run through the sieving machine before cooking, -the batch may be drawn off into the receiving tank for bottling. If the -finishing be done after cooking, the pulp is run into a receiving vat, -finished as quickly as possible, and drawn into the tank for bottling. -The ketchup may be kept at a high temperature--200° to 206° F.--in the -receiving tank by means of a small steam coil, or it may be drawn to -the bottling machine through a steam-jacketed tube. Finishing after -cooking yields a slightly smoother ketchup than sieving before cooking; -but it necessitates handling, reduces the temperature, and increases -the chances of infection. - - -BOTTLING. - -The bottles should be thoroughly cleaned as ketchup will not keep if -placed in bottles which have been merely rinsed to remove the straw; if -the ketchup is not to be given an after process the containers should -be sterilized. In the experimental work cork stoppers gave the best -results and these should be sterilized in a paraffin bath at 250° F. - - -PROCESSING. - -An after treatment or process is given to bottled goods either in a -water or steam bath, the important point being that the center of the -bottle be raised to the desired degree of heat. If the ketchup is thin -this can be effected quickly, but if it is thick and heavy the heat -penetrates the ketchup with surprising slowness. In a thin ketchup -the temperature may be raised from 140° to 190° F. in eighteen minutes -or less when the surrounding heat is 195° F; but in a heavy ketchup it -may take an hour or more to accomplish the same result. It is therefore -very important that the ketchup be processed immediately after it is -corked, before it has time to cool. The rate at which the heating is -effected for different goods can be determined by sealing a thermometer -in the cork and recording the readings. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--An example of factory practice showing the -top row of tanks from which pulp passes by gravity into the cookers, -then into the receiver, sieving machine, and final tub ready for the -bottling machine or jug filler.] - - - - -CHARACTER OF PRODUCTS. - - -FIRST-CLASS PRODUCTS. - -The factory at which the experiments were conducted has sanitary -buildings and surroundings, the floors are of concrete for flushing, -and the pipes used in conducting the pulp to the kitchens are -porcelain-lined to prevent discoloration from the iron and to insure -cleanliness. The tubes which carry the ketchup from the kettles to the -receiving tank, finishing machine, and bottler are silver-plated. Not -all of these measures are necessary to make a good ketchup, but they -show the care exercised in making an article of good appearance and of -the finest quality. - -The conditions under which ketchup is made and the care with which the -work is done at some of the better factories is equal to that used in -the manufacture of any food product. Whole selected fruit is used, -cleanliness is maintained at every point, the best grades of spices, -vinegar, granulated sugar, and salt are added for flavoring, and the -bottles are carefully washed. The ketchup put up under such conditions -will have a bright natural color, will remain good as long as the -container is unbroken, and will continue in that condition for some -time after opening if kept at a fairly cool temperature. - - -INFERIOR PRODUCTS FROM “TRIMMING STOCK.” - -In contrast with the strictly high-grade product is the great bulk -of the ketchup found on the market. The material is not whole ripe -tomatoes, but consists of the waste of the canning factory, commonly -designated as “trimming stock,” including the green, moldy, broken, -rotten, and generally unusable tomatoes, the skins, cores, and stems -from the peeling tables, and the surplus juice from the filling -machines, all of which may be allowed to stand during the day and be -run through the cyclone in the evening. At the end of the season, the -frosted and half-ripe fruits may be used. Part of this material can -not be considered “sound fruit” as contemplated by the food and drugs -act. The pulp is put up in barrels, preserved, and allowed to stand, -possibly in the sun, until a sufficient quantity has accumulated for -shipment. Old ketchup barrels may be used and be none too clean. As a -result, it is not uncommon to see an inch or more of pulp in the bottom -of a car at the end of shipment, caused by the blowing out of the -barrel heads from fermentation. The sanitary condition of the factory -may be poor, the handling of the goods be unclean, the spices be the -refuse from the spice houses, the sugar be of the cheapest grade, and -the bottles be only rinsed or be used without even that precaution. -The ketchup is a concoction so heavily spiced with hot spices that the -tomato flavor is lost and might as well be anything else. The color is -normally dirty brown. - -Between these two extremes are all grades, those for which whole -tomatoes, unsorted, are used, those for which trimming stock is worked -up promptly during the canning season, and those made from stock of -unknown history. Some manufacturers work under good and some under poor -sanitary conditions. There can be no doubt that with proper selection -and precaution much of the by-product of the canning factory and large -quantities of tomatoes which are unsuitable for canning might be used -to advantage in the manufacture of ketchup; but it requires a nicety -of practice not generally found at this time. The practice sometimes -followed of making some ketchup from whole stock and a large quantity -from refuse and using the former for advertising purposes, only serves -to emphasize the fact that the goods belong to two distinct classes. -One of the uses for a very considerable amount of pulp from refuse -stock is the making of sauce for baked beans and other canned goods -where the true character can not be observed by the consumer. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Another factory interior, showing large pulp -tanks in the rear, cooking tanks on the right, and process tanks in -front containing thousands of bottles of ketchup.] - -During the season tomatoes come in at times in larger quantities than -can be made into ketchup promptly. The surplus must be worked up into -pulp for storage and may be stored in barrels or in tin cans. The pulp -stored in barrels will not have as good a color as that put into cans, -and the ketchup made from either will not be as bright as that made -from whole, fresh stock. The pulp put up in barrels is more liable -to spoilage than that put up in cans. The difference in the cost of -storage by the two methods is not very great, and some large concerns -are using the can exclusively instead of the barrel. - - - - -LABELS. - - -The labels on the ketchup bottles have been improved somewhat in the -last year as regards exactness in describing the contents. Formerly, -according to the labels, much of the ketchup was made from whole -ripe tomatoes. The question was, What became of the enormous amount -of ketchup which it was known had been made from “trimmings?” On this -year’s ketchup the labels make fewer claims, generally merely stating -that it is “tomato ketchup,” which is true whether made from whole -tomatoes or refuse. The brand is in most cases the guaranty for good -quality. It is not safe to judge the quality by the price, for, though -usually good quality can not be expected unless the higher price is -paid, some of the high-priced ketchup when placed under the microscope -has proven to be a very inferior product. - -The wide labels on the neck of the bottle are objectionable. Some of -these are 2 inches in height, and serve to cover the discolored and -spoiled ketchup. As spoilage begins usually in the neck of the bottle, -it is difficult to see it when the neck is wrapped with a label, and -thus it might easily be overlooked until the main body of the ketchup -is affected. The bottles which have the widest labels around the neck -are usually the ones provided with one or two large labels on the lower -part of the bottle, though some bottles have no other label but the one -around the neck. As a rule, however, these are narrow, close to the -stopper, and unobjectionable. - -In buying ketchup for experimental purposes it was difficult and -sometimes impossible to learn its age, as often the grocer does not -know it, and at other times he will not tell. It appeared, however, -that often the ketchup had been on the grocer’s shelf or in the -warehouse from one to four years. - - - - -MANUFACTURING EXPERIMENTS WITHOUT THE USE OF PRESERVATIVES. - - -OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTS. - -During September, 1907, ketchup was made in experimental batches to -determine whether it could be manufactured on a commercial scale -without the use of preservatives. These experiments were made to -determine (1) the keeping quality before opening the container and (2) -the length of time the product will keep without spoilage after the -bottle is opened. - -The ketchup was made in a factory in which the conditions of -manufacture and all the surroundings were sanitary; whole, ripe -tomatoes, the same as used in the regular grade of canned goods, -were used and the formula and process were for a mild ketchup giving -the maximum of tomato flavor. Each batch consisted of 50 gallons of -finished goods, from which 1 gross of pint bottles was retained for -observation. - -The term “regular ketchup” as used in these experiments means the -pulp of fully ripe tomatoes, to which was added granulated sugar, -80-grain, distilled vinegar, table salt, onions, garlic, whole -cinnamon, cloves, mace, and ground cayenne pepper. The pulp was cooked -in a steam-jacketed copper kettle for forty minutes and reduced -about 50 per cent. The finishing was done after cooking. The regular -bottles are pint sizes, washed in hot water, rinsed, and then heated -to a temperature of 190° F. for thirty minutes or more. The sterile -bottles referred to in the experiments were placed in a steam chamber -for twenty minutes at 230° F. The corks were sterilized by a bath in -paraffin at about 270° F. All of the work was accomplished quickly to -insure a smooth, even product with a bright, clean color. Acetic acid -extracts and oil extracts of spices were used in such quantities as -would give the same amount of spicing as when the whole spices were -employed. - -In all of the following experiments the ketchups discussed were made in -September, 1907, and the last examination reported was made ten months -later, in July, 1908: - - _Experiment No. 1._--Regular ketchup was made, but it was reheated - after finishing and bottled in sterile bottles at a temperature of - 205° F. No spoilage has occurred at the end of ten months. - - _Experiment No. 2._--Regular ketchup was made, and it was bottled - immediately after finishing in regular bottles at a temperature of - 165° F. An after process was given at 190° F. for twenty minutes. - No spoilage has occurred after ten months. - - _Experiment No. 3._--Regular ketchup was made, and was bottled in - regular bottles at 165° F., and given a subsequent process at 190° - F. for forty minutes. No spoilage has occurred. - - _Experiment No. 4._--Regular ketchup was made, was bottled in - regular bottles at a temperature of 165° F., and given an after - process at 212° F. for twenty minutes. No spoilage has occurred. - - _Experiment No. 5._--Regular ketchup was made, the same being - put up in regular bottles at a temperature of 165° F. and given - an after process at 212° F. for forty minutes. No spoilage has - occurred. - - _Experiment No. 6._--Ketchup was made in which the acetic acid - extracts took the place of whole spices, and the bottling was done - at a temperature of 165° F., no after treatment being given. No - spoilage has occurred. - - _Experiment No. 7._--Ketchup was made in which acetic acid - extracts were used, and the bottling was done at a temperature of - 165° F. in sterile bottles. No after treatment was given and no - spoilage has occurred. - - _Experiment No. 8._--Ketchup was made in which the oil extracts - were used instead of regular spices. The bottling was done in - regular bottles at a temperature of 165° F., no after treatment - being given. No spoilage has occurred. - - _Experiment No. 9._--Ketchup was made in which oil extracts were - used instead of whole spices. The bottling was done at 165° F. in - sterile bottles, no after treatment being given. No spoilage has - occurred. - - _Experiment No. 10._--Regular ketchup was made, but the pulp - was run through the sieving or finishing machine before instead - of after cooking, the object being to determine the effect upon - the character of the goods rather than upon the spoilage. This - practice could be followed to advantage in making all except the - very finest goods, and would give the same condition for bottling - as in experiment No. 1. - - _Experiment No. 11._--Pulp was made in the usual manner and run - into barrels while just below the boiling point. The barrels - had been thoroughly washed and then steamed for twenty minutes. - As soon as the pulp had cooled slightly the bung was driven in - tightly and the barrel was rolled into storage. At the end of - sixty days the barrels were opened and the pulp was found to be in - good condition. - - _Experiment No. 12._--Regular ketchup was drawn into 5-gallon jugs - which had been sterilized in the same manner as the bottles. These - were kept for sixty days and no spoilage occurred. - - -DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. - -Twelve hundred and ninety-six bottles were shipped from Terre Haute -to Lafayette, Ind., and some were reshipped in order to duplicate -the conditions in trade. Some were kept in a warm temperature and in -strong light, others in a comparatively cool place and in the original -shipping cases, in order to duplicate the conditions in the warehouse -and grocery store. There has been no spoilage after ten months other -than that resulting from four or five cork leaks and neck cracks. These -experiments have shown conclusively that ketchup can be put up on a -commercial scale and delivered to the consumer in perfect condition -without the use of a preservative. - -It was demonstrated by the first experiment that the goods could be -bottled at a high temperature without difficulty, and that subsequent -treatment was unnecessary. The after treatment at 190° was tried -because it had been found in small experiments that, in giving a higher -temperature, the internal pressure would cause more or less breakage of -bottles or loosening of corks. After treatment is practiced by some who -also use a small quantity of preservative as a further precaution. This -treatment is continued from two to three hours at the temperature of -high pasteurization. - -The process at 212° was given with little breakage, as the bottles -used were of good quality. At and above this temperature the breakage -may be reduced by either raising the temperature of the ketchup before -bottling or applying pressure upon the outside while giving the process. - -Neither the acetic acid nor the oil extracts showed any advantage over -whole spices in their preservative effects, as all kept. The color was -slightly improved, but the flavor was impaired, particularly when the -oil extracts were used. - - -SPOILAGE OF KETCHUP AFTER OPENING. - -The question of how long the ketchup should keep after opening the -container in order to satisfy the ordinary requirements of consumption -was also studied. A local restaurant, serving about two hundred meals -and using from one-half to a gallon of ketchup daily, was supplied with -the same kind of ketchup used in the experiments, as were also some -families. Instructions were given to use the ketchup as they would -ordinarily, with the result that none reported any loss from spoilage. - -To determine how long the ketchup would keep after opening, 8 bottles -from each of the first 9 experiments were kept in the kitchen at -a temperature of about 72° F., 5 were kept in an incubator at a -temperature of 95° F., 5 were kept in the laboratory at a temperature -of about 67° F., and 4 were kept in an inclosed porch where the -temperature ranged from 30° to 60° F. This made a total of 198 bottles. -No precautions, other than those of ordinary cleanliness, were taken -in opening the bottles, as it was desired to determine the keeping -properties under conditions of general usage. The first set of bottles -was opened November 5, immediately on being received at the laboratory, -all of the ketchup having been kept at the factory until the experiment -begun in September was completed. The bottles were covered loosely with -a metal cap and observed daily, a record being kept of the date and -character of spoilage. - -The results showed that the differences in the time and temperature -of processing had little, if any, effect in checking the spoilage; -neither did the use of acetic acid or oil extracts. The most important -precaution in checking the spoilage after opening seems to be to keep -the ketchup cool. This is shown by the average number of days which -elapsed before spoilage occurred in the sets kept under different -temperature conditions. For those kept in the kitchen the average -number of days was six, the minimum three, and the maximum eleven. -Those in the incubator kept for an average of five days, with a minimum -of two days, and a maximum of eight. Those in the laboratory had an -average of eight days, the minimum being four days and the maximum -twenty-two. Those kept in the porch lasted on an average twenty-seven -days, a minimum of twelve days, and a maximum of fifty-eight. - -These figures show the definite relation of temperature to spoilage -under the conditions of ordinary use. In making the observations, the -metal cap was removed each day, but no ketchup was poured off. The -spoilage in all cases was due to mold, and usually this formed in the -neck of the bottle where the ketchup had splashed, or at the junction -of the ketchup with the bottle. The spoilage was recorded as soon as -the slightest growth appeared. In actual use if the neck were wiped -out when the ketchup had been used and a growth of mold removed on its -first appearance with some of the proximate ketchup the time before -spoilage occurred could be prolonged. In these experiments the attempt -was made to determine how soon growth appeared under the various -conditions of temperature named. - -The unopened bottles of ketchup were kept in a basement room, the -temperature of which is fairly constant, being about 70° F. This is -approximately the condition in a grocery where the ketchup is kept on -the shelves. Another set of samples from the run of September, 1907, -was opened February 11, 1908, to determine if storing in a warm room -before opening had any effect on the length of time preceding spoilage. -Four bottles were taken from each of the first 9 experiments to make -up each of three sets, one of which was kept in the kitchen, one in -the incubator, and one in the porch, making a total of 108 bottles. The -average number of days for those kept in the incubator was four, the -minimum two, and the maximum six. The average number of days before -spoilage in the kitchen was five, the minimum being three and the -maximum nine. Those kept in the porch gave an average of twenty-three -days, the minimum number being eighteen days and the maximum -seventy-three days. Thus it is seen that the ketchup lasted nearly five -times as long at a temperature of 30° to 60° F. as it did at 72°; and -also that when ketchup is kept in a warm place before opening, spoilage -occurs somewhat sooner, the average for the fresh samples opened under -the same conditions being one day more with the incubator and kitchen -samples and four days more with the porch samples. - -A third set of bottles of the ketchup was opened on June 6, 1908, or -two hundred and sixty-five days after manufacture. They had been kept -in a basement at a temperature of about 70° F. - -One set was placed in the incubator at a temperature of 95° F., one -set in the kitchen at about 82° F., and one set in the refrigerator -at 46° F. The weather was warm and the conditions favorable to the -spoilage of fresh foods. The minimum time for spoilage in the incubator -was two days, the maximum time four days, and the average time three -and two-tenths days. The minimum time in the kitchen was two days, -the maximum time six days, and the average time four and four-tenths -days. The minimum time in the refrigerator was nine days, the maximum -time nineteen days, and the average time thirteen and sixty-six -one-hundredths days. - -These data are grouped in the following table for easier comparison: - - -_Time of spoilage of ketchup at different temperatures after opening._ - - -OPENED ON NOVEMBER 5, 1907, IMMEDIATELY UPON RECEIPT FROM FACTORY; -MAXIMUM AGE, FIVE WEEKS. - - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - Place of storage. | Temperature. | Lapse of time before spoilage. - | |------------------------------- - | | Average. | Minimum. | Maximum. - ------------------| |----------+----------+--------- - | _° F._ | _Days._ | _Days._ | _Days._ - Incubator | 95 | 5 | 2 | 8 - Kitchen | 72 | 6 | 3 | 11 - Laboratory | 67 | 8 | 4 | 22 - Porch | 30-60 | 27 | 12 | 58 - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - -KEPT AT 70° F. FOR ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY DAYS BEFORE OPENING ON -FEBRUARY 11. - - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - Incubator | 95 | 4 | 2 | 6 - Kitchen | 72 | 5 | 3 | 9 - Porch | 30-60 | 23 | 18 | 73 - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - -KEPT AT 70° F. FOR TWO HUNDRED AND SIXTY-FIVE DAYS BEFORE OPENING ON -JUNE 6. - - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - Incubator | 95 | 3.2 | 2 | 4 - Kitchen | 82 | 4.4 | 2 | 6 - Refrigerator | 46 | 13.66 | 9 | 19 - ----------------------------------------------------------------- - - -SPOILAGE OF UNOPENED KETCHUP. - -Another test was made to determine whether the ketchup would spoil -when kept in a warm place, but not opened. Three bottles from each -experimental batch were placed in the incubator November 7, 1907, and -were kept there until December 23, 1907--forty-six days--and in that -time there was no sign of spoilage. They were then opened and kept in -the laboratory; the average number of days before spoilage occurred is -indicated in the following table: - - -_Average number of days before spoilage of ketchup after opening (kept -46 days at 95° before opening)._ - - --------------------------------------- - Experiment No. | Days before spoilage. - ---------------+----------------------- - 1 | 2⅔ - 2 | 4⅔ - 3 | 3⅓ - 4 | 5 - 5 | 5⅓ - 6 | 4⅓ - 7 | 4⅓ - 8 | 4⅓ - 9 | 3⅔ - --------------------------------------- - -It will be observed that these samples spoiled in about the same length -of time as the bottles opened in February and tested in the incubator, -so that similar results were obtained by keeping unopened ketchup one -and one-half months at 95° F. and keeping it five months at 70° F. From -the results of the experiments it is evident that the ingredients of -the ketchup in the proportions used are not antiseptic, and it is also -apparent from the number of organisms found and the rapidity of their -multiplication that ketchup is a good, nutritive medium. Yeasts and -molds are the predominating organisms, and, as the ketchup is acid and -also contains sugar, and these organisms are found on tomatoes in the -field, their predominance in the ketchup is explained. - - -SPOILAGE OF MARKET BRANDS. - -To determine the keeping properties of the ketchup on the market, -various brands were obtained from the grocery stores. In the -majority of cases nothing was known of the ingredients or methods of -manufacture, except what appeared on the labels. No date of manufacture -was given, and in some cases the dealers did not know the age of the -product. - -There were 104 bottles of ketchup opened to find out how long they -would remain in good condition. These were kept in the laboratory, -though the temperature was higher than that at which ketchup should be -held. Of the 104 bottles there were 66 without preservative, according -to the labels, 46 of which spoiled. Of the 20 which did not spoil, 2 -formed crystals of benzoic acid on the covers of glass dishes during -evaporation. Of the 39 which, according to the labels, contained sodium -benzoate, 15 spoiled. The bottles of unspoiled ketchup after remaining -in the laboratory for about a month were placed in the incubator at -95° F. for three weeks, and were then taken out, and have been left in -the laboratory since. The metal cap had been taken off frequently for -observation, and the ketchup exposed, but the treatment did not cause -them to spoil. - -The average number of days after which spoilage occurred for the 46 -bottles without preservative was about fifteen, the minimum number -being four days, the maximum number ninety-four days. The average -number of days preceding spoilage in the case of 15 bottles with -preservative was twenty-four days, the minimum number being three and -the maximum sixty days. The majority of these had 0.1 per cent of -sodium benzoate present; the others had a smaller amount, according -to the manufacturer’s label. These data are not at all conclusive and -further work on material of known history will be necessary. - - -STERILITY OF KETCHUP. - -To determine the sterility of ketchup, cultures were made from 77 of -the bottles. The method used was to wipe the bottles and cork stoppers -with a damp towel and then remove the cork. The cork puller which -was used grasps the neck of the bottle in such a way as to cover the -opening and remove the cork without the inrush of air that occurs when -the ordinary corkscrew is used. A flame was then passed over the mouth -of the bottle, after which the upper layer of ketchup was poured out, -so as to discard any material which might have been contaminated in -handling. Tomato gelatin was used as a medium and cultures were made in -petri dishes. - -There were 17 plates on which no organisms developed, indicating -that the ketchup was sterile. Of the 60 plates having organisms, 54 -had molds, 22 of these having molds alone; 21 plates had yeast-like -organisms, 3 plates having these only; 29 plates had bacteria, 4 having -bacteria alone. Sometimes a plate would have only one form of organism, -but more often there was a mixture present. Of 15 plates having only -one form of organism, 3 had yeast alone, 2 bacteria alone, and 10 had -mold alone. Of the 77 bottles of ketchup from which the inoculations -were made, 41 were without and 36 with preservative, and of the 17 -sterile ketchups, 8 contained sodium benzoate and 9 were without -preservative. - -A considerable part of the experimental ketchup proved not to be -sterile. The organisms present were of the class which require oxygen -for their growth and therefore they had only been arrested in their -activity. No growth could take place so long as the air was excluded -and therefore no spoilage could occur. When the cork was drawn, the -organisms could grow and cause spoilage, and this is a much more -potent factor than the entrance of germs from without. Bottling and -sealing the ketchup quickly while hot so completely excludes the air -that only a few colonies of yeast or mold may be found on subsequent -microscopical examination. Filling at a low temperature and corking -while cool allows sufficient air to remain incorporated in the ketchup -and neck of the bottle to permit a considerable growth of the organisms -and a product derived from good stock may thus acquire the appearance -of ketchup derived from partially decayed material. A ketchup in which -bubbles of air are incorporated in filling may show a growth of mold -at each bubble throughout the mass. The foregoing statements apply to -ketchup containing sodium benzoate as well as to the non-preservative -goods of the character used in these experiments. - - - - -EXPERIMENTS WITH PRESERVATIVES. - - -SODIUM BENZOATE. - -The preservative in general use in ketchup is sodium benzoate. -Salicylic acid is used, but only to a limited extent. The amount -of sodium benzoate used, according to the labels, varies from -one-sixteenth to one-tenth of 1 per cent; but on some labels the amount -is not stated. Experiments were made to determine the amount necessary -to check the spoilage of ketchup. - -Two organisms, a mold and a yeast, were selected on which to make the -tests. The mold was the ordinary blue mold, Penicillium, which was -present in many of the brands of ketchup and is found commonly on acid -foods. It was selected on account of its prevalence and resistive -power. The yeast was obtained from ketchup and was also a vigorous -grower, forming a thick, wrinkled film on various media. Any effect on -the growth of the yeast could be seen readily in its manner of forming -the film. - -Portions of tomato gelatin to which 0.1, 0.5, 1, and 2 per cent, -respectively, of sodium benzoate were added, were first inoculated with -the mold. There was no development in those containing 1 and 2 per -cent; a retarded development resulted in that containing 0.5 per cent, -and the growth when 0.1 per cent was used was nearly normal, showing -very little difference from that in the gelatin without sodium benzoate. - -Ketchup was next tried as a medium, but the amount of benzoate was -reduced to one-sixteenth, one-twelfth, and one-tenth of 1 per cent, -as it was thought that some of the other constituents of the ketchup -were antiseptic to a slight degree. The growth in the ketchup was -irregular, though the benzoate checked development in all. Equal -amounts of benzoate were used in tomato bouillon, with practically the -same results as in the ketchup. The development was checked in all, -and in some plates one-sixteenth of 1 per cent seemed to be fully as -efficacious as one-tenth of 1 per cent. When the mold was examined -under the microscope, the filaments were found to be much swollen and -distorted in shape, and filled with a coarsely granular protoplasm, -containing much fat, as indicated by the blackening with osmic acid. -The culture containing the mold which gave the least development seemed -to show the least distortion and swelling of the filaments. - -The results indicated that in using sodium benzoate as a preservative -there is uncertainty as to results, even when using the maximum amount -allowed--one-tenth of 1 per cent. They also indicated that this -preservative had an injurious effect on the living matter of the mold. -(See Pl. II; compare with normal growth, Pl. I.) - - -SALT. - -The effect of salt in checking development was tested by using tomato -bouillon as a medium and adding 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 grams of -salt, respectively, to 100 cc. These were inoculated with the mold. The -5-gram solution seemed to have no effect on development. When 10 grams -were used growth appeared as soon as in the bouillon without salt, but -was not so extensive. In the 15-gram solution growth was retarded four -days, and most of that which did develop remained submerged, the mold -growing normally on the surface. With 20 grams the growth was five -days slower than the normal in starting, and after that there was only -a slight development. In the 25-gram solution, the growth started at -the same time as when 20 grams were employed, but remained stationary, -while with the 30-gram solution, no development occurred. - -The yeast was checked slightly by 5 grams, and very materially by the -10-gram solution, as it required two days for a thin, delicate film -to form, whereas in ordinary solutions a rather thick film is formed -within twenty-four hours or even in less time. There was no development -in the 15-gram solution. - - -SUGAR. - -The effect of sugar was tested on both the mold and the yeast by adding -it to tomato bouillon. It was supposed that a low percentage of sugar -like the salt would plasmolyze the cells, and in this way check growth, -but it seemed to have no effect until the amount was increased to 25 -grams per 100 cc of bouillon. In this solution growth appeared as soon -as with the weaker solutions, but there was a smaller amount. In the -25 to 40 gram solutions there was less development as the amount of -sugar increased. In the 70 and 75 gram solutions growth was delayed one -day in its appearance. In the 80, 85, and 90 gram solutions growth was -delayed two days, the colonies growing submerged at first, but after -a time forming on the surface. The mycelium remained very thin, but -a thick layer of spores formed. From this point on the amounts were -increased by 10 grams up to 200. The development became slower and less -successively until 170 grams were added. In this case a small colony -appeared on the surface in seven days, but seemed to grow less after -that. The solutions were held, and in time crystals separated from the -thick sirups. After two months dry-looking colonies developed along the -edges, forming a ring, and some formed on the surface, these occurring -also in the flasks containing 170, 180, 190, and 200 grams of sugar per -100 cc. The colonies were a dull greenish drab in spots, the remainder -being white. - -For the yeast the 80-gram solution of sugar was the strongest in which -any development took place. - - -SPICES. - -Experiments to determine the value of the spices as antiseptics were -made, using water infusions, acetic-acid extracts, and oil extracts. - - -WATER INFUSIONS. - -In making the water infusions 20 grams of the whole spices, with 200 -cc of water, were boiled for forty-five minutes. This is approximately -the length of time that the spices are cooked in the ketchup in the -factory. The liquid was then filtered and from 0.1 to 5 cc of the -filtrate was used in 10 cc of tomato bouillon. The same organisms were -used as in the former experiments. - -The tests showed that cinnamon and cloves were the strongest -antiseptically. These checked growth when used in small amounts, but -it required 3 cc of the cinnamon and 1 cc of the cloves to inhibit the -growth of the mold. Mustard, paprika, and cayenne pepper checked growth -also, but 5 cc, the highest strength used, did not inhibit growth. The -ginger, mace, and black pepper had no apparent effect in the quantities -used. - -The effect of the spices on the development of the yeast was somewhat -different from their effect on Penicillium. The cinnamon showed the -strongest action, 3 cc being effective, whereas 5 cc of the cloves was -required. The cayenne pepper came next in effectiveness, and after that -the black pepper. The ginger, mace, and mustard solutions had no effect -in the strengths used. - -The remainder of the spice infusions were kept in glass-stoppered -bottles in the laboratory, and in a few weeks’ time there was a coating -of mold formed over the surface of the mace, the mustard, and the -black and cayenne peppers. The paprika had small, stunted colonies -dotting the surface. - -At the time that these experiments were made a quantity of the ground -spices were placed in large petri dishes and water was added to make a -heavy paste. One set of these was inoculated with the mold, and another -set with the yeast, and all were kept in a warm place. No development -of either organism appeared on the cinnamon, cloves, or mustard; on the -others a growth first showed in three days. On a normal medium growth -appears in twenty-four hours. On the mace, paprika, and cayenne pepper -the Penicillium and yeast with which the pastes were inoculated were -overgrown in a few days with black mold (_Rhizopus nigricans_). - - -ACETIC-ACID EXTRACTS. - -In the manufacture of ketchup acetic-acid extracts of the spices -are sometimes used instead of the whole spices, on account of their -supposed antiseptic properties as well as their greater strength and -convenience in handling. One minim of the standard acetic-acid extracts -is equal in strength to 1 grain of the whole spices. The acid extracts -obtained included allspice, celery, cloves, coriander, garlic, and -black pepper. - -In the tests 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, and 1 cc, respectively, of the -extract was added to 10 cc of tomato bouillon. One set was inoculated -with the mold and another set with the yeast. In the case of the mold, -no growth occurred with the allspice and cloves; the celery checked -the growth materially, there being no indication of mold until the -sixth day. Normally a fairly strong growth occurs in twenty-four hours. -In the solution containing 0.3 cc there was only one small colony in -thirteen days, and no further development. In the solution containing -the coriander, the growth in the 0.5 cc solution did not appear for -three days, the 1 cc solution showing no growth. The garlic had -practically the same effect as the coriander, while the black pepper -was stronger, no growth appearing in the solution containing 0.5 cc. - -The yeast was slightly stronger in resisting the effect of the -extracts. No growth appeared with the allspice and cloves; 0.5 cc -of the celery and 1 cc of the coriander were required to inhibit -growth, and the garlic and black pepper gave similar results, a weak -development occurring in the solutions containing 1 cc. - - -OIL EXTRACTS. - -Oil extracts of the spices were tested in the same manner as the water -infusions and the acetic-acid extracts. The oils were so strong that -in order to handle them easily they were mixed with equal volumes of -alcohol, except that the mace, which was in the form of a paste, -was mixed with two-thirds its volume of alcohol. To 10 cc of tomato -bouillon were added 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5 cc, respectively, of -the oils of cinnamon, cloves, mace, mustard, and black pepper. - -In the case of the mold, there was no development in the solutions -containing cinnamon, cloves, and mustard; in those containing mace -and black pepper the development was slower than the normal, that in -the black pepper being more pronounced. On the yeast the effect was -similar, no development occurring in the cinnamon, cloves, and mustard, -and a retarded development taking place in the mace and black pepper, -that in the black pepper being the more pronounced. - -The experiments show that some of the spices, notably allspice, -cinnamon, and cloves have decided antiseptic value, but that the -peppers are not as valuable as is generally supposed. - -The oil extracts have been advocated for use in ketchup instead of the -whole spices, but in quantities which would be useful antiseptically -their use would be objectionable, for when present in approximately -the same proportions as are the whole-spice infusions, the flavor -is too strong and masks the more delicate flavor of the tomato. The -acetic-acid extracts are more effective than are the water infusions, -and they are not objectionable in the ketchup. - - -VINEGAR AND ACETIC ACID. - -An experiment was made to determine the antiseptic value of vinegar and -acetic acid. Commercial 50-grain distilled vinegar was used. It was -found that when 30 per cent of this vinegar was added to the tomato -bouillon the development of mold was checked and the extent to which -it was checked increased with the increased amounts of vinegar. The -development in the solution containing 30 per cent of the vinegar -was two days later than the normal in starting, while the solution -containing 100 per cent was eleven days delayed and showed but little -growth. - -An 80 per cent solution of glacial acetic acid was used. One-half of -1 per cent added to the tomato bouillon checked growth to the same -extent as 30 per cent of vinegar, and no development occurred when the -quantity was increased to 2 per cent. - -Experiments were then made in which vinegar was added to the ketchup -in proportions varying from 1 part in 32 to 1 part in 8, with the -result of greatly delaying the appearance of the mold as the proportion -increased. With the increase in vinegar it was necessary to add sugar -and slightly more spices to overcome the pungency of the acid and thus -insure good flavor. The addition of the vinegar to the pulp had the -effect of arresting the action of the oxidase and thus the bright color -was maintained. - -The usual custom in factory practice is to add the vinegar near the -close of the cooking process otherwise a considerable portion of the -acid will be driven off. This practice was followed in the experimental -work, but it has since been found that continued heating in the -presence of the acid has some effect upon sterilization, and therefore -the increased amount of vinegar is effective not only because of the -additional acid present, but also because the heating in the after -process is thereby rendered more efficacious. - -This line of experiments gives promise of practical results in -producing a ketchup which will not only keep while in the bottle, but -will also keep longer after it is opened. Each manufacturer must work -out the quantities that could be used with his formula and still retain -the character of his goods. - - -OIL. - -In ketchup manufacturing it is customary, if an agitator is not used, -to put a small amount of fat in the kettle to check the ebullition -during the reduction of the pulp. The amount used in this manner is not -sufficient, however, to be apparent in the ketchup. Brannt[D] states -that in some factories, where the trimmings are allowed to accumulate -for the season, they are given liberal doses of oils and condiments -when cooked, in order to disguise their defects, so that the product -can be placed on the market as “fresh tomato catchup.” That the use of -oils is increasing is evident from the comparison of the ketchup of the -past season with that of former years. - -[D] Brannt, W. L., A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, -1900, p. 455. - -When oil is used in ketchup, it is easily detected under the -microscope, as it appears in the form of shining, yellow globules which -blacken gradually when treated with osmic acid. Besides this, the oil -comes to the surface of the ketchup, where it can be seen readily, and -if considerable oil has been used a distinct layer is formed. When -the ketchup has been made for some time, the oil changes so that the -ketchup has a peculiar “greasy” odor, or the oil may be so changed as -to give a decidedly rancid smell to the ketchup. Oil usually causes a -deterioration in flavor and odor, though some of the ketchups to which -it has been added do not spoil readily. Olive oil, cottonseed oil, -and oleomargarine are used. That the oil is not considered one of the -regular known ingredients of the ketchup is shown by the failure to -declare its presence on the label. - -To test the antiseptic value of oils in ketchup, experiments were -made, using olive oil, cottonseed oil, and oleomargarine in the -proportions of 1 part of oil to 1,000, 750, and 500 parts of ketchup, -respectively. The ketchup was made in small quantities, 2 gallons -for each experiment. After bottling, all except the check bottles -were inoculated with Penicillium and kept at kitchen temperature. All -spoiled, and neither the quantity nor kind of oil used had any marked -effect in preventing spoilage. That the oils affected the development -of the mold was evident. The mold developed first at the junction of -the ketchup with the bottle forming a ring which spread gradually over -the surface developing a somewhat heavy mycelium. This remained white -longer than usual, spores forming very gradually, as indicated by the -change in color from white to a delicate blue. At the end of three -weeks only spots of color appeared on the surface and these were still -blue, though in ordinary development the blue color changes to green in -two or three days. - -Another test was made, using olive oil only, and in the proportions of -1 part of oil to 500, 400, and 300 parts, respectively, of the ketchup. -Reduction was made in a steam-jacketed kettle, the oil being added -when the ebullition of the ketchup was the strongest, after which the -boiling was continued for fifteen minutes. The ketchup was bottled, -unsterilized bottles being used, then covered loosely with the metal -caps. - -The time required for the ketchup to spoil was longer than in the first -set, but there was not sufficient difference nor enough uniformity in -the time to indicate that the use of oil in ketchup is desirable, even -if the change of flavor and odor be not taken into consideration. The -average number of days before spoilage for those containing 1 part of -oil to 500 parts of ketchup, was thirteen and two-thirds days; one -has not yet spoiled (a period of forty-five days), while the first -bottle spoiled in four days. Those having 1 part of oil to 400 parts -of ketchup had an average life of nine and three-fourths days, the -minimum being three days, and the maximum twenty-six days. Those having -1 part to 300 parts of ketchup on an average did not spoil for six and -three-fourths days, the minimum being four days, and the maximum eleven -days. - -The failure of some of the bottles to spoil, though similar in every -known respect to those which did spoil, is a feature peculiar to -ketchup and is familiar to manufacturers who make careful tests before -putting their product on the market. For this reason a rather large -number of bottles should be used in a test in order that the results -may be approximately accurate and represent general conditions. - - - - -STUDY OF PENICILLIUM IN KETCHUP. - - -Penicillium is a plant which is distributed widely and apparently is -able to grow wherever organic matter is found, though flourishing -best when the material contains acid. It causes loss in canneries, -breweries, distilleries, etc., the only use made of it being in the -manufacture of Roquefort cheese, the immature cheese being inoculated -with the conidia for the effect the mold produces in the maturing -process. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Conidia, Normal Size and in Various Stages of -Germination, Some with Branching Hyphæ (× 325).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Conidiophore, Showing Unusually Large -Development of Conidia, from Culture in Moist Chamber (× 325).] - -PENICILLIUM. - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Conidia and Hyphæ from Culture in Experimental -Ketchup Containing One-sixteenth of One Per Cent of Sodium Benzoate (X -325).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 2.--Conidia and Hyphæ from Cultures in Experimental -Ketchup Containing One-tenth of One Per Cent of Sodium Benzoate (X -325).] - -CULTURES FROM KETCHUP PRESERVED WITH SODIUM BENZOATE. - - -DEVELOPMENT. - -In developing, the mold forms a white felt-like mass, covering the -medium on which it is growing; then as development proceeds, it changes -to bluish-green, and finally to a darker, duller color. The change in -color is accompanied by a change in structure, the surface becoming -powdery in appearance, a slight current of air being sufficient to -dislodge a cloud of fine dust. This fine dust is formed of small, -spherical bodies, the spores or conidia (from the Greek meaning -_dust_). These need no resting period, but are able to develop at -once. When the conidia lodge on a moist substance they swell to a much -greater size and then send out a tube from some part of their surface. -The tube lengthens and septa form, dividing the tube into sections, or -cells. At the same time branches are sent out, which again form other -branches. The original conidium sends out a second branch shortly after -the first one, and usually from the opposite side, and may even send -out a third one. The formation of the septa and the subbranching goes -on in all, so that in a short time the branches mat together and form a -felt-like cover. - - -REPRODUCTION. - -After a shorter or longer period of development, dependent on the -conditions, branches are sent perpendicularly from the substratum, and -into the air. These branches cease their growth in length, sending -out branches near the tip, which take the same general direction as -the original branch. Each of these subbranches is called a sterigma -(from the Greek word meaning _support_). In vigorous development the -sterigmata may form secondary branches, the whole forming a tassel-like -arrangement. The tip of a sterigma enlarges, a septum forms around the -enlargement, cutting it off from the sterigma, and forming a conidium. -The sterigma develops to the original length and another conidium is -formed, the operation being repeated many times, thus forming a chain -of spores. As the other sterigmata are also forming conidia in the same -manner, a series of these chains is formed close together. After the -cessation of conidial development, the filament below the sterigmata is -disorganized, setting free the conidia. The filament and head together -are called the conidiophore (Greek, dust-bearer). - -Penicillium forms spores sexually, but the conditions for their -formation are unknown. Brefeld obtained them by growing the mold on -damp bread placed between two glass plates, and excluding the air. -Lindner obtained carpospores on a wort gelatin culture in a petri dish, -from which the air was excluded. The writer has tried various methods -for obtaining carpospores, but so far without success. Moist chambers -were used with various media, excluding the air. The development of -the mold is seemingly dependent on the amount of air in the chamber -at the time of sealing. After the air is exhausted, the conidiophores -assume fantastic forms, developing only one or a few sterigmata, and -on these one or few conidia. In other cases the conidiophores are -fascicled, in no cases, however, forming the conidia as luxuriantly -as when air is supplied. The hyphæ become clear, much vacuolated, -and develop more septa, and some of the cells become much enlarged. -An enlarged cell will often contain two or three septa, thus forming -cells that are not larger than disks. In cultures from which the air -was excluded from the start, no development took place. In test-tube -cultures sealed with paraffin after twenty-four hours, the mold -developed on the surface of the gelatin, forming a felted white mass, -but no conidia nor carpospores were formed. - - -GROWTH IN KETCHUP. - -The form of Penicillium which was used in the experiments was isolated -from ketchup in which it grew luxuriantly. When conidia are first -formed on the ketchup, they are a delicate blue in color; they then -become bluish green, then green, and finally olive. The development of -the color of mold growing on ketchup is practically the same as when -grown in wort, tomato bouillon, pea bouillon, or gelatin made with -these solutions as a basis. In ketchup containing sodium benzoate, the -blue color appearing first remains for a long time, and in old cultures -the mold is a dull drab, not olive, as in normal development. - -In ordinary ketchup made without a preservative, the mold forms a -heavy, wrinkled mycelium, showing a large development of conidia. In -the bottles of ketchup, the mold pushes down into the ketchup, becoming -entirely submerged, a clear liquid covering the mold and separating it -from the ketchup. This occurred in more than one hundred bottles. No -secondary mycelium formed on the surface of the liquid, a method of -development which frequently occurs in ordinary media when a mass of -mold is submerged. - -An exception to this was shown in ketchup which had developed the mold -in the laboratory. The bottles were then put in the refrigerator for -two weeks. During this time scarcely any development took place; but -after they were again placed in the laboratory, the mycelium pushed -down into the ketchup and a new, very thin mycelium developed on the -surface. The filaments when seen under the microscope were swollen, had -irregular outlines, and a comparatively smaller number of septa, and -were filled with a coarsely granular protoplasm. The ends were blunt -and misshapen and the sterigmata were irregular, tending more toward a -fasciculated arrangement, and forming fewer conidia. The filaments from -the vinegar and acetic acid media had the same appearance as those -developed on ketchup, but had a smoother outline. - - -TEMPERATURE TESTS. - - -The limits for the germination of Penicillium, as given by W. J. -Sykes,[E] are 2° to 43° C. (35° to 110° F.), and the most favorable -temperature 22° to 26° C. (72° to 79° F.). This author states also that -according to Pasteur the dry spores retained their vitality at 108° -C. (226° F.), but that they were soon killed when immersed in boiling -water. Klöcker[F] quotes Pasteur as saying that the conidia are killed -if exposed to a temperature of 127° to 132° C. for half an hour, but -that they retain life at 119° to 121° C. - -[E] Principles and Practice of Brewing, 1907, p. 284. - -[F] Ibid., p. 281. - -A series of tests was made to determine the thermal death point of -the moist and dry conidia of the Penicillium used in the experiments, -a young, vigorous development on ketchup being used. The flasks were -kept under observation for a month after the tests were made, as in -many cases a development does not occur in the usual time. The high -temperatures applied for longer periods of time were tried first, but -both temperature and time were reduced as results from the series were -obtained. Only the conditions obtaining in the final tests are given in -the table. It was found that the Penicillium used did not have the high -resistance supposed. - -The tests were made in small flat-bottomed 10-cc flasks, tomato -bouillon being used for the tests on moist conidia. The bouillon was -used so as to have the conidia in a nutritive medium after the test was -made, without transferring. The time for those at 100° C. was estimated -from the time of ebullition. At the end of the specified time, the -flasks were cooled promptly under running water. As the flat bottoms -gave comparatively large surface, the heating and the cooling could be -effected in a short time. For the tests below 100° C. a vessel of water -was heated to the desired temperature, and the flasks were immersed in -it and shaken constantly. The dry conidia were placed in test tubes -which were immersed in boiling water for the desired time and cooled -under running water, after which 10 cc of sterilized tomato bouillon -was added. After determining the death point in this manner and finding -it to be much lower than had been supposed, it was decided to make the -test again, but using ketchup as the medium. Ten grams of ketchup were -sterilized, then inoculated from a vigorous growth of mold, and tested -with a set in which the tomato bouillon was used. For those below 100° -C. the two flasks which were to receive the same temperature were held -in the vessel of water at the same time, so that as nearly as possible -the treatment would be identical. The following results were obtained: - -_Thermal death point of moist and dry conidia of Penicillium._ - - PENICILLIUM IN 10 CC OF TOMATO BOUILLON. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - No. of |Temperature.| Time of |Time before |Period of observation - experiment.| | heating. |germination.| and developments. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - | _°C._ |_Minutes._| _Days._ | - 1 | 85 | ½ | 3 |Dark strings from - | | | |spores; 9 days; - | | | |no development. - 2 | 80 | 1 | | - 3 | 75 | 1 | | - 4 | 70 | 5 | | - 5 | 65 | 5 | 3 |Dark strings running - | | | |from spores; 9 days; - | | | |growth normal, spots - | | | |on surface. - 6 | 60 | 5 | 3 | Do. - 7 | 55 | 5 | 3 | Do. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - - PENICILLIUM IN 10 CC OF KETCHUP. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - 1 | 100 | 3 | | - 2 | 100 | 2 | | - 3 | 100 | 1 | | - 4 | 100 | ½ | | - 5 | 100 | Instant.| | - 6 | 85 | ½ | 2 |Colonies on sides; - | | | |8 days; surface - | | | |covered, green. - 7 | 80 | 1 | 2 | Do. - 8 | 75 | 1 | 2 | Do. - 9 | 70 | 5 | 8 |Colony on surface. - 10 | 65 | 5 | 9 | Do. - 11 | 60 | 5 | 3 |Colonies on sides; - | | | |8 days; surface - | | | |covered, green. - 12 | 55 | 5 | 4 | Do. - 13 | | | 2 |Ring around sides; - | | | |3 days; surface - | | | |nearly covered. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - - DRY CONIDIA. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - 1 | 100 | 10 | 4 |Rough appearance, - | | | |like that in ketchup. - 2 | 100 | 15 | 4 | Do. - 3 | 100 | 20 | 7 |Slight growth. - 4 | 100 | 25 | 10 |Growth barely - | | | |perceptible. - 5 | 100 | 30 | 10 | Do. - 6 | 100 | 35 | |Conidia stained - | | | |readily, showing they - | | | |were dead. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - - YEAST. - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - 1 | 55 | 5 | 2 |Wrinkled film; liquid - | | | | turbid. - 2 | 60 | 5 | 2 | Do. - 3 | 65 | 5 | 2 |Thin, smooth film; - | | | |liquid clear. - 4 | 70 | 5 | | - 5 | 75 | 5 | | - 6 | 100 | Instant.| | - -----------+------------+----------+------------+--------------------- - -The moist heat was very effective in destroying the vitality of the -conidia of Penicillium, the death point being 27° C. higher than the -maximum temperature for germination as given by Sykes. The heating was -more effective in destroying germs when applied to bouillon than to -ketchup, no development taking place for any temperature above 65° C., -even when applied for a short time. - -In the ketchup the lower temperatures for the longer periods of time -were more effective in checking the development, even though they did -not destroy the vitality. In the ketchup, with the exception of Nos. 9 -and 10, the colonies started invariably along the sides of the flasks. -The greater access of air to those on the sides would account for -this. The conidia on the sides of flasks Nos. 9 and 10 must have been -destroyed, as no development took place in either case except in the -center of the surface. - -The dry conidia were destroyed at 100° C. when heated for thirty-five -minutes; they did not reach a normal development in any case, even -when heated for only ten minutes, many of the conidia being destroyed -by this treatment. Where development failed to take place, the conidia -were stained with a water solution of eosin, so as to be sure that the -effect was death, and not an arrested development. - -The results of the tests do not agree with those obtained in factory -practice, where the ketchup is cooked at 100° C. for at least forty -minutes and sometimes for fifty or fifty-five minutes, depending on the -consistency of the pulp. - - - - -HISTOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF KETCHUP. - - -In ketchup are found parts of all the various tissues of the tomato -broken into fine pieces by the action of the cyclone. Although the -sieves take out the seeds, skins, and any large pieces, particles of -the various tissues are present in size sufficient for identification. -Among the distinctive features are the red crystalline bodies in -the parenchyma, which serve to a certain extent to distinguish -the parenchyma from that of other plants which might be used for -adulteration, and serve also to differentiate the natural from the -artificially colored ketchup. Some of the red dye used colors all -protoplasm indiscriminately, even that of the fungi present, and as -a colored ketchup is usually poor stuff, containing many fungi, the -mold filaments, yeast cells, and bacteria receive their share of the -color. Other red dye used is in the form of fine powder, which does not -go into solution, but is distributed as irregular particles which are -distinct from the red crystalline bodies. - -Good ketchup made from whole tomatoes has a clean appearance readily -distinguishable under the microscope; but the poor ketchup has usually -a superabundance of fungi present, fully developed colonies of mold, -many forms of conidia, besides yeast-like cells, and different forms -of bacteria. All of these may be dead, but neither preservatives nor -dosage of odorous spices can disguise their presence. In some of the -ketchup examined, which was put up in attractive form and labeled -as being made from the whole tomatoes, and which had the appearance -and odor of good ketchup, the microscope showed the presence of such -quantities of fungi as to leave no doubt that the tomatoes were spoiled -when cooked. It is presumable that some of the dealers placing this -sort of stuff on the market do not know its condition themselves, and -either buy their pulp from other factories or trust its manufacture to -employees whose only care is that the ketchup shall have a bright color -and shall “keep.” Some of the mould filaments and conidia are distorted -in the same way as those of the Penicillium are when grown in ketchup -to which sodium benzoate has been added. - -The ketchup made from sound tomatoes and manufactured in a cleanly -manner has practically no fungi present. The ketchup that was used in -these experiments was made at different times during the season and was -of this character, no bottle examined showing mold filaments when first -opened. - - - - -MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF SOME COMMERCIAL BRANDS. - - -In examining ketchup the color, odor, amount of discoloration, -presence of foreign tissue, foreign coloring matter, oil, and fungi -were determined. If no preservative was mentioned, some of the ketchup -was put in petri dishes and inoculated with Penicillium to determine -whether growth could take place. The following examinations are -reported, as they represent some of the best known brands on the market: - - _No. 9._--Opened September 2, 1907; age unknown; pint bottle; no - preservative mentioned; not spoiled July 6 of following year. - This ketchup was guaranteed to be made from fresh, ripe, tomatoes - by a new process. The color is an unnatural red, has not faded, - and the odor is good. The microscope showed the presence of much - refuse, and large quantities of fungi, whole colonies of molds, - the filaments distorted, many yeast cells, and bacteria. The red - color was not confined to the red crystalline bodies, as is the - case in ripe tomatoes, but the whole of the protoplasm of the - cells, including the nucleus and nucleolus was red, as were also - most of the mold filaments and yeast, indicating the presence of - considerable artificial coloring matter. The structure indicated - that the stock had been manufactured from “trimmings,” and - further, that they were not fresh when used, but had fermented. - There was no oil present. The “new process” is a success in - keeping ketchup, as no preservative is mentioned. The price was 20 - cents. - - _No. 112._--Another bottle of the same brand of ketchup; examined - in April, 1908; presumably manufactured in 1907; one-twelfth of - 1 per cent of sodium benzoate declared on label; a bright red; - guaranteed to be from fresh ripe tomatoes and uncolored. The - microscope showed no dyeing of the tissues, few fungi, and no - extraneous matter. The price was 20 cents. - - _No. 17._--Opened September 28, 1907; age unknown; a pint bottle; - sodium benzoate declared on supplemental label, no amount being - stated; reddish brown color, badly discolored on top; greasy odor; - not spoiled July 6, 1908; refuse present; large amount of oil; - many fungi; the mold filaments enlarged and distorted. The price - was 15 cents. - - _No. 109._--Another bottle of the same brand examined in April, - 1908; presumably manufactured the preceding year; had one-tenth - of 1 per cent of sodium benzoate; not spoiled July 6, 1908; - reddish brown color, discolored near top; greasy odor. This was - practically the same as the first bottle examined, had fewer mold - filaments, but many bacteria. - - _No. 18._--Opened September 28, 1907; age unknown; pint bottle; - no preservative mentioned; not spoiled July 6, 1908. A neck label - stated that it is made from sound ripe tomatoes and uncolored. - Color reddish brown; greasy odor; many oil globules; too many mold - filaments and bacteria for sound tomatoes. Price 20 cents. - - _No. 113._--Another bottle of the same brand examined in April, - 1908; said to have been manufactured in 1908; no preservative - mentioned; not spoiled after standing open for seventy days; same - as No. 18 in color and odor; oil and many fungi again present. - - _No. 10._--Opened September 2, 1907; age unknown; half-pint - bottle; no preservative mentioned; not spoiled July 6, 1908. A - neck label 2 inches in height guaranteed the highest quality; an - extra label lower down on the neck stated the product to be the - natural color, and made from fresh, ripe tomatoes; the regular - label carried the brand, manufacturer’s name, etc. Color brown; - sweetish odor; colonies of mold; distorted filaments; many - bacteria; a few small oil globules. Price 25 cents. - - _No. 106._--Same brand; pint bottle; examined in April, 1908; said - to be manufactured in 1907; color red, discolored near surface; - 2-inch neck label in addition to regular label; no preservative - mentioned; did not spoil in seventy days; oil globules; particles - of red, amorphous matter; whole colonies of mold, as well as - fragments of filaments; teeming with bacteria. - - _No. 77._--Different brand, but same manufacturer as Nos. 10 and - 106; age unknown; pint bottle; one-twelfth of 1 per cent of sodium - benzoate declared; opened December 1; placed in incubator at 95° - F. for a month; not spoiled July 6; color reddish brown; greasy - odor; oil globules, many mold filaments, and bacteria present. - Price 20 cents. - - _No. 107._--Third brand from same manufacturer as preceding; said - to be manufactured in 1907; half-pint bottle; one-twelfth of 1 - per cent of benzoate of soda declared; layer of oil on surface; - sweet odor; reddish-brown color. Oil globules prominent feature - microscopically, whole colonies of distorted mold were present, - and sample contained many different forms of bacteria. Price 10 - cents. - - _No. 14._--Opened September 2, 1907; age unknown; no preservative - mentioned; not spoiled July 6, 1908; half-pint bottle; color red; - good odor; few bacteria; free from refuse. Price 25 cents. - - _No. 108._--Same brand as No. 14; said to be manufactured in 1907; - pint bottle; one-tenth of 1 per cent of benzoate of soda declared; - color red; good odor; few fungi; clean and free from refuse. - - _No. 33._--Opened October 24, 1907; age unknown; one-tenth of 1 - per cent of benzoate of soda declared; spoiled November 1; pint - bottle (14 ounces); sweetish odor; brown color; many molds, yeast - and bacteria. Price 10 cents. - - _No. 114._--Same brand as No. 33; said to be manufactured in 1907; - opened in April; not spoiled in seventy days; many molds, yeasts, - and bacteria; some green tissue, and filaments of algæ. The price - was 10 cents. - - - - -SUMMARY. - - -1. The experiments made during the season of 1907 on the manufacture -of tomato ketchup without chemical preservatives were conducted under -factory conditions and upon a commercial scale. The results prove that -such a ketchup can be made and delivered to the consumer in perfect -condition; the product in question having already stood ten months, -unopened, without showing the slightest indication of spoilage. - -2. The product is of excellent consistency, flavor, and color. The -formula employed regularly in the factory where the experiment was -conducted was used, but other recipes could be adapted without changing -the character of special brands. In the manufacture of such a product -the following precautions were observed: - -(_a_) Whole, sound, ripe tomatoes and high-grade salt, sugar, vinegar, -and spices were used; care and cleanliness were observed at every -step of the preparation, and the preservation accomplished by heat in -the following manner: The pulp was cooked in a steam kettle for about -forty minutes, until the mass was reduced to about one-half its volume. -Additional processing after bottling did not appear to be necessary to -keep the ketchup before opening, and had no effect in these experiments -in delaying spoilage after opening. - -(_b_) Ketchup was bottled directly from the cooker at a temperature -of 205° F. in bottles prepared in two ways: (1) Sterilized in a steam -chamber at 230° F.; (2) Washed in hot water, rinsed, and heated to 190° -F. in a dry heat for at least thirty minutes. Ketchup was also bottled -after the usual process of sieving at 165° F. in bottles prepared in a -similar manner. The corks for all bottles were sterilized in a paraffin -bath at 270° F. The same ketchup which was bottled at 165° F. was also -given subsequent processing at 190° F. and 212° F. for twenty and forty -minutes. All have kept without spoilage. - -3. Some of the condiments have a limited antiseptic value, but can -not be depended upon to prevent spoilage in the quantities used for -flavoring. While sugar and vinegar can be added in such amounts as -to delay the appearance of molds, and cinnamon and cloves can be -depended upon to check deterioration to some extent, these condimental -substances have only an incidental value for this purpose. - -4. The spoilage of ketchup after opening depends more upon the -temperature of the place in which it is kept than on any variation -in the manner of processing. Fresh ketchup held, after opening, at a -temperature of 95° F. kept for five days on an average without any -trace of mold appearing; at 72° it kept for six days; at 67° for eight -days; about 46° (refrigerator), fourteen days; and at from 30° to 60° -for twenty-seven days. These figures represent the time at which the -first trace of spoilage occurred in the neck of the bottle--had this -been removed the figures would be much increased--and by no means -represent the maximum time during which the ketchup could have been -used, the maximum figures, even under these conditions of observation, -varying from eight to fifty-eight days. The keeping of the ketchup -in warm storage at 70° for one hundred and fifty days before opening -hastened the average time of spoilage after opening about one day. The -advisability of using small containers, to get the best results with a -first-class ketchup, is apparent. - -5. Sodium benzoate, even when used in the proportion of 0.1 per -cent, is not always effective, and has an injurious effect upon the -living matter of the molds, shown by the distortion and swelling of -the filaments, which are filled with a coarse granular protoplasm -containing much fat. - -6. Artificially colored ketchup can be detected under the microscope -by the fact that certain tissues, normally colorless, are dyed red, or -by the presence of fine, red, amorphous particles which do not go into -solution. - -7. Ketchup made from whole ripe stock in a cleanly manner gives a clean -appearance under the microscope, but few molds, yeasts, and bacteria -being present. On the other hand, ketchup made from trimming stock, -or from tomatoes that have been allowed to spoil, contains immense -quantities of these growing organisms which may be killed in the -process of manufacture, but still give proof of the character of the -material used. Ketchup as ordinarily made from trimming stock should, -therefore, be designated, so as to differentiate it from that made from -sound fresh tomatoes, as the two products are radically different. -This exactness in labeling is due no less to the manufacturer than to -the consumer, as it is impossible to make the superior product in fair -competition with the inferior one, other conditions being equal, unless -the two are properly designated, there being naturally some difference -in the price. - - - - -Transcriber's Notes: - -In the text version, italics are represented by _underscores_. - -Missing or incorrect punctuation has been repaired. - -The following corrections have been made to the text:-- - - p.8. A majority of the manufacturers employ word, has been changed to - A majority of the manufacturers employ the word. - - p.28. one has has, the duplicate has been removed. - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Experiments on the Spoilage of Tomato -Ketchup, by A. W. 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