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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #52424 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/52424)
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-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cave Hunting, by William Boyd Dawkins
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Cave Hunting
-       Researches on the evidence of caves respecting the early
-       inhabitants of Europe
-
-Author: William Boyd Dawkins
-
-Release Date: June 28, 2016 [EBook #52424]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAVE HUNTING ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Sharon Joiner, Charlie Howard,
-and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
-http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images
-made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s Note: Italic text is enclosed in _underscores_;
-superscripts are indicated by carets: 4^e.
-
-
-
-
-CAVE HUNTING.
-
-[Illustration]
-
-[Illustration: _Fig. 1._
-
-_Fig. 2._
-
-_Fig. 3._
-
-_Fig. 4._
-
-_Fig. 5._
-
-_Fig. 6._
-
-_Fig. 7._
-
-_Fig. 8._
-
-            C. F. Kell Lath. London F.C.
-
-ENAMELS FROM THE VICTORIA CAVE. p98.
-
-London; Macmillan & C^o. 1874.]
-
-
-
-
-    CAVE HUNTING,
-
-    RESEARCHES ON
-    THE EVIDENCE OF CAVES
-    RESPECTING THE
-    EARLY INHABITANTS OF EUROPE
-
-    BY
-
-    W. BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A.,
-
-    _Curator of the Museum and Lecturer in Geology in
-    The Owens College, Manchester_.
-
-
-    _ILLUSTRATED BY COLOURED PLATE AND WOODCUTS._
-
-
-    London:
-    MACMILLAN AND CO.
-    1874.
-
-    [_The Right of Translation and Reproduction is reserved._]
-
-
-
-
-    LONDON:
-    R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,
-    BREAD STREET HILL.
-
-
-
-
-    TO
-
-    THE BARONESS BURDETT COUTTS,
-
-    THE FOUNDER OF THE SCHOLARSHIPS
-    FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCE
-    IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD,
-
-    This Work is Dedicated,
-
-    AS A SLIGHT ACKNOWLEDGMENT FROM HER FIRST SCHOLAR.
-
-
-
-
-PREFACE.
-
-
-The exploration of caves is rapidly becoming an important field of
-inquiry, and their contributions to our knowledge of the early history
-of the sojourn of men in Europe are daily increasing in value and in
-number. Since the year 1823, when Dr. Buckland published his famous
-work, the “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” no attempt has been made to correlate,
-and bring into the compass of one work, the crude mass of facts which
-have been recorded in nearly every country in Europe. In this volume
-I have attempted to bring the history of cave-exploration down to the
-knowledge of to-day, and to put its main conclusions before my readers
-in one connected and continuous narrative. Since Dr. Buckland wrote,
-the momentous discovery of human relics along with the extinct animals
-in caves and river deposits has revolutionised the current ideas as to
-the antiquity and condition of man; and works of art of a high order,
-showing a familiarity with nature and an aptitude for the delineation
-of the forms of animals by no means despicable, have been discovered in
-the caves of Britain, France, Belgium, and Switzerland, that were the
-dwellings of the primeval European hunters of reindeer and mammoths.
-The discoveries in Kent’s Hole and in the caves of Belgium led to those
-in the caves of Brixham and Wookey Hole, and finally to those of
-Auvergne and the south of France, as well as of Germany and Switzerland.
-
-Archæology, also, by the use of strictly inductive methods, has grown
-from a mere antiquarian speculation into a science; and its students
-have proved the truth of the three divisions of human progress
-familiar to the Greek and Roman philosopher, and expressed in the
-pages of Hesiod and Lucretius--the Ages of Stone, Bronze and Iron. The
-subdivision of the first of these into the older, or palæolithic, and
-newer, or neolithic, by Sir John Lubbock, is the only refinement which
-has been made in this classification. Sir Charles Lyell has discussed
-the various problems offered by the general consideration of the first
-of these divisions in “The Antiquity of Man;” while Sir John Lubbock,
-in “Prehistoric Man,” has followed Dr. Keller and others in working out
-the past history of mankind by a comparison of the habitations, tombs,
-implements and weapons found in Europe, with those of modern savages.
-This work is intended to be to a considerable extent supplementary to
-theirs,--to treat of the formation of caves, and of the light thrown by
-their contents on the sojourn of man in Europe, on the wild animals,
-and on the changes in climate and geography.
-
-In treating of the caves of the historic period, I have given
-considerable prominence to the exploration of the Victoria Cave, near
-Settle, which has led to the discovery that many caverns were inhabited
-in this country during the fifth and sixth centuries, and that they
-contain works of art of a high order. In the difficult task of bringing
-them into relation with British history and art, I have to acknowledge
-the kind assistance of Mr. E. A. Freeman, the Rev. J. R. Green, and Mr.
-A. W. Franks.
-
-In the neolithic division of the prehistoric period, I have
-published at length my recent discoveries in the sepulchral caves of
-Denbighshire, and am allowed by my friend, Professor Busk, to reprint
-his description of the human bones. To his suggestive essay on the
-Gibraltar caves, as well as to the works of the late Dr. Thurnam, and
-of Professors Broca and Huxley, I am indebted for the clue to the
-identification of the neolithic dwellers in caves with the ancient
-Iberians or Modern Basques. That portion of the evidence which relates
-to France I have verified by a personal examination of the human
-remains from caves and tombs in the Museums of Bordeaux, Toulouse,
-Lyons and Paris.
-
-The results of the exploration of the Hyæna-den of Wookey Hole have
-been given in greater detail in the portion of the work devoted to the
-palæolithic age than they would have been, had they been before fully
-recorded. And in this division of the subject I have largely made
-use of the “Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,” which embodies the discoveries in
-Auvergne of my late friends Professor E. Lartet and Mr. Christy. To the
-editors of that work I am indebted for permission to use some of the
-plates and letterpress.
-
-The history of the pleistocene mammalia, in which palæolithic man
-forms the central figure, has been my especial study for many years.
-And the evidence which is offered by the animals as to the geography
-and climate of Europe, which I have published from time to time in the
-works of the Palæontographical Society, the _Geological Journal_, and
-in the _Popular Science_, _British Quarterly_, and _Edinburgh Reviews_,
-is collected together in this work, and brought into relation with the
-inquiry into the extension of ice over Europe in the glacial period,
-and into the soundings of the European seas. In approaching these
-and the like problems, I have done my best to arrive at the truth by
-visiting as far as possible the foreign localities and collections, and
-by correspondence with the discoverers of new facts.
-
-In addition to those names which I have already mentioned, I have
-to express my thanks to the Councils of the Society of Antiquaries,
-the Geological Society, and of the Anthropological Institute and to
-Mr. John Evans, for the use of woodcuts; to Mr. Rooke Pennington for
-looking over some of the proof sheets; and to Professors Gaudry,
-Rütimeyer, Lortet, Nilsson, and Steenstrüp, and the Rev. Canon
-Greenwell for aid of various kinds. But especially do I feel grateful
-to my old friend and master, the late lamented Professor Phillips, for
-frequent help and prudent counsel.
-
-In laying this book before my readers I would merely further remark,
-that it is a faint outline of a new and vast field of research, in
-which I have attempted to give prominence to the more important points,
-rather than a finished and detailed history of cave-exploration.
-
-            W. B. D.
-
-    THE OWENS COLLEGE, MANCHESTER,
-          _20th July, 1874_.
-
-
-
-
-CONTENTS.
-
-
-  CHAPTER I.
-
-  INTRODUCTION.
-
-                                                                    PAGE
-
-  Legends and Superstitions connected with Caves                     1-5
-
-  The Physical Division of the Subject                              5, 6
-
-  The Biological Division                                              6
-
-  Men and Animals                                                      6
-
-  Ethnological, Archæological, and Geographical Bearings             7-9
-
-  The Three Classes of Bone-Caves                                 10, 11
-
-  History of Cave-Exploration in Europe                               11
-
-      ”                ”         Germany                          11, 12
-
-      ”                ”         Great Britain                     13-18
-
-      ”                ”         France                            18-20
-
-      ”                ”         Belgium                          20, 21
-
-      ”                ”         Southern Europe                  21, 22
-
-
-  CHAPTER II.
-
-  PHYSICAL HISTORY OF CAVES.
-
-  Caves formed by the Sea and by Volcanic Action                      23
-
-  Caves in Arenaceous Rocks                                           24
-
-  Caves in Calcareous Rocks of various ages                        25-27
-
-  Their Relation to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines             27, 28
-
-  Water-Cave of Wookey Hole                                        29-31
-
-  Goatchurch Cave                                                  31-34
-
-  Water-Caves of Derbyshire                                           34
-
-  Water-Caves of Yorkshire--Ingleborough                           35-39
-
-  Rate of Deposit of Stalagmite                                    39-41
-
-  Descent into Helln Pot                                           41-47
-
-  Caves and Pots round Weathercote                                 47-50
-
-  Formation of Caves, Pot-holes, and Ravines                       50-57
-
-  Caverns not generally formed in line of Faults                      57
-
-  Various Ages of Caves                                            58-61
-
-  Filling up of Caves                                                 61
-
-  Cave of Caldy                                                    62-68
-
-  Black-Rock Cave, Tenby                                              68
-
-  Carbonate of Lime dissolved by Atmospheric Water                 69-70
-
-  Circulation of Carbonate of Lime                                    71
-
-  Temperature of Caves                                             71-72
-
-  Conclusion                                                          73
-
-
-  CHAPTER III.
-
-  HISTORIC CAVES IN BRITAIN.
-
-  Definition of Historic Period                                       74
-
-  Wild Animals in Britain during the Historic Period               75-77
-
-  Animals living under the care of Man                                77
-
-  Classificatory Value of Historic Animals                         78-81
-
-  The Victoria Cave, Settle, Yorkshire--History of Discovery       81-85
-
-  The Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh Stratum                          86-88
-
-  Bones of the Animals                                             88-90
-
-  Miscellaneous Articles                                           90-92
-
-  The Coins                                                           93
-
-  The Jewellery, and its relation to Irish Art                    94-101
-
-  Similar remains in other Caves in Yorkshire                        101
-
-  Caves used as places of Refuge                                     102
-
-  The evidence of History as to Date                             103-111
-
-  Britain under the Romans                                       103-105
-
-  The inroads of the Picts and Scots                                 105
-
-  The English Conquest                                               107
-
-  The Neolithic Stratum                                          111-115
-
-  Approximate Date of the Neolithic Occupation                       115
-
-  The Grey Clays                                                 116-118
-
-  The Pleistocene Occupation by Hyænas                           118-121
-
-  Probable Pre-glacial Age of the Pleistocene Stratum            121-125
-
-  The Kirkhead Cave                                                  125
-
-  Poole’s Cavern, Buxton                                             126
-
-  Thor’s Cave, near Ashbourne                                    127-129
-
-  Historic Value of Brit-Welsh group of Caves                        129
-
-  Principal Animals and Articles in Brit-Welsh Caves             130-132
-
-  The Use of Horse-flesh                                             132
-
-  Cave of Longberry Bank, Pembrokeshire                              133
-
-
-  CHAPTER IV.
-
-  CAVES USED IN THE AGES OF IRON AND BRONZE.
-
-  Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time               134-136
-
-  The Prehistoric Fauna                                          136-138
-
-  Archæological Classification                                   138-140
-
-  Caves of the Iron Age                                              140
-
-  Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain                             141-145
-
-  The Caves of the Césareda in Portugal probably occupied by
-      Cannibals                                                  145-147
-
-  Cave of Reggio in Modena                                           148
-
-
-  CHAPTER V.
-
-  CAVES OF THE NEOLITHIC AGE.
-
-  Neolithic Caves in Great Britain--Perthi-Chwareu               149-156
-
-  Rhosdigre                                                      156-158
-
-  Neolithic Caves in the neighbourhood of Cefn, St. Asaph        159-161
-
-  Chambered Tomb near Cefn                                       161-164
-
-  Correlation of Chambered Tomb with the Caves of Perthi-Chwareu
-      and Cefn                                                       164
-
-  Contents of Caves and Tombs, tabulated                         165-166
-
-  Description of Human Remains by Professor Busk                 166-187
-
-  General conclusions as to Human Remains                        197-188
-
-
-  CHAPTER VI.
-
-  THE RANGE OF NEOLITHIC DOLICHO-CEPHALI AND BRACHY-CEPHALI.
-
-  Cranial Terminology                                            189-190
-
-  Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali                             191-194
-
-  Range of the Dolicho-cephali in Britain and Ireland            194-197
-
-  Range of the Brachy-cephali                                        197
-
-  Their Range in France                                              198
-
-  Caverne de l’homme Mort                                        198-202
-
-  Sepulchral Cave of Orrouy                                          202
-
-  Skulls from French Tumuli                                          203
-
-  The Dolicho-cephali of Iberian Peninsula--Gibraltar            204-208
-
-  Spain--Cueva de los Murcièlagos                                208-210
-
-  The Woman’s Cave near Alhama                                       210
-
-  The Guanches of the Canary Isles                                   211
-
-  Iberic Dolicho-cephali of the same race as those of Britain        212
-
-  Dolicho-cephali cognate with the Basque                        213-215
-
-  Sepulchral Cave of Chauvaux                                    215-218
-
-  Cave of Sclaigneaux                                            218-220
-
-  Evidence of History as to the Peoples of Gaul and Spain        220-223
-
-  The Basque Population the oldest                                   223
-
-  Population of Britain                                              224
-
-  Basque Characters in British and French Populations present    225-227
-
-  Whence come the Basques?                                           227
-
-  The Celtic and Belgic Brachy-cephali                           228-230
-
-  The Ancient German Race                                            230
-
-  General conclusions                                                231
-
-
-  CHAPTER VII.
-
-  CAVES CONTAINING HUMAN REMAINS OF DOUBTFUL AGE.
-
-  The Paviland Cave                                              232-234
-
-  Cave of Engis                                                 234, 235
-
-  Trou du Frontal                                                236-239
-
-  Cave of Gendron                                                    239
-
-     ”    Gailenreuth                                                240
-
-     ”    Neanderthal                                            240-241
-
-     ”    Aurignac                                               242-247
-
-     ”    Bruniquel                                             247, 248
-
-     ”    Cro-Magnon                                             249-256
-
-     ”    Lombrive                                                   256
-
-     ”    Cavillon, near Mentone                                     257
-
-  Grotta dei Colombi, Palmaria, inhabited by Cannibals           258-261
-
-  General conclusions as to Prehistoric Caves                    261-263
-
-
-  CHAPTER VIII.
-
-  THE PLEISTOCENE CAVES OF GERMANY AND GREAT BRITAIN.
-
-  Relation of Pleistocene to Prehistoric Period                      264
-
-  Magnitude of Interval                                              265
-
-  Animals                                                       265, 266
-
-  Physical Changes--Excavation and filling up of Valleys         267-272
-
-  Fisherton, near Salisbury                                          267
-
-  Freshford, near Bath                                               269
-
-  Comparison of Deposits in Valleys with those in Caves              272
-
-  Difference of Mineral Condition                                    273
-
-  Pleistocene Caves of Germany--Gailenreuth                      273-276
-
-  Kühloch                                                        276-278
-
-  Pleistocene Caves of Great Britain                                 278
-
-        ”       ”      Yorkshire--Kirkdale                       279-284
-
-        ”       ”      Derbyshire--Dream Cave                   284, 285
-
-        ”       ”      North Wales, near St. Asaph              286, 287
-
-  Caves of South Wales in Glamorgan and Carmarthen                   288
-
-     ”     Pembrokeshire                                             289
-
-     ”     Monmouth                                                  290
-
-     ”     Gloucestershire and Somersetshire                         291
-
-     ”     the Mendip Hills--Hutton                                  292
-
-  Banwell                                                            293
-
-  Uphill                                                             294
-
-  Hyæna Den, Wookey Hole                                         295-314
-
-  The district of the Mendip higher in Pleistocene Age than now      314
-
-  The condition of Bones gnawed by Hyænas                        314-317
-
-  The Caves of Devonshire--Oreston                              317, 318
-
-  Caves at Brixham                                               319-324
-
-  Kent’s Hole                                                    324-330
-
-  Probable Age of the Machairodus in Kent’s Hole                 330-335
-
-  Caves of Ireland--Shandon                                          335
-
-
-  CHAPTER IX.
-
-  THE INHABITANTS OF THE CAVES OF NORTH-WESTERN EUROPE, AND THE
-      EVIDENCE OF THE FAUNA AS TO THE ATLANTIC COAST-LINE.
-
-  The Caves of France                                                336
-
-  Cave of Baume                                                      337
-
-  Caves of Périgord                                              337-347
-
-     ”     Belgium                                              347, 348
-
-  Trou de Naulette                                                   349
-
-  Caves of Switzerland                                               350
-
-  Cave-dwellers and Palæolithic Men of the River-gravels             351
-
-  Classification of Palæolithic Caves                            351-353
-
-  Relation of Cave-dwellers to Eskimos                           353-359
-
-  Pleistocene Animals living north of the Alps and Pyrenees          359
-
-  Relation of Cave to River-bed Fauna                                362
-
-  The Atlantic Coast-line                                        362-366
-
-  Distribution of Palæolithic Implements                        366, 367
-
-
-  CHAPTER X.
-
-  THE FAUNA OF THE CAVES OF SOUTHERN EUROPE, AND THE EVIDENCE
-      AS TO THE MEDITERRANEAN COAST-LINE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE.
-
-  Changes of Level in Mediterranean Area in Meiocene and
-      Pleiocene Ages                                                 369
-
-  Bone-caves of Southern Europe                                      370
-
-  Caves of Gibraltar                                            371, 372
-
-  Bone-caves of Provence and Mentone                             373-375
-
-        ”       Sicily                                           375-377
-
-        ”       Malta                                                377
-
-  Range of Pigmy Hippopotamus                                        378
-
-  Fossil Mammalia in Algeria                                         379
-
-  Living Species common to Europe and Africa                         379
-
-  Evidence of Soundings                                          380-382
-
-  The Glaciers of Lebanon                                            382
-
-  Glaciers of Anatolia                                           383-386
-
-     ”     of the Atlas Mountains                                    386
-
-     ”     probably produced by elevation above the Sea          387-389
-
-  Mediterranean Coast-line comparatively modern                      389
-
-  Changes of Level in the Sahara                                     390
-
-
-  CHAPTER XI.
-
-  THE EUROPEAN CLIMATE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE.
-
-  Evidence of the Mammalia as to Climate                             392
-
-  Southern Group of Animals                                      393-395
-
-  Northern Group                                                 395-397
-
-  Probable cause of Association of Northern and Southern
-      Groups                                                    397, 398
-
-  The Temperate Group                                                399
-
-  Species common to Cold and Tropical Climates                       400
-
-  Extinct Species                                                    400
-
-  Two Periods of Glaciation in Britain                           401-403
-
-  Three Climatal Changes on the Continent                            403
-
-  Europe invaded by Pleistocene Animals before the Glacial
-      Period                                                     404-406
-
-  Mammalia lived in Europe during the second Glacial Period          406
-
-  The Glacial Period does not separate one Life-era from another     407
-
-  Bone-caves inhabited before and after the Glacial Period           408
-
-  Relation of Palæolithic Man to Glacial Period                      409
-
-  Age of Contents of Caves in Glacial Districts                      410
-
-
-  CHAPTER XII.
-
-  CONCLUSION.
-
-  Classification of Pleistocene Strata by the Mammalia           412-414
-
-  Late Pleistocene Division                                          414
-
-  Middle Pleistocene Division                                    415-417
-
-  Early Pleistocene Mammalia                                     417-420
-
-  The Pleiocene Mammalia                                         420-423
-
-  Summary of Characteristic Pleistocene and Pleiocene Species   423, 424
-
-  Antiquity of Man in Europe                                     424-426
-
-  Man lived in India in the Pleistocene Age                      426-428
-
-  Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related to those of
-      Europe?                                                        428
-
-  Palæolithic Man in Palestine                                       429
-
-  Conclusion                                                         430
-
-
-  APPENDIX I.
-
-  ON THE INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF CAVE-HUNTING.
-
-  Instruments used in Cave-hunting                                   435
-
-  Search after Bone-caves                                            437
-
-  Three modes of Cave-digging                                        438
-
-  Stalagmitic floors to be broken up                                 440
-
-  The Preservation of Fossil Remains                                 440
-
-
-  APPENDIX II.
-
-  Observations on the Accumulation of Stalagmite in the
-      Ingleborough Cave                                              442
-
-
-
-
-LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
-
-
-  FIG.                                                              PAGE
-
-    Coloured Enamels from Victoria Cave                   _Front._
-
-    1  Diagram of Wookey Hole, Cave and Ravine                        30
-
-    2  Diagram of Helln Pot and the Long Churn Cavern                 41
-
-    3  Diagram of Helln Pot                                           42
-
-    4  Diagram of Helln Pot, showing Waterfall at the bottom          45
-
-    5  Waterfall in Pot-hole, at Weathercote                          48
-
-    6  Diagram of Subterranean Course of Dalebeck                     49
-
-    7  Diagram of an acid-worn joint, Doveholes, Derbyshire           52
-
-    8  Diagram of the Source of the Aire at Malham                    55
-
-    9  A View in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy                             63
-
-   10  Stalagmites in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy                        63
-
-   11  The Fairy Chamber, Caldy                                       64
-
-   12  Pools in Fairy Chamber                                         65
-
-   13  Pool in Fairy Chamber                                          65
-
-   14  Edge of Pool in Fairy Chamber                                  65
-
-   15  Cone with Straw-column                                         65
-
-   16  Basin containing Cave-pearls                                   67
-
-   17  Fungoid Structures, magnified                                  67
-
-   18  Fungoid Structure, Black-rock Cave                             68
-
-   19  View of King’s Scar, Settle, showing the Entrances of the
-           Victoria and Albert Caves                                  82
-
-   20  Longitudinal Section of Victoria Cave                          86
-
-   21  Vertical Section at the Entrance to the Victoria Cave          87
-
-   22  Spoon-brooch                                                   91
-
-   23  Ornamented Bone Fastener                                       92
-
-   24  Two Bone Links                                                 92
-
-   25  Bronze Brooch                                                  95
-
-   26  Bone Harpoon                                                  112
-
-   27  Bone Bead                                                     113
-
-   28  Stone Adze of doubtful origin                                 114
-
-   29  Section below Grey Clay, at Entrance to Victoria Cave         117
-
-   30  Skull of Woolly Rhinoceros, showing the part which is not
-           eaten by Hyænas                                           119
-
-   31  Bronze Bracelet from Thor’s Cave                              129
-
-   32  Bronze Knife, Heathery Burn                                   142
-
-   33  Bronze Armlet, Heathery Burn                                  143
-
-   34  Bronze Spear-head, Heathery Burn                              143
-
-   35  Bronze Mould for casting a socketed Celt                      143
-
-   36  Section of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu                             152
-
-   37  Plan of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu                                154
-
-   38  Greenstone Celt, Rhosdigre Cave                               157
-
-   39  Plan of Chambered Tomb at Cefn                                162
-
-   40, 41, 42  Skull from Sepulchral Cave at Perthi-Chwareu          168
-
-   43, 44, 45  Skull from Sepulchral Cave at Perthi-Chwareu          169
-
-   46  Section of Femur                                              172
-
-   47, 48, 49, 50, 51  Section of Tibiæ                              176
-
-   52, 53, 54  Platyenemic Tibiæ                                     177
-
-   55, 56, 57, 58  Human Femora                                      182
-
-   59, 60, 61  Skull from Cave at Cefn, St. Asaph                    185
-
-   62, 63, 64  Skull from Genista Cave                               207
-
-   65, 66  Skull from Cave of Sclaigneaux                            219
-
-   67  Platyenemic Tibia from Sclaigneaux                            219
-
-   68  Map of the Distribution of Iberic, Celtic, and Belgic
-           Peoples at dawn of History                                221
-
-   69  Section of the Trou du Frontal                                237
-
-   70  Diagram of the Cave of Aurignac                               245
-
-   71  Section across the valley of the Vezère and rock of
-           Cro-Magnon                                                249
-
-   72  Detailed Section of the Cave of Cro-Magnon                    251
-
-   73  Thigh-bone of Child from Grotta dei Colombi                   260
-
-   74  Section of Valley-gravels at Fisherton                        268
-
-   75  Section of Valley-gravels at Freshford, Bath                  270
-
-   76  Section of Gailenreuth Cave                                   274
-
-   77  Plan of Kirkdale Cave                                         279
-
-   78  Sections of Kirkdale Cave                                     280
-
-   79  Molar of Hippopotamus                                         281
-
-   80  Leg-bones gnawed by Hyænas                                    282
-
-   81  The Dream-cave, Wirksworth                                    285
-
-   82  Left Lower Jaw of Glutton, Plas Heaton Cave                   287
-
-   83  Plan of Hyæna Den, Wookey Hole                                297
-
-   84, 85, 86, 87  Four Views of Flint Implements from Wookey Hole   299
-
-   88  Section showing Contents of Hyæna Den                         304
-
-   89  Transverse section of ditto                                   305
-
-   90  Longitudinal section                                          306
-
-   91  Longitudinal section                                          311
-
-   92  Gnawed Jaw of Hyæna from Wookey                               313
-
-   93  Upper and Lower Jaws of Hyæna Whelp, Wookey                   315
-
-   94  Thigh-bone of Woolly Rhinoceros gnawed by Hyænas, Wookey      316
-
-   95  Diagram of deposits in Brixham Cave                           320
-
-   96  Lanceolate Implement from Kent’s Hole                         326
-
-   97  Oval Implements from Kent’s Hole                              326
-
-   98  Harpoon from Kent’s Hole                                      327
-
-   99  Harpoon-head from Kent’s Hole                                 327
-
-  100  Hammer-stone                                                  328
-
-  101, 102  Upper Canine of Machairodus, Kent’s Hole                 331
-
-  103, 104, 105  Incisors of Machairodus, Kent’s Hole                333
-
-  106  Flint-flake, Les Eyzies                                       339
-
-  107  Flint Scraper, Les Eyzies                                     339
-
-  108  Flint Javelin-head, Laugerie Haute                            339
-
-  109  Flint Arrow-head, Laugerie Haute                              340
-
-  110  Bone needle, La Madelaine                                     340
-
-  111, 112  Harpoons of Antler, La Madelaine                         342
-
-  113, 114  Arrow-heads, Gorge d’Enfer                               342
-
-  115  Bone Awl, Gorge d’Enfer                                       342
-
-  116  Carved Handle of Reindeer Antler                              343
-
-  117  Two sides of Reindeer Antler, La Madelaine                    344
-
-  118  Horses engraved on Antler, La Madelaine                       344
-
-  119  Group of Reindeer, Dordogne                                   345
-
-  120  Mammoth engraved on Ivory, La Madelaine                       346
-
-  121  Carved Implement of Reindeer Antler, Goyet                    348
-
-  122  Eskimos Spear-head, bone                                      353
-
-  123  Eskimos Arrow-straightener of Walrus-tooth                    354
-
-  124  Eskimos Plane, or Scraper                                     355
-
-  125  Eskimos Hunting Scene                                         357
-
-  126  Map of the Physiography of Great Britain in Late Pleistocene
-           Age                                                       363
-
-  127  Molar of _Hippopotamus Pentlandi_                             377
-
-  128  Molar of _Elephas Melitensis_                                 378
-
-  129  Map of the Physiography of the Mediterranean in the
-           Pleistocene Age                                           381
-
-
-
-
-LISTS OF SPECIES AND TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS.
-
-
-                                                                    PAGE
-
-  List of Animals extinct during the Historic Age                     78
-
-     ”    Animals introduced during the Historic Age                  79
-
-     ”    Coins found in the Victoria Cave                            93
-
-     ”    Principal Animals and Objects found in Brit-Welsh Strata
-              in Caves                                               131
-
-     ”    Animals found in the Refuse-heap, Perthi-Chwareu           150
-
-     ”    Contents in Neolithic Caves and Cairn, North Wales         166
-
-  Dimensions of Perthi-Chwareu Skulls                                171
-
-  Dimensions of Perthi Chwareu Tibiæ                                 173
-
-  Proportions of ordinary Tibiæ                                      174
-
-  Comparative Measurements of Skulls                                 179
-
-  Table of Long Skulls from Britain and Ireland                      197
-
-     ”     Measurements of British Brachy-cephali, and Gaulish
-               and Belgic Brachy-cephali and Dolicho-cephali         199
-
-  Measurements of various Skulls                                     213
-
-  Measurements of Skulls of doubtful antiquity                       236
-
-  List of Late Pleistocene Animals unknown in Britain in the
-      Prehistoric Age                                                266
-
-     ”    Remains found in Wookey Hyæna Den                          310
-
-  Late Pleistocene Fauna north of Alps and Pyrenees             360, 361
-
-  List of Animals from the Caves of Gibraltar                        372
-
-  Fauna from the Caves of Mentone                                    373
-
-         ”       Bone-caves of Sicily                                376
-
-  List of Animals from the Middle Pleistocene                        415
-
-     ”       ”       ”     Early Pleistocene                         418
-
-     ”    Pleistocene Mammalia                                  420, 422
-
-     ”    Characteristic Animals of the Pleistocene Period           423
-
-     ”         ”         ”       ”      Pleiocene Period             424
-
-
-
-
-ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.
-
-
-Page 1, line 7, _for_ “Cythæron” _read_ “Cithæron.”
-
-Page 8, line 4, _for_ “that” _read_ “who.”
-
-Page 17, line 5, _for_ “Seine” _read_ “Somme.”
-
-Page 60, lines 29, 30, _for_ “non-ossiferous” _read_ “no ossiferous.”
-
-Page 82, fig. 19, _for_ “A, B, Albert, C, Victoria” _read_ “A, B,
-Victoria, C, Albert.”
-
-Page 95, fig. 25.--This design is to be seen in the chalice discovered
-in 1868, in a rath at Ardagh, Limerick, and described by the Earl of
-Dunraven (Trans. Royal Irish Acad. xxiv. Antiquities). The chalice is
-made of gold, silver, bronze, brass, copper, and lead, and from the
-identity of its inscription and ornament with those of Irish MSS. of
-ascertained age, may be referred to a date ranging from the 5th to
-the 9th centuries. It is also adorned with squares of blue and red
-enamel of the same kind as that of the brooches from the Victoria Cave,
-figured in the coloured plate. The same design is also presented by
-the “bronze head-ring” found in 1747 at Stitchel, in Roxburgh, (Wilson
-“Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,” ii. 146) as well as by one of the
-silver articles known as “The Norrie Law Relics,” found in a tumulus
-on the shore of the Bay of Largo, Firth of Forth. Of the coins found
-at the same place, the latest, belonging to Tiberius Constantine (d.
-682), fixes the date as not earlier than the 7th century. Some of
-the sculptured stones of Scotland, such as the Dunnichen stone, are
-ornamented also in the same style, and, according to Professor Wilson,
-belong to “the transition period from the 4th to the 8th centuries,
-when pagan and Christian rites were obscurely mingled,” (ii. 259). In
-Scotland, therefore, as well as Ireland, this style of ornamentation
-is of the same age, corresponding in the main with that of Brit-Welsh
-articles in the Victoria Cave, proved by the associated coins to be
-later than the 4th century.
-
-Page 120, line 4.--These teeth are considered by Dr. Leith Adams to
-belong to _Elephas antiquus_, which has been discovered in other places
-in Yorkshire. They may possibly belong to that animal; but they may,
-with equal justice, be identified with the wide-plated variety of the
-teeth of the Mammoth. The great variation in the width of the component
-plates of the fossil teeth of Mammoth observable in the large series
-from Crayford and the caves of the Mendip Hills, and in those in the
-magnificent Museum of Lyons, causes me to hesitate in considering them
-to belong to the rarer species.
-
-Page 130, line 2.--This has been verified while these sheets were
-passing through the press by the discovery of Brit-Welsh articles in
-a cave in Kirkcudbrightshire by Messrs. A. R. Hunt and A. J. Corrie,
-among which are bone fasteners similar in outline to that from the
-Victoria Cave (Fig. 23).
-
-Page 190.--In using this classification of crania, I have purposely
-attached higher value to the two extremes of skull form, or the long
-and the broad, than to the intermediate oval forms, which cannot be
-viewed as distinctive of race, because they may be the results either
-of the intermarriage of a long-headed with a short-headed people, or of
-variation from the type of one or other of them.
-
-Page 196, heading, _for_ “Dolicho-cepha” _read_ “Dolicho-cephali.”
-
-Page 201, heading, _dele_ “A”.
-
-Page 213, note 2.--The “tête annulaire,” or annular depression, is
-also visible on some of the broad as well as the long skulls from
-a “Merovingian” cemetery at Chelles in the same collection. The
-association in this cemetery of the two skull-forms is probably due to
-the Merovingians being the masters, and the Celts the servants, and the
-conquerors and the vanquished being buried in the same spot.
-
-Page 220, line 24, _for_ “Volscæ” _read_ “Volcæ.”
-
-Page 223, line 25, _for_ “east” _read_ “west.”
-
-Page 228, line 3, _dele_ “that.”
-
-Page 229, line 3, _for_ “set foot” _read_ “settled.” The statement in
-the text is too strong. The conquest of Gaul by the Huns under Attila
-was averted by his defeat in the famous battle of Chalons.
-
-Page 275, line 21, _for_ “are” _read_ “is.”
-
-Page 279.--Since this was written a new ossiferous deposit has been
-found in a fissure at Lothorsdale, near Skipton, from which the remains
-of the _Elephas antiquus_ and _Hippopotamus amphibius_ have been
-obtained.
-
-Page 284.--The ossiferous fissure at Windy Knoll, near Castleton,
-recently explored by Messrs. Tym, Pennington, Plant, Walker and
-others, has added several animals to the pleistocene fauna of that
-district--the bison, roe, reindeer, bear, wolf, fox, and hyæna, the
-first of these species being remarkably abundant, and of all ages. The
-remains were probably introduced by a stream from a higher level.
-
-Page 337, note 2, line 2, _for_ “the Revue” and “les Matériaux” _read_
-“in the Revue” and “in the Matériaux.”
-
-Page 337, note 5, _for_ “Aquitainicæ” _read_ “Aquitanicæ.”
-
-Page 347, line 6, _for_ “mind” _read_ “minds.”
-
-Page 356, line 15, _for_ “Port” _read_ “Fort.”
-
-Page 361.--Mr. Ayshford Sanford adds the _Felis Caffer_ to the list
-from Bleadon, and the _Gulo borealis_ to that of the animals from
-Kent’s Hole.
-
-Page 386, line 10, _dele_ inverted commas.
-
-Page 386, line 17, _for_ “or from 1,000 to 2,000 feet lower than the
-glacial covering” _read_ “thus differing by a line of from 1,000 to
-2,000 feet from the glacial covering” (Palgrave).
-
-
-
-
-CAVE-HUNTING.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER I.
-
-INTRODUCTION.
-
-  Legends and Superstitions connected with Caves.--The Physical
-    Division of the Subject.--The Biological.--The Inhabitants
-    of Caves.--Men and Animals.--Ethnological, Archæological,
-    and Geographical Bearings.--The three Classes of Bone-Caves:
-    Historic, Prehistoric, Pleistocene.--History of Cave Exploration
-    in Europe: Germany, Great Britain, France, Belgium, Southern Europe.
-
-
-Caves have excited the awe and wonder of mankind in all ages, and
-have figured largely in many legends and superstitions. In the Roman
-Mythology, they were the abode of the Sibyls, and of the nymphs, and
-in Greece they were the places where Pan, Bacchus, Pluto, and the Moon
-were worshipped, and where the oracles were delivered, as at Delphi,
-Corinth, and Mount Cithæron; in Persia they were connected with the
-obscure worship of Mithras. Their names, in many cases, are survivals
-of the superstitious ideas of antiquity. In France and Germany they are
-frequently termed “Fairy, Dragons’, or Devils’ Caves,” and, according
-to M. Desnoyers, they are mentioned in the invocation of certain
-canonized anchorites, who dwelt in them after having dispossessed and
-destroyed the dragons and serpents, the pagan superstition appearing in
-a Christian dress.
-
-In the Middle Ages they were looked upon as the dwellings of evil
-spirits, into the unfathomable abysses of which the intruder was lured
-to his own destruction. Long after the fairies and little men had
-forsaken the forests and glens of Northern Germany, they dwelt in their
-palaces deep in the hearts of the mountains,--in “the dwarf holes,” as
-they were called--whence they came, from time to time, into the upper
-air. Near Elbingrode, for example, in the Hartz, the legend was current
-in the middle of the last century, that when a wedding-dinner was being
-prepared the near relations of the bride and bridegroom went to the
-caves, and asked the dwarfs for copper and brass kettles, pewter dishes
-and plates, and other kitchen utensils.[1] “Then they retired a little,
-and when they came back, found everything they desired set ready for
-them at the mouth of the cave. When the wedding was over they returned
-what they had borrowed, and in token of gratitude, offered some meat to
-their benefactors.” Allusions, such as this, to dwarfs, according to
-Professor Nilsson, point back to the remote time when a small primeval
-race, inhabiting Northern Germany, was driven by invaders to take
-refuge in caverns,--a view that derives support from the fact that in
-Scandinavia the tall Northmen were accustomed to consider the smaller
-Lapps and Finns as dwarfs, and to invest them with magic power, just
-as in Palestine the smaller invading peoples considered their tall
-enemies giants. The cave of Bauman’s hole, also in the Hartz district,
-was said, in the middle of the last century, to have been haunted
-by divers apparitions, and to contain a treasure guarded by black
-mastiffs; and in Burrington Combe, in Somersetshire, some twenty years
-ago, a cave was dug out by a working man, under the impression that it
-contained gold. The hills of Granada are still believed, by the Moorish
-children, to contain the great Boabdil and his sleeping host, who will
-awake when an adventurous mortal invades their repose, and will issue
-forth to restore the glory of the Moorish kings.
-
-It is, indeed, no wonder that legends and poetical fancies such as
-these should cluster round caves, for the gloom of their recesses,
-and the shrill drip of the water from the roof, or the roar of the
-subterranean water-falls echoing through the passages, and the white
-bosses of stalagmite looming like statues through the darkness, offer
-ample materials for the use of a vivid imagination. The fact that
-often their length was unknown, naturally led to the inference that
-they were passages into another world. And this is equally true of
-the story of Boabdil, of that of the Purgatory of St. Patrick, in the
-north of Ireland, and of the course of the river Styx, which sinks
-into the rocks and flows through a series of caverns that are the dark
-entrance-halls of Hades. The same idea is evident in the remarkable
-story, related by Ælian (Lib. xvi. 16). “Among the Indians of Areia
-there is an abyss sacred to Pluto, and beneath it vast galleries,
-and hidden passages and depths, that have never been fathomed. How
-these are formed the Indians tell not, nor shall I attempt to relate.
-The Indians drive thither (every year) more than 3,000 different
-animals--sheep, goats, oxen, and horses--and each acting either from
-dread of the dreadful abyss, or to avert an evil omen in proportion to
-his means, seeks his own and his family’s safety by causing the animals
-to tumble in; and these, neither bound with chains nor driven, of their
-own accord finish their journey as if led on by some charm; and after
-they have come to the mouth of the abyss they willingly leap down, and
-are never more seen by mortal eyes. The lowing, however, of the cattle,
-the bleating of the sheep and of the goats, and the whinnying of the
-horses are heard above ground, and if anyone listen at the mouth, he
-will hear sounds of this kind lasting for a long time. Nor do they ever
-cease, because beasts are driven thither every day. But whether the
-sound is made by those recently driven in, or by some of those driven
-in some time before, I do not express an opinion.” The Roman Catholic
-Church took advantage of this feeling of superstitious awe, as late as
-the Middle Ages. At the time of the Reformation it was believed that a
-cave at Bishofferode would prove the death of some person in the course
-of the year, unless a public yearly atonement were made. Accordingly
-a priest came, on a certain day, to the chapel on the hill opposite,
-whence he passed in solemn procession to the cave, “and let down into
-it a crucifix, which he pulled up again, and took this occasion to
-remind them of hell, and to avoid the punishment due to their sins.”
-
-The beauty of the interiors of some of the caves could not fail to give
-rise to more graceful fancies than these. The fantastic shapes of the
-dripstone, with which they are adorned, now resembling Gothic pillars
-supporting a crystalline arcade, or jutting out in little spires and
-minarets, and very generally covering the floor with a marble-like
-pavement, and in some cases lining the pools of water with a fretwork
-of crystals that shine like the facets of a diamond, were fitting
-ornaments for the houses of unearthly beings, such as fairies.
-
-
-_The Physical Division of the Subject._
-
-It is by no means my intention in this work to give a history of
-legends such as these, but to take my readers with me into some of
-the more important and more beautiful caves in this country. The
-exploration of the chambers and passages of which they are composed,
-the fording of the subterranean streams by which they are frequently
-traversed, or the descent into deep chasms which open in their floors,
-have the peculiar charm of mountaineering, not without a certain
-pleasurable amount of risk. But to physicist and geologist they offer
-far more than this. They give an insight into the wonderful chemistry
-by which changes are being wrought, at the present time, in the solid
-rock. Nor are the conclusions to which we are led by the investigation
-of these chemical changes merely confined to the interior of caves.
-They enable us to understand how some of the most beautiful scenery
-in Europe has been formed, and to realize the mode by which all
-precipices and gorges have been carved out of the calcareous rock. In
-the next chapter we shall see why it is that the combination of hill
-and valley, ravine and precipice, present the same general features in
-all limestone districts--why, for instance, the ravines of Palestine
-are the same as those of Greece, and both are identical with those
-in Yorkshire. The origin and the history of caves will be examined,
-as well as their relation to the general physical geography of the
-calcareous strata. All these subjects are comprehended in the first or
-the physical division of cave-hunting.
-
-
-_The Biological Division._
-
-We must now proceed to the definition of the scope and object of the
-second, or Biological, division of the subject.
-
-Caves have been used by man, and the domestic animals living under his
-protection, from the earliest times recorded by history down to the
-present day. Those penetrating the rugged precipices of Palestine,
-we read in the Old Testament, served both for habitation and for
-burial, and, from the notices which are scattered through the early
-Greek writers, we may conclude that those of Greece were used for
-dwelling-places. The story of the Cyclops proves that they were also
-used as folds for goats. The name of Troglodytes, given to many peoples
-of the most remote antiquity, implies that there was a time in the
-history of mankind when Pliny’s statement “specus erat pro domibus”
-was strictly true (“Hist. Nat.” I. v. c. 56). The caves of Africa
-have been places of retreat from the remotest antiquity down to the
-French conquest of Algeria, and in 1845 several hundred Arabs were
-suffocated in those of Dahra by the smoke of a fire kindled at the
-entrance by Marshal (then Colonel) Pelissier. Dr. Livingstone alludes
-in his recent letters to the vast caves of Central Africa, which
-offer refuge to whole tribes with their cattle and household stuff.
-In France, according to M. Desnoyers, there are at the present time
-whole villages, including the church, to be found in the rock, which
-are merely caves modified, extended, and altered by the hand of man.
-The caves of the Dordogne were inhabited in the middle ages. Floras
-writes that the Aquitani, “callidum genus in speluncas se recipiebant,
-Cæsar jussit includi,”[2] and the same caves afforded shelter to the
-inhabitants of the same region in the wars of King Pepin against
-the last Duke of Aquitaine. In this country a small cave in Cheddar
-Pass was occupied till within the last few years. The caves in the
-northern counties are stated by Gildas to have offered a refuge to
-the Brit-Welsh inhabitants of Britain during the raids of the Picts
-and Scots; and in the year 1745 those of Yorkshire were turned to the
-same purpose during the invasion of the Pretender. We might reasonably
-expect to find in caves turned to these uses objects left behind, which
-would tell us something of the manners and customs of their possessors,
-and light up the catalogue of battles and intrigues of which history
-generally consists. The results obtained from the Brit-Welsh group of
-caves, treated in the third chapter, show that this hitherto neglected
-branch of the inquiry is not without value to the historian.
-
-Caves containing remains of this kind may be conveniently termed
-historic, because they may be brought into relation with history. It
-must, however, be carefully remarked that the term does not relate
-to history _in general_, but to that _in particular_ of each country
-which happens to be under investigation. The misapprehension of
-this has caused great confusion, and many mistakes in archæological
-classification and reasoning.
-
-Again, our experience of the habits of rude and uncivilized peoples
-would naturally lead us to look to caves, as the places in which we
-should be likely to meet with the remains of the men who lived in
-Europe before the dawn of history. Such remains we do find that,
-placed side by side with others from the tombs and dwellings, enable
-us to discover some, at least, of the races who lived in Europe
-in long-forgotten times, and to ascertain roughly the sequence of
-events in the remote past, far away from the historical border. It
-may, indeed, seem a hopeless quest to recover what has been buried
-in oblivion so long, and it is successful merely through the careful
-comparison of the human skeletons in the caves and tombs of Britain,
-France, and Spain, with those of existing races, and of the implements
-and weapons with those which are now used among savage tribes. By this
-means we shall see that there are good grounds for extending the range
-of the Iberian people over a considerable area in Europe, and for
-the belief that the Eskimos once lived as far south as Auvergne. In
-discussing both these problems it will be impossible to shut our eyes
-to the continuity that exists between geology, archæology, biology, and
-history--sciences which at first sight appear isolated from each other.
-
-The bones of the domestic animals in the caves will necessarily lead to
-the further examination of the appearance and disappearance of breeds
-under the care of man. And this complicated question has an important
-bearing not merely on the ethnology, but also on the history, of some
-of the European peoples. It must be admitted, however, that this
-branch of the subject is, as yet, known merely in outline, and we can
-only hope to ascertain a few facts which may form a basis for future
-investigation.
-
-From another point of view the contents of caves are peculiarly
-valuable. They have been used as places of shelter, not merely by man,
-but by wild animals, from the time they first became accessible to
-the present day. In the same way, therefore, as now they contain, in
-their superficial layers, the bones of sheep, oxen, and horses, foxes,
-rabbits, and badgers, so in their deeper strata lie buried the remains
-of the animals which were living in Europe long before the historic
-times. In other words, they enable us to make out the groups of animals
-inhabiting the neighbouring districts, and which in many cases have
-either forsaken their original abodes or have become extinct. And since
-those which are extinct, or which have migrated, could not have lived
-where their remains are found under the present conditions of life, an
-inquiry into their history leads us into the general question of the
-ancient European climate and geography. It is obvious, for example,
-that the spotted hyæna, which formerly inhabited the caves of Sicily,
-could not have crossed over to that island after it was separated from
-Africa and Italy; and it would be impossible for the musk-sheep, the
-most arctic of the herbivora, to live as far south as Auvergne under
-the present climatal conditions. The presence, therefore, of these
-animals in these districts is proof in the one case of a geographical,
-and in the other of a climatal, change.
-
-The discussion of all these questions is comprehended under the second,
-or biological, division of cave-hunting, which may be defined as an
-inquiry into the remains of man and animals found in the caves, and
-into the conditions under which they lived in Europe.
-
-
-_The three Classes of Bone-caves._
-
-In the biological branch of the subject the caves will be treated
-first which are comprehended within the limits of history; then we
-shall pass on to the investigation of Prehistoric caves, or those
-which have been inhabited in the interval that separates history from
-the remote geological era, which is characterized by the existence of
-the extinct mammalia in Europe. And, lastly, those will be examined
-which have furnished the remains of the extinct animals, and which
-are termed by the geologists Pleistocene, from the fact that a larger
-percentage of existing species were then living than in the preceding
-Pleio-, Meio-, and Eocene periods. The equivalent terms “Quaternary,”
-used by many French geologists, and the “Post-pleiocene division of the
-Post-tertiary Formation,” used by Sir Charles Lyell, are not adopted
-in this work, because they imply a break in the continuity of life,
-which does not exist. “Pleistocene” was invented and subsequently
-discarded by Sir C. Lyell,[3] and is at present used by many eminent
-writers, such as Forbes, Phillips, Gervais, and others. The ossiferous
-caves will therefore be divided into the Historic, Prehistoric, and
-Pleistocene groups. And it will be more convenient to work backwards
-in time from the basis offered by history, than to begin with the
-Pleistocene, or oldest division, and bring the narrative down to the
-present day.
-
-This classification, founded in part on the principle of change
-in the animal world, and partly on the basis offered by history,
-coincides, only in part, with that of the archæologists based on the
-remains of man’s handiwork. The Pleistocene age is the equivalent of
-the Palæolithic, or that of rude unpolished stone; the Prehistoric
-represents the ages of polished stone, bronze, and iron in part, or
-those stages in human progress when the use of these materials became
-general for the purposes of every-day life; while the Historic covers
-merely the later portion of that of iron.
-
-
-_History of Cave-Exploration in Europe._
-
-_Germany._--The rest of this chapter must be devoted to an outline of
-the history of cave-exploration during the last two centuries. The
-dread of the supernatural, which preserved the European caves from
-disturbance, was destroyed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
-by the search after “ebur fossile,” or unicorn’s horn, which ranked
-high in the materia medica of those days as a specific for many
-diseases, and which was obtained, in great abundance, in the caverns of
-the Hartz, and in those of Hungary and Franconia. As the true nature
-of the drug gradually revealed itself, the German caves became famous
-for the remains of the lions, hyænas, fossil elephants, and other
-strange animals, which had been used for medicine. We owe the first
-philosophical discussion on the point to Dr. Gesner,[4] who, although
-he maintained that the fossil unicorn consisted, in some cases, of
-elephant’s teeth and tusks, and in others of its fossil bones, did not
-altogether give up the idea of its medicinal value. It is a singular
-fact, that fossil remains of a similar kind are, at the present time,
-used by the Chinese for the same purpose, and sold in their druggists’
-shops.[5] The cave which was most famous at the end of the seventeenth
-century was that of Bauman’s Hole, in the Hartz, in the district of
-Blankenbourg. It is noticed in the Philosophical Transactions for the
-year 1662, and was subsequently described by Dr. Behrens,[6] Leibnitz,
-De Luc, and Cuvier, along with others in the neighbourhood. Those of
-Hungary come next in point of discovery, the first notice of them
-being due to Patterson Hayne in 1672. They penetrate the southern
-slopes of the Carpathian ranges, and are known by the name of dragons’
-caves, because the bones which they contain had been considered from
-time immemorial to belong to those animals by the country people.
-These remains were identified by Baron Cuvier as belonging to the
-cave-bear.[7]
-
-It was not, however, until the close of the eighteenth century that the
-exploring of caves was carried on systematically, or their contents
-examined with any scientific precision. The caves of Franconia, in
-the neighbourhood of Muggendorf, were described by Esper in 1774, by
-Rosenmuller in 1804, and six years later by Dr. Goldfuss. The most
-important was that of Gailenreuth, both from the vast quantity of
-remains which it was proved to contain, and the investigations to which
-it led. The bones of the hyæna, lion, wolf, fox, glutton, and red
-deer were identified by Baron Cuvier; while some of the skulls which
-Dr. Goldfuss obtained have been recently proved, by Professor Busk,
-to belong to the grizzly bear. They were associated with the bones of
-the reindeer, horse and bison. Rosenmuller was of opinion that the
-cave had been inhabited by bears for a long series of generations; and
-he thus realized that these remains proved that the animals found in
-the cave had once lived in that district, and had not been swept from
-the tropics by the deluge. The interest in these discoveries was at
-its height in the year 1816, when Dr. Buckland visited the cave, and
-acquired that knowledge of cave-exploring which he was subsequently
-to use with such good effect in this country.[8] From this time down
-to the present day, no new fact of importance has been added to our
-knowledge of caves by explorations in Germany.
-
-
-_Great Britain._--The first bone-cave systematically explored in
-this country was that discovered by Mr. Whidbey,[9] in the Devonian
-limestone at Oreston, near Plymouth, in 1816; and the remains obtained
-from it were identified by Sir Everard Home as implying the existence
-of the rhinoceros in that region. This discovery followed close upon
-the researches in Gailenreuth, and was due in some degree to the
-request which Sir Joseph Banks made, that Mr. Whidbey, in quarrying the
-stone for the Plymouth breakwater, should examine the contents of any
-caverns that he might happen to meet with. It preceded Dr. Buckland’s
-exploration of Kirkdale by about four years.
-
-In the summer of 1821 a cave was discovered, in a limestone quarry at
-Kirkdale, in Yorkshire, which was found to contain bones and teeth of
-animals. On hearing of the discovery, Dr. Buckland posted at once from
-South Wales to the spot, and published the result of the explorations
-in the Philosophical Transactions for the next year. He brought forward
-evidence that the cave had been inhabited by hyænas, and that the
-broken and gnawed bones of the rhinoceros, mammoth, stag, bison, and
-horse belonged to animals which had been dragged in for food. He also
-established the fact that all these animals had lived in Yorkshire
-in ancient times, and that it was impossible for the carcases of the
-hyæna, rhinoceros, and mammoth to have been floated from those regions
-where they are now living into the position where he found their bones.
-He subsequently followed up the subject by investigating bone-caves
-in Derbyshire, South Wales, and Somerset, as well as in Germany, and
-published his great work, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” in 1822, which laid the
-foundations of the new science of cave-hunting in this country. The
-exploration of Kirkdale followed closely upon that of Gailenreuth, and
-was merely the application of those principles of research which had
-been discovered in Germany to caves in a new district.
-
-From this time forward bone-caves were discovered in Great Britain
-in increasing numbers, and explored by many independent observers.
-The famous cavern of Kent’s Hole, near Torquay, furnished the Rev. J.
-McEnery, between 1825 and the year 1841, in which he died, with the
-first flint implements ever discovered in a cave along with the bones
-of extinct animals. He recognized the fact that they may be proof of
-the existence of man during the time that those animals were alive;
-but the scientific world was not then sufficiently educated to accept
-the antiquity of the human race on the evidence brought forward, and
-Dr. Buckland himself was so influenced by the opinions of his times,
-that he refused even to entertain the idea. Although the discovery
-was verified by the independent researches of Mr. Godwin Austin in
-1840, and by the Torquay Natural History Society in 1846, the force of
-prejudice was so strong, that the matter was not thought even worthy of
-investigation. Mr. McEnery’s manuscripts were lost until the year 1859,
-when an abstract of them was published by Mr. Vivian, and subsequently
-they were printed in full by Mr. Pengelly, the able superintendent of
-the exploration which has been carried on by a committee of the British
-Association since 1865, by whom several thousand flint implements have
-been obtained, under the conditions pointed out by the Rev. J. McEnery
-and Mr. Godwin Austen.[10]
-
-While the important question of the antiquity of man was being passed
-by as of no account, other caves were being examined in this country.
-Those of Banwell, Burrington, Sandford Hill, Bleadon, and Hutton,
-in the mountain limestone of the Mendip hills, were being worked by
-the Rev. J. Williams and Mr. Beard, and furnished the magnificent
-collection of mammalian bones now in the museum at Taunton. In North
-Wales, also, Mr. Lloyd discovered a similar suite of bones in the
-limestone caves in the neighbourhood of St. Asaph at Cefn, and in South
-Wales numerous remains were obtained by many explorers in those of
-Pembrokeshire and Gower.
-
-The result of these discoveries was the proof that certain extinct
-animals, such as the woolly rhinoceros and the mammoth, had lived in
-this country in ancient times, along with two other groups of species
-which are at present known only to live in hot and cold climates--the
-spotted hyæna and hippopotamus of Africa, with the reindeer and the
-marmot of the colder regions of the earth.
-
-The discovery in 1858, and the exploration, of the now famous cave
-of Brixham, by the Royal and Geological Societies, marked the dawn
-of a new era in cave-hunting. Under the careful supervision of Mr.
-Pengelly, flint implements were discovered underneath stalagmite, and
-in association with the remains of the hyæna and woolly rhinoceros and
-mammoth, in undisturbed red loam, under conditions that prove man to
-have been living in Devonshire at the same time as those animals. This
-singularly opportune discovery destroyed for ever the doubts that had
-overhung the question of the antiquity of man, and of his co-existence
-in Europe in company with the animals whose remains occur both in the
-caverns and river-deposits.
-
-In 1847 M. Boucher de Perthes described certain rude flint implements
-that he obtained from the fluviatile gravels of Abbeville (“Antiquités
-Celtiques,” vol. i.), along with the bones of extinct animals; and
-his discovery was treated with the same scepticism in France as that
-of the Rev. J. McEnery in England, although it was verified by flint
-implements being discovered, under exactly the same conditions, in the
-gravels of Amiens, some forty miles away, by Dr. Rigollot.[11] In the
-autumn of 1858, Dr. Falconer, who had been superintending the work
-in the Brixham cave, visited the collection made by M. de Perthes,
-while on his way to examine the caves of Sicily, and recognizing
-man’s handiwork in the implements, he asked his friend Mr. Prestwich
-to explore the Valley of the Somme. This he accordingly did, and in
-company with Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., dug out with his own hands an
-implement from the undisturbed strata,[12] and thus finally settled the
-disputed question. It is undoubtedly true, that scientific opinion was
-tending towards the acceptance of the evidence in favour of man having
-lived in Europe in the Pleistocene age; but the researches in Brixham
-cave established the fact on the highest possible authority, and
-confirmed the long-neglected discoveries in the valley of the Somme.
-By the end of 1859 it was fully accepted by the scientific world, and
-caused the exploration of caves to be carried on with increased vigour.
-
-In December 1859,[13] I began the exploration of the hyæna-den of
-Wookey Hole, near Wells, Somerset, in company with the Rev. J.
-Williamson, and obtained flint instruments along with the remains
-of the mammoth, hyæna, woolly rhinoceros, and other animals, under
-conditions that proved the contemporaneity of man with the extinct
-mammalia. And from that time down to the present date I have carried
-on researches in caves in various parts of Great Britain. In the
-district of Gower also, many ossiferous caverns were investigated,
-in 1858-9-60-1 by Colonel Wood and Dr. Falconer, and in one of them
-flint implements were obtained along with the bones of the extinct
-mammalia.[14] Kent’s Hole, begun in 1865 by the British Association,
-and still being worked, furnishes annually a vast number of bones
-and teeth of hyænas, rhinoceroses, cave-bears, and horses, and other
-animals, along with flint and bone implements.[15]
-
-In 1869 I had the good fortune to discover, and subsequently to
-explore, a group of sepulchral caves in Denbighshire, which had been
-used by an Iberian or Basque race in the Neolithic age (Chapter V.);
-and in the following year the Settle Cave Committee began their work
-in Yorkshire under my advice. And this has led to the important
-conclusion, that a group of caves, extending over a wide area in the
-centre and north of England, was occupied by the Brit-Welsh in the
-obscure interval which elapsed between the departure of the Roman
-legions and the English conquest.
-
-
-_France._--The researches of Buckland into the caves of Great Britain,
-and of Goldfuss and others into those of Germany, and more especially
-the publication of the “Ossemens Fossiles,” by Cuvier, gave an impetus
-to cave-exploration in France which yielded the same results as in
-our own country. The mammalia obtained from the cave of Fouvent (Haut
-Saone) in 1800 were described in the “Ossemens,” as well as those
-from Gondenans. In the Gironde, the Cave of Avison was explored by
-M. Billaudel in 1826-27. In the south, Marcel de Serres, aided by
-MM. Dubrueil and Jeanjean, examined the important Cave of Lunel-viel
-in 1824, and published their results in a work that holds the same
-position in France as the “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ” in England. The caverns
-of Pondres, Souvignargues, and of Bize were explored, the two first
-by M. Christol in 1829, the last by M. Tournal in 1833, and those of
-Villefranche (Pyrénées-orient), Mialet (Gard), and Nabrigas (Lozère)
-were described by De Serres in 1839, who subsequently added those of
-Carcas-sonne to the list in 1842. In this year MM. Prevost and J.
-Desnoyers explored the caves of Montmorency in the neighbourhood of
-Paris, and described the remains discovered in those of Bicêtre. The
-Cave of Pontil (Hérault) described by M. de Serres in 1847, was proved
-in 1864, by Professor Gervais, to contain two distinct strata, the
-neolithic lying over the palæolithic, as in Kent’s Hole.[16]
-
-In 1860,[17] the famous Cave of Aurignac was proved, by the
-investigations of Professor Lartet, to have been inhabited by man in
-the life-time of the extinct mammalia. Three years later the caves
-of Périgord were explored by that gentleman, along with Mr. Christy,
-and yielded results which mark a new era in the history of man in the
-remote past. From the remarkable collection of implements and weapons,
-the habits and mode of life of the occupants can be ascertained with
-tolerable certainty, and from their comparison with the like articles
-now in use among savage tribes, it may be reasonably inferred that
-they were closely related in blood to the Eskimos. This most important
-question will be investigated in its proper place, in the chapter
-relating to the palæolithic caves of France. Professor Lartet, M. Louis
-Lartet, Sir Charles Lyell, and other eminent observers believe further,
-that the interments that have been discovered in Aurignac and in Cro
-Magnon,[18] in Périgord, are to be assigned to the same relative age
-as the occupation of the caves by man. From the fact, however, that
-the skeletons in both these cases were _above_ the strata accumulated
-by the palæolithic cave-dwellers, it may be concluded that they were
-deposited after those strata were formed, in other words, that they are
-of a later age.
-
-From 1863 down to the present time very many caves have been explored
-in France without any further addition to our knowledge, excepting the
-verification of the facts, afforded by the caves of Brixham and of
-Périgord, as to the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia, and
-his probable identity in race with the Eskimos.
-
-
-_Belgium._--The caves of Belgium[19] have afforded evidence of
-precisely the same nature as those of England and France. Dr.
-Schmerling, of Liège, published the results of his researches, begun
-in 1829, into the bone-caves on the banks of the Meuse and its
-tributaries, in 1833-4, and proved that the mammoth, rhinoceros,
-cave-bear, and hyæna formerly lived in that district. He also arrived
-at the conclusion that man was living at that remote time, from the
-discovery of flint-flakes and human bones along with the remains
-of those animals in the caves of Engis and Engihoul. In 1853,[20]
-Professor Spring discovered a quantity of burned, broken, and cut
-bones belonging to women and children, in the Cave of Chauvaux, which
-he considered to imply that it had been inhabited by a family of
-cannibals. Axes of polished stone were also met with, that indicated
-the relative age to be neolithic.
-
-To pass over the human skeleton found in the Neanderthal Cave in 1857
-by Dr. Fuhlroth, which is of doubtful antiquity, the next discoveries
-of importance are those made by M. Dupont in the years 1864-70, in
-the province of Namur, that established the fact that the same race
-of men who inhabited Auvergne in the palæolithic age had also lived
-in Belgium. M. Dupont considers that the interments in the Trou de
-Frontal[21] belong also to the palæolithic age, and that therefore man
-at that remote time was possessed of religious ideas. Before, however,
-this view can be accepted, it will be necessary to show the exact
-relation of the bones of the reindeer, chamois, mammoth, and other
-animals found outside the slab of stone, at the mouth of the sepulchral
-chamber, to the human remains within. In this case, as in Aurignac
-and Cro Magnon, the evidence seems to me insufficient to establish so
-important a conclusion.
-
-
-_Southern Europe._--In southern Europe the bone-caves of Sicily,
-worked in 1829 for the sake of the animal remains to be used in sugar
-refining, were scientifically examined by Dr. Falconer in 1859; those
-of Malta by Captain Spratt in the same year; and those of Gibraltar by
-Captain Broome in the years 1862-8. They established the existence of
-the serval and the African elephant, and other characteristic African
-species, in Europe, and offer as we shall see in this work, important
-testimony as to the geography of the Mediterranean area in the
-Pleistocene age.
-
-In this outline of the history of cave-exploration it will be seen,
-that the additions to our knowledge of the past have been neither
-few nor insignificant, nor in one line of inquiry. And if the
-attention which is now being directed to the subject be due to the
-general development of scientific thought, it is equally true, that
-the results have reacted on scientific thought in general, and have
-especially benefited the sciences of geology, archæology, and history.
-A rich field of investigation lies before the cave-hunter, in Greece,
-Palestine, Lycia, Persia, and the limestone plateaux of central
-Asia; and since these discoveries have been so valuable in central
-and north-western Europe, what may we not recover from the grasp of
-oblivion, of the infancy and early culture of mankind in the very
-birth-place and “pathway of the nations”?
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER II.
-
-PHYSICAL HISTORY OF CAVES.
-
-  Caves formed by the Sea and by Volcanic Action.--Caves in
-    Arenaceous Rocks.--Caves in Calcareous Rocks of various ages.
-    --Their Relation to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines.--
-    The Water-cave of Wookey Hole.--The Goatchurch Cave.--The
-    Water-caves of Derbyshire.--Of Yorkshire.--The Ingleborough
-    Cave.--The Rate of Deposit of Stalagmite.--The Descent into
-    Helln Pot.--The Caves and Pots round Weathercote.--The Formation
-    of Caves, Pot-holes, and Ravines.--Caverns not generally formed
-    in line of Faults.--Of various Ages.--Their Filling-up.--
-    The Cave of Caldy.--The Blackrock Cave.--Great quantity
-    of Carbonate of Lime dissolved by Atmospheric Water.--The
-    Circulation of Carbonate of Lime.--The Temperature of Caves.--
-    Conclusion.
-
-
-_Caves formed by the Sea and by Volcanic Action._
-
-In this chapter we shall treat of the origin of caves and of their
-place in physical geography. The most obvious agent in hollowing out
-caves is the sea. The set of the current, the tremendous force of the
-breakers, and the grinding of the shingle, inevitably discover the weak
-places in the cliff, and leave caves as the results of their work,
-modified in each case by the local conditions of the rock. Caves formed
-in this manner have certain characters which are easily recognized.
-Their floors are very rarely much out of the horizontal, their outlook
-is over the sea, and they very seldom penetrate far into the cliff.
-A general parallelism is also to be observed in a group in the same
-district, and their entrances are all in the same horizontal plane, or
-in a succession of horizontal and parallel planes. In some cases they
-are elevated above the present reach of the waves, and mark the line
-at which the sea formerly stood. From their generally inaccessible
-position sea-caves have very rarely been occupied by man, and the
-history of their formation is so obvious that it requires no further
-notice. Among them the famous Fingal’s Cave, off the north coast
-of Ireland, and that of Staffa, on the opposite shore of Scotland,
-hollowed out of columnar basalt, are perhaps the most remarkable in
-Europe.
-
-In volcanic regions also there are caves formed by the passage of lava
-to the surface of the ground, or by the imprisoned steam and gases in
-the lava while it was in a molten state: but these are of comparatively
-little importance so far as relates to the general question of caves,
-from the very small areas which are occupied by active volcanoes
-in Europe. They have been observed in Vesuvius, Etna, Iceland, and
-Teneriffe.
-
-
-_Caves in Arenaceous Rocks._
-
-Caves also occur sometimes in sandstones, in which case they are the
-result of the erosion of the lines of the joints by the passage of
-subaërial water, and if the joints happen to traverse a stratum less
-compacted than the rest, the weak point is discovered, and a hollow
-is formed extending laterally from the original fissure. The massive
-millstone grit of Derbyshire and Yorkshire present many examples of
-this, as for instance in Kinderscout in the former county. The rocks
-at Tunbridge Wells also show to what extent the joints in the Wealden
-sandstones may become open fissures, more or less connected with caves,
-on a small scale, by the mere mechanical action of water. M. Desnoyers
-gives instances of the same kind in the Tertiary sandstones of the
-Paris basin, which have furnished remains of rhinoceros, reindeer,
-hyæna, and bear. Caverns, however, in the sandstone are rarely of
-great extent, and may be passed over as being of small importance in
-comparison with those in the calcareous rocks.
-
-
-_Caves in Calcareous Rocks of various ages._
-
-It has long been known that wherever the calcareous strata are
-sufficiently hard and compact to support a roof, caves are to be found
-in greater or less abundance. Those of Devonshire occur in the Devonian
-limestone; those of Somerset, Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, Derbyshire,
-and Northumberland, as well as of Belgium and Westphalia, in that
-of the carboniferous age. In France also, those of Maine and Anjou,
-and most of those of the Pyrenees and in the department of Aude, are
-hollowed in carboniferous limestone, as well as the greater part of
-those in North America, in Virginia, and Kentucky. The cave of Kirkdale
-in Yorkshire, and most of those in Franconia and in Bavaria penetrate
-Jurassic limestones, which have received the name of Hohlenkalkstein
-from the abundance of caverns which they contain. They are developed on
-a large scale in the Swiss and French Jura, and in some cases afford
-passage to powerful streams, and in others are more or less filled
-with ice, thus constituting the singular “glacières” that have been so
-ably explored by the Rev. G. F. Browne.[22]
-
-The compact Neocomian and Cretaceous limestones contain most of the
-caverns of Périgord, Quercy, and Angoumois, and some of those in
-Provence and Languedoc, those of Northern Italy, Sicily, Greece,
-Dalmatia, Carniola, and Turkey in Europe, of Asia Minor and Palestine.
-
-The tertiary limestones, writes M. Desnoyers,[23] offer sometimes, but
-very rarely, caves that have become celebrated for the bones which
-they contain, such as those of Lunel-Viel, near Montpelier, those of
-Pondres and Souvignargues, near Sommières (Gard), and of Saint Macaire
-(Gironde). The same may also be said of the calcaire grossier of the
-basin of Paris.
-
-Certain rocks composed of gypsum also contain caverns of the same sort
-as those in the limestones. In Thuringia, for example, near Eisleben,
-they occur in the saliferous and gypseous strata of the zechstein,
-and are connected with large gulfs and cirques on the surface, which
-are sometimes filled with water. In the neighbourhood of Paris, and
-especially at Montmorency, they contain numerous bones of the extinct
-mammalia. M. Desnoyers points out their identity, in all essentials,
-with those in calcareous strata, and infers that they have been
-produced in the same way. Some of them may have been formed by the
-removal of the salt, which is very frequently interbedded with the
-gypsum, by the passage of water. In Cheshire the pumping of the brine
-from the saliferous and gypseous strata produces subterranean hollows,
-which sometimes fall in and eventually cause depressions on the
-surface, such as those which are now destroying the town of Northwich,
-and causing the neighbouring tidal estuary to extend over what was
-formerly meadow land. This explanation, however, will not apply to
-those in the neighbourhood of Paris, because there is no trace of their
-ever having contained salt.
-
-
-_The Relation of Caves to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines._
-
-The caverns hollowed in calcareous rocks present features by which they
-are distinguished from any others. They open, for the most part, on the
-abrupt sides of valleys and ravines at various levels, being arranged
-round the main axis of erosion just as branches are arranged round
-the trunk of a tree--as, for example, in Cheddar Pass. The transition
-in some cases from the valley to the ravine, and from the ravine to
-the cave, is so gradual, that it is impossible to deny that all three
-are due to the same cause. The caves themselves ramify in the same
-irregular fashion as the valleys, and are to be viewed merely as the
-capillaries in the general valley system, through which the rainfall
-passes to join the main channels. Very frequently, however, the
-drainage has found an outlet at a lower level, and its ancient passage
-is left dry; but in all cases unmistakeable proof of the erosive action
-of water is to be seen in the sand, gravel, and clay which compose the
-floor, as well as in the worn surfaces of the sides and the bottom.
-
-In all districts in which caves occur are funnel-shaped cavities of
-various sizes, known as “pot-holes” or “swallow-holes” in Britain, as
-“betoires,” “chaldrons du diable,” “marmites de géants,” in France,
-and as “kata-vothra” in Greece, in which the rainfall is collected
-before it finally disappears in the subterranean passages. They are to
-be seen in all stages; sometimes being mere shallow funnels, that only
-contain water after excessive rain, and at others as profound vertical
-shafts, into which the water is continually falling, as in Helln Pot,
-in Yorkshire. The cirques, also, described by M. Desnoyers, belong to
-the same class of cavities, although all those which are mentioned by
-the Rev. T. G. Bonney,[24] at the head of valleys, and in some cases
-hollowed in shale and igneous rocks, are most probably to be referred
-to the vertical, chisel-like action of streams flowing under physical
-conditions, that resemble those under which the cañons of the Colorado,
-or of the Zambesi, are being excavated, and in which frost, ice, and
-snow have played a very subordinate part.
-
-The intimate relation between pot-holes, caves, ravines, and valleys
-will be discussed in the rest of this chapter, and illustrated by
-English examples; and then we shall proceed to show that the chemical
-action of the carbonic acid in the rain-water, and the mechanical
-friction of the sand and gravel, set in motion by the water, by which
-Professor Phillips explains the origin of caves, will equally explain
-the pot-holes and ravines by which they are invariably accompanied.
-
-
-_The Water-Cave of Wookey Hole, near Wells, Somerset._
-
-Caves may be divided into two classes: those which are now mere
-passages for water, in which the history of their formation may be
-studied, and those which are dry, and capable of affording shelter
-to man and the lower animals. Among the water-caves, that of Wookey
-Hole[25] is to be noticed first, since its very name implies that it
-was known to the Celtic inhabitants of the south of England, and since
-it was among the first, if not the first, of those examined with any
-care in this country, Mr. John Beaumont[26] having brought it before
-the notice of the Royal Society in the year 1680.
-
-The hamlet of Wookey Hole nestles in a valley, through which flows the
-river Axe, and the valley passes insensibly, at its upper end, into a
-ravine, which is closed abruptly by a wall of rock (Fig. 1), about two
-hundred feet high, covered with long streamers and festoons of ivy, and
-affording scanty hold, on its ledges and in its fissures, to ferns,
-brambles, and ash saplings. At its base the river Axe issues, in full
-current, out of the cave, the lower entrance of which it completely
-blocks up, since the water has been kept back by a weir, for the use
-of a paper-mill a little distance away. A narrow path through the
-wood, on the north side of the ravine, leads to the only entrance
-now open.[27] Thence a narrow passage leads downward into the rock,
-until, suddenly, you find yourself in a large chamber, at the water
-level. Then you pass over a ridge, covered with a delicate fretwork
-of dripstone, with each tiny hollow full of water, and ornamented
-with brilliant lime crystals. One shapeless mass of dripstone is
-known in local tradition as the Witch of Wookey, turned into stone by
-the prayers of a Glastonbury monk. Beyond this the chamber expands
-considerably, being some seventy or eighty feet high, and adorned with
-beautiful stalactites, far out of the reach of visitors. The water,
-which bars further entrance, forms a deep pool, which Mr. James Parker
-managed to cross on a raft (see Appendix I.) into another chamber,
-which was apparently easy of access before the construction of the
-weir. It was in this further chamber that Dr. Buckland found human
-remains and pottery.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of Wookey Hole Cave and Ravine.]
-
-The cave has been proved to extend as far as the village of Priddy,
-about two miles off, on the Mendip hills, by the fact observed by Mr.
-Beaumont, that the water used in washing the lead ore at that spot, in
-his time, found its way into the river Axe, and poisoned cattle in
-the valley of Wookey. And this observation has been verified during
-the last few years by throwing in colour and chopped straw. The stream
-at Priddy sinks into a swallow-hole (Fig. 1), and has its subterranean
-course determined by the southerly dip of the rock, by which the
-joints running north and south afford a more free passage to the water
-than those running east and west. The cave is merely a subterranean
-extension of the ravine in the same line, as far as the swallow-hole,
-and all three have been hollowed, as we shall see presently, by the
-action of the stream and of carbonic acid in the water.
-
-
-_The Goatchurch Cave._
-
-The largest cavern in the Mendip hills is that locally known as the
-Goatchurch, which opens on the eastern side of the lower of the two
-ravines that branch from the magnificent defile of Burrington Combe,
-about two miles from the village of Wrington, at the height of about
-120 feet from the bottom of the ravine. After creeping along a narrow,
-muddy passage, with a steep descent to the west, at an angle of about
-30°, you suddenly pass into a stalactitic chamber of considerable
-height and size. From it two small vertical shafts lead into the
-lower set of chambers and passages; the first being blocked up, and
-the second being close to a large barrel-shaped stalagmite, to which
-Mr. Ayshford Sanford, Mr. James Parker, and myself fastened our ropes
-when we explored the cave in 1864. The latter affords access into a
-passage, beautifully arched, and passing horizontally east and west,
-and just large enough to admit a man walking upright. At the further
-end numerous open fissures, caused by the erosion of the joints in the
-limestone, cross it at right angles, and pass into several ill-defined
-chambers, partially stalactitic, but for the most part filled with
-loose, bare, cubical masses of limestone. Two of the transverse
-fissures lead into a large chamber, at a lower level. At its lower end,
-on crawling along a narrow passage, we came into a second chamber,
-also of considerable height and depth, at the bottom of which the
-noise of flowing water can be heard through two vertical holes, just
-large enough to admit of access. On sliding down one of these we found
-ourselves in a third chamber, which was traversed by a subterranean
-stream, doubtless in part the same which disappears in the ravine, at a
-point eighty feet above by aneroid measurement. The temperature of the
-water, as compared with that of the stream outside (49° : 59°), renders
-it very probable that, between the point of disappearance in the ravine
-and reappearance in the cave, it is joined by a stream of considerable
-subterranean length, since the water could not have lost ten degrees
-in the short interval which it had to traverse, were it supplied only
-from the stream in the ravine. From the point of its disappearance in
-the cave, the water passes downwards to join the main current flowing
-underneath Burrington Combe, that gushes forth in great volume at
-Rickford. The lowest portion of the cave was eighteen or twenty feet
-below the stream, and 220 feet below the entrance of the cavern.
-
-On examining the floors of the chambers and passages, we discovered
-that they were composed of the same kind of sediment as that which is
-now being deposited by the water in Wookey Hole, and there could be
-no doubt but that they had been originally traversed by water. For
-this to have taken place it is necessary to suppose that, while the
-Goatchurch was a water cave, the ravine on which it opens was not
-deeper than the entrance--in other words, that in the interval between
-the formation and excavation of the chambers and passages, to the
-present time, the ravine has been excavated in the limestone to a depth
-of a hundred and twenty feet, and the water which originally passed
-through the entrance has found its way, by a new series of passages, to
-the point where it appears at the bottom of the cave.
-
-We obtained evidence that the horizontal passage, immediately below the
-first vertical descent, had been inhabited at a very remote period. At
-the spot where Mr. Beard, of Banwell, obtained a fine tusk of mammoth,
-we found a molar of bear, and a fragment of flint, which were imbedded
-in red earth, and were underneath a crust of stalagmite of about two
-inches in thickness. It would follow from this, that the date of the
-formation of this part of the cave was before the time when the traces
-of elephants, bears, and of man were introduced.
-
-The cave is the resort of numerous badgers. On hiding ourselves in
-one of the transverse fissures, and throwing our light across the
-horizontal passage, these animals ran to and fro across the lighted
-field with extraordinary swiftness, and had it not been for the white
-streaks on the sides of their heads, which flashed back the light, they
-would not have been observed. Though they are rarely caught, they must
-be abundant in the district.
-
-Like all the other large caverns in the district, it has its legends.
-The dwellers in the neighbourhood, who have never cared to explore its
-recesses, relate that a certain dog put in here found its way out,
-after many days, at Wookey Hole, having lost all its hair in scrambling
-through the narrow passages. At Cheddar the same legend is appropriated
-to the Cheddar cave. At Wookey the dog is said to have travelled back
-to Cheddar. Some eighteen years ago, while exploring the limestone
-caves at Llanamynech, on the English border of Montgomeryshire, I
-met with a similar story. A man playing the bagpipes is said to have
-entered one of the caves, well provisioned with Welsh mutton, and after
-he had been in for some time his bagpipes were heard two miles from the
-entrance, underneath the small town of Llanamynech. He never returned
-to tell his tale. The few bones found in the cave are supposed to be
-those which he had picked on the way. This is doubtless another form of
-the story of the dog; both owe their origin to the vague impression,
-which most people have, of the great extent of caverns, and both
-versions are equally current in France and Germany.
-
-
-_The Water-caves of Derbyshire._
-
-The celebrated cavern of the Peak, at Castleton in Derbyshire, presents
-the same essential character as that of Wookey Hole. It runs into the
-hill-side at the end of the ravine, and is traversed by a powerful
-stream of water, which has been met with in driving an horizontal
-adit in lead-mining at a considerable distance from the entrance, and
-finally traced to a distant swallow-hole. At a little distance from
-Buxton a smaller cave, known as Poole’s Cavern, is in part traversed
-by water, which has found an outlet at a lower level, and allowed of
-the present entrance being used by the Brit-Welsh (Romano-Celtic)
-inhabitants of the district as a habitation in the fifth and sixth
-centuries.[28] There are, besides these, very many others, some known,
-others unknown, that debouch on the sides of the dales in Derbyshire
-and Staffordshire, and are all well worthy of examination, since they
-illustrate not merely the history of the formation of caves, but also
-have been proved to contain works of art, pottery and flint implements,
-and the remains of animals, such as the mammoth and rhinoceros.
-
-
-_The Water-caves of Yorkshire._
-
-The caves in the mountain limestone of Yorkshire rival in size those
-of Carniola, or those of Greece, and they are to be seen in all stages
-of formation. In their gloomy recesses all the higher qualities of a
-mountaineer may be exercised, and there is sufficient danger to give a
-keen zest to their exploration. The mountain streams sometimes plunge
-into a yawning chasm, locally known as a pot, and at others emerge from
-the dark portals of a cave in full current. There is, perhaps, no place
-in the world where the subterranean circulation of water may be studied
-with better advantage.
-
-Ingleborough forms a centre from which the rainfall on every side
-finds its way into the dales, through a system of caves more or less
-complicated, which during the last forty years have been thoroughly
-explored by Mr. Farrer, Mr. Birkbeck, and Mr. Metcalfe. On the south
-it collects in a ravine, and then leaps into a deep bottle-shaped hole
-called “Gaping Gill,” into which Mr. Birkbeck unsuccessfully attempted
-to descend, the sharp edges of the rock cutting the rope, and very
-nearly causing a serious accident. In depth it is about three hundred
-feet. The stream thence finds its way through a series of chambers and
-passages until it reappears in the famous Ingleborough cave, that was
-explored by Mr. Farrer in the year 1837, and proved to pass into the
-rock between seven and eight hundred yards.
-
-The present entrance of the Ingleborough cave[29] is dry, except after
-heavy rains, when the current reverts to its old passage. The following
-admirable account of the interior is given by Professor Phillips:--[30]
-
-“From Mr. Farrer’s plan and description, as given in the ‘Proceedings
-of the Geological Society,’ June 14, 1848, and from information
-obligingly communicated to me, a clear notion of the history of this
-most instructive spar grotto may be formed. For about eighty yards
-from the entrance the cave has been known immemorially. At this point
-Josiah Harrison, a gardener in Mr. Farrer’s service, broke through a
-stalagmitical barrier which the water had formed, and obtained access
-to a series of expanded cavities and contracted passages, stretching
-first to the N., then to the N.W.; afterwards to the N. and N.E., and
-finally to the E., till after two years spent in the interesting toil
-of discovery, at a distance of 702 yards from the mouth, the explorers
-rested from their labours in a large and lofty irregular grotto, in
-which they heard the sound of water falling in a still more advanced
-subterranean recess. It has been ascertained, at no inconsiderable
-personal risk, that this water falls into a deep pool or linn at a
-lower level, beyond which further progress appears to be impracticable.
-In fact Mr. Farrer explored this dark lake by swimming--a candle in his
-cap and a rope round his body.
-
-“In this long and winding gallery, fashioned by nature in the
-marble heart of the mountain, floor, roof, and sides are everywhere
-intersected by fissures which were formed in the consolidation of the
-stone. To these fissures and the water which has passed down them, we
-owe the formation of the cave and its rich furniture of stalactites.
-The direction of the most marked fissures is almost invariably N.W.
-and S.E., and when certain of these (which in my geological work I
-have called master fissures) occur, the roof of the cave is usually
-more elevated, the sides spread out right and left, and often ribs and
-pendants of brilliant stalactite, placed at regular distances, convert
-the rude fissure into a beautiful aisle of primæval architecture. Below
-most of the smaller fissures hang multitudes of delicate translucent
-tubules, each giving passage to drops of water. Splitting the rock
-above, these fissures admit, or formerly admitted, dropping water:
-continued through the floor, the larger rifts permit, or formerly
-permitted, water to enter or flow out of the cave. By this passage of
-water, continued for ages on ages, the original fissure was in the
-first instance enlarged, through the corrosive action of streams of
-acidulated water; by the withdrawal of the streams to other fissures,
-a different process was called into operation. The fissure was bathed
-by drops instead of streams of water, and these drops, exposed to air
-currents and evaporation, yielded up the free carbonic acid to the
-air and the salt of lime to the rock. Every line of drip became the
-axis of a stalactitical pipe from the roof; every surface bathed by
-thin films of liquid became a sheet of sparry deposit. The floor grew
-up under the droppings into fantastic heaps of stalagmite, which,
-sometimes reaching the pipes, united roof and floor by pillars of
-exquisite beauty.”
-
-At the time of its exploration, the water stood at a considerably
-higher level inside than at the present time, and formed deep pools.
-The barrier of dripstone has been cut through, and the water level
-lowered, and a passage made for a considerable distance. Inside, the
-old water line, which separated the subaërial from the subaqueous
-dripstone, is very distinct, the former being deposited in thick
-bosses, crumpled curtains, drops, straws, pyramids, and other fantastic
-drip-structures, while the latter is honeycombed, and composed of
-rounded, grape-like masses. Between them an ice-like coating of
-stalagmite forms a dividing line, now supported in mid air, but that
-formerly shot across the surface of the pools that have been drained,
-or rested on the mud and stones which had been brought down by the
-stream in ancient times. In some places it still rests on the surface
-of the pools.
-
-A stalactitic curtain on the right-hand side presents a very singular
-appearance, its surface being covered with an abundant crop of tiny
-club-like bodies about one-tenth of an inch in length, and consisting
-each of a shining drop of water, enclosing a minute fungus. These may
-possibly explain in some degree the peculiar fungoid-appearance of
-certain small bosses of dripstone which I have met with in the caves
-of Pembrokeshire: for an accumulation of carbonate of lime on such a
-nucleus would produce the forms which they assume (see Fig. 17).
-
-There are also magnificent groups of dripstone, and each joint in the
-rock is adorned with lines, and pipes, and fringes of calc spar, or
-widened out into roof-shaped hollows, and traversed by deep, vertical
-grooves, caused by the passage of water laden with carbonic acid.
-The general surface of the roof, where the rock is bare, has had its
-fossils etched out by the acidulated water. In one place you may stand
-under a branching coral, with its sides and base distinctly marked, and
-in another fossil shells stand out almost in their original beauty.
-
-
-_Rate of the Accumulation of Stalagmite._
-
-The rate at which the calcareous matter is being deposited at the
-present time is very easy to be estimated, for that accumulated since
-the passage was cleared out is white, and contrasts with the dirty,
-grey-red colour of the older kind. In one case a thickness of 0·24
-had been formed in thirty-five years, by the water flowing down the
-side of the passage excavated by Mr. Farrer, while in another, in
-about the same time, 0·05 inch had been formed. This would give an
-annual accumulation of 0·0068 in the one case, and in the other about
-one-fifth of that amount. This rate does not agree with the rate of
-increase noted by Mr. Farrer and Professor Phillips in the case of a
-large stalagmite called the Jockey Cap, on which a line of drops is
-continually falling from one point in the roof. Its circumference in
-1839 measured 118 inches, in 1845, 120 inches, and in 1873, I found
-it to be 128 inches. The annual rate of increase from 1845 to 1873 is
-·2941 inch, and that from 1839 to 1845 is ·2857. I found, however,
-that the most remarkable increase was that in height. In 1845 its
-apex was 95·25 inches from the roof, in 1873, 87 inches, which would
-imply an annual deposit of not less than ·2946. (See Appendix II.)
-At this rate it will arrive at the roof in about 295 years. But even
-this comparatively short lapse of time will probably be diminished by
-the growth of a pendant stalactite above, that is now being formed in
-place of that which measured 10 inches in 1845, and has since been
-accidentally destroyed.
-
-It is very possible that the Jockey Cap may be the result, not of the
-continuous, but of the intermittent drip of water containing carbonate
-of lime, and that therefore the present rate of growth is not a measure
-of its past or future condition. Its age in 1845 was estimated by
-Professor Phillips at 259 years, on the supposition that all or nearly
-all of the carbonate of lime in each pint was deposited. If, however,
-it grew at its present rate, it may be not more than 100 years old; and
-if it be taken as a measure of the rate generally, all the stalagmites
-and stalactites in the cave may not date further back than the time of
-Edward III.
-
-It is evident, from this instance of rapid accumulation, that the value
-of a layer of stalagmite in measuring the antiquity of deposits below
-it, is comparatively little. The layers, for instance, in Kent’s Hole,
-which are generally believed to have demanded a considerable lapse of
-time, may possibly have been formed at the rate of a quarter of an inch
-per annum, and the human bones which lie buried under the stalagmite
-in the cave of Bruniquel, are not for that reason to be taken to be
-of vast antiquity. It may be fairly concluded, that the thickness of
-layers of stalagmite cannot be used as an argument in support of the
-remote age of the strata below. At the rate of a quarter of an inch
-per annum, twenty feet of stalagmite might be formed in 1,000 years.
-
-
-_The Descent into Helln Pot._
-
-The subterranean passages grouped round Helln Pot, a tremendous chasm
-near Selside, on the east of Simon’s Fell in Ribblesdale, illustrate
-in a remarkable degree the mode in which the water is at present
-wearing away the rock. Those which have been explored constitute the
-Long Churn Cavern, which is comparatively easy of access through a
-hole known as Diccan Pot (Fig. 2, _a_). On descending into it, the
-visitor finds himself in the bed of a stream that now roars in a
-waterfall, now gurgles over the large fallen blocks from the roof, and
-that here and there has worn for itself deep pools by the mechanical
-friction of the sand and pebbles brought down by the current. If it be
-followed down after passing over a waterfall, the light of day is seen
-streaming upwards beneath the feet from the point where the water leaps
-into the great chasm of Helln Pot (Figs. 2, _b_. 3, _a_). Above the
-entrance there is a complicated network of passages, some dry, and some
-containing streams which have not yet been fully explored.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of Helln Pot and the Long Churn
-Cavern.]
-
-The two actions by which caves are hewn out of the calcareous rock are
-seen here in operation side by side. Below the level of the stream
-the rock is seen to be smoothed and polished by the mechanical action
-of the materials swept down by the current. Above the water-level the
-sides of the cave are honeycombed and eaten into the most fantastic and
-complex shapes, the resultant surface (see Fig. 7) bearing small points
-and keen knife-edges of stone, that stand out in relief and mark the
-less soluble portions of the rock. This is due to the chemical effect
-of the carbonic acid in the water percolating through the strata.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of Helln Pot.]
-
-The Helln Pot, into which the stream flowing through the Long Churn
-Cave falls, is a fissure (Figs. 2, 3, 4) a hundred feet long by thirty
-feet wide, that engulfs the waters of a little stream on the surface,
-which are dissipated in spray long before they reach the bottom.
-From the top you look down on a series of ledges, green with ferns
-and mosses, and, about a hundred feet from the surface, an enormous
-fragment of rock forms a natural bridge across the chasm from one ledge
-to another. A little above this is the debouchement of the stream
-flowing through the Long Churn Cave (Fig. 3, _a_), through which Mr.
-Birkbeck and Mr. Metcalfe made the first perilous descent in 1847. The
-party, consisting of ten persons, ventured into this awful chasm with
-no other apparatus than ropes, planks, a turn-tree, and a fire-escape
-belt. On emerging from the Long Churn Cave they stood on a ledge of
-rock about twelve feet wide, and which gave them free access to the
-“bridge” (Fig. 2, _b_). This was a rock ten feet long, which rested
-obliquely on the ledges. Having crossed over this, they crept behind
-the waterfall which descended from the top, and fixed their pulley,
-five being let down while the rest of the party remained behind to
-hoist them up again. In this way they reached the bottom of the pot,
-which before had never been trod by the foot of man. Thence they
-followed the stream downwards as far as the first great waterfall, down
-which Mr. Metcalfe was venturesome enough to let himself with a rope,
-and to push onwards until daylight failed. He was within a very little
-of arriving at the end of the cave into which the stream flows, but
-was obliged to turn back to the daylight without having accomplished
-his purpose. The whole party eventually, after considerable danger and
-trouble, returned safely from this most bold adventure.
-
-A second descent was made in 1848 from the surface, and a third in
-the spring of 1870, in both of which Mr. Birkbeck took the lead. The
-apparatus employed consisted of a windlass (Fig. 3), supported on two
-baulks of timber, and a bucket, covered with a shield, sufficiently
-large to hold two people, and two guiding ropes to prevent the
-revolution of the bucket in mid air. There was also a party of navvies
-to look after the mechanical contrivances, and two ladders about eight
-feet long to provide for contingencies at the bottom. Thirteen of
-us went down, including three ladies. As we descended, the fissure
-gradually narrowed, until at the bottom it was not more than ten feet
-wide. The actual vertical descent was a hundred and ninety-eight feet.
-After running the gauntlet of the waterfall we landed in the bed of
-the stream, which hurried downwards over large boulders of limestone
-and lost itself in the darkness of a large cave, about seventy feet
-high. We traced it downwards, through pools and rapids to the first
-waterfall, of about twenty feet. This obstacle prevented most of the
-party going further, for the ladders were too short to reach to the
-bottom. By lashing them together, however, and letting them down, we
-were able to reach the first round with the aid of a rope, and to
-cross over the deep pool at the bottom. Thence we went on downwards
-through smaller waterfalls and rapids, until we arrived at a descent
-into a chamber, where the roar of water was deafening. Down to this
-point the daylight glimmered feebly, but here our torches made but
-little impression on the darkness. One of the party volunteered to go
-down with a rope, and was suddenly immersed in a deep pool; the rest,
-profiting by his misadventure, managed to cling on to small points of
-rock, and eventually to reach the floor of the chamber. We stood at
-last on the lowest accessible point of the cave, about 300 feet from
-the surface. It was indeed one of the most remarkable sights that
-could possibly be imagined. Besides the waterfall down which we came,
-a powerful stream poured out of a cave too high up for the torches to
-penetrate the darkness, and fell into a deep pool in the middle of the
-floor, causing such a powerful current of air that all our torches were
-blown out except one. The two streams eventually united and disappeared
-in a small black circling pool, which completely barred further ingress.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of Helln Pot, showing Waterfall at the
-Bottom.]
-
-The floor of the pot and the cave was strewn with masses of limestone
-rounded by the action of the streams; and the water-channels were
-smoothed and grooved and polished, in a most extraordinary way, by the
-silt and stones carried along by the current. Some of the layers of
-limestone were jet black, and others were of a light fawn-colour, and
-as the strata were nearly horizontal, the alternation of colours gave
-a peculiarly striking effect to the walls. Beneath each waterfall was
-a pool more or less deep, and here and there in the bed of the stream
-were holes, drilled in the rock by stones whirled round by the force
-of the water. High up, out of the present reach of the water, were old
-channels, which had evidently been watercourses before the pot and
-cave had been cut down to their present level. In the sides of the pot
-there are two vertical grooves reaching very nearly from the top to the
-bottom, which are unmistakeably the work of ancient waterfalls. There
-was no stalactite, but everywhere the water was wearing away the rock
-and enlarging the cave. We found our way back without any difficulty,
-a small passage on the right-hand side enabling us to avoid the very
-unpleasant task of scrambling up two of the waterfalls. We arrived
-finally at the top, after about five hours’ work in the cave, wet to
-the skin.
-
-We had very little trouble in making this descent, because of the
-completeness of Mr. Birkbeck’s preparations; but we could fully realize
-what a dangerous feat the first explorers performed when they ventured
-into an unknown chasm, comparatively unprepared. The very name “Helln
-Pot,” = Ællan Pot, or Mouth of Hell, testifies to the awe with which
-the Angles looked down into its recesses.[31]
-
-Such is the interior of one of those great natural laboratories in
-which water is wearing away the solid rock, either hollowing it into
-caves or cutting it into ravines. At the bottom of Helln Pot it was
-impossible not to realize, that the enormous chasm had been formed by
-the same action as that by which it was being deepened before our eyes.
-It was merely a portion of the vast cave into which it led, which had
-been deprived of its roof, and opened out to the light of heaven. The
-bridge was but a fragment of the roof which happened to fall upon the
-two ledges. The rounded masses of rock at the bottom are fragments that
-have fallen probably within comparatively modern times. The absence of
-stalactites and of stalagmites proves that the destructive action is
-rapidly going on.
-
-The water-course at the bottom contained pebbles and boulders of
-limestone, and gritstone rounded by friction against one another and
-the rocky floor. The gritstone has probably been derived from the wreck
-of the boulder clay on the surface above the Helln Pot, and ultimately
-torn from the millstone grit of the higher hills in the district.
-
-
-_Caves and Pots at Weathercote._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Waterfall in Pot-hole at Weathercote.]
-
-On the north side of Ingleborough the series of caves and pots round
-the little Church of Chapel-en-le-Dale are especially worthy of
-attention. The chasm at Weathercote opens suddenly in the hill-side,
-and is perfectly accessible to visitors. You come suddenly upon a cleft
-a hundred feet deep, with its ledges covered with mosses, ferns, and
-brambles; at one end a body of water rushes from a cave, and under a
-great bridge of rock, and falls seventy-five feet, a mass of snow-white
-foam filling the bottom with spray (Fig. 5). The large masses of
-rock piled in wild confusion at the bottom, the dark shadows of the
-overhanging ledges, and the thick covering of green moss, to which the
-spray clings in tiny glittering drops, form a picture which cannot
-easily be forgotten. In the sunshine an almost circular rainbow is
-to be seen from the bottom. The stream passes from the bottom into
-a cave, and thence downwards to two large pots (Fig. 6), about two
-hundred yards away. In flood-time the channel has been known to become
-blocked up, and Weathercote has been filled to the brim. Usually after
-heavy rains the current is said to flow so violently into the first of
-the pot-holes, that it throws up stones at least thirty or forty feet
-from the bottom, with a peculiar rattling noise. From this strange
-phenomenon it is known as Jingle Pot, while the lower of the two is
-termed Hurtle Pot, because in flood-time the water whirls so fast
-round, that it is “hurtled” out at the top. The water flowing through
-Weathercote is derived from the little stream of Ellerbeck, which
-disappears in the limestone hills about a mile to the north, and runs
-at right angles to Dalebeck, or the stream flowing down to Ingleton,
-which it has been proved to join at a spot below Jingle Pot, by Mr.
-Metcalfe, who made his way down into it from the chasm of Weathercote.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Diagram of Subterranean Course of Dalebeck.]
-
-The course of Dalebeck, as you pass up the valley of Chapel-en-le-Dale,
-affords a striking instance of the dependence of scenery upon the
-nature of the rock. In its lower portion it has cut out for itself
-a deep ravine in the hard Silurian strata, in which you come upon
-the waterfalls, deep pools, and trees, that look as if they had been
-transported bodily from the district of Cader Idris, and inserted into
-the limestone scenery of the dales. The Silurian rocks are very much
-contorted, and on their waterworn edges lie the nearly horizontal
-limestone strata, in which the upper part of the valley has been
-scooped. As we rise the ravine opens into a valley (Fig. 6), along
-which the beck flows, until suddenly it is lost in a fissure, at a
-place called Godsbridge. Its subterranean course is marked, first of
-all, by a small depression known as Sandpot, and still higher by Hurtle
-Pot. It ultimately reappears at the surface, above Weathercote, and
-after passing through a picturesque cavern, known as the Gatekirk, its
-fountainhead is reached. The subterranean portions of its course are
-in the same right line as the open valley, and the pot-holes have been
-formed in the same manner as Helln Pot, by the passage of water at a
-time when the drainage found its way down the valley at a higher level
-than at present, very much as it does now in times of extraordinary
-floods.
-
-Water-caves such as these are by no means uncommon in Yorkshire. In the
-dales there is scarcely a mass of limestone without its subterranean
-water system, as well as channels deserted by water, which are now
-dry caves situated at higher levels. These are always arranged on the
-line of the natural drainage, and generally open on the sides of the
-valleys and precipices. If you look northward from the flat crown of
-Ingleborough, you can see the ravines which radiate from it on the
-surface of the shale below, abruptly ending in pot-holes when they
-reach the limestone. In each case the streams reappear, issuing out of
-the caves at the points in Chapel-en-le-Dale, where the horizontal beds
-of limestone rest on the upturned edges of the impermeable Silurian
-rocks.
-
-
-_The Formation of Caves and their Relation to Pot-holes and Ravines._
-
-The general conditions under which caves occur in limestone rocks,
-and the phenomena which they present, may be gathered from the above
-examples. Universally the pot-holes, ravines, and caverns are so
-associated together, that there can be but little doubt that they are
-due to the operation of the same causes.
-
-It requires but a cursory glance to see at once that running water
-was the main agent. The limestone is so traversed by joints and lines
-of shrinkage, that the water rapidly sinks down into its mass, and
-collects in small streams, which owe their direction to the dip of
-the strata and the position of the fissures. These channels are being
-continually deepened and widened by the mere mechanical action of the
-passage of stones and silt. But this is not the only way in which the
-rock is gradually eroded. The limestone is composed in great part of
-pure carbonate of lime, which is insoluble in water. It is, however,
-readily dissolved in any liquid containing carbonic acid, which is
-an essential part of our atmosphere, is invariably present in the
-rain-water, and is given off by all organic bodies. By this invisible
-agent the hard crystalline rock is always being attacked in some form
-or another. The very snails that take refuge in its crannies leave an
-enduring mark of their presence in a surface fretted with their acid
-exhalations, which sometimes pass current among geologists for the
-borings of pholades, and are the innocent cause of much speculation as
-to the depression of the mountain-tops beneath the sea in comparatively
-modern times. The carbonic acid taken up by the rain is derived, in the
-main, from the decomposing vegetable matter which generally forms the
-surface soil on the limestone.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Diagram of an acid-worn joint, Doveholes,
-Derbyshire.]
-
-The view from the ancient camp on the top of Ingleborough offers a
-striking example of the effect of rain-water in eroding the surface of
-the limestone. As you look down over the dark crags of millstone grit,
-great, grey, pavement-like masses of limestone strike the eye, standing
-above the heather, perfectly bare, and in the distance resembling
-clearings, and in rainy weather sheets of snow. On approaching them
-the surface of erosion becomes more and more apparent, and the shapes
-due to the mere accident of varying hardness in the rock, or the
-varying quantity of water passing over it, present a most astonishing
-variety. There are, however, general principles underlying the
-confusion. The lines of joints in the strata being lines of weakness,
-searched out by the acid-laden water, have been widened into chasms,
-sometimes of considerable depth; and as they cross at right angles,
-the whole surface is formed of rectangular masses, each insulated
-from its fellow, and some of them detached from the strata beneath so
-as to form rocking-stones. The mode in which the acid has attacked
-one of these joints in the limestone of Doveholes in Derbyshire is
-represented in Figure 7, the surface being honeycombed and worn into
-sharp points, solely by chemical action. The minute fossil-shells
-also, and fragments of crinoid standing out in bold relief, lead to
-the same conclusion--that the denuding agent is chemical and not
-mechanical. Each of the upper surfaces of the blocks is traversed by
-small depressions, which are valley systems in miniature, in which the
-tiny valleys converge into a main trunk leading into the nearest chasm.
-There are also tiny caves and hollows, that are sometimes mistaken for
-borings made by pholas. In the chasms the vegetation is most luxuriant,
-and the dark green fronds of harts-tongue, the delicate Lady-fern, and
-the graceful _Asplenium nigrum_, grow with a rare luxuriance.
-
-In these pavements every feature of limestone scenery is represented on
-a minute scale. There are the valley systems on the surface, determined
-by the direction of the drainage; the long chasms represent the open
-valleys and ravines, and the caves and hollows, for the most part, run
-in the line of the joints.
-
-The carbonic acid has left precisely the same kind of proof of its work
-within the caves as we find above-ground; and it would necessarily
-follow, that to it, as well as to the mechanical power of the waters
-flowing through them, their formation and enlargement must be due, as
-Professor Phillips has pointed out in his “Rivers, Mountains, and Sea
-Coast of Yorkshire,” pp. 30-1.
-
-From the preceding pages it will be seen that caves in calcareous
-rocks are merely passages hollowed out by water, which has sought out
-the lines of weakness, or the joints formed by the shrinkage of the
-strata during their consolidation. The work of the carbonic acid is
-proved, not merely by the acid-worn surfaces of the interior of the
-caves, but also by the large quantity of carbonate of lime which is
-carried away by the water in solution. That, on the other hand, of the
-mechanical friction of the stones and sand against the sides and bottom
-of the water-courses, is sufficiently demonstrated by their grooved,
-scratched, and polished surfaces, and by the sand, silt, and gravel
-carried along by the currents. The generally received hypothesis, that
-they have been the result of a subterranean convulsion, is disproved by
-the floor and roof being formed, in very nearly every case, of solid
-rock; for it would be unreasonable to hold that any subterranean force
-could act from below, in such a manner as to hollow out the complicated
-and branching passages, at different levels, without affecting the
-whole mass of the rock. Nor is there cause for holding the view put
-forth by M. Desnoyers[32] or M. Dupont,[33] that they are the result
-of the passage of hydrothermal waters. The causes at present at work,
-operating through long periods of time, offer a reasonable explanation
-of their existence in every limestone district; and those which are
-no longer watercourses can generally be proved to have been formerly
-traversed by running water, by the silt, sand, and rounded pebbles
-which they contain. In their case, either the drainage of the district
-has been changed by the upheaval or depression of the rock, or the
-streams have searched out for themselves a passage at a lower level.
-
-But if caves have been thus excavated, it is obvious that ravines and
-valleys in limestone districts are due to the operation of the same
-causes. If, for instance, we refer to Figures 1 and 6, we shall see
-that the open valley passes insensibly into a ravine, and that into
-a cave. The ravine is merely a cave which has lost its roof, and the
-valley is merely the result of the weathering of the sides of the
-ravine. There can be no manner of doubt but that, in both these cases,
-the ravine is gradually encroaching on the cave, and the valley on
-the ravine; and if the strata be exposed to atmospheric agencies long
-enough, the valley of the Axe will extend as far as Priddy (Fig. 1),
-and that of Dalebeck to the watershed above the Gatekirk cave (Fig. 6).
-
-In the same manner the lofty precipice of Malham Cove, near Settle,
-in Yorkshire (Fig. 8), is slowly falling away and uncovering the
-subterranean course of the Aire. Eventually the ravine thus formed will
-extend as far as Malham Tarn, and the Aire flow exposed to the light of
-day from its source to the sea.[34]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Diagram of Source of the Aire at Malham.]
-
-This view is applicable to many if not to all ravines and valleys in
-calcareous rocks, such as the Pass at Cheddar, or the gorge of the Avon
-at Clifton, and those of Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Wales. And since
-the agents by which the work is done are universal, and calcareous rock
-for the most part of the same chemical composition, the results are the
-same, and the calcareous scenery everywhere of the same type. In the
-lapse of past time, so enormous as to be incapable of being grasped by
-the human intellect, these agents are fully capable of producing the
-deepest ravines, the widest valleys, and the largest caves.
-
-This view of the relation of caves to ravines was so strongly held by
-M. Desnoyers, that he terms the latter “cavernes à ciel ouvert.” I
-arrived independently at the same conclusion after the study of the
-scenery of limestone for many years.
-
-In many cases, however, in northern latitudes and in high altitudes,
-the ravine or valley so formed has been subsequently widened and
-deepened by glacial action. That, for instance, of Chapel-en-le-Dale
-bears unmistakeable evidence of the former flow of a glacier, in the
-_roches moutonnées_ and travelled blocks that it contains. To this is
-due the flowing contour and even slope of its lower portion.
-
-The pot-holes and “cirques” in calcareous rocks with no outlet at the
-surface, may also be accounted for by the operation of the same causes
-as those which have produced caves. Each represents the weak point
-towards which the rainfall has converged, caused very generally by
-the intersection of the joints. This has gradually been widened out,
-because the upper portions of the rock would be the first to seize the
-atoms of carbonic acid, and thus be dissolved more quickly than the
-lower portions. Hence the funnel shape which they generally assume, and
-which can be studied equally in the compact limestone or in the soft
-upper chalk. They are to be seen on a small scale also in all limestone
-“pavements.” Sometimes, however, the first chance which the upper
-portions of the funnels have of being eroded by the acidulated water,
-is more than counter-balanced by the increased quantity converging at
-the bottom, and the funnel ends in a vertical shaft. If the area in the
-rock thus excavated be sufficiently large to allow of the development
-of a current of water, the mechanical action of the fragments swept
-along its course will have an important share in the work, as we have
-seen to be the case in Helln Pot.
-
-
-_Caves not generally found in Line of Faults._
-
-In some few cases the lines of weakness which have been worn into
-caves, pot-holes, ravines, and valleys, may have been produced, as
-M. Desnoyers believes, by subterranean movements of elevation and
-depression; but in all those which I have investigated the faults do
-not determine the direction of the caverns. The mountain limestone
-of Castleton, in Derbyshire, offers an example of caves intersecting
-faults without any definite relation being traceable between them. The
-ramifications of the Peak cavern traverse the Speedwell Mine nearly
-at right angles, and the water flowing through it has been traced,
-Mr. Pennington informs me, to a swallow-hole near Chapel-en-le-Frith,
-running across two, if not three faults, which are laid down in the
-geological map. As a general rule caverns are as little affected by
-disturbance of the rock as ravines and valleys which have been formed
-in the main irrespective of the lines of fault.
-
-M. Desnoyers points out the close analogy between caverns and mineral
-veins, and infers that both are due to the same causes. This,
-undoubtedly, exists in that class of veins which are known to miners as
-“pipe” and “flat veins;” and there is clear proof, in the majority of
-cases, that the cavities in which the minerals occur have been formed
-by the action of running water, and have subsequently been more or less
-filled with their mineral contents; and these have been deposited on
-the sides of the cavity by the same “incretionary[35]” action, as that
-by which dripstone is now being formed in the present caves from the
-solution of carbonate of lime. Such veins present every conceivable
-form of irregularity, and frequently contain silt, sand, and gravel,
-which have been left behind by their streams, and their history is
-identical with that of the caverns.
-
-It is not so, however, with the second class of veins, the “rake,”
-“right running,” and “cross courses,” as the miners term them, or
-those which occupy lines of fault. The fissures which contain the ore
-are proved very frequently, by their scratched and grooved sides,
-and polished surfaces or slicken-sides, to have been the result of
-subterranean movements by which the rock has been broken by mechanical
-force. They have been subsequently modified, in various ways, by the
-passage of water, and filled with minerals, in the same manner as
-the preceding class. With this exception they present no analogy to
-the caverns, with which they contrast strongly in their rectilinear
-direction, as well as in their purely mechanical origin.
-
-
-_The various Ages of Caves._
-
-It is very probable that caves were formed in calcareous rocks from
-the time that they were raised to the level of the sea, since they
-abound in the Coral Islands. “Caverns,” writes Prof. Dana,[36] “are
-still more remarkable on the Island of Atiu, on which the coral-reef
-stands at about the same height above the sea as on Oahu. The Rev.
-John Williams states--that there are seven or eight of large extent on
-the Island of Tuto; one he entered by a descent of twenty feet, and
-wandered a mile in one only of its branches, without finding an end to
-‘its interminable windings.’ He says--‘Innumerable openings presented
-themselves on all sides as we passed along, many of which appeared to
-be equal in height, beauty, and extent to the one we were following.
-The roof, a stratum of coral-rock fifteen feet thick, was supported by
-massy and superb stalactitic columns, besides being thickly hung with
-stalactites from an inch to many feet in length. Some of these pendants
-were just ready to unite themselves to the floor, or to a stalagmitic
-column rising from it. Many chambers were passed through whose
-fret-work ceilings and columns of stalactites sparkled brilliantly,
-amid the darkness, with the reflected light of our torches. The effect
-was produced not so much by single objects, or groups of them, as by
-the amplitude, the depth, and the complications of this subterranean
-world.’”
-
-Calcareous rocks might, therefore, be expected to contain fissures and
-caves of various ages. In the Mendip Hills they have been proved by
-Mr. Charles Moore to contain fossils of Rhætic age, the characteristic
-dog-fishes, _Acrodus minimus_, and _Hybodus reticulatus_, the elegant
-sculptured Ganoid fish, _Gryrolepis tenuistriatus_, and the tiny
-marsupials, Microlestes and its allies. This singular association of
-terrestrial with marine creatures is due to the fact, that while that
-area was being slowly depressed beneath the Rhætic and Liassic seas,
-the remains were mingled together on the coast-line, and washed into
-the crevices and holes in the rock.
-
-The older caves and fissures have very generally been blocked up by
-accumulations of calc-spar or other minerals, and they are arranged on
-a plan altogether independent of the existing systems of drainage.
-
-It is a singular fact that no fissures or caves should, with the
-above exception, contain the remains of animals of a date before the
-Pleistocene age. There can be but little doubt that they were used
-as places of shelter in all ages, and they must have entombed the
-remains of the animals that fell into them, or were swept into them by
-the streams. Caves there must have been long before, and the Eocene
-Palæotheres, and Anoplotheres met their death in the open pit-falls,
-just as the sheep and cattle do at the present time. The Hyænodon
-of the Meiocene had, probably, the same cave-haunting tastes as his
-descendant, the living Hyæna, and the marsupials of the Mesozoic age
-might be expected to be preserved in caves, like the fossil marsupials
-of Australia. The chances of preservation of the remains when once
-cemented into a fine breccia, or sealed down with a crystalline
-covering of stalagmite, are very nearly the same as those under
-which the Pleistocene animals have been handed down to us. The only
-reasonable explanation of the non-discovery of such remains seems to
-be, that the ancient suites of caves and fissures containing them,
-and for the most part near the then surface of the rock, have been
-completely swept away by denudation, while the present caverns were
-either then not excavated or inaccessible.
-
-Such an hypothesis will explain the fact that the no ossiferous caverns
-are older than the Pleistocene age, not merely in Europe, but in North
-and South America, Australia, and New Zealand. The effect of denudation
-in rendering the geological record imperfect, may be gathered from
-the estimate, which Mr. Prestwich has formed, of the amount of rock
-removed from the crests of the Mendips and the Ardennes, which is in
-the one case a thickness “of two miles and more,” and in the other as
-much as “three or four miles.”[37] Under these conditions we could not
-expect to find a series of bone caves reaching far back into the remote
-geological past, since the caves and their contents would inevitably be
-destroyed.
-
-
-_The Filling up of Caves._
-
-We must now consider the condition under which caves become filled up
-with various deposits. If the velocity of the stream in a water-cave
-be lessened, the silt, sand, or pebbles it was hurrying along will
-be dropped, and may ultimately block up the entire watercourse. In
-bringing this to pass, however, the carbonate of lime in the water
-plays a most important part. If the excess of carbonic acid by which it
-is held in solution be lost by evaporation, it immediately reassumes
-its crystalline form, and shoots over the surface of the pool like
-plates of ice, or is deposited in loose botryoidal masses at their
-sides and on their bottoms; and, since the atmospheric water very
-generally percolates through the crannies in the rock, the sides and
-roof of the channel, above the level of the water, are adorned with
-a stony drapery of every conceivable shape. The rate at which this
-accumulation takes place depends upon the free access of air necessary
-for evaporation, and is therefore variable,--as in the case of the
-Ingleborough cave. In all the caves which I have examined there is a
-free current of air. If a water-channel becomes blocked up by either
-or both these causes, the joints and fissures in the rock offer an
-outlet to the drainage, more or less free, at a lower level, as in
-the Ingleborough cave, Poole’s cave, near Buxton, and many others.
-Sometimes, however, owing to the increased rain-fall, or to the
-obstruction of the lower channels, the water re-excavates the old
-passages, as we shall see to have been the case with the famous caverns
-of Kent’s Hole and Brixham. In the summer of 1872, a sudden rain-fall
-not merely opened out for itself a new passage into a swallow-hole
-close to Gaping Gill, on the flanks of Ingleborough, but forced its way
-out through the old entrance of the Ingleborough cave, breaking up the
-calcareous breccia, and removing the large stones in its course. A cave
-obviously may become dry, either by the drainage passing along a lower
-level, or by the elevation of the district by subterranean energy.
-After it has been forsaken by the stream, the particles brought down by
-the atmospheric water percolating through the joints, tend to fill it
-up on the surface, and these may be either of clay, loam, or sand.
-
-These actions may be studied in this country in the well-known caves of
-Ingleborough, Buxton, Cheddar, Wookey Hole, and a great many others in
-Derbyshire, Yorkshire, Staffordshire, Durham, Cumberland, and Wales.
-
-
-_The Cave of Caldy._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A View in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Stalagmites in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 11.--The Fairy Chamber, Caldy.]
-
-Among the most beautiful stalactite caverns in this country is that on
-the island of Caldy, immediately opposite to Tenby in Pembrokeshire,
-discovered some years ago in the limestone cliff, and explored by Mr.
-Ayshford Sanford and the Rev. H. H. Winwood, in 1866, and subsequently
-by the writer in 1871 and 1872. On creeping through a narrow entrance
-with an outlook to the sea on a precipitous side of a quarry, a passage
-leads to a chamber of considerable horizontal extent, the bottom being
-covered with silt, on which stand pedestals of dripstone from an inch
-to two feet in length, each rising from a thin calcareous crust which
-does not altogether conceal the silt below. From it a low entrance
-leads into a fairy-like chamber, the floor consisting of a rich red,
-crystalline pavement, perfectly horizontal, and studded here and there
-with round bosses (Figs. 9, 10, 11), either red or snow-white. From
-the roof hang stalactites offering the same beautiful contrast of
-colours, forming a delicate canopy of tassels, or passing downwards to
-the floor and constituting slender shafts about three feet long, and
-about the diameter of straws. Each of these is hollow, translucent, and
-more or less traversed by water, and in some places each stood next
-its fellow, almost as close as the straws in a cornfield. Sometimes
-the shaft stands on a cone (Fig. 11) of dripstone, more or less raised
-above the floor. Small pools of water occupy hollows in the pavement,
-each lined with glittering crystals of calcite (Fig. 12), which are
-slowly shooting over the surface, and converting some of the open
-hollows into bottle-shaped cavities (Fig. 13). Their sides and bottoms
-are covered with a crystalline growth of singular beauty, of which an
-idea may be formed by woodcut 14, which represents the edge. Where the
-drip happened to fall into a shallow pool, it gradually built up for
-itself a cone, on the lower portion of which the varying water-level
-is marked by horizontal rings of crystals (Fig. 15), and the normal
-waterline by the upper horizontal plate. Sometimes these were united
-to the roof by a slender straw-shaft. In Figure 11 the original shaft
-has been broken away, and as the direction of the drip has slightly
-shifted, a new one gradually descended, until finally it became
-cemented to the side of the cone.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Pools in Fairy Chamber.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Pool in Fairy Chamber.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Edge of Pool in Fairy Chamber.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Cone with Straw-column.]
-
-The history of these structures is very evident. The straw-like
-stalactites were formed by the evaporation of the carbonic acid from
-the surface of each drop of water, as it accumulated in one spot, and
-the consequent deposit of carbonate of lime around its circumference.
-It could not be formed in the centre, because of the continual movement
-of the successive drops in falling. By a circumferential growth of
-this kind a small crystal tube, of the diameter of a drop, is slowly
-developed, which continues to lengthen until the result is one of the
-straw-columns, with a hole in the centre for the passage of the water,
-which cannot readily part with its carbonic acid till it arrives at the
-end of the tube. Sometimes the hole has been subsequently blocked up
-by calc-spar, or the general surface been covered over with successive
-layers, until it becomes a mass of considerable diameter. If the drop
-fell into a deep pool, the straw-column was continued down to the
-water-line; if in shallow water, or on the floor, a pedestal was built
-up, as is represented in the preceding figures. The crystallization
-going on in the pools is greater at the surface than below, because
-of the greater evaporation, and consequently the stalagmitic film is
-gradually extending over it on every side from the edges (Figs. 12, 13).
-
-As I broke my way into some of the unexplored recesses, through the
-thickly planted straw-shafts, and scene after scene of fairy beauty,
-unsullied by man, opened upon my eyes, the ringing of the fragments on
-the crystalline floor that accompanied almost every movement made me
-feel an intruder, and sorry for the destruction.
-
-In some places, where the drip was continuous, and the calcareous basin
-which it had built up for itself shallow, small spherical bodies of
-calcite were so beautifully polished by friction in the agitated water,
-that they deserve the name of cave-pearls from their lustre. In Fig. 16
-I have represented a tiny basin with its pearly contents. Where the
-drip had ceased to be continuous each of these formed a nucleus for the
-deposit of calcite crystals, by which they were united to the bottom of
-the basin.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Basin containing Cave-pearls.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Fungoid Structures, magnified.]
-
-In the principal chamber in the cave, which is very nearly free from
-drip, the upper surfaces of the stones and stalagmites on the floor are
-covered with a peculiar fungoid-like deposit of calcite, consisting
-of rounded bosses, attached to the general surface by a pedicle (see
-Figs. 17, 18) sometimes not much thicker than a hair. They stood
-close together at various levels, following the inequalities of the
-surface of attachment, and being on an average about 0·2 inch long.
-Several microscopical sections (Fig. 17) showed that each was formed
-originally on a slight elevation of the general surface, which would
-cause a greater evaporation of water than the surrounding portions,
-and therefore be covered with a greater deposit of calcite. This
-process would go on until the height was reached to which the water
-slowly passing over the general surface would no longer rise. Hence
-the remarkable uniformity of the height of the bosses. The evaporation
-is greater at the point furthest removed from the general surface, and
-therefore the apex is larger than the base (see Fig. 17). In Figure
-18 they stand as thickly together as trees in a virgin forest, and
-are developed in greatest vigour where the small eminences cause a
-greater evaporation than the small depressions, and are stoutest and
-strongest at the free edges. Some of the pedicles, as in the figure,
-present traces of erosion, the outer layers having been eaten away by
-acid-laden water.
-
-Some of these singular little bosses may have been moulded on minute
-fungi, such as those in the cave of Ingleborough, but their presence is
-not revealed by the microscope.
-
-
-_The Black-rock Cave, near Tenby._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Fungoid Structure, Black-rock Cave.]
-
-I met with this remarkable kind of calcareous deposition in a second
-cave in the neighbourhood of Tenby. When examining the Black-rock
-quarries in 1871, the workmen pointed out a small opening which they
-believed to be the entrance of a cave, but which was too small for them
-to enter. By knocking off, however, a few sharp angles, I got into
-a small chamber about five feet high, with sides, roof, and bottom
-covered with massive dripstone. A few loose stones rested on the
-bottom. The whole surface, even including the stones upon the floor,
-one of which is figured (Fig. 18), was so completely covered with
-these peculiar fungoid bodies, that it was impossible to move without
-destroying hundreds of them. All were about the same height, 0·2
-inches, snow-white, or of a rich reddish brown, and conformed to the
-unequal surface on which they stood. It is quite impossible to describe
-the effect of a whole chamber bristling with these peculiar structures.
-The only author by whom they are mentioned, Mr. John Beaumont--who
-described the caves of Mendip in 1680, considered them to be veritable
-plants of stone.[38] The beautiful forms assumed by the dripstone in
-the caves of Caldy and Black-rock are by no means uncommon, but I have
-never met with them anywhere else in such perfection. They may be
-studied in all stalactitic caverns.
-
-
-_Great Quantity of Carbonate of Lime dissolved by Atmospheric Water._
-
-A small portion only of the carbonate of lime is deposited as tufa
-or dripstone in the neighbourhood of the rock from which it has been
-derived, as compared with that carried by the streams into the rivers,
-and the rivers into the sea. An idea of this quantity may be formed
-from the calculation of the solid matter conveyed down by the Thames,
-given by Mr. Prestwich in his Presidential Address to the Geological
-Society in 1871, p. lxvii.
-
-“Taking the mean daily discharge of the Thames at Kingston at
-1,250,000,000 gallons, and the salts in solution at nineteen grains per
-gallon, the mean quantity of dissolved mineral matter there carried
-down by the Thames every twenty-four hours is equal to 3,364,286 lbs.,
-or 150 tons, which is equal to 548,230 tons in the year. Of this daily
-quantity about two-thirds, or say 1,000 tons, consist of carbonate of
-lime and 238 tons of sulphate of lime, while limited proportions of
-carbonate of magnesia, chlorides of sodium and potassium, sulphates of
-soda and potash, silica and traces of iron, alumina, and phosphates,
-constitute the rest. If we refer a small portion of the carbonates and
-the sulphates and chlorides chiefly to the impermeable argillaceous
-formations washed by the rain-water, we shall still have at least
-ten grains per gallon of carbonate of lime, due to the chalk, upper
-greensand, oolitic strata, and marlstone, the superficial area of
-which, in the Thames basin above Kingston, is estimated by Mr. Harrison
-at 2,072 square miles. Therefore the quantity of carbonate of lime
-carried away from this area by the Thames is equal to 797 tons daily,
-or 290,905 tons annually, which gives 140 tons removed yearly from
-each square mile; or, extending the calculation to a century, we have
-a total removal of 29,090,500 tons, or of 14,000 tons from each square
-mile of surface. Taking a ton of chalk, as a mean, as equal to fifteen
-cubic feet, this is equal to the removal of 210,000 cubic feet per
-century for each square mile, or of 9/100 of an inch from the whole
-surface in the course of a century, so that in the course of 13,200
-years a quantity equal to a thickness of about one foot would be
-removed from our chalk and oolitic districts.”
-
-This destructive action, operating through long periods of time,
-destroys not merely the general surface of the limestone, but, where it
-is localized by the convergence of water, is capable of excavating the
-deepest gorges and the longest caves. The quantity of material carried
-away in solution is a measure of the power of carbonic acid in the
-general work of denudation.
-
-
-_The Circulation of Carbonate of Lime._
-
-The circulation of carbonate of lime in nature presents us with a
-never-ending cycle of change. It is conveyed into the sea to be built
-up into the tissues of the animal and vegetable inhabitants. It
-appears in the gorgeous corallines, nullipores, calcareous sea-weeds,
-sea-shells, and in the armour of crustaceans. In the tissues of
-the coral-zoophytes it assumes the form of stony groves, of which
-each tree is a colony of animals, and in the wave-defying reef it
-reverts to its original state of limestone. Or, again, it is seized
-upon by tiny masses of structureless protoplasm, and fashioned into
-chambers of endless variety and of infinite beauty, and accumulated
-at the bottom of the deeper seas, forming a deposit analogous to our
-chalk. In the revolution of ages the bottom of the sea becomes dry
-land, the calcareous _débris_ of animal and vegetable life is more
-or less compacted together by pressure and by the infiltration of
-acid-laden rain-water, and appears as limestone of various hardness and
-constitution. Then the destruction begins again, and caves, pot-holes,
-and ravines are again carved out of the solid rock.
-
-
-_The Temperature of Caves._
-
-The air in caves is generally of the same temperature as the mean
-annual temperature of the district in which they occur, and therefore
-cold in summer and warm in winter. This would be a sufficient reason
-why they should be chosen by uncivilized peoples as habitations.
-
-The very remarkable glacières, or caves containing ice instead of
-water, in the Jura, Pyrenees, in Teneriffe, Iceland, and other
-districts of high altitude and low temperature, in which the
-temperature even in summer does not rise much above freezing-point, may
-be explained by the theory advanced independently by De Luc and the
-Rev. G. F. Browne. “The heavy cold air of winter,” writes the latter,
-“sinks down into the glacières, and the lighter, warm air of summer
-cannot on ordinary principles dislodge it, so that heat is very slowly
-spread in the caves; and even when some amount of heat does reach the
-ice, the latter melts but slowly, since a kilogramme of ice absorbs 79°
-C. of heat in melting; and thus when ice is once formed, it becomes a
-material guarantee for the permanence of cold in the cave. For this
-explanation to hold good it is necessary that the level at which the
-ice is found should be below the level of the entrance to the cave;
-otherwise the mere weight of the cold air would cause it to leave its
-prison as soon as the spring warmth arrived.” It is also necessary that
-the cave should be protected from direct radiation and from the action
-of wind. These conditions are satisfied by all the glacières explored
-by Mr. Browne.[39] The apparent anomaly that one only out of a group
-of caves exposed to the same temperatures should be a glacière, may be
-explained by the fact that these conditions are found in combination
-but rarely, and if one were absent there would be no accumulation of
-perpetual ice. It is very probable that the store of cold laid up in
-these caves, as in an ice-house, has been ultimately derived from the
-great refrigeration of climate in Europe in the Glacial Period.
-
-
-_Conclusion._
-
-In this chapter we have examined the physical history of caves, their
-formation, and their relation to pot-holes, cirques, and ravines; and
-we have seen that they are not the result of subterranean disturbance,
-but of the mechanical action of rain-water and the chemical action
-of carbonic acid, both operating from above. We have seen that
-cave-hunting is not merely an adventurous amusement, but also a quest
-that brings us into a great laboratory, so to speak, in which we can
-see the natural agents at work that have carved out the valleys and
-gorges, and shaped the hills wherever the calcareous rocks are to be
-found.
-
-The rest of this treatise will be devoted to the evidence which they
-offer as to the former inhabitants, both men and animals, of Europe.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER III.
-
-HISTORIC CAVES IN BRITAIN.
-
-  Definition of Historic Period.--Wild Animals in Britain during
-    the Historic Period.--Animals living under the care of Man.--
-    Classificatory value of Historic Animals.--The Victoria Cave,
-    Settle, Yorkshire.--History of Discovery.--The Romano-Celtic or
-    Brit-Welsh Stratum.--The Bones of the Animals.--Miscellaneous
-    Articles.--The Coins.--The Jewelry, and its Relation to Irish
-    Art.--Similar Remains in other Caves in Yorkshire.--These
-    Caves used as Places of Refuge.--The evidence of History as to
-    Date.--Britain under the Romans.--The Inroads of the Picts and
-    Scots.--The English Conquest.--The Neolithic Stratum.--The
-    approximate Date of the Neolithic Occupation.--The Grey Clays.
-    --The Pleistocene Occupation by the Hyænas.--The probable
-    Preglacial Age of the Pleistocene Stratum.--The Kirkhead Cave.
-    --Poole’s Cave, near Buxton.--Thor’s Cave, near Ashbourne.--
-    Historic value of Brit-Welsh Group of Caves.--Principal Animals
-    and Articles.--The use of Horse-flesh.--The Cave of Long-berry
-    Bank.
-
-
-_Definition of Historic Period._
-
-In the preceding chapter the origin of caves has been discussed, as
-well as their relation to the physical geography of the districts in
-which they are found. We must now pass on to the biological division
-of the subject, which relates to the animals that they contain and the
-inferences that may be drawn from their occurrence. The caves will be
-divided into historic, prehistoric, and pleistocene, according to the
-principles laid down in the first chapter.
-
-It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to define with precision
-the point where legend ends and history begins; but the line may be
-drawn with convenience at the first beginning of a connected and
-continuous narrative, rather than at the first isolated notice of a
-country. If we accept this definition, the historic period in Great
-Britain cannot be extended further back than the temporary invasion
-of Julius Cæsar, B.C. 55, even if so far, since of the interval that
-elapsed between that event and the subjugation under Claudius, in the
-year A.D. 43, we know scarcely anything. Of the events which happened
-in this country before Cæsar’s invasion there is no documentary
-evidence, although, by the modern method of scientific research, we are
-able to extend the narrative away from the borders of history far back
-into the archæological and geological past.
-
-
-_Wild Animals in Britain during the Historic Period._
-
-During the historic period great changes have taken place in the
-animals inhabiting Great Britain. The wild animals have been diminished
-in number, and their area of occupation has been narrowed by the
-increase of population and the improvement in weapons of destruction.
-The brown bear, inhabiting Britain during the time of the Roman
-occupation, was extirpated probably before the tenth century. The
-current belief that it was destroyed in Scotland by the founder of
-the Gordon family in 1057 is unsupported by any documentary evidence
-which I have been able to discover; the crest of the Gordons, which
-is supposed to have been derived from the last of those animals slain
-in the island, consisting of three boars’, not _bears’_, heads. The
-last wolf is said to have been destroyed in Scotland in 1680, while in
-Ireland the animal lingered thirty years later to be a terror to the
-defenceless beggars. It was deemed worthy of a special decree for its
-destruction in the reign of Edward I. The wild boar was extinct before
-the reign of Charles I., while the beaver, which was hunted for its fur
-on the banks of the Teivi in Cardiganshire during the time of the first
-Crusade, became extinct shortly afterwards. The stag was so abundant in
-the south of England as recently as the reign of Queen Anne, that she
-saw a herd of no less than five hundred between London and Portsmouth.
-At present the animal lives only in a half-wild condition, in the
-forest of Exmoor and the Highlands of Scotland; while the roedeer is
-now only found wild in Scotland, although it formerly ranged throughout
-the length and breadth of the country.
-
-The reindeer is proved to have been living in Caithness as late as the
-year 1159, by a passage in the Orkneyinga Saga.
-
-The common rat, _Mus decumanus_, is the only wild or semi-wild animal
-that has migrated into this country during the historic period contrary
-to the will of man. In 1727 it (_Pallas, Glires_) had begun to invade
-Southern Russia from the regions of Persia and the Caspian Sea. Thence
-it swiftly spread over Asia Minor, and while it was advancing to the
-west overland, it was carried by ships to nearly all the ports in the
-world. It arrived in Britain certainly before the year 1730, and has
-since nearly exterminated the black indigenous species. It is the only
-wild animal which is known to have invaded Europe since the pleistocene
-age, with the exception, perhaps, of the true elk.
-
-
-_Animals living under the care of Man._
-
-The fallow-deer, indigenous in the countries bordering on the
-Mediterranean, was probably introduced by the Romans, since its remains
-occur in refuse-heaps of Roman age, such as that of London Wall, and
-of Colchester, while it has not been met with in older deposits. To
-them, also, we probably owe the introduction of the pheasant, which
-was sufficiently abundant in the neighbourhood of London in the time
-of Harold to be mentioned as one of the articles of food eaten on
-feast-days by the households of the Canons at Waltham Abbey in 1059.
-The domestic fowl has left the first traces of its presence in this
-country in the Roman refuse-heaps, although it was known to the Belgæ,
-according to the testimony of Cæsar, before the first Roman invasion.
-
-The earliest mention of the domestic cat in this country is to be
-found in the laws of Howel Dha,[40] that were probably codified at
-the end of the tenth or in the eleventh century, although many of the
-enactments may be of a much earlier date. The king’s cat is assessed
-at eightpence, or twice as much as that belonging to any subject. The
-ass[41] was certainly known in Britain in the days of Æthelred (A.D.
-866-871), when, according to Professor Bell, its price was fixed at the
-large sum of twelve shillings. The larger breed of cattle represented
-by the Chillingham ox, and descended from the great Urus, first
-appears in this country about the time of the English invasion. It
-gradually spread over those districts conquered by the English, until
-the small aboriginal dark-coloured, short-horn _Bos longifrons_, which
-was the only domestic breed in the prehistoric and Roman times, is now
-only to be met with in the hill country of Wales and of Scotland, in
-which the Brit-Welsh or Romano-Celtic inhabitants still survive.
-
-
-_Classificatory value of Historic Animals._
-
-The principal changes in the fauna of Great Britain during the historic
-age are the extinction of the bear, wolf, beaver, reindeer, and
-wild boar, and the introduction of the domestic fowl, the pheasant,
-fallow-deer, ass, the domestic cat, the larger breed of oxen, and the
-common rat; and as this took place at different times, it is obvious
-that these animals enable us to ascertain the approximate date of the
-deposit in which their remains happen to occur. And for this purpose
-the following table[42] may be consulted:--
-
-
-ANIMALS EXTINCT.
-
-                        A.D.
-  Brown bear    circa 500-1000
-  Reindeer        ”     1200
-  Beaver          ”    11-1200
-  Wolf            ”     1680
-  Wild boar       ”     1620
-
-
-ANIMALS INTRODUCED.
-
-  Domestic fowl                      before    55 B.C.
-  Fallow-deer                        circa       ”
-  Pheasant                             ”         ”
-  Domestic ox of Urus type             ”      449 A.D.
-  Ass                                  ”     800-850
-  Cat                                  ”     800-1000
-  Common rat                           ”      1727-30
-
-Some or other of these animals are met with in the peat-bogs and
-alluvia, and in caves, but far more abundantly in the refuse-heaps left
-behind by man, by whom they have here been used either for service or
-for food.
-
-The disappearance of certain wild species, from the areas in which they
-lived on the continent, in historic times, has not been ascertained
-so accurately as in this country, and many animals, which have become
-extinct in our restricted and highly-cultivated island, are still to
-be found in the continental forests, morasses, and mountains. The
-brown bear is still to be met with in the Pyrenees, the Vosges, and
-in the wilder and more inaccessible portions of northern, middle, and
-southern Europe. The wolf still survives in France, and during the late
-German war preyed upon the slain after some of the battles. It, as well
-as the wild boar, ranges throughout the uncultivated regions of the
-continent. The beaver still lives in the waters of the Rhone, as well
-as in the rivers of Lithuania and of Scandinavia, and the reindeer,
-now restricted to the regions north of a line passing east and west
-through the Baltic, extended further south, in sufficient numbers to
-be remarked by Cæsar, among the more noteworthy animals living in the
-great Hercynian forest, which overshadowed northern Germany in his
-days. This forest also afforded shelter to the true elk and the bison,
-both of which still live in Lithuania, as well as to the Urus, which
-was hunted by Charles the Great, near Aachen, and probably became
-extinct in the fifteenth or sixteenth century. The lion inhabited the
-mountains of southern Thrace in the days of Herodotus and of Aristotle,
-and became extinct in Europe between 330 B.C. and the days of Dio
-Chrysostom Rhetor (A.D. 100), who expressly says that there were no
-lions in Greece in his time. The panther also inhabited the same
-district when Xenophon wrote his “Treatise on Hunting.”
-
-The fallow-deer was believed by the late Professor Edouard Lartet to
-have been introduced into France by the Romans. On a visit, however, to
-Paris in September 1873, Professor Gervais called my attention to an
-antler of the animal in the Jardin des Plantes, said to have been found
-in a refuse-heap along with axes of polished stone. It must therefore
-have lived in France in the Neolithic age, if it were obtained from an
-undisturbed deposit. It gradually spread into Germany and Switzerland,
-until in the eleventh century it was sufficiently abundant to be
-mentioned among the articles of food in a metrical grace of the monks
-of St. Gall.
-
-    “Imbellem damam faciat benedictio summam.”[43]
-
-The domestic fowl is to be recognized on Gallic coins before the
-Roman invasion, and therefore was probably known at the very dawn of
-Gallic history. The larger breed of oxen, descended from the Urus
-type, has been known in France, Germany, Lombardy, Scandinavia, and
-Switzerland, in the remote division of the prehistoric age known
-as the Neolithic.[44] The buffalo, on the other hand, of the Roman
-Campagna, was introduced into Italy, according to Paulus Diaconus, in
-the year 596, and the domestic cat,[45] known to the Greeks from their
-intercourse with Egypt, became familiar to the eyes of the inhabitants
-of Rome and Constantinople as early as the fourth century after Christ.
-
-It is evident from the survival of the wolf, the bear, beaver,
-reindeer, and the wild boar on the continent at the present time,
-that the chronological table which I have constructed for Britain
-is inapplicable to Europe in general. In the present state of our
-knowledge of the varying ranges of the animals, it seems impossible to
-form any similar scheme.
-
-The historic caves are characterized by the presence of some of these
-animals, as well as of coins and pottery, and other articles by which
-the date of their occupation may be ascertained.
-
-
-_The Victoria Cave, Settle, Yorkshire._
-
-The most important historic cave in this country is that discovered
-by Mr. Joseph Jackson, near Settle, in Yorkshire, on the coronation
-day of Queen Victoria, in 1838, and which has therefore been called
-the Victoria Cave. It runs horizontally into the precipitous side of
-a lonely ravine known as King’s Scar (Fig. 19), at a height of about
-1,450 feet above the sea, according to Mr. Tiddeman, and it consists of
-three large ill-defined chambers filled with débris nearly up to the
-roof.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 19.--View of King’s Scar, Settle, showing the
-entrances of the Victoria and Albert Caves (from a photograph). A, B,
-Victoria; C, Albert.]
-
-The entrances face to the south-west, and open at the bottom of an
-overhanging cliff at the point where a scree, or accumulation of
-fragments from the cliff above, gradually slopes down to the bottom of
-the valley, about one hundred feet below. When Mr. Jackson made his
-discovery, he passed inwards through a small entrance,[46] and was
-rewarded by finding in the earth on the floor a number of Roman coins,
-together with ornaments and implements of bronze, and some brooches
-of singular taste and beauty, with implements of bone, and large
-quantities of broken bones and fragments of pottery. The collection
-was very miscellaneous; for besides iron spear-heads, nails, daggers,
-spoon-brooches of bone, spindle-whorls, beads of amber and of glass,
-there were bronze brooches, finger-rings, armlets, bracelets, buckles,
-and studs. All were lying pêle-mêle together, side by side with the
-broken bones of the animals, and the whole set of remains, with the
-exception of some of the brooches, was of the kind which is usually met
-with in the neighbourhood of Roman camps, cities, and villas which have
-been sacked.
-
-The fragments of Samian ware and Roman pottery scattered through the
-mass, as well as coins of Trajan and Constantine, proved further,
-that the cave had been inhabited after the Roman invasion, and not
-earlier than the middle of the third century; and the rude imitations
-of Roman coins were, according to Mr. Roach Smith,[47] probably in
-circulation for some centuries after the departure of the Romans
-from Britain.--“And although some of these remains are indicative
-of sepulture, yet from the evidence furnished there appears no
-positive proof of their having formed part of funereal deposits. A
-more satisfactory conclusion seems to arise in considering that these
-caves (_i.e._ the group) may have been used as places of refuge by the
-Romanized Britons during the troublous times at and after the close of
-the fourth century.” This conclusion we shall see fully borne out by
-the evidence subsequently obtained. Mr. Jackson gives the following
-account of the discovery:--
-
-“The entrance was nearly filled up with rubbish, and overgrown with
-nettles. After removing these obstructions, I was obliged to lie down
-at full length to get in. The first appearance that struck me on
-entering was the large quantity of clay and earth, which seemed as if
-washed in from without, and presented to the view round pieces like
-balls of different sizes. Of this clay there must be several hundred
-waggon loads, but abounding more in the first than in the branch caves.
-In some parts a stalagmitic crust has formed, mixed with bones, broken
-pots, &c. It was on this crust I found the principal part of the coins,
-the other articles being mostly imbedded in the clay. In the other
-caves very little has been found. When we get through the clay, which
-is very stiff and deep, we generally find the rock covered with bones,
-all broken and presenting the appearance of having been gnawed. The
-entrance into the inner cave has been walled up at the sides. In the
-inside were several large stones lying near the hole, any one of which
-would have completely blocked it up by merely turning the stone over.
-I pulled the wall down, and the aperture was now about a yard wide,
-and two feet high. On digging up the clay at about nine or ten inches
-deep, I found the original floor; it was hard and gravelly, and strewed
-with bones, broken pots, and other objects. The roof of the cave was
-beautifully hung with stalactites in various fantastic forms and as
-white as snow.”[48]
-
-The interest in these discoveries led Mr. Denny, Mr. Farrer, and other
-gentlemen to examine the superficial stratum from time to time,
-until, in 1870, Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth, Mr. Walter Morrison, Mr.
-Birkbeck, and other gentlemen in the neighbourhood formed a committee
-for the investigation of the contents of the cave, which had been
-placed at their disposal by the courtesy of the owner, the late Mr.
-Stackhouse. They were aided by the assistance of Sir C. Lyell, Sir. J.
-Lubbock, and Mr. Darwin, Professor Phillips, Mr. Franks, and others,
-and by a grant obtained from the British Association, and have carried
-on the work since that time with comparatively little interruption.
-Mr. Jackson, the original discoverer, superintended the workmen;
-while I identified the works of art and the mammalian remains that
-were discovered, and drew up for the committee the reports brought
-before the British Association in 1870, 1871, and 1872, and before
-the Anthropological Institute in 1871. Mr. Tiddeman also contributed
-a report on the physical history of the cave, which is printed in the
-British Association Report for 1872, and subsequently in the Geological
-Magazine, January 1873.[49]
-
-
-_The Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh Stratum._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Longitudinal Section of Victoria Cave.]
-
-The committee resolved not to begin at the entrance which Mr. Jackson
-discovered in 1838 (Fig. 19 A), but to make a new passage, at a point
-where daylight could be seen through the chinks of the broken débris,
-which there prevented access. Ground was broken on a small plateau
-in front of this (Figs. 19 B, 20), which, from the sunny aspect and
-commanding view, would naturally be chosen by the dwellers in the
-cave as their more usual place for eating and lounging, and in which
-we might therefore expect to find the remains of whatever they had
-dropped or lost. The gloomy recesses of a cave, indeed, even if
-lit up by large fires or by torches, are not fitted for any other
-purpose than for sleeping or concealment; and if we add in this case
-the damp cold clay under foot and the constant drip of the water
-overhead, it was only reasonable to infer that most of their life
-was spent out of doors, and that the cave was used merely as a place
-of retirement for shelter. As the trench progressed we dug first of
-all through a thickness of two feet (Figs. 20, 21) of angular blocks
-of limestone, that had fallen from the cliff above, and that rested
-on a black layer (No. 4) containing the kind of remains which we had
-expected. The layer was composed of fragments of bone and charcoal,
-surrounding the burnt stones which had formed the ancient hearths,
-and contained large quantities of the broken bones of animals which
-had been used for food, and coins and articles of luxury, as well as
-those instruments which were more naturally suited for the half-savage
-life of dwellers in caves. As we opened out the new mouth, the angular
-fragments disappeared and the black layer rose to the surface,
-composing the floor, and lying in some places beneath enormous blocks
-of limestone which had fallen from the roof since its accumulation, and
-being continuous with the layer in which Mr. Jackson first made his
-discoveries.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Vertical Section at the Entrance to the
-Victoria Cave.]
-
-It was evident that this stratum had been formed during the sojourn of
-man in the cave, and we shall find, in the examination of the remains
-which it furnished, proof that it is connected with the obscure history
-of Britain during the fifth and sixth centuries. We will take each
-group of objects in its proper class, beginning with what at first
-sight seems the least promising, the broken bones of the animals that
-supplied the inhabitants with food.
-
-
-_The Bones of the Animals._
-
-The bones of the Celtic short-horn (_Bos longifrons_) were very
-abundant, and proved that a variety of ox, indistinguishable from the
-small dark mountain cattle of Wales and Scotland, was the chief food
-of the inhabitants. A variety of the goat with simple recurved horns,
-which is commonly met with in the Yorkshire tumuli explored by Canon
-Greenwell, and in the deposits round Roman villas in Great Britain,
-furnished the mutton; while the pork was supplied by a domestic breed
-of pigs with small canines; and since the bones of the last animal
-belong for the most part to young individuals, it is clear that the
-young porker was preferred to the older animal. The bill of fare was
-occasionally varied by the use of horse-flesh, which formed a common
-article of food in this country down to the ninth century. To this list
-must be added the venison of the roedeer and stag, but the remains of
-these two animals were singularly rare. Two spurs of the domestic fowl,
-and a few bones of wild duck and grouse, complete the list of animals
-which can with certainty be affirmed to have been eaten by the dwellers
-in the cave. The numerous unbroken bones, some very gigantic, of the
-badger, and those of the fox, wildcat, hare, and water-vole, commonly
-called water-rat, have probably been introduced subsequently, from
-those animals having used the cave as a place of shelter. There were
-also bones of the dog, which from their unbroken condition proved that
-the animal had not been used for food, as it certainly was used by
-the men who lived in the caves of Denbighshire in the Neolithic age.
-The whole group of remains implies that the dwellers in the Victoria
-Cave lived upon their flocks and herds, rather than by the chase. And
-since the domestic fowl was not known in Britain until about the time
-of the Roman invasion, the presence of its remains fixes the date of
-the occupation as not earlier than that time. On the other hand, since
-the small Celtic short-horn (_Bos longifrons_) was the only domestic
-ox in use known in Roman Britain, and since it disappeared from those
-portions of the country which were conquered by the English, along
-with its Celtic possessors, the date is fixed in the other direction
-as being not much later than the Northumbrian conquest of that portion
-of Yorkshire. I shall return to this part of the subject presently;
-here I will only remark, that the present distribution of the lineal
-descendants of the Celtic short-horn, the small, dark-coloured Scotch
-and Welsh cattle, corresponds with those regions on which the Celtic
-population fell back before the English. And its survival in Wales, and
-until comparatively recently in Cornwall, Cumberland, and Westmoreland,
-may be accounted for by the fact, that in those districts the Celtic
-populations of Roman Britain were not displaced by the English
-invaders.[50]
-
-The larger breed of cattle known in its purity as the white ox of
-Chillingham, from which all our purely English breeds have been
-derived, was imported originally by the English, and spread over the
-whole country which they occupied, until at last the smaller and more
-ancient oxen survived only in a few isolated areas in the north and
-west of Britain. This displacement of the Celtic short-horn by the
-English oxen of the Urus type corroborates, in a striking degree, the
-truth of Mr. Freeman’s view of the ruthless destruction of everything
-Roman and Celtic at the hands of the English. It is clear, therefore,
-that from the examination of the bones we may infer that the cave was
-occupied before the Celtic short-horn was supplanted in this district
-by the larger domestic breed of oxen, and after the introduction of the
-domestic fowl, that is to say, in the interval which elapsed between
-the Roman and English invasions.
-
-We must now treat of the remains of man’s handiwork in the cave.
-
-
-_Miscellaneous Articles._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Spoon-brooch (natural size).]
-
-The ornaments and implements of bone consist of carefully smoothed
-pins, and points intended to be fitted to a handle, knife-handles made
-of bone and antler; three spindle-whorls made of the perforated head
-of a femur; a stud; a perfect spoon-shaped fibula (Fig. 22), which
-corresponds with one of those in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy,
-as well as several fragments, and which when in use was passed through
-holes in the clothes, in such a manner that the two ends alone were
-visible. These are ornamented, and the shaft and the whole back is more
-or less polished by wear. Eight articles bear a close resemblance to
-the handles of gimlets (Figs. 23, 24), and most probably have been
-used as studs, or links, for fastening together clothing. The fact,
-indeed, that some have the central hole worn by the friction of a thong
-or string of some kind, coupled with the worn state of some of their
-surfaces, renders this guess very likely to be true. In Fig. 24, _a_,
-the ornament in right lines, which once covered the surface as in Fig.
-24, _b_, is very nearly obliterated by friction against some soft body
-such as clothing. A reference to the figures will give a better idea of
-their shape and ornamentation than a mere description. Two perforated
-discs may have been used as studs. There are also many nondescript
-articles, consisting of sockets made of antler of stag, and bone rods
-carefully rounded, together with cut bones of uncertain use. For the
-identification of the ivory boss of a sword-hilt I am indebted to the
-kindness of Mr. Franks.
-
-Besides the ornaments in bone and antler, there were seven glass beads,
-five transparent and two of a bluish tint, and one of jet turned in
-a lathe; as well as a fragment of a jet bracelet. Among the articles
-of daily use were many rounded pebbles, with marks of fire upon them,
-which had probably been heated for the purpose of boiling water.
-Pot-boilers, as they are called, of this kind are used by many savage
-peoples at the present day, and if we wished to heat water in a vessel
-that would not stand the fire, we should be obliged to employ a similar
-method. Other stones formed parts of ancient hearths, and two or three
-grooved slabs of sandstone had evidently been used for rounding and
-sharpening bone pins. The fragments of pottery were very abundant, and
-were all of the type usually found round Roman villas. One fragment of
-Samian ware was ornamented with the representation of a hunt.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Ornamented Bone-fastener (natural size).]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Two Bone-links; _a_ worn, _b_ unworn (natural
-size).]
-
-This group of articles throws but little light on the date of the
-occupation of the cave. The Samian ware, and the ivory boss of a Roman
-sword, merely imply that it was either Roman or post-Roman.
-
-
-_The Coins._
-
-If we turn now to the coins, we shall find the date to lie within
-narrower limits than those fixed by the animals. They consist of:--
-
-    Two silver of Trajan, d. 117.
-    Four bronze of Tetricus I., 267-274.
-    One bronze of Tetricus II., 267-274.
-    One bronze of Gallienus, d. 268.
-    One bronze of Constantine II., d. 343.
-    One bronze of Constans, d. 353.
-    Three barbarous imitations in bronze of coins of Tetricus,
-        circa 400-500 A.D.
-
-In a group of coins such as this the latest only give a clue to the
-date, since the earlier may have remained in circulation long after
-they were struck. In India, for example, those of Alexander the Great
-have not yet disappeared from the country, and in Spain, in the shops
-of Malaga, Moorish, Roman, and even Phœnician coins were current in
-1863, as well as all those which have been struck since.[51] We may
-therefore disregard the earliest coins, and fix our attention more
-particularly on those of the Constantine family, and the bronze minimi
-mentioned last in the list. The presence of the coin of Constans
-implies that the cave was occupied either during or after 337 A.D.,
-when he ascended the throne; while the date of the minimi has not been
-ascertained with accuracy. “They abound upon all Roman sites, such as
-Verulam and Richborough. In size they come nearest to those struck
-under Arcadius and his successors, and I think that you will not be
-far wrong in assigning them to the first half of the fifth century.
-The latest of the genuine Roman coins found in this country are those
-of Arcadius and Honorius; at least, the finding of any of later date
-is quite exceptional. What the currency was between that time and the
-commencement of the Saxon coinage it is hard to say. It seems probable,
-however, that gold and silver had nearly disappeared, and that the
-needs of a small local commerce were supplied by the Roman copper
-coins of which abundance remained in the country, and by small pieces
-struck after their model, not improbably by private speculators.” This
-opinion, which Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., has been kind enough to write
-me, coincides with that of Mr. Newton, as well as that of Mr. Roach
-Smith; and we may therefore assume, with tolerable certainty, that
-the cave was inhabited during the first half of the fifth century or
-afterwards, at a time when the withdrawal of the Roman Legions had left
-the colony of Britain, whose youth and vigour had been consumed in the
-fierce struggle of the rivals for the throne of the West, a prey to the
-barbarian invaders.
-
-It is of course conceivable that some of these coins may have been
-dropped at one time, and some at another, but nevertheless it seems
-very probable that the whole accumulation belongs to the same relative
-age. But whether this be accepted or not, it is certain the cave was
-inhabited during the time that the minimi were in circulation,--that is
-to say, during the first half of the fifth century, or from that time
-forwards.
-
-
-_The Jewellery, and its Relation to Irish Art._
-
-This conclusion as to the date, derived from the coins, is confirmed
-in a remarkable degree by the examination of the articles of
-luxury. Besides two bronze brooches of the Roman pattern, known by
-archæologists as harp-shaped (Coloured Plate, fig. 5), was one of the
-split-ring type, with a moveable pin, which is generally assigned to
-the later period of the Roman occupation of this country. One type
-of brooch was composed of two circular plates of bronze, soldered
-together, the front being very thin and bearing flamboyant and spiral
-patterns in relief (Fig. 25), of admirable design and execution. The
-original of the figure was discovered by Mr. Jackson, and is more
-perfect than any of those which we obtained in our excavations. It
-is altogether unlike any Roman brooch properly so called, both in
-its composite make and style of ornament. A similar brooch has been
-discovered at Brough Castle, in Westmoreland, and was figured in the
-Proceedings of the Antiquarian Society (vol. iv. 129), by Sir James
-Musgrave, and a second is preserved in the Museum of the Royal Irish
-Academy (492). The style corresponds with that of a medallion on a
-Runic casket of silver-bronze, figured by Prof. Stevens, and stated
-to have been obtained from Northumbrian Britain, as well as that of a
-brooch in the Museum at Mainz, assigned by the same authority to the
-third or fourth century. It is also to be met with in the illuminations
-of one of the Anglo-Saxon Gospels at Stockholm, as well as in those
-of the Gospels of S. Columban, preserved in the library of Trinity
-College, Dublin, and in the “Book of Kells” (8-900).[52] In all these
-cases it cannot be affirmed to be Roman, and it is not presented by
-ornaments of either purely English or Teutonic origin. It is most
-closely allied to that work which is termed by Mr. Franks “late
-Celtic.” From its localization in Britain and Ireland, it seems to be
-probable that it is of Celtic derivation; and if this view be accepted,
-there is nothing at all extraordinary in its being recognized in the
-illuminated Irish Gospels. Ireland, in the sixth and seventh centuries,
-was the great centre of art, civilization, and literature; and it is
-only reasonable to suppose that there would be intercourse between
-the Irish Christians and those of the west of Britain during the time
-that the Romano-Celts, or Brit-Welsh, were being slowly pushed to the
-westward by the heathen English invader. Proof of such an intercourse
-we find in the brief notice in the “Annales Cambriæ,” in which Gildas,
-the Brit-Welsh historian, is stated to have sailed over to Ireland in
-the year A.D. 565. It is by no means improbable that about this time
-there was a Brit-Welsh migration into Ireland, as well as into Brittany.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Bronze Brooch (natural size).]
-
-Nor is it at all strange that the same style of ornament should occur
-in some few cases in North Germany.
-
-“The conquest of Britain,” writes the Rev. J. R. Green (“History of the
-English People,” p. 16[53]), “had thrust a wedge of heathendom into
-the heart of the Western Church. On the one side lay Italy and Gaul,
-whose Churches owned obedience to the see of Rome, on the other the
-free Celtic Church of Ireland. But the condition of the two portions
-of Western Christendom was very different. While the vigour of Latin
-Christianity was exhausted in a bare struggle for life, Ireland as yet
-unscourged by invaders had drawn from its conversion an energy such as
-it has never known since. Christianity had been received there with
-a burst of popular enthusiasm. Letters and arts sprang up rapidly in
-its train; the science and Biblical knowledge which had fled from the
-continent took refuge in famous schools which made Durrow and Armagh
-the universities of the West. The new life soon beat too strongly to
-brook confinement within insular bounds. Patrick, the first missionary
-of Ireland, had not been half a century dead, when Celtic Christianity
-flung itself with a fiery zeal into battle with the mass of heathenism
-which had rolled in upon the Christian world. Irish missionaries
-laboured among the Picts of the Highlands, among the Frisians of
-the northern seas; Columban founded monasteries in Burgundy and the
-Apennines; the canton of St. Gall still commemorates in its name the
-missionary before whom the spirits of flood and fell fled wailing over
-the waters of the Lake of Constance. For a time it seemed as if the
-course of the world’s history was to be changed, as if the older race
-that Roman and Teuton had swept before them had turned to the moral
-conquest of its conquerors, as if Celtic and not Latin Christianity was
-to mould the destinies of the Churches of the West.”
-
-It is impossible that Irish-Celtic art should not have made itself
-felt wherever the Irish missionaries penetrated, and especially
-in the gorgeous illuminated Gospels, which it was the pride of S.
-Columban and his school to have made, and which now excite our wonder
-and admiration. The early Christian art in Ireland grew out of the
-late Celtic, and was, to a great extent, free from the influence of
-Rome, which is stamped on the Brit-Welsh art of the same age in this
-country. The style, therefore, of these circular brooches, from its
-correspondence with that of the Irish illuminated gospels, affords
-reasonable grounds for the belief that the Victoria Cave was inhabited
-in the sixth century, or possibly later, but before the English
-invaders had swept the Brit-Welsh away from the district.
-
-Two other brooches were also discovered in the black layer, which are
-even of greater interest than those which have just been described.
-The one represents a dragon (colored Plate, fig. 3), with its eye made
-of red enamel; the other (colored Plate, fig. 7) shaped, like the
-letter S, has its front composed of an elaborate cloissonnée pattern
-in red, blue, and yellow enamels, and is of the same design as two
-brooches in the British Museum, discovered, one near Whittington Hill,
-in Gloucestershire, and the other near Malton, in Yorkshire. All three
-were, undoubtedly, turned out of the same artistic school, and they may
-have been made by one workman. The enamel, in all these examples, seems
-to have been inserted into hollows in the bronze, and then to have
-been heated so as to form a close union with them, and in some cases
-where it has been broken, as in colored Plate, fig. 7, small fragments
-still remain to attest the completeness of the fusion with the bronze.
-The style of workmanship is neither Roman nor Teutonic. An enamelled
-fibula with spirals in relief, found at Reichenbach[54] (Soleure) in
-a post-Roman sepulchre, and figured by Bonstettin, is of a similar
-design, and it may be traced also in two brooches obtained by the Abbé
-Cochet, from the Merovingian Cemetery of Envermeu,[55] although they
-are of more massive and square construction than those of Yorkshire.
-
-One harp-shaped brooch (colored Plate, fig. 1) is ornamented with
-diamonds of blue enamel, separated by small triangles of red, and shows
-in its Roman design and Celtic ornamentation the union between Celtic
-and Roman art. A similar specimen from Brough Castle, Westmoreland, is
-preserved in the British Museum, and may have been turned out of the
-same workshop. We also met with an enamelled disk (colored Plate, fig.
-6), and a finger-ring (fig. 4) of bronze-gilt, ornamented with blue
-enamel.
-
-Several enamelled fibulæ in the British Museum, obtained by Sir James
-Musgrave, at Kirby Thore, Westmoreland, belong to the same style of art
-as those of the Victoria cave, and were associated with the same class
-of remains. Shields,[56] scabbards, horse trappings, and other articles
-have also been discovered in this county, decorated in the same fashion
-with coloured enamels, and especially a bronze vase from the late Roman
-tumuli, called the Bartlow Hills. They all belong to the class termed
-“late Celtic” by Mr. Franks, and are considered by him to be of British
-manufacture.
-
-This view is supported by the only reference to the art of enamelling
-which is furnished by the classical writers. Philostratus, a Greek
-sophist, who left Athens in the beginning of the third century to join
-the Court of Julia Domna, the wife of the Emperor Severus, writes:--“It
-is said that the barbarians living in or by the ocean, pour these
-colors (those of the horse trappings) on heated bronze, that these
-adhere, grow as hard as stone, and preserve the designs that are made
-in them.”[57] Mr. Franks’ opinion that this passage relates to Britain,
-seems to be more probable than that of the eminent French archæologist,
-M. de Laborde, who holds that it relates to Gaul and especially to
-“Belgica.”[58]
-
-When we consider the variety of enamelled objects which have been
-discovered in the north of England, it seems to be by no means
-improbable that the principal centre of the art enamelling was
-here rather than in the south; and this conclusion is considerably
-strengthened by the fact that under the Romans political power centered
-in the district between the Humber and the Tyne, and that York, and not
-London, was the capital of Britain and the seat of the Roman Prefect.
-It is worthy of remark, that since the Emperor Severus built the wall
-which bears his name, marched in person against the Caledonians, and
-died at York, the account of the enamels may have been brought to the
-court of the Empress Julia from this very region, and thus come to be
-recorded by Philostratus.
-
-Two harp-shaped fibulæ, obtained by Mr. Jackson from the Victoria
-cave, and ornamented with enamel, are coated with silver, and in one
-of them two small blocks of that metal still remain firmly imbedded in
-the bronze. It is very probable that most of the ornaments were plated
-either with silver or gold, traces of which, in some cases, still
-remain.
-
-Among the miscellaneous objects in metal are a bronze wire brooch
-(colored Plate, fig. 8), two bracelets, composed of twisted bronze-gilt
-wire; and one fragment in solid bronze, ornamented with right lines;
-one plain bronze finger-ring; two small buckles, respectively of bronze
-and of iron, and a small bronze flattened pin (colored Plate, fig. 2),
-ending in two points to which, at first, we were unable to assign a
-use. When, however, the two points were compared with the circles on
-the ornaments of bone (Fig. 22), there was but little doubt that this
-curious object was employed as a pair of fixed compasses. There were
-also iron articles which were too much corroded to admit of a guess at
-their probable use, besides a Roman key, knife-blades, and a spear-head
-discovered by Mr. Jackson.
-
-The number of ornaments found in the Victoria Cave from time to time
-by various explorers is very considerable. They are scattered in the
-private collections of Messrs. Jackson and Eckroyd Smith, and in the
-Museums of Giggleswick Grammar-school, and of Leeds, and the British
-Museum.
-
-
-_Similar remains in other Caves in Yorkshire._
-
-The Victoria cave is by no means the only one in the district that
-has furnished works of art and the remains of animals. The Albert
-cave (Fig. 19, _c_.) close by is, as yet, only explored sufficiently
-to prove that it contains the same kind of objects; and from that
-of Kelko, overlooking Giggleswick, they have been obtained by Mr.
-Jackson;[59] as well as from that of Dowker-bottom between Arncliffe
-and Kilnsay, by Mr. James Farrer and Mr. Denny.[60] From the last,
-seven spoon-shaped brooches of bone, and two spindle-whorls of Samian
-ware of the bottom of a vase, are preserved in the British Museum, as
-well as a bronze needle, and brooches both harp-shaped and discoid,
-and fragments of pottery. Three coins in bronze, according to Mr.
-Farrer,[61] prove that the date of the accumulation is late or
-post-Roman, one being of Claudius Gothicus, whose reign ended A.D. 270,
-and two belonging to the Tetrici, A.D. 267-273, since they would remain
-in circulation for some time after they were struck. A bronze pin, in
-the possession of Mr. Jackson, from Dowker-bottom, is remarkable for
-the head being plated with silver.
-
-The fragment of flattened antler from this cave, referred by Mr. Denny
-to the elk, most probably belongs to the crown of an old antler of the
-stag, and the remains of the “Canis primævus” of that author cannot be
-distinguished from those of a large dog. The bones of the wolf, and an
-enormous stag in the Museum of the Philosophical Society at Leeds, are
-probably much older than the Brit-Welsh stratum.
-
-
-_These Caves used as Places of Refuge._
-
-The presence of these works of art, in association with the remains
-of the domestic animals used for food, is only to be satisfactorily
-accounted for in the way proposed by Mr. Dixon. Men accustomed to
-luxury and refinement were compelled, by the pressure of some great
-calamity, to flee for refuge, and to lead a half-savage life in
-these inclement caves, with whatever they could transport thither
-of their property. They were also accompanied by their families, for
-the number of personal ornaments and the spindle-whorls imply the
-presence of the female sex. We may also infer that they were cut off
-from the civilization to which they had been accustomed, since they
-were compelled to extemporize spindle-whorls out of the pieces of the
-vessels that they brought with them, instead of using those which had
-been manufactured for the purpose.
-
-
-_The evidence of History as to the Date._
-
-We have already seen from the examination of the coins, that the
-Victoria cave was occupied during or after the first half of the fifth
-century, and from the works of art that it may have been, and probably
-was, occupied at a later time. To fix the latest possible limit to the
-occupation of the group of caves to which it belongs, we must appeal to
-contemporary history.
-
-During the first four centuries of Roman dominion in Britain, the
-spread of the manners and arts of the great mistress of the world
-followed close upon her success in arms; and the policy of one of the
-greatest of her generals, Agricola, bore fruit in the adoption of her
-civilization by the British provincials. The population clustered
-round the Roman stations, and cities sprang up, such as Chester, Bath,
-York, and Lincoln, between which a ready communication was maintained
-by the roads that still remain as monuments of engineering skill, and
-which, in many cases, have been used uninterruptedly from that time to
-the present day. Agriculture was carried on to such an extent, that
-Britain became one of the principal corn-producing regions of the Roman
-Empire; and a commerce with foreign countries was carried on from
-the ports on the banks of the Thames and the Severn (Gildas, i.).
-The mineral sources were also fully explored; tin was sought in the
-mines of Cornwall, lead in those of Derbyshire and Somersetshire, and
-iron in the forest of Dean, Sussex, and Northumberland. Nor was this
-material prosperity unaccompanied by the signs of luxury and culture.
-Numerous villas were dotted throughout the province, resembling in size
-and plan the quadrangle of a mediæval college at Oxford or Cambridge,
-and even in ruins astonishing us by their magnitude and the beauty
-of their tessellated pavements. York was the capital of the province
-and the centre of government, and consequently Yorkshire must have
-been, if anything, more completely penetrated with the Roman arts and
-civilization than any other part of Britain. The relation of the Roman
-conquerors to the conquered Celtic inhabitants was somewhat analogous
-to that which now exists between the English and the subject nations
-in India. Latin was the language spoken by the higher classes in the
-cities, of the army, and probably of the courts of law; while in the
-country the Celtic tongue held its ground, and still survives in the
-language of Wales. Christianity was probably professed in this country
-about the time of Constantine, and became the dominant religion by the
-middle of the fifth century, if not before.
-
-Underneath all the outward signs of prosperity during the Roman rule
-in Britain, there were causes at work which ensured the ruin of the
-province. The policy of centralization, and the very perfection of
-the machinery for government on autocratic principles, which brought
-about the destruction of the Roman Empire, as in our own days they have
-nearly ruined France, bore fruit in Britain in the helpless apathy of
-the provincials when the machinery was broken up. It is therefore no
-wonder that when the Roman garrison was finally withdrawn from this
-country, in the year 409, the provincials were left an easy prey to
-their enemies. Nor need we wonder that they set up isolated centres of
-government, which we may term communes, in the year 410, in which each
-city stood out for itself, instead of combining together for the common
-weal. From this time forward the inhabitants of the Roman province
-of Britain, severed from the Roman Empire, became a prey to the many
-tyrants who sprang up, and the anarchy followed so pathetically
-described by Gildas. It was at this time that the coinage became
-debased, and Roman coins afforded the patterns for the small bronze
-minimi of the Settle cave,[62] which are so abundant among the ruins of
-Roman cities in this country, such as St. Alban’s.
-
-The invaders of Britain must now be considered. The Picts and Scots
-had secured a rude liberty under the protection of their mountains
-and morasses, rather than by their success in arms against the Roman
-legions, and their raids into the Roman province had been curbed by the
-walls and lines of forts, extending, the one from the Firth of Forth
-to the Firth of Clyde, the other from the Solway Firth to the Tyne.
-In spite of these, however, from time to time, in the fourth century,
-they carried desolation into Northumberland and Yorkshire, even if they
-did not penetrate farther into the south. And on the withdrawal of the
-Roman legions, at the beginning of the fifth century, their raids were
-organized on a much larger scale. In the pages of Gildas we have a
-melancholy picture of their results. In the letter written to Ætius,
-the Roman commander in Gaul, in 446, the Britains are described as
-sheep, and the Picts and Scots as wolves. “The barbarians drive us back
-to the sea; the sea drives us back again to perish at the hands of the
-barbarians,” are the words put into the mouth of the embassy.[63] One
-plea for aid, which they advanced, is especially interesting, because
-it shows incidentally that the Roman civilization did not disappear
-with the withdrawal of the legions--the plea that unless they were
-succoured the name of Rome would be dishonoured. Nerved by despair, the
-British in the following year take up arms, and, according to Gildas,
-leave their houses and lands, and taking shelter in mountains and
-forests, and in caves,[64] succeed in driving back their Pictish and
-Scottish enemies.
-
-It is very significant that _caves_ should be mentioned in this
-account; for the region of Craven is one of the very few in the country
-in which they are sufficiently abundant to allow of their being used
-as places of shelter on a scale sufficiently large to be recorded in
-history; and when we consider that one of the natural highways from
-Scotland into central England lies through that district, it seems to
-me extremely probable that the group of caves of which Victoria is
-one is that referred to. On this point it is worthy of record, that
-in the year 1745, when the younger Pretender was at Shap, and it was
-doubtful whether he would take the route through Ribblesdale or by way
-of Preston, the eldest son of one of the landowners near Settle, was
-hidden, along with the family plate, in a Cave close to the Victoria,
-in the belief that the Highlanders were in the habit of eating children
-as well as of laying hands on the precious metals. The historical
-notice tallies exactly with the geographical position, and is not
-inconsistent with the evidence offered by the coins and other remains.
-The date, therefore, of the occupation may probably be assigned as
-about the middle of the fifth century.
-
-This, however, is not the latest date that can be assigned. In the year
-449, the three ships which contained Hengist and his warriors, landed
-at Ebbsfleet, in Thanet, and the first English colony was founded
-among a people who were known to the strangers as “Brit-Welsh.”[65]
-From that time a steady immigration of Angle, Jute, Saxon, and Frisian
-set in towards the eastern coast of Britain, as far north as the
-Firth of Forth, until, in the first half of the sixth century, the
-whole of the eastern part of our island was taken possession of by
-various tribes,[66] whose names, for the most part, still survive in
-the names of our counties. The principal rivers also afforded them a
-free passage into the heart of the country, and the kingdom of Mercia
-gradually expanded until it embraced, not only the basin of the Trent,
-but reached as far as the line of the Severn. The river Humber afforded
-a base of operations for the Anglian freebooters, who founded the
-kingdom of Deira or modern Yorkshire; while the camp of Bamborough
-was the centre from which Ida, who landed with fifty ships in the
-year 547, conquered Bernicia, or the region extending from the river
-Tees to Edinburgh. The tide of English colonization rolled steadily
-westward, until, at the close of the sixth century, the hilly and
-impassable districts culminating in the Pennine Chain, and extending
-southwards from Cumberland and Westmoreland, through Yorkshire and
-Derbyshire, formed the barrier between the Brit-Welsh kingdoms of Elmet
-and Strathclyde on the east, and the English on the west. To the south
-of this the Brit-Welsh dominion was bounded by the river Severn, and
-included Chester and the whole of the basin of the Dee; while Somerset,
-Devon, and Cornwall, and the district round Bradford and Malmesbury
-formed the kingdom of West Wales.[67]
-
-The long war by which the borders of England were gradually pushed to
-the west, at the expense of the Brit-Welsh, was one of the most fearful
-of which we have any record. The English invaders came over, with
-their wives and children and household stuff, in such force that the
-country which they left behind was left desolate for several centuries.
-Worshippers of Thor and Odin, and living a free life, equally
-divided between farming, hunting, and war, they were mortal foes to
-Christianity and to Roman civilization. They destroyed the Brit-Welsh
-cities with fire and sword; and the ashes of the Roman villas, which
-are to be found in nearly every part of the Roman province of Britain,
-testify to the keenness of their hate to everything which was at once
-Christian, Roman, and Celtic. Gildas forcibly describes the destruction
-which they wrought among his countrymen, by the metaphor that “the
-flame kindled in the east, raged over nearly all the land, until it
-flared red over the western ocean.”[68] In the conquered districts the
-Brit-Welsh were either exterminated or enslaved, and their civilization
-was wholly replaced by the rude culture of the English.
-
-It follows, from the nature of this conquest, that any group of
-remains, such as those in the caves under consideration, must be
-assigned to the time before the English had possession of the district,
-and we must therefore see what historical proof is to be found on the
-point.
-
-At the close of the sixth century the Brit-Welsh kingdom of Elmet
-(in the basin of the river Aire)--a name which still survives in
-Barwick-in-Elmet, a little village about seven miles to the north-east
-of Leeds--extended over the country round Leeds and Bradford, passing
-westwards towards, if not into, Lancashire, and northwards probably
-so as to embrace Ribblesdale, and forming a barrier to the westward
-advance of the English possessors of eastern Yorkshire. Its downfall
-will give us the latest possible limit which we are seeking for the
-Brit-Welsh occupation of the Victoria Cave. The two kingdoms of Deira
-and Bernicia had united to form the powerful state of Northumbria,
-at the beginning of the seventh century, under Æthelfrith, who
-carried on the war against the Brit-Welsh with greater vigour than
-his predecessors. In 607[69] he marched along the line of the
-Trent, through Staffordshire, avoiding thereby the difficult and
-easily-defended hilly country of Derbyshire and East Lancashire, to
-the battle near Chester, famous for the destruction of the power of
-Strathclyde, and the death of the monks of Bangor, who fought against
-him with their prayers. By this decisive blow, the English first set
-foot on the coast of the Irish Channel, and Strathclyde and Elmet, on
-the one hand, were cut asunder from Wales. On the other Chester was
-so thoroughly destroyed that it remained in ruins for nearly three
-centuries, to be rebuilt by Æthelflæd, “the Lady of the Mercians,” in
-907, and the plains of Lancashire lay open to the invader.[70] This
-western advance of the Northumbrians was completed by the conquest of
-Elmet, in 616, by Eadwine, and the whole district from Edinburgh, as
-far south as the Humber, and as far west as Chester, became subject to
-his rule.[71] The latest possible date, therefore, that can be assigned
-for the occupation of these caves by the Brit-Welsh is determined by
-that event. It cannot be later than the first quarter of the seventh
-century, or the time when what remained of Roman art and civilization
-in that district was swept away by the ancestors of the present
-dalesmen. The relics in the caves must have been accumulated in the two
-centuries which elapsed between the recall of the legions in the days
-of Honorius and the English conquest. They are traces of the anarchy
-which existed in those times, and they tell a tale of woe, wrought on
-the Brit-Welsh, by Pict, Scot, or Englishman, as eloquently as the
-lament of Gildas, or the mournful verses of Talliesin. They complete
-the picture of the desolation of those times revealed by the ashes of
-the villas and cities which were burned by the invaders.
-
-We have now examined the evidence as to date offered by the contents
-of these caves, and we have seen that it agrees with the contemporary
-history. It may therefore be concluded that it lies in the fifth and
-sixth centuries, possibly the first quarter of the seventh.
-
-
-_The Neolithic Stratum._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Bone Harpoon (natural size).]
-
-This occupation of the Victoria Cave by the Brit-Welsh is a mere
-episode in its history. It was inhabited by man in the neolithic age,
-at a time so remote that the interval between it and the historical
-period can only be measured by the rude method by which geologists
-estimate the relative age of the rocks. At the entrance the dark
-Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh stratum (Fig. 20, No. 4; Fig. 21, No. 4)
-lay buried, as we have seen, under an accumulation of angular fragments
-of stone which had fallen from the cliff. It rested on a similar
-accumulation (Fig. 20, No. 3; Fig. 21, No. 3) which was no less than
-six feet thick, and at the bottom of this, at the point where it was
-based on a stiff grey clay, a bone harpoon (Fig. 26) was discovered, as
-well as charcoal; a bone bead (Fig. 27), three rude flint flakes, and
-the broken bones of the brown bear, stag, horse, and Celtic shorthorn
-(_Bos longifrons_). The harpoon is a little more than three inches
-long, with the head armed with two barbs on each side, and the base
-presenting a mode of securing attachment to the handle which has not
-before been discovered in Britain. Instead of a mere projection to
-catch the ligatures by which it was bound to the shaft, there is a
-well-cut barb on either side, pointing in a contrary direction to those
-which form the head. Ample use for such an instrument would be found in
-Malham tarn, some three miles off, and very probably also in that which
-formerly existed close by at Attermire, but which has been choked up by
-peat, and is now turned into grass-land by drainage. The remains of the
-brown bear consist of numerous hollow bones and teeth, and the shaft
-of a femur with its articular ends broken off, has been polished by
-friction against some soft substance, so that its surface has a lustre
-like that of glass.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 27. Bone-bead (natural size.)]
-
-The question naturally arises, who were the ancient inhabitants of the
-cave whose rude implements occur in this lower stratum? From the few
-remains which we discovered, they were hunters and fishermen, and the
-possessors of domestic oxen, and possibly horses, and in a much lower
-state of civilization than the Brit-Welsh inhabitants who succeeded
-them in the cave after a long interval. There is no proof that they
-used a coinage, or that they were acquainted with metal. The conclusion
-that they were neolithic is based on the following evidence:--In 1871
-the Exploration Committee examined a small cave about 200 yards off,
-in King’s Scar, and obtained the broken bones of the stag, Celtic
-short-horn (_Bos longifrons_), goat, and horse, a whetstone, and a
-rudely chipped scraper, to which, subsequently, Mr. John Birkbeck,
-jun., made the important addition of part of a human thigh-bone. This
-set of remains, the human thigh-bone excepted, agrees with those in the
-lower stratum in the Victoria Cave, not merely in the absence of metal,
-but also in affording signs of a comparatively rude civilization;
-and we might reasonably expect that the two caves so close to each
-other, would have been occupied by the same people at approximately
-the same time. If this be allowed, the thigh-bone may be assigned to
-one of these earlier inhabitants, the place of habitation being, as
-is frequently the case, subsequently used for purposes of burial. The
-thigh-bone itself is characterized by the great development of the
-muscular ridge known to anatomists as the _linea aspera_, implying
-the peculiar flatness of shin which is termed by Professor Busk
-platycnemism. This peculiar form has been met with in the neolithic
-tumuli of Yorkshire, explored by the Rev. Canon Greenwell, as well as
-in the human remains which I have discovered in the neolithic caves and
-chambered tombs of Denbighshire; and since it has not been observed
-in any human skeletons in this country which are not of that age, it
-may be fairly taken to prove that a neolithic people formerly lived in
-Ribblesdale. And further, since the traces of rude culture met with
-in these two caves are the same as those which characterize neolithic
-burial and dwelling places throughout Europe, they may be assigned to
-that remote age. Similar human remains were obtained by Mr. Farrer from
-the Dowker-bottom Cave, and imply that that cave also was used as a
-neolithic burial-place.
-
-The identification of this race with the Basque or Iberian stock, from
-which are descended the small, dark peoples of Derbyshire, Wales, and
-certain parts of Ireland, must be referred to the chapters on the
-Neolithic Caves.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Stone Adze: _a_, side view; _b_, edge (natural
-size).]
-
-The reputed discovery of an adze (Fig. 28), of a variety of greenstone
-which Mr. Wyndham identifies with melaphyr, many years ago in the
-Victoria Cave, may offer additional evidence as to its having been
-occupied by a neolithic tribe. It was presented to the Museum of the
-Philosophical Society at Leeds by Mr. Jackson, and figured by Mr. Denny
-among the remains from the Caves of Craven, and presents characters
-that have not, to my knowledge, been met with in any other neolithic
-implement found in Great Britain: one end being roughly chipped for
-insertion into a socket, while the other is carefully ground into a
-chisel edge. In these respects, as Mr. O’Callaghan and Mr. Denny have
-observed, it bears a striking resemblance to the stone adzes used by
-the South Sea Islanders, and especially in Tahiti;--a resemblance
-so strong that, unless it had been traced from the hands of the
-discoverer into the Museum at Leeds, it would be considered by many
-archæologists as an implement actually obtained from the South Seas.
-It may have been derived from the lower stratum, which furnished the
-equally peculiar harpoon, Fig. 26.
-
-
-_The Approximate Date of the Neolithic Occupation._
-
-From the position in which these remains occurred, it is obvious that
-a neolithic tribe occupied the cave before the accumulation of the
-angular fragments, six feet in thickness (Fig. 20, No. 3; Fig. 21, No.
-3), just as the date of the Brit-Welsh occupation is fixed as being
-after this, and before the accumulation of the two feet of débris
-above (No. 5). And in this we have a means of roughly estimating the
-interval of time between them. It is clear that the accumulation of
-two feet of angular fragments, torn away by the action of the weather
-from the cliff, has been formed in about 1,200 years, _i.e._ between
-the Brit-Welsh occupation and the present time. If it be admitted that
-equal quantities of the cliff have been weathered away in equal times,
-it will follow that the thickness of six feet between the Brit-Welsh
-stratum and that under examination was formed during a time thrice as
-long, or 3,600 years; and that consequently the date of the earlier
-occupation of the cave by man is fixed as being about 4,800, or 5,000
-years ago. It is perfectly true, that in ancient times the frosts
-may have been more intense than they are now, and therefore that
-the rate of weathering may have been faster. To the objection that
-possibly a large mass of cliff may have tumbled down at one time, and
-subsequently been disintegrated, it may be answered, that at the point
-at the entrance where the section was taken there was no evidence of
-any such fall; the angular blocks, both above and below the Brit-Welsh
-stratum, being as nearly as possible of the same size, and not lying
-with their faces parallel to each other, as would have been the case
-had they been disintegrated fallen blocks. Nevertheless this attempt
-to fix a date cannot lay claim to scientific precision, and in that
-respect is neither better, nor worse, than any other similar attempt
-founded on the rate at which a valley is being excavated, or alluvium
-being deposited, or on the retrocession of a waterfall, such, for
-example, as Niagara. It is merely valuable as enabling us to form some
-sort of idea of the high antiquity of the neolithic men who left these
-remains behind in the cave.
-
-As the trench (see Figs. 20, 21) begun on the outside passed into the
-entrance of the cave, the accumulation of stones above the neolithic
-stratum disappeared, and the latter became intermingled with the
-Brit-Welsh layer above, so that it would have been impossible to
-distinguish the one from the other had not the talus marked the
-interval in the plateau outside. The talus also above the Brit-Welsh
-stratum ceased at the entrance, although here and there large blocks
-of stone, fallen from time to time from the roof, rested on its upper
-surface.
-
-
-_The Grey Clays._
-
-Immediately below the neolithic stratum, a deposit of stiff grey clay
-of unknown depth occupies both the entrance and the inside of the cave
-(Figs. 20, 21), containing fragments of limestone and large angular
-blocks which had fallen from the roof. A shaft sunk to a depth of
-twenty-five feet near the entrance failed to arrive at the bottom, but
-presented the following section in descending order: stiff grey clay
-with layer of stalagmite six feet thick; a finely laminated calcareous
-clay twelve feet thick; and below, a similar bed of clay to that on the
-surface. In a second shaft sunk to the depth of twelve feet farther
-within the cave, the base of the grey clay was not reached.[72]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Section below Grey Clay at entrance.]
-
-A third shaft, at the entrance, however, penetrated the clay, No.
-1 of Figs. 20, 21, 29, at a depth of about five feet, and revealed
-the existence below of a reddish-grey loamy cave-earth (Fig. 29, A),
-containing bones and teeth of the same animals as those from the
-caverns of Kent’s Hole, Wookey Hole, and others, which belonged to a
-group that invaded Europe before the glacial period, and that inhabited
-the region north of the Alps and the Pyrenees in pre- and post-glacial
-times.[73]
-
-We subsequently discovered the cave-earth to be from three to four feet
-thick, and that it rested on an accumulation (Fig. 29, B) of large
-blocks of limestone, the interstices between which were filled with
-clay, sometimes laminated and at others homogeneous, as well as with
-coarse sand. Below this we broke into an empty passage, one side of
-which was formed by the solid rock, and the other of blocks of stone
-imbedded in the clay.
-
-As we opened out a horizontal passage towards the cave-earth, A, from
-the outside, the talus (Fig. 29, C) of angular débris was cut through
-first, which gradually became more and more clayey in its lower
-portions: at one point, D, there were several glaciated blocks, some
-imbedded in clay and others perfectly free. It rested obliquely on the
-edges of the cave-earth, and passed gradually at the entrance into the
-clay occupying the interior of the cave.
-
-
-_The Pleistocene Occupation by Hyænas._
-
-The remains of the spelæan variety of the spotted hyæna were very
-abundant in the cave-earth, consisting of fragments of skulls, jaws,
-and bones, and especially of coprolites, which formed irregular floors,
-accumulated during successive occupations of the cave by that animal.
-All the bones were gnawed and scored by teeth, the lower jaws were
-without the angle and coronoid process (see Fig. 92), and the hollow
-bones which contain marrow were broken, while those which were solid
-and marrowless were for the most part perfect: and this held good, not
-merely of the remains of the hyæna, but of those of all the animals
-which constituted their prey. The bones, for example, of the woolly
-rhinoceros are represented merely by the hard distal portion of the
-shaft of the humerus, and of the solid bones of the ulna and radius,
-while the only portions of skull are the solid pedestal offered by the
-nasal bones on which the front horn was supported, and a few smaller
-fragments. The pedestal in question is depicted by the dark shaded
-portion of Fig. 30, the outline of the skull and lower jaw being taken
-from one of Professor Brandt’s plates of the Woolly Rhinoceros found in
-Siberia.[74] The teeth which imply the presence of the mammoth (milk
-molars 3 and 4) were those of a young individual, as is very generally
-the case in caves which have been occupied by hyænas. The young would
-naturally be more exposed to the attack of those cowardly beasts of
-prey than the adult, armed with its long curved tusks, and defended,
-not merely by its thick skin, but also by the covering of wool and
-long hair which is peculiar to the species. Besides these animals, the
-reindeer, red-deer, bison, horse, the brown, grizzly, and great cave
-bears, were preyed upon by the hyænas and dragged into the cave. All
-these species were discovered within an area of a few square yards of
-cave-earth, which passes into the interior of the cave under the grey
-clay. They belong to that well-defined group known as pleistocene,
-quaternary, or post-pleiocene, which was proved to have inhabited
-Yorkshire[75] in ancient times from Dr. Buckland’s discoveries in
-Kirkdale, and Mr. Denny’s examination of the river-deposit at Leeds, in
-which the remains of the hippopotamus were obtained.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Skull of Woolly Rhinoceros, showing the part
-which is not eaten by the hyænas.]
-
-The last and most important addition to this fauna is that of man, a
-fragment of fibula in the same mineral condition as the rest of the
-pleistocene bones, having been identified by Professor Busk with an
-unusually massive recent human fibula. Although the fragment is very
-small, its comparison with the abnormal specimen in Professor Busk’s
-possession removes all doubt from my mind, as to its having belonged
-to a man, who was contemporary with the cave-hyæna and the other
-pleistocene animals found in the cave.
-
-
-_The probable Pre-glacial Age of the Pleistocene Stratum._
-
-Is this occupation of the Victoria Cave by the pleistocene mammalia
-pre-glacial or post-glacial?--before, or after, the great lowering
-of the temperature in northern Europe? This difficult question can
-only be answered by an appeal to the physical history of the clay and
-cave-loam, and to the evidence as to glacial action in the district,
-and to the distribution of the mammalia in Great Britain during the
-pleistocene period. Glaciers have left their marks in nearly every
-part of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and especially in the neighbourhood
-of the Victoria Cave. The hill-sides around are studded with large
-ice-borne Silurian rocks; boulder-clay occupies nearly every hollow on
-the elevated plateaux; and moraines are to be observed in nearly every
-valley. At the entrance of the cave itself, ice-scratched Silurian
-grit-stones are imbedded in the clay, which abuts directly on the
-cave-loam, and passes insensibly into the clay, with angular blocks of
-limestone within the cave. They may possibly be the constituents of a
-lateral moraine _in situ_, as Mr. Tiddeman suggests, or they may merely
-be derived from the waste of boulder-clay which has dropped from a
-higher level.
-
-The latter view seems to me to be most likely to be true, because some
-of the boulders have been deprived of the clay in which they were
-imbedded, and are piled on each other with empty space between them,
-the clay being carried down to a lower level and re-deposited. Their
-position, however, on the edges of the cave-earth implies, in any case,
-that they had been dropped after its accumulation.
-
-There is another point to be considered in the physical evidence. The
-deposits above the cave-earth, occupying the interior and entrance
-of the cave, have been introduced by the rains, either through the
-entrance, or through the crevices which penetrate the roof, and consist
-of a finer detritus washed out of the boulder-clay on the surface at a
-higher level. The cave-earth, however, although it has been introduced
-in the same way, cannot be accounted for on the supposition that it was
-derived from the boulder-clay, with which it contrasts in the fact that
-it is a loam, of a reddish grey colour, containing a large percentage
-of carbonate and phosphate of lime.
-
-Similar deposits, characterized by their red colour, are to be found
-in nearly all the caves of the south of England, in France, and
-southern Europe, not complicated, as here, by the glacial phenomena
-of the district. Had the layer been formed in the Victoria Cave, from
-the destruction of the boulder-clay, it would have been identical in
-composition with the deposits above.
-
-The laminated portions of the grey clay are considered by Mr. Tiddeman
-to have been formed by the flow of water through the entrance, derived
-from the daily melting of the glacier which occupied the valley in
-ancient times, and he compares it with a similar lamination in the
-boulder-clay at Ingleton, which has been described by Mr. Binney in
-the neighbourhood of Clifton, near Manchester, under the expressive
-name of “book-leaves.” Since, however, similar accumulations are being
-formed at the present time at the bottom of pools in many caves, as,
-for example, in that of Ingleborough, they cannot be taken to imply a
-glacial origin. They are not found merely in one spot in the Victoria
-Cave, but are scattered, more or less, through the general mass of
-the clay, and occur abundantly even below the cave-earth, having been
-deposited in the interstices between the large blocks of limestone.
-In these positions they are of uncertain age, and there is no reason
-why some of the hollows which we discovered below the cave-earth (Fig.
-29, B) should not be filled with them at the present time by the heavy
-rains. They dip at all angles, and are conformable to the surfaces on
-which they have been dropped.
-
-The most important argument in favour of the pre-glacial age of the
-mammaliferous cave-earth is afforded by the range of the animals in
-Great Britain during the time that certain areas were occupied by
-glaciers. In a paper read before the Geological Society in 1869, I
-showed that those areas in Great Britain in which the marks of glaciers
-were the freshest and most abundant coincided with those which were
-barren of the remains of the pleistocene mammalia, and I therefore
-inferred that this was due to the fact, that the areas in question were
-covered by ice at the time that pleistocene animals were so numerous in
-the caves, and river-deposits of southern and eastern England, and on
-the continent. In a map published in 1871, Cumberland, Westmoreland,
-Lancashire, and the greater portion of Yorkshire are represented as
-being one of these barren areas, in which no pleistocene mammalia
-have been observed. It is obvious that the hyænas, bears, mammoths,
-and other creatures found in the pleistocene stratum, could not have
-occupied the district when it was covered by ice; and had they lived
-soon after the retreat of the ice-sheet, their remains would occur in
-the river-gravels, from which they are absent throughout a large area
-to the north of a line drawn between Chester and York, whilst they
-occur abundantly in the glacial river deposits south of that line. On
-the other hand, they belong to a fauna, that overran Europe, and must
-have occupied this very region before the glacial period, since their
-remains have been found in pre-glacial strata to the north in Scotland,
-to the south at Selsea, and to the east in Norfolk and Suffolk. It
-may, therefore, reasonably be concluded that they occupied the cave
-in pre-glacial times, and that the stratum in which their remains
-lie buried, was protected from the grinding of the ice-sheet, which
-destroyed nearly all the surface accumulations in the river-valleys, by
-the walls and roof of rock, which has since, to a great extent, been
-weathered away.[76] This view is also held by Mr. Tiddeman.
-
-The exploration of the Victoria Cave, which has hitherto yielded such
-interesting evidence of three distinct occupations--first by hyænas,
-then by neolithic men, and lastly by the Brit-Welsh, is by no means
-complete. The cave itself is of unknown depth and extent, and the mere
-removal of so much earth and clay as it is at present known to contain
-will be a labour of years. The results of the exploration, up to the
-present time, are of almost equal value to the archæologist, to the
-historian, and the geologist, and prove how close is the bond of union
-between three branches of human thought which at first sight appear
-remote from each other. The discussion of the problems connected with
-the neolithic and pleistocene strata must be referred to the fifth and
-following chapters.
-
-
-_The Kirkhead Cave._
-
-Other caves in this country, besides the group under consideration in
-Yorkshire, have been occupied by the Brit-Welsh. That known as the
-Kirkhead Cave, on the eastern shore of the Promontory of Cartmell, on
-the northern shore of Morecambe Bay, explored by Mr. J. P. Morris,[77]
-and a Committee of the Anthropological Society in 1864-5, contained
-remains of the same type as those of the Brit-Welsh stratum in the
-Victoria Cave. In the débris which formed the floor and extended to
-an unknown depth below, a coin of Domitian, “a trefoil-shaped Roman
-fibula,” a pin, ornamented with green enamel, and a bronze ring were
-discovered in association with broken remains of domestic animals--_Bos
-longifrons_, pig and goat, dog and horse, as well as stag, roe, wild
-goose, and many human bones. A bronze celt and a spear-head were also
-found, at a depth respectively of five and six feet, and a flint flake
-at a depth of seven feet; and fragments of pottery, a bead of amber,
-cut bones, the perforated head of the femur, and other articles. From
-this group of remains it may be inferred that the cave was occupied by
-the Brit-Welsh, and before them by the users of bronze, and possibly by
-a neolithic people, and that it had at some time or another been used
-as a place of burial. Just inside the entrance, which overlooked the
-sea at a height of 45 feet, a semi-circular breastwork of large stones
-rendered the cave habitable, and capable of easy defence.
-
-Mr. Morris’s view that the discovery of a bronze celt, flint flakes,
-and coins in this cave proves that all three were in use at the same
-time, and by the same people, is not borne out by the published account
-of the excavation. There is no proof that the deposit had not been
-disturbed, or that the articles were not dropped at different times.
-And in support of this conclusion, it may be advanced, that there is
-no case on record of the discovery of bronze celts or swords along
-with any Roman coins under conditions which would prove that they were
-in use at the same time. Had such been the case the ruins of the many
-Roman villas and cities, destroyed by the English, would have furnished
-some examples. At Silchester, even such a rare article as a Roman eagle
-has been met with. There is every reason to believe with Sir John
-Lubbock, Mr. Evans, and other eminent archæologists, that the use of
-bronze for weapons had been superseded by that of iron before the dawn
-of history in this country. It is otherwise with the flint flakes;
-since my discovery of several inside a Roman coffin at Hardham, near
-Pulborough, in Sussex, in a cemetery that belongs to the later portion
-of the Roman dominion in Britain, proves that they were used for some
-purpose at that time.[78]
-
-
-_Poole’s Cave, near Buxton._
-
-In the collection of articles obtained from Poole’s Cave, in Buxton,
-in Derbyshire, I identified, in 1871, in company with Mr. Pennington,
-bronze Roman coins, minimi, Samian and other ware, and large quantities
-of broken bones of the same animals as those from the Victoria Cave. A
-bronze harp-shaped fibula of the type of Fig. 5 of the coloured Plate
-is inlaid with silver, and is so perfect that it might still be used.
-
-
-_Thor’s Cave, near Ashbourne._
-
-A cave also, in Staffordshire, four miles from Ilam, explored by the
-Midland Scientific Association in 1864,[79] under the supervision of
-Mr. Carrington, has furnished articles of the same kind as those of
-Yorkshire. It is known as Thor’s cave, and penetrates the lofty cliff
-of limestone, on the south side of the river Manifold, at a height of
-about 254 feet from the bottom of the valley, and about 900 feet above
-the sea, running horizontally inwards, and being divided inside by a
-row of buttressed columns into two noble gothic aisles. Its bottom was
-occupied by clay, in which, near the entrance, there were thick layers
-of charcoal at depths of two, three, and four feet below the surface,
-mingled with broken bones and pottery, that indicated the spots where
-fires had been kindled. The articles discovered were as follows:--
-
-“_Bronze._--Armlet, two fibulæ of harp pattern (see coloured Plate,
-Fig. 5), two plain breast-pins and rings, a curious wheel-shaped
-instrument.
-
-“_Iron._--Large triangular fork, arrow-heads, lance-heads, several
-knives and a chopper, of singular shapes, reaping hook (?), adze, pins,
-two girdle hooks (?), &c.
-
-“_Bone._--Seven snags of deer’s horns, variously cut and perforated,
-several others not perforated, curious bone comb ornamented with
-circles, flat bone perforated with four holes, two leg-bones carved
-at the ends, pin, a large quantity of bones of animals that had been
-consumed for food.
-
-“_Stone._--Greenstone pounder, fragments of querns, perforated disk, &c.
-
-“_Pottery._--A large collection of fragments of various periods, among
-the rest several pieces of true Samian ware.”
-
-Mr. Edwin Brown, from whose report this list is taken, concludes that
-Thor’s cave was occupied during “the late Celtic and Romano-Celtic
-periods.” The harp-fibulæ are of a pattern identical with several of
-those discovered in the Victoria Cave, and the holes at their upper
-ends were probably intended for the reception of enamel. The bronze
-instrument, consisting of a disk cut out into a flamboyant pattern
-like that of the round brooch from the Victoria Cave (Fig. 25), and
-joined to a central stem ornamented with waved lines, was intended for
-suspension; possibly, as Mr. Carrington suggests, it may have been
-used for spinning. It is a remarkably fine example of Brit-Welsh or
-late Celtic art. The bone comb is of the same type as those from the
-Brit-Welsh caves of Yorkshire. It is evident, from Mr. Brown’s account,
-that there were distinct layers of occupation; but, unfortunately, the
-articles found in each were not separated from the rest. One armlet
-(Fig. 31), composed of a thin plate of bronze, and ornamented with a
-dotted-line pattern, is of the peculiar type which is characteristic of
-the bronze age.
-
-The cave had also been used as a place of sepulture, for near “the
-pulpit rock,” and at a depth of five feet from the surface, a skeleton
-rested in the sitting posture which is so characteristic of neolithic
-interments in Europe. It had also been entered by man even before any
-of these accumulations. “In the south recess, behind and below any
-traces of man’s occupation, the diggers came upon a kind of flooring
-of tabular masses of breccia stretching almost across the cave, and on
-one side attached firmly to the wall,” beneath which rested, in the
-undisturbed clay, a deer’s horn, rudely sawn across and perforated by
-two holes.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Bronze Bracelet from Thor’s Cave.]
-
-Thor’s Cave, therefore, like the Victoria, has been occupied by man in
-the Brit-Welsh stage of the historic period, as well as in the bronze,
-and possibly in the neolithic ages.
-
-
-_Historic Value of Brit-Welsh Group of Caves._
-
-The discovery that caves were used as habitations by men accustomed
-to the elegance of civilized life, not merely in Yorkshire, but in
-districts so far removed from each other as Staffordshire and the
-extreme north of Lancashire, during the fifth and sixth centuries,
-implies the pressure of a far-reaching calamity by which they were
-driven from their homes. It completes and rounds off the story of the
-social condition of the country during these troubled times, which is
-revealed in the sacked and burned Brit-Welsh cities and villas, as
-well as in the scanty records of the English invasion.
-
-Subsequent investigation will probably show that caves were occupied
-at this time in every part of the country which was conquered by
-the English. In the upper stratum of Kent’s Hole, for example, near
-Torquay, similar articles, with the exception of the enamels, have been
-discovered. There, however, the occupation may have been considerably
-later than in the caves of Yorkshire, because the Roman civilization
-was not supplanted in Devonshire by the English until the beginning of
-the ninth century. The river Tamar then marked the frontier between
-the English, and the Brit-Welsh of the promontory of Cornwall, which
-represented the dominion of West Wales in the days of Ecgberht.[80]
-
-In the numerous caves of Wales, on the other hand, which I have
-explored, there is no trace of inhabitants of the fifth and sixth
-centuries, a circumstance that is easily accounted for by the fact
-that Wales was not invaded at that time by the English. There would
-therefore be no reason for the civilized Brit-Welsh to fly to caves for
-refuge.
-
-
-_Principal Animals and Articles in Brit-Welsh Caves._
-
-The following are the more important animals and articles found in the
-group of caves under consideration. The species are identical with
-those which I have tabulated from refuse-heaps of Roman age.[81]
-
-
-_List of Principal Animals and Objects found in Brit-Welsh Strata in
-Caves._
-
-  +-------------------------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+------+
-  |          ANIMALS.       |Victoria|Kelko|Dowker |Kirk |Poole’s|Thor’s|
-  |                         |        |     |Bottom.|head.|Cavern.|Cave. |
-  +-------------------------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+------+
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |         DOMESTIC.       |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |_Canis familiaris_--Dog  |    X   |  X  |   X   |  X  |   X   |  ?   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |_Sus scrofa_--Pig        |    X   |  X  |   X   |  X  |   X   |  ?   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |_Equus caballus_--Horse  |    X   |  X  |   X   |  X  |   X   |  ?   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |_Bos longifrons_--Celtic |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |  Short-horn             |    X   |  X  |   X   |  X  |   X   |  ?   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |_Capra hircus_--Goat     |    X   |  X  |   X   |  X  |   X   |  ?   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |           WILD.         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |_Canis vulpes_--Fox      |    X   | ... |   X   |  X  |   X   |  ?   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |_Meles taxus_--Badger    |    X   | ... |   X   |...  |  ...  |  x   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |_Cervus elaphus_--Stag   |    X   | ... |   X   |  X  |   X   |  ?   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |_Cervus capreolus_--Roe  |    X   | ... |   X   |  X  |  ...  |  ?   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |Roman coins or imitations|    X   |  X  |   X   |  X  |   X   |  X   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |Enamelled ornaments in   |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |  bronze                 |    X   |  X  |   X   |  X  |  ...  | ...  |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |Bronze ornaments inlaid  |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |  with silver            |    X   |  X  |   X   | ... |   X   | ...  |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |Iron articles            |    X   |  X  |   X   | ... |   X   |  X   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |Samian ware              |    X   | ... |   X   | ... |   X   |  X   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |Black ware               |    X   |  X  |   X   | ... |   X   |  X   |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |Bone-spoon fibulæ        |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |  (Fig. 22)              |    X   |  X  |   X   | ... |  ...  | ...  |
-  |                         |        |     |       |     |       |      |
-  |Bone combs               |    X   |  X  |   X   | ... |  ...  |  X   |
-  +-------------------------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+------+
-
-All the less important animals and articles are omitted from this list.
-It will be observed that the brown bear, the wolf, and the fallow-deer
-are absent. The brown bear was probably at this time very rare in
-Britain, since its remains have been met with in but two out of the
-many Roman refuse-heaps in the country, at London and Colchester. The
-well-known lines of Martial, however, imply that it was imported from
-Britain to Rome at this time--
-
-    “Nuda Caledonio sic pectora præbuit urso,
-    Haud falsa pendens in cruce Laureolus.”
-
-It probably became extinct about the ninth or tenth century. The wolf
-obviously would not be likely to be used for food, although it probably
-was abundant in the district. The fallow-deer also had not penetrated
-into the hilly districts, although it had become naturalized in this
-country by the Romans, so as to have been frequently used as an article
-of food before the English invasion. I have seen its characteristic
-antlers in refuse-heaps, both in London and Colchester, which have
-furnished Roman coins and pottery.
-
-The beaver was probably very rare in the fifth and sixth centuries, and
-has been met with in no cave-deposit, either historic or prehistoric,
-in this country. It was, however, known to the Anglian conquerors of
-Yorkshire (Northumbria), who called Beverley (lea, leag-) after its
-name.
-
-
-_The Use of Horseflesh._
-
-The broken bones of the horse, in all the caves above mentioned,
-leave no room to doubt that horseflesh was a common article of food
-at that time. It was so, indeed, throughout Roman Britain, and after
-the English invasion was used as late as the Council of Celchyth,[82]
-in the year 787. It was forbidden by the Church because it was eaten
-by the Scandinavian peoples in honour of Odin. In Norway,[83] Hacon,
-the foster-son of Æthelstan, was compelled to eat it by the bonders,
-in 956, and the revolt of the bonders which ended in the bloody battle
-of Stikklestadt, in which Olaf met his death, in 1030, was caused by
-his cruelties to the eaters of horseflesh. As Christianity prevailed
-over the worship of Thor and Odin, it was banished from the table.
-The present prejudice against its use is a remarkable instance of the
-change in taste, which has been brought about by an ecclesiastical
-rule aimed against a long-forgotten faith. The rule was not, however,
-always obeyed, for the Monks of St. Gall, in the eleventh century, not
-only ate horseflesh, but returned thanks for it, in a metrical grace,
-written by Ekkehard the Younger (died 1036):--
-
-    “Sit feralis equi caro dulcis sub cruce Christi.”[84]
-
-
-_The Cave of Longberry Bank._
-
-The cave of Longberry Bank, near Penally, in Pembrokeshire, may also
-be classed with those which were inhabited in historic times, since
-it contained red fine-grained pottery of a kind commonly found in the
-ruins of Roman villas. It was explored by the Rev. H. H. Winwood, in
-1866, in whose collection are the remains of the _Bos longifrons_,
-goat, badger, dog, as well as shells of oyster, large limpets and
-mussel from the neighbouring shore. Some of the bones are burned.
-Several human vertebræ and a metacarpal were probably the traces of an
-interment of unknown date; and the two flint flakes are of uncertain
-age.
-
-The results obtained by the exploration of the caves described in this
-chapter are to be taken merely as the first-fruits of a new line of
-inquiry, which is likely to throw light on many points relating to art,
-history, and the range of the animals, and not as being perfect or
-final. On the continent, no historic caves of importance have as yet
-been explored.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IV.
-
-CAVES USED IN THE AGES OF IRON AND OF BRONZE.
-
-  The Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time.--The
-    Prehistoric Fauna.--The Archæological Classification.--Caves of
-    the Iron Age.--Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain.--The Caves
-    of Césareda in Portugal probably occupied by Cannibals.--The Cave
-    of Reggio in Apulia.
-
-
-_The Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time._
-
-It will be necessary before we examine the group of caves used by man
-in prehistoric times, to point out the important difference in the
-measurement of time within and beyond the borders of history. When we
-speak, for example, of the date of the Norman Conquest, we imply that
-we can ascertain by historical records, not merely that it succeeded
-the invasion of Britain by the English or Danes, and happened before
-our own time, but that the interval which separates it from those
-events can be accurately measured by the unit of years. If, however,
-we attempt to ascertain the date of any event which happened outside
-the historical limit, we shall find that it is a question solely
-of relation. When we speak, for example, of the neolithic age, we
-merely mean a certain stage of human progress which succeeded the
-palæolithic, and preceded the bronze age, but we have no proof of
-the length of the interval dividing it from the one or the other. The
-historic “when?” implies “how long ago?” the prehistoric “when?” merely
-implies a definition before and after certain events, without any idea
-of the measurement of the intervals.
-
-An attempt to ascertain the absolute date of prehistoric events must
-of necessity fail, since it is based on the improbable assumption
-that the physical agents have acted uniformly, and that therefore the
-results may be used as a natural chronometer. The present rate of the
-accumulation of _débris_, as at the Victoria Cave of the preceding
-chapter, or of that of silt in the deltas of rivers, such as the Nile,
-or the Tinière, may convey a rough idea of the high antiquity of
-prehistoric deposits; but a slight change either of the climate, or of
-the rainfall, would invalidate the conclusion. When the greater part
-of Europe lay buried under forest, when Palestine supported a large
-population, and when glaciers crowned some of the higher mountains of
-Africa, such as the Atlas, the European and Egyptian climates were
-probably moister than at the present time, and the rainfall and the
-floods greater, and consequently the accumulation of sediment quicker
-than the observed rate under the present conditions. And in the same
-way all estimates of the lapse of past time, based upon the excavation
-of a river valley, or the retrocession of a waterfall, such as Niagara,
-lie open to the same kind of objection. It is not at all reasonable to
-suppose that the complex conditions which regulate the present rate of
-erosion, have been the same during the time the work has been done,
-and it therefore follows that the work done is a measure of the power
-employed, and not of the length of time during which it has been in
-operation. We must, therefore, give up the idea of measuring the past
-beyond the memory of man, as represented in historical documents, by
-the historic unit of years. We can merely trace a definite sequence of
-events, separated one from another by uncertain intervals. And for that
-series of events which extends from the borders of history back to the
-remote age where the geologist, descending the stream of time, meets
-the archæologist, I have adopted the term prehistoric.[85]
-
-
-_The Prehistoric Fauna._
-
-The prehistoric period is characterized by the arrival of the domestic
-animals in Europe, under the care of man. The dog, swine, horse,
-horned-sheep, goat, _Bos longifrons_, and the larger ox descended from
-an ancestor, according to Professor Rütimeyer, of the type of the great
-Urus, make their appearance together, in association with the remains
-of man, in the neolithic stage of civilization.[86] Subsequently they
-spread over the whole of our continent, for the most part under the
-care of man. The _Bos longifrons_, however, and possibly also the
-Urus, reverted to feral conditions, just as the horses and oxen, in
-the Americas and Australia, have done at the present time, and their
-remains are therefore frequently found in association with animals
-undoubtedly wild. The domestic horse, the variety of hog descended
-from the wild boar, and the domestic cattle derived from the Urus, may
-possibly have passed under the yoke of man, in Europe, since their
-wild stocks were to be found in that area, both in the prehistoric
-and pleistocene times. This, however, cannot be affirmed of the swine
-descended from the southern variety of _Sus Indica_, or of the Celtic
-shorthorn, of the sheep, or goat, since their wild ancestors were not
-indigenous in Europe. These animals must have been domesticated in
-some area outside Europe; and since central Asia is the region where
-the wild stocks still exist, from which all the domestic animals are
-descended, it is reasonable to suppose that they were domesticated
-in that region, and thence introduced, by a race of shepherds and
-herdsmen, into our quarter of the world.
-
-This conclusion is considerably strengthened by the evidence which
-Professor Heer has advanced, as to the vegetables used by the dwellers
-on piles in the Swiss lakes, among which some, such as the two kinds of
-millet, the six-rowed barley (hordeum hexastichon), the Egyptian wheat
-(triticum turgidum), and a weed (Silene cretica), accidentally brought
-along with them, are distinctively of southern derivation.
-
-The most important wild animals living in this country during the
-prehistoric period are the urus, the gigantic skulls of which occur
-in the peat bogs of England and Scotland, the Irish elk, the moose
-(_Cervus alces_), and the reindeer. The two last are far more abundant
-in the north than in the south of Britain; their remains have been
-discovered in the neighbourhood of London, those of both animals at
-Walthamstow, and those of the latter at Crossness in Kent, on the banks
-of the Thames. The remains of the bison have not been recorded from any
-prehistoric deposit in this country.
-
-The Irish elk is the only animal which has become extinct; while the
-moose, or true elk, is the only wild species which has not been proved
-to have been living in the preceding age. The stag was very abundant.
-
-The prehistoric fauna is distinguished from that of the pleistocene
-not merely by the appearance of the animals above mentioned, which
-were hitherto unknown, but by the absence of many species which were
-living during the latter period. The cave bear, woolly rhinoceros, and
-mammoth, for example, became extinct, the musk-sheep and lemming were
-banished from a temperate latitude to take refuge in the regions of the
-north, while the spotted hyæna, the hippopotamus, and Felis caffer,
-retired to the warm regions of Africa, where they are still living.
-
-
-_The Archæological Classification._
-
-The prehistoric period has been classified by the archæologists
-according to the stages of human progress which it presents. At the
-frontier of history, in each country, we find that the dwellers
-were acquainted with the use of iron, and had found it to be the
-most convenient material for the manufacture of cutting weapons and
-implements. Before this the voice of tradition points out that bronze
-was the only material used for these purposes, and stone before bronze.
-These three stages of human culture, or the ages of iron, bronze, and
-stone, have been fully verified by investigations which have been
-made in various parts of Europe, into the prehistoric habitations and
-burial-places of man.
-
-This classification by no means implies an exact chronology, or that
-any one of these ages, with the exception perhaps of the first, covered
-the whole of Europe at the same point of time, but that the order in
-which they followed each other is the same in each country which has
-been explored. There is good reason for the belief, that at the time
-the Egyptian and Assyrian empires were in the height of their glory,
-Northern Europe was inhabited by rude polished-stone-using races. And
-it is a well-ascertained fact, that while the inhabitants of Britain
-and Scandinavia were in their bronze age, the Etruscans and Phœnicians
-were in their full power in the south. It is obvious again, that, even
-in the same country, the poorer classes must have been long content
-to use the ruder and more common materials for their daily needs,
-while the richer and more powerful used the rarer and more costly.
-These three ages must therefore necessarily overlap. “Like the three
-principal colours of the rainbow,” writes Mr. Evans,[87] “these three
-stages of civilization overlap, intermingle, and shade off the one
-into the other; and yet their succession, as far as Western Europe
-is concerned, appears to be equally well defined with that of the
-prismatic colours, though the proportions of the spectrum may vary in
-different countries.” They cannot reasonably be viewed as hard and fast
-lines of division, mapping off successive quantities of time.
-
-The age of stone is subdivided by Sir John Lubbock into the neolithic
-periods, or that in which polished stone was the only material used
-for cutting, and the palæolithic, in which mankind had not learnt to
-grind and polish his implements. The latter belongs to the pleistocene,
-or quaternary period, since the palæolithic implements are found in
-association with the remains of the animals characteristic of that age.
-
-The prehistoric caves, therefore, may be divided into three classes
-if the archæological method of analysis be employed: 1, into those
-containing evidence of the use of iron; 2, those containing proof
-of the knowledge of bronze; 3, and lastly, those in which traces of
-polished stone weapons have been discovered unassociated with metals.
-By the animal remains which they contain they may be distinguished
-from those of the pleistocene age, both by the absence, as well as the
-presence of certain species which have been enumerated.
-
-From the archæological point of view, two out of the four ages are
-still represented. Stone is, at the present time, the only material
-used in the more remote regions of Australia, although it is fast being
-replaced by iron, which has superseded bronze, and is spreading rapidly
-over the whole earth. The group of historic caves described in the
-preceding chapter may be said to belong to the iron age, that is to
-say, to that later portion of it in which the events are recorded in
-history.
-
-The traces of the occupation of caves by man in the iron and bronze
-ages are so extremely scarce, that it is certain that they were
-but rarely used as habitations. Man had sufficiently advanced in
-civilization in those times to construct artificial dwellings and tombs
-for himself, instead of using the natural shelters which were so very
-generally occupied in Europe by his ruder neolithic predecessors.
-
-
-_Cave of the Iron Age._
-
-In the course of the systematic exploration of caves in the Mendip
-Hills, carried on by Messrs. Ayshford Sanford, Parker, and myself, a
-cave was examined in Burrington Combe, near Wrington, in Somerset,
-which may be referred to the iron age, and which we named Whitcombe’s
-Hole. It opened upon the side of that magnificent combe, at a height
-of about 135 feet from the bottom and fifteen from the top, and ran
-horizontally inwards, the floor being formed of an accumulation of
-earth mingled with charcoal, and containing numerous broken bones
-and teeth. The latter belonged to the wolf, fox, badger, rabbit,
-hare, stag, goat, and Celtic shorthorn. In the lower portion were the
-fragments of a rude, unornamented urn of a coarse black ware, with the
-rim turned at right angles, along with a bent piece of iron, which
-bears a strong resemblance to those found strengthening the corners of
-wooden coffins in the Gallo-Roman graves on the banks of the Somme. The
-fractures of the bones, with one exception, were caused by the hand
-of man, and not by the teeth of the carnivora. The position renders
-the cave eminently fitted for concealment, for while commanding an
-extensive view down the Combe, it is invisible both from above and
-below, and opening on the face of an almost vertical cliff, it is
-easily defended. If the urn be sepulchral, the interment must be of
-a later date than the occupation, because it is made in the _débris_
-which resulted from the latter.[88]
-
-
-_Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain._
-
-The cave of Heathery Burn,[89] near Stanhope, in Weardale, co. Durham,
-is the only one in this country that has furnished a large series of
-articles of the bronze age. It is described by Mr. Elliott as running
-into the precipitous side of a ravine, at a height of about 10 to
-12 feet above the level of the Stanhope Burn, and as being partially
-traversed by water. Since its discovery in 1861, it has been altogether
-destroyed by the removal of the stone to be used as a flux in smelting
-the ore of the Weardale Iron Company, and an admirable section of its
-contents was therefore visible from time to time. A stratum of sand at
-the bottom, two feet nine inches thick, deposited by the stream, and
-containing angular masses of limestone that had dropped from the roof,
-was covered by a sheet of stalagmite three inches in thickness. On this
-rested a mass of bones and implements imbedded in silt or sand, and
-sealed over by a thickness of stalagmite of from two to eight inches.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Bronze Knife, Heathery Burn (natural size).]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Bronze Armlet, Heathery Burn.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Bronze Spearhead, Heathery Burn (½ size).]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Bronze Mould for casting a socketed celt.]
-
-On removing the upper of these two stalagmitic floors a perfect human
-skull was discovered, along with broken bones of animals, charcoal,
-limpet shells, bone pins, an instrument of bone like a paper-knife,
-coarse pottery with fragments of chert imbedded in its mass, a portion
-of a jet armlet, as well as several boars’ tusks. The same stratum
-at another place furnished a singular bronze knife with a socket for
-the handle (Fig. 32),[90] bronze pins, celts, an armlet of twisted
-wire (Fig. 33), along with shells of limpet, mussel, and oyster, and
-charcoal, and at a third, on the other side of the watercourse, a
-bronze spear-head. Subsequently, many articles were added to the
-above list, seven pins, three rings, two split-rings, a “razor,” disk,
-three socketed celts, one chisel, two gouges, and four spear-heads of
-bronze, and a fine bracelet, and two ornaments of the horse-shoe, or
-split-ring type, made of thin plates of gold. One of the spear-heads,
-in the collection of the Rev. Canon Greenwell, is represented in Fig.
-34. There were also waste pieces of bronze, and the half of a bronze
-mould for casting celts, Fig. 35, in which one of the associated celts
-had actually been cast, since it is of the same pattern. These articles
-were probably concealed in the cavern by workers in bronze, who were
-prevented, by some unforeseen accident, from obtaining them again. The
-charcoal and the broken bones of the _Bos longifrons_, badger, and dog,
-imply that the cave had been used as a habitation; and possibly the
-two human skulls, which have been described by Professor Huxley and
-Mr. Carter Blake, may have belonged to the possessors of the hoard of
-bronze and gold. Both were discovered in the same stratum and below the
-floor of stalagmite.
-
-The more perfect of the two skulls is considered by Professor Huxley to
-belong to the same long-headed race of men as that found at Muskham, in
-the valley of the Trent,--to a form which he terms the River-bed type,
-and that cannot be separated from those obtained from the long tumuli
-of the South of England, and considered by Dr. Thurnam to belong to a
-Neolithic Basque, or Iberian population.
-
-Articles distinctly of the bronze age have been already noticed as
-having been met with in the caves of Kirkhead, in Cartmell, and in
-Thor’s Cave, in Staffordshire. From the latter the bracelet of thin
-bronze, Fig. 31, was obtained by Mr. Carrington, of Wetton. The rarity
-of bronze implements in caves in Britain and the Continent is probably,
-to a large extent, due to the value of the material, and to the fact
-that it could be re-melted. If a bronze article happened to be broken,
-the pieces would naturally be kept for future use, and not thrown away,
-as in the case of a fractured stone implement. The former, therefore,
-are rare, the latter comparatively abundant.
-
-The cave called the Cat-Hole, in Gower (Glamorgan), explored by
-Colonel Wood in 1864, contained several human skeletons, flint flakes,
-fragments of red pottery marked with a string, cut bones, a stone
-muller, and a bronze socketed celt. The last is of the same pattern
-as some of those in the collection of the Rev. Canon Greenwell, from
-Heathery Burn, and has been cast in a mould similar in size and
-ornamentation to that figured in woodcut 35.
-
-
-_The Caves of Césareda probably occupied by Cannibals._
-
-The contents of three caves[91] in the Iberian peninsula, referable to
-the dawn of the bronze age, render it very probable that the use of
-human flesh was not unknown in those times.
-
-In 1867 Senhor J. L. Delgado described his researches in the caverns
-of Césareda, in the valley of the Tagus, in the Casa da Maura, Lapa
-Furada, and Cova da Maura. The first of these contained two distinct
-strata. The lower, consisting of sand mixed with fragments of rock,
-rested on the stalagmite, and contained fragments of charcoal, one
-implement of bone, and many of flint, a scraper, a flake, and an
-arrow-head. The broken bones and teeth belonged to the following
-animals:--The lynx, fox, brown-bear, dog and wolf, a species of deer,
-the water-vole, and the rabbit. None of the remains of the carnivora
-had been subjected to the action of fire, or had been used for food. A
-human skull with lower jaw was dug out of the deepest part, but, since
-the matrix had been disturbed, it had probably been interred after the
-accumulation of the deposit.
-
-It is recognized by Professor Busk[92] as belonging to the same long
-type as the skulls of the caves of Gibraltar and the Basque graveyard,
-measuring in length 6·7 inches, in breadth 5·3, in height 5·5, and
-therefore possessing cephalic and latitudinal indices of ·785 and
-·820.[93]
-
-The upper stratum, a sandy loam, contained a large quantity of stones,
-and numerous articles fabricated by man: polished-stone axes, flakes,
-and other instruments of flint, bone, and antler, fragments of coarse
-black pottery, with bits of calcareous spar imbedded in its substance,
-and two plates of schist ornamented with a rude design, which may have
-been used as amulets. Fragments of charcoal were scattered throughout
-the matrix, and adhered to some of the pottery and to the burnt
-pebbles. The most abundant remains were those of man. They were to be
-counted by thousands, and were so fragmentary and scattered that it was
-impossible to put together one perfect skeleton. The teeth, belonging
-for the most part to children or fully-grown adults, were particularly
-abundant. The long bones had lost, very generally, their articular
-ends, had been fractured longitudinally, and some of them had been cut
-and scraped. It is therefore probable that this accumulation was formed
-by a tribe of cannibals: the evidence that human flesh formed their
-principal food being precisely of the same nature as that by which the
-flint-folk of the Périgord are proved to have subsisted on the flesh of
-the reindeer. Professor Busk,[94] however, is inclined to believe the
-facts in support of cannibalism insufficient. The associated animals
-consisted of the bat, dormouse, rabbit, horse, a small ox, allied to
-_Bos longifrons_, sheep or goat, wild cat, wolf, fox, and dog. The
-contents of the other two caves were precisely of the same nature, and
-had been accumulated under the same conditions.
-
-A bronze arrow-head, discovered in the upper stratum, and the
-ornamentation of the stone amulet, consisting of alternate triangles
-and zigzag ladders, as remarked by Mr. John Evans, indicate that the
-upper deposit belongs to the age of bronze, and probably to an early
-stage, when stone was being superseded by bronze, since many stone
-celts were found in the same spot.
-
-The ancient burial-places of Ultz, in Westphalia, furnish a second
-case of the practice of cannibalism, according to M. Schaaffhausen of
-Bonn[95]. They are probably of the age of bronze.
-
-
-_The Cave of Reggio, in Modena._
-
-The human remains in a cave in the province of Reggio,[96] on the
-northern flank of the Apennines, brought before the Prehistoric
-Congress at Bologna by M. l’Abbé Chierici, and considered by him to be
-proofs of cannibalism, are probably merely the result of interment in a
-refuse-heap that had previously been accumulated. They were associated
-with bronze pins, rivets, polished-stone axes, and various implements
-of bone, fragments of pottery and of charcoal, bones of pig, sheep,
-and dog, and belong therefore to the period of transition from the
-neolithic to the bronze age.
-
-The caves have contributed but very little to our knowledge of the
-bronze-folk in any part of Europe. Examples, such as those given above,
-are scattered through France and Spain, but they are not sufficiently
-important to require notice. We could not expect that men, in the high
-state of civilization implied by the beautiful jewellery and ornaments
-which are distinctive of the bronze-folk, would have chosen the wild,
-half-savage life which is involved in cave-habitation.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER V.
-
-CAVES OF THE NEOLITHIC AGE.
-
-  Neolithic Caves in Great Britain.--The Refuse-heap at
-    Perthi-Chwareu.--The Sepulchral Caves.--The Neolithic Caves in
-    the neighbourhood of Cefn, St. Asaph.--The Chambered Tomb near
-    Cefn.--Interments in Tomb and Caves of the same age.--Contents
-    of Tomb and Caves.--Description of Human Remains by Professor
-    Busk--From Cave No. 1 at Perthi-Chwareu--from Cairn at Cefn--from
-    Cave at Cefn.--General Conclusions as to Human Remains.
-
-
-It is evident, from the scanty remains found in caves, that they were
-not the normal habitations of men in the Bronze or Iron stages of
-culture. We shall, however, find that they were used by the neolithic
-peoples, both for shelter and for burial, in nearly every portion of
-Europe which has been explored.
-
-
-_Neolithic Caves in Great Britain.--Perthi-Chwareu._
-
-The most remarkable examples of caves, turned to both these uses, in
-Britain, are offered by the group clustering round a refuse-heap at
-Perthi-Chwareu, a farm high up in the Welsh hills, about ten miles to
-the east of Corwen, and a mile to the west of the little village of
-Llandegla, in Denbighshire.
-
-
-_The Refuse-heap._
-
-The first intimation of any prehistoric remains in that locality was
-afforded by a small box of bones forwarded to me by Mr. Darwin, in
-1869; and this I was able to follow up, through the kind assistance of
-Mrs. Lloyd, the owner of the property on which they were found, from
-time to time, during 1869-70-71-2. The mountain limestone, which there
-forms hill and valley, consists of thick masses of hard rock, separated
-by soft beds of shale, and contains large quantities of _producti_,
-crinoids and corals. The strata dip to the south, at an angle of about
-1 in 25, and form two parallel ridges, with abrupt faces to the north,
-and separated from each other by a narrow valley, passing east and west
-along the strike. The remains sent by Mr. Darwin were obtained from a
-space between two strata near the top of the northern ridge, whence the
-intervening softer material had been carried away by water. Its maximum
-height was 6 inches, and its width 20 feet or more; and it extended
-in a direction parallel to the bed of the rocks. The bones, which
-had evidently been washed in by the rain, and not carried in by any
-carnivora, belong to the following species:--
-
-    _Canis familiaris_--The Dog.
-    _Canis vulpes_--The Fox.
-    _Meles taxus_--The Badger.
-    _Sus scrofa_--The Pig.
-    _Cervus capreolus_--The Roe-deer.
-    _Cervus elaphus_--The Red-deer.
-    _Capra hircus_--The Goat.
-    _Bos longifrons_--The Celtic Short-horn.
-    _Equus caballus_--The Horse.
-    _Arvicola amphibius_--The Water-rat.
-    _Lepus timidus_--The Hare.
-    _Lepus cuniculus_--The Rabbit.
-
-    The Eagle.
-
-Nearly all the bones were broken, and belonged to young animals. Those
-of the Celtic short-horn, of the sheep or goat, and of the young pig,
-were very abundant; while those of the roe and stag, hare and horse,
-were comparatively rare. The remains of the domestic dog were rather
-abundant, and the percentage of young puppies implies also that they,
-like the other animals, had been used for food. Possibly the hare may
-also have been eaten, but its remains were scarce, and belonged to
-adults. Some of the bones had been gnawed by dogs. The only reasonable
-cause that can be assigned for the accumulation of the remains of these
-animals is, that the locality was inhabited by men of pastoral habits,
-but yet to a certain extent dependent on the chase, and that the relics
-of their food were thrown out to form a refuse-heap. The latter had
-altogether disappeared from the surface of the ground, from the action
-of the rain and other atmospheric causes, while those portions of it
-which chanced to be washed into the narrow interspace between the
-strata were preserved, to mark the spot which it once occupied.
-
-There was nothing in the deposit that fixes the date of its
-accumulation. It may have been of the stone, bronze, or iron age; but
-from the presence of the goat, short-horned ox, and dog, it certainly
-does not date so far back as the epoch of the reindeer, mammoth,
-rhinoceros, and cave-hyæna. The presence of the Celtic short-horn
-throws no light upon the antiquity, because for centuries after it
-had ceased to be the domestic breed in England it remained in Wales,
-and still lives in the small black Welsh cattle, that are lineal
-descendants of those which furnished beef to the Roman provincials in
-Britain.
-
-
-_The Sepulchral Caves._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Section of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu. Scale 12
-feet to 1 inch.]
-
-While the refuse-heap was being explored, I chose a small depression
-(Fig. 36 A) in the precipitous side of the southern ridge, that formed
-a kind of rock shelter overlooking the valley, and that seemed to be
-a likely place for the abode of man, or of wild animals. On setting
-the men to work, in a few minutes we began to discover the remains of
-dog, marten-cat, fox, badger, goat, Celtic short-horn, roe-deer and
-stag, horse, and large birds. Mixed with these, as we proceeded, we
-began to find human bones, between and underneath large masses of rock,
-that were completely covered up with red silt and sand. As these were
-cleared away, we gradually realized that we were on the threshold of
-a sepulchral cave. In the small space then excavated, human remains,
-belonging to no fewer than five individuals, were found. Subsequently
-the work was carried on by Mrs. Lloyd, under the careful supervision
-of her agent Mr. Reid. The rock-shelter narrowed into a “tunnel cave,”
-that penetrated the rocks in a line parallel to the bedding, and,
-roughly speaking, at right angles to the valley, having a width varying
-from 3 feet 4 inches to 5 feet 6 inches, and a height from 3 feet 4
-inches to 4 feet 6 inches.
-
-The entrance was completely blocked up with red earth and loose stones,
-the latter, apparently, having been placed there by design (Figs. 36,
-37). The inside of the cave was filled with red earth and sand to
-within about a foot of the roof. The remains were found, for the most
-part, on or near the top; but in some cases they were deep down. One
-human skull, for example, was found six inches only above the rocky
-floor. The human bones were associated with those of the animals of
-which a list has been given, and occurred in little confused heaps.
-One human femur was in a perpendicular position. The account of the
-continuation of the digging is given almost in the words of Mrs.
-Lloyd. On the second day, after an hour’s work, a human skull was
-found near the roof of the cave, resting on a femur; then eleven feet
-explored brought to light a large quantity of human bones, including
-nine femurs. The third and fourth days were devoted to clearing out
-the cave (Fig. 36-7 B) up to this point, and to excavating about four
-feet further in, or fifteen from the entrance. During the work two
-teeth of a horse were found, resting on the floor near the entrance,
-and nine more about ten feet within the cave; also a boar’s tusk of
-remarkable size, and close by a mussel and cockle-shell, and valve
-of _Mya truncata_, along with a quantity of human and other bones;
-including five skulls, more or less perfect, and many fragments. All
-these skulls were found between the tenth and fifteenth feet from the
-entrance. During the fifth and sixth days, the work was superintended
-by Mr. Reid, who entirely cleared the cave for about thirteen feet
-further: the first eight feet yielded a small quantity of human and
-other bones, including the perfect skull of a marten-cat and the
-incisor of a wild boar. The only implement found in the cave, a broken
-flint flake, occurred here, and a nearly perfect human skull, lying
-face downwards, with the pelvis adhering to one side. The last five
-feet furnished only two bones, both of the short-horned ox. The end of
-the cave was composed of unproductive grey clay. (Figs. 36-7 C.)
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Plan of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu.]
-
-Small fragments of charcoal occurred throughout the cave, and a great
-many rounded pebbles from the boulder clay of the neighbourhood.
-
-The human remains belong for the most part to very young or adolescent
-individuals, from the small infant to youths of twenty-one. Some,
-however, belong to men in the prime of life. All the teeth that had
-been used were ground perfectly flat. The skulls belong to that type
-which Professor Huxley terms the “river-bed skull.” Some of the tibiæ
-present the peculiar flattening parallel to the median line, which
-Professor Busk denotes by the term platycnemic, and some of the femora
-were traversed by a largely developed and prominent _linea aspera_;
-but these peculiarities were not seen on all the femora and tibiæ,
-and cannot therefore be considered characteristic of race, but most
-probably of sex. They were not presented by any of the younger bones.
-
-All the human remains had undoubtedly been buried in the cave, since
-the bones were in the main perfect, or only broken by the large stones
-which had subsequently fallen from the roof. From the juxtaposition
-of one skull to a pelvis, and the vertical position of one of the
-femora, as well as the fact that the bones lay in confused heaps, it
-is clear that the corpses had been buried in the contracted posture,
-as is usually the case in neolithic interments. And since the area was
-insufficient for the accommodation of so many bodies at one time, it is
-certain that the cave had been used as a cemetery at different times.
-The stones blocking up the entrance were probably placed as a barrier
-against the inroads of wild beasts.
-
-These remains are the first in this country which present the peculiar
-character of platycnemism, noticed by Professor Busk and Dr. Falconer
-in human remains in the caves of Gibraltar, and by Dr. Broca in some of
-those from the dolmens of France, and subsequently in the celebrated
-skeletons found in the cave of Cro-magnon. I have also observed the
-same peculiar flattening of the tibia in the only fragment of human
-bone obtained by Mr. Foote, in the Lateritic deposits of the eastern
-coast of Southern India, along with the stone implements figured in the
-Norwich Volume of the International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology
-(1868, p. 224).
-
-The remains of the animals associated with the human bones belong
-to the same species as those mentioned above from the débris of a
-refuse-heap, and are in a similar broken and split condition. They may
-have been deposited at the same time as the human skeletons, but, from
-the fact that some of them are gnawed by dogs, it is most probable
-that they were accumulated while the cave was used as a dwelling. If
-the bodies were placed on an old floor of occupation, and afterwards
-disturbed by rabbits and badgers, the remains would be mingled together
-as they were found to be mingled. The contents had evidently been
-disturbed by the burrowing of all these animals.
-
-Subsequently we discovered and explored no less than four other
-sepulchral caves, within a few hundred yards of the refuse-heap, in
-which the corpses had been buried in the same crouching posture. From
-one on the farm of Rhosdigre we obtained a perfect celt of polished
-greenstone which had never been used (Fig. 38), together with several
-flint flakes, and numerous fragments of pottery, rude, black inside,
-hand-made, and containing in their substance small fragments of
-limestone.
-
-Similar potsherds are preserved in the Oxford Museum, from the
-superficial deposits of the caves of Gailenreuth and Kuhlock, and I
-have observed them also among the remains from Kent’s Hole. The celt
-was most probably, from its unworn condition, buried with the dead, and
-it stamps the neolithic age of the interments of the whole group.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Greenstone Celt, Rhosdigre Cave. (Nat. size.)]
-
-Among the broken bones from this cave were the teeth of the brown
-bear, and the lower jaw of a wolf; and the fractured bones of the
-dog implied that that animal ministered to the appetite, as well as
-obeyed the commands, of the neolithic inhabitants. I have met with
-similar evidence of the use of dog’s flesh for food among the broken
-bones which Canon Greenwell obtained from the neolithic tumuli of the
-Yorkshire Wolds. On the other hand, the marks of the teeth of dogs, or
-wolves, on some of the human femora, implied that those animals made
-their way into this cave and feasted on the corpses.
-
-The neolithic age of these interments is proved, not merely by the
-presence of the stone axe, or of the flint flakes, but by the burial in
-a contracted posture,[97] and the fact that the skulls are identical
-with those obtained from chambered tombs in the south of England proved
-to be neolithic by Dr. Thurnam.
-
-The number of skeletons of all ages, and of both sexes, buried in
-these caves was very considerable; and they had been placed on the
-old floor of occupation at successive times. In that of Rhosdigre
-the accumulation of charcoal, broken bones, and fragments of pottery
-below some of the human skeletons, proved that it had been used for a
-habitation before it was used for a burial-place. It is very probable
-that originally the head of a family, or a clan, or a tribe, was buried
-in his own cave-dwelling, and that it was afterwards used as a cemetery
-for his blood relations and followers.
-
-
-_The Neolithic Caves in the neighbourhood of Cefn, near St. Asaph._
-
-The same class of remains, referable to the neolithic age, have been
-met with in the caves in the limestone cliffs of the beautiful valleys
-of the Clwyd and the Elwy, near St. Asaph. In the collection of fossil
-bones in the possession of Mrs. Williams Wynn, discovered in 1833, in a
-cave at Cefn, by Mr. Edward Lloyd,[98] is a human skull and lower jaw,
-along with platycnemic limb-bones. They were found mingled with the
-bones of goat, pig, fox, and badger, and cut antlers of the red-deer,
-inside the lower entrance of the cave, in which the extinct pleistocene
-animals were found in the valley of the Elwy. Four flint flakes also
-were discovered along with them.
-
-The skull in its general features strongly resembles those found in the
-group of caves at Perthi-Chwareu, and presents a cephalic index[99]
-of ·770, which comes within the limits of the extreme forms from that
-locality. Professor Busk, however, as will be seen in his account of
-this skull, because of its low altitudinal index--·702, as compared
-with ·710 of the lowest Perthi-Chwareu skull--is inclined to view it as
-of a different type. The conditions, on the other hand, under which it
-was found appear to me to be circumstantial evidence that the interment
-is of the same relative age as that of Perthi-Chwareu. Both were in
-caves: in both the remains of the same domestic and wild animals were
-found in the same fragmentary condition. Flint flakes also occurred
-in both; and what is more important, the platycnemic limb-bones in
-both imply a somewhat similar mode of life in the people to whom they
-belonged. This body of evidence, in favour of the interments having
-been made by the same race of men who lived some time in Denbighshire,
-seems to me of greater weight than that to the contrary afforded by
-the difference of ·008 in the altitudinal indices of the skulls. After
-a comparison of the carefully prepared measurements of the crania
-published in the “Crania Britannica” with those published elsewhere,
-I cannot resist the conviction, that if similar modes of life and of
-burial in Britain imply an identity of race, cranial variation within
-the limits of that race is by no means very small. Absolute purity of
-blood in an island so near the Continent as Britain cannot be looked
-for; and unity of type resulting from isolation from other races, such
-as that presented by the Australians, is not likely to be met with. It
-is therefore very probable that some of the variations may be accounted
-for by the blending of different ethnical elements in one race. I am
-consequently inclined to view the interments in these two caves as
-having been made by the same people, in spite of the small cranial
-difference manifested by the Cefn skull.
-
-The cave in Brysgill, a small ravine leading into the valley of the
-Elwy, explored by Mr. Mainwaring and Mrs. Williams Wynn in 1871,
-furnished evidence of the occupation of man, probably of the neolithic
-age. From a dark layer composed of loam, black with fragments of
-charcoal, a flint arrow-head, a core, a flake, and broken bones of the
-horse, _Bos longifrons_, goat, and dog, were obtained, as well as a few
-human bones which had not been broken by design.
-
-The excavations carried on in the small tunnel-cave of Plas-Heaton, by
-Mr. Heaton and Professor Hughes, have shown that it was inhabited at
-two different ages. In the upper or prehistoric stratum were broken
-bones of the dog, badger, goat, _Bos longifrons_, and stag; while in
-the lower, or pleistocene, were the remains of the hyæna, reindeer,
-cave-bear, and the lower jaw of the glutton.
-
-
-_The Chambered Tomb near Cefn, St. Asaph._
-
-While the caves at Perthi-Chwareu were being explored, the accidental
-discovery of human remains in the cairn of Tyddyn Bleiddyn, near Cefn,
-St. Asaph, in 1869, led to a systematic examination of its contents by
-Mrs. Williams Wynn, under the superintendence of the Rev. D. R. Thomas,
-myself, and the Rev. H. H. Winwood, which has resulted in the proof,
-that the people who buried their dead in caves used stone-chambered
-tombs for the same purpose.
-
-The cairn of loose fragments of limestone had been removed for
-road-mending before the cap-stones of the stone chamber were exposed,
-and these were broken before any scientific observation was made. The
-Rev. D. R. Thomas, however, rescued many of the human remains from
-destruction, and began the exploration which defined the extent of the
-chamber A (Fig. 39).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Plain of Chambered Tomb at Cefn.]
-
-Subsequently it was resumed in my presence, and the chamber A (Fig.
-39) fully cleared out. At the point _c_ it was partially shut off
-from the passage B by a slab of stone 18 inches high. The passage led
-from the chamber in a northern direction, and was 6 feet long by 2
-wide. The chamber gradually narrowed towards the passage, being 5 feet
-wide at its broad end, and 9 feet long. In the passage, as well as
-in the chamber, there were human bones belonging to individuals who
-had been buried in a crouching posture. Unfortunately, as the remains
-have been scattered, it is impossible to ascertain the exact number of
-the burials. I have, however, restored one skull and examined seven
-frontal bones, and other remains, which indicate that there were at
-least twelve persons, varying in age from infancy to full prime, buried
-in this tomb. In addition to these, there is a large box of bones in
-the possession of the Rev. D. R. Thomas, as well as other remains in
-other hands. But although the exact number of bodies interred cannot
-be made out, there is full proof that there were too many to have
-been deposited at one time in so small a cubic area; and therefore
-they must have been deposited at different times, as in the caves
-at Perthi-Chwareu. There were no remains of either wild or domestic
-animals; and the only foreign object was a small slightly chipped flint
-pebble. From the remarkable conformation of the nasal bones of some of
-the skulls, it would seem likely that the burial-place belonged to one
-family; but, for a reason (see Notes on Human Remains, p. 183) stated
-by Professor Busk, this is by no means a certain inference.
-
-The plan of the chamber and passage corresponds with that of the long
-barrow of West Kennet, figured in the “Crania Britannica,” and with
-that of the cromlech of Le Creux des Fées, Guernsey, described by
-Lieutenant Oliver.[100] In the former of these the corpses were buried
-in a contracted posture, along with flint scrapers and fragments of
-rude pottery. In the latter the original contents have disappeared. To
-speak in general terms, the chamber and passage belong to the class of
-tombs which Dr. Thurnam names “Long Barrows,” and Professor Nilsson
-“Ganggräben,” and which are found in Scandinavia and France, as well
-as in Britain. And it is worthy of note that the partial insulation of
-the chamber A (Fig. 39) from the passage B by a slab (_c_), which does
-not reach up to the height of the walls, is to be seen in similar tombs
-both in Guernsey and in Brittany.
-
-A second and larger chamber, composed of cave slabs of limestone,
-was discovered in the same cairn in 1871 by the Rev. D. R. Thomas,
-and completely excavated by him along with myself and the Rev. H. H.
-Winwood. It was of a rudely triangular form, 10 feet long by 6 wide,
-traversed by a partition of slabs, and provided with a narrow passage
-10 feet long by 2 feet 6 in width, opening to the north, and fenced off
-completely from the chamber by a slab, as in the preceding case. Both
-the chamber and the passage were full of human remains of all ages,
-buried in a contracted posture; the number of interments being far too
-great to have allowed the bodies to have been deposited at one time.
-From the former I identified the broken jaw of a roebuck and remains of
-goat, a broken flint, and round pebbles of quartz, while in the latter
-there were the teeth and bones of the dog and the pig.
-
-Some of the tibiæ from both the chambers were platycnemic, but that
-character was only to be recognized in the older bones. The skulls,
-from the second of the two chambers, agree so exactly with those from
-the caves, that it is not necessary to add to the table of measurements
-which Professor Busk has drawn up (p. 171).
-
-
-_Correlation of Chambered Tomb with Interments in the Caves of
-Perthi-Chwareu and Cefn._
-
-Nor are we without evidence that the builders of this cairn belonged
-to the same race as those who buried their dead in the caves of
-Perthi-Chwareu and of Cefn. The crania and the limb-bones are
-identical, and in both the tombs and caves the dead were buried in a
-contracted posture.
-
-Why then, it may be asked, were the remains of animals so rare in the
-one and so abundant in the other? In my opinion this difference may
-be explained by the hypothesis, invented by Professor Nilsson, of the
-origin of chambered tombs.[101] The idea of the “gallery graves,”
-according to that high authority, was derived from the subterranean
-house in which the deceased lived, and in which he was buried after
-his death, after the fashion of the Eskimos at the present day. The
-plan of the houses, like that of the ancient Lycian dwellings described
-by Sir Charles Fellowes, was preserved in the tombs, and probably for
-many ages after houses were no longer made in that fashion; since the
-principle of conservatism and the force of custom are more deeply
-rooted in religious and solemn ceremonial than in the changes of
-every-day life.
-
-The rarity of the remains of the animals may be explained by the
-fact of these tombs never having been used as dwellings, while their
-abundance in the caves may be accounted for by the latter having been
-inhabited by man, and thus the idea of the dead resting in his own
-house would be the cause of burial both in caves and chambered tombs.
-It is not at all strange that the same race should have used both for
-sepulture, when we consider that a “gallery grave” is an artificial
-cave, and that natural caves are few in number.
-
-This ancient race is proved by the remains to have been pastoral,
-rather than dependent on the chase, their principal food being the
-domestic goat, the short-horn (_Bos longifrons_), the horse, and
-hog. They are also proved to have been neolithic, not merely by the
-discovery of a polished stone axe in one of the caves, but also by the
-shape of the “gallery graves,” which Professor Nilsson and Dr. Thurnam
-agree in referring to that stage of culture.
-
-
-_Table of Contents of Caves and Chambered Tomb._
-
-The contents of the caves and the stone chambers may be gathered from
-the Table which we give on the next page.
-
-The broken bones of the hare prove that there was no prejudice against
-its flesh, as was the case among the neolithic dwellers in the Swiss
-Pfahlbauten. We shall see in the next chapter that the animal was
-also eaten by the dwellers in the neolithic caves both of France and
-Belgium.
-
-
-_List of Objects in Neolithic Caves and Cairn in North Wales._
-
-  Column-heading Key:
-  A Refuse-heap, Perthi-Chwareu.
-  B Cave No. 1.
-  C Cave No. 2.
-  D Cave Rhosdigre No. 1.
-  E Cave Rhosdigre No. 2.
-  F Cave Rhosdigre No. 3.
-  G The Cefn Cave.
-  H Cairn of Tyddyn Bleiddyn, near Cefn.
-
-  +------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
-  |              ANIMALS.              | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H |
-  +------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
-  |             DOMESTIC.              |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
-  |_Canis familiaris_--Dog             | X | X | X | X | X | X |   | X |
-  |_Sus scrofa_--Pig                   | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X |
-  |_Equus caballus_--Horse             | X | X | X | X | X | X |   |   |
-  |_Bos longifrons_--Celtic Short-horn | X | X | X | X | X | X |   |   |
-  |_Capra hircus_--Goat                | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X |
-  |                                    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
-  |                WILD.               |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
-  |_Canis lupus_--Wolf                 |   |   |   | X |   |   |   |   |
-  |_Canis vulpes_--Fox                 | X | X | X | X | X |   | X |   |
-  |_Meles taxus_--Badger               | X | X | X | X | X |   | X |   |
-  |_Ursus arctos_--Bear                |   |   |   | X |   |   |   |   |
-  |_Sus scrofa_--Wild Boar             |   | X |   |   |   |   |   |   |
-  |_Cervus elaphus_--Stag              | X | X |   | X |   |   |   |   |
-  |_Cervus capreolus_--Roe             | X | X |   |   |   |   |   | X |
-  |_Lepus cuniculus_--Rabbit           | X | X | X | X | X |   |   |   |
-  |_Lepus timidus_--Hare               | X | X |   | X | X |   |   |   |
-  |                                    |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |
-  |Polished Celts                      |   |   |   | X |   |   |   |   |
-  |Flint Flakes or Chips               |   | X |   | X |   |   | X | X |
-  |Pottery                             |   |   |   | X | X | X | X |   |
-  |Human Skeletons                     |   | X | X | X | X | X | X | X |
-  |Platycnemic bones                   |   | X | X | X | X | X | X | X |
-  +------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
-
-
-_Description of the Human Remains by Professor Busk._
-
-For the following account of the human remains, reprinted from the
-“Journal of the Ethnological Society,” January 1871, I am indebted to
-the kindness of my friend Professor Busk, to whom examples of all the
-forms were forwarded:--
-
-
-  _Notes on the Human Remains._ By Professor BUSK, F.R.S.
-
-  § 1. INTRODUCTION.
-
-  The remains discovered in the sepulchral cave at Perthi-Chwareu,
-  according to a list furnished by Mr. Boyd Dawkins, are as under;
-  but I believe this catalogue does not include all that were found
-  in the locality.[102]
-
-  1. Eleven more or less perfect skulls, some, however, represented
-  by mere fragments.
-
-  2. Twelve mandibles.
-
-  3. Seven arm-bones or _humeri_--four right and three left.
-
-  4. Six _ulnæ_.
-
-  5. Twenty-two thigh-bones, including five pairs, five odd ones of
-  the right side, and seven of the left; and amongst them are three
-  of very young children.
-
-  6. Seventeen _tibiæ_ or leg-bones, nine of the right and eight of
-  the left side, and apparently none of them in pairs; so that there
-  must probably have been a good many more.
-
-  7. Eight _astragali_.
-
-  8. Nine _calcanea_, or heel-bones.
-
-  The number of individuals, therefore, whose relics were deposited
-  in this cavern could not have been less than sixteen, and may have
-  been many more. They appear to have been of all ages and of both
-  sexes.
-
-  Of the other bones of the skeleton, of which there must have been
-  abundance, I have received no information.
-
-  In the Cefn Cave there were discovered:--
-
-    1. One mandible.
-    2. One _humerus_.
-    3. Two _ulnæ_.
-    4. A pair of thigh-bones.
-    5. A pair of leg-bones.
-
-  and in the tumulus:--
-
-    1. Portions of seven skulls.
-    2. Two right _humeri_.
-    3. A pair of _ulnæ_.
-    4. A right _femur_.
-
-  From St. Asaph the only bone that has come under my observation is
-  a single _calvaria_.
-
-
-  § 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES FROM THE CAVERN AT PERTHI-CHWAREU.
-
-  (a.) _General Condition._--In general condition, as regards colour
-  and texture, these bones present some, but no very striking,
-  differences; on the whole they are much alike, though it might
-  be supposed that some have lain longer in the ground than the
-  others. One or two among them (but these are apparently the
-  younger bones) are fragile; the majority, however, are as firm as
-  common churchyard bones, and some have quite the natural degree of
-  hardness. They are of a lightish-yellow colour, do not adhere to
-  the tongue, and afford scarcely any earthy smell when breathed upon
-  or moistened: only one among them presents any staining from oxide
-  of manganese; and this exists in diffuse blotches, and is not at
-  all of the dendritic form. Many are partially covered with a very
-  thin film of crystalline carbonate of lime.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 40, 41, 42.--Skull from Sepulchral Cave at
-  Perthi-Chwareu.]
-
-  (b.) _The Skulls._--Of these only three of the more perfect have
-  come under my observation. These alone will form the subject of
-  what I have to remark on this portion of the skeleton. But in
-  the subjoined Table I. (p. 171) I have given, together with the
-  dimensions of these three, those of five others which have been
-  furnished to me by Mr. Dawkins.
-
-  In the specimen No. 1 (Figs 40, 41, 42) the entire facial part
-  is wanting, together with the whole of the base and a great part
-  of one side of the _calvaria_. The skull is of an oval form,
-  symmetrical, with a rather prominent occiput. The region of the
-  vertex is slightly and evenly arched; and the forehead, though
-  not high, is vertical, and slightly compressed on the sides. The
-  sutures are all open and finely serrated. The frontal sinuses
-  are distinct though small. The supra-orbital ridge is thin, but
-  rather prominent towards the external angular process. The mastoid
-  processes are very large, and the digastric _fossa_ remarkably
-  deep. The occipital spine is very prominent, as are the lateral
-  ridges. The temporal ridges, also, and, in short, all the muscular
-  impressions, are very strongly marked.
-
-  The skull is evidently that of a powerful, muscular man, in the
-  prime of life, and apparently of robust, but not coarse build.[103]
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 43, 44, 45.--Skull from Sepulchral Cave at
-  Perthi-Chwareu.]
-
-  Skull No. 2 (Figs. 43, 44, 45) is that of an adult male,
-  presenting as nearly as possible the same dimensions, form,
-  and other characters as that above described, except that the
-  bone is somewhat thicker and heavier. The muscular ridges and
-  impressions are even more strongly developed than in the former,
-  and especially the temporal ridges immediately above the external
-  angular processes. The left _maxilla_ remains loosely attached,
-  containing the two bicuspid teeth, which are of small size, and
-  worn quite flat, and to such an extent as to render it probable
-  that the man was somewhat advanced in years, although none of the
-  sutures are closed. The face is strictly orthognathous, and the
-  skull dolichocephalic and aphanozygous.[104]
-
-  Skull No. 3 is the entire _calvaria_ of a very young individual.
-  The two milk-molars remain on either side; and behind them the
-  first true molar is fully out, but not in the least worn. The
-  incisors and canines have fallen out. The former, from the size of
-  the _alveoli_, were of the permanent set, but not the latter. The
-  age of the individual, therefore, may be estimated as about seven
-  or eight.
-
-  The only point worthy of notice in this _calvaria_ is the existence
-  of a well-marked depression across the middle of the occipital
-  bone, which appears exactly as if it had been caused by the
-  constriction of a bandage. The depression barely extends beyond
-  the lambdoidal suture into the parietals. It requires, perhaps,
-  some imagination to perceive the slight traces of a corresponding
-  depression in the forepart of the skull; but I think a faint
-  depression may be there perceived on careful inspection. The effect
-  of the occipital constriction, if it be such, reminds one of some
-  of the deformed French skulls described by M. Foville[105] and by
-  M. Gosse.[106] In all other respects the skull is well formed and
-  symmetrical. It is strictly orthognathous, and of a broad oval
-  shape.
-
-  If deformed artificially, it would come under the head of “tête
-  annulaire” of M. Gosse; and Dr. Foville shows that this kind of
-  deformation arises from the popular custom of applying a kind of
-  bandage round the head of the new-born infant, which, passing
-  over the anterior fontanelle, descends obliquely, and is crossed
-  behind the occiput and brought back and tied in front. This band,
-  or “serre-tête,” he states, is worn during the first year, and
-  for a longer period by female children than by males. Dr. Lunier
-  gives pretty nearly the same account, adding, however, further
-  particulars.[107] It may be remarked, also, that the Berbers, who
-  formed great part of the Moorish forces that invaded Europe in
-  the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries, used to elongate the skull
-  posteriorly and flatten the forehead.
-
-
-  TABLE I.--_Dimensions of Perthi-Chwareu Skulls._
-
-  +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------
-  |              |       |        |       | Least  |Greatest|
-  |              |       |        |       |frontal |frontal |Parietal
-  |     No.      |Length.|Breadth.|Height.|breadth.|breadth.|breadth.
-  +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------
-  |      1.      |  7·5  |   5·7  |  --   |   4·0  |   5·0  |   5·5
-  |      2.      |  7·6  |   5·7  |  5·4  |   4·0  |   4·9  |   5·5
-  |      3.      |  6·5  |   5·2  |  5·5  |   3·4  |   4·5  |   5·1
-  |      4.      |  7·4  |   5·8  |  5·8  |   3·9  |   5·0  |   5·8
-  |      5.      |  6·7  |   5·0  |  --   |   3·5  |   4·4  |   5·4
-  |      6.      |  6·8  |   5·4  |  --   |   3·6  |   4·3  |   5·3
-  |      7.      |  --   |   5·5  |  --   |   --   |   --   |   5·3
-  |      8.      |  7·0  |   5·2  |  --   |   3·6  |   4·4  |   5·2
-  +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------
-  |Mean[A]       |  7·07 |   5·5  |  5·6  |   3·8  |   4·64 |   5·4
-  +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------
-  |Cefn Cave     |  7·4  |   5·7  |  5·2  |   3·8  |   4·7  |   5·5
-  +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------
-  |Cefn Tumulus  |  7·38 |   5·65 |  --   |   3·6  |   4·5  |   5·55
-  +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------
-  |Ditto         |  7·2  |   5·6  |  5·7  |   3·6  |   4·35 |   5·5
-  +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------
-  |              |  7·5  |   5·4  |  5·9  |   4·0  |   4·6  |   5·35
-  +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------
-  |Genista Cave, |  7·95 |   5·5  |  5·7  |   3·9  |   5·0  |   5·4
-  |Gibraltar     |       |        |       |        |        |
-  +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------
-  |Ditto         |  7·35 |   5·6  |  6·1  |   3·8  |   4·9  |   5·4
-  +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------
-
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+--------
-  |              |         |         |       |        |
-  |              |Occipital|Zygomatic|Frontal|Vertical|Parietal
-  |     No.      |breadth. |breadth. |radius.|radius. |radius.
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+--------
-  |      1.      |   4·6   |   --    |  --   |   --   |   --
-  |      2.      |   4·8   |   --    |  4·9  |   5·0  |   5·2
-  |      3.      |   4·1   |   3·9   |  4·2  |   4·5  |   4·7
-  |      4.      |   4·4   |   4·7   |  4·4  |   4·6  |   4·7
-  |      5.      |   4·1   |   --    |  4·0  |   4·3  |   4·6
-  |      6.      |   4·0   |   --    |  4·3  |   4·5  |   4·8
-  |      7.      |   --    |   --    |  --   |   --   |   4·6
-  |      8.      |   4·1   |   --    |  4·1  |   4·3  |   4·5
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+--------
-  |Mean[A]       |   4·3   |   --    |  4·3  |   4·5  |   4·7
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+--------
-  |Cefn Cave     |   4·8   |   --    |  4·6  |   4·6  |   4·7
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+--------
-  |Cefn Tumulus  |   --    |   --    |  4·5  |   4·6  |   4·9
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+--------
-  |Ditto         |   4·35  |   4·6   |  4·45 |   4·8  |   4·9
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+--------
-  |              |   4·35  |   4·9   |  5·0  |   5·0  |   5·05
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+--------
-  |Genista Cave, |   4·45  |   5·2   |  4·7  |   4·8  |   4·9
-  |Gibraltar     |         |         |       |        |
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+--------
-  |Ditto         |   4·5   |   5·2   |  4·75 |   4·9  |   5·1
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+--------
-
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------------
-  |              |         |         |Fronto-|
-  |              |Occipital|Maxillary| nasal |
-  |     No.      | radius. | radius. |radius.|Circumference.
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------------
-  |      1.      |   --    |   --    |  --   |     21·2
-  |      2.      |   4·4   |   --    |  3·7  |     21·6
-  |      3.      |   4·1   |   3·2   |  3·0  |     19·0
-  |      4.      |   4·3   |   3·9   |  3·6  |     23·5
-  |      5.      |   4·0   |   --    |  --   |     18·5
-  |      6.      |   4·2   |   --    |  --   |     19·8
-  |      7.      |   4·0   |   --    |  --   |      --
-  |      8.      |   4·1   |   --    |  3·4  |     19·5
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------------
-  |Mean[A]       |   4·2   |   3·5   |  3·42 |     20·0
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------------
-  |Cefn Cave     |   4·0   |   --    |  3·8  |     21.0
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------------
-  |Cefn Tumulus  |   4·5   |   --    |  3·6  |      --
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------------
-  |Ditto         |   4·3   |   --    |  3·7  |     20·1
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------------
-  |              |   4·35  |   4·2   |  4·2  |     20·9
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------------
-  |Genista Cave, |   4·25  |   4·1   |  3·75 |     20·6
-  |Gibraltar     |         |         |       |
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------------
-  |Ditto         |   4·9   |   4·0   |  3·65 |     20·8
-  +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------------
-
-  +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+---------
-  |              |              |            |        |
-  |              |              |Longitudinal| (_a_)  |  (_b_)
-  |     No.      |Circumference.|    arc.    |Frontal.|Parietal.
-  +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+---------
-  |      1.      |     21·2     |      --    |   5·0  |   5·5
-  |      2.      |     21·6     |     15·9   |   5·5  |   5·6
-  |      3.      |     19·0     |     14·7   |   4·9  |   5·3
-  |      4.      |     23·5     |     16·9   |   5·0  |   5·0
-  |      5.      |     18·5     |      --    |   4·4  |   5·2
-  |      6.      |     19·8     |     14·6   |   4·8  |   5·3
-  |      7.      |      --      |      --    |   --   |   --
-  |      8.      |     19·5     |      --    |   4·5  |   4·9
-  +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+---------
-  |Mean[A]       |     20·0     |     15·3   |   4·9  |   5·2
-  +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+---------
-  |Cefn Cave     |     21.0     |     15·1   |   5·0  |   5·5
-  +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+---------
-  |Cefn Tumulus  |      --      |      --    |   5·2  |   5·2
-  +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+---------
-  |Ditto         |     20·1     |      --    |   5·0  |   5·0
-  +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+---------
-  |              |     20·9     |      --    |   4·9  |   5·6
-  +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+---------
-  |Genista Cave, |     20·6     |     14·0   |   5·2  |   4·8
-  |Gibraltar     |              |            |        |
-  +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+---------
-  |Ditto         |     20·8     |     15·3   |   4·8  |   5·6
-  +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+---------
-
-  +--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
-  |              |          | Frontal  | Vertical | Parietal
-  |              |  (_c_)   |transverse|transverse|transverse
-  |     No.      |Occipital.|   arc.   |   arc.   |   arc.
-  +--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
-  |      1.      |    --    |   12·0   |   13·0   |   14·0
-  |      2.      |    4·8   |   13·0   |   13·5   |   13·8
-  |      3.      |    4·5   |   11·6   |   12·45  |   13·4
-  |      4.      |    6·?   |   11·0   |   13·0   |   14·0
-  |      5.      |    --    |   11·0   |   12·5   |   13·4
-  |      6.      |    4·5   |   14·0   |   12·0   |   13·0
-  |      7.      |    --    |    --    |    --    |    --
-  |      8.      |    4·8   |   11·0   |   11·5   |   13·0
-  +--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
-  |Mean[A]       |    5·0   |   12·0   |   12·5   |   13·5
-  +--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
-  |Cefn Cave     |    4·6   |   12·2   |   12·8   |   13·8
-  +--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
-  |Cefn Tumulus  |    --    |   12·4   |   12·4   |   12·8
-  +--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
-  |Ditto         |    4·9   |   12·0   |   13·1   |   13·25
-  +--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
-  |              |    4·6   |   12·8   |   13·25  |   13·25
-  +--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
-  |Genista Cave, |    4·0   |   12·5   |   13·2   |   13·3
-  |Gibraltar     |          |          |          |
-  +--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
-  |Ditto         |    4·9   |   12·3   |   13·2   |   13·3
-  +--------------+----------+----------+----------+----------
-
-  +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
-  |              |Occipital |Latitudinal|           |
-  |              |transverse|or cephalic|Altitudinal|
-  |     No.      |   arc.   |   index.  |   index.  |
-  +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
-  |      1.      |   12·0   |   ·760    |    --     |
-  |      2.      |   12·4   |   ·750    |   ·710    |
-  |      3.      |   11·2   |   ·800    |   ·846    |
-  |      4.      |   12·0   |   ·797    |   ·797    |
-  |      5.      |    --    |   ·746    |    --     |
-  |      6.      |   11·0   |   ·794    |    --     |
-  |      7.      |    --    |    --     |    --     |
-  |      8.      |   12·0   |   ·743    |    --     |
-  +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
-  |Mean[A]       |   11·8   |   ·765[A] |    --     |
-  +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
-  |Cefn Cave     |   12·0   |   ·770    |   ·702    |
-  +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
-  |Cefn Tumulus  |   10·9   |   ·765    |    --     |
-  +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
-  |Ditto         |   11·5   |    --     |    --     |
-  +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
-  |              |   10·5   |    --     |    --     |
-  +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
-  |Genista Cave, |   11·4   |   ·748    |   ·714    |
-  |Gibraltar     |          |           |           |
-  +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
-  |Ditto         |   11·6   |   ·761    |   ·889    |
-  +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+
-
-    [A] In taking this mean, the cephalic index of the young skull,
-        No. 3, is omitted; if included, the mean would be ·785.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 46.]
-
-  (c.) _Thigh-bones._--I have had an opportunity of examining only
-  a single perfect specimen of the thigh-bones. This is an entire
-  bone, 18·2 inches long, with a least circumference of 3·5. Its
-  perimetral index[108] consequently is ·192, which is about the
-  normal standard. The _linea aspera_, at the middle of the bone more
-  especially, is very prominent, so that the bone may be termed, in
-  some degree, carinated (Fig. 46). The shaft is straight; and the
-  chief peculiarities, besides the prominent _linea aspera_, which it
-  presents, are (1) an unusual compression in the antero-posterior
-  direction in the upper part, for the extent of about three inches
-  below the _trochanter minor_. At about two inches below that
-  process, or at a point corresponding with the lower part of the
-  insertion of the _pectineus_ muscle, the shaft measures ·9 × 1·45,
-  whilst in three other ordinary _femora_ with which I have compared
-  it, the bone at the corresponding part measures ·9 × 1·20, ·9
-  × 1·10, ·9 × 1·15, showing that the Perthi-Chwareu _femur_ is
-  unusually expanded laterally in the upper part of the shaft. The
-  consequence is to give the bone at that part a peculiar aspect,
-  which is especially seen in an acute internal angle, and one rather
-  less acute externally, instead of the usually rounded internal and
-  external borders. (2) The distal extremity appears to be rather
-  disproportionately large as compared with a recent well-formed bone
-  of the same length, the condyles measuring 2·5 × 3·3 instead of 2·4
-  × 3·05; and the lower part of the shaft is also somewhat expanded.
-  But the chief peculiarity, as above remarked, is the compression of
-  the shaft in the upper part. Besides the _linea aspera_, all the
-  muscular impressions are strongly marked, and especially those for
-  the insertion of the _gluteus maximus_ and the _trochanter minor_.
-  The neck is long and very oblique, and the head, upon which only
-  a small portion of the articular surface is left, must have had a
-  diameter of about 1·9.
-
-  Mr. Boyd Dawkins has furnished me with the principal dimensions of
-  several other _femora_, varying in length from 16 to 18 inches,
-  and affording an average length of about 17, corresponding to a
-  mean height of the individuals of about 5 ft. 4 in. to 5 ft. 5 in.,
-  the tallest being perhaps 5 ft. 6 in., and the shortest about
-  5 ft. 2 in., no doubt a woman. The mean perimetral index of the
-  eight _femora_ is ·186, which shows, in comparison with the usual
-  thickness of well-formed male thigh-bones of the present day, a
-  certain degree of slenderness. That this is not altogether owing
-  to the circumstance that the bones include those of perhaps more
-  than one female is proved by the fact that in no instance does the
-  perimetral index exceed ·192, and in one thigh-bone, 18″·2 long, it
-  is not more, if the circumference is correctly given, than ·178,
-  the normal perimetral index for the adult male _femur_ in this
-  country being taken as about ·194.
-
-  (d.) _Tibiæ._--Of the leg-bones brought under my notice, five are
-  entire and five more or less defective. The principal dimensions
-  and proportions of these bones, so far as they could be taken, are
-  given in the subjoined Table.
-
-
-  TABLE II.--_Dimensions, &c., of Perthi-Chwareu Tibiæ._
-
-  +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+
-  |     |       |          |        | Antero-  |          |           |
-  |     |       |Transverse|        |posterior |          |           |
-  |     |       | diameter,| Least  | diameter |Perimetral|Latitudinal|
-  | No. |Length.| proximal |circum- |   and    |  index.  |   index.  |
-  |     |       |   end.   |ference.|transverse|          |           |
-  |     |       |          |        | diameter |          |           |
-  |     |       |          |        | of shaft.|          |           |
-  +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+
-  |     |       |          |        |          |          |           |
-  |  1. |  14·9 |    2·8   |  3·2   | 140 × 80 |    ·214  |    ·571   |
-  |  2. |  13·7 |    2·7   |  2·9   | 120 - 75 |    ·211  |    ·625   |
-  |  3. |  13·2 |    3·0   |  3·0   | 135 × 80 |    ·227  |    ·592   |
-  |  4. |  12·9 |    2·5   |  2·5   | 125 × 70 |    ·193  |    ·541   |
-  |  5. |  12·9 |    2·5   |  2·75  | 100 × 70 |    ·211  |    ·700   |
-  |  6. |   --  |    --    |   --   | 135 × 90 |     --   |    ·666   |
-  |  7. |   --  |    --    |   --   | 140 × 90 |     --   |    ·642   |
-  |  8. |   --  |    --    |   --   | 130 - 70 |     --   |    ·538   |
-  |  9. |   --  |    --    |   --   | 135 × 85 |     --   |    ·629   |
-  +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+
-  |     |       |          |        |          |          |           |
-  |Mean.|  13·5 |    2·7   |  2·86  | 129 × 79 |    ·211  |    ·611   |
-  |     |       |          |        |          |          |           |
-  +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+
-
-  In this Table the _length_ means the extreme length of the bone as
-  measured from the summit of the spinous process to the point of the
-  internal malleolus; and the numbers in the fifth column represent
-  the antero-posterior and the transverse diameter of the shaft at
-  the point where the popliteal line terminates at the inner border
-  of the bone, which is usually about an inch and a half below the
-  nutritive foramen. The _latitudinal_ index represents the relation
-  that the transverse diameter bears to the antero posterior, and
-  it is employed to indicate, with some degree of precision, the
-  actual amount of compression or flattening of the shaft as compared
-  with the normal form, which may, so far as my observations
-  show, be taken for the ordinary English _tibiæ_ as from ·700 or
-  ·800, or in the mean at ·730, as will be seen in the subjoined
-  Table, which contains the proportions of thirteen leg-bones taken
-  indiscriminately from a drawer in the College of Surgeons.
-
-
-  TABLE III.--_Proportions, &c., of ordinary Tibiæ._
-
-  +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+
-  |     |       |          |        | Antero-  |          |           |
-  |     |       |Transverse|        |posterior |          |           |
-  |     |       | diameter,| Least  | diameter |Perimetral|Latitudinal|
-  | No. |Length.| proximal |circum- |   and    |  index.  |   index.  |
-  |     |       |   end.   |ference.|transverse|          |           |
-  |     |       |          |        | diameter |          |           |
-  |     |       |          |        | of shaft.|          |           |
-  +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+
-  |     |       |          |        |          |          |           |
-  |  1. |  16·7 |   3·15   |  3·4   | 130 × 100|    ·202  |    ·769   |
-  |  2. |  16·4 |   3·2    |  3·5   | 150 × 115|    ·213  |    ·766   |
-  |  3. |  15·8 |   2·95   |  3·0   | 120 × 90 |    ·189  |    ·750   |
-  |  4. |  15·5 |   2·95   |  2·9   | 140 × 90 |    ·122  |    ·642   |
-  |  5. |  15·3 |   2·9    |  2·8   | 130 × 90 |    ·150  |    ·692   |
-  |  6. |  15·2 |   3·0    |  3·2   | 140 × 90 |    ·213  |    ·642   |
-  |  7. |  15·0 |   2·8    |  2·8   | 140 × 90 |    ·187  |    ·642   |
-  |  8. |  15·0 |   2·6    |  2·8   | 120 × 85 |    ·187  |    ·709   |
-  |  9. |  15·0 |   2·6    |  2·8   | 120 × 90 |    ·187  |    ·782   |
-  | 10. |  15·5 |   3·0    |  2·9   | 120 × 95 |    ·193  |    ·791   |
-  | 11. |  13·5 |   2·8    |  2·9   | 120 × 90 |    ·214  |    ·750   |
-  | 12. |  13·4 |   2·75   |  2·7   | 120 × 85 |    ·201  |    ·708   |
-  | 13. |  12·8 |   2·5    |  2·4   | 100 × 85 |    ·187  |    ·850   |
-  +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+
-  |     |       |          |        |          |          |           |
-  |Mean.|  15·1 |   2·88   |  2·9   | 126 × 91 |    ·188  |    ·730   |
-  |     |       |          |        |          |          |           |
-  +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+
-
-  Comparison of the mean proportions given in the two Tables shows:--
-
-  (1) That the Perthi-Chwareu leg-bones are, on the whole, shorter,
-  and absolutely smaller in all dimensions but one, viz. in the
-  antero-posterior diameter of the shaft, which, notwithstanding the
-  smaller size generally of the bones, is rather greater (that is to
-  say, in the proportion of 129 to 126) than in the ordinary run of
-  English _tibiæ_.
-
-  (2) That their perimetral index is greater, showing that, in
-  proportion to their length, the Welsh bones are somewhat thicker,
-  or in the proportion of 211 to 188.
-
-  (3) But the most marked difference is seen in the latitudinal
-  index, which in the Perthi-Chwareu bones is ·611, and in those of
-  the ordinary type ·730, varying in the former case from ·538 to
-  ·700, and in the latter from ·642 to ·850; but the last is probably
-  an exceptional case. In accordance with this, we find that the mean
-  transverse diameter of the shaft at the point above indicated is
-  greatly under the usual mark, viz. as 79 to 91.
-
-  It is clear, therefore, that the Perthi-Chwareu _tibiæ_ are more
-  compressed or flattened than the usual run of modern European
-  _tibiæ_; in other words, they belong to the platycnemic type.
-
-  As this is, I believe, the first instance in which the occurrence
-  of _tibiæ_ of this peculiar conformation has been observed in
-  this country, the circumstance is of some interest, especially
-  with relation to the occurrence of priscan bones of the same type
-  elsewhere.
-
-  This peculiar conformation of the _tibia_, to which we gave the
-  name of “platycnemic,” was, I believe, first noticed by Dr.
-  Falconer and myself, in 1863, in the human remains procured by
-  Captain Brome from the Genista Cave, on Windmill Hill, Gibraltar,
-  of which an account will be found in the Transactions of the
-  International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology for the year 1868
-  (p. 161); and about the same time, or in May 1864, M. Broca[109]
-  independently observed the same condition in _tibiæ_ procured from
-  the dolmen of Chamant (Oise), and afterwards in bones from the
-  dolmen of Maintenon (Eure-et-Loire). Similar bones have since been
-  noticed in other localities on the Continent, as, for instance,
-  in the diluvium of Montmartre, by M. Eugène Bertrand. But that
-  the peculiarity in question is not common in all the varieties of
-  priscan man belonging to the reindeer period is shown by the fact
-  that it has not been observed in any of the _tibiæ_ exhumed by M.
-  Dupont in the Belgian caves.
-
-  M. Broca’s almost exhaustive remarks upon the anatomical,
-  physiological, and pathological relations of this form of _tibia_
-  leave but little to be said under those heads. I would, however,
-  venture to add a few words as to its ethnological significance. But
-  before doing so I would remark that there appear to be two forms
-  of platycnemism, apparently indicative of some difference in the
-  cause or nature of this aberration from the more usual shape of the
-  bone. To save many words, I subjoin outlines of several well-marked
-  instances of platycnemic bones, all drawn of the natural size and
-  in the same position, the letter (_a_) in each corresponding to the
-  interosseous ridge, and (_b_) to the _crista_ or shin.
-
-  The line _b c_, drawn through the _crista_ and the middle of the
-  posterior surface of the bone, is bisected by another (_a d_),
-  drawn at right angles to it, at the level of the interosseous
-  ridge.
-
-  In Fig. 47, which represents what may be regarded as a normal
-  _tibia_, the length of that portion of the antero-posterior line
-  which is behind the transverse line is to that of the anterior as
-  274 to 1,000, whilst in Fig. 48, taken from M. Broca’s outline of
-  the Cro-magnon _tibia_, which would seem to represent the extremest
-  degree of platycnemism as yet observed, the proportion in question
-  is as 623 to 1,000.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 47, 48.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 49, 50, 51.]
-
-  Figs. 49, 50, 51, are taken from as many of the Gibraltar
-  _tibiæ_,[110] in which the proportion varies from 600 to 523,
-  whilst it will be observed that in Figs. 52, 53, 54, taken from
-  the most platycnemic of the Perthi-Chwareu _tibiæ_, the proportion
-  in one only differs in any considerable degree from the extreme
-  normal proportion shown in Fig. 47; and in this it is as 512
-  to 1,000, whilst in Fig. 53, which is nevertheless undoubtedly
-  platycnemic, the proportion is exactly the same as in the most
-  triangular form of bone.
-
-  It would seem, therefore, that platycnemism may arise from an
-  unusual antero-posterior expansion of the bone, either in front or
-  behind the level of the interosseous ridge. What this difference
-  may indicate, or of what importance it may be in the consideration
-  of questions relating to platycnemism, I am not prepared to
-  discuss; but as in all probability it is connected with a
-  difference in the cause of the deformation (if it be deformation),
-  I have thought that the observation should be recorded, and would
-  merely, in addition, remark that, so far as I have noticed,
-  the occasional and not infrequent platycnemism observed in the
-  shin-bones of negroes is what may be termed anterior.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 52, 53, 54.]
-
-  With respect to the ethnological value of the platycnemic _tibia_,
-  I conceive we are as yet very much in the dark. That it is a
-  race-character would seem to me in the highest degree improbable,
-  seeing that it would be difficult to find any other points of
-  resemblance between the Cro-magnon platycnemic men and those
-  whose remains were met with in the Gibraltar caves, although the
-  platycnemism is of the same kind in each; and still less could
-  the former gigantic race be identified with the occupants of
-  the Perthi-Chwareu sepulchre, from whom they differ not only in
-  stature, but even more remarkably in cranial conformation.
-
-  If, then, platycnemism cannot be regarded as of any value as a
-  race-character, it can _a fortiori_ be still less looked upon as
-  indicative of simian tendencies, a notion that M. Broca seems
-  somewhat inclined to favour. It is quite true that the _tibiæ_
-  of the gorilla and of the chimpanzee are, to a certain extent,
-  platycnemic; but it is by no means so much so as the human
-  platycnemic bone. The _tibia_ of a male gorilla in the College of
-  Surgeons has a latitudinal index of ·681, and that of a female of
-  ·650, whilst that of the chimpanzee is ·611, or exactly the mean of
-  the Perthi-Chwareu bones. It is needless to insist upon the other
-  marked distinctions between the simian and the human _tibia_; but
-  as regards platycnemism it will be obvious, if we are disposed to
-  trace it to any genetic descent, that the descendant has, in this
-  respect, at one time far out-simianized the Simiæ.
-
-  But this comparison with the anthropoid apes may, perhaps, afford
-  ground for a suggestion respecting some possible connection
-  between this peculiar form of the _tibia_ and the habits of the
-  people amongst whom it has been observed. One great distinction
-  between the human and the simian foot consists in their respective
-  adaptations to totally distinct functions. In the one case it
-  is simply an organ of support and progression; in the other,
-  for the most part, of prehension. This necessarily involves a
-  considerable difference in the proportions, &c., of the muscles by
-  which the greater mobility and adaptability of the foot, and more
-  particularly of the digits, are ensured. Would it not, then, be
-  admissible to inquire how far, at any rate, posterior platycnemism
-  may be connected with the greater freedom of motion and general
-  adaptability of the toes enjoyed by those peoples whose feet have
-  not been subjected to the confinement of shoes or other coverings,
-  and who at the same time have been compelled to lead an active
-  existence in a rude and rugged or mountainous and wooded country,
-  where the exigencies of the chase would demand the utmost agility
-  in climbing and otherwise?
-
-  Some common cause of this kind would seem to be not improbable; and
-  it would not, perhaps, be difficult to ascertain whether it is a
-  _vera causa_ or not. But, with respect to this, observations are at
-  present wanting.
-
-  From the foregoing data we may conclude:--
-
-  (1) That the Perthi-Chwareu bones belonged to a race characterized
-  by the proportionally rather large dimensions of the cranium,
-  whose form presents nothing very remarkable, and is pretty nearly
-  conformable to several of those found by Mr. Laing in the ancient
-  shell-mounds in Shetland.[111]
-
-  (2) That this form is distinctly different from that of the
-  Mewslade skull, in which the vertical region is somewhat
-  flattened, as is the case also with several Anglesey crania,
-  which, however, appear to pass, by gradual transition, into the
-  Keiss and Perthi-Chwareu shape, through such a form as that of the
-  Towyn-y-capel skull figured by Professor Huxley;[112] and the whole
-  of them consequently may be regarded as belonging to the so-called
-  “River-bed skulls” of that author, excepting the Borris cranium,
-  which appears to belong to a different type altogether.
-
-  (3) That the people whose remains were found in this locality were
-  of low stature (the mean height, deduced from the lengths of the
-  long bones, being little more than 5 feet), the tallest being 5
-  ft. 6 in., and the shortest adult not more than 4 ft. 10 in., the
-  intermediate ones being 5 ft. 1 in. and 5 ft. 2 in.
-
-  (4) That the proportions of the long bones are rather thick, and
-  the muscular impressions in all are very strongly marked.
-
-  (5) That the _tibiæ_ are, for the most part, of a much more
-  compressed form than those of the modern English, but that this
-  platycnemism does not appear to be exactly of the same kind as
-  that which is exhibited in the Gibraltar bones and in those from
-  Cro-magnon (as figured by M. Broca), the difference consisting in
-  the fact that in the two latter instances the bone is expanded
-  backwards behind the transverse plane at the interosseous ridge as
-  much as it is in front of that plane, whilst in the Welsh _tibiæ_
-  it is the anterior portion of the shaft only which is expanded;
-  or, in other words, the platycnemism in them is due simply to an
-  absolute compression of the shaft.
-
-
-  § 3. HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE CEFN TUMULUS.
-
-  These remains, as submitted to my inspection, consist of:--
-
-  (1) Portions of three frontal bones, two of which are nearly
-  complete, and one constituted of little more than the superciliary
-  region.
-
-  (2) Two parietals and a left temporal, probably belonging to the
-  same skull as the more mutilated frontal.
-
-  (3) Portions of four thigh-bones, two left and two right, one of
-  the latter wanting the proximal, the other both extremities.
-
-  We have thus the remains of three individuals from this interment.
-
-  I. _The Frontal Bones._--No. 1. The least transverse diameter,
-  immediately behind the external angular processes, is 3″·6, and
-  its greatest (at the coronal suture) about 4″·3. Longitudinal arc,
-  4″·1. The profile outline of the forehead is slightly receding;
-  the frontal sinuses moderately developed; and the supraorbital
-  border thin and acute, whilst the glabellar eminence is large
-  and prominent. The bone is a good deal compressed on the sides,
-  so as to have almost the appearance of having formed part of a
-  cymbecephalic skull. The bone itself is thin, and probably without
-  any _diploë_.
-
-  No. 2 presents exactly the same characters, except that the
-  longitudinal arc is greater, being 5″·3. The postorbital or least
-  transverse diameter is 3″·4, and the coronal or greatest 4″·4.
-  The frontal sinuses are well developed; the supraorbital ridge
-  rather prominent, but thin and sharp; the external angular process
-  prominent and thick. Glabellar eminence large and prominent.
-  The nasals remain _in situ_, and project almost, if not quite,
-  horizontally forwards, with a rapid curve at first, and then
-  straight out. The general contour of the bone is exactly like that
-  of No. 1, in which also, although the nasals are wanting, the
-  position of the surface by which they were attached shows that they
-  must in all probability have resembled those of No. 2. The _crista
-  galli_ of the ethmoid, which is left _in situ_, is remarkably thick
-  and high.
-
-  No. 3 is a portion of a larger and wider bone, the postorbital
-  diameter being at least 4″·0. The frontal sinuses are very large,
-  but distinctly defined, as the remainder of the supraorbital border
-  is not thickened. Owing perhaps to the greater prominence of the
-  sinuses, the glabella does not appear so protuberant as in the
-  other instances. The nasal bones remain and project forwards in
-  the same curious fashion as in No. 2. The frontal crest on the
-  inner surface is remarkably developed, being at least half an inch
-  high, though it is separated by a wide notch from the equally
-  strongly developed _crista galli_ of the ethmoid.
-
-  No. 4, when the three bones of which it is composed are put
-  together, consists of the greater part of the parietal region of
-  the skull, to which, as before said, the last-described frontal
-  may have belonged. The left parietal is quite perfect; and a
-  considerable portion of the right also remains, together with the
-  entire left temporal; so that a very sufficient estimate of the
-  proportions of the parietal region of the skull can be obtained.
-
-  As well as can be estimated, the parietal longitudinal arc, or
-  length of the sagittal suture, is 5″·2. The vertical transverse
-  arc, or that drawn from one auditory foramen to the other, over
-  the point of junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures, is
-  12″·2, the parietal 13″, and the occipital 12″·2. In the temporal
-  bone, the external auditory foramen is large, the mastoid process
-  of moderate size, but the digastric fossa is wide and deep. The
-  channels for the middle meningeal artery and its branches are large
-  and deep; and very deep depressions on the sides of the sagittal
-  suture show that the _glandulæ Pacchioni_ must have been greatly
-  developed. The bone is very thin, and with scarcely a trace of
-  _diploë_ where its structure is visible. None of the sutures,
-  however, which are strongly serrated, are in the slightest degree
-  closed, although, as I should imagine, the skull must have been
-  that of a man beyond the middle period of life.
-
-  II. _The Thigh-bones._--Two of these bones, which, though much
-  alike, differ sufficiently to show that they did not belong to the
-  same individual, are decidedly carinate.
-
-  No. 1 wants the upper and lower ends. The least circumference
-  of the shaft, which is at a point about 3½ inches below the
-  _trochanter minor_, is 3″·2. That process, as well as all the
-  other muscular impressions, is strongly developed; and that for
-  the insertion of the _gluteus maximus_ is peculiar in presenting
-  the form of a deep elongated pit instead of a roughened elevation
-  as usual. The antero-posterior and transverse diameters of the
-  shaft, about 1½ inches below the _trochanter minor_, are ·85 × 1·4;
-  and the shaft at this part, like that of the above-described from
-  Perthi-Chwareu, presents a rather acute or narrow external and
-  internal border instead of the usual more rounded form. Lower down,
-  the shaft becomes strongly carinate; and, owing to the flattened
-  form of the anterior surface, its transverse section affords a
-  subtriangular figure (fig. 55). The walls, or cortical substance,
-  are rather thicker than usual, and the substance of the bone is
-  dense and hard.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 55.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 56.]
-
-  No. 2 is very similar in character to the foregoing, but is not
-  quite so much compressed in the upper part, measuring ·8 × 1·2.
-  Nevertheless the inner border is very acute, and the outer more so
-  than in the common form of _femur_. The shaft lower down is not so
-  strongly carinate as it is in the former instance, but is still so
-  in some degree (Fig. 56); and the walls (or cortical substance) are
-  still thicker in proportion.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 57.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 58.]
-
-  No. 3. A third specimen consists of the lower half, or rather
-  more, of the right _femur_. The least circumference is 3″·2.
-  The bone exhibits no special external characters, and is in no
-  degree carinated. The shaft, at about the middle of its length,
-  is somewhat angular in front; and the pit for the origin of the
-  _popliteus_ muscle is deeper and perhaps larger than in most
-  bones of the same size. The texture of the cortical substance is
-  quite eburneous; and it is extremely thick, so that the medullary
-  canal is reduced to a calibre of little more than 0″·25 in its
-  longest diameter. The shaft, however, is straight, and exhibits
-  no other sign whatever of having been affected with _rachitis_.
-  It is, however, a curious circumstance that many of the Gibraltar
-  thigh-bones, most of which are carinate, present the same
-  thickening of the cortical substance (Fig. 57).
-
-  No. 4. A fourth specimen is constituted of merely a portion of the
-  shaft, about 12 inches long, and without either extremity. Its
-  least diameter is 3″·3, and its antero-posterior and transverse
-  diameters, at the same point as in the other bones, 1 × 1·25, or
-  pretty nearly in the usual proportions. Nevertheless the bone,
-  throughout its whole remaining extent, is less rounded on the
-  inner side of the shaft than is usual. The _trochanter minor_ is
-  of gigantic size; and the shaft of the bone, about and below the
-  middle, exhibits a subtriangular aspect (Fig. 58), though scarcely
-  to be called carinate. The cortical substance is of the normal
-  thickness.
-
-  III. _Tibiæ._--No. 1 consists of the greater portion of the left
-  tibia, wanting only the lower extremity. The proximal end measures
-  2·9 × 1·9; and the diameters of the shaft, about the middle,
-  are 1·2 × ·75, giving a latitudinal index of ·620. The shin is
-  remarkably sharp and prominent, and rather curved over to the outer
-  side; and the apparent compression or tendency to platycnemism may
-  in some measure be referred more to the production in front of the
-  anterior part of the bone than to actual narrowing of the posterior
-  side of the triangle, which is nevertheless rather more rounded
-  than in most cases. The axis of the shaft is quite straight; and
-  the bone has not the least rickety appearance.
-
-  No. 2 is also a portion of the left tibia. Both extremities are
-  wanting, and the bone offers nothing worthy of remark. Its least
-  circumference is 2″·65; and the shaft, at the middle, measures
-  1″·1 × ·65; so that the latitudinal index is about ·640, showing a
-  slight degree of compression. The entire length of the bone may be
-  estimated as rather more than 13 inches, corresponding to a height
-  of about 5 ft. 4 in. or 5 ft. 5 in., so that the subject may be
-  supposed to have been a female.
-
-  These remains represent at least four individuals--one probably
-  somewhat aged, another of strong and robust make, and one, in all
-  probability, a woman--in fact, a family group. No correct idea can
-  be formed of the cranial conformation of these persons. In general
-  shape it would seem to correspond with that of the Perthi-Chwareu
-  skulls; but two of them at any rate are of smaller size, if we
-  may judge from the least frontal diameter. The forehead also is
-  perhaps a little more reclined. The most striking feature in two
-  of the specimens, and which appears also to have existed in a
-  third, is the extraordinary projection forwards of the nasal bones.
-  In the present case this may probably be regarded as a family
-  peculiarity; but with reference to it, it should be remembered
-  that M. Broca[113] has described a very similar condition in the
-  skull of the “Old man” of Cro-magnon, in whom, he says, “the ridge
-  of the nose, slightly depressed at its base, rises again almost
-  immediately, and advances boldly forward, making a rapid curve,
-  with the concavity directed rather forward and especially upward,
-  so that the lower ends of the _ossa nasi_ are placed 18 mm. (·7
-  inch) in front of a line dropped vertically from the fronto-nasal
-  suture.”
-
-  The condition of the bones from the Cefn tumulus differs very
-  considerably from that of the remains from Perthi-Chwareu. They all
-  have an appearance of much greater antiquity. With the exception of
-  the very dense _femur_, they adhere to the tongue; and they are all
-  deeply stained with manganous oxide, by which the substance even of
-  the hardest portions is stained to a depth of more than one-eighth
-  of an inch. That this discoloration, which for the most part does
-  not assume the dendritic appearance, is due to manganese and not to
-  any vegetable stain, is quite certain.
-
-  The form of the skull, so far as it can be ascertained from
-  such imperfect remains, and the rather platycnemic shape of the
-  _tibiæ_, may perhaps justify our supposing that the Cefn bones
-  belong to a cognate race to those whose remains were deposited at
-  Perthi-Chwareu, or to one which had lived under similar conditions.
-  But the cranial data are hardly sufficient to allow of any
-  satisfactory inference being drawn from them: and as regards the
-  _tibiæ_, it has already been pointed out that platycnemism cannot,
-  in the present state of our knowledge, be regarded as an important
-  ethnological character amongst priscan peoples, though it may
-  undoubtedly be considered a character betokening remote antiquity.
-
-
-  § 4. SKULL FROM THE CEFN CAVE, NEAR ST. ASAPH.
-
-  The only specimen of human remains from this locality is a nearly
-  entire _calvaria_, wanting the whole of the face below the
-  superciliary border.
-
-  In the middle of the left parietal bone is a small irregular
-  opening, with short radiating lines of fracture proceeding from it;
-  but this appears to have been recently caused, and from the inside.
-
-  The bone generally is of a brown colour, and, as regards firmness,
-  in a natural condition; and it does not adhere to the tongue.
-  Judging from its aspect alone, it would not appear to be of any
-  very great antiquity; but as it has lain in a dry soil, and
-  sheltered from rain or moisture, this appearance may be deceptive.
-
-  Its dimensions are given in Table I. (_supra_), from which it
-  will be seen that the cephalic or latitudinal index is ·770, and
-  the altitudinal ·702. It belongs, therefore, to the category of
-  subbrachy-cephalic skulls of Thurnam and Professor Huxley.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 59, 60, 61.--Skull from Cave at Cefn, St.
-  Asaph.]
-
-  In the side view (_norma lateralis_--Plate 7, Fig. 59), it so
-  closely resembles, except in one respect, that described and
-  figured by Professor Huxley (_loc. cit._ p. 125, Figs. 60, 61) from
-  the bed of the Nore, at Borris, in Ireland, that we can scarcely
-  refuse to recognize a common character between them, which, since
-  in the present case it cannot be looked upon as denoting a mere
-  family relationship, may reasonably be regarded as indicative of
-  some affinity of race. The chief difference observable in this view
-  of the two skulls is the greater development of the frontal sinuses
-  in the Borris _calvaria_. The occipital view (_norma occipitalis_,
-  Fig. 8) is also very similar, except that in the Borris skull the
-  greatest width appears to be in the temporal, and in the other the
-  parietal region. In the Borris skull, also, there is a shallow
-  groove in the course of the sagittal suture, which does not exist
-  in that from St. Asaph.
-
-  The Borris skull is said to be of the extraordinary length of 8
-  inches; and this may account for the much lower cephalic index
-  of the skull, whose absolute width in reality somewhat exceeds
-  the Cefn specimen (5″·9 and 5″·7), whilst the altitudinal as
-  compared with the latitudinal is but very little greater than it
-  would be were the skulls reduced to the same breadth. They may
-  both, therefore, be regarded as “low,” or, as this class of skull
-  might be termed, in the euphonious language of craniologists,
-  “tapinocephalic.” One great peculiarity of the Cefn _cranium_
-  (which exists also, but apparently not to quite so great a
-  degree, in the other) is the absolute horizontality of the plane
-  of the subinial portion of the occipital bone. And it is to this
-  flattening that the comparative lowness may perhaps be chiefly
-  attributed.
-
-  The sutures, where visible, appear to be open. The mastoid
-  processes and all other muscular impressions are strongly marked.
-
-  A third skull of very similar character, except that it is not so
-  much depressed, has come under my observation. It was discovered in
-  a submarine or, rather, subterranean peat-bed or ancient forest,
-  30 feet below the sea-level, at Sennen, near the Land’s End, in
-  Cornwall; and a brief notice and outline figure of it will be found
-  in the “Natural History Review” for 1861.[114] The Sennen skull has
-  the same elongated form; but it is higher than either the Cefn, St.
-  Asaph, or Borris crania, having an altitudinal index of ·730.
-
-  On the whole, these three skulls (_i.e._ those from Borris, Sennen,
-  and St. Asaph) would appear to have a common character, and to be
-  of a different type from either the Perthi-Chwareu or the Mewslade
-  form.
-
-  As a rule it may, I think, be stated that in all brachy-cephalic
-  skulls the breadth exceeds the height, whilst the reverse is the
-  case in the dolicho-cephalic. Individual exceptions are of course
-  not unfrequently met with, more especially among very mixed races,
-  such as the modern English; but I am myself acquainted with only
-  two dolicho-cephalic _races_, properly so termed, in which the rule
-  does not hold good. These are the Tasmanian (not Australian) and
-  the Bushman.
-
-  Any exceptions, therefore, to either rule among ancient and,
-  consequently, less mixed races are worthy of being noted.
-
-  As regards modern brachy-cephalic skulls the law holds almost
-  universally, the only marked exception, except in an individual
-  here and there, being in two Karén skulls, in which, although both
-  decidedly brachy-cephalic, the respective indices stand as ·848 to
-  ·924, and as ·790 to ·842.
-
-  Among priscan brachy-cephalic skulls the most remarkable and
-  important exceptions I have met with occur among the neolithic
-  crania in the Copenhagen Museum, more than half of which are
-  brachy-cephalic, and most of the others nearly so, the mean
-  cephalic index of 21 skulls being ·790, whilst the mean altitudinal
-  is as high as ·810. In fact, out of 12 skulls whose indices vary
-  from ·795 to ·838, no fewer than 10 have the latitudinal index less
-  than the altitudinal.
-
-  The exceptions to the rule as applied to dolicho-cephalic skulls
-  also appear to be far more common among the ancient than among the
-  modern, excepting the two races I have above referred to.
-
-  In a long list of ancient and priscan skulls, I find the following
-  having the tapino-cephalic character:--
-
-  +-------------------------------------------+----------+------------+
-  |                                           |  L. Ind. |  Alt. Ind. |
-  +-------------------------------------------+----------+------------+
-  | 1. From the Thames alluvium at Old Ford   |   ·792   |    ·753    |
-  | 2. From the same deposit at East Ham      |   ·774   |    ·690    |
-  | 3. From the same deposit at Battersea     |   ·763   |    ·745    |
-  | 4. From the same deposit at London Bridge |   ·762   |    ·611    |
-  | 5. From tumulus at Stanshope              |   ·763   |    ·684    |
-  | 6. A Guanche skull                        |   ·775   |    ·737    |
-  | 7. A Guanche skull                        |   ·763   |    ·684    |
-  | 8. Cefn, St. Asaph’s                      |   ·770   |    ·702    |
-  +-------------------------------------------+----------+------------+
-
-  The number is but small, it must be confessed, and perhaps hardly
-  sufficient to do more than prove the rule; but still I think it
-  will be found worth inquiry whether a departure from the rule
-  in question was more frequent among the unmixed or little-mixed
-  races of ancient times than it is amongst similarly unmixed races
-  of the present day; and whether consequently its infraction in a
-  considerable number of instances may or may not be indicative of a
-  lower type, as which we are accustomed to regard the Tasmanian and
-  Bushman races.
-
-
-_General Conclusions as to Human Remains._
-
-The human remains in the caves of Perthi-Chwareu and Cefn, and in the
-cairn near the latter place, imply that the men to which they belonged
-were a short race, the tallest being about 5 feet 6 inches, and the
-shortest 4 feet 10 inches.[115] Their skulls are orthognathic,[116] or
-not presenting a lower jaw advancing beyond the vertical line dropped
-from the forehead; in shape ortho-cephalic, or subbrachy-cephalous,
-and of fair average capacity. The face was oval and the cheek-bones
-were not prominent. Some of the individuals were characterised by the
-peculiar flattening of shin (platycnemism), which probably stood in
-relation to the free action of the foot that was not impeded by the use
-of a rigid sole or sandal. This character, however, is neither peculiar
-to race, nor to be viewed as a tendency towards the simian type of
-leg. These conclusions, which Professor Busk has arrived at from the
-examination of the remains which were submitted to him, have been
-fully borne out by the numerous skeletons which have been subsequently
-discovered, both in the sepulchral caves at Rhosdigre and in a second
-chamber in the cairn of Tyddyn Bleiddyn near Cefn.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VI.
-
-THE RANGE OF NEOLITHIC DOLICHO-CEPHALI AND BRACHY-CEPHALI.
-
-  Relation of Human Remains to those found in Tumuli in Britain.
-    --The Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali.--Their Range in
-    Britain and Ireland--in France.--The Caverne de l’Homme Mort.
-    --The Sepulchral Cave of Orrouy.--The Tumuli.--In Belgium.
-    --The Sepulchral Caves of Chauvaux and Sclaigneaux.--The
-    Dolicho-cephali of the Iberian Peninsula--Gibraltar--Spain.
-    --Cueva de los Murcièlagos.--The Woman’s Cave near Alhama
-    in Granada.--The Guanches of the Canary Isles.--Iberic
-    Dolicho-cephali of the same race as those of Britain, France, and
-    Belgium--Cognate or Identical with the Basque Race.--Evidence
-    of History as to the Peoples of Gaul and Spain.--The Basque
-    Populations the Oldest.--The Population of Britain.--Basque
-    characters in Present Population of Britain and France.--Whence
-    came the Basques?--The Celtic and Belgic Brachy-cephali.--The
-    Ancient German Race.--General Conclusions.
-
-
-_The Relation of the Human Remains to those found in British Tumuli._
-
-Before we examine the relation of this ancient neolithic race of men to
-those who have left their remains in tumuli and caves in other regions,
-it is necessary to define the cranial terminology, as adopted by
-Professors Busk, Huxley, Dr. Thurnam, and other high authorities. The
-term “cephalic index” indicates “the ratio of the extreme transverse to
-the extreme longitudinal diameter of the skull, the latter measurement
-being taken as unity” (Huxley).
-
-The most convenient classification of crania is that adopted by Dr.
-Thurnam and Professor Huxley,[117] and based on the cephalic index.
-
-    I. Dolicho-cephali, or long skulls with cephalic index at or below ·73
-       Subdolicho-cephali              ”          ”        from ·70 to ·73
-   II. Ortho-cephali, or oval skulls                        ”   ·74 to ·79
-       Subbrachy-cephali                                    ”   ·77 to ·79
-  III. Brachy-cephali or broad skulls                      at or above ·80
-
-It has been objected that skull form is of no value in determining
-race, because it varies so much at the present time among the same
-peoples, presenting the extremes of dolicho- and brachy-cephalism as
-well as every kind of asymmetry. This, however, is due to our very
-abnormal conditions of life, and to the mixture of different races
-brought about by the needs of commerce, as in Manchester and Vienna, as
-is pointed out by Mr. Bradley.[118]
-
-In prehistoric times, neither of these causes of variation made
-themselves seriously felt. There was little, if any, peaceful movement
-of races, but war was the normal condition, and society was not
-sufficiently advanced to remove man from the influence of his natural
-environment. The objection may therefore be dismissed as not applicable
-to the skulls in question.
-
-The extent to which abnormal conditions of life are capable of
-modifying the shape of skulls may be gathered from the comparison of
-the skull of an Irish hog with that of its ancestor the wild-boar, or
-even that of a hyæna kept in confinement with that of a wild animal of
-the same species. (See Osteol. Series, Brit. Mus.)
-
-
-_The British Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali._
-
-The materials for working out the craniology of Europe, in prehistoric
-times, do not justify any sweeping conclusion as to the distribution
-of the various races, but those which Dr. Thurnam (_op. cit._) has
-collected in Britain offer a firm basis for such an inquiry. In the
-numerous long barrows and chambered “gallery graves” of our island,
-which from the invariable absence of bronze, and the frequent presence
-of polished stone implements, may be referred to the neolithic age, the
-crania belong, with scarcely an exception, to the first two of these
-divisions. In the round barrows, on the other hand, in which bronze
-articles are found, they belong mainly to the third division, although
-some are ortho-cephalous. Sometimes, as in the case of Tilshead, the
-crania in the primary interment, over which the long barrow was raised,
-are long, while those in the secondary, which have been made after the
-heaping up of the barrow, are broad.
-
-On evidence of this kind Dr. Thurnam concludes, that Britain was
-inhabited in the neolithic age by a long-headed people, and that
-towards its close it was invaded by a bronze-using race, who were
-dominant during the bronze age. This important conclusion has been
-verified by nearly every discovery which has been made in this country
-since its publication. The long skulls graduate into the broad, the
-oval skulls being the intermediate forms; and this would naturally
-result from the intermingling of the blood of the two races. There
-may, however, have been a tendency towards ortho-cephalism in the
-dolicho-cephali, without any admixture of foreign blood, since absolute
-unity of form could not be expected.
-
-The skull of the primary interment in the barrow of Winterbourne Stoke
-is taken by Dr. Thurnam as typical of the dolicho-cephalic class.
-“The greatest length is 7·3 inches (the glabello-inial diameter 7·1
-inches); the greatest breadth is 5·5 inches, being in the proportion
-of 75 to the length taken as 100. The forehead is narrow and receding,
-and moderately high in the coronal region, behind which is a trace of
-transverse depression. The parietal tubers are somewhat full, and add
-materially to the breadth of this otherwise narrow skull. The posterior
-borders of the parietals are prolonged backwards, to join a complex
-chain of Wormian bones in the line of the lambdoid suture. The superior
-scale of the occiput is full, rounded, and prominent; the inion more
-pronounced than usual in this class of dolicho-cephalic skulls. The
-superciliaries are well marked, the orbits rather small and long; the
-nasals prominent, the facial bones short and small; the molars flat
-and almost vertical; the alveolars short, but rather projecting. The
-mandible is comparatively small, but angular; the chin square, narrow,
-and prominent.”[119]
-
-Dolicho-cephalic skulls in general (and in part ortho-cephalic) are
-possessed, according to Dr. Thurnam, of the following characters (Vol.
-iii. p. 69):--“The supraciliary ridges are less strongly marked than
-in the brachy-cephalic. There is none of the prognathism, exaggerated
-malar breadth or great width of the nasal openings, which give such
-an air of savageness and ferocity to the New Caledonians and Caroline
-Islanders; but the very reverse of all these. They are indeed more
-orthognathic even than many Europeans, and the facial characters
-generally are mild, and without exaggerated development in any one
-direction.” Their faces are oval. The upper jaw is small, and the
-sockets of the incisors and canine almost vertical. The supra-occipital
-region is full and rounded, and there is a post-coronal annular
-depression on the skull, termed by Dr. Gosse “tête annulaire.” The
-length is mainly due to the development of the occiput, a condition
-that is termed by M. Broca “dolicho-cephalie occipitale,” as
-distinguished from the “dolicho-cephalie frontale” of other races.
-The teeth are worn flat. The bones associated with the skulls of this
-character show that the stature of the race was short, 5 feet 5 inches
-being the average height.
-
-In the brachy-cephalic, or broad skulls, on the other hand, the
-supraciliary ridges are more strongly marked than in the preceding
-group; the cheek-bones are high and broad, the sockets for the front
-teeth are oblique, and the mouth projects beyond the vertical dropped
-from the forehead, presenting the character of prognathism. The face,
-instead of being oval, is angular or lozenge-shaped. On the back of
-the head the occipital tuberosity, or probole, is the most prominent
-feature, and there is also generally an occipital flattening, which may
-have been caused by the use of an unyielding cradle-board in infancy.
-The entire maxillary apparatus is so largely developed, that the
-term “macrognathic,” introduced by Professor Huxley, is particularly
-applicable to them. The “type mongoloide” of Dr. Pruner-Bey is closely
-allied to, if not identical with, this form of skull.
-
-The stature of the British brachy-cephali is much greater than that of
-the dolicho-cephali, the average for the adult male being 5 feet 8·4
-inches, according to Dr. Thurnam.
-
-The human remains from the caves and chambered-tombs of Denbighshire
-belong to the first of these divisions, in the possession of every one
-of the characters assigned to it by Dr. Thurnam, although the crania
-belong to the ortho-cephalous portion of the series, that is, tending
-towards broad-headedness. It may therefore be inferred that they belong
-to the same race as the neolithic raisers of the long-barrows, a race
-which we shall presently see to be identical with the ancient Iberians
-and modern Basques.
-
-
-_The Range of the Dolicho-cephali in Britain and Ireland._
-
-The same class of human remains has been obtained from caves in other
-districts in Great Britain. In the Oxford Museum a human skull, from
-the cave of Llandebie, possesses cephalic index of ·72; while a second,
-from the cave of Uphill in Somersetshire, explored by Mr. James Parker
-in 1863, measures ·723. (See p. 197.) The latter was associated with
-rude pottery, charcoal, and the remains of the following animals: the
-wild-cat, dog, fox, badger, pig, stag, _Bos longifrons_, goat, and
-water-rat. Most of the remains belong to young individuals, and some
-have been gnawed by dogs, wolves, or foxes.
-
-In Yorkshire a human femur presenting an enormous development of
-the linea aspera, which implies the possession of the platycnemic
-character, has been met with in a cave in King’s Scar, near Settle (see
-p. 113), and fragments of a long skull are preserved in the Museum at
-Leeds from that of Dowkerbottom.
-
-Professor Turner has described[120] the remains found in a cave in
-the Old Red sandstone on the shore of the bay of Oban in 1869 by Mr.
-Mackay. There were two human skeletons, along with the broken and burnt
-bones of the roe and stag, limpet-shells, flint nodules, and flint
-flakes. One of the leg-bones is platycnemic, and the fragments of skull
-may probably be referred to the dolicho-cephalic type.
-
-The same type of skull has also been obtained by the Rev. Canon
-Greenwell, from the neolithic tumuli of Yorkshire, along with the
-same group of animals as in the caves at Perthi-Chwareu, the _Bos
-longifrons_, goat, horse, dog, and stag; and Professor Rolleston,
-F.R.S., informs me that some of the associated human leg-bones are
-platycnemic. It is also recognized by Professor Huxley as identical
-with his river-bed type of skulls from alluvial deposits near Muskham
-in the valley of the Trent, Ledbury Hall in the valley of the Dove, and
-in Ireland from the bed of the Nore in Queen’s County, and from that
-of the river Blackwater. To it also Professor Huxley refers[121] five
-or six out of the seven skulls obtained by Mr. Laing from the stone
-cists in the burial mound at Keiss in Caithness, and associated with
-rude weapons and implements of bone and stone. They probably belonged
-to the inhabitants of the neighbouring burgh, or circular stone
-dwelling, in and around which were the broken bones of the following
-animal remains: the _Bos longifrons_, goat, stag, hog, horse, dog, fox,
-grampus or small whale, dolphin or some other small cetacean, great auk
-(_Alca impennis_, now extinct in Europe), lesser auk, cormorant, shag,
-solan goose, cod, lobster, and shell-fish. A lower jaw also of a child,
-broken after the same manner as other refuse bones, is considered by
-Professor Owen and Mr. Laing to prove that human flesh was sometimes
-used for food. The reindeer was living in the district at this time,
-since its remains have been identified by Dr. Campbell from the Harbour
-mound, one of the many refuse-heaps in the neighbourhood.
-
-The same kind of skull is also described by Professor Wilson under
-the name of “boat-shaped” or “kumbe-cephalic,” from the ancient stone
-chambers and tumuli of Scotland.[122]
-
-In the Table on the next page, showing the relative size and shape of
-the more important long skulls of Britain and Ireland, it will be seen
-that the extreme long-headedness of those from the long barrows is not
-possessed by those either of the caves and tombs of Denbighshire or of
-the river-bed type of Huxley, represented by the skulls from Muskham,
-Ledbury, Blackwater (Ireland), and Keiss.
-
-The greater breadth of the skulls from the caves and tombs of
-Denbighshire, as compared with those of the typical long skulls
-from the long barrows, may possibly be due to a mixture with the
-broad-headed race. In that case, however, none of the tallness, or
-prognathism, of the latter has been handed down. It is most probably a
-mere variation within the limits of one race, and is unaccompanied by
-the fusion of dolicho-cephalic with brachy-cephalic characters, such
-as M. Broca and Dr. Thurnam have observed in the skulls from tombs and
-caves in France.
-
-  +--------------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+------+
-  |                                      |       |        |       |        |Latitud.|      |
-  |                SKULLS.               |Length.|Breadth.|Height.|Circum- |or Ceph.| Alt. |
-  |                                      |       |        |       |ference.| Index. |Index.|
-  +--------------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+------+
-  |Mean of 48 males, Brit., Thurnam,     |  7·7  |  5·5   |  5·62 |  21·3  |  ·715  | ·730 |
-  |  long barrows                        |       |        |       |        |        |      |
-  |Mean of 19 females, Brit., Thurnam    |  7·45 |  5·3   |  5·3  |  20·6  |  ·710  | ·730 |
-  |  long barrows                        |       |        |       |        |        |      |
-  |Mean of 10 skulls, Perthi-Chwareu Cave|  7·07 |  5·5   |  5·6  |  20·0  |  ·765  |   -- |
-  |Skull from Llandebie Cave             |  7·3  |  5·3   |   --  |   --   |  ·720  |   -- |
-  |    ”      Uphill                     |  7·36 |  5·43  |   --  |   --   |  ·723  |   -- |
-  |Mean of 6 skulls from Keiss. (Huxley) |  7·22 |  5·45  |  5·19 |   --   |  ·755  | ·716 |
-  |Skull from Muskham              ”     |  7·0  |  5·4   |   --  |   --   |  ·770  |   -- |
-  |    ”      Ledbury Hall         ”     |  7·15 |  5·5   |   --  |   --   |  ·770  |   -- |
-  |    ”      Blackwater, Ireland  ”     |  7·2  |  5·65  |   --  |   --   |  ·780  |   -- |
-  +--------------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+------+
-
-From the examples given in the preceding pages it is evident that, in
-ancient times, long-headed men of small stature inhabited the whole of
-Britain and Ireland, burying their dead in caves, but more generally in
-chambered tombs. They were farmers and shepherds, and in this country
-in the neolithic stage of culture. In the solitary case offered by the
-Harbour mound at Keiss they were cannibals.[123]
-
-
-_The Range of the Brachy-cephali._
-
-No human remains of the brachy-cephalic, or broad type, as defined
-by Dr. Thurnam have been obtained from the caves in Britain. The
-evidence, however, is decisive that, in the Bronze age, a tall,
-round-headed, rugged-featured race occupied all those parts of Britain
-and Ireland that were worth conquering, and drove away to the west or
-absorbed the smaller neolithic inhabitants. And the identity of their
-skull-form, in the series of interments in the round and bowl-shaped
-barrows, extending from the Bronze age down to the date of the Roman
-occupation of Britain, shows that, both in the North and the South,
-this large-sized coarse-featured people was in possession at the time
-of the Roman conquest.
-
-The size and shape of the typical broad crania may be gathered from the
-first two columns of the following Table, which is an abstract of those
-published by Dr. Thurnam in “Crania Britannica,” and the “Memoirs of
-the Anthropological Society.”
-
-
-_Measurements of British Brachy-cephali, and Gaulish and Belgic
-Brachy-cephali and Dolicho-cephali._
-
-  Column-heading Key:
-  A Date.[B]
-  B Length.
-  C Breadth.
-  D Height.
-  E Circumference.
-  F Latitudinal or Cephalic index.
-  G Altitudinal index.
-
-  +-------------------------------------+-------+----+-----+----+----+------+-----+
-  |                SKULL.               |   A   |  B |  C  |  D |  E |  F   |  G  |
-  +-------------------------------------+-------+----+-----+----+----+------+-----+
-  |                                     |       |    |     |    |    |      |     |
-  |TYPICAL BROAD SKULLS.--BRITAIN.      |       |    |     |    |    |      |     |
-  | Mean of 56 males, Brit. Round       | {N.}  |7·28|5·9  |5·6 |21·1|  ·81 |  ·77|
-  |   Barrows                           | {B.}  |    |     |    |    |      |     |
-  | Mean of 14 females, Brit. Round     | {I.}  |6·9 |5·6  |5·3 |20· |  ·81 |  ·77|
-  |   Barrows                           |       |    |     |    |    |      |     |
-  |                                     |       |    |     |    |    |      |     |
-  | LONG AND SHORT SKULLS.--FRANCE.     +-------+----+-----+----+----+------+-----+
-  | Tumulus, Noyelles-sur-mer-Somme     |  N.   |6·9 |5·6p |5·5 |20·3|  ·81 |  ·79|
-  | “Grotto,” Nogent les Vièrges, Oise  |  N.   |7·2 |5·8p |5·5 |21· |  ·80 |  ·76|
-  |    ”        ”          ”       ”    |       |7·3 |5·2p |5·2 |20·1|  ·71 |  ·71|
-  |    ”        ”          ”       ”    |       |7·1 |5·7p |5·2 |20·8|  ·80 |  ·73|
-  |    ”        ”          ”       ”    |       |6·9 |5·9p |5·5 |20·9|  ·85 |  ·79|
-  |    ”        ”          ”       ”    |       |7·3 |5·4p |5·5 |20·6|  ·74 |  ·75|
-  |    ”        ”          ”       ”    |       |7·4 |5·2p |5·6 |20·8|  ·70 |  ·75|
-  | Dolmen Du Val, Senlis, Oise         |  N.   |6·6 |5·6p |5·4 |19·7|  ·84 |  ·81|
-  |    ”     ”       ”      ”           |       |7·1 |5·5p |5·6 |20·2|  ·77 |  ·78|
-  |    ”     ”       ”      ”           |       |7·2 |5·5  |5·8 |20·8|  ·76 |  ·80|
-  |    ”     ”       ”      ”           |       |7·2 |5·8  | -- | -- |  ·80 |  -- |
-  |    ”   Chamant   ”      ”           |  N.   |7·4 |5·3  | -- | -- |  ·71 |  -- |
-  |    ”     ”       ”      ”           |       |7·1 |5·5  | -- | -- |  ·78 |  -- |
-  |    ”     ”       ”      ”           |       |7·4 |5·5  |5·4 | -- |  ·74 |  ·72|
-  | Cave, Orrouy, Oise                  |N.B.(?)|7·4 |5·8  |5·3 |21·2|  ·78 |  ·72|
-  |  ”      ”      ”                    |       |7·1 |5·8p |5·3 | -- |  ·77 |  ·74|
-  |  ”      ”      ”                    |       |7·2 |5·4p |5·7 |20·1|  ·75 |  ·81|
-  |  ”      ”      ”                    |       |7·1 |5·9p |5·6 |20·7|  ·83 |  ·78|
-  |  ”      ”      ”                    |       |6·7 |5·5p |5·4 |19·2|  ·82 |  ·80|
-  |  ”      ”      ”                    |       |6·6 |5·6p |5·5 |19·9|  ·85 |  ·83|
-  |  ”      ”      ”                    |       |7·2 |5·9  |5·4 |20·9|  ·81 |  ·75|
-  |  ”      ”      ”                    |       |6·8 |5·75 |5·1 |20·4|  ·84 |  ·75|
-  |  ”      ”      ”                    |  N.   |7·4 |5·8  |5·7 | -- |  ·78 |  ·77|
-  |  ”      ”      ”                    |       |7·2 |5·9  | -- |20·8|  ·81 |  -- |
-  | Lombrive, Ariège                    |  N.   |6·7 |5·5  |5·5 |19·2|  ·82 |  ·82|
-  | Dolmen, Meudon, Seine et Oise       |       |7·  |5·95p|5·9 |20·7|  ·85 |  ·84|
-  |   ”       ”       ”       ”         |       |7·2 |5·7  |5·5 |20·8|  ·79 |  ·76|
-  | Lozerres                            |       |7·3 |5·8p |5·7 |21· |  ·79 |  ·78|
-  | Tomb, Maintenon; Eure et Loire      |       |7·25|5·5  | -- |20·3|  ·75 |  -- |
-  |   ”       ”       ”       ”         |       |7·7 |5·5  | -- |20·8|  ·71 |  -- |
-  | Tumulus, Bougon, Deux Sèvres        |       |6·7 |5·4p | -- |20· |  ·80 |  -- |
-  | Dolmen, Meloisy, Côte d’Or          |  N.   |7·3 |5·5  | -- |20·9|  ·75 |  -- |
-  | Avignon(?), Vaucleuse               |       |6·9 |5·8  | -- |20·7|  ·84 |  -- |
-  |    ”           ”                    |       |7·8 |5·5p | -- |21·8|  ·70 |  -- |
-  | Genthod, Geneva                     |  I.   |7·4 |5·6p |5·5 |21·1|  ·75 |  ·74|
-  |    ”       ”                        |       |6·9 |5·6p |5·4 |20·5|  ·81 |  ·78|
-  +-------------------------------------+-------+----+-----+----+----+------+-----+
-  | Mean                                |       |7·1 |5·6  |5·5 |20·5|  ·78 |  ·77|
-  | Judge’s Cave, Gibraltar (Busk)      | (?)   |6·9 |5·4  |5·4 |19·5|  ·792|  -- |
-  | Chauvaux Cave (Virchow)             |  N    |7·35|5·3  |5·3 | -- |71·8  | 1·8 |
-  | Sclaigneaux Cave. Skull 1. (Arnould)|  N    |7·35|6·5  |5·4 | -- |81·1  |73·7 |
-  |      ”       ”      ”   2.          |       |7·25|6·25 |5·25| -- |81·6  |70·6 |
-  |      ”       ”      ”   3.          |       |6·9 |5·75 | -- | -- |  --  |  -- |
-  |      ”       ”      ”   4.          |       |6·95| --  | -- | -- |  --  |  -- |
-  +-------------------------------------+-------+----------+----+----+------+-----+
-
-    [124] N, Neolithic; B, Bronze; I, Iron.
-
-
-_The Range of the Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali in France in
-the Neolithic Age.--The Caverne de l’Homme Mort._
-
-The researches of M. Broca and Dr. Thurnam into the caves and tombs of
-France prove that the small dolicho-cephali and the tall brachy-cephali
-lived in that country in the neolithic age. We are indebted to the
-former for a most important account of the Caverne de l’Homme Mort,
-which reproduces all the essential points which we have observed in the
-sepulchral caves of Denbighshire.
-
-The Caverne de l’Homme Mort[124] is situated in a lonely ravine that
-penetrates the wild limestone plateau, in the south-west of the
-department of Lozère, near the hamlet of Vialle, in the commune of St.
-Pierre des Tripiés. It was discovered by the peasants, and its contents
-were partially disturbed by their search after hidden treasure before
-it was explored by Dr. Prunières. In front of the cave was a platform,
-composed of earth mingled with fragments of charcoal, forming a layer
-about forty centimetres thick, in which were the stones of seven
-hearths, flint-flakes and scrapers, lance-heads, broken bones of the
-hare, fallow-deer, roe, pig (or wild-boar). All the flints were worked,
-and one lance-head had been chipped out of the stump of a celt and
-presented portions of the polished surface, thus fixing the neolithic
-age of the accumulation. Coarse pottery was also met with.
-
-The bones of the hare were very abundant, and proved that there was no
-prejudice against the use of its flesh. In the caves of Perthi-Chwareu
-we have also seen that this was the case.
-
-The refuse-heaps ceased abruptly at the entrance of the cave, at
-a point where the traces of a wall, composed of large stones, was
-visible. Immediately behind this were human bones, in a thick layer
-of dry sand, scattered about in the wildest confusion, which was
-probably the result of successive interments, as well as of subsequent
-disturbance by burrowing animals and treasure-seekers. Two bone-points
-and a flint arrow-head were the only implements discovered within the
-sepulchral chamber.
-
-Two small human bones, bearing undoubted marks of having been burnt,
-were discovered in the refuse-heap; but they do not, as M. Broca justly
-observes, imply the practice of cannibalism, since they may have fallen
-out of the burial-place, and subsequently have come into contact with
-the fire on one of the hearths.
-
-It is impossible to estimate the number of interments in this cave.
-Exclusive of the many skulls which have been destroyed or lost, M.
-Prunières obtained nineteen very nearly perfect, which are described by
-M. Broca as seven male, six female, three of uncertain sex, and three
-children. They are remarkable for the softness of their contours, the
-delicacy of their features, and the orthognathism of their faces. The
-forehead is wide and high, and the vertex and the occipital region of
-the skull well rounded. The cephalic index varies between ·680 and ·78,
-the mean of the whole series being ·732.
-
-M. Broca remarks, that these crania contrast strongly with those of
-the present broad-headed inhabitants of the district, and that they
-differ from those found in the dolmens by M. Prunières in their greater
-length, in the smallness of their features, and the weakness of their
-muscular impressions. The study of the bones of the skeleton confirms
-these differences. The men who buried their dead in the Caverne de
-l’Homme Mort were smaller than the dolmen builders, their bones were
-more slender, and they were altogether a less muscular race. They are
-considered by M. Broca to represent the neolithic aborigines; and
-if his description and measurements be compared with those of the
-dolicho-cephali of Britain, given by Dr. Thurnam (p. 191 _et seq._),
-it will be seen that they are identical with the latter, which is the
-oldest race yet known to have occupied Great Britain since the close of
-the pleistocene period.
-
-At a little distance from the sepulchral cave, and in the same ravine,
-M. Broca explored a large cavern, which had been occupied, probably by
-the same people, since the same kind of instruments were discovered as
-in the refuse-heap. So that we have here, side by side, the abode and
-the sepulchre of the same ancient tribe.
-
-
-_The Sepulchral Cave of Orrouy._
-
-The sepulchral cave of Orrouy (Oise) described by M. Broca, in which
-the remains of about fifty individuals were interred, furnished both
-types of skull, united, according to Dr. Thurnam and M. Broca,[125] by
-a series of intermediate forms, that prove a fusion of blood between
-the broad- and the long-headed peoples. On referring to the preceding
-Table (p. 199) it will be seen that the cephalic index varies from
-·75 to ·88. Eight out of the series of twenty-one skulls united the
-characteristic dolicho-cephalous fore-head with the brachy-cephalous
-middle and hind-head. “We have here,” writes Dr. Thurnam, “a veritable
-hybrid form of cranium, resulting from the mixture or crossing, under
-certain circumstances unknown to us, of a dolicho-cephalous with a
-brachy-cephalous race.”
-
-“... In the Orrouy skulls of hybrid form, two encephalic
-growth-tendencies appear to me distinguishable; one, the longitudinal
-or fronto-occipital; the other a transverse, or bi-parietal and
-temporal one. Now the remarkable supramastoid depressions, visible
-in the hindhead of these skulls, seem to be well explained by the
-idea of an intersection or crossing of these two tendencies in the
-brain-growth; corresponding, as they must have done, to the angles
-formed by the posterior surfaces of the middle, the lower surfaces
-of the posterior and temporal lobes of the cerebrum, and the upper
-surface of the cerebellum.”[126]
-
-In eight out of thirty-four humeri the fossa of the olecranon is
-perforated.
-
-The human remains occurred in the same confusion as at Perthi-Chwareu,
-and were associated with fragments of coarse pottery, flint flakes, and
-bones of ruminants. The occurrence of polished stone celts indicates
-the neolithic age of the interment.
-
-
-_Skulls from French Tumuli._
-
-Both long and broad skulls also occur in the chambered tombs of France,
-although the latter by far predominate. Those from the Long Barrow at
-Chamant are dolicho-cephalic and ortho-cephalic, with cephalic index
-ranging from ·71 to ·78 (Broca), and other similar cases are quoted by
-Dr. Thurnam from Noyelles-sur-Mer, Fontenay, and other tumuli. In the
-large sepulchral chamber at Meudon, that contained 200 skeletons, the
-majority of the skulls were brachy-cephalic, although twenty of them
-were of the ortho-cephalic type. This mixture may be accounted for,
-most probably, by the two races, which are clearly defined from each
-other in Britain, being intermingled in France.
-
-Dr. Thurnam, summing up the whole evidence as regards the distribution
-of races in the tombs of Gaul, concludes that the two races came
-into contact in Gaul at an earlier period in the neolithic age than
-in Britain. And this must necessarily have been the case from the
-geographical position of our island, which could only be invaded, in
-those times, by the races in possession of the contiguous mainland of
-France and Belgium. Both these regions must have been conquered before
-an invasion could have taken place.
-
-
-_The Dolicho-cephali of the Iberian Peninsula, Gibraltar._
-
-The researches carried on from 1863 to 1868, by Captain Brome, aided by
-Dr. Falconer and Professor Busk,[127] into the caves of Gibraltar, have
-resulted in the proof that, in the neolithic age, that barren rock was
-inhabited by a race of men identical with that which is found in the
-long barrows and caves of Great Britain.
-
-The enlargement of the military prison on the top of Windmill Hill
-revealed the existence of a deep fissure, containing dark earth,
-mingled with charcoal and broken bones, which led into a series of
-chambers. The upper of these is described by Captain Brome as being
-completely choked up to the roof with earth, charcoal, and decomposed
-bones of mammals, birds, and fishes, flint flakes, and pottery. Below
-were two floors of stalagmite, filled with loose stones and earth,
-through which a shaft penetrated into a fissure at a lower level,
-leading into a lower chamber that had a free communication with the
-surface, since the current of air was so strong as to extinguish the
-lamps. In this also human remains and works of art were met with. The
-passages were very complicated, and in some of them a red breccia
-contained the remains of the pleistocene mammals, the spotted hyæna,
-the _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_, and others. This series of passages and
-chambers is described by Captain Brome and Professor Busk as “Genista
-Cave No. 1.”
-
-A second, or “Genista, No. 2,” was discovered by Captain Brome opening
-on the surface near the West Cliff, with its floor covered with
-stalagmite, under which was the same class of remains as that above
-mentioned. Subsequently a third and fourth, “Genista, 3 and 4,” were
-explored with the same results, of which the latter, opening on the
-face of a vertical cliff 40 feet below the summit, from its difficulty
-of access must have been used as a place of refuge rather than of
-habitation or burial. With this exception, the whole group of Genista
-Caves contained human bones, resting in the greatest confusion, and
-proving that since the bodies had been interred the contents had been
-disturbed, either by the burrowing of animals or by the action of
-water, pools of which were present in some of the chambers. Evidence of
-the former presence of water was to be seen in the sheets of stalagmite
-on most of the floors. The same confusion would result, as is suggested
-by Professor Busk, by interments at successive times. The intimate
-association of the fractured bones of the animals, and the charcoal,
-broken pottery, and other traces of occupation, with the human bones,
-may be accounted for in the same manner as the similar mixture of
-remains in the caves of Denbighshire. If the caves had been inhabited
-at one time, and subsequently set apart for burials, the human bones
-would become intermingled with the accumulation of refuse on the floors
-by the causes above mentioned.
-
-The bones of the animals associated with the human remains belong,
-according to Professor Busk, to the domestic ox of various sizes,
-goat, ibex, hog, arvicola, hare, rabbit, badger, dog, and a species
-of phocæna, fish, birds, and marine and land molluscs. The pottery is
-for the most part hand-made, coarse and imperfectly burnt; and the
-vessels in some cases had singular perforated spouts, similar to those
-still in use by the Kabyles of Algeria, and some of the Berber tribes.
-Some of it, however, is of a fine red ware turned in the lathe, and
-probably introduced at a later period, even, as remarked by Mr. Franks,
-after the Roman occupation of Spain, to which he refers a bronze
-fish-hook, the only metallic article found in the group of caves. The
-implements of bone consist of a needle, and rounded pins and spikes.
-One cannon-bone of a small ox bears marks of sharp cuts with an edge of
-metal, inflicted probably, as Professor Busk suggests, “in an attempt
-to hamstring the animal, as is sometimes done at the present day in
-the Spanish bull-ring.” It may possibly be more modern than the stone
-implements found in the same cave.
-
-The associated stone articles are celts of polished greenstone,
-similar to that found in the neolithic cave at Perthi-Chwareu (Fig.
-38), flakes, a greenstone chisel, querns and rubbing-stones, a
-whetstone perforated for suspension, and a fragment of an armlet made
-of alabaster. A small lump of coarse plumbago may have been used for
-personal ornament.
-
-The human remains examined by Professor Busk belonged to a large number
-of individuals of all ages, and are for the most part in a fragmentary
-condition. Some of the thigh-bones are carinate, and remarkable for the
-enormous development of the _linea aspera_ and the thickness of their
-walls (Fig. 57), the medullary cavity being reduced to a small size,
-as in those figured from the tumulus at Cefn. Some of the tibiæ are
-platycnemic, presenting the peculiar lateral flattening which first
-attracted the attention of Dr. Falconer and Professor Busk (Figs. 49,
-50, and 51), but which M. Broca has since determined in the tumuli
-and caves of France, and I have discovered in those of Denbighshire
-(p. 177).
-
-[Illustration: FIGS. 62, 63, 64.--Cranium from Genista Cave (Busk).]
-
-The only two crania sufficiently perfect to allow of a comparison being
-made, from Genista Cave No. 3, are perfectly symmetrical, and belong to
-a high type (Figs. 62, 63, and 64). “They are dolicho-cephalic, quite
-orthognathous, and wholly aphanozygous. In one the frontal sinuses are
-considerably more developed than they are in the other, but in neither
-is there any thickening of the supra-orbital border” (Busk). The
-teeth are worn flat. They both belonged to men in the prime of life.
-A third skull, from Genista Cave No. 1, belongs to the same type. The
-measurements of the two most perfect skulls are given in the same table
-as those from North Wales (p. 171).
-
-Gibraltar has also been occupied in ancient times by broad-headed
-men, similar, in M. Broca’s opinion, to those interred in the cave of
-Orrouy. In 1864 human bones, together with a skull (for measurements
-see p. 199), were dug out of the Judge’s Cave by Sir James Cochrane.
-The tibiæ are platycnemic, and the skull is described by Professor Busk
-as being “perfectly symmetrical, brachy-cephalic, slightly prognathous,
-but with vertical teeth, aphanozygous. The forehead is well arched, and
-the supra-orbital border slightly elevated, the orbits being square,
-and the nasal opening elongated and pyriform.” The cephalic index is
-·792. The age of these skeletons is uncertain.
-
-
-_Spain.--Cueva de los Murcièlagos._
-
-Professor Busk[128] calls attention to the fact, that a long skull
-similar to that from Gibraltar has been found in Spain, in an ancient
-copper-mine of the Asturias, together with hammers made of antler,
-and that it bears “the closest possible resemblance” to the Basque
-skulls, described by M. Broca, from Guipuscoa on the Spanish and St.
-Jean de Luz on the French side of the Pyrenees. He points out, also,
-the resemblance which exists between the crania figured by Don Gongora
-y Martinez, from the caverns and dolmens of Andalusia and those under
-consideration; finally arriving at the conclusion that “a pretty
-uniform priscan race at one time pervaded the peninsula from one end to
-the other, and that this race is at the present day represented by, at
-any rate, a part of the population now inhabiting the Basque provinces.”
-
-In the work of Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez[129] referred to, there is
-a most interesting account of the prehistoric antiquities of Andalusia.
-Several interments are described in the Cueva de los Murcièlagos, a
-cave running into the limestone rock, out of which the grand scenery
-of the southern part of the Sierra Nevada has been, to a great extent,
-carved. In one spot, a group of three skeletons was met with, one of
-which was adorned with a plain coronet of gold, and clad in a tunic
-made of esparto-grass, finely plaited, so as to form a pattern which
-resembles some of the designs on gold ornaments from Etruscan tombs.
-At a spot further within, a second group of twelve skeletons lay in
-a semicircle, around one considered by Don Manuel to have belonged
-to a woman, covered with a tunic of skin, and wearing a necklace of
-esparto-grass, a marine shell pierced for suspension, the carved tusk
-of a wild boar, and earrings of black stone. There were other articles
-of plaited esparto-grass, such as baskets and sandals; flint flakes,
-pieces of a white marble armlet, polished axes of the type of fig. 38,
-bone awls, and a wooden spoon, together with pottery of the same type
-as that from Gibraltar, fragments of charcoal, and bones of animals.
-
-Although, in this cave, there were no traces of metal, except gold, in
-a second, in the same neighbourhood, similar interments were met with
-in association with copper (bronze) implements, and with pottery of the
-same kind.
-
-These interments in caves are of the same order as those from
-Gibraltar; and since the skulls agree with those from the latter, there
-can be little doubt but that, in the neolithic age, the long-headed
-small race under discussion had possession of the southern provinces.
-
-
-_The Woman’s Cave, near Alhama._
-
-This conclusion derives additional support from the discoveries
-subsequently made by Mr. McPherson[130] in the Woman’s Cave, near
-Alhama, in Grenada, of implements of bone, flint, and greenstone of the
-neolithic age, mingled with charcoal, pottery, and human skeletons of
-the same type as those from Gibraltar. The human skull, figured by Mr.
-McPherson, is dolicho-cephalic, and the thigh-bone is remarkable for
-the extreme development of the _linea aspera_, which assumes the form
-of a stout ridge sweeping from one extremity of the shaft to the other.
-
-This long-headed race, burying their dead in caves, also erected
-dolmens in Andalusia. In the dolmen of De los Eriales[131] human
-remains were discovered along with bronze (copper?) lance-heads, and
-pottery of the same sort as that of the caves. It is, therefore,
-evident that the practice of burial in caves, and of erecting dolmens,
-was carried on by the same people in Britain, in France, and in Spain.
-
-
-_The Guanches of the Canary Isles._
-
-The Guanches,[132] the ancient inhabitants of the Canary Isles, are
-considered by Berthollet, Glas, and other high authorities, to be
-allied to the Berbers of North Africa in language. At the time of
-their discovery and conquest by the Spaniards, they are described by
-Miss Haigh as being unacquainted with the use of any metal, and as
-fashioning their weapons out of a black, hard stone. The Guanches of
-Teneriffe lived principally in caves, preferring for their winter
-residence those near the coast, and “in the summer those in the
-higher parts in the interior of the island, whence they could enjoy
-the fresh air of the hills.” Some of these caves have been excavated
-by the hand of man, and are divided into square chambers, containing
-rock-hewn benches, “and deep niches made to contain vessels of milk
-or water.” They had also stone houses, thatched with straw or fern.
-They also buried their dead in sepulchral caves, belonging each to a
-family or clan, entrances to which are carefully concealed, and are
-now discovered only by accident. In them the dead were placed either
-upright, or lying side by side on wooden scaffolds, after having been
-prepared with salt and butter and thoroughly dried and wrapped in the
-tanned skins of sheep or goat. In some cases the prepared body was
-placed in the sitting posture.
-
-They were possessed of a settled government by “Menceys,” or chiefs
-subordinate to one head, and were divided into “nobles and common
-people, and had a code of punishment for the robber, murderer, and
-adulterer.”
-
-Their food consisted of sheep and goats, roasted barley ground between
-two stones, and the fruit of the arbutus, date-palm and fig, as well
-as fish and rabbits. Their fences were made of reed, their ropes and
-nets of rushes, and their baskets, mats, and bags, of palm-leaves. They
-manufactured vessels out of clay or hard wood, needles of fishbones,
-beads of clay, and they especially excelled in the art of tanning. The
-civilization of this very interesting people may fairly be taken to
-be a fragment of that of North Africa and of Europe in the neolithic
-age, protected by insulation from the influences by which it was swept
-away from the countries bordering on the shores of the Mediterranean,
-just as the old Norse customs and legends are preserved by the present
-inhabitants of Iceland in greater purity than in Norway.
-
-The Berbers are viewed by Professor Busk as of the same non-Aryan stock
-as the Basque, and the civilization of the Guanches may therefore be
-taken to represent that of the Iberic peoples of Spain, among whom
-caves were used in like manner for habitation and burial.
-
-
-_Iberic Dolicho-cephali of the same Race as those of Britain._
-
-If this group of Iberic skulls be compared with those from the caves
-and tumuli of Great Britain (see Table, p. 197 and that below) it will
-be seen, that what Professor Busk observes of the ancient population of
-Spain is equally true of that of our country in the neolithic age. And
-the identity of form is especially remarkable in the crania from the
-sepulchral caves at Perthi-Chwareu, the difference between them being
-so small as to be of little account:--
-
-  +-------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+------+
-  |                         |       |        |       |Circum- |Ceph. |
-  |                         |Length.| Brdth. |Height.|ference.|index.|
-  +-------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+------+
-  |                         |       |        |       |        |      |
-  |Mean of 10 skulls from   |       |        |       |        |      |
-  |  Perthi-Chwareu         |  7·07 |  5·5   |  5·6  |  20·0  | ·765 |
-  |Mean of 2 skulls from    |       |        |       |        |      |
-  |  Genista Cave, No. 3    |       |        |       |        |      |
-  |  (Busk)                 |  7·35 |  5·55  |  5·9  |  20·7  | ·755 |
-  |Mean of 40 male Basque   |       |        |       |        |      |
-  |  skulls from Guipuscoa  |       |        |       |        |      |
-  |  (Thurnam)              |  7·2  |  5·5   |  5·4  |    --  | ·760 |
-  |Mean of 20 female, ditto |  6·9  |  5·3   |  5·0  |    --  | ·760 |
-  |Mean of 19 skulls,       |       |        |       |        |      |
-  |  chiefly male           |  7·4  |  5·6   |  5·4  |    --  | ·760 |
-  |Mean of 57 female ditto, |       |        |       |        |      |
-  |  St. Jean de Luz        |  7·02 |  5·6   |   --  |    --  | ·799 |
-  +-------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+------+
-
-
-_The Dolicho-cephali cognate with the Basque._
-
-Nor can the truth of Professor Busk’s conclusion, that the group of
-skulls in question belong to a people akin in blood to the modern
-Basques, be disputed. We are indebted to M. Broca[133] for the
-elaborate description of seventy-eight Basque crania from a village
-cemetery in Guipuscoa, and of fifty-eight from an ossuary at St. Jean
-de Luz, in which they had been collected in the reign of Francis I.,
-1532. In both these groups the long and oval types predominated, the
-broad type being represented by 6·4 (Thurnam) per cent. in the one, and
-37·36 per cent. (Broca) in the other; a difference that is doubtless
-caused by the greater mixture of blood in the south-west of France
-than in the north-west of Spain, shut off from the broad-headed Gallic
-tribes by the Pyrenees.[134] Six skulls, obtained by Professor Virchow
-from Bilbao, agree in all particulars with those from Guipuscoa. M.
-Broca has further shown, that this group of Spanish skulls offers
-all the characters of the black-haired, swarthy, oval-faced, Basque
-population of the surrounding region, and it therefore follows, that
-they may be taken as standards of comparison, as typical of the ancient
-Basque crania, modified, it may be, to some extent, by the infusion of
-other blood. Their agreement, therefore, with the skulls from Gibraltar
-implies that the latter are also Basque. And since they agree also with
-those from the cave of Perthi-Chwareu, as may be seen in the preceding
-Table, the men who buried their dead in the caves of North Wales in the
-neolithic age, are proved to belong to the same stock.
-
-The same long-headed, small race also inhabited France, side by side
-with the broad-headed Gallic tribes; and since to it belong the
-skeletons in the Cave de l’Homme Mort, which M. Broca refers to the
-neolithic aborigines, it may reasonably be concluded that in Gaul, as
-in Britain, it was the older of the two races. The two have also been
-met with in the caves of Belgium. If we allow that an aboriginal Basque
-population spread over the whole of Britain, France, and Belgium, and
-that it was subsequently dispossessed by broad-headed invaders, the two
-extremes of skull-form and of stature, and of the gradations between
-them, may be satisfactorily explained. And this view coincides with the
-well-ascertained facts of history.
-
-Dr. Thurnam was the first to recognize that the long skulls, out of
-the long barrows of Britain and Ireland, were of the Basque or Iberian
-type, and Professor Huxley holds that the river-bed skulls belong to
-the same race.[135] (Compare Table p. 197 with the preceding.) We have
-therefore proof, that an Iberian or Basque population spread over the
-whole of Britain and Ireland in the neolithic age, inhabiting caves,
-and burying their dead in caves and chambered tombs, just as in the
-Iberian Peninsula also in the neolithic age.
-
-
-_Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali in Neolithic Caves of
-Belgium.--Chauvaux._
-
-Both these forms of skull have been met with in Belgium, the one in the
-famous cave of Chauvaux, the other in that of Sclaigneaux.
-
-The first of these is a rock-shelter passing into a small cave, at the
-base of the limestone cliff on the Meuse, opposite the little village
-of Rivière, between Dinant and Namur. It was known to contain human
-remains in 1837-8, and was partially explored in 1842 by Dr. Spring,
-who published his account of the discoveries in 1853, and subsequently
-in 1864 and 1866. Below a thin layer of loam was a floor of stalagmite,
-concealing a vast number of broken human bones mixed pêle-mêle with
-those of wild and domestic animals, and associated with charcoal and
-coarse pottery. Two polished stone celts indicated the neolithic age
-of the accumulation; one of them resting close to a skull which had
-been fractured by a blow from a blunt instrument, such as it may have
-inflicted. The human bones belonged to infants and young adults.
-
-From the fractured and burnt bones of the animals it is clear that
-they had been accumulated in the cave daring the time that it was
-inhabited by man. Dr. Spring[136] inferred that the broken human bones
-proved that human beings, as well as the animals, formed the food of
-the cave-dwellers, and further, since all the human remains belong to
-young individuals, that the cannibalism was not accidental, or caused
-by famine, but the result of a deliberate selection.
-
-The facts which induced Dr. Spring to come to this conclusion are
-interpreted by M. Dupont[137] in a different manner. He holds, that the
-proportion of young individuals is not greater in Chauvaux than that
-which he has observed in other sepulchral caves in Belgium, and that
-there is nothing which forbids the supposition that this also was used
-as a place of interment. The human bones may have been broken by the
-foxes and badgers, which are so abundant in the district, and have been
-mixed, by their continual burrowing, with the remains of the animals in
-the old refuse-heap accumulated on the floor during the habitation of
-man. Such a mixture of remains we have already observed in the caves
-of North Wales and Gibraltar. The recent researches of M. Soreil[138]
-leave no room for doubting the truth of M. Dupont’s interpretation.
-Two perfect human skeletons were discovered along with flint flakes,
-pottery, a barbed arrow-head, and many scattered human bones not
-broken by design, while the long bones of the associated animals bore
-unmistakeable traces of having been split for the sake of the marrow.
-On one long bone, for example, of the ox, there were cuts made by a
-flint implement, as well as the mark of the blow by which it had been
-split longitudinally; and another ox-bone, and the canine of a boar,
-bore marks of burning. The bones of the animals were very abundant,
-and belonged to the following species: beaver, hamster, and other
-small rodents, hare, badger, fox, boar, stag, roe, ox, and goat. In
-this case, as in the caves of Perthi-Chwareu, and of l’Homme Mort, the
-inhabitants had used the hare for food, as well as the other animals,
-and did not share the prejudice against the use of its flesh for food,
-which Cæsar remarks of the inhabitants of Britain (Comm. 1, xii.).
-
-The cave must, therefore, be viewed as a place of sepulture for a
-neolithic people, whose implements abound in the neighbourhood, and not
-as having been inhabited by a race of cannibals.
-
-The bodies had been interred in the crouching posture, with their
-thighs bent, their heads resting on their arms, and their faces turned
-towards the valley. They rested side by side in two small holes, which
-had been dug in the deposit containing the bones of the animals, and
-the skeletons were cemented to the rock by stalagmite, and surrounded
-by large stones. They belonged to individuals far past the prime of
-life.
-
-Both skulls were dolicho-cephalic, and the most perfect of them is
-described by Professor Virchow as presenting a parietal flattening,
-which is probably analogous to the “tête annulaire,” so commonly
-present in the long skulls of the neolithic age. It possesses a
-cephalic index of ·72 (·718 Virchow). The sutures in both the skulls
-were very nearly obliterated. The measurements are given in the Table
-in page 199.
-
-The crania, in all these characters, are to be classified with the
-long skulls from the caves and chambered tombs of France, Britain,
-and Spain. They belong to people in the same stage of culture, and
-practising the same mode of burial in a crouching posture. Chauvaux
-is the furthest cave to the east on the continent of Europe, in which
-traces of this long-headed race have been observed.
-
-
-_The Cave of Sclaigneaux._
-
-The cave of Sclaigneaux,[139] explored by M. Arnould, near the hamlet
-of that name, fourteen miles from Namur, has been proved to contain
-human bones, lying mixed with those of the animals in the refuse-heap
-on the floor, as in the cave of Chauvaux. The animals belonged to
-existing species:--
-
-    Hedgehog.
-    Badger.
-    Beech-marten.
-    Weazel.
-    Fox.
-    Dog.
-    Wild Cat.
-    Hare.
-    Rabbit.
-    Ox.
-    Goat.
-    Stag.
-    Boar.
-    Horse.
-    Rodents.
-
-Bones of birds, frogs, and fishes were also met with. Intermingled
-with these were human skeletons, disposed in a rude sort of order,
-and belonging to bodies which had been interred at different times.
-From the lower jaws M. Arnould calculates that the number of bodies
-interred was not less than sixty-two, of which twelve belonged to aged
-individuals, twenty-one to those in the prime of life, sixteen to young
-adults, and thirteen to children.
-
-[Illustration: FIGS. 65, 66.--Skull from Cave of Sclaigneaux.
-(Arnould.)]
-
-The crania (Figs. 65, 66) are brachy-cephalic (see Table, p. 199), and
-are possessed, according to M. Arnould, of the following characters.
-The apex of the cranial vault is flattened, probably artificially, and
-the parietal bosses are largely developed, to which is due the great
-width of the skull. The surciliary ridges are strongly marked, and the
-malar bones are prominent. In all these particulars they agree with the
-broad skulls, as defined by Dr. Thurnam, discovered in the round tumuli
-of Britain and the sepulchral caves of France.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Platycnemic tibia, from Sclaigneaux.]
-
-Some of the leg-bones presented the antero-posterior flattening, or
-platycnemism, observed in the skeletons from the caves of Gibraltar,
-and in France and Great Britain (Fig. 67). It is due, as in those from
-North Wales, to the anterior expansion of the bone, and not to the
-posterior, as is the case with those from the cave of Cro-Magnon.
-
-A beautifully chipped arrow-head, with barbs and central tongue for
-insertion into the shaft, of the same type as one from Chauvaux,
-implies that these remains belong to the neolithic age. Implements of
-bone, and a shell perforated for suspension, were also found.
-
-
-_The Evidence of History as to the Peoples of Gaul and Spain._
-
-The extension of this non-Aryan race through France, Spain, and
-Britain, in ancient times, based solely on the evidence of the human
-remains, is confirmed by an appeal to the ethnology of Europe within
-the historic period. In the Iberian peninsula the Basque populations
-of the west are defined from the Celtic of the east by the Celtiberi
-inhabiting the modern Castille (see Map, Fig. 68). In Gaul the province
-of Aquitania extended as far north, in Cæsar’s time,[140] as the river
-Garonne, constituting the modern Gascony, to which was added, in the
-days of Augustus, the district between that river and the Loire;
-a change of frontier that was probably due to the predominance of
-Basque blood in a mixed race in that area similar to the Celtiberi
-of Castille. The Aquitani were surrounded on every side, except the
-south, by the Celtæ, extending as far north as the Seine, as far to
-the east as Switzerland and the plains of Lombardy, and southwards,
-through the valley of the Rhone and the region of the Volcæ, over the
-Eastern Pyrenees into Spain. The district round the Phocæan colony
-of Marseilles was inhabited by Ligurian tribes, who held the region
-between the river Po and the Gulf of Genoa, as far as the western
-boundary of Etruria, and who probably extended to the west along
-the coast of Southern Gaul as far as the Pyrenees.[141] They were
-distinguished from the Celtæ, not merely by their manners and customs,
-but by their small stature and dark hair and eyes, and are stated by
-Pliny and Strabo to have inhabited Spain. They have also left marks of
-their presence in Central Gaul in the name of the Loire (Ligur), and
-possibly in Britain in the obscure name of the Lloegrians. They invaded
-Sicily[142] as the Sikelians, and _if_ the latter be identified with
-the Sikanians considered by Thucydides[143] and other writers to be
-of Iberian stock, it will follow that they are a cognate race. Their
-stature and swarthy complexion, as well as the ancient geographical
-position conterminous with the Iberic population of Gaul and Spain,
-confirm this conclusion. The non-Aryan and probably Basque population
-of Gaul was therefore cut into two portions by a broad band of Celts,
-which crosses the Eastern Pyrenees, and marks the route by which the
-Iberian peninsula was invaded.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Distribution of Basque, Celtic, and Belgic
-Peoples, at dawn of History.]
-
-The ancient population of Sardinia is stated by Pausanias to be of
-Libyan extraction, and to bear a strong resemblance to the Iberians in
-physique and in habits of life, while that of Corsica is described by
-Seneca as Ligurian and Iberian. The ancient Libyans are represented
-at the present day by the Berber and Kabyle tribes which are, if
-not identical with, at all events cognate with the Basques. We may
-therefore infer that these two islands were formerly occupied by this
-non-Aryan race, as well as the adjacent continents of Northern Africa
-and Southern Europe.
-
-
-_The Basque Population the Oldest._
-
-The relative antiquity of these two races in Europe may be arrived at
-by this distribution. The Basques, Sikani or Ligurian, are the oldest
-inhabitants, in their respective districts, known to the historian;
-while the Celts appear as invaders, pressing southwards and westwards
-on the populations already in possession, flooding over the Alps and
-under Brennus sacking Rome, and by their union with the vanquished
-in Spain constituting the Celtiberi. We may therefore be tolerably
-certain that the Basques held France and Spain before the invasion of
-the Celts, and that the non-Aryan peoples were cut asunder, and certain
-parts of them left--Ligurians, Sikani, and in part Sardinians and
-Corsicans--as ethnological islands, marking, so to speak, an ancient
-Basque non-Aryan continent which had been submerged by the Celtic
-populations advancing steadily westwards.
-
-At the time of the Roman conquest of Gaul, the Belgæ were pressing on
-the Celts, just as the latter pressed the Basques, the Seine and the
-Marne forming their southern boundary, and in their turn being pushed
-to the west by the advance of the Germans in the Rhine provinces. Thus
-we have the oldest population, or Basque, invaded by the Celts, the
-Celts by the Belgæ, and these again by the Germans; their relative
-positions stamping their relative antiquity in Europe.
-
-
-_The Population of Britain._
-
-The Celtic and Belgic invasion of Gaul repeated itself, as might
-be expected, in Britain. Just as the Celts pushed back the Iberian
-population of Gaul as far south as Aquitania, and swept round it into
-Spain, so they crossed over the Channel and overran the greater portion
-of Britain, until the Silures, identified by Tacitus[144] with the
-Iberians, were left only in those fastnesses that formed subsequently
-a bulwark for the Brit-Welsh against the English invaders. And just
-as the Belgæ pressed on the rear of the Celts as far as the Seine,
-so they followed them into Britain, and took possession of the “Pars
-Maritima,”[145] or southern counties. The unsettled condition of the
-country at the time of Cæsar’s invasion was, probably, due to the
-struggle then going on between Celts and Belgæ.
-
-The evidence offered by history as to the distribution of these races
-confirms that which has been arrived at by the examination of the caves
-and tumuli. In the one case the Basque peoples are merely known in a
-fragmentary condition in Britain, Gaul, and Sicily, while in the other
-those fragments are joined together in such a way as to show that, in
-the neolithic age, they extended uninterrupedly through Western Europe,
-from the Pillars of Hercules in the south to Scotland in the north,
-before they were dispossessed by their broad-headed enemies. It is
-impossible to define with precision their ethnological relation to the
-non-Aryan inhabitants of Italy and the coasts of the Mediterranean,
-such as the Etruscans and Tyrrhenians. I am, however, inclined to hold
-that they are all branches of the same race of “Melanochroi,” differing
-far less from each other than the Celtic from the Scandinavian branch
-of the Aryan family.[146]
-
-
-_Basque Element in present British and French Populations._
-
-This non-Aryan blood is still to be traced in the dark-haired,
-black-eyed, small, oval-featured peoples in our own country in the
-region of the Silures, where the hills have afforded shelter to the
-Basque populations from the invaders.[147] The small swarthy Welshman
-of Denbighshire is in every respect, except dress and language,
-identical with the Basque inhabitant of the Western Pyrenees, at
-Bagnères de Bigorre.
-
-The small dark-haired people of Ireland,[148] and especially those
-to the west of the Shannon, according to Dr. Thurnam and Professor
-Huxley, are also of Iberian derivation, and singularly enough there is
-a legendary connection between that island and Spain. The human remains
-from the chambered tombs as well as the riverbeds prove that the
-non-Aryan population spread over the whole of Ireland as well as the
-whole of Britain. The main mass of the Irish population is undoubtedly
-Celtic, crossed with Danish, Norse, and English blood.
-
-The Basque element in the population of France is at the present time
-centered in the old province of Aquitaine, in which the jet-black hair
-and eyes, and swarthy complexion, strike the eye of the traveller, now
-as in the days of Strabo,[149] and form a vivid contrast with the brown
-hair and grey eyes of the inhabitants of Celtica and Belgica (see Map,
-Fig. 68). If Fig. 68 be compared with the map published by Dr. Broca
-(“Mémoires d’Anthropologie,” t. i. p. 330), which shows at a glance
-the average complexion prevailing in each department, and the relative
-number of exemptions per 1,000 conscripts, on account of their not
-coming up to the standard of height (1·56 metre = 5 feet 1½ inches),
-it will be seen that the only swarthy people outside the boundary of
-Aquitaine constitute five ethnological islands. Of these Brittany is by
-far the largest, probably because its fastnesses afforded a shelter to
-the Basques, who were being driven to the south-west. The department
-of the Meuse, in the north, and those of Tarn and Arriège, in the
-south, are also sundered from the main body, while those of the Upper
-and Lower Alps present us with the descendants of the ancient Ligurian
-tribes.
-
-The people with dark-brown hair, considered by Dr. Broca to be the
-result of the intermingling of a dark with a fair race, are scattered
-about through Aquitaine, and occur only in two departments in northern
-Celtica. The fair people, on the other hand, are massed in northern
-Celtica and Belgica. The relation of complexion to stature may be
-gathered from the following table of exemptions per 1,000 for each
-department:--
-
-  Départements noirs            98·5 to 189
-        ”      gris-foncés      64·  ”  97
-        ”      gris-clairs      48·8 ”  63·8
-        ”      blancs-clairs    23·  ”  48·5
-
-From this table it is evident that the swarthy people are the smallest
-and the fair the tallest, the intermediate shades being the result of
-fusion between the two extremes.
-
-The distribution therefore of the small swarthy Basque, and tall fair
-Celtic and Belgic races in France at the present time, corresponds
-essentially with that which we might have expected from the evidence
-both of history and of the neolithic caves and tombs.[150]
-
-When we consider the many invasions of France, and the oscillations
-to and fro of peoples, the persistence of the Basque population is
-very remarkable. It is not a little strange that the type should be so
-slightly altered by intermarriage with the conquering races.
-
-
-_Whence came the Basques?_
-
-From what region did the Basques invade Europe? M. Broca, from their
-identity with the Kabyles and Berbers, holds that they entered Europe
-from northern Africa, spreading over Spain, and passing over the
-Pyrenees into southern France. It seems, however, to me, from their
-range as far north as Scotland, and at least as far to the east as
-Belgium, that they travelled by the same route that the Celtic, Belgic,
-and Germanic tribes travelled long ages afterwards, coming from the
-east and pushing their way to the west: and that while one section
-chose this route, another mastered northern Africa, following the same
-westward direction as the Saracens. On this hypothesis this great
-pre-Aryan migration would start from the central plateau of Asia, from
-which all the successive invaders of Europe have swarmed off.
-
-This view of the eastern derivation of the Basque peoples is confirmed
-by the examination of the breeds of domestic animals which they
-possessed. The _Bos longifrons_, the sheep, and the goat are derived
-from wild stocks that are now to be found only in central Asia; and the
-dog and breed of swine with small canines were also probably imported
-after they had become the servants of man in the east.[151]
-
-
-_The Celtic and Belgic Brachy-cephali._
-
-The occurrence of broad-skulls in the tumuli in this country, and
-in caves and tumuli in France, proves that the Basque peoples were
-invaded during the neolithic age. And since Dr. Thurnam has shown
-that they are identical in form with Celtic and Belgic skulls,[152]
-it follows that one or the other of these, probably the Celtic or the
-older, was in possession of portions of Britain, Ireland, and Gaul at
-that remote time. It is of course conceivable that non-Celtic races,
-physically allied to the Celts or Belgæ, are represented by the human
-remains in question; but in that case they have left no mark behind
-by which they can be identified. And the supposition is rendered
-improbable to the last degree by the fact, that the older or conquered
-race--the Basque--still survives, in the area under consideration,
-the invasions and vicissitudes which it has undergone. _A fortiori_,
-would their conquerors have had a still greater chance of survival, in
-the fastnesses which are offered by these countries. It is therefore
-reasonable to presume that the broad-headed peoples in the neolithic
-caves and tombs are represented by the Celts, and possibly, though not
-probably, in part by the Belgæ, rather than by the equally broad-headed
-Wends, Sclavonians, and Fins, which are not known by the historian to
-have settled in Gaul or in Britain. The successive invasions of Europe
-have been invariably from the east to the west, so far as we have any
-certain knowledge; and it is most improbable that Wends, Fins, or
-Sclaves should have occupied these countries and subsequently have
-retreated eastwards against the current of the Celtic, Belgic, and
-Germanic invasions.
-
-The Celtæ may, therefore, be inferred to have occupied Gaul and Britain
-in the ages of polished stone, bronze, and of iron, their encroachment
-on the non-Aryan peoples being regulated by their strength, and the
-amount of pressure on their rear. The Belgæ probably were not known
-in Gaul until the later portion of the iron age, and were of small
-importance as compared with the Celts, whose arms were felt alike in
-Greece, Italy, Spain, and Asia Minor.
-
-The Celts were a tall, fair-haired, blue-eyed race (Xanthochroi),
-contrasting strongly with the Basque “Melanochroi”, and in those
-particulars agreeing with the Germans.[153]
-
-
-_The Ancient German Race._
-
-The Germans, in the days of Cæsar, were advancing on the Belgæ in the
-Rhine provinces, and on the Helvetii in Switzerland, and are recognized
-by Tacitus,[154] in Britain as the red-haired, tall inhabitants of
-Caledonia. Subsequently they spread over the west and south of Europe,
-as Goths, Franks, Scandinavians, English and Normans; in this country
-sweeping the Brit-Welsh into the hilly fastnesses of Wales, making
-settlements on many points of the coasts of Ireland, and leaving
-behind them, to this day, a considerable infusion of German blood
-in the Celtic and Basque populations. They were, unlike the present
-inhabitants of North Prussia and southern and middle Germany, a
-dolicho-cephalic people, their length of head being due, according to
-Gratiolet, to a frontal instead of an occipital development, which
-causes the long-headedness of the Basques. The Anglo-Saxon skull is
-defined by Dr. Thurnam as prognathous, with large facial bones, and
-with a cephalic index averaging ·75. And these characters are equally
-to be found in the Gothic, Frankish, and Scandinavian crania.
-
-
-_General Conclusions._
-
-In this outline of the ethnology of Gaul and Britain, it will be seen
-that two out of the three ethnical elements (if the Belgic be classed
-with the Celtic), of which the present population is composed, can be
-recognized in the neolithic users of caves and builders of chambered
-tombs. A non-Aryan race either identical or cognate with the Basque
-is the earliest traceable in these areas in the neolithic age, and
-it probably arrived in Europe by the same route as the Celtic and
-Germanic, passing westwards from the plains of central Asia.
-
-There is no evidence of Spain having been peopled from northern Africa,
-the identity of the Berber and Kabyle with the Basque being due to
-their being descended from the same non-Aryan stock in possession of
-southern and western Europe, and northern Africa. They are to be looked
-upon as cousins rather than as connected by descent in a right line.
-
-The Basque race was probably in possession of Europe for a long series
-of ages, before hordes either identical or cognate with the Celts
-gradually crept westward over Germany into Gaul, Spain, and Britain,
-driving away, or absorbing, the inhabitants of the regions which they
-conquered.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VII.
-
-CAVES CONTAINING HUMAN REMAINS OF DOUBTFUL AGE.
-
-  The Caves of Paviland.--Engis.--Trou du Frontal.--Gendron.
-    --Neanderthal.--Gailenreuth.--Aurignac.--Bruniquel.--
-    Cro-Magnon.-- Lombrive.--Cavillon, near Mentone.--Grotta dei
-    Colombi in Island of Palmaria, inhabited by Cannibals.--General
-    Conclusions.
-
-
-There are many prehistoric caves in Britain and on the Continent which
-do not contain remains sufficiently characteristic to fix the date of
-their use, either for occupation or burial, unless the term neolithic
-be understood to cover the wide interval between the palæolithic stage
-of the pleistocene on the one hand, and the bronze age on the other.
-
-
-_The Paviland Cave._
-
-The Cave of Goat’s Hole[155] at Paviland, in Glamorganshire, explored
-by Dr. Buckland in 1823, offers an instance of an interment having been
-made in a pre-existent deposit of the pleistocene age. It consists of
-a chamber facing to the sea, in a cliff of limestone 100 feet high, at
-a level of from 30 to 40 feet above the high-water mark. Its floor was
-composed of red loam, containing the remains of the woolly-rhinoceros,
-hyæna, cave-bear, and mammoth. Close to a skull with tusks of the
-last animal a human skeleton (equalling in size the largest male
-skeleton in the Oxford Museum) was discovered; and in the soil, “which
-had apparently been disturbed by ancient diggings,” were fragments of
-charcoal, a small chipped flint, and the sea-shells of the neighbouring
-shore. Certain small ivory ornaments, found close to the skeleton, are
-considered by Dr. Buckland to have been carved out of the tusks of the
-mammoth near which they rested; and he justly remarks that, “as they
-must have been cut to their present shape at a time when the ivory was
-hard, and not crumbling to pieces, as it is at present at the slightest
-touch, we may from this circumstance assume for them a high antiquity.”
-
-May we not also infer, from the fact of the manufactured ivory and
-the tusks from which it was cut being in precisely the same state of
-decomposition, that the tusks were preserved from decay, during the
-pleistocene times, by precisely the same agency as those now found
-perfect in the polar regions--namely, the intense cold; that after
-the skull of the mammoth had been buried in the cave, the tusks, thus
-preserved, were used for the manufacture of ornaments; and that, at
-some time subsequent to the interment of the ornaments with the corpse,
-a climatal change has taken place, by which the temperature in England,
-France, and Germany has been raised, and the ivory became decomposed
-that up to that time had preserved its gelatine? On this point it is
-worthy of remark that fossil tusks have been discovered in Scotland
-sufficiently perfect to be used as ivory. The ornaments may, however,
-not have been made from the fossil tusks.
-
-The presence of the bones of sheep underneath the remains of mammoth,
-bear, and other animals, coupled with the state of the cave earth,
-which had been disturbed before Dr. Buckland’s examination of the cave,
-would prove that the interment is not of pleistocene date. No traces of
-sheep or goat have as yet been afforded by any pleistocene deposit in
-Britain, France, or Germany.
-
-Dr. Buckland’s conclusion, that the interment is relatively more
-modern than the accumulation with remains of the extinct mammalia,
-must be accepted as the true interpretation of the facts. The intimate
-association of the two sets of remains, of widely diverse ages, in this
-cave show that extreme care is necessary in cave exploration.
-
-
-_The Cave of Engis._
-
-Human remains have been obtained from some of the caves of Belgium
-under circumstances which are generally considered to indicate that
-they are of the same antiquity as the skeletons of the animals with
-which they are associated. The possibility, however, of the contents
-of caves of different ages being mixed by the action of water, or by
-the burrowing of animals, or by subsequent interments, renders such an
-association of little value, unless the evidence be very decided. The
-famous human skull discovered by Dr. Schmerling[156] in the cave of
-Engis, near Liége, in 1833, is a case in point. It was obtained from
-a mass of breccia, along with bones and teeth of mammoth, rhinoceros,
-horse, hyæna, and bear; and subsequently M. Dupont[157] found in
-the same spot a human ulna, other human bones, worked flints, and a
-small fragment of coarse earthenware. The discovery of this last is
-an argument in favour of the human remains being of a later date than
-the extinct mammalia, since pottery has not yet been proved to have
-been known to the palæolithic races who co-existed with them, while
-it is very abundant in neolithic burial-places and tombs. The fact of
-all the objects being cemented together by calcareous infiltration is
-no test of relative age, which cannot be ascertained without distinct
-stratification, such as that in the caves of Wookey and Kent’s Hole.
-
-It seems therefore to me, that the conditions of the discovery are too
-doubtful to admit of the conclusion of Sir Charles Lyell and other
-eminent writers, that the human remains are of palæolithic age.
-
-The skull is described by Professor Huxley[158] as being of average
-size, its contour agreeing equally well with some Australian and
-European skulls; it presents no marks of degradation, “and is in fact a
-fair average human skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher,
-or might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage.” Its
-measurements fall within the limits of the long-skulls described in the
-preceding chapter, and it certainly belongs to the same class.
-
-The following Table will show the variation in size and form of the
-skulls mentioned in this chapter:
-
-
-_Measurements of Skulls of doubtful antiquity._
-
-  +-------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------+
-  |                         |       |        |       |Circum- |Cephalic|Altitu-|
-  |                         |Length.|Breadth.|Height.|ference.| index. | dinal |
-  |                         |       |        |       |        |        | index.|
-  +-------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------+
-  |Engis (Huxley)           |  7·7  |  5·4   |   --  |  20·5  |   ·700 |   --  |
-  |Trou du Frontal          |       |        |       |        |        |       |
-  |  (Pruner-Bey)           |  6·9  |  5·6   |   --  |  21·55 |   ·811 |  ·704 |
-  |Gailenreuth (Dawkins)    |  6·82 |  5·5   |   --  |  21·55 |   ·813 |  ·813 |
-  |Neanderthal              |       |        |       |        |        |       |
-  |  (Schaaffhausen)        | 12·0  |  5·75  |   --  |  23·   |   ·720 |   --  |
-  |Cro-Magnon, No. 1 (Broca)|  7·95 |  5·86  |   --  |  22·36 |   ·730 |   --  |
-  |      ”     ”   2    ”   |  7·52 |  5·39  |   --  |  21·26 |   ·71  |   --  |
-  |      ”     ”   3    ”   |  7·94 |  5·94  |   --  |  22·24 |   ·74  |   --  |
-  +-------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------+
-
-
-_Trou du Frontal._
-
-The human skeletons in the Trou du Frontal, situated in a picturesque
-limestone cliff on the banks of the Lesse, near Furfooz, are considered
-by M. Dupont to be of the same age as the contents of the caves close
-by the Trou des Nutons and Trou Rosette, which have been inhabited by
-palæolithic savages. The following is the section (Fig. 69) which he
-gives of the deposits. Close to the river Lesse is the alluvium (No.
-1), below which is a clay (No. 2), with angular blocks passing upwards
-under the rock shelter, and filling the cave. Under this is a stratum
-of loam (No. 3), resting on gravel (No. 4). Sixteen human skeletons
-were discovered in the sepulchral cavity (S), at the mouth of which
-was a large slab of rock (D), by which it was originally blocked up.
-A singular urn, with a round bottom and with the handles perforated
-for suspension, was found at the entrance, together with flint flakes,
-ornaments in fluorine, and eocene shells perforated for suspension.
-Outside, at the points H H, was an accumulation of broken bones,
-belonging to the lemming, tailless hare (Lagomys), beaver, wild cat,
-boar, horse, stag, urus, chamois, goat, and other animals, birds and
-fishes. From the occurrence of fragments belonging to two reindeer,
-it is considered by M. Dupont to belong to the reindeer age. The old
-hearth was close by, at F (Fig. 69).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Section of the Trou du Frontal. (Dupont.)]
-
-From this section we may infer, that the rock-shelter was used by man
-at the points H H and F before the formation of the stratum No. 2,
-which is probably merely subaerial rain-wash, due to the disintegration
-of the adjacent rocks, and that the sepulchral cavity was a place of
-burial either before, or while No. 2 was accumulated. Can we further
-conclude that there is any necessary connection between the refuse-heap
-and the sepulchre in point of time? M. Dupont holds that the contents
-of all the caves in the cliff are palæolithic, and that the sepulchral
-cavity is therefore of that age.[159] It seems to me, however, that the
-evidence in favour of this view is not conclusive. The burial place may
-have belonged to one people, and the refuse-heaps in the neighbouring
-caves and _outside_ the slab in the rock-shelter of the Trou du Frontal
-to another. The form of the urn is remarkably like some of those which
-have been obtained from the neolithic pile-dwellings of Switzerland,
-and therefore may possibly imply that the interment is of that age.
-
-The human remains were mixed _pêle mêle_ with stones and yellow
-clay within the chamber. Two skulls, sufficiently perfect to allow
-of measurement, show that their possessors were broad-headed
-(brachy-cephalic), and of the same type as those of Sclaigneaux.
-They are considered by the late Dr. Pruner-Bey to belong to the
-“type Mongoloide,” and are believed by M. Dupont to prove that the
-palæolithic inhabitants of Belgium were a Mongoloid race. They seem,
-however, to be of the same general order as the broad-skulls from the
-neolithic caves and tombs of France, and from the round barrows of
-Great Britain, as well as those from the neolithic tombs of Borreby and
-Moën in Scandinavia. And they are looked upon by MM. de Quatrefages,
-Virchow, and Lagneaux,[160] as presenting the same type as that which
-is to be recognized in the present population of Belgium, in the
-neighbourhood, for example, of Antwerp.
-
-These affinities may be explained by the view advanced by Dr. Thurnam,
-that the broad-heads of the British, French, and Scandinavian tombs
-are cognate with the modern Fin; or by the higher generalisation of
-Prof. Huxley, that the Swiss “Dissentis” skull, the South German, the
-Sclavonian, and the Finnish, belong to one great race of fair-haired,
-broad-headed, Xanthochroi “who have extended across Europe from
-Britain to Sarmatia, and we know not how much further to the east and
-south.”[161]
-
-Besides these broad crania, M. Lagneaux[162] calls attention to a
-fragment, sufficiently perfect to indicate a skull of the long type
-(très dolicho-céphale), and that differed from them in many other
-particulars. In the Trou du Frontal, therefore, there is proof that
-a long and a short-headed race lived in Belgium side by side, just
-as a similar association in the cave of Orrouy establishes the same
-conclusion as to the neolithic dwellers in France. And since skulls
-of both these types have been discovered in the neolithic caves of
-Sclaigneaux and Chauvaux, the interment in the Trou du Frontal may
-probably be referred to that date.
-
-
-_The Cave of Gendron._
-
-The sepulchral cave of Gendron[163] on the Lesse, in which fourteen
-skeletons were discovered lying at full length, and in regular order,
-along with one flake and some fragments of pottery, is of uncertain
-age, since those articles were found at the entrance, and have no
-necessary connection with the interments. And if they were deposited
-at the same time, M. Dupont’s view that they stamp the neolithic age
-is rendered untenable by the fact that flakes and rude pottery were
-in use as late as the date of the Roman conquest of Britain, and are
-frequently met with in association with articles of bronze and of iron.
-And for the same reasons the neolithic age of the human bones in the
-Trou de Sureau and of the Trou de Pont-à-Lesse is open to considerable
-doubt. The contents, however, prove these caves to be post-pleistocene.
-
-
-_Cave of Gailenreuth._
-
-The same uncertainty overhangs the age of the interments in the cave
-of Gailenreuth, in Franconia, from which Dr. Buckland[164] obtained
-a human skull of the same broad type as that from Sclaigneaux, along
-with fragments of black coarse pottery, one of which is ornamented with
-a line of finger-impressions. The skull is remarkable for the great
-width of the parietal protuberances, and the flattening of the upper
-and posterior region of the parietal bone. Its measurements are given
-in the Table, p. 236, from which it will be seen that it belongs to the
-same class of skulls as those from the neolithic caves and tumuli of
-France.
-
-
-_Cave of Neanderthal._
-
-The extraordinary skull found in 1857 in the cave of Neanderthal,[165]
-by Dr. Fuhlrott, with some of the other bones of the skeleton, was
-not associated with any other animals from which its age could be
-inferred. “Under whatever aspect,” writes Professor Huxley, “we view
-this cranium, whether we regard its vertical depression, the enormous
-thickness of its supraciliary ridges, its sloping occiput, or its
-long and straight squamosal suture, we meet with ape-like characters,
-stamping it as the most pithecoid of human crania yet discovered. But
-Prof. Schaaffhausen states that the cranium, in its present condition,
-holds 1033·24 cubic centimetres of water, or about 63 cubic inches, and
-as the entire skull could hardly have held less than an additional 12
-cubic inches, its capacity may be estimated at about 75 cubic inches,
-which is the average capacity given by Morton for Polynesian and
-Hottentot skulls.
-
-So large a mass of brain as this would alone suggest that the pithecoid
-tendencies, indicated by this skull, did not extend deep into the
-organization, and this conclusion is borne out by the dimensions of
-the other bones of the skeleton, given by Prof. Schaaffhausen, which
-show that the absolute height and relative proportions of the limbs
-were quite those of a European of middle stature. The bones are indeed
-stouter, but this, and the great development of the muscular ridges
-noted by Dr. Schaaffhausen, are characters to be expected in savages.
-The Patagonians, exposed without shelter or protection to a climate
-possibly not very dissimilar from that of Europe at the time during
-which the Neanderthal man lived, are remarkable for the stoutness of
-their limb-bones.
-
-In no sense, then, can the Neanderthal bones be regarded as the remains
-of a human being intermediate between men and apes; at most they
-demonstrate the existence of a man whose skull may be said to revert
-somewhat towards the pithecoid type--just as a carrier, or a poulter,
-or a tumbler may sometimes put on the plumage of its primitive stock,
-the _Columba livia_.”
-
-This skull, like the preceding, belongs to the dolicho-cephalic
-division, reaching the enormous length of twelve inches, with a
-parietal breadth of 5·75.
-
-A long-skull found near Ledbury Hill in Derbyshire, and belonging
-to the river-bed type of Prof. Huxley, comes so close to this one
-of Neanderthal, that were it flattened a little and elongated, and
-possessed of larger supraciliary ridges, it would be converted into the
-nearest likeness which has yet been discovered.[166]
-
-
-_The Caves of France.--Aurignac._
-
-In the cave of Neanderthal, the question of the antiquity of the human
-remains is not complicated by the juxtaposition of extinct pleistocene
-animals or of palæolithic implements. Those caves, however, in France
-which claim especial attention, Aurignac, Bruniquel, and Cro-Magnon,
-are equally famous for their interments, and the palæolithic implements
-which they have furnished, along with the remains of the mammoth,
-woolly rhinoceros, and other extinct animals.
-
-They have both been inhabited by palæolithic man, and been used some
-time for burial. Does the period of habitation coincide with that
-of the burial? This important question has been answered almost
-universally in the affirmative, and the interments are viewed as
-evidence of a belief in the supra-natural among the most ancient
-inhabitants of Europe, as well as offering examples of their physique.
-
-The famous cave of Aurignac, near the town of that name, in the
-department of the Haute Garonne, was explored and described by the late
-M. Ed. Lartet, and his conclusions were adopted by Sir Charles Lyell
-in the first three editions of the “Antiquity of Man.” In the fourth
-edition,[167] however, the latter author, after a reconsideration of
-all the circumstances, qualifies his acceptance of the palæolithic age
-of the interments, and shares the doubts which have been expressed by
-Sir John Lubbock and Mr. John Evans. The evidence is as follows:--
-
-M. Lartet’s account falls naturally into two parts: first, the
-story which he was told by the original discoverer of the cave;
-and, secondly, that in which the results of his own discoveries are
-described. We will begin with the first. In the year 1852, a labourer,
-named Bonnemaison, employed in mending the roads, put his hand into a
-rabbit-hole (Fig. 70, _f_), and drew out a human bone, and having his
-curiosity excited, he dug down until, as his story goes, he came to a
-great slab of rock. Having removed this, he discovered on the other
-side a cavity seven or eight feet in height, ten in width, and seven
-in depth, almost full of human bones, which Dr. Amiel, the Mayor of
-Aurignac, who was a surgeon, believed to represent at least seventeen
-individuals. All these human remains were collected, and finally
-committed to the parish cemetery, where they rest to the present day,
-undisturbed by sacrilegious hands. Fortunately, however, Bonnemaison in
-digging his way into the grotto, had met with the remains of extinct
-animals, and works of art; and these were preserved until, in 1860,
-M. Lartet accidentally heard of the discovery, and investigated the
-circumstances on the spot. He found that Bonnemaison, and the sexton
-who had buried the human remains, had taken so little note of the place
-where they were interred, that it could not be identified, and on
-examining the cave he found that the interior had been ransacked, and
-the original stratification to a great extent disturbed. M. Lartet’s
-exploration showed that a stratum containing the remains of the
-cave-bear, lion, rhinoceros, hyæna, mammoth, bison, horse, and other
-animals, and palæolithic implements, like those of Périgord, extended
-from the plateau (_d_) outside into (_b_) the cave. On the outside he
-met with ashes, and burnt and split bones, which proved that it had
-been used as a feasting-place by the palæolithic hunters; within he
-detected no traces of charcoal, and no traces of the hyænas, which
-were abundant outside. Inside he met with a few human bones in the
-earth which Bonnemaison had disturbed, which were in the same mineral
-condition as those of the extinct animals, and he, therefore, inferred
-that they were of the same age. Such is the summary of the facts which
-M. Lartet discovered. He has, of his own personal knowledge, only
-proved that Aurignac was occupied by a tribe of hunters during the
-palæolithic age, and that it had been used as a burial-place.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Diagram of the Cave of Aurignac.]
-
-Is he further justified in concluding that the period of palæolithic
-occupation coincides with that in which the burial took place?
-Bonnemaison’s recollections may be estimated at their proper value
-by the significant fact, that, in the short space of eight years
-intervening between the discovery and the exploration, he had forgotten
-where the skeletons had been buried. And even if his account be true
-in the minutest detail, it does not afford a shadow of evidence in
-favour of the cave having been a place of sepulchre in palæolithic
-times, but merely that it had been so used at some time or another. If
-we turn to the diagram constructed by M. Lartet to illustrate his views
-(“Ann. des Sc. Nat. Zool.,” 4^e sér., t. xv., pl. 10), and made for the
-most part from Bonnemaison’s recollections; or to the amended diagram
-(Fig. 70) given by Sir Charles Lyell (“Antiquity of Man,” 1st ed., Fig.
-25), we shall see that the skeletons are depicted _above_ the stratum
-(_b_) containing the palæolithic implements and pleistocene mammalia;
-and therefore, according to the laws of geological evidence, they must
-have been buried after the subjacent deposit was accumulated. The
-previous disturbance of the cave-earth does away with the conclusion,
-that the few human bones found by M. Lartet are of the same age as the
-extinct mammalia in the deposit. The absence of charcoal inside was
-quite as likely to be due to the fact that a fire kindled inside would
-fill the grotto with smoke, while outside the palæolithic savage could
-feast in comfort, as to the view that the ashes are those of funereal
-feasts in honour of the dead within, held after the slab had been
-placed at the entrance. The absence of the remains of hyænas from the
-interior is also negative evidence, disproved by subsequent examination.
-
-The researches of the Rev. S. W. King, in 1865, complete the case
-against the current view of the palæolithic character of the
-interments, since they show that M. Lartet did not fully explore the
-cave, and that he consequently wrote without being in possession of all
-the facts. The entrance was blocked up, according to Bonnemaison, by a
-slab of stone, which, if the measurements of the entrance be correct,
-must have been at least nine feet long and seven feet high, placed,
-according to M. Lartet, to keep the hyænas from the corpses of the
-dead. It need hardly be remarked, that the access of these bone-eating
-animals to the cave would be altogether incompatible with the
-preservation of the human skeletons, had they been buried at the same
-time. The enormous slab was never seen by M. Lartet, and it did not
-keep out the hyænas. In the collection made by the Rev. S. W. King from
-the interior there are two hyænas’ teeth, and nearly all the antlers
-and bones bear the traces of the gnawing of these animals. The cave,
-moreover, has _two_ entrances instead of one, as M. Lartet supposed
-when his paper in the “Annales” was published. The bones of the sheep,
-or goat, also obtained from the inside, and preserved in the Christy
-Museum, afford strong evidence that the interment is not palæolithic;
-and a fragment of pottery, agreeing exactly with that used in the
-neolithic age, probably indicates its relative antiquity. This
-conclusion has also been arrived at by the two most recent explorers,
-MM. Cartaillac and Gautier.
-
-The skeletons, therefore, in the Aurignac cave cannot be taken to be of
-the same age as the stratum on which they rested; but, so far as there
-is any evidence, may probably be referred to the neolithic age, in
-which the custom of burial in caves prevailed throughout Europe.
-
-
-_Cavern of Bruniquel._
-
-The famous cavern of Bruniquel, explored by the Vicomte de Lastic in
-1863-4,[168] and described by Professor Owen, is also one of the class
-which has furnished human bones, along with the remains of the extinct
-mammalia. It penetrates a cliff in the Jurassic limestone, opposite
-the little village of Bruniquel (Tarn and Garonne), about forty feet
-above the level of the river Aveyron. The bottom was covered with a
-sheet of stalagmite, resting on earth and blocks of stone, for the most
-part finely cemented into a breccia, that is black with the particles
-of carbon constituting the “limon noir” of the workmen, four or five
-feet thick, beneath which is the “limon rouge,” or red earth without
-charcoal, from three to four feet thick. Every part of the breccia
-is charged with the broken remains of the wolf, rhinoceros, horse,
-reindeer, stag, Irish elk and bison, and palæolithic implements of
-flint and bone; some of the latter having well-executed designs of the
-heads of horses and reindeer, which prove that the cave had been used
-as a place of habitation by the hunters of those animals. Imbedded in
-the breccia at a depth of from three to five feet human bones were
-met with, and in two recesses several individuals, including a child,
-were found, one of which Professor Owen and the Vicomte de Lastic
-disinterred with sufficient care to prove that the body had been buried
-in the crouching posture. The only calvarium sufficiently perfect to
-allow of a comparison belonged to the dolicho-cephalic type, and was
-very fairly developed.
-
-Professor Owen infers, from the intimate association of the human
-bones with the palæolithic implements and mammalia, that the cave
-of Bruniquel was used as a burial-place by the same people who had
-used it for habitation, and advances, in support of this, that the
-bones of man and of the animals are exactly in the same state of
-preservation, having lost the same amount of gelatine. The evidence,
-however, does not seem to be altogether conclusive. If the interment
-had been made after the palæolithic inhabitants had forsaken the cave,
-the association of the human bones with the refuse bones in their
-old refuse-heap must inevitably have taken place. And if, further,
-water charged with carbonate of lime percolated the mass, it would be
-converted into a hard breccia, and ultimately covered with a sheet of
-stalagmite. This calcification may have taken place in modern times.
-A modern bone, as Mr. Evans has observed in the case of Aurignac, may
-lose its gelatine in a comparatively short time, and become chemically
-identical with those which have been imbedded in the same matrix for
-long ages. The mineral condition, therefore, is an uncertain test of
-relative antiquity.
-
-For these reasons it seems to be doubtful whether the interment is of
-the same age as the occupation. The skull-shape, and the burial in the
-crouching posture, point rather in the direction of the long-headed
-race, that buried their dead in caves, in the neolithic age, in France,
-Spain, Belgium, and Great Britain.
-
-
-_The Cave of Cro-Magnon._
-
-The human skeletons in the cave of Cro-Magnon, at Les Eyzies, a little
-village on the banks of the Vezère in Périgord, fall into the same
-doubtful category as those of Aurignac. The cave (Fig. 71, _f_),
-situated at the base of a low cliff, was completely concealed by a
-talus of loose débris, four metres thick, which had fallen from above.
-(Fig. 71, _b_.)
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Section across the Valley of the Vezère, and
-through the rock of Cro-Magnon.
-
-Level of the Vezère at low water, 58·25 metres above the sea.
-
-Height of cave above the Vezère, 15 metres; above the sea-level, 73·25
-metres.
-
-Distance from the cave to the river, 177 metres.
-
-  _a_ Railroad.
-  _b_ Talus.
-  _c_ Great block of stone.
-  _d_ Ledge of rock.
-   P  Limestone.
-   M  Detritus of the slopes and alluvium of the Valley.
-  _e_ Rock of Cro-Magnon.
-  _f_ Cave.
-  _g_ Château and Village of Les Eyzies, in the Valley of the Beaune.
-  _h_ Gatekeeper’s house.
-  _i_ Railway bridge over the Vezère.
-  _j_ Caves of Le Cingle.
-]
-
-It forms one of a group of caves at various heights above the Vezère,
-which are very well represented in the preceding figure, which I am
-kindly allowed to borrow from the “Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ” (Fig. 39).
-
-At the time of its discovery in 1868, in the course of making an
-embankment for the railway close by, and of obtaining material for
-mending the roads, it was completely blocked up. On the removal of this
-(_b_), by the contractors MM. Bertoú-Meyroú and Delmarés, the entrance
-was exposed, and human remains and worked flints revealed, which were
-carefully exhumed in the presence of MM. Laganne, Galy, and Simon.
-At this stage of the exploration M. Louis Lartet was deputed, by the
-Minister of Public Instruction, to superintend the work, and from his
-report the following account is taken (Lartet and Christy, “Rel. Aq.,”
-p. 66) by the courtesy of the editors.
-
-“The cave of Cro-Magnon is formed by a projecting ledge of cretaceous
-limestone (rich with fossil corals and polyzoans), having a thickness
-of 8 metres and a length of 17 metres (Fig. 72, P). The bed which it
-overlies, and the destruction of which has given rise to the cave,
-abounds with _Rhynchonella vespertilio_, which is a type fossil,
-fixing the geological horizon. The débris of this marly and micaceous
-limestone had accumulated on the original floor of the cavern to a
-great thickness, at least for 0·70 metres (see Fig. 72, A), when the
-hunters of the reindeer stopped here for the first time, leaving as a
-trace of their short stay a blackish layer (Fig. 72, B), from 0·05 to
-0·15 metre thick, containing worked flints, bits of charcoal, broken
-or calcined bones, and in its upper portion the elephant tusk before
-alluded to (Fig. 72, _a_).
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Detailed Section of the Cave of Cro-Magnon,
-near Les Eyzies. Scale = 1/100 (1 centimetre to 1 metre).
-
-   A  Débris of soft limestone.
-   B  First layer of ashes, &c.
-   C  Calcareous débris.
-   D  Second layer of ashes, &c.
-   E  Calcareous débris, reddened by fire under the next layer of
-          ashes, &c.
-   F  Third layer of ashes, &c.
-   G  Red earth, with bones, &c.
-   H  Thickest layer of ashes, bones, &c.
-   I  Yellowish earth, with bones, flints, &c.
-   J  Thin bed of hearth-stuff.
-   K  Calcareous débris.
-   L  Rubbish of the Talus.
-   N  Crack in the projecting ledge of rock.
-   P  Projecting shelf of hard limestone.
-   Y  Place of the pillar made to support the roof.
-  _a_ Tusk of an elephant.
-  _b_ Bones of an old man.
-  _c_ Block of gneiss.
-  _d_ Human bones.
-  _e_ Slabs of stone fallen from the roof at different times.
-]
-
-“This first hearth is covered by a layer (C), 0·25 metre thick, of
-calcareous débris, detached bit by bit from the roof, during the
-temporary disuse of the shelter. Then follows another thin layer of
-hearth-stuff (D), 0·10 metre thick, also containing pieces of charcoal,
-bones, and worked flints. This bed is in its turn overlain by a layer
-of fallen limestone rubbish (E), 0·50 metre thick. Lastly, there is
-over these a series of more important layers, all of them containing,
-in different proportions, charcoal, bones (broken, burnt, and worked),
-worked flints (of different types, but chiefly scrapers), flint cores,
-and pebbles of quartz, granites, &c. from the bed of the Vezère, and
-bearing numerous marks of hammering. Altogether these layers seem to
-have reference to a period during which the cave was inhabited, if
-not continuously, at least at intervals so short as not to admit of
-intercalations of débris falling from the roof between the different
-hearth-layers which correspond with the successive phases of this (the
-third) period of habitation. The first (lowest) of these layers (F) is
-full of charcoal, and has a thickness of 0·20 metre; it does not touch
-the back of the cave, but extends a little further than the earlier
-layers. At its line of contact with the calcareous débris beneath, the
-latter is strongly reddened with the action of fire.
-
-“On the last-mentioned hearth-layer is a bed of unctuous reddish earth
-(G), 0·30 metre thick, containing similar objects, though in less
-quantities. Last in succession is a carbonaceous bed (H), the widest
-and thickest of all, having an average thickness of 0·30 metre; at the
-edges it is only 0·10 metre thick; but in the centre, where it cuts
-into the subjacent deposits, which were excavated by the inhabitants
-in making the principal hearth, it attains a depth of 1·60 metre. This
-bed, being by far the richest in pieces of charcoal, in bones, pebbles
-of quartz, worked flints, flint cores, and bone implements, such as
-points or dart-heads, arrowheads, &c., may be regarded as indicative of
-a far more prolonged habitation than the previous.
-
-“Above this thick hearth-layer is a bed of yellowish earth (I), rather
-argillaceous, also containing bones, flints, and implements of bone,
-as well as amulets or pendants. This appears to be limited upwards by
-a carbonaceous bed (J), very thin, and of little extent, 0·05 metre
-thick, which M. Laganne observed before my arrival, but of which only
-slight traces remained afterwards.
-
-“It was on the upper part of this yellow band (I), and at the back of
-the cave, that the human skeletons and the accessories of the sepulture
-were met with; and all of them were found in the calcareous débris
-(K), except in a small space in the furthest hollow at the back of the
-cave. This last deposit also contains some worked flints, mixed up with
-broken bones, and with some uninjured bones referable to small rodents
-and to a peculiar kind of fox.
-
-“Lastly, above these different layers, and all over the shelter itself,
-lay the rubbish of the talus (four to six metres thick), sufficient
-in itself, according to what we have said above about its mode of
-formation, to carry back the date of the sepulture to a very distant
-period in the prehistoric age.
-
-“As for the human remains, and the position they occupied in bed I, the
-following are the results of my careful inquiries in the matter. At
-the back of the cave was found an old man’s skull (_b_), which alone
-was on a level with the surface, in the cavity not filled up in the
-back of the cave, and was therefore exposed to the calcareous drip
-from the roof, as is shown by its having a stalagmitic coating on some
-parts. The other human bones, referable to four other skeletons, were
-found around the first, within a radius of about 1·50 metre. Among
-these bones were found, on the left of the old man, the skeleton of a
-woman, whose skull presents in front a deep wound, made by a cutting
-instrument, but which did not kill her at once, as the bone has been
-partly repaired within; indeed our physicians think that she survived
-several weeks. By the side of the woman’s skeleton was that of an
-infant which had not arrived at its full time of fœtal development. The
-other skeletons (Fig. 70, _d_) seem to have been those of men.
-
-“Amidst the human remains lay a multitude of marine shells (about 300),
-each pierced with a hole, and nearly all belonging to the species
-_Littorina littorea_ so common on our Atlantic coasts. Some other
-species, such as _Purpura lapillus_, _Turritella communis_, &c., occur,
-but in small numbers. These are also perforated, and, like the others,
-have been used for necklaces, bracelets, or other ornamental attire.
-Not far from the skeletons, I found a pendant or amulet of ivory, oval,
-flat, and pierced with two holes. M. Laganne had already discovered a
-smaller specimen; and M. Ch. Grenier, schoolmaster at Les Eyzies, has
-kindly given me another, quite similar, which he had received from
-one of his pupils. There were also found near the skeletons several
-perforated teeth, a large block of gneiss, split and presenting a large
-smoothed surface; also worked antlers of reindeer, and chipped flints,
-of the same types as those found in the hearth-layers underneath.
-
-“... The presence, at all levels, of the same kind of flint scrapers,
-as finely chipped as those of the Gorge d’Enfer, and of the same
-animals as in that classic station, evidently shows them to be
-relics of the successive habitation of the Cro-Magnon shelter by the
-same race of nomadic hunters, who at first could use it merely as a
-rendezvous, where they came to share the spoils of the chase taken
-in the neighbourhood; but coming again, they made a more permanent
-occupation, until their accumulated refuse and the débris gradually
-raised the floor of the cave, leaving the inconvenient height of
-only 1·20 metre between it and the roof; and then they abandoned it
-by degrees, returning once more at last to conceal their dead there.
-No longer accessible, except perhaps to the foxes above noticed,
-this shelter, and its strange sepulture, were slowly and completely
-hidden from sight by atmospheric degradation bringing down the earthy
-covering, which, by its thickness, alone proves the great antiquity of
-the burial in the cave.”
-
-These conclusions as to the age of the burial do not seem to me to be
-supported by the facts of the case. That the cave was inhabited by a
-tribe of palæolithic hunters there can be no doubt, but no evidence
-has been brought forward that it was used by them for the burial of
-their dead. They “abandoned it by degrees,” but what proof is there
-that _they_ “returned once more to conceal their dead”? The interments
-are at a higher horizon than the strata of occupation, and therefore
-later, and although palæolithic implements have been found “near” them,
-the value of the latter, in indicating the date, is destroyed by their
-occurrence throughout the old floors below. If we suppose that long
-after the cave had been inhabited by the hunters of the reindeer, it
-was chosen by a family as a burial-place, all the conditions of the
-discovery will be satisfied. The pre-existent strata would be disturbed
-in the process of burial, and the burrowing of foxes, and possibly of
-rabbits, might bring the palæolithic implements into close association
-with the human bones. Taking the whole evidence into account, I should
-feel inclined to assign the interment to the neolithic age, in which
-cave-burial was so common; but whatever view be held, the facts do not
-warrant the human skeletons being taken as proving the physique of the
-palæolithic hunters of the Dordogne, or as a basis for an inquiry into
-the ethnology of the palæolithic races.
-
-The largest cranium (see Table, p. 236), belonging to an old man, had
-the frontal region well developed, is orthognathic, with upturned
-nasals, and dolicho-cephalic. The occipital protuberance, or probole,
-is small. The bones of the extremity imply a stature of not less than
-five foot eleven inches for the man; the femur is carinate, and the
-tibiæ platycnemic (see Fig. 48).
-
-
-_The Cave of Lombrive._
-
-The human bones, obtained by MM. Garrigou, Filhol, and Rames, from the
-cave of Lombrive[169] in the Department of Ariège, are, equally with
-those cited above, of doubtful antiquity. They were discovered on the
-superficial sandy loam, passing in places into a calcareous breccia,
-which rests at various levels in the chambers, passages, and fissures,
-along with bones of the brown-bear, urus, small ox, reindeer, stag,
-horse, and dog. From the occurrence of the reindeer the deposit is
-assigned to the palæolithic age. But since this animal has been proved
-to have been eaten in Scotland by the neolithic men of Caithness, and
-to have inhabited Britain in the prehistoric age, it is by no means
-improbable that it may also have lived in the region of the Pyrenees in
-post-pleistocene times. The presence of the dog and the small domestic
-ox (_Bos longifrons?_) fixes the date of the accumulation as not being
-earlier than prehistoric; for both those animals were introduced into
-Europe by neolithic peoples.
-
-The two human skulls, described by Professor Vogt, from this deposit
-confirm this conclusion, since they are of the broad type, and differ
-in no important character (Thurnam) from those of the neolithic
-brachy-cephali of France and Belgium.
-
-
-_The Cave of Cavillon, near Mentone._
-
-The cave of Cavillon, explored by M. Rivière, in 1872, in the
-neighbourhood of Mentone, a few hundred yards on the Italian side of
-the frontier of France, is another case of the occurrence of human
-remains in association with those of the extinct animals. The floor
-is composed of dark earth, full of charcoal and fragments of bones,
-mingled with blocks of stone which have dropped from the roof. Below
-it, at a depth of six and a half metres, a skeleton was met with, as
-well as flint-flakes, rude instruments of bone, and a number of shells
-perforated for suspension. The skull was covered with a head-dress
-of more than 200 perforated sea-shells. It rested in an attitude
-of repose, with the legs and arms bent,[170] as may be seen in the
-admirable photo-lithograph given by M. Rivière in the volume of the
-“International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology,” published at
-Brussels, pl. 6. The teeth and bones of hyæna, lion, woolly rhinoceros,
-mammoth, and other pleistocene animals occurred both in the soil above
-and below, and for that reason both the discoverer and Sir Charles
-Lyell believe that the interment dates back to the time when those
-animals were living. If, however, neolithic savages, or those of a
-later age, had buried the skeleton in the earth containing the extinct
-animals, all the circumstances which have been noticed, either by Mr.
-Pengelly or Mr. Moggridge,[171] may be satisfactorily explained. There
-are no stalagmites to divide one stratum from another, and were an
-interment made in the cave at the present time, the discoverer two or
-three centuries hence might assert, with equal justice, that it took
-place in the pleistocene age, because of the association with the
-animals characteristic of that remote period.
-
-The superficial portions of the cave-earth had certainly been
-disturbed, and there is no evidence that the disturbance did not extend
-down to the horizon where the skeleton rested. Nevertheless, Mr.
-Pengelly concludes that the interment is of palæolithic age from its
-analogy with that of Cro-Magnon and Paviland, which we have seen to be
-of equally doubtful antiquity. It seems to me that this conclusion,
-which is almost universally accepted, is not warranted by the facts,
-and that it cannot be used in support of any speculation as to the
-condition of man in the pleistocene age.
-
-The skull is described by M. Rivière as long, the thigh-bones are
-strongly carinate, and the tibiæ are platycnemic as in the case of
-those from Cro-Magnon, Gibraltar, Sclaigneaux, and North Wales.
-
-
-_Grotta dei Colombi in Island of Palmaria, inhabited by Cannibals._
-
-We are indebted to Professor Capellini for an account of the
-exploration of the Grotta dei Colombi, a cave in a vertical cliff
-in the island of Palmaria,[172] overlooking to the south the Gulf of
-Spezzia. In the red loam, composing the floor, were numerous flakes and
-scrapers, a rounded “striker” of Saussurite, quartz, pebbles, fragments
-of pottery, a bone needle, a whistle made of the first phalange of a
-goat’s foot, shells perforated for suspension, _Natica mille-punctata_,
-_Pectunculus glycimeris_, and _Patella cærulea_, together with bones of
-goat, hog, ox, wolf, wild cat, and broken and cut human bones belonging
-to children and young adults.
-
-Among the remains Professor Capellini draws attention in particular to
-the thigh-bones, scorched by fire, one of which bears incisions on its
-posterior face made by a flint implement in cutting away the flesh (Pl.
-73, _a_), and is also marked by scraping. He considers that they belong
-to an ape, closely allied to the _Macacus innuus_ of Gibraltar and
-North Africa, and concludes, therefore, that the animal was living in
-Palmaria at the time that the cave was inhabited. This identification
-is forbidden by the spongy texture, the rounded contour, and the
-absence of epiphyses that imply that the bone was very young, and that
-in the adult it would be far larger than any thigh-bone of the apes. On
-comparing his figures with eight femora belonging to young children,
-from the cairn at Cefn, and the caves at Perthi-Chwareu, I find that
-they agree in every particular with two, the flattening of the inferior
-extremity, considered by Prof. Calori to be a non-human character,
-being equally met with in all, and being relatively greater in the
-younger than the older. They offer, therefore, unmistakeable proof that
-the inhabitants of the cave were cannibals (Fig. 73). I am informed by
-my friend, Prof. Busk, that the bone figured belonged to a child about
-eight years old. The outline _b_ in the figure represents the contour
-of one of the femora from the cavern at Cefn, described in the fifth
-chapter.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Thigh-bone of child from Grotta dei Colombi
-(Capellini). _a_, Cuts; _b_, Outline of corresponding thigh-bone from
-cavern at Cefn.]
-
-In this cave, as in those quoted above, there are no polished stone
-implements, or works of art, that establish that these feasts
-were carried on in the cave by neolithic cannibals, for the rude
-flint-flakes and bone articles, taken by Professor Capellini to fix
-its date, are common both to the palæolithic and the bronze ages.
-Nevertheless, since the inhabitants have left behind no trace of
-any metal, and since their food was wholly supplied by the existing
-animals, they were probably in the neolithic stage of culture, if this
-be taken to cover the wide interval extending from the pleistocene
-to the age of bronze. They are proved, by the rudeness of their
-implements, to have been savages of a very low order.
-
-We may gather from various allusions, and stories scattered through the
-classical writers, such for example as that of the Cyclops, that the
-caves on the shores of the Mediterranean were inhabited by cannibals
-in ancient times. In the island of Palmaria we meet with unmistakeable
-proof that it was no mere idle tale or poetical dream. But we have no
-proof that cannibalism was universally practised at any stage in the
-history of man. All the caves of Europe, explored up to the present
-time, merely afford some three or four examples in the neolithic
-and bronze ages. In the pleistocene there is no instance which is
-devoid of doubt. This atrocious practice is therefore to be viewed as
-abnormal, and it probably became ingrafted into the religious ideas of
-the nations of antiquity from the horror by which it was surrounded,
-ultimately surviving in the form of human sacrifices to the offended
-gods.
-
-
-_General Conclusions as to Prehistoric Caves._
-
-We have seen in the fifth and sixth chapters that the prehistoric caves
-which are so unimportant in the ages of bronze and iron, were used
-in the neolithic age throughout western Europe both for habitation
-and burial, and that they therefore offer us most valuable materials
-for working out the ethnology of Europe at that remote time. The two
-races of men, the remains of which they contain, are represented by
-the modern Basque and Berber on the one hand, and on the other by the
-Celt, and in Russia and Germany by the cognate Finn, Sclave, and Wend.
-And since all the human remains described in the present chapter, those
-of Cro-Magnon and possibly of the Grotta dei Colombi being exempted,
-belong to one of other of these types, they may be referred to the
-neolithic age with a high degree of probability. In the present stage
-of the inquiry, it is much safer to put them into a distinct class,
-apart from those to which we can assign a relative age with tolerable
-certainty.
-
-In the long ages which elapsed between the close of the pleistocene
-period and the dawn of history other races than these may have occupied
-Europe, and have passed away without leaving any clue as to their
-identity. But in the present state of our knowledge we are justified
-only in concluding, that the oldest population in prehistoric times
-was non-Aryan, the traces of which are left behind not merely in the
-caves and tombs, but in language,[173] and in the small dark-haired
-inhabitants of western and southern Europe.
-
-The prehistoric peoples lived under physical conditions very different
-from those of central and western Europe at the present time; the
-surface of the country being covered with rock, forest, and morass,
-which afforded shelter to the elk, bison, urus, stag, megaceros, and
-wild boar, as well as to innumerable wolves. They arrived from the
-east with cereals and domestic animals, some of which, such as the
-_Bos longifrons_ and _Sus palustris_, reverted to their original wild
-state. From the very exigencies of their position they lived partly by
-hunting, and they gradually pushed their way westward, carrying with
-them the rudiments of that civilization which we ourselves possess.
-
-It is an open question whether they came into contact with the
-palæolithic races which preceded them.
-
-The climate which they enjoyed was sufficiently severe to allow the
-reindeer to inhabit the district on which now stands the city of
-London, and its severity may also be inferred from the thickness of
-the bark of the Scotch firs, observed by Mr. Godwin-Austen in the
-submarine forests of the south of England, and by Mr. James Geikie
-in those of Scotland. The area of Great Britain was greater then,
-than now, since a plain extended seawards from the coast-line, nearly
-everywhere, supporting a dense forest of Scotch fir, oak, birch, and
-alder, the relics of which are to be seen in the beds of peat, and the
-stumps of the trees, near low-water mark on most of our shores. And
-it may be inferred that the forest extended a considerable distance
-from the present sea margin, from the large size of the trunks of the
-trees.[174]
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER VIII.
-
-THE PLEISTOCENE CAVES OF GERMANY AND GREAT BRITAIN.
-
-  Relation of Pleistocene to Prehistoric Period.--Magnitude of the
-    Interval.--Animals.--Physical changes.--Excavation and
-    filling up of Valleys: Fisherton; Freshford.--Comparison of
-    Deposits in Valleys with those of Caves.--Differences of Mineral
-    Condition.--The Pleistocene Caves of Germany: Gailenreuth;
-    Kühloch.--Of Great Britain.--The Caves of Yorkshire:
-    Kirkdale.--Of Derbyshire: The Dream Cave.--Of North Wales,
-    near St. Asaph.--Of South Wales, in counties of Glamorgan,
-    Caermarthen, Pembroke.--Of Monmouth.--Of Gloucestershire.--
-    Of Somersetshire: Uphill, Banwell, Bleadon, Sandford Hill, Wookey
-    Hole.--The District of Mendip higher in Pleistocene age than
-    now.--The condition of bones gnawed by Hyænas.--The Caves of
-    Devonshire: Oreston; Brixham; Kent’s Hole.--The probable age of
-    the Machairodus of Kent’s Hole.--Those of Ireland, Shandon.
-
-
-_Relation of Pleistocene to Prehistoric Period._
-
-We have seen, in the fifth and sixth chapters, that the caves offer
-valuable information as to the prehistoric ethnology of Europe, and
-that they prove the ancient neolithic population to stand directly
-related to the Basque and Celtic elements in the present inhabitants
-of Britain, France, and Spain. We shall discover in the course of
-this and the following chapters that no such continuity can be made
-out between the palæolithic man of the pleistocene age and any of the
-races now living in our quarter of the world; and we shall see that
-he is separated from his neolithic successor by an interval of time,
-the length of which cannot be measured in terms of years. Before the
-pleistocene group of caves be examined, it will be necessary to define
-the relation that exists between the prehistoric and the pleistocene
-periods.
-
-
-_The Animals--Magnitude of Interval._
-
-The prehistoric mammalia consist, as we have seen (p. 136), with the
-solitary exception of the Irish elk, of the wild animals at present
-living in Europe, together with the domestic species and varieties
-introduced by man, probably from central Asia. In the rest of this
-work we shall have to deal, not merely with the wild animals at
-present inhabiting Europe, but also with those which have either
-become extinct, or have migrated to Asia, America, or Africa. Besides
-this addition to the European fauna in the pleistocene age, the total
-absence of the domestic animals is a most important feature. The dog,
-goat, sheep, Celtic short-horn, and domestic swine are conspicuous
-by their absence: the reputed association of their remains with
-those of the pleistocene mammals being due, in all the cases which I
-have examined in France and Britain, to a confusion between distinct
-strata in the same cave or river-deposit, which are respectively of
-pleistocene and prehistoric or historic ages. Thus in the excavations
-in the gravel underneath London, the Celtic short-horn and goat of the
-superficial strata are very generally mixed with the reindeer and
-mammoth of the pleistocene gravels below, by the collectors, and the
-names of the domestic animals have crept into the pleistocene lists.
-None of the domestic animals have been recorded from any carefully
-explored strata of that age in any part of Europe.
-
-The following late pleistocene species were unknown in Britain in the
-prehistoric age:--
-
-    Glutton.
-    Spotted hyæna.
-    Panther.
-    Lion.
-    Lynx.
-    _Felis Caffer._
-    Musk-sheep.
-    Bison.
-    Hippopotamus.
-    Lemming.
-    Pouched marmot.
-    Tailless hare.
-    _Lepus diluvianus._
-    _Arvicola Gulielmi._
-    Cave-bear.
-    _Rhinoceros hemitœchus._
-    _R. tichorhinus._
-    _Elephas antiquus._
-    Mammoth.
-
-The glutton, lynx, bison, and lemming, still live in Europe, the
-spotted hyæna, _Felis Caffer_, and hippopotamus are peculiar to Africa,
-the lion to Africa and Asia, and the last seven species are extinct.
-The _Machairodus cultridens_ and _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ probably
-disappeared in an early stage of the pleistocene. It may reasonably be
-inferred, from the migration and extinction of so many species between
-the close of the pleistocene and beginning of the historic period, that
-the interval was of considerable length; for it would be impossible for
-such changes to have taken place in a short time.
-
-The same sharp line of demarcation exists between the two faunas on
-the continent. The panther, _Felis Caffer_, lynx, spotted hyæna,
-musk-sheep, hippopotamus, and the extinct group disappeared. The
-African elephant forsook Spain and Sicily, the striped hyæna the
-south of France, before the prehistoric period; while the _Elephas
-meridionalis_ and pigmy hippopotamus of Sicily, and the pigmy elephant
-and gigantic dormouse of Malta, became extinct. Speaking in general
-terms, the wild fauna of Europe, as we have it now, dates from the
-beginning of the prehistoric age, and consists merely of those animals
-which were able to survive the changes by which their pleistocene
-congeners were banished or destroyed. The arrival of the domestic
-animals under the care of man in the neolithic age, and their extension
-over the whole of Europe in a wild or semi-wild state, coupled with the
-disappearance of the wild species mentioned above, constitutes a change
-in the mammal life at least as important as any of those which define
-the meiocene from the pleiocene, or the pleiocene from the pleistocene
-periods.
-
-
-_Physical changes--The excavation and filling up of Valleys._
-
-The magnitude of the interval between the two periods may also be
-gathered from the great changes which have taken place in physical
-geography. In nearly every valley in Great Britain, certain areas to be
-mentioned presently excepted, are strata of sand and gravel, proved to
-be of pleistocene age by their fossil mammals, and by their fluviatile
-shells to have been deposited by rivers. They occur at various heights,
-forming sometimes terraces, and at others isolated patches, which
-were accumulated when the river flowed at their level, and before the
-valleys were cut down to their present depth. Those at Fisherton near
-Salisbury, described by Sir Charles Lyell, Mr. Prestwich, Mr. John
-Evans,[175] and others, may be taken as an example.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Section of Valley-gravels at Fisherton.
-(Evans.)]
-
-The valley through which the river Wily flows is excavated in the chalk
-(Fig. 74), and on its northern side fluviatile deposits occur at two
-levels, represented in the accompanying section. One patch of gravel,
-about twelve feet thick, _a_, lies about eighty feet above the present
-level of the Wily; while a second, _b_, consisting of clayey brickearth
-or loam, with seams of gravel, and fluviatile shells, sweeps down
-from a lower point to the bottom of the valley, and passes under the
-river. From the deposit _a_, Dr. Blackmore obtained many rudely-chipped
-implements, of the same palæolithic type as those found with the
-extinct mammalia in the gravel beds at Amiens and Abbeville in the
-valley of the Somme. In the deposit _b_, fossil mammalia were met with
-belonging to the following animals:--
-
-    Spotted hyæna.
-    Lion.
-    Reindeer.
-    Stag.
-    Bison.
-    Urus.
-    Musk-sheep.
-    Wild boar.
-    Horse.
-    Woolly rhinoceros.
-    Mammoth.
-    Lemming.
-    Pouched marmot.
-    Hare.
-
-Dr. Blackmore subsequently discovered a flint implement along with
-these animals, of the same type as those previously met with in the
-deposit _a_.
-
-A horizontal stretch of alluvium, _c_, deposited by the floods,
-occupies the present bottom of the valley. In this section it is plain
-that the gravels and brickearth at _a_ and _b_ were deposited by a
-river, which formerly flowed at those levels. In other words, the
-valley of the Wily was excavated during the time that the pleistocene
-strata _a_ and _b_ were being formed, while palæolithic man and the
-extinct animals were living in the neighbourhood. The position also of
-_b_ below the present bottom of the valley proves that the latter then
-was deeper than it is now. The prehistoric alluvium, _c_, represents
-the last stage in the history of the valley in which it is beginning to
-be filled with the deposits of floods. While it was being accumulated
-none of the animals of _a_ and _b_ were living in the district except
-the hare, urus, stag, horse, and wild boar.
-
-A somewhat similar section is exposed in the valley of the Avon at
-Freshford, near Bath, in a railway cutting, at a height of about
-thirty-five feet above the river. A thick mass of gravel abuts directly
-against a cleft of inferior oolite (Fig. 75), and gradually dies down
-to the alluvium. In it Mr. Charles Moore discovered the remains of the
-musk-sheep, and the Rev. H. H. Winwood those of the mammoth, bison,
-horse, and reindeer. In this case the pleistocene strata occupied the
-side of one of the valleys which had been deepened since the time of
-their deposit.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Section of Valley-gravels at Freshford, Bath.
-4, Red loam, 5ft. 6in.; 3, Oolitic wash, 1ft.; 2, Clay with flints,
-4ft. 10in.; 1, Gravel with fossil mammals, 8ft.]
-
-The alluvium in the neighbourhood of Bath contains in its lower
-portion a layer of peat, with bones of the Celtic short-horn (_Bos
-longifrons_), stag, roe, horse, goat, and pig; and in its upper part
-are old refuse heaps, proved to be Roman by the coins and ware, which
-are also met with at various points underneath the surface soil, and
-sometimes at considerable depths. It is, therefore, of prehistoric and
-historic age, and since it is found only in the valley bottoms, we
-may conclude that the present courses of the rivers along the sides
-of which it is found date back from the prehistoric age; while their
-ancient courses are marked by the fluviatile deposits with the extinct
-mammalia standing at various levels, the higher being the older. In the
-section at Fisherton we have evidence that the river flowed at a lower
-level in the pleistocene age than in the prehistoric, and in that at
-Freshford that the lower portion of the valley had been excavated after
-the pleistocene strata had been formed. One or other of these physical
-changes is to be traced in nearly all river valleys.[176] We may
-conclude that both imply a considerable lapse of time, because similar
-changes are now produced with extreme slowness. In the pleistocene
-river deposits, which lie scattered about at various heights on the
-valley sides, we seek in vain for neolithic implements, or domestic
-animals. In the low-lying alluvia, and accumulations of peat, we seek
-equally in vain for traces of palæolithic man, or of the extinct
-mammalia, except the Irish elk.
-
-We may also gather, from the localization of the prehistoric alluvia
-close to the present streams, that the time represented by its
-accumulation is insignificant in comparison with the long lapse of ages
-implied by the pleistocene gravels and brickearths, that were deposited
-at various heights during the excavation of the valleys. The general
-surface of the valleys has undergone but little change since history
-began, and the excavation by the rivers has been so small as to have
-escaped accurate measurement. The alluvia represent the principal work
-done since the close of the pleistocene period.
-
-The most important testimony that the interval between the two periods
-was very long, is offered by the climatal change, and the severance
-of Britain from the continent. The arctic severity of the pleistocene
-winter in these latitudes had passed away before the prehistoric age,
-and the pleistocene valleys of the North Sea, St. George’s Channel, the
-British, and Irish Channels had been depressed beneath the waves of the
-sea before any prehistoric strata yet known had been deposited. The
-evidence that these changes actually took place must be referred to the
-two following chapters.
-
-
-_Comparison of Deposits in Valleys with those in Caves._
-
-If these valley deposits be compared with the contents of some of
-the bone caves, such, for example, as those of the Victoria Cave
-(compare Figs. 74 and 75 with Figs. 20, 21, 29), it will be seen
-that they present the same section. The pleistocene gravels and
-brick-earths of the one correspond with the lower strata of the other,
-and contain the same extinct animals. The prehistoric alluvium of the
-one is represented by the layer containing neolithic bronze or iron
-implements, as well as the same animals; while the historic strata
-are represented in both by the superficial accumulations. The only
-difference indeed between the one and the other is, that in the former
-the strata of the three periods are spread over a wide area, while in
-the latter they are super-imposed in vertical order, the pleistocene
-below, the prehistoric in the middle, and the historic on the surface.
-
-
-_Difference in Mineral Condition of Deposits in Caves._
-
-The prehistoric, and the historic strata in caves differ from the
-pleistocene in their physical constitution. They are darker in colour,
-and more loosely stratified, and contain bones in a more friable and
-less mineralized condition, and are more free from stalagmite.
-
-
-_The Caves of Germany: Gailenreuth._
-
-The use of fossil bones for medicinal purposes led, as I have already
-mentioned in the first chapter, to the exploration of caves, which
-were first scientifically examined in Germany towards the close of
-the eighteenth century. They abound in all the limestone plateaux,
-especially in the region of Franconia, and in that of the Hartz. Among
-them the most interesting, perhaps, is that of Gailenreuth, explored
-by Esper, Rosenmüller, Goldfuss, Buckland, Lord Enniskillen, and Sir
-Philip Egerton. It penetrates a lofty cliff, that forms a side of the
-deep gorge which the river Weissent has cut in the rock, at a point
-about three hundred feet above the water level.
-
-The entrance, Dr. Buckland[177] writes, is about seven feet high
-and twelve feet broad, and within it a short passage leads into two
-chambers (Fig. 76, A and B),[178] hung with stalactites, and with the
-floors covered by a dense stalagmitic pavement, that has been more
-or less broken up by repeated diggings. These floors are perfectly
-horizontal, the level of that of B being considerably below that of A.
-They rest on an accumulation of reddish grey loam, containing pebbles,
-and angular limestone blocks, and vast quantities of the bones and
-teeth of the animals formerly living in the district. The depth of this
-ossiferous deposit has not been ascertained, but in the further end
-of the chamber B, it has been proved to be more than twenty-five feet
-thick.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Section of Gailenreuth Cave. (Buckland.)]
-
-The remains of the animals lie scattered in the wildest confusion;
-sometimes being completely matted together, but more generally each
-bone is enveloped in earth. They belong to the lion, the cave variety
-of the spotted hyæna, the cave-bear, grizzly bear, mammoth, Irish elk,
-and reindeer, as well as to those species which are still to be found
-in Germany, such as the glutton, brown bear, wolf, fox, and stag.
-
-It is very difficult to account for such an accumulation as this, but
-it was probably introduced through the present entrance, and thence
-into the chamber B, passing from the higher to the lower levels. The
-teeth-marks on the bones show that some of the animals had formed
-the prey of the hyænas, but had they introduced all the bones there
-would have been distinct strata marking the floors of occupation, as
-in Wookey Hole (Fig. 88). Moreover, no perfect skulls, such as those
-of the bears, would have escaped their powerful teeth. The pebbles in
-the loam bear testimony to the passage of a current of water. And if
-we suppose that the cave was subject to floods, such as those in the
-water-caves described in the second chapter, the scattering of the
-bones through the loam may be explained. This, however, could not have
-happened had the cave then opened on the face of a nearly vertical
-cliff, and the only condition under which it would have been possible
-is, that the present entrance should have been directly connected with
-a stream flowing from the surface, that is to say, over the space now
-occupied by the gorge of the Weissent. If this view, advanced by Dr.
-Buckland, be accepted, the remoteness of the date of the filling up of
-the cave may be measured by the fact, that since that time the gorge
-has been cut down by the Weissent to a depth of more than 300 feet.
-
-The stream by which the contents of the cave were introduced had a
-course probably analogous to that of Dalebeck (Fig. 6) and the remains
-of the animals were caught up from the surface, and accumulated in
-the subterranean chambers which it traversed. Their abundance offers
-no obstacle to this view, since wild animals frequent their drinking
-places in vast numbers, and fall a prey to the carnivora which lurk
-near the streams, and very many tumble into the natural pitfalls, or
-swallow-holes, so universal in limestone districts.
-
-
-_The Cave of Kühloch._
-
-Very many other caves occur in the neighbourhood, most of them, such as
-those of Zahnloch, celebrated for the abundance of fossil teeth, Mokas,
-Rabenstein, and others, of which the cave of Kühloch alone demands
-notice.
-
-The cave of Kühloch is situated opposite to the castle of Rabenstein,
-in the gorge of the Esbach, at about thirty feet from the bottom. Its
-exterior presents a lofty arch in a nearly perpendicular cliff, about
-thirty feet wide and twenty feet high, and the entrance gradually leads
-into two large chambers “both of which terminate in a close round end,
-or cul-de-sac, at the distance of about 100 feet from the entrance.
-It is intersected by no fissures, and has no lateral communications
-connecting it with any other caverns, except one small hole close to
-its mouth, and which opens also to the valley.” The first thirty feet
-present a steep slope towards the entrance. Dr. Buckland describes the
-contents of the chambers in the following words:[179]--
-
-“It is literally true that in this single cavern (the size and
-proportions of which are nearly equal to those of the interior of a
-large church) there are hundreds of cart-loads of black animal dust
-entirely covering the whole floor, to a depth which must average at
-least six feet, and which, if we multiply this depth by the length
-and breadth of the cavern, will be found to exceed 5,000 cubic feet.
-The whole of this mass has been again and again dug over in search
-of teeth and bones, which it still contains abundantly, though in
-broken fragments. The state of these is very different from that of
-the bones we find in any of the other caverns, being of a black, or,
-more properly speaking, dark umber colour throughout, like the bones
-of mummies, and many of them readily crumbling under the finger into
-a soft dark powder resembling mummy powder, and being of the same
-nature with the black earth in which they are embedded. The quantity
-of animal matter accumulated on this floor is the most surprising, and
-the only thing of the kind I ever witnessed; and many hundred--I may
-say thousand--individuals must have contributed their remains to make
-up this appalling mass of the dust of death. It seems in great part to
-be derived from comminuted and pulverized bone; for the fleshy parts
-of animal bodies produce by their decomposition so small a quantity of
-permanent earthy residuum, that we must seek for the origin of this
-mass principally in decayed bones. The cave is so dry, that the black
-earth lies in the state of loose powder, and rises in dust under the
-feet; it also retains so large a proportion of its original animal
-matter that it is occasionally used by the peasants as an enriching
-manure for the adjacent meadows. I have stated that the total quantity
-of animal matter that lies within this cavern cannot be computed at
-less than 5,000 cubic feet; now allowing two cubic feet of dust and
-bones for each individual animal, we shall have in this single vault
-the remains of at least 2,500 bears, a number which may have been
-supplied in the space of 1,000 years by a mortality at the rate of two
-and a half per annum.”
-
-Dr. Buckland’s explanation, that the cave was inhabited by bears for
-long generations, is probably true. The absence of pebbles and silt
-show that water had no share in the introduction of the remains; their
-preservation is due to the dryness of the cave, and to its proximity to
-the outer atmosphere.
-
-The famous caves of Sundwig, Schartsfeld, and Bauman’s Hole, belong to
-the same class as Gailenreuth, and offer no differences which need be
-described.
-
-These explorations establish the fact that, in the antediluvian age
-which we now term pleistocene, the lion, the cave-bear and grizzly
-bear, and cave-hyæna abounded in Germany, and that they sought as
-their prey not merely the wild animals now living in that region,
-but the reindeer, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and Irish elk. All the
-discoveries in the German caves from the date of the exploration of
-Gailenreuth have merely verified this conclusion without adding any new
-fact of importance.
-
-
-_The Caves of Great Britain._
-
-These discoveries in the German caves led to the exploration of those
-in our country. Dr. Buckland visited Gailenreuth in 1816, and in
-1821 applied the result of his knowledge gained in Germany to the
-investigation of the famous cavern of Kirkdale.[180]
-
-
-_The Hyæna-den at Kirkdale._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Plan of Kirkdale Cave. (Taylor.)]
-
-The cave of Kirkdale (Figs. 77, 78) was discovered in a quarry in
-the vale of Pickering, about twenty-five miles to the NN.E. of
-York, at a point where the dale of Holmbeck joins Kirkdale. The
-entrance, eighty feet above the valley bottom and twenty feet from
-the surface of the plateau above, was about three feet high and six
-feet wide, and led into a passage from five to ten feet wide, which
-ran nearly horizontally into the rock, and branched off into smaller
-ramifications. Its general form and size may be gathered from the
-examination of the accompanying woodcuts, which were published by Mr.
-Taylor in “Macmillan’s Magazine,” in September 1862. The roof was for
-the most part free from stalactite, and there was no continuous coating
-of stalagmite on the floor, but merely here and there a few calcareous
-bosses termed “cows’ paps” by the workmen.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Sections of Kirkdale Cave. (Taylor.)]
-
-A layer of fine red loam covered the bottom, in the lower portions
-of which were large numbers of gnawed and broken bones, and teeth,
-for the most part of the same species as those formed in the German
-caves. In some places they were lying in little confused heaps, and in
-others, where the loam was thin, were exposed to the calcareous drip
-and cemented into a mass, their upper portions projecting through the
-stalagmite “like the legs of pigeons through pie-crust,” and their
-irregular distribution resembling that of the fragments scattered on
-the floor of a dog-kennel.
-
-The remains of the animals were incredibly abundant, when the small
-space in which they were packed was taken into consideration. Those of
-the hyæna are estimated by Dr. Buckland as belonging to between two or
-three hundred individuals of all ages. The lion and the cave-bear, the
-wild boar, the hippopotamus (Fig. 79) an extinct kind of elephant (_E.
-antiquus_), and the rhinoceros named by Dr. Falconer _R. hemitœchus_,
-the reindeer, and Irish elk are also represented, but the species
-of most common occurrence are the bison and the horse. With a few
-exceptions all the bones with marrow were broken, and scarred by teeth,
-while the solid and marrowless were more or less perfect.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 79.--Molar of Hippopotamus. (Buckland.)]
-
-Dr. Buckland’s method of solving the problem of the introduction of
-remains of so many and different animals into so small a space, is
-a model of scientific analysis. He argues from the abundance of the
-remains of the hyæna, and from the correspondence of their teeth with
-the marks on the bones, and from the quantity of their coprolites,
-that the cave was inhabited by many generations of those animals, and
-that the gnawed fragments were relics of their prey. The hyænas of the
-present day inhabit caves strewn with the bones of their prey, which
-are crushed by their powerful jaws into the same form as those of
-Kirkdale. He further demonstrated the truth of his conclusion by the
-crucial experiment of subjecting the leg-bone of an ox to a spotted
-hyæna from the Cape of Good Hope, in Wombwell’s Menagerie. “I was
-able,” he writes,[181] “to observe the animal’s mode of proceeding in
-the destruction of bones: the shin-bone of an ox being presented to
-this hyæna, he began to bite off with his molar teeth large fragments
-from its upper extremity, and swallowed them whole as fast as they were
-broken off. On his reaching the medullary cavity, the bone split into
-angular fragments, many of which he caught up greedily and swallowed
-entire: he went on cracking it till he had extracted all the marrow,
-licking out the lowest portion of it with his tongue: this done, he
-left untouched the lower condyle, which contains no marrow, and is
-very hard. The state and form of this residuary fragment are precisely
-like those of similar bones at Kirkdale; the marks of teeth on it
-are very few, as the bone usually gave off a splinter before the
-large conical teeth had forced a hole through it; these few, however,
-entirely resemble the impressions we find on the bones at Kirkdale;
-the small splinters also in form and size, and manner of fracture, are
-not distinguishable from the fossil ones. I preserve all the fragments
-and the gnawed portions of this bone, for the sake of comparison by
-the side of those I have from the antediluvian den in Yorkshire: there
-is absolutely no difference between them, except in point of age. The
-animal left untouched the solid bones of the tarsus and carpus, and
-such parts of the cylindrical bones as we find untouched at Kirkdale,
-and devoured only the parts analogous to those which are there
-deficient. The keeper, pursuing this experiment to its final result,
-presented me the next morning with a large quantity of _album græcum_,
-disposed in balls, that agree entirely in size, shape, and substance
-with those that were found in the den at Kirkdale. The power of his
-jaws far exceeded any animal force of the kind I ever saw exerted, and
-reminded me of nothing so much as of a miner’s crushing mill, or the
-scissors with which they cut off bars of iron and copper in the metal
-foundries.”
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Leg-bones gnawed by Hyænas--1, of Ox in
-Menagerie; 2, of Bison in Kirkdale. (Buckland.)]
-
-The exact correspondence of one of the fragments of the tibia of an ox,
-gnawed by the Cape hyæna, with the corresponding bone of the bison from
-Kirkdale, may be gathered from a comparison of the two figured in Fig.
-80, in which the teeth-marks _a_, _b_, and _c_, are very distinct. The
-same kind of identity runs through the whole series of bones gnawed by
-the living and fossil hyænas.
-
-Dr. Buckland’s conclusion, that the Kirkdale cave was the den of the
-spotted hyænas (_H. crouta_) that preyed upon the animals of Yorkshire
-in ancient times, and that it was undisturbed down to the time of its
-exploration, cannot be disputed. The tread of the hyænas in their
-passage to and fro had polished some of the bones and jaws scattered on
-the floor, and the polished surfaces were uppermost, the rest of the
-fragments being rough. And Prof. Phillips informs me that the leg-bone
-of a ruminant was discovered wedged into a small fissure in the floor,
-with that portion which was within reach of the hyæna’s teeth gnawed
-away, while the rest was uninjured. The hyæna had lost his bone in the
-fissure, and was only able to nibble the end which projected. In these
-incidents we have a vivid picture of an hyæna’s den in Yorkshire during
-the pleistocene age, with the contents left in their natural order and
-not rearranged by the passage of water.
-
-The Victoria cave near Settle, in Yorkshire, described in the third
-chapter, has also been occupied by hyænas.
-
-
-_Caves of Derbyshire: the Dream-cave near Wirksworth._
-
-The Dream-cave, near Wirksworth,[182] in Derbyshire, contrasts with
-that of Kirkdale in the perfect state of the bones which it contains.
-It was discovered in 1822, in following a vein of lead (Fig. 81).
-The miners suddenly broke into a hollow, _c_, filled with red earth
-and stones, and as they continued their shaft downwards the sides
-continually closed upon them until the roof of a cave was revealed.
-A nearly perfect skeleton of the rhinoceros was discovered in the
-earth, as well as bones of the horse, reindeer, and urus. After a large
-quantity of the earth had been removed, the surface soil, _i_, at a
-little distance began to sink, and ultimately a vertical shaft was
-found to connect the cave with the surface. Into this the animals had
-fallen, just as at the present time sheep and oxen frequently perish in
-similar natural pitfalls in the limestone strata.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 81.--The Dream-cave, Wirksworth. (Buckland.)
-
-  A Shaft following lead-vein.
-  B Supposed continuation of lead-vein.
-  C Cave.
-  D Swallow-hole.
-  E Ossiferous loam.
-  F Antler of deer.
-  G Rhinoceros.
-  H Limestone.
-  I Natural entrance.
-]
-
-Other caves and fissures in Derbyshire have yielded remains of the
-extinct animals: those of Balleye, near Wirksworth, and of Doveholes,
-near Chaple-en-le-Frith, the mammoth, and a small cave in Hartle Dale,
-near Castleton, explored by Mr. Pennington and myself in 1872, the
-mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros.
-
-
-_The Caves of North Wales, near St. Asaph._
-
-The ossiferous caves and fissures at Cefn, near St. Asaph, in the
-mountain limestone that forms the south side of the Vale of Clwyd, were
-first described in 1833,[183] by the Rev. Edward Stanley, afterwards
-Bishop of Norwich, who explored that which Mr. E. Lloyd had discovered
-about half-way down the vertical cliff, in the grounds of Cefn Hall.
-It consists of a narrow passage, turning on itself, and communicating
-with the surface of the cliff by two entrances, which were completely
-blocked up with red silt, containing a vast quantity of bones in very
-bad preservation. The bottom has not yet been reached. In one portion I
-found, in 1872, a deposit of comminuted bone with scarcely any mixture
-of loam, that rose in clouds of dust as it was disturbed. The animals
-belonged to the same class as those of Germany, the cave-bear, spotted
-hyæna, and reindeer, as well as the hippopotamus, _Elephas antiquus_
-and _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_ of the Kirkdale cave. Pebbles derived from
-the boulder clay, and rounded waterworn fragments of bone, showed that
-the contents had been introduced into this cave by a stream. Some of
-the remains, which were marked with teeth, may have been introduced by
-the hyænas. The flint-flakes found with the human skull and cut antlers
-of stag, already referred to in the fifth chapter, were discovered in
-the lower entrance.
-
-The same group of animals has been obtained by Mrs. Williams Wynn, the
-Rev. D. R. Thomas, and myself out of a horizontal cave at the head
-of the defile leading down from Cefn to Pont Newydd, in which the
-remains are embedded in a stiff clay, consisting of rearranged boulder
-clay, and are in the condition of waterworn pebbles. From it I have
-identified the brown, grizzly, and cave-bear. A further examination by
-the Rev. D. R. Thomas, and Prof. Hughes, has recently resulted in the
-discovery of rude implements of felstone, and a tooth which has been
-identified by Prof. Busk as a human molar of unusual size.[184]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Left Lower Jaw of Glutton, Plas Heaton Cave.]
-
-A third cave in the neighbourhood at Plas Heaton, explored in 1870 by
-Mr. Heaton and Prof. Hughes, furnished the remains of the cave-bear,
-spotted hyæna, bison, and reindeer, and a remarkably fine specimen
-of the lower jaw of a glutton (Fig. 82), which I have described in
-the “Geological Journal” (vol. xxvii. p. 406). In a fourth cave, at
-Gallfaenan, the bear and reindeer were discovered. It is evident from
-the presence of numerous bones gnawed by hyænas in these caves, that
-the valleys of the Clwyd and the Elwy were the favourite haunts of that
-animal in the pleistocene age.
-
-
-_Caves of South Wales in the counties of Glamorgan and Caermarthen._
-
-The earliest cavern explored in South Wales is that of Crawley
-Rocks,[185] Oxwich Bay, about twelve miles from Swansea. It was
-discovered in quarrying the mountain limestone in 1792, and contained
-the remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, ox, stag, and hyæna. It was
-completely destroyed before Dr. Buckland identified these animals in
-the collection of Miss Talbot of Penrice Castle.[186]
-
-The line of cliffs, bounding the rocky peninsula of Gower, contains
-the cave of Paviland, described in the seventh chapter (p. 232), as
-well as the group explored by Colonel Wood of Start Hall, from the
-year 1848[187] to the present time, Bacon Hole, Minchin Hole, Bosco’s
-Den, Devil’s Hole, Crow Hole, Raven’s Cliff, Spritsail Tor, and Long
-Hole, which are described by the late Dr. Falconer. The _Rhinoceros
-hemitœchus_ was met with in comparative abundance, and in association
-with the woolly rhinoceros, mammoth, and _E. antiquus_. In Bosco’s
-Den there were no less than 750 shed antlers of reindeer; and in
-Long Hole, many flint-flakes were discovered in 1860 underneath the
-stalagmite, and in association with the extinct mammalia, which prove,
-as Dr. Falconer points out, that man inhabited that district in the
-pleistocene age.
-
-These caves and fissures were at all levels in the cliff, and in some
-the bottoms were covered with a stratum of marine sand with sea shells,
-which showed that they had been washed by the sea before they had been
-filled by the ossiferous débris. Most of them had probably been filled
-by streams in the same manner as Gailenreuth and Wirksworth. They
-abound on the coast merely because a clear section has been worn by the
-waves. A straight cut through the rocks in any part of the district
-would probably show them to occur in equal abundance inland.
-
-
-_Caves in Pembrokeshire._
-
-The patches of limestone on the opposite side of Caermarthen Bay, in
-the neighbourhood of Tenby, also contain ossiferous caverns. The Rev.
-G. N. Smith,[188] of Gumfriston, has made a fine collection of bones
-and teeth of mammoth and hyæna, from a fissure in the Blackrock Quarry,
-close to Tenby, from a fissure in the cliff on Caldy Island, and from
-the Coygan cave in an outlier of limestone, near Pendine, and has
-discovered flakes of flint and of a peculiar hornstone in the “tunnel
-cave” termed the Hoyle, underneath stalagmite, in a stratum containing
-bones of the bear and reindeer. With the exception of the fissure in
-the Blackrock Quarry none of these have been fully explored. On a visit
-to Tenby, in 1872, I obtained many flint flakes, and bones broken by
-man, from the breccia in the Hoyle; and from a fissure on Caldy Island,
-numerous bones and teeth of young wolves, which represented a whole
-litter, and two metatarsals of bison, cemented together into a compact
-mass.
-
-The discovery of mammoth, rhinoceros, horse, Irish elk, bison, wolf,
-lion, and bear, on so small an island as Caldy, indicates that a
-considerable change has taken place in the relation of the land to
-the sea in that district since those animals were alive. It would have
-been impossible for so many and so large animals to have obtained
-food on so small an island. It may therefore be reasonably concluded
-that, when they perished in the fissures, Caldy was not an island, but
-a precipitous hill, overlooking the broad valley now covered by the
-waters of the Bristol Channel, but then affording abundant pasture. The
-same inference may also be drawn from the vast numbers of animals found
-in the Gower caves, which could not have been supported by the scant
-herbage of the limestone hills of that district. We must, therefore,
-picture to ourselves a fertile plain occupying the whole of the Bristol
-Channel, and supporting herds of reindeer, horses, and bisons, many
-elephants and rhinoceroses, and now and then being traversed by a stray
-hippopotamus, which would afford abundant prey to the lions, bears, and
-hyænas inhabiting all the accessible caves, as well as to their great
-enemy and destroyer man. We shall see in the ninth chapter that the
-elevation of the whole district above its present level is part of the
-general elevation of north-western Europe, and no mere small or local
-phenomenon.
-
-
-_Cave in Monmouthshire._
-
-King Arthur’s cave,[189] on the side of a beautifully wooded knoll,
-overlooking the valley of the Wye, near Whitchurch, in Monmouthshire,
-explored by the Rev. W. S. Symonds in 1871, is a hyæna den, like that
-of Kirkdale, containing the gnawed remains of the lion, Irish elk,
-mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and reindeer. Flint flakes, however,
-occurred in the undisturbed strata, which prove that it was also the
-resort of man. Mr. Symonds believes that the sand and gravel inside
-were deposited by the Wye, at a time when it flowed 300 feet above its
-present course, or before the valley was cut down to that depth. If
-this conclusion be true, the date of the occupation must be separated
-from the present day by a vast interval, which is only to be measured
-by the subsequent erosion of the valley by the slow operation of the
-subaerial agents, running water, ice, snow, and carbonic acid.
-
-The only remains of the mammoth which I have examined belong to young
-individuals, and consist of the second and third milk-molars, a fact
-which I have very generally observed in hyænas’ dens. The older
-mammoths would not fall an easy prey to so cowardly an animal. The cave
-had also been inhabited by man after the pleistocene age, for coarse
-pottery of the neolithic kind, and flint flakes, were dug out of an
-upper stratum, while I was watching the excavation, in company with the
-Rev. W. S. Symonds, and the “Wanderers” field club.
-
-
-_Caves of Gloucestershire and Somersetshire._
-
-The outliers of mountain limestone, on the southern side of the
-Bristol Channel, have long been known for their ossiferous caverns and
-fissures. From a fissure in Durdham Down,[190] near Bristol, Mr. J. S.
-Miller obtained fragments of bones, about the year 1820, and among them
-Dr. Buckland notices the fossil joint of the hind-leg of a horse, the
-astragalus being held in natural position, between the tibia and the
-calcaneum, by stalagmite. Subsequently a large series of animals of the
-same species as those of Gower were discovered in it by Mr. Stutchbury,
-and are preserved in the Bristol Museum.
-
-
-_Caves of the Mendip Hills._
-
-The caves of the Mendip Hills were known to contain bones as early as
-the middle of the eighteenth century, when that of Hutton,[191] near
-Weston-super-Mare, was discovered in working the ochre and calamine
-which fills some of the fissures. The miners having opened an ochre
-pit, south of the little village of Hutton, discovered a fissure in
-the limestone full of good ochre, which they followed to a depth
-of eight yards, until it led into a cavern, the floor of which was
-formed of ochre, with large quantities of white bones on the surface,
-and scattered through its mass. Dr. Calcott describes the bones as
-projecting from the sides, roof, and floor of the excavation in such
-quantities as to resemble the contents of a charnel-house. Subsequently
-it was fully explored by the Rev. D. Williams, and Mr. Beard, of
-Banwell.
-
-We owe the exploration of the neighbouring caves of Banwell, Sandford
-Hill, Bleadon, Goat’s Hole, in Burrington Combe, and Uphill,[192] to
-the joint labours of the two above-mentioned gentlemen, extending over
-the period which elapsed between 1821 and 1860. The vast quantity of
-remains which they obtained can only be realized by a visit to the
-Museum of the Somerset Archæological and Natural History Society,
-at Taunton.[193] They belong to the same species as those already
-mentioned from the caves of South Wales. The fauna of the Mendip is,
-however, characterized by the great number of lions, and by a few
-fragments of the glutton. Of the former animal, Mr. Ayshford Sanford
-and myself have met with sufficient remains to figure nearly every
-portion of the skeleton, and the skulls prove that it was not a tiger,
-as it is considered to be by some naturalists, but a true lion,
-differing in no respect, except in its large size, from those now
-living in Asia and Africa.
-
-All these caverns consist of chambers at various levels more or less
-connected with fissures, and, from the perfect condition of the bones
-they must have been inaccessible to the bone-destroying hyæna. Their
-contents were introduced, as is suggested by Dr. Buckland, from the
-surface by streams falling into swallow-holes (see Fig. 81), which have
-now, under the changed physical conditions, ceased to flow.
-
-The extraordinary quantity of remains preserved in one cave may be, to
-some extent, verified by a visit to that at Banwell. It consists of two
-large chambers, the upper one filled with thousands of bones of bison,
-horse, and reindeer, taken out of the red silt which originally filled
-it to the roof; the lower one full of the undisturbed contents, from
-which the bones project in the wildest confusion. This accumulation
-has been introduced by water, through a vertical fissure which opened
-on the surface. It is evident, from the very nearly perfect skulls of
-wolf and bear which were discovered, that the cave was not used as a
-den by the hyænas. They are, however, proved to have been living close
-by at the time, since their skulls, and the gnawed antlers of reindeer,
-have been discovered inside. They were probably swept in by the stream
-along with the other bones.
-
-
-_The Uphill Cave._
-
-The Cave of Uphill,[194] discovered in 1826, by some workmen, and
-explored by the Rev. D. Williams, merits especial notice, from the
-peculiar conditions under which the remains of the extinct animals
-occurred. Like the other caves of the Mendips, it consists of fissures
-opening into chambers. In the upper part of one of these fissures were
-the remains of rhinoceros, hyæna, bear, horse, bison, and wild boar,
-imbedded in loam which rested on two large masses of limestone that had
-fallen so as to block up the fissure. Below this were no remains of the
-extinct animals, and the fissure ultimately led into a cave opening
-upon the line of cliffs. This latter had been inhabited within historic
-times, since many bones of sheep, or goat, and pieces of pottery, were
-met with, as well as a coin of the Emperor Julian. In this case, owing
-to the extraordinary accident of the fissure being blocked up by a
-fall of stone, the pleistocene accumulation is vertically above the
-historic; and had the barrier given way, Mr. Williams would undoubtedly
-have discovered the remains of the extinct mammalia, lying in a heap
-above the comparatively modern historic stratum. It seems to me very
-probable that some such accident may have caused the occurrence of
-the pleiocene machairodus in the Kent’s Hole cavern, in association
-with the pleistocene mammalia. In the long lapse of ages between the
-pleistocene and the present day, such accidents would be likely to
-occur in some few caverns, and we might expect to find remains of
-widely different ages, in certain exceptional cases, lying side by
-side, or even the older resting vertically over the newer. At all
-events we must conclude, that superposition, or association, cannot be
-rigidly enforced as tests of relative age in all ossiferous caverns.
-
-
-_The Hyæna-den of Wookey Hole._
-
-The Hyæna-den of Wookey Hole,[195] near Wells, on the south side of
-the Mendips, which I explored with the Rev. J. Williamson in 1859,
-and in the following years with Messrs. Willett, Parker, and Ayshford
-Sanford, is worthy of a more detailed notice, because it was among
-the first caverns in this country in which works of art were found
-under conditions that proved the co-existence of man with the extinct
-mammalia.
-
-The ravine in which it was discovered, in 1852, is one of the many
-which pierce the dolomitic conglomerate, or petrified sea-beach, of
-the Triassic age, resting at the foot of the cliffs from which it
-was torn by the waves, and overlying the lower slopes of the Mendips
-(see Fig. 1). Open to the south, it runs almost horizontally into the
-mountain-side, until closed abruptly northwards by a perpendicular
-wall of rock, 200 feet or more in height, ivy-covered, and affording
-a dwelling-place to innumerable jackdaws. Out of a cave at its base,
-in which Dr. Buckland discovered pottery and human teeth, flows the
-river Axe, in a canal cut in the rock. In cutting this passage, that
-the water might be conveyed to a large paper-mill close by, the mouth
-of the hyæna-den was intersected in 1852, and from that time up to
-December 1859 it was undisturbed save by rabbits and badgers, and even
-they did not penetrate far into the interior, or make deep burrows.
-Close to the mouth of the cave the workmen (employed in making this
-canal) found more than 300 Roman coins, among which were those of
-Allectus and of Commodus. When the Rev. J. Williamson and myself began
-our exploration, about twelve feet of the entrance of the cave had been
-cut away, and large quantities of the earth, stones, and animal remains
-had been used in the formation of an embankment for the stream which
-runs past the present entrance of the cave.
-
-According to the testimony of the workmen, the bones and teeth formed
-a layer about twelve inches in thickness, which rested immediately
-upon the conglomerate-floor, while they were comparatively scarce in
-the overlying mass of stones and red earth. The workmen state also
-that at the time of the discovery of the cave the hillside presented
-no concavity to mark its presence. So completely was the cave filled
-with débris up to the very roof, that we were compelled to cut our way
-into it. Of the stones scattered irregularly through the matrix of
-red earth, some were angular, others water-worn; all are derived from
-the decomposition of the dolomitic conglomerate in which the cave is
-hollowed. Near the entrance, and at a depth of five feet from the roof,
-were three layers of peroxide of manganese, full of bony splinters,
-and, passing obliquely up towards the southern side of the cave and
-over a ledge of rock that rises abruptly from the floor: further
-inwards they became interblended one with another, and at a distance
-of fifteen feet from the entrance were barely visible. In and between
-these the animal remains were found in the greatest abundance.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Plan of Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole.
-
-Right lines = sections; dotted areas = bone-beds; shaded areas = ashes
-and implements.]
-
-While cutting our way inwards (Figs. 83 and 88), we found an angular
-piece of flint, which had evidently been chipped by human agency, and
-a water-worn fragment of a belemnite, which probably had been derived
-from the neighbouring marlstone rocks. Bones and teeth of the woolly
-rhinoceros, reindeer, stag, Irish elk, mammoth, hyæna, cave-bear,
-lion, wolf, fox, and horse rewarded our labours; and frogs’ remains,
-cemented together by stalagmite, were abundant at the mouth. The teeth
-preponderated greatly over the bones, and the great bulk were those of
-the horse. The hyæna-teeth also were very numerous, and in all stages
-of growth, from the young unworn to the old tooth worn down to the
-very gums. Those of the mammoth had belonged to a young animal, and
-one had not been used at all. The hollow bones were completely smashed
-and splintered, and scored with tooth-marks, while the solid carpal,
-tarsal, and sesamoid bones were uninjured, as in the Kirkdale Cave. The
-organic remains were in all stages of decay, some crumbling to dust
-at the touch, while others were perfectly preserved and had lost very
-little of their gelatine.
-
-[Illustration: FIGS. 84, 85, 86, 87.--Four Views of Flint Implements
-found in the Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole, near Wells.]
-
-In 1860 we resumed our excavations; and, in addition to the above
-remains, found satisfactory evidence of the former presence of man in
-the cave. Our search was rewarded by one oval implement of white flint,
-of rude workmanship (Figs. 84, 85, 86, 87), one chert arrow-head,
-a roughly-chipped and a round flattened piece of chert, together
-with various splinters of flint, which had apparently been knocked
-off in the manufacture of some implement. Two rudely-fashioned bone
-arrow-heads were also found, which unfortunately were subsequently lost
-by the photographer to whom they were sent; they resembled in shape an
-equilateral triangle with the angles at the base bevelled off. All were
-found in and around the same spot, in contact with some hyæna-teeth,
-between the dark bands of manganese, at a depth of four feet from the
-roof, and at a distance of twelve feet from the present entrance (Fig.
-83, _a_).
-
-That there might be no mistake about the accuracy of the observations,
-I examined every shovelful of débris as it was thrown out by the
-workman; while the exact spot where they were excavating was watched by
-my colleague. The figured implement was picked out of the undisturbed
-matrix by him; the rest were found by me in the earth thrown out from
-the same place.
-
-The lines of peroxide of manganese must have been accumulated on the
-old floors of the cave, because they were associated with numerous
-splinters and gnawed animal remains; and there can be no doubt that the
-latter were introduced by the hyænas. Those animals have a peculiar
-habit, as Dr. Buckland proved by experiment, of gnawing similar bones
-in precisely the same way; and a comparison of the relics of the
-meals of the hyænas in the Zoological Gardens with those in the cave,
-shows that the latter have passed between the jaws of a like animal
-that once inhabited Somersetshire. Coprolites of the same animal were
-very abundant, and in some places formed a greyish-white layer of
-phosphate of lime. There were also other equally unmistakeable traces
-of the animal in fragments of bone, polished by their tread, as in the
-Kirkdale cave. It is, therefore, only reasonable to suppose that these
-remains of animals were brought into the cave from time to time by
-hyænas, and left on the floors. That they were not introduced by water
-is proved by the preservation of the delicate processes and points of
-bone, which would certainly have been broken _in transitu_. Since,
-then, the implements, which, beyond doubt, had been fashioned by man,
-were underneath one of these old floors, it was certain that man was
-contemporary in the district with the hyæna and the animals on which it
-preyed, and the fact that they were found only on one spot implies that
-they were deposited by the hand of man. To suppose that a savage would
-take the trouble to excavate a trench twenty-four feet long--for twelve
-feet of the former mouth of the cave had been cut away--with miserable
-implements, and consequently with great labour, and having excavated
-it again to fill it up to the very roof, is little less than absurd.
-Nor could such an operation take place in such a deposit, without the
-stratification of the layers being destroyed. The absence of pottery
-and human bones precludes the idea of the cave ever having been a place
-of sepulture, such as Aurignac or Bruniquel. This discovery, therefore,
-of itself stamps the contemporaneity of man with the extinct mammalia,
-and following close on the similar discoveries in Brixham cave, to be
-mentioned presently, puts the question beyond all doubt.
-
-In April 1861 we resumed our excavations; and, as we made our way
-inwards, found that the cave began to narrow, and ultimately to
-bifurcate, one branch extending vertically upwards, while the other
-appeared to extend almost horizontally to the right hand. As we reached
-the middle constricted passage, the teeth became fewer, while the
-stones were of larger size than any that we had hitherto discovered.
-The great majority of the gnawed antlers of deer were found at this
-part, also the posterior half of a cervine skull, the right upper jaw
-of wolf, and, what is more remarkable, a stone with one of its surfaces
-coated with a deposit apparently of stalagmite: this, however, was much
-lighter than stalagmite, and not so good a conductor of heat; and,
-on analysis, I found that it consisted of phosphate of lime, with a
-little carbonate, and a very small portion of peroxide of manganese.
-Doubtless the surface of the stone, covered with phosphate of lime,
-formed part of the ancient floor of the cave, and hence was coated with
-_album græcum_; while the lower part, being imbedded in the earth on
-the floor, was not so coated. This deposit may, perhaps, explain the
-absence of round balls of coprolite, which, assuming that the cave at
-the time was more damp than that at Kirkdale, would be trodden down
-on the floor by the hyænas, instead of presenting a rounded form. The
-stone also itself exhibits tooth-marks underneath the coating of _album
-græcum_, and probably was gnawed by the hyænas, like the antlers, for
-amusement. This discovery proves that violent watery action had but
-small share, if any, in filling the cave; for in that case the soft
-covering would have been removed from the stone. Similar evidence is
-offered by the wonderful preservation of some of the more delicate
-fragments of bone, such as the palatine process of the maxilla of the
-wolf.
-
-The section made in cutting this passage presented irregular layers of
-peroxide of manganese, full of bony splinters, and each more or less
-covered by a layer of bones in various stages of decay. These layers
-were absent from the upper portion of the passage. There were masses
-of prisms of calc-spar scattered confusedly through the matrix. After
-excavating the vertical branch as far as we dared (for the large stones
-in it made the task dangerous), we were compelled to leave off, having
-penetrated altogether only thirty-four feet from the entrance. No flint
-implements rewarded our search this year. Teeth were far more numerous
-than bones, probably because they are more durable as well as because
-of their rejection by the hyænas. One jaw was bitten in two, and the
-fragments found about a foot apart in the undisturbed matrix, just as
-they had been dropped from the mouth of the hyæna.
-
-In the spring of 1862 Mr. Parker, Mr. Willett, and myself resolved
-to verify the association of articles of man’s handiwork along with
-the extinct mammalia, by cleaning out the cave, which was courteously
-placed at our disposal by the owner, Mr. Hodgekinson.
-
-Our first task was to clear the contents out of the portion of the cave
-nearest the mouth, or the antrum (Fig. 83, A), and as we excavated
-onwards many traces of the presence of man were met with. A wide area
-on the left-hand side (_b_), where the roof and floor of the cave
-gradually met together, furnished innumerable fragments of charcoal,
-and many flint implements associated with the remains of the horse,
-rhinoceros, and hyæna. One fragment of bone in particular, belonging to
-the rhinoceros, had been calcined, and its carbonized condition bore
-unmistakeable testimony that it had been burnt while the animal juices
-were present. There were many other bones also burnt, which indicated
-the place where fires had been kindled, and food cooked. As we dug our
-way forward we met with a third area (_c_), that furnished flint and
-chert implements under the same conditions of deposit as that which
-tempted us to carry on our excavations. Its relation to the old floors
-of hyæna-occupation is shown by the dark lines over the area _c_ in
-Fig. 88. At last the large open chamber (A) was cleared; it measured
-about thirty feet wide by six feet high, and it extended forty feet
-inwards. On the left there was a small upward-turning passage, very
-nearly blocked up with a mass of stalagmite; at the farther end a
-vertical fissure extended upwards (F), to the surface. This fissure
-has subsequently been proved to extend downwards to the right, and
-will doubtless furnish large quantities of animal remains to future
-explorers.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Section through A of Fig. 83, showing contents
-of Hyæna-den. _c_ = flint implements; thick lines above = old floors.]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Transverse Section through B of Fig. 83. 1 =
-red earth; 2 = bone-bed; 3 = dark earth.]
-
-The large chamber now turned abruptly to the left, and we gradually
-worked our way into a small horizontal passage about four feet high.
-Here there was an interval of from three to four inches between the
-roof and contents, traversed by stalactites, which in some places
-formed a smooth undulating drapery with stony tassels, and in others
-tiny pillars extending down to the débris, and, as it were, propping
-up the roof. These pedestals (see Fig. 15) gradually expanded into
-round plates of stalagmite, which sometimes met and formed a continuous
-crust. In some places an infiltration of carbonate of lime had
-cemented organic remains, stones, and earth into a hard mass, which had
-to be broken up with gunpowder before it could be removed out of the
-cave. The excitement of extracting from these blocks their treasures
-was of the very keenest, for we could not tell what a stroke of the
-hammer would reveal. Sometimes an elephant’s tooth suddenly came to
-light, at others a hyæna’s jaw, or a rhinoceros’ tooth, or the antler
-of a reindeer, or the canine of a bear. The bones were so numerous that
-they scarcely attracted attention. In one fragment of this breccia, now
-in the Brighton Museum, are a tusk and carpal of mammoth, the right
-ulna of the woolly rhinoceros, and an antler of reindeer. In a second,
-two shoulder-blades and two haunch bones of the woolly rhinoceros, with
-a coprolite and lower jaw of cave hyæna. As the men removed the large
-blocks they were brought to the mouth of the cave to be broken up by
-our smaller instruments. Presently the passage narrowed to about six
-feet, and presented the following section (Fig. 89). On the floor of
-the cave there was a layer of red earth two feet in thickness, and, as
-usual, containing a few organic remains and many stones (Fig. 89, 1).
-Upon this rested a most remarkable accumulation of bones, and teeth,
-matted and compacted together, from three to four inches thick, and
-extending horizontally from one side of the passage to the other (Fig.
-89, 2). Next came a layer of dark red earth (Fig. 89, 3), loose and
-friable, three to four inches thick, supporting in its surface a few
-rounded stalagmites, and a few stalactitic pillars, that spanned the
-interval of from three to four inches between it and the roof. This
-bone-bed was about seven feet wide and fourteen feet long, affording,
-therefore, a square area of ninety-eight feet (see dotted area B Fig.
-83, and in Fig. 90). The enormous quantity of the remains of animals
-present cannot fairly be estimated even by the large number preserved,
-because most of the bones were as soft as wet mortar. The five hundred
-and fifty specimens obtained must be looked upon merely as a small
-fraction of the whole.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Longitudinal Section through B and C of Fig.
-83, showing bone-beds. Dotted area = bone-bed.]
-
-We presently passed beyond the bone-bed, and found that the passage
-bifurcated (Fig. 83, C and D), the smaller branch going straight
-forwards and gently upwards (Fig. 90), while the larger stretched
-at right angles from it and passed gently downwards. In the former
-there was a second bone-bed similar in every respect to that already
-described, which continued undiminished in thickness until it rested
-directly on the floor. It afforded a square area of about fifteen
-feet. The passage was about sixteen inches high and three feet wide,
-and gradually narrowed until at a distance of twelve feet from the
-bifurcation a stalactite six inches long reached the floor and formed
-a vertical bar, as if to forbid another ingress. When this had been
-explored as far as we could crawl, the larger branch (Fig. 83, D,
-and Fig. 91) engaged our attention, and we soon discovered a third
-layer of bones of the same character as the others, and in the same
-position, excepting that in some places it was in immediate contact
-with the roof. In width it was six, in length fourteen, and in square
-area eighty-four feet. From its further end to the termination of the
-passage there was not the slightest vestige of bones or teeth, and a
-stiff grey clay rested on a horizontal layer of sand on the floor. Here
-the passage suddenly turned upwards until it became so small and barren
-that it was not worth our while to pursue it farther. It doubtless
-rises to the surface, like the large fissure opposite the entrance of
-the cave shown in Fig. 88.[196]
-
-The exploration was resumed the following year by Mr. Ayshford Sanford
-and myself, and yielded vast quantities of fossil remains. We cleared
-out the space marked 1863 in the plan, and discovered a flint implement
-at the point marked _d_, in Fig. 83. My friend the late Mr. Wickham
-Flower has also worked the cave, more particularly at the right-hand
-side of the entrance chamber.
-
-The ashes and implements were found in positions, near the mouth of
-the cave, where man himself may have placed them (see Figs. 83, 88),
-with the exception of the flint implement at _d_, and an ash of bone
-imbedded in the earthy matrix between the canine tooth and a coprolite
-of the hyæna, and cemented to a fragment of dolomitic conglomerate.
-This was found far in the cave, either at the entrance of the passage
-B, or in the middle of the passage D. The latter passage yielded the
-only rolled flint without traces of man’s handiwork. The materials
-out of which the implements were made were used pretty equally. All
-those, like Fig. 84, were of flint; all those chipped into a rounded
-form and flat-oval in section of chert from the Upper Greensand; while
-the flakes consisted of both used indifferently. Besides these three
-typical forms, which were most abundant, is a fourth, in form roughly
-pyramidal, with a smooth and flat base, and a cutting edge all round.
-Of these we found but two examples, both consisting of chert. In form
-they are exactly similar to several hundreds found in a British village
-at Stanlake, in Berkshire, and to those I discovered in a cemetery of
-the same age at Yarnton, near Oxford. They strongly resemble a cast I
-have of one found by M. Lartet in the cave of Aurignac. Were it not for
-this similarity, I should look upon them as cores from which flakes
-had been struck. The rest are mere splinters, irregular in form,
-and probably made in the manufacture of the various flint and chert
-implements. All the flint implements have been altered in colour and
-structure, either by heat or, as is more probable, by some chemical
-action. Without exception, the old surfaces present a waxy lustre (by
-the absence of which forgeries are easily detected), the colour is of
-a uniform milk-white, and the ordinary conchoidal fracture is replaced
-by that of porcelain. Some are not harder than chalk. I have met with
-weathered and calcined flints in Sussex in which similar changes are
-observable, and in which the difference in the results of chemical
-action and heat can hardly be detected. The chert implements, on the
-other hand, show no traces of any such changes, but are similar in
-colour and structure to the rocks from which they came--the Upper
-Greensand of the Blackdown Hills.
-
-All the fragments of calcined bone, with the exception of one already
-mentioned, were found near the entrance (see Fig. 83, _b_), and in
-a place more suitable for a fire than any other in the cave. I can
-identify none of them as human. The coarse texture, the structure,
-and the thickness of one indicate a fragment of a long bone of
-the rhinoceros.[197] All resemble many splinters strewn about in
-other parts of the cave, which are not calcined, but were evidently
-introduced by the hyænas. The calcination may therefore be due to the
-accident of their lying upon the surface at the time the fire was
-kindled.
-
-The remains obtained in 1862-3 from three to four thousand in number,
-afford a vivid picture of the animal life of the time in Somerset. They
-belong to the following animals, the numbers representing the jaws and
-teeth only, and the implements:--
-
-  Man                            35
-  Cave-Hyæna                    467
-  Cave-Lion                      15
-  Cave-Bear                      27
-  Grizzly Bear                   11
-  Brown Bear                     11
-  Wolf                            7
-  Fox                             8
-  Mammoth                        30
-  Woolly Rhinoceros             233
-  _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_         2
-  Horse                         401
-  The Great Urus                 16
-  Bison                          30
-  The Irish Elk                  35
-  Reindeer                       30
-  Red Deer                        2
-  Lemming                         1
-
-The remains of these animals were so intermingled that they must have
-been living together at the same time. They lie large with small, the
-more with the less dense, and are not in the least degree sorted by
-water. There is no evidence of the hyæna succeeding to the cave-bear,
-or the reindeer to the urus, or that the bears came here to die, as in
-some of the German caves, or that the herbivores fell, or were swept
-into open fissures, and left their remains, as in the caves of Hutton
-and Plymouth. On the contrary, the numerous jaws and teeth of hyæna,
-and the marks of those teeth upon nearly every one of the specimens,
-show that they alone introduced the remains that were found in such
-abundance. And they preyed not merely upon horses, uri, and other
-herbivores, but upon one another (Figs. 92, 93), and they even overcame
-the cave-bear and lion in their full prime. Some of the bones of the
-larger animals, and in particular a leg-bone of a gigantic urus, have
-been broken short across and not bitten through--a circumstance which
-points towards one of the causes of the vast accumulation of bones
-in so small a cave. It is well known that wolves and hyænas at the
-present day are in the habit of hunting in packs, and of forcing their
-prey over precipices. The Wookey ravine is admirably situated for this
-mode of hunting, and would not fail to destroy any animal forced into
-it from the hill-side. It is therefore very probable that the hyænas
-sometimes caught their prey in this manner. They would not have dared
-to attack the bears and lions unless these had been disabled.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Longitudinal Section through D of Fig. 83.
-Dotted area = bone-bed.]
-
-But if all the remains of the animals were introduced by the hyænas,
-they certainly in some cases do not occupy the exact position in which
-they were left by those animals. One of the bone layers (Fig. 91) for
-instance, actually touched the roof. This, indeed, has been used as
-an argument in favour of their having been introduced by water, from
-some unknown repository. But if this hypothesis be admitted, we are
-landed in the following dilemma: either the introducing current of
-water must have passed down the vertical passages, or upwards through
-the horizontal mouth of the cave. In the former case the three bone
-layers would not have been found in the narrow passages, but would
-have been swept out into the wide chamber, where the force of the
-hypothetical current must have abated. In the latter case the great
-bulk of the remains would have been found in the chamber, and not in
-the smaller passages. Moreover, the absence of marks of transport by
-water, and especially of that sorting action which water as a conveying
-agent always manifests, renders the view of their being so introduced
-untenable. On the other hand, the horizontality of the layers of bone,
-and the presence of sand and of red earth, imply that water was an
-agent in re-arranging the bones and in introducing some of the contents
-of the cave. The only solution of the difficulty that I can hazard is
-the occurrence of floods from time to time, during the occupation of
-the hyænas, similar to those which now take place in the caverns of the
-neighbourhood. A few years ago, the outlet of the Axe in the great cave
-was partially blocked up, and the water rose to a height of upwards of
-sixteen feet, leaving a horizontal deposit of red earth of the same
-nature as that in the hyæna-den. Now if we suppose that similar floods
-were caused by an obstruction in the ravine below the hyæna-den, it
-may have been flooded, just as the upper galleries of the great cave,
-and the water laden with sediment might have elevated the layers of
-matted bone, and some of the scattered remains on the surface, while
-the current was insufficient to disturb the stones, or to affect to
-any extent the deposits of former floods. The buoyancy of the organic
-remains is not required to be greater, on this hypothesis, than in
-that of their having been introduced by a current through the vertical
-passages. Some of the wet bones taken straight from the cave were
-sufficiently light to be carried down by the current of the Axe.
-
-All these facts taken together enable us to form a clear idea of
-the condition of things at the time the hyæna-den was inhabited.
-The hyænas were the normal occupants of the cave, and thither they
-brought their prey. We can realize those animals pursuing elephants and
-rhinoceroses along the slopes of the Mendip, till they scared them into
-the precipitous ravine, or watching until the strength of a disabled
-bear or lion ebbed away sufficiently to allow of its being overcome by
-their cowardly strength. Man appeared from time to time on the scene,
-a miserable savage armed with bow and spear, unacquainted with metals,
-but defended from the cold by coats of skin.[198] Sometimes he took
-possession of the den and drove out the hyænas; for it is impossible
-for both to have lived in the same cave at the same time. He kindled
-his fires at the entrance, to cook his food, and to keep away the wild
-animals; then he went away, and the hyænas came to their old abode.
-While all this was taking place there were floods from time to time
-until eventually the cave was completely blocked up with their deposits.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Gnawed jaw of Hyæna, from Hyæna-den at Wookey
-(1/2). Dotted outline = portion eaten.]
-
-The winter cold at the time must have been very severe to admit of the
-presence of the reindeer and lemming.
-
-
-_The district of the Mendip Hills at a higher level than now._
-
-When we reflect on the vast quantities of the remains of the animals
-buried in the caves of so limited an area as the Mendip Hills, it is
-evident that there must have been abundance of food to have enabled
-them to live in the district. The great marsh now extending from Wells
-to the sea, and cutting off the Mendips from the fertile region to the
-south, was probably a rich valley at a higher level than at present,
-joining the westward plains now submerged under the Bristol Channel. An
-elevation of from 100 to 300 feet would produce the physical conditions
-necessary for the sustenance of the herbivora found in the caves both
-in South Wales and Somersetshire.
-
-
-_The characters of a Hyæna-den._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 93.--A and B, upper and lower jaws of Hyæna-whelp,
-Wookey.]
-
-The remains of the animals which have been eaten by the cave-hyæna,
-may be recognized by the following characters. All are more or less
-scored by teeth, and the only perfect bones are those which are solid,
-or of very dense texture. The skulls are represented merely by the
-harder portions. That of the woolly rhinoceros, for example, by the
-hard pedestal which supports the anterior horn (see Fig. 30). Several
-of these pedestals occurred in the Wookey hyæna-den. The lower jaws
-also have lost their angle and coronoid process, and are gnawed to
-the pattern of the shaded portion of Fig. 92, the less succulent part
-bearing the teeth being rejected. This holds good of the jaws of all
-the animals so persistently, that out of more than two hundred from
-Wookey there was only one exception. The jaw of the glutton (Fig. 82),
-from Plas Heaton, is also gnawed to the same shape, and one of those
-of the cave-bear from the cavern of Lherm, considered by M. Garrigou
-to have been fashioned by the hand of man into an implement, seems to
-me, after a careful comparison in company with Dr. Falconer, referable
-solely to the gnawing of the hyæna. In Fig. 92, the lower jaw of an
-adult hyæna is represented, and in Fig. 93 (1) the upper and lower
-jaws of a hyæna-whelp. In the latter the teeth marks _a_ and _b_ are
-remarkably distinct.[199]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Left Thigh-bone of Woolly Rhinoceros gnawed by
-Hyænas; Shaded parts left. (Wookey Hole.)]
-
-The marrow-containing bones are also universally splintered away,
-until either the articular ends alone are left, as in Fig. 80, or in
-some cases, as in that of the femur of woolly rhinoceros (Fig. 94),
-the dense central portion bearing the third trochanter is preserved.
-This fragment is extremely abundant in nearly all the hyæna-caves in
-this country. From the invariable habit of the hyæna leaving the bones
-of its prey in fragments of this kind, their dens are characterized
-by the absence of perfect long-bones and skulls, and consequently,
-when these occur in a cave it is certain proof that it was not
-occupied by these animals. In a great many caves, however, the gnawed
-fragments are associated with the perfect bones, as, for example, at
-Banwell, a circumstance that may be accounted for by the untouched
-carcases and the gnawed fragments being swept in from the surface by a
-stream falling into a swallow-hole. In all hyæna-dens also are large
-quantities of _album græcum_, as well as fragments of bone more or less
-polished by the friction of the hyæna’s feet.
-
-
-_The Caves of Devonshire._
-
-The ossiferous caves on the south coast of Devonshire, explored during
-the last fifty years, are by far the most important in this country,
-since they were the first which were scientifically examined, and
-the first which established the co-existence of man with the extinct
-mammalia.
-
-We owe the full details of their history to the labours of the
-distinguished cave-hunter Mr. Pengelly, F.R.S.,[200] whose writings are
-freely used in the following account.
-
-
-_The Oreston Caves._
-
-The first intimation of the presence of fossil bones in the district
-was furnished by Mr. Whidbey, the engineer in charge of the
-construction of the Plymouth breakwater, who discovered numerous
-bones and teeth, imbedded in clayey loam, in some cavernous fissures
-at Oreston, which were brought before the Royal Society by Sir
-Everard Home in 1817. Thus Dr. Buckland’s researches in Kirkdale were
-anticipated by four years. From time to time, since that date, several
-other fissures and caves close by have furnished remains of rhinoceros,
-mammoth, hyæna, lion, and other animals. Among the bones and teeth
-originally sent up by Mr. Whidbey are several which were identified by
-Prof. Busk,[201] as belonging to the _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, a species
-that is vastly abundant in the pleiocene strata of northern Italy and
-is also represented in the early pleistocene forest-bed of Norfolk and
-Suffolk, and in the lower brickearths of the valley of the Thames at
-Grays and Crayford. This is the only case on record of the discovery of
-the animal in a cavern deposit.
-
-The cavernous fissures in the neighbourhood of Yealmpton,[202] about
-seven miles east-south-east from Plymouth, explored by Mr. Bellamy and
-Colonel Mudge, R.A., F.R.S. in 1835-6, contained the remains of the
-hyæna and rhinoceros, and the other animals more usually associated
-with them. They were probably filled, as in the case of Oreston, mainly
-by the streams which introduced the pebbles. They may, however, from
-time to time have been inhabited by the hyænas, although the presence
-of three skulls of that animal forbids the supposition that they
-dragged in all the fossil bones.
-
-
-_The Caves at Brixham._
-
-The series of fissures accidentally discovered in 1858, in quarrying
-the rock which overlooks the little fishing town of Brixham, known as
-the Windmill cave, was selected by the late Dr. Falconer,[203] as a
-spot in which thorough investigation would be likely to decide the then
-doubtful question of the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia.
-Kent’s Hole had been disturbed by repeated diggings, and the results
-might be viewed with suspicion. He, therefore, urged the importance of
-a systematic examination of this virgin cave with such effect, that it
-was undertaken by the Royal and Geological Societies, and a committee
-was appointed, comprising, amongst others, Dr. Falconer, Prof. Ramsay,
-Mr. Prestwich, Sir Charles Lyell, Prof. Owen, Mr. Godwin-Austen, and
-Mr. Pengelly. To the superintendence of the last is mainly due the
-minute care with which the exploration was conducted. The remains have
-been identified by Dr. Falconer and Prof. Busk. The work was commenced
-in July 1858, and completed in the summer of 1859.[204]
-
-The cave consists of three principal galleries, with diverging
-passages, running in the direction of the joints from north to south,
-and from east to west, communicating with the surface at four points.
-The following is the general section (Fig. 95) of the deposits in
-descending order.
-
-(A.) On the floor was a layer of stalagmite, varying from a few inches
-to upwards of a foot in thickness, and containing only twenty-five
-bones, among which were the humerus of a bear, and the antler of a
-reindeer.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Diagram of Deposits in Brixham Cave.
-(Pengelly.)]
-
-(B.) Reddish cave-earth with fragments and blocks of limestone, and
-of stalagmite, generally averaging from two to four feet. In it 1,102
-bones were discovered irregularly scattered through its mass, and
-belonging to mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, lion, cave, grizzly, and brown
-bears, reindeer, and others. They varied in state of preservation, and
-some were scored and marked by teeth. Associated with these, thirty-six
-rude flint implements were met with, of indisputable human workmanship,
-and of the same general order as those figured by the Rev. J. MacEnery
-from Kent’s Hole. Among them was one lanceolate implement with rounded
-point and unworked butt end, considered by Mr. John Evans, F.R.S.,
-of the type of those usually found in the valley gravels.[205] There
-was, therefore, the most conclusive evidence that man inhabited the
-neighbourhood, either before or during the time of the accumulation of
-B, and before those physical changes took place by which the red silt
-ceased to be deposited, or the stalagmite above began to be formed.
-
-(C.) At the bottom of the cave-earth was a deposit of gravel,
-principally of rounded pebbles and devoid of fossils.
-
-The early history of the cave, as shown by these deposits, is given
-by Mr. Prestwich, in the report presented to the Royal Society, as
-follows:--
-
-“Looking at all the phenomena of Brixham cave, the conclusion your
-reporter has arrived at is, that the formation of the cave commenced
-and was carried on simultaneously with the excavation of the valley;
-that the small streams flowing down the upper tributary branches of
-the valley entered the western openings of the cave and, traversing
-the fissures in the limestone, escaped by lower openings in the chief
-valley, just as the Grotto d’Arcy was formed by an overflow from the
-cave taking a short cut through the limestone hills, round which the
-river winds. These tributary streams brought in the shingle bed (Fig.
-95, C), which fills the bottom of the fissure. It was only during
-occasional droughts, when the streams were dry, that the cave seems
-to have been frequented by animals, their remains being very scarce
-in that bed, while indications of man are comparatively numerous. As
-the excavation of the valley proceeded, the level of the stream was
-lowered and became more restricted to the valley-channel. The cave
-consequently became drier, and was more resorted to by predatory
-animals, who carried in their prey to devour, and was less frequented
-by man. At the same time with the periodical floods, which there is
-every reason to believe, from other investigations, were so great
-during the quaternary period, the cave would long continue to be
-subject to inundations, the muddy waters of which deposited the silt
-forming the cave-earth, burying progressively the bones left from
-season to season by succeeding generations of beasts of prey. By the
-repetition at distant intervals of these inundations, and by the
-accumulation during the intervening periods of fresh crops of bones,
-the bone-bearing cave-earth, B, was gradually formed. During this time
-the occasional visits of man are indicated by the rare occurrence of
-a flint implement, lost, probably, as he groped his way through the
-dark passages of the cave. As the valley became deeper, and as with the
-change of climate at the close of the (pleistocene) quaternary period
-the floods became less, so did the cave become drier and more resorted
-to by animals. At last it seems to have become a place for permanent
-resort for bears; their remains in all stages of growth, including
-even sucking cubs, were met with in the upper part of the cave-earth,
-in greater numbers than were the bones of any other animals. These
-animals resorted especially to the darker and more secluded flint-knife
-gallery, where 221 out of 366 of their determinable bones were found,
-whereas only twenty-six were met with in the reindeer gallery.
-
-“Finally, as the cave became out of the reach of the flood waters, the
-drippings from the roof, which up to this period had, with the single
-exception before mentioned, been lost in the accumulating cave-earth,
-or deposited in thin calcareous incrustations on the exposed bones,
-now commenced that deposit of stalagmite which sealed up and preserved
-undisturbed the shingle and cave-earth deposited under former and
-different conditions. The cave, however, still continued to be
-the occasional resort of beasts of prey; for sparse remains of the
-reindeer, together with those of the bear and rhinoceros, were found in
-the stalagmite floor. After a time the falling in of the roof at places
-(and any earthquake movement may have detached blocks from it), and the
-external surface weathering, stopped up some parts of the cave, and
-closed its entrances with an accumulation of débris. From that time it
-ceased to be accessible, except to the smaller rodents and burrowing
-animals, and so remained unused and untrodden until its recent
-discovery and exploration.”[206]
-
-Mr. Pengelly points out[207] an episode in the history of the cave,
-between the formation and the filling up with its present contents,
-which is of considerable importance, viewed in relation to the deposits
-in Kent’s Hole. Over the empty space in D, of Fig. 95, is an ancient
-stalagmite floor, E, constituting the present ceiling, and shutting off
-D from the true roof above, E. At the time this was formed, the cave
-must have been filled up to that level with débris, fragments of which
-are set in the inferior portion of the calcareous sheet. Subsequently,
-and before the present contents, A and B, were introduced, the whole
-of this material has been swept away, probably by an unusual flood
-similar to that alluded to in the second chapter in the Clapham cave.
-The pieces of stalagmite in the cave-earth are, probably, some of
-the relics of the older floor. This filling up, re-excavating, and
-re-filling with its present contents, are phenomena which considerably
-complicate the problems offered not merely by Brixham cave, but also
-by those of Kent’s Hole.
-
-Two other caverns in the neighbourhood of Brixham, the “Ash Hole” and
-“Bench,” have also yielded the remains of the reindeer, hyæna, and
-several other pleistocene species, and are fully described by Mr.
-Pengelly, in his essays contributed to the Devonshire Association.[208]
-
-
-_Kent’s Hole._
-
-The celebrated cave of Kent’s Hole,[209] known from time immemorial,
-was first found to contain fossil bones by Mr. Northmore, and Sir
-W. C. Trevelyan in 1824, and was subsequently explored by the Rev. J.
-MacEnery in the five following years, during which he met with flint
-implements in association with the extinct animals in the undisturbed
-strata, and obtained the teeth of the sabre-toothed feline, named by
-Prof. Owen _Machairodus latidens_, which has never before or since
-been discovered in any other cavern in Britain. His manuscripts
-unfortunately were not used until they passed into the hands of Mr.
-Vivian, of Torquay, who published an abstract in 1859. Subsequently
-they were published in full by Mr. Pengelly, in 1869. The discovery of
-the flint implements, verified by Mr. Godwin Austen in 1840, and six
-years later also by a committee of the Torquay Natural History Society,
-was received with incredulity by the scientific world, until the result
-of the exploration of the Brixham cave had placed the fact of the
-co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia beyond all doubt. In
-1864 a committee[210] was appointed by the British Association for the
-carrying on the investigation, which from that time to the present has
-been conducted under the careful supervision of Mr. Pengelly.
-
-The cave consists of two parallel series of chambers and galleries,
-an eastern and a western, which penetrate the low cliff of Devonian
-limestone in the direction of the joints, with a northern and southern
-entrance, very nearly at the same level, “about fifty feet apart, from
-180 to 190 feet above the level of mean tide, and about seventy feet
-above the bottom of the valley immediately adjacent.” The largest
-chamber of the eastern series is sixty-two feet from east to west, and
-fifty-three from north to south. The extent of the cave has not yet
-been ascertained.
-
-The contents, examined with the minutest care (on Mr. Pengelly’s
-method, see Appendix I.), were found to be arranged in the following
-order.
-
-(A.) The surface was composed of dark earth varying in thickness from
-a few inches to a foot, on which rested large blocks of limestone,
-fallen from the roof. It contained mediæval remains, Roman pottery,
-and combs fashioned out of bone, similar to those discovered in the
-Victoria and Dowkerbottom caves in Yorkshire, which prove that the cave
-was frequented during the historic period. A barbed iron spear-head,
-a bronze spear-head, other bronze articles, and polished stone celts,
-establish the fact that it was also used during the iron, bronze,
-and neolithic ages. This stratum contained the broken bones of the
-short-horn (_Bos longifrons_), goat, and horse, large quantities of
-charcoal, and was to a great extent a refuse-heap like that in the
-Victoria cave.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Lanceolate Implement from Kent’s Hole (1/1).
-(Evans.)[211]]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Oval Implement from Kent’s Hole (1/1) (Evans.)]
-
-(B.) Below this was a stalagmite floor, varying in thickness from one
-to three feet, covering
-
-(C.) The red earth, with stones, bones of the extinct animals, and
-flint implements, associated together in the greatest confusion, as
-well as large lumps of stalagmite and of breccia, which had been torn
-out of a pre-existent floor. In the “vestibule,” near one of the
-entrances, a black layer beneath the stalagmite, composed, to a great
-extent, of charcoal, indicated the position of the fire-places, and
-contained a vast number of rude unpolished palæolithic implements.
-There were also local stalagmitic bands. The flint implements were
-met with at various depths, and consist of three distinct types: the
-lanceolate, Fig. 96, the oval, with edge carefully chipped for cutting,
-Fig. 97, and the flake (see Fig. 106). Besides these a few implements
-have been discovered of the same shape as those found in the gravel
-beds; in outline and section roughly triangular, and tapering to a
-point from a blunt base, which was probably intended to be held in the
-hand.[212] Several articles of bone and antler were also met with,
-comprising an awl, or piercer, a needle with the eye large enough to
-admit small packthread, and three harpoon-heads, one of which is barbed
-on both sides (Fig. 98), the others being merely barbed on one side
-(Fig. 99). A rounded pebble of coarse red sandstone, battered into a
-cheese-like form, by being used as a hammer (Fig. 100), was also found.
-All these articles bring the palæolithic inhabitants of Kent’s Hole
-into relation with those of the caves and rock-shelters of the south
-of France, to be described in the next chapter.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Harpoon from Kent’s Hole (1/1). (Evans.)]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Harpoon-head from Kent’s Hole (1/1). (Evans.)]
-
-(D.) The cave-earth rested on a compact, dark red breccia composed of
-angular fragments of limestone and pebbles of sandstone embedded in a
-sandy calcareous paste, identical in constitution with the fragments
-of the older breccia discovered in the cave-earth. It has furnished
-bones of bears, and four flint implements. The cave-earth, C, and the
-breccia, E, seem to stand to one another in an inverse ratio as regards
-thickness: where the former was thin, the latter was sometimes as much
-as twelve feet thick. From this relation, as well as from the imbedded
-fragments of the latter, it may be concluded that the former is the
-more modern, and that in the interval between their accumulation the
-latter had been, to a considerable extent, broken up.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Hammer-stone (1/2). (Evans.)]
-
-There is very good reason for the belief, that before any of the
-present cave-earth was introduced, Kent’s Hole had been filled nearly
-to the roof by an older cave accumulation, now represented by the
-undisturbed breccia and the included fragments. In a portion of the
-cave termed the “gallery,” there is a sheet of stalagmite, extending
-overhead from wall to wall, and constituting a ceiling that reaches
-from wall to wall, without further support than that offered by its
-own cohesion. Above it, in the limestone rock, there is a considerable
-alcove. This branch of the cavern, therefore, is divided into three
-stories or flats, that below the floor occupied with cave-earth, that
-between the floor and the ceiling entirely unoccupied, and that above
-the ceiling also without a deposit of any kind. For such a sheet of
-stalagmite to have been formed it is absolutely necessary for the cave
-to have been filled up to its level with materials of some kind, just
-as it is necessary for the formation of a film of ice that it should be
-crystallized from the surface of water. We may, therefore, infer that
-Kent’s Hole, like Brixham, was originally filled up to the level of the
-ceiling (see Fig. 95, E), then that the contents were swept out, with
-the exception of the breccia, and lastly, that the present cave-earth
-was introduced. The occurrence of the remains of bear, and of flint
-implements, in this breccia also proves that man and bears were living
-in the district, while it was being accumulated, probably by the action
-of the floods to which, from time to time, the cave was subjected. All
-the flint implements in the breccia are of the ruder and larger form
-which is presented by those from the pleistocene deposits of the Somme,
-Seine, and the rivers of the south and east of England.
-
-While engaged in the identification of the mammals in 1869, with
-Mr. W. A. Sanford, I detected splinters of bears’ canines, from the
-cave-earth, remarkable for their density, crystalline structure, and
-semi-conchoidal fracture, which were in the same mineral state as those
-from the older breccia. One of these had been fashioned into a flake
-after its mineralization, and presented an edge chipped by use. The
-tooth from which it was struck was, probably, imbedded and mineralized
-in the older breccia, then washed out of it, and afterwards chosen for
-the manufacture of an implement. It was already fossil and altered in
-structure in the palæolithic age.
-
-
-_The probable Age of the Machairodus of Kent’s Hole._
-
-The most remarkable animal discovered in the cave, by the Rev. J.
-MacEnery, is the _Machairodus latidens_,[213] or large lion-like
-animal, armed with double-edged canines, in shape like the blade of a
-sabre, and with two serrated edges. Five canines and two incisors were
-dug out of the cave-earth, C, in the Wolf’s Passage, along with vast
-quantities of bones and teeth of the mammoth, rhinoceros, Irish elk,
-horse, and hyæna. One of the canines is represented in Figs. 101, 102,
-which are taken from one of the original plates drawn for Dr. Buckland,
-and now in the Museum of the Torquay Natural History Society. The two
-incisors, Figs. 103, 104, 105, are also characterised by their serrated
-edges. A third was discovered by the exploration committee in the same
-spot, in 1872, scarcely to be distinguished from that in Figs. 103,
-104, which finally dispelled the scepticism of some eminent naturalists
-as to whether any of these teeth had been obtained in the cave by the
-Rev. J. MacEnery.
-
-[Illustration: FIGS. 101, 102.--Upper Canine of Machairodus, Kent’s
-Hole (1/1). (MacEnery.)]
-
-The _Machairodus latidens_ has been found in pleistocene strata in two
-localities in France: in a deposit of diluvium, near Puy, by M. Aymard,
-and in the cavern of Baume in the Jura, considered by M. Lartet to
-be of preglacial age.[214] In the latter it was associated with the
-horse, ox, wild-boar, elephant, a non-tichorine species of rhinoceros,
-the cave-bear, and the spotted hyæna. In the autumn of 1873, I met
-with proof that the animal also lived in France in the pleiocene
-period. M. Lortet, the Director of the Museum of Natural History, at
-Lyons, called my attention to a canine, in the Palais des Beaux Arts,
-which coincides exactly in all its dimensions with one of those from
-Kent’s Hole. It was found at Chagny (Saône et Loire) near Dijon, along
-with _Mastodon arvernensis_, the Etruscan or megarhine species of
-rhinoceros, horse, beaver and hyæna, somewhat resembling that from
-the Crag (_Hyæna antiqua_) of Suffolk described by Mr. Lankester. The
-species, therefore, is pleiocene, and it belongs to a genus which is
-widely distributed in the meiocene strata of Europe and North America,
-as well as in the pleiocene of Europe.
-
-To what era in the complicated history of Kent’s Hole is this animal
-to be assigned? The more ancient, or the more modern? The evidence on
-this point is, to a certain extent, contradictory. On the one hand it
-is a pleiocene species, belonging to a group of animals that inhabited
-Europe before the lowering of the temperature caused the invasion
-of the arctic mammalia from the north and the east: it is moreover
-of a distinctly southern type. In the teeth marks on the incisors,
-Figs. 103, 104, 105, as well as on the canines, we have unmistakeable
-traces of the presence of the hyæna; and since the spotted hyæna
-abounds in the cave, to its teeth the marks in question may probably
-be referred. It seems, therefore, probable that the animal inhabited
-Devonshire during an early stage of the pleistocene period, before
-the arctic invaders had taken full possession of the valley of the
-English Channel, and of the low grounds which now lie within the
-100-fathom line off the Atlantic shore of Western France. There must
-necessarily have been a swinging to and fro of animal life over the
-great, fertile low-lying region, which is now submerged (see Map,
-Fig. 126); and before the temperature of France had been sufficiently
-lowered to exterminate or drive out the southern forms, it is most
-natural to suppose that in warm seasons some of the southern mammalia
-would find their way northwards, and especially a formidable carnivore
-such as the machairodus. The extreme rarity of its remains forbids
-the hypothesis that it was a regular inhabitant of Britain during the
-pleistocene age.
-
-[Illustration: FIGS. 103, 104, 105.--Incisors of Machairodus, Kent’s
-Hole (1/1). (MacEnery.)[215]]
-
-On the other hand, the recent discovery of a second incisor in the
-uppermost portion of the cave-earth, in July 1872, in the same
-condition as the remains usually found, and associated with the bones
-and teeth of hyæna, horse, and bear, is considered by Sir Charles Lyell
-and Mr. Pengelly proof of the animal having lived during the deposition
-of the later cave-earth, or in the later stage of the pleistocene.
-The condition of a bone, however, is a very fallacious guide to its
-antiquity, and although the fragments of the older contents of the cave
-are in a different mineral state, it is improbable that the ossiferous
-contents of so large a cave should have been mineralized exactly in
-the same way. Nor is an appeal to its perfect state conclusive, since
-several teeth of bear, which I have examined from the breccia, are
-equally perfect.
-
-The view of the high antiquity of machairodus in Kent’s Hole derives
-support from the discovery of _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ at Oreston, a
-species which is very abundant in the Italian pleiocene strata, and
-not uncommon in those of France,--a species with its headquarters in
-the south, but ranging as far north as Norfolk in the early stage of
-the pleistocene age, represented by the forest bed of Cromer, and that
-lived in the valley of the Thames, while the gravel-beds of Crayford
-and Grays Thurrock were being deposited by the ancient river. The
-occurrence of either of these animals in a cave is exceptional, and
-the presence of both in caves on the edge of the great plain extending
-southwards from the present coastline of Devon, seems to me to imply
-that both were open during the early stage of the pleistocene, while
-the pleiocene mammalia were retreating before the southward advance
-of the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, spotted hyæna, reindeer, and their
-congeners, at a time anterior to the lowering of the temperature that
-culminated in the glacial period. For these reasons it seems to me
-probable that the machairodus belongs to an early rather than a late
-stage in the history of Kent’s Hole.
-
-There is an important point of resemblance between the mode of the
-occurrence of the machairodus in Kent’s Hole, and of the megarhine
-rhinoceros at Oreston. The remains of both were met with only _in
-one spot_, and were not scattered through the chambers and passages.
-It may have happened that in the physical changes which those caves
-have undergone, both were preserved in a fissure like that described
-in the Uphill cave (p. 294), and that subsequently they dropped
-down and became imbedded in a newer deposit. In fixing the age of
-strata in caves it seems to me that the zoological evidence is of far
-greater weight than that of mere position, which may be the result of
-accidental circumstances.
-
-
-_The Caves of Ireland._
-
-The caves of Ireland would probably afford as rich a fauna as those
-of Britain, had they been explored with equal care. In one at
-Shandon, near Dungarvan, Waterford, remains of the brown bear (_U.
-arctos_) reindeer, horse, and mammoth were discovered in 1859, by Mr.
-Brenan.[216] The first of these animals became extinct in Ireland
-before the historic period, while it survived in Britain at least as
-late as the Roman occupation.
-
-The cave-bear is also recorded by Dr. Carte,[217] from the same place,
-but the thigh bone assigned to it seems to me to belong to the brown,
-or common species. The mammoth, so abundant in Britain, has only been
-discovered in two other localities in Ireland, at Whitechurch near
-Dungarvan, and at Magherry near Belturbet.[218]
-
-The range of these animals over Great Britain and Ireland in the
-pleistocene age enables us to realize the ancient physical geography,
-which will be treated in the next and following chapters as part of the
-general question of the physical condition of north-western Europe at
-that time.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER IX.
-
-  THE INHABITANTS OF THE CAVES OF NORTH-WESTERN EUROPE, AND THE
-    EVIDENCE OF THE FAUNA AS TO THE ATLANTIC COASTLINE.
-
-  The Caves of France, Baume, of Périgord.--Caves and Rock-shelters
-    of Belgium, Trou de Naulette.--Caves of Switzerland.--
-    Cave-dwellers and Palæolithic Men of River-deposits.--
-    Classification of Palæolithic Caves.--Relation of Cave-dwellers
-    to Eskimos.--Pleistocene animals living north of Alps and
-    Pyrenees.--Relation of Cave to River-bed Fauna.--The Atlantic
-    Coastline.--Distribution of Palæolithic Implements.
-
-
-_The Caves of France._
-
-The caves of France have been proved, by the explorations carried on
-during the course of the present century, to contain the same animals,
-introduced under the same conditions as those which we have already
-described. Some species, however, have been met with which have not
-been discovered in this country. In the cave of Lunel-viel, for
-example, the common striped hyæna of Africa (_Hyæna striata_) has been
-found by Marcel de Serres, to whom belongs the credit of being the
-first systematic explorer of caverns in France. In that of Bruniquel,
-the ibex, now found only in the higher mountains in Europe, the chamois
-and the _Antelope saiga_, an animal inhabiting the plains of the
-region of the Volga and of southern Siberia, have been identified by
-Prof. Owen; while in the collection obtained by Mr. Moggridge from the
-caves of Mentone, Prof. Busk has recognized the marmot. With these
-exceptions there is no distinction between the faunas of the bone-caves
-of this country and of France.[219]
-
-
-_The Cave of Baume._
-
-The _Machairodus latidens_,[220] or great sabre-toothed feline of
-Kent’s Hole, has been discovered in the cave of Baume in the Jura,
-according to M. Gervais,[221] along with the horse, ox, wild-boar,
-elephant, a non-tichorhine species of rhinoceros, the spotted hyæna,
-and the cave-bear, or the same group of animals as that with which it
-is found in Kent’s Hole. The cave is considered by M. Lartet[222] to be
-of preglacial age.
-
-
-_The Caves of Périgord._
-
-The caves and rock-shelters of Périgord, explored by the late M.
-Lartet and our countryman, Mr. Christy,[223] 1863-4, have not only
-afforded cumulative proof of the co-existence of man with the extinct
-mammalia, but have given us a clue as to the race to which he belonged.
-They penetrate the sides of the valleys of the Dordogne and Vezère at
-various levels, as may be seen in Fig. 71, and are full of the remains
-left behind by their ancient inhabitants, which give as vivid a picture
-of the human life of the period, as that revealed of Italian manners
-in the first century by the buried cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii.
-The old floors of human occupation consist of broken bones of animals
-killed in the chase, mingled with rude implements, weapons of bone, and
-unpolished stone, and charcoal and burnt stones which point out the
-position of the hearths.
-
-Flakes (Fig. 106) without number, rude stone-cutters, awls,
-lance-heads, hammers, saws made of flint or of chert, rest pêle-mêle
-with bone needles, sculptured reindeer antlers, engraved stones,
-arrow-heads, harpoons, and pointed bones, and with the broken remains
-of the animals which had been used as food, the reindeer, bison, horse,
-the ibex, the saiga antelope, and the musk sheep. In some cases the
-whole is compacted by a calcareous cement into a hard mass, fragments
-of which are to be seen in the principal museums of Europe. This
-strange accumulation of débris marks, beyond all doubt, the place where
-ancient hunters had feasted, and the broken bones and implements are
-merely the refuse cast aside. The reindeer formed by far the larger
-portion of the food, and must have lived in enormous herds at that time
-in the centre of France. The severity of the climate at the time may be
-inferred by the presence of this animal, as well as by the accumulation
-of bones on the spots on which man had fixed his habitation. Indeed,
-had not this been the case, the decomposition of so much animal matter
-would have rendered the place uninhabitable even by the lowest savage.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Flint-flake, Les Eyzies (1/1). (Lartet and
-Christy.)
-
-FIG. 107.--Flint Scraper, Les Eyzies (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)
-
-FIG. 108.--Flint Javelin-head, Laugerie Haute (1/1). (Lartet and
-Christy.)]
-
-Besides the animals mentioned above, the cave-bear and lion have been
-met with in one, and the mammoth in five localities, and their remains
-bear marks of cutting or scraping, which show that they fell a prey to
-hunters. The Irish elk, also, and the hyæna occur respectively in the
-cave of Laugerie Basse, and of Moustier, but the latter certainly did
-not gain access to the refuse-heaps, because the vertebræ are intact
-which it is in the habit of eating. For the same reason also, M.
-Lartet infers that the hunters were not aided in the chase by the dog.
-There is no evidence that they were possessed of any domestic animal.
-There were no spindle wheels to indicate a knowledge of spinning, nor
-potsherds to show an acquaintance with the potter’s art. In both these
-respects they resemble the Fuegians, Eskimos, and Australians, and
-contrast strongly with the neolithic races.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 109.--Flint Arrow-head, Laugerie Haute (1/1).
-(Lartet and Christy.)]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Bone needle, La Madelaine (1/1). (Lartet and
-Christy.)]
-
-The broken bones show that the reindeer furnished the more usual food,
-and next to that the horse, and then the bison. And from the absence
-of the vertebræ and pelvic bones of the two latter animals, M. Lartet
-concludes that they were cut up where they were killed, and the meat
-stripped from the backbone and the pelvis. Their food was probably
-cooked by boiling, the number of round stones used for heating water
-and bearing marks of fire, like the “pot boilers” of some of the
-American Indians, being very considerable.
-
-Among the stone implements flint flakes were incredibly numerous, and
-the number of chips scattered about as well as the blocks of flint
-from which they had been struck, proved that they had been made on the
-spot; most of these flakes were notched by use (Fig. 106). Instruments
-with the ends carefully rounded off (Fig. 107) were also abundant, and
-from their analogy with similar instruments used by the Eskimos, there
-can be but little doubt that they were intended for the preparation
-of skins (compare Fig. 107 with Fig. 124). The ends of some were
-chipped to a point for insertion into a handle, while others rounded
-at both ends were probably used freely in the hand. In the cave of
-Moustier oval implements were met with, resembling those figured from
-the caverns of Kent’s Hole and Wookey (Figs. 84 and 97). The spear,
-javelin, and arrow-heads of flint presented two modes of attachment to
-the shaft, the base of some being squared off with a notch above for
-the ligature (as in Fig. 108), while in others (Fig. 109) it tapered
-off into a point intended for insertion. This latter form has been
-obtained also in Kent’s Hole.
-
-The bone needles are carefully smoothed, and were pierced with a
-neatly-made eye (Fig. 110) by means of pointed flakes which were
-found along with them, and the use of which M. Lartet demonstrated
-by experiment. They had been sawn out of the compact metacarpals and
-tarsals of the reindeer[224] and the horse, and subsequently rounded
-on fragments of sandstone, the grooves of which fitted them. In this,
-therefore, we have not merely the evidence that the hunters were
-in the habit of sewing, but also we have vividly brought before us
-the very method by which their needles were manufactured. They were
-probably used for sewing skins together, the tendon of a reindeer
-forming the thread, as among the modern Eskimos.
-
-[Illustration: FIGS. 111, 112.--Harpoons of Antler, La Madelaine.
-(Lartet and Christy.)
-
-FIGS. 113, 114.--Arrow-heads, Gorge d’Enfer. (Broca.)
-
-FIG. 115.--Bone Awl, Gorge d’Enfer (1/1). (Broca.)]
-
-The heads of arrows and lances are made principally out of reindeer
-antler, and are barbed, the barbs generally being grooved, and carved
-on both sides of the axis (Figs. 111, 112, 113); but in some cases,
-as in Fig. 114, the barbs are only on one side. Many bones and antlers
-are variously carved into shapes for which it is impossible to assign a
-definite use. Fig. 115 is a bone awl.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 116.--Carved Handle of Reindeer Antler (1/2).
-(Lartet and Christy.)]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 117.--Two sides of Reindeer Antler, La Madelaine
-(1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 118.--Horses engraved on Antler, La Madelaine
-(1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)]
-
-The most remarkable remains left behind by man in these refuse-heaps
-are the sculptured reindeer antlers, and the figures engraved on
-fragments of schist and on ivory. A well-defined outline of an ox
-stands out boldly from one piece of antler. A second presents us with
-a most elegant design: a reindeer is kneeling down in an easy attitude
-with its head thrown up in the air, so that the antlers rest on the
-shoulders, and the back of the animal forms an even surface for a
-handle, which is too small to be grasped in an ordinary European hand
-(Fig. 116). In a third a man stands close to a horse’s head, and hard
-by is a fish like an eel; and on the other side of the same cylinder
-are two heads of bison, drawn with sufficient clearness to ensure
-recognition by anyone who had ever seen that animal (Fig. 117). On
-a fourth the natural curvature of one of the tines has been taken
-advantage of by the artist to engrave the head, and the characteristic
-recurved horns of the ibex; and on a fifth are figures of horses (Fig.
-118), in which the upright disheveled mane and shaggy ungroomed tail
-are represented with admirable spirit. At first sight it would appear
-that the artist had drawn the heads out of all proportion to the
-bodies. A horse’s skeleton, however, from the palæolithic “station”
-at Solutré, lately set up in the Museum at Lyons, proves that this is
-not the case, since, as M. Lortet pointed out to me, it is remarkable
-for its massive head, and small body. In Fig. 119 a group of reindeer
-are seen, two on their backs, and two in the act of walking. The
-Irish elk, red-deer, and probably rhinoceros, are also depicted, the
-figures upon the hard schist being feebly and uncertainly drawn, as
-might be expected from the character of the tools. The most clever
-sculptor of modern times would, probably, not succeed very much better
-if his graver was a splinter of flint, and stone and bone were the
-materials to be engraved. One peculiarity runs through the figures of
-animals. With but two exceptions none of the feet are represented, a
-circumstance which is probably due, as Mr. Franks has suggested to me,
-to the fact that the hunters merely represented what they saw of the
-animal, of which the feet would be concealed by the herbage.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 119.--Group of Reindeer, Dordogne. (Broca.)]
-
-The most striking figure that has been discovered is that of the
-mammoth,[225] Fig. 120, engraved on a fragment of its own tusk, the
-peculiar spiral curvature of the tusk and the long mane, which are not
-now to be found in any living elephant, proving that the original was
-familiar to the eye of the artist. The discovery of whole carcases of
-the animal in northern Siberia, preserved from decay in the frozen
-cliffs and morasses, has made us acquainted with the existence of
-the long hairy mane. Had not it thus been handed down to our eyes,
-we should probably have treated this most accurate drawing as a mere
-artist’s freak. Its peculiarities are so faithfully depicted that it is
-quite impossible for the animal to be confounded with either of the
-two living species. These drawings probably employed the idle hours of
-the hunter, and perpetuate the scenes which he witnessed in the chase.
-They are full of artistic feeling, and are evidently drawn from life.
-The mammoth is engraved on its own ivory, the reindeer generally on
-reindeer antler, and the stag on stag antler.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Mammoth engraved on Ivory, La Madelaine
-(1/2). (Lartet and Christy.)]
-
-From all these facts we must picture to our minds, that these ancient
-dwellers in the caves of Aquitaine lived by hunting and fishing, that
-they were acquainted with fire, and that they were clad with skins
-sewn together with sinews or strips of intestines. That they did not
-possess the dog is shown, not merely by the negative evidence of its
-not having been discovered, but also by the fact that the bones which
-it invariably eats, such as the vertebræ, are preserved. They did not
-possess any domestic animals, and there is no evidence that they were
-acquainted with the potter’s art. M. de Mortillet’s view, that the
-art of making pottery was unknown in the palæolithic age, seems to me
-to be probably true, the reputed cases of the discovery of potsherds
-being always connected with suspicious circumstances, which render it
-probable that they were subsequently introduced.
-
-Besides the remains of the animals in the refuse-heaps were fragmentary
-portions of human skeletons, which, however, were not scraped or broken
-so as to imply the practice of cannibalism.
-
-
-_Caves of Belgium._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 121.--Carved Implement of Reindeer Antler, Goyet
-(1/2). (Dupont.)]
-
-The researches of Dr. Schmerling[226] into the caves of Belgium, in
-1829-30, revealed the fact that the animals so abundant in the caves
-of Germany, were equally numerous in those in the neighbourhood of
-Liége, and the flint flakes, and the fragments of human bones, which
-he found may possibly be of palæolithic age. He also discovered
-the remains of the porcupine, a species no longer living north of
-the Alps and Pyrenees. The systematic exploration, however, of the
-palæolithic caves in that district was not carried out until, in the
-year 1864, M. Dupont[227] began the investigation of those in the
-neighbourhood of Dinant-sur-Meuse, on behalf of the Belgian Government.
-His results, based upon the examination of upwards of twenty caves
-and rock-shelters, are published in a series of papers read before
-the Royal Academy of Belgium and subsequently in a separate work.
-Besides the remains of the animals living in Belgium within the
-historic period, he met with the ibex, chamois, and marmot, which
-are now to be found only in the mountainous districts of Europe, the
-tailless hare, lemming, and arctic fox, of the northern regions, the
-_Antelope saiga_, grizzly bear, lion, hyæna, and others. Most of these
-species occurred in refuse accumulations, their remains being in the
-fragmentary condition of those of the French caves. The associated
-implements are of the same type as those of Périgord, and some of
-them are ornamented in the same manner as, for example, that from
-the cavern of Goyet, Fig. 121, termed a “bâton de commandement,” but
-which, from its analogy with similar articles in the British Museum,
-is most probably an arrow-straightener. Those of flint are also of the
-same kind, and in several of the caves there was the same association
-of fragmentary human remains with the relics of the feasts as in the
-French refuse-heaps.
-
-
-_Trou de Naulette._
-
-The human remains consisting of a lower jaw, ulna and metatarsal,
-discovered in the large cavern of Naulette,[228] on the left bank of
-the Lesse, in association with the broken remains of the rhinoceros,
-mammoth, reindeer, chamois, and marmot, are undoubtedly of palæolithic
-age, since they rested in an undisturbed stratum. M. Dupont gives the
-following section in descending order.
-
-                                                             METRES.
-  1. Sandy grey and yellow clay                               2·90
-  2. Yellow grey clay with stones and bones of ruminants      0·45
-  3. Stalagmite.
-  4. Tufa.
-  5. Three bands of clay alternating with stalagmite.
-  6. Sandy clay with human bones at the depth of four metres.
-  7. Stalagmite.
-  8. Cave-earth with bones gnawed by hyænas.
-
-The human jaw is remarkable for its prognathism, which, according to
-Dr. Hamy, is greater than that which has been observed in any living
-races. The cave had afforded shelter to the hyænas before it had been
-used by man.
-
-
-_The Caves of Switzerland._
-
-The caves of Switzerland also contain the same class of rude
-implements and carvings. Prof. Rupert Jones has called my attention
-to a recent discovery of carved reindeer antlers, and harpoon-heads,
-similar to those figured from the Dordogne, in a cave in the Canton
-of Schaaffhausen,[229] along with the bones of hyæna, reindeer, and
-mammoth. In that of Veyrier,[230] carved implements were found along
-with the remains of the ox, horse, chamois, and ibex, some of which,
-shown to me by Dr. Gosse, at the meeting of the French Association for
-the Advancement of Science, at Lyons in 1873, are of the same form and
-size as the arrow-straightener from the cave of Goyet (Fig. 121).
-
-We may, therefore, infer that the same palæolithic race of men once
-ranged over the whole region from the Pyrenees and Switzerland, as far
-to the north as Belgium. And since Prof. Fraas has obtained similar
-implements from a refuse-heap at Schussenreid in Würtemberg, they
-wandered as far to the east as that district, while the discoveries in
-Kent’s Hole and Wookey Hole prove that they extended as far to the west
-as Somersetshire and Devonshire.
-
-
-_Cave-dwellers and Palæolithic Men of the River-gravels._
-
-These palæolithic cave-dwellers are considered by Mr. Evans[231]
-to belong to the same race as those who have left their rude flint
-implements in the river-gravels in the valleys of the Thames, the
-Somme, the Seine, and in the eastern counties, as far to the north as
-Peterborough. We must, however, allow that a marked difference is to be
-observed between a series of flint implements found in the caves, as
-compared with a series found in the river-strata, although some forms
-are common to the two; as for instance some of those found in Brixham
-and Kent’s Hole. This difference can scarcely be explained on the
-supposition that the small things would be less likely to be preserved
-in the fluviatile deposits, because it leaves the rarity in the caves
-of the larger fluviatile forms unaccounted for. It is perhaps safer,
-in the present state of our knowledge, to consider the two sets to be
-distinct from each other. The direct superposition in Kent’s Hole of
-the stratum with the ordinary cave-type of implement, over that with
-the ordinary fluviatile type, may perhaps prove that the latter is the
-older.
-
-
-_Classification of Palæolithic Caves._
-
-The palæolithic caves are divided by M. Lartet[232] into four groups,
-according to the species of animals which they contain; into those
-of the age of the cave-bear, of the age of the mammoth and woolly
-rhinoceros, of the age of the reindeer, and of the age of bison. Dr.
-Hamy follows Sir John Lubbock,[233] in considering the age of the
-cave-bear to be co-extensive with that of the mammoth, and in the
-classification of caves he adopts a series of transitions. M. Dupont
-divides the caves of Belgium into those belonging to the age of the
-mammoth, and to that of the reindeer.
-
-It is easy to refer a given cave to the age of the reindeer or of the
-mammoth because it contains the remains of those animals, but the
-division has been rendered worthless for chronological purposes, by the
-fact that both these animals inhabited the region north of the Alps
-and Pyrenees at the same time, and are to be found together in nearly
-every bone-cave explored in that area. The difference between the
-contents of one palæolithic cave and another, is probably largely due
-to the fact that man could more easily catch some animals than others,
-as well as to the preference for one kind of food before another. And
-the abundance of the reindeer, which is supposed to characterise the
-reindeer period, may reasonably be accounted for by the fact, that it
-would be more easily captured by a savage hunter, than the mammoth,
-woolly rhinoceros, cave-bear, lion, or hyæna. The classification will
-apply, as I have shown in my essay on the pleistocene mammalia,[234]
-neither to the caves of this country, of Belgium, nor of France, and
-my views are shared by M. de Mortillet,[235] after a careful and
-independent examination of the whole evidence.
-
-The division of the caves also into ages, according to the various
-types of implements found in them, proposed by M. de Mortillet, seems
-to be equally unsatisfactory; for there is no greater difference in the
-implements of any two of the palæolithic caves, than is to be observed
-between those of two different tribes of Eskimos, while the general
-resemblance is most striking. The principle of classification by the
-relative rudeness, assumes that the progress of man has been gradual,
-and that the ruder implements are therefore the older. The difference,
-however, may have been due to different tribes, or families, having
-co-existed without intercourse with each other, as is now generally the
-case with savage communities; or to the supply of flint, chert, and
-other materials for cutting instruments, being greater in one region
-than in another.
-
-
-_Relation of Cave-dwellers to Eskimos._
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 122.--Eskimos Spear-head, bone (1/2).]
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Eskimos Arrow-straightener of Walrus Tooth
-(1/1). (Brit. Mus.)]
-
-Can these cave-dwellers be identified with any people now living on the
-face of the earth? or are they as completely without representatives as
-their extinct contemporaries, the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros?
-Absolute certainty we cannot hope to obtain on the point, but the
-cumulative evidence enables an answer to be given which is probably
-true. Along the American shore of the great Arctic Ocean, in the
-region of everlasting snow, dwell the Eskimos, living by hunting and
-fishing, speaking the same language, and using the same implements from
-the Straits of Behring on the west, to Greenland on the east. Their
-implements and weapons, brought home by the arctic explorers, enable us
-to institute a comparison with those found in the palæolithic caves.
-The harpoons in the Ashmolean collection at Oxford, brought over by
-Captain Beechey and Lieut. Harding from West Georgia, as well as those
-in the British Museum, are almost identical in shape and design with
-those from the caves of Aquitaine and Kent’s Hole; the only difference
-being that some of the latter have grooved barbs. The heads of the
-fowling and fishing spears, darts, and arrows, as well as the form of
-their bases for insertion into the shafts, are also identical (Fig.
-122), as may be seen from a comparison of Fig. 122 with Figs. 99 and
-114. The curiously carved instrument, Fig. 123, which the Eskimos use
-for straightening their arrows is variously ornamented with designs of
-animals, analogous to those cut on the reindeer antlers in Aquitaine;
-and if it be compared with the so-called “bâton de commandement,”
-Fig. 121, it will be seen, that the latter also was probably intended
-for the same purpose; the difference in the shape of the hole in the
-two figured specimens being also observable in the series of Eskimos
-arrow-straighteners in the British Museum, and being largely due to
-friction by use. Many of the implements are the same in form. An
-Eskimos stone scraper for preparing skins, or plane for smoothing wood,
-is represented in Fig. 124, which is inserted in a handle of fossil
-mammoth ivory, obtained from the frozen ice-cliffs on the shores of the
-Arctic sea. If it be compared with Fig. 107 from the caves, it will be
-seen to be of the same pattern. It is indeed not a little singular,
-that the handle in which it is imbedded should have been formed out of
-the tusks of the same species of elephant as that which was depicted by
-the palæolithic hunter (see Fig. 120), in the south of France.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Eskimos Plane or Scraper (1/1). (Lartet and
-Christy.)]
-
-Some of the Eskimos lance-heads of stone in the British Museum are of
-the same type as that figured from the caves of the Dordogne (Fig.
-108).
-
-The most remarkable objects brought home from the northern regions
-are the implements of bone and antler which are ornamented with the
-figures of animals hunted by the Eskimos on sea or land. On the side
-of one bow in the Ashmolean Museum, used for drilling holes, you see
-them harpooning the whale from their skin boats, and catching birds.
-On a second they are harpooning walrus and catching seals; on a third
-the seals are being dragged home. The huts in which they live, the
-tethered dogs, the boat supported on its platform, and their daily
-occupations are faithfully represented. One bow is ornamented with a
-large number of porpoises, while on another is a reindeer hunt in which
-the animals are being attacked while they are crossing a ford. On a
-bone implement in the British Museum from Fort Clarence, the reindeer
-are being shot down by archers (Fig. 125). The arrow straightener, Fig.
-123, is adorned with a reindeer hunting scene, in which the animals are
-seen browsing and unsuspicious of the approach of the hunters, who are
-advancing, clad in reindeer skins and wearing antlers on their heads.
-
-A comparison of these various designs with those from the caves of
-France and Belgium shows an identity of plan and workmanship, with this
-difference only, that the hunting scenes familiar to the palæolithic
-cave-dweller were not the same as those familiar to the Eskimos on
-the shores of the Arctic Ocean. Each sculptured the animals he knew,
-and the whale, walrus, and seal were unknown to the inland dwellers
-in Aquitaine, just as the mammoth, bison, and wild horse are unknown
-to the Eskimos. The reindeer, which they both knew, is represented in
-the same way by both. The West Georgians made their dirks of walrus
-tooth, and ornamented them with carvings of the backbones of fishes;
-the people of Aquitaine used for the same purpose reindeer antlers,
-and ornamented them with figures of that animal (see Fig. 116). And it
-is worthy of remark that the latter had sufficient artistic feeling to
-depict the mammoth on mammoth ivory, the reindeer generally on reindeer
-antler, and the stag on its own antler.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 125.--Eskimos Hunting-scene (1/1). (Fort Clarence.)]
-
-An appeal to the habits of these two peoples, now separated by so
-wide an interval of space and time, tends also to show that they
-are descended from the same stock. The method of accumulating large
-quantities of the bones of animals around their dwelling-places, and
-the habit of splitting the bones for the sake of the marrow, is the
-same in both. Their hides were prepared by the same sort of instruments
-and in the same manner, and the needles with which they were sewn
-together are of the same pattern. The few remains of man among the
-relics of feasts in the caves of Belgium and France, show the same
-disregard of sepulture as that implied by the human skulls lying about
-along with numerous bones of walrus, seal, dog, bear, and fox, in an
-Eskimos camp in Igloolik, which were carried away by Captain Lyon,
-without the slightest objection on the part of the relatives of the
-dead.
-
-All these facts can hardly be mere coincidences, caused by both peoples
-leading a savage life under similar circumstances: they afford reasons
-for the belief that the Eskimos of North America are connected by
-blood with the palæolithic cave-dwellers of Europe. To the objection
-that savage tribes living under similar conditions use similar
-instruments, and that, therefore, the correspondence of those of the
-Eskimos with those of the reindeer folk does not prove that they belong
-to the same race, the answer may be made, that there are no two savage
-tribes now living which use the same set of implements, without being
-connected by blood. The agreement of one or two of the more common and
-ruder instruments may be perhaps of no value in classification, but if
-a whole set agree, fitted for various uses, and some of them rising
-above the most common wants of savage life, we must admit that the
-argument as to race is of very great value. The implements found in
-Belgium, France, or Britain differ scarcely more from those now used in
-West Georgia, than the latter do from those now in use in Greenland or
-Melville Peninsula. The conclusion, therefore, seems inevitable, that
-so far as we have any evidence of the race to which the dwellers in
-the Dordogne belong, that evidence points only in the direction of the
-Eskimos.
-
-This conclusion is to a great extent confirmed by a consideration of
-the animals found in the caves. The reindeer and the musk sheep afford
-food to the Eskimos now, just as they afforded it to the palæolithic
-hunters in Europe. No naturalist would deny that the pleistocene musk
-sheep is of the same species as that of North America, and although the
-animal is extinct in Europe and Asia, its remains, scattered through
-Germany, Russia in Europe, and Siberia, show that it formerly ranged in
-the whole of that area. The enormous distance, therefore, of southern
-France from the northern shores of America, cannot be considered as
-an obstacle to this view, for, to say the least, palæolithic man would
-have had the same chance of retreating to the north-east as the musk
-sheep. The mammoth and bison have also been tracked by their remains in
-the frozen river gravels and morasses through Siberia, as far to the
-north-east as the American side of the Straits of Behring. Palæolithic
-man appeared in Europe with the arctic mammalia, lived in Europe
-along with them, and disappeared with them. And since his implements
-are of the same kind as those of the Eskimos, it may reasonably be
-concluded that he is represented at the present time by the Eskimos,
-for it is most improbable that the convergence of the ethnological,
-and zoological evidence should be an accident. These views,[236] which
-I advanced in 1866, have been to a great extent accepted by Sir John
-Lubbock in his last edition of Prehistoric Man.
-
-
-_Pleistocene Animals living to the North of the Alps and Pyrenees._
-
-The principal mammalia inhabiting Britain, France, and Germany during
-the pleistocene age, and contemporary with man in Europe, are given in
-the following table, which shows that the fauna of the region to the
-north of the Alps and Pyrenees was remarkably uniform. The cave-fauna
-of Provence, Italy, and Spain, will be treated of in the next chapter.
-
-  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
-  |                                                 King Arthur’s Cave|
-  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ |
-  |                                                       Hoyle Cave| |
-  +---------------------------------------------------------------+ | |
-  |                                                    Coygan Cave| | |
-  +-------------------------------------------------------------+ | | |
-  |                                                Caldy Fissure| | | |
-  +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | | | |
-  |                                          Blackrock Fissure| | | | |
-  +---------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | |
-  |                                                Long Hole| | | | | |
-  +-------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | |
-  |                                          Spritsail Tor| | | | | | |
-  +-----------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | |
-  |                                          Ravenscliff| | | | | | | |
-  +---------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | |
-  |                                          Crow Hole| | | | | | | | |
-  +-------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | |
-  |                                      Bosco’s Den| | | | | | | | | |
-  +-----------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                                   Minchin Hole| | | | | | | | | | |
-  +---------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                                 Bacon’s Hole| | | | | | | | | | | |
-  +-------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                                   Paviland| | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  +-----------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                               Gallfaenan| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  +---------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                            Plas Heaton| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  +-------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                          Plas-newydd| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  +-----------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                               Cefn| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  +---------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                         Victoria| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  +-------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                       Kirkdale| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  +-----------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |             Gailenreuth Cave| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  +---------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |          Species.         | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  +---------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
-  |_Homo palæolithicus_--     | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Palæolithic Man           |x| |x| |x| | | | | | | | | |x| | | |x|x|
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Spermophilus citillus_--  | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Pouched Marmot            | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Arctomys marmotta_--      | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Common Marmot             | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Castor fiber_--Beaver     | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Lepus timidus_--Hare      | |x| | | | | | | | | | | |x|x| | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Lepus variabilis_--       | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Alpine Hare               | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Lepus cuniculus_--Rabbit  |x|x| | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Lepus diluvianus_--       | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Extinct Hare              | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Lagomys pusillus_--       | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Tailless Hare             | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Mus lemmus_--Lemming      | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Hystrix dorsata_--        | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Porcupine                 |x| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Felis leo_ (_var.         | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | spelæa_)--Lion            | |x| |x| | | | | | | | |x|x|x| | | | |x|
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Felis pardus_--Leopard    | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Felis Lynx_--Lynx         | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Felis caffer_--Caffir Cat | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Felis catus_--Wild Cat    |x| | | | | | | | | | | |x| |x| | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Machairodus latidens_     | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Gulo borealis_--Glutton   |x| | | | |x| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Hyæna crocuta_ (_var.     | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | spelæa_)--Spotted Hyæna   |x|x|x|x| |x|x|x|x|x| |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Hyæna striata_--Striped   | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Hyæna                     | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Mustela martes_--Marten   | | | | | | | | | | | | |x|x|x| | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Mustela putorius_--       | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Polecat                   | | | | | | | | |x| | | | |x|x| | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Mustela erminea_--Weasel  | |x| | | | | | |x| | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Lutra vulgaris_--Otter    | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Ursus arctos_--Brown Bear |x|x|x| | | | |?| | | | | |x| | | | |x| |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Ursus ferox_--Grizzly Bear|x|x|x|x|x| | | |x|x| | | |x| | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Ursus spelæus_--Cave-Bear |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| | | |x|
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Canis lupus_--Wolf        |x|x|x|x|x|x| |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Canis vulpes_--Fox        |x|x|x|x|x|x| |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Canis lagopus_--Arctic Fox| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Elephas primigenius_--    | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Mammoth                   |x| |x| | | | |x| | | | |x|x|x|x|x|x| |x|
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Elephas antiquus_         | |x| |x|x| | | |x|x| |x|x|x|x| | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Elephas Africanus_--      | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | African Elephant          | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Equus caballus_--Horse    |x|x|x|x| |x| |x| | | | |x|x|x| |x|x| |x|
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Rhinoceros tichorhinus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Woolly Rhinoceros         |x| |x|x| | | | | | | | | |x|x|x|x|x| | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Rhinoceros hemitœchus_    | |x| |x|x| | | |x|x| |x|x| |x| | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Rhinoceros megarhinus_    | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Bos urus_--Urus           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Bos bison_--Bison         |x|x|x|x|x|x| |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| |x|x| |x|
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Ovibos moschatus_--       | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Musk Sheep                | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Capra ibex_--Ibex         | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Capella rupicapra_--      | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Chamois                   | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Antilope saiga_--Saiga    | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Sus scrofa_--Wild Boar    |x|x| |x| | | |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Cervus elaphus_--Stag     |x|x|x|x|x| | | |x| | | | |x|x| | | | |x|
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Cervus capreolus_--Roe    |x| | | | | | | |x| |x| | |x| | | | | | |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Cervus megaceros_--       | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Irish Elk                 |x|x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | |x|x| | | | |x|
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Cervus tarandus_--        | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | Reindeer                  |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| | |x|x|x|x|x| |x|
-  |                           | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  |_Hippopotamus amphibius_   | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  | (_var. major_)--          | |x| |x|x| | | | | | | |x| | | | | | | |
-  | Hippopotamus              | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
-  +---------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
-
-  +-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
-  |                                                  River Deposits, France |
-  +---------------------------------------------------------------------+   |
-  |                                              River Deposits, Britain|   |
-  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ |   |
-  |                                                      Belgian Caves| |   |
-  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ | |   |
-  |                                                       Lunel Viel| | |   |
-  +---------------------------------------------------------------+ | | |   |
-  |                                                     Les Eyzies| | | |   |
-  +-------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | |   |
-  |                                                   Cro Magnon| | | | |   |
-  +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | |   |
-  |                                              Gorge d’Enfer| | | | | |   |
-  +---------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | |   |
-  |                                          Laugerie Basse | | | | | | |   |
-  +------------------------------------------------------+  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                                       Laugerie Haute |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +---------------------------------------------------+  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                                       La Madelaine|  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +-------------------------------------------------+ |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                                         Moustier| |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +-----------------------------------------------+ | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                                    Kent’s Hole| | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +-------------------------------------------+   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                                    Brixham|   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +-----------------------------------------+ |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                              Wookey Hole| |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +---------------------------------------+ | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                          Sandford Hill| | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +-------------------------------------+ | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                               Uphill| | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +-----------------------------------+ | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                            Bleadon| | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +---------------------------------+ | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                          Banwell| | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +-------------------------------+ | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                         Hutton| | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +-----------------------------+ | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                      Durdham| | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +---------------------------+ | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |        Species.           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +---------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+---+-+-+--+--+-+-+-+-+-+-+---+
-  |_Homo palæolithicus_--     | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Palæolithic Man           | | | | | | |x|x| x |x|x|x |x |x|x|x| |x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Spermophilus citillus_--  | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Pouched Marmot            | | | | | |x|x| |   | | |  |  | |x|x| |x|x|   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Arctomys marmotta_--      | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Common Marmot             | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | |x| |   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Castor fiber_--Beaver     | | | | | | | | | x | | |  |  | | | |x|x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Lepus timidus_--Hare      | | | | | | |x|x| x |x|x|x?|x?| |x|x| |x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Lepus variabilis_--       | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Alpine Hare               | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | |x| |   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Lepus cuniculus_--Rabbit  | | | | | | | |x| x | |x|  |  | |x| | | | | x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Lepus diluvianus_--       | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Extinct Hare              | | | | | | |x| |   | | |  |  | | | |x|x| | x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Lagomys pusillus_--       | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Tailless Hare             | | | |x| | | |x| x | | |  |  | | | | |x| |   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Mus lemmus_--Lemming      | | | |x| | |x| |   | | |  |  | | |x| |x|x|   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Hystrix dorsata_--        | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Porcupine                 | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | |x| |   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Felis leo_ (_var.         | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | spelæa_)--Lion            |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| x | | |  |  |x|x|x|x|x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Felis pardus_--Leopard    | |x|x|x| | | | |   | | |  |  | | | |x| | | x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Felis Lynx_--Lynx         | | |x| | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | |x| | x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Felis caffer_--Caffir Cat | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | |x|x| |   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Felis catus_--Wild Cat    | | | |x|?| | | | x | | |  |  | | | |x|x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Machairodus latidens_     | | | | | | | | | x | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Gulo borealis_--Glutton   | | |x|x| | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | |x| |   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Hyæna crocuta_ (_var.     | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | spelæa_)--Spotted Hyæna   |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| x |x| |  |  | | | |x|x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Hyæna striata_--Striped   | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Hyæna                     | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | |x| | |   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Mustela martes_--Marten   | | | |x| | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | | x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Mustela putorius_--       | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Polecat                   | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | |x| |   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Mustela erminea_--Weasel  | | | | | | | | | x | | |  |  | | | | |x|x|   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Lutra vulgaris_--Otter    |x| | |x| | | | | x | | |  |  | | | | |x|x|   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Ursus arctos_--Brown Bear |x| | |x| |x|x|x| x | | |  |  | | | | |x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Ursus ferox_--Grizzly Bear| | |x| | | |x|x| x | | |  |  | | | | |x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Ursus spelæus_--Cave-Bear | |x|x|x| |x|x|x| x | | |  |x |x|x| |x|x| |(?)|
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Canis lupus_--Wolf        | |x| |x|x|x|x|x| x | |x|x |x |x|x|x|x|x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Canis vulpes_--Fox        | |x| |x|x|x|x|x| x | |x|x |x |x|x|x|x|x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Canis lagopus_--Arctic Fox| | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | |x| |   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Elephas primigenius_--    | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Mammoth                   |x|x|x|x| |x|x|x| x |x|x|x |x | |x|x| |x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Elephas antiquus_         |x| | |x| | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | |x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Elephas Africanus_--      | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | African Elephant          | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Equus caballus_--Horse    |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| x |x|x|x |x | |x|x|x|x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Rhinoceros tichorhinus_-- | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Woolly Rhinoceros         | | |x| | |x|x|x| x | | |  |  | | | | |x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Rhinoceros hemitœchus_    |x| | | | | |x| |   | | |  |  | | | |x| |x|   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Rhinoceros megarhinus_    | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | |x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Bos urus_--Urus           | | |x|x| |x|x|x| x | | |  |  | | | |x|x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Bos bison_--Bison         | |x|x|x|x|x|x| | ? |x|x|x |x |x|x|x| |x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Ovibos moschatus_--       | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Musk Sheep                | | | | | | | | |   | |x|  |  |x| | | | |x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Capra ibex_--Ibex         | | | | | | | | |   | |x|x |x |x|x|x| |x| | x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Capella rupicapra_--      | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Chamois                   | | | | | | | | |   | |x|  |x | | |x| |x| | x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Antilope saiga_--Saiga    | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |x | | |x| |x| |   |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Sus scrofa_--Wild Boar    | |x| |x|x| |x| | x | |x|  |  | |x| |x|x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Cervus elaphus_--Stag     | | |x|x| | |x|x| x |x|x|x |x | |x|x|x|x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Cervus capreolus_--Roe    | | | |x| | | |x|   | | |  |  | | | | |x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Cervus megaceros_--       | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Irish Elk                 | |x|x|x| | |x| | x | | |x |  | | | | |x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Cervus tarandus_--        | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | Reindeer                  |x|x|x|x|x| |x|x| x |x|x|+ |x |+|x|x| |x|x| x |
-  |                           | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  |_Hippopotamus amphibius_   | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  | (_var. major_)--          |x| | | | | | | |(?)| | |  |  | | | | | |x| x |
-  | Hippopotamus              | | | | | | | | |   | | |  |  | | | | | | |   |
-  +---------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+---+-+-+--+--+-+-+-+-+-+-+---+
-
-
-_Cave Fauna the same as River-bed Fauna._
-
-If this list[237] of animals from the caves be compared with that of
-the river-deposits of Britain and the continent, it will be seen that
-the same fauna is present in both, and that they are therefore of the
-same geological age.[238] This was the conclusion to which Dr. Falconer
-was led by the examination of the caves of Gower, and it has been
-confirmed by every subsequent discovery.
-
-
-_The Pleistocene Coast-line of North-Western Europe._
-
-The identity of the British pleistocene fauna with that of the
-continent, leads to the conclusion that in the pleistocene age Britain
-was connected with the adjacent countries by a bridge of land, over
-which the wild animals had free means of migration. And this might
-be brought about by a comparatively small elevation of the area. The
-soundings show that Britain and Ireland constitute merely the uplands
-of a plateau now submerged to the extent of about 100 fathoms, on the
-side of the Atlantic. On the east it extends at a depth of from twenty
-to fifty fathoms, in the direction of Belgium; and on the south it is
-only sunk from twenty to forty fathoms below the sea-level. Immediately
-to the westward of this line the sea deepens so suddenly, that there is
-scarcely any difference between the lines of 100 and of 200 fathoms,
-and the depth rapidly increases to 2,000. Were this plateau elevated
-above the sea to an extent of 100 fathoms, the tract shaded in the
-map (Fig. 126) would unite the British Isles to the continent, and the
-Thames and other rivers on the eastern coast would unite with the Elbe
-and the Rhine to form a river debouching on the North Sea, somewhat
-after the manner which I have represented by taking the deepest line
-of soundings. The Straits of Dover would then be the watershed between
-this valley of the German Ocean, as it may be termed, and that of the
-English Channel, in which the Seine and the Somme and other French
-rivers joined those of the south coast, and ultimately reached the
-Atlantic. Evidence that the latter river flowed in the course assigned
-to it in the map is afforded by the discovery of the fresh-water mussel
-(_Unio pictorum_), recorded by Mr. Godwin Austen[239] to have been
-dredged up by Captain White from a depth of from 50 to 100 fathoms, not
-very far from what I have taken to be its mouth. We are also indebted
-to Mr. Godwin Austen for the discovery near this spot of banks of
-shingle and littoral shells, which indicate the position of the ancient
-coast-line.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Physiography of Great Britain in Late
-Pleistocene Age.
-
-Shaded area = land now submerged; dotted area = region occupied by
-animals; plain area = region occupied by glaciers.]
-
-The view that the 100-fathom line marks the limit of the pleistocene
-land surface to the west, is held by Sir H. de la Bêche, Mr. Godwin
-Austen, Sir Charles Lyell, and other eminent geologists, and it is
-supported by many facts that can be explained in no other manner. To
-pass over the discovery of a fresh-water shell at the bottom of the
-English Channel, quoted above, the distribution of fossil mammalia at
-the bottom of the German Ocean (represented in Fig. 126 by the dotted
-area) is analogous to that which we find in the river gravels and
-brick-earths on the land. The quantity of teeth and bones belonging to
-the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, horse, reindeer, and spotted hyæna,
-and other animals, dredged up by the fishermen in the German Ocean is
-almost incredible. Mr. Owles, of Yarmouth, informed me in 1868 that
-off that place there is a bank on which the fishing nets are rarely
-cast without bringing up fossil remains. It seems most probable, that
-these accumulations have been formed under subaerial conditions near
-the drinking places, or below the fords, which were used for ages by
-the pleistocene animals. I might quote as an example of a similar
-deposit of fossils on the land, that discovered in 1866 by Captain
-Luard, R.E., in digging the foundations of the new cavalry barracks at
-Windsor, which consisted mainly of bones and antlers of reindeer, with
-a few carnivores, such as the brown bear and wolf, that usually follow
-reindeer in their migrations in Siberia.[240] Were this submerged it
-would be a case precisely similar to that off Yarmouth.
-
-The ancient forest, exposed at low water under the cliffs on the
-Norfolk and Suffolk shores, flourished when the land stood higher than
-it does now. Traces of a similar forest, also at, and below, low-water
-mark, have been met with on the shore at Selsea, near Chichester, in
-Sussex; and remains of the mammoth have been dredged up in several
-places off the coast, as for example in Torbay and in Holyhead harbour,
-or found in gravel beds near low-water mark, as in the Isle of Wight,
-and on the north coast of Somerset at St. Audries, near Watchet,
-where a skull with gigantic tusks rested in the gravel. In all these
-facts we have ample proof that Britain stood at a higher level in the
-pleistocene age than at the present day.
-
-The vast abundance also of the mammalia in the caves of South Wales
-and Somerset, and their presence in the Island of Caldy, and it may
-be added in Ireland, can only be accounted for by the elevation of
-the present sea-bottom, so as to allow of their migration over plains
-covered with abundant pasture. It seems, therefore, to me that the
-accompanying map, Fig. 126, represents with tolerable accuracy the
-ancient coast-line of Britain, and of the adjacent parts of the
-continent in the pleistocene age. The fertile valleys of the English
-Channel, Bristol Channel, and the German Ocean, would afford sustenance
-to a large and varied fauna, and numerous herbivores, such as the
-reindeer, bison, and horse, would supply food to the palæolithic
-hunters, who followed them in their annual migrations. And it must
-be remarked on this hypothesis, that the valley of the Garonne would
-offer a free passage both to the animals and to the hunters of Auvergne
-down to the prairie, extending as far as the 100-fathom line off the
-French coast, and that the hunting grounds would reach to Devonshire
-and Somerset without any barrier except that offered by the rivers. It
-is therefore no wonder that the implements in the caves of Kent’s Hole,
-Wookey Hole, and the South of France, should be of the same type.
-
-
-_Distribution of Palæolithic Implements in this Area._
-
-This geographical configuration in pleistocene times may perhaps
-account for the distribution of the palæolithic implements in the
-river gravels. The Seine and the Somme debouch into the same valley
-as the rivers of the south of England, and the Straits of Dover mark
-the position of a low watershed leading into the valley of the German
-Ocean, on the sides of which, in the eastern counties, river-bed
-implements are so numerous. These are of the same type in northern
-France, Sussex, Hampshire, Kent, and as far north as the Wash; and were
-therefore used by the same race of men. The difference between them and
-those of the cave-dwellers in the south and west, may be due to their
-possessors occupying different hunting grounds. Each tribe of American
-Indians at the present time has its own territory for hunting, which
-is jealously guarded against encroachment, and in which the articles
-peculiar to the tribe are being accumulated in the refuse-heaps, while
-other sets are being accumulated in other districts. If we suppose
-that the palæolithic savages divided up their hunting grounds in this
-manner, the difference which exists between the implements of the
-river-beds and caves may be readily explained, as well as their being
-found for the most part in different areas.
-
-The pleistocene climate in the area north of the Alps and Pyrenees
-will be treated in the eleventh chapter, after the examination of the
-cave-fauna of southern Europe.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER X.
-
-  THE FAUNA OF THE CAVES OF SOUTHERN EUROPE AND THE EVIDENCE AS TO
-    THE MEDITERRANEAN COAST-LINE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE.
-
-  Changes of Level in the Mediterranean area in Meiocene and Pleiocene
-    Ages.--Bone-caves of Southern Europe.--Of Gibraltar.--Of
-    Provence and Mentone.--Of Sicily.--Of Malta.--Range of Pigmy
-    Hippopotamus.--Fossil Mammalia in Algeria.--Living Species
-    common to Europe and Africa.--Evidence of Soundings.--The
-    Glaciers of Lebanon.--Of Anatolia.--Of Atlas.--Glaciers
-    probably produced by elevation above the Sea.--Mediterranean
-    Coast-line comparatively modern.
-
-
-In the preceding chapter we have seen that north-western Europe was
-elevated, during the pleistocene age, to an extent of at least 600 feet
-above its present level; so that Ireland was united to Britain, and
-Britain was joined to the mainland of Europe, proof of this elevation
-being dependent upon the soundings on one hand, and the distribution
-of the fossil mammalia on the other. Such a change must necessarily
-have affected the whole physical conditions of the area, since the
-substitution of a mass of land for a stretch of sea, and the higher
-altitude of the land, would tend to produce climatal extremes of
-considerable severity. It is indeed no wonder that during this time
-of continental elevation, the hills of Wales, Yorkshire, Derbyshire,
-Cumbria, and Scotland should be crowned with glaciers, or that there
-should have been a migration to and fro of animals, comparable to
-that which is now going on in Siberia and the northern portions of
-North America. The condition of southern Europe at that time has a
-most important bearing on any conclusion which may be drawn as to the
-pleistocene climate in France, Germany, or Britain. For if it be proved
-that the Mediterranean Sea was then smaller than it is now, the greater
-land-surface would increase both the heat of the summer and the cold of
-the winter in central and north-western Europe.
-
-
-_Changes of Level in Mediterranean area in Meiocene and Pleiocene Ages._
-
-The geological evidence that the Mediterranean region has been
-subjected to oscillations of level during the tertiary period, is
-clear and decisive. Prof. Gaudry[241] has proved, in his work on
-the fossil remains found at Pikermi, that the plains of Marathon,
-now so restricted, must have extended in the meiocene age far south
-into the Mediterranean, so as to afford pasture to the enormous
-troops of hipparions and herds of antelopes, the mastodons and large
-edentata, revealed by his enterprise. The rocky area of Attica, as now
-constituted, could not have supported such a large and varied group
-of animals, nor could the broken hills and limestone plateaux have
-been inhabited by hipparions and antelopes, if their habits at all
-resembled those of their descendants living at the present time. It
-may, therefore, reasonably be concluded that Greece, in those times,
-was prolonged southwards, and united to the islands of the Archipelago
-by a stretch of land. If Africa were then as now the head-quarters of
-the antelopes, it is very probable that one of the lines by which they
-passed over into Europe, and spread over France and Germany, was in
-this direction. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that the changes of
-level, which have taken place since the meiocene age in those regions,
-are so complicated as to render it almost impossible to restore the
-meiocene geography.
-
-In the succeeding, or the pleiocene age, the presence of the African
-hippopotamus in Italy, France, and Germany, can only be accounted for
-by a more direct connection with the African mainland than is offered
-by a route through Asia Minor. It would seem, therefore, that the
-Mediterranean Sea could not then have formed the same barrier to the
-northern migration of the animals which it does now. In many regions,
-however, the present land was then sunk beneath the sea, and marine
-strata, of pleiocene age, were accumulated in the Val d’Arno, Sicily,
-and southern France.
-
-The physical geography[242] of the Mediterranean in the pleistocene age
-may be ascertained with considerable accuracy by the distribution of
-the animals, coupled with the evidence of the soundings.
-
-
-_Bone-caves of Southern Europe._
-
-The mammalia in the bone-caves of southern Europe differ from those
-of the region north of the Alps and Pyrenees in the absence of the
-arctic species, and the presence of some which are of a more strictly
-southern type. Nevertheless, the influence of the mountains in lowering
-the temperature in their neighbourhood is to be traced in the presence
-of the remains of certain animals. Thus, in the caves of Gibraltar we
-find an ibex, which cannot be distinguished from those of the Spanish
-sierras, and in Mentone and Provence, a marmot, specifically identical
-with that of the Alps.
-
-The bone-caves in the neighbourhood of the Mediterranean afford most
-important testimony as to the geographical changes which have taken
-place, since the animals found in them lived in that region. We will
-take those of the Iberian peninsula first.
-
-
-_Caves of Gibraltar._
-
-Ossiferous caverns have long been known to occur in the fortified rock
-of Gibraltar,[243] but were not examined scientifically until the
-year 1863, when the researches of Captain Brome, Prof. Busk, and Dr.
-Falconer, proved that pleistocene species were buried in considerable
-numbers in its cavities and fissures. Of these the most important is
-the great perpendicular fissure in Windmill Hill, called the Genista
-cave, which has been traced down to more than a depth of 200 feet. From
-the upper portion were obtained the polished stone implements, human
-skulls, and other neolithic remains described in the sixth chapter, p.
-204, which prove that Gibraltar was inhabited by the Basques in the
-neolithic age, while the remains from the lower revealed the presence
-of a singularly mixed group of animals.
-
-The fossil bones have been referred by Prof. Busk and Dr. Falconer to
-the following species:--
-
-    _Lepus cuniculus_, rabbit.
-    _Felis leo_, lion.
-    _F. pardus_, panther.
-    _F. caffer._
-    _F. pardina_, lynx.
-    _F. serval_, serval.
-    _Ursus ferox_, grizzly bear.
-    _Canis lupus_, wolf.
-    _Equus caballus_, horse.
-    _Rhinoceros hemitœchus._
-    _Capra ibex_, ibex.
-    _Sus scrofa_, wild-boar.
-    _Cervus elaphus_, red deer.
-    _C. capreolus_, roe.
-    _C. dama_, fallow deer.
-
-The spotted hyæna, the serval, and _Felis caffer_, are species now
-peculiar to Africa, and it is obvious that they could not have found
-their way into Gibraltar under the present physical conditions of the
-Mediterranean. Elephants and rhinoceroses could not have lived on so
-barren and treeless a rock, unless it had overlooked a fertile plain,
-nor would the carnivora have chosen it for their dens, had it then been
-cut off from the feeding-grounds of the herbivores. Their presence,
-therefore, as Dr. Falconer justly remarks, implies the existence of
-land now sunk beneath the waves, but then extending southwards to join
-Africa.
-
-To the African animals, mentioned above as inhabiting the Iberian
-peninsula in the pleistocene age, M. Lartet has added the African
-elephant (_E. Africanus_) and the striped hyæna (_II. striata_), which
-have been found in a stratum of gravel near Madrid along with flint
-implements.[244] None of the purely arctic mammalia, such as the
-reindeer, musk sheep, or woolly rhinoceros, so abundant in France,
-Germany, and Britain, have been met with south of the Pyrenees.
-
-
-_Bone-caves of Provence and Mentone._
-
-The arctic animals are also absent from the numerous bone-caves and
-bone breccias of Provence and Mentone. The pleistocene fauna of
-Provence consists, according to M. Marion,[245] of the spotted hyæna,
-and lion, _Elephas antiquus_ or straight-tusked elephant, _Rhinoceros
-hemitœchus_, wild-boar, urus, stag, horse, and rabbit. The breccias in
-the island of Ratonneau have also furnished the porcupine, brown bear,
-and tailless hare. Man is proved to have been living in the district at
-the time by the discovery of perforated and cut bones, in the cave of
-Rians.
-
-The fissures and caves of Mentone, explored by Mr. Moggridge[246] in
-1871, and subsequently by M. Rivière, contained a fauna composed,
-according to Prof. Busk, of the following species:--
-
-    Marmot.
-    Field-vole.
-    Lion.
-    Panther.
-    Lynx.
-    Wild-cat.
-    Spotted hyæna.
-    Wolf.
-    Fox.
-    Brown bear.
-    Cave-bear.
-    Roe.
-    Stag.
-    Ibex.
-    Urus.
-    Horse.
-    Wild-boar.
-    _Rhinoceros hemitœchus._
-
-Along with these were large quantities of charcoal and flint flakes,
-which proved that man had inhabited the district while the deposits
-were being formed.
-
-Mr. Moggridge gives the following account of the results of his
-exploration:--[247]
-
-“The caves of the red rocks, half a mile out of Mentone, are in lofty
-rocks of jurassic limestone on the shore of the Mediterranean, and at
-an average height of 100 feet above that sea, the rocks themselves
-attaining an elevation of 260 feet. They have now been repeatedly
-rifled by the learned or the curious; but when the principal cave
-(Cavillon) was nearly intact, the author made a section of it from the
-modern or highest floor, down to the solid rock. There were five floors
-formed in the earth by long-continued trampling; on each, and near the
-centre, were marks of fire, around which broken bones and flints were
-abundant, except upon the lowest, where but few bones occurred, and no
-flints. The bones were those of animals still existing. Few implements
-were found, but many chips of flint, some cores and stones used as
-hammers. Perhaps this cave was used as a place for manufacturing
-flints, which must have been carried from their native bed, distant
-about one mile.
-
-“There is nothing to evince the action of water; on the contrary, the
-numerous stones that occur are all angular.... Below these caves a
-slope of about 180 feet descends to the edge of the sea. Through the
-upper part of this slope, at distances from the cave of from 0 to ten
-feet, is a railway cutting 600 feet long, fifty-four feet deep, and
-sixty feet above the sea. The mass removed in making this cutting was
-composed of angular stones not waterworn. Loose at the surface, it soon
-became a more or less mature breccia, for the most part so hard that it
-was blasted with gunpowder.” In this breccia, and at various depths,
-some of more than thirty feet, the author has taken out teeth of the
-bear (_Ursus spelæus_) and of the hyæna (_Hyæna spelæa_) while with and
-below those teeth he found flints worked by man.
-
-The subsequent exploration by M. Rivière[248] has resulted in no
-important addition to the fauna: the famous human skeleton having been,
-as I have already remarked in the seventh chapter, interred in the
-pleistocene strata, and probably not palæolithic. It may possibly be of
-the era of the upper floors described by Mr. Moggridge, in which all
-the remains belong to living species.[249]
-
-This cave-fauna is more closely related to that of southern Europe than
-to that north of the Alps and Pyrenees. The striped hyæna found in
-the cave of Lunel-viel, Hérault, by Marcel de Serres, along with the
-reindeer and other animals, probably belongs to the same southern group.
-
-
-_Bone-caves of Sicily._
-
-Certain members of the African fauna are also proved to have ranged
-northwards over Europe in the direction of Sicily, by the discoveries
-in the caves of that island. The Sicilian bone-caves have been worked
-for the sake of the bones since the year 1829; and of these many
-shiploads were sent to Marseilles from San Ciro, belonging, according
-to M. de Christol, principally to the hippopotamus. In 1859,[250] Dr.
-Falconer examined the collections made from this cave, as well as those
-which remained _in situ_, and carried on further researches into a
-second in the neighbourhood, known as the Grotto di Maccagnone, and in
-the following year two others were discovered and explored in northern
-Sicily by Baron Anca. The species were as follows:--
-
-    _Homo_, man.
-    _Felis leo_, lion.
-    _Hyæna crocuta_, spotted hyæna.
-    _Ursus ferox_,[251] grizzly bear.
-    _Canis._
-    _Cervus_, deer.
-    _Bos_, ox.
-    _Equus_, horse.
-    _Sus scrofa_, boar.
-    _Elephas antiquus._
-    _Elephas Africanus_, African elephant.
-    _Hippopotamus major_, hippopotamus.
-    _Hippopotamus Pentlandi._
-    _Lepus._
-
-The presence of man was indicated by charcoal and flint flakes.
-
-The African elephant was obtained from three caves: from that of San
-Teodoro, by Baron Anca; from Grotta Santa, near Syracuse, by the Canon
-Alessi; and from a cave near Palermo, by M. Charles Gaudin. It is
-obvious that the presence of this animal, as well as of the spotted
-hyæna, in Sicily can only be accounted for on the hypothesis that a
-bridge of land formerly existed, by which they could pass from their
-head-quarters, that is to say Africa. On the other hand the presence
-of the grizzly bear, and of the _Elephas antiquus_ implies that they
-passed over into Sicily, from their European headquarters, before the
-existence of the Straits of Messina, since both animals are abundant on
-the mainland of Europe. The larger species of hippopotamus, doubtfully
-referred by Dr. Falconer to the _H. major_ (= _H. amphibius_), may have
-crossed over either from Italy, where its remains are very abundant in
-the pleiocene and pleistocene strata, or from Africa.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Molar of _Hippopotamus Pentlandi_ (1/1).
-(Sicily.)]
-
-A small species of hippopotamus, _H. Pentlandi_, Fig. 127, occurs in
-incredible abundance in the Sicilian caves. It bears the same relation,
-in point of size, to the fossil variety of the African hippopotamus, as
-the living _H. liberiensis_ does to the latter.
-
-
-_Bone-caves of Malta._
-
-The bone-caves of Malta were first scientifically explored by Admiral
-Spratt, in 1858, and subsequently by Dr. Leith Adams, and others. The
-Maghlak Cave near the town of Crendi, contained large quantities of the
-_Hippopotamus Pentlandi_, together with the gigantic dormouse, named
-_Myoxus Melitensis_. A short distance off a second cavern, explored by
-Dr. Leith Adams, contained numerous remains of at least two species
-of pigmy elephant about the height of a small horse. Its small size
-may be gathered from the accompanying woodcut (Fig. 128) of the last
-lower true molar, taken from the lithograph published in Dr. Falconer’s
-“Palæontographical Memoirs,” vol. ii. pl. xii.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Molar of _Elephas Melitensis_, Malta (2/3).
-(Falconer.)]
-
-
-_Range of Pigmy Hippopotamus._
-
-The pigmy hippopotamus has lived also in other districts in the
-Mediterranean region. One of its teeth, now preserved in the British
-Museum, was discovered by Dr. Leith Adams, in Candia. In 1872 I
-identified in the Oxford Museum a last lower true molar, which extends
-the range of this species to the mainland of Europe. It was obtained
-by Dr. Rolleston from a Greek tomb at Megalopolis, in the Peloponese,
-and was probably derived from one of the many caves in the limestone of
-that district. For this extinct animal to have spread from Sicily to
-Malta, from Malta to Candia, and from Candia to the Peloponese, or vice
-versâ, these three islands must have been united to the Peloponese and
-have been the higher grounds of land, now submerged beneath the waves
-of the Mediterranean.
-
-The view therefore, advanced by Dr. Falconer and Admiral Spratt, that
-Europe was connected with Africa by a bridge of land, extending
-northwards from Sicily, is fully borne out by an examination of the
-fossil remains both of that island and of Malta (see Fig. 129).[252]
-
-
-_Fossil Mammalia in Algeria._
-
-If the African mainland extended to Europe in the direction of the
-Straits of Gibraltar, and of Malta and Sicily, so as to afford passage
-for the African mammalia into Europe, it would equally afford passage
-for the southern advance into Africa of some of the European mammalia.
-Evidence of this we meet with in a stratum of clay at Mansourah,
-near Constantine, in Algeria, described by M. Bayle in 1854.[253]
-The animals which he obtained, consisting of the ox, antelope,
-hippopotamus, and elephant, have been described by Prof. Gervais. An
-examination of his figure of a fragment of a molar tooth leaves no room
-for doubt, that the _Elephas meridionalis_ was living in north Africa
-during the pleistocene age; that is to say an extinct animal, the
-head-quarters of which are to be found in Italy, ranged as far south as
-northern Africa.
-
-
-_Living Species common to Europe and Africa._
-
-The former continuity of Africa by way of the Iberian peninsula and
-Sicily, may also be inferred by the distribution of the mammalia at the
-present time. Prof. Gervais[254] observes that most of the insectivora
-are the same in Europe and north Africa. The genette and ferret
-(_Fœtorius furo_), the _Mangousta Widdringtoni_ (Gray), and the fallow
-deer, are common to Spain and Africa. The porcupine of Algeria belongs
-to the same species as that of Italy and Sicily, and the wild boar does
-not present any characters of importance by which it can be separated
-from that of Europe. From the present range, therefore, of the mammalia
-the same conclusion may be drawn as to the continuity of Africa with
-Europe as is afforded by their distribution in the pleistocene age.
-
-
-_Evidence of Soundings._
-
-These conclusions derived from the study of the mammalia, are
-corroborated and supplemented by the evidence of the soundings. As we
-enter the Straits of Gibraltar (Fig. 129) the Atlantic Ocean shallows,
-until between Tangiers and Tarifa it is not more than from 270 to 300
-fathoms. Between Tarifa and Ceuta the sea measures from 300 to 400
-fathoms, and thence, in passing eastwards, suddenly deepens to the
-extent of over 1,500 fathoms. An elevation of 400 fathoms would be
-quite sufficient to raise a barrier of land between Morocco and Spain,
-and to insulate the deep Mediterranean basin from the Atlantic. The
-soundings between Sicily and Tunis are 260 fathoms; between the former
-place and Malta, 55 fathoms; between Malta and the African mainland,
-34·4 fathoms. An elevation of 400 fathoms would suffice therefore
-to connect Africa with Sicily, and to insulate the eastern from the
-western Mediterranean depths. To the east of Sicily the soundings
-reveal a depth of over 2,000 fathoms, and this deep basin extends
-as far to the east as Cyprus and Asia Minor. Between Candia and the
-Peloponese, the sea is 460 fathoms deep. An elevation therefore
-from 400 to 500 fathoms would allow of the passage of _Hippopotamus
-Pentlandi_ from Candia to the Peloponese, and thence by southern
-Italy into Sicily and Malta. I have therefore represented in the map
-what would be the necessary result of the elevation of the bottom of
-the Mediterranean to that extent. Two great barriers of land would
-unite Africa with Spain and Italy, and enable the African mammalia to
-find their way into the regions north of the Mediterranean Sea. The
-shallowness of the sea at those two points indicates the existence of
-the sunken barriers. The African elephant however did not pass far
-northwards, since it has only been met with in Spain and Sicily.
-
-[Illustration: FIG. 129.--Physiography of Mediterranean in Pleistocene
-Age.]
-
-Such a change in level as this would convert the Adriatic into dry
-land, and cause the islands of the Grecian Archipelago to rise high
-above the surrounding plains. The 500-fathom line is therefore taken to
-represent the probable sea margin of the pleistocene age, although in
-centres of volcanic activity, such as Sicily and the Archipelago, local
-changes of level, even of greater magnitude, may have taken place.
-
-This view of the former elevation of the Mediterranean area to a height
-of from two to three thousand feet above the present level will go
-far to explain the remarkable traces of glaciers discovered in Syria,
-Anatolia, and Morocco.
-
-
-_The Glaciers of Lebanon._
-
-Dr. Hooker, in his journey to Syria in 1860, discovered that the
-cedars of Lebanon grew principally on one spot, on old moraines which
-traverse the head of the Kedisha valley. This valley terminates in
-broad, shallow, open basins at a height of about 6,000 feet above
-the sea, resembling the corries of the Highlands; and one of these,
-in which the cedars grew, was divided into two distinct flats by a
-transverse range of ancient moraines from 80 to 100 feet high and with
-perfectly defined boundaries. “The rills from the surrounding heights
-collect in the upper flat, and form one stream, which winds among the
-moraines on its way down to the lower flat, whence it is precipitated
-into the gorge of the Kedisha. The cedars grow on that portion of the
-moraine which immediately borders this stream, and nowhere else; they
-form one group about 400 yards in diameter, with an outstanding tree
-or two not far from the rest, and appear as a black speck in the great
-area of the corry and its moraines, which contain no other arborious
-vegetation, nor any shrubs, but a few berberry and rose bushes that
-form no feature in the landscape.”[255]
-
-In ancient times, therefore, the glaciers descended to a height
-of about 6,000 feet above the sea, and were fed by the perennial
-snow-fields of the crest of Lebanon.
-
-
-_The Glaciers of Anatolia._
-
-The former presence of glaciers at nearly the same altitude has also
-been proved by the travels of Mr. Gifford Palgrave in Anatolia,[256]
-especially in the valley through which the Chorok flows, and in the
-mountainous country to the north-east, between Georgia and the
-Black Sea. The river Chorok runs about 120 miles in a north-easterly
-direction, and is separated from the Euxine by a mountain chain
-reaching a height of 11,000 feet, thus forming a long strip of land,
-which is called Lazistan after its inhabitants, a tribe of Lazes. It
-then turns suddenly to the north, where it falls into the sea. The
-southern side is determined by mountains of Cretaceous, Jurassic, and
-Plutonic rocks, which form the watershed between the tributaries of
-the Black Sea and Persian Gulf. Three large moraines are to be found
-on the southern side of the valley, their lower extremity about 5,000,
-their upper origin nearly 8,000 feet above the sea. No moraines are
-seen where the chain does not reach an altitude of 7,000 feet, though
-angular boulders are not uncommon. The upper mountain contours are
-invariably rounded, and smoothed off, and the sides are scooped too
-widely for the depressions to have been caused by water. Low down in
-the valley the slopes terminate in rifted precipices.
-
-That these moraines were posterior to the volcanic eruptions in the
-district, is evident from the examination of a broad stone ridge, near
-the highest point to the east of Erzeroum, where at a height of 7,000
-feet the Jurassic limestone was interrupted by a volcanic outbreak of
-several miles in extent. Traces of a crater were visible. Above, the
-granite peaks rose to a height of 9,000 feet; below, a wide moraine
-crossed the road, composed of volcanic fragments mixed with granite.
-Consequently, it must have been formed after the volcano had become
-extinct. Similar traces are to be found at Keskeem Boughaz. Mr.
-Palgrave concludes “that the ice-cap of the north-eastern Anatolian
-watershed, in post-pleiocene (pleistocene) times, must have reached
-downwards, on the northern side of the range, to 7,000 feet above the
-present sea-level, while some of the glaciers issuing from it descended
-to about 4,500 of the same measurement.” Striated and ice-worn
-boulders, especially of granite, were very abundant. This region,
-it must be observed, is within sight of the lofty granite range of
-Tortoom, which is “streaked with perpetual snow.”
-
-After leaving the Chorok valley and getting on to the watershed, at
-a distance of fifty miles to the north-east, Mr. Palgrave reached
-the main ridge or backbone of the land. Here, among the limestone
-ledges, about 6,400 feet above the sea, is a colossal moraine, formed
-of worn granite blocks, partly overgrown with forest, and descending
-from a height of over 8,000 feet. It is divided, by a valley, from a
-lofty undulating granite plateau that is scooped out here and there
-into deep oval lakes, always full of blue water. The sides of the
-plateau are strewn with boulders of granite, brought from the higher
-peaks about five miles off. These boulders occur in greater or less
-abundance down to the basin of the Ardahan, near the sources of the
-Kur or Cyras, which joins the Araxes before flowing into the Caspian.
-The height of this Ardahan basin is about 6,500 feet; it is, but for
-a slight easterly slope, a water level. The bottom consists of deep
-alluvial soil mixed with detritus and boulders; the sides are rounded
-and smoothed, and bear every mark of long ice-covering. These plateaux,
-studded with lakes, stretch east to Russo-Georgia, till their greatest
-height is gained at Kel Dagh, a mountain about 11,000 feet high: thence
-they descend to the plains of Georgia and the Black Sea.
-
-No glacial marks have been observed on the seaward side of the range,
-except at Hamshun in the Lazistan mountains, between the River Riom
-and Trebizond. Here, at 6,900 feet, is a granite-strewn plateau,
-thinly green with grass, sheltered from the sea by lofty peaks on the
-north-west, and backed to the south-east by tremendous jagged granite
-cliffs, the highest 12,500 feet above the sea. The plateau itself is
-about forty miles in length, irregular in breadth, its surface rounded
-and jotted over with boulders. But just as my track led near under the
-base of Verehembek, at an altitude of 8,300 feet, it crossed a large
-broad moraine, descending from the higher slopes, and having its base
-in a broad bare valley not far below, which showed that here, at the
-highest and widest part of the Lazistan chain, perpetual ice had once
-existed in sufficient quantity to furnish at least one glacier. From
-this case it seems that the limited ice-cap of the Hamshun highlands
-extended no further down than 8,500 or 9,000 feet, thus differing by
-a line of from 1,000 to 2,000 feet from the glacial covering of the
-inland range.
-
-
-_The Glaciers of the Atlas Mountains._
-
-Similar traces of glaciers have been observed in the Atlas mountains
-by Mr. George Maw,[257] in his travels in Morocco with Dr. Hooker and
-Mr. Ball in 1871. “After four hours’ continued ascent,” he writes
-(p. 19), “the termination of the glen comes into full view, and we
-observe with great interest that it is closed by a group of moraines,
-proving the former existence of glaciers in the Atlas, and confirming
-my opinion that the great boulder beds flanking the chain are also of
-glacial origin. Two villages, probably the highest in the Atlas, are
-built on the principal moraine; Eitmasan, at its base, at a height of
-6,000 feet, and Arroond, near its summit, at a height of 6,800 feet;
-the terminal angle of the larger moraine having a vertical height of
-800 feet. It is composed of immense blocks of porphyry, lying at a
-steep angle of repose, up which it takes us nearly an hour to climb.
-The existence of these moraines in latitude 30½° N. (the latitude of
-Alexandria) is perhaps the most interesting fact we noticed during our
-journey, for this is the most southerly point at which the evidence of
-extinct glaciers has been observed, and tends to confirm the opinion
-entertained by many geologists, that the refrigeration during the
-glacial period was almost Universal.”
-
-
-_Glaciers probably the result of elevation above the Sea._
-
-The elevation of the African moraines above the sea, of about 6,000
-feet and upwards, is nearly the same as those of Asia Minor. If the
-mountains of the Atlas, Lazistan, and Lebanon shared in the upward
-movement of the Mediterranean area, the addition of 3,000 feet to the
-height could not fail to leave marks behind of the low temperature
-thereby caused. It is very probable, that during the time the
-Mediterranean was reduced to two land-locked seas, these mountains were
-covered with snow-fields, and constituted the ice-sheds of glaciers.
-
-From the range of the mammalia we have inferred the existence of land
-barriers, extending across from Africa to Spain and Italy, and from
-Candia to Greece, and their actual existence beneath the sea has been
-proved by soundings, which necessitate an elevation of from 400 to
-500 fathoms to bring them above the sea-level. We have also seen
-that the higher mountains, which most probably participated in this
-upward movement, bear traces of a lower temperature in the moraines
-of the Atlas and Lazistan. The hypothesis of such an elevation during
-the pleistocene age may therefore be taken to be proved so far as it
-explains two widely different classes of facts, the distribution of the
-mammals and the existence of glaciers where they are now unknown.
-
-The physical condition of the Mediterranean area, in the pleistocene
-age, may be summed up as follows. The mainland of Africa extended
-northwards to join Europe, in the direction of Gibraltar and Italy.
-The islands of Malta and Sicily were hilly plateaux, overlooking an
-undulatory plain. Corsica and Sardinia were joined to Italy, Majorca
-and Minorca to Spain, Candia to Peloponese, and Cyprus to Asia Minor.
-The area now occupied by the Adriatic Sea constituted the lower valley
-of the Po, and the Archipelago was a plain studded with volcanic cones;
-and at the same time glaciers crowned the higher mountains of northern
-Africa and of Asia Minor.
-
-The substitution of land for a stretch of sea, in the Mediterranean,
-could not fail to cause the summer heat to be more intense in the
-region to the north than at the present time, while the increased
-elevation would produce a greater severity of winter cold, as Mr.
-Godwin Austen has pointed out in the case of the hills of Devonshire.
-When, indeed, we consider that the pleistocene land surface extended
-from the snowy heights of Atlas, as far north as the 100-fathom line
-off the coast of Ireland, we might expect to find African animals,
-such as the spotted hyæna and _Felis caffer_, ranging as far north
-as Yorkshire, for the only barrier to their migration would be that
-offered by the severity of a pleistocene winter.
-
-
-_Mediterranean Coast-line comparatively modern._
-
-The submergence of the barriers, and the constitution of the
-Mediterranean as we find it now, have probably taken place but a short
-time ago, from the geological point of view, though we know that for
-the last 3,000 years the coast-line has been on the whole unchanged,
-except from the silting out of the sea by the sediment of rivers, such
-as the Po, and the elevation and depression of small areas by volcanic
-energy, as at Santorin. The physical character of the shores testifies
-to the truth of this view.
-
-“On entering the Straits of Gibraltar,” Mr. Maw writes, “from the
-Atlantic, a notable change takes place in the aspect of the coast. Cape
-St. Vincent, on the Atlantic coast, presents a bold line of cliffs to
-the sea, and bluff cliffs extend many miles towards the Straits; but
-as soon as these are passed, a change of coast-form takes place, which
-must be noticeable to every observer. Cliffs on the sea-board become
-the exception, and the general line of the coast is merely a shelving
-under the sea of the general hill-and-valley system of the land, the
-sea running up all the depressions, and the land elevations spreading
-out into the sea with scarcely any abrupt cliff-line of demarcation.
-The uneven sea-bottom of the Straits seems to be a continuation of the
-contour of the adjacent land, consisting of rolling alternations of
-hill and valley, which must have received its conformation by subaerial
-agencies.”
-
-“Corsica, and the adjacent islands of Elba, Capraja, and Monte Christo,
-are also remarkable for the absence of cliffs, and are wanting in those
-abrupt escarpements separating land and water which are so abundant on
-our own coasts. Their aspect is that of mountain-tops rising out of the
-sea, suggesting to the eye the seaward prolongation of their subaerial
-contour of sloping hillsides and river-cut valleys, as though the sea
-had not stood sufficiently long at its present level to excavate an
-escarpement. The deep intersecting bays that occur along the coast from
-Marseilles to the Riviera suggest the same conclusion, the undulating
-land surface spreading down to the water’s edge, and the deep bays
-running up the intervening valleys, which must have had an origin
-common with that of their landward prolongations.”
-
-It is impossible to shut our eyes to the full force of this reasoning.
-The present aspect of the Mediterranean is, geologically speaking, a
-thing of yesterday.
-
-
-_Changes of Level in the Sahara coincident with those in the
-Mediterranean._
-
-But if the Mediterranean area has been depressed to an amount of from
-2,000 to 3,000 feet since the pleistocene age, we have proof that the
-region to the south has been elevated to that extent in comparatively
-modern times. Mr. Maw,[258] in his journey in 1873 to the Northern
-Sahara, observed raised beaches at a height of 2,000 feet, and loam and
-shingle-beds as high as 2,700 feet. He therefore concludes that the
-part of the Sahara which he explored had been raised at least 3,000
-feet above the sea. These changes of level, the same in amount, but
-in opposite directions, were probably compensatory and simultaneous.
-Northern Africa may have been cut off from the central and southern
-portions of the continent by the sea extending over the Sahara, during
-the time that the Mediterranean was represented by the two inland
-salt lakes figured in the accompanying map (Fig. 129). And while the
-region of the Sahara was being elevated, that of the Mediterranean was
-probably being depressed.
-
-These changes in the relation of sea to land, and the greater elevation
-of the mountains in the neighbouring countries, must have affected
-not merely the climate of southern, but also of north-western Europe,
-and ought not to be left out of account in any theory relating to
-pleistocene climate.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XI.
-
-THE EUROPEAN CLIMATE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE.
-
-  The evidence of the Mammalia as to Climate.--The Southern Group.--
-    The Northern Group.--Probable cause of Association of Northern
-    and Southern Groups.--The Temperate Group.--Species common to
-    Cold and Tropical Climates.--Extinct Species.--Two Periods of
-    Glaciation in Britain.--Three Climatal Changes represented on
-    the Continent.--Europe invaded by Pleistocene Mammals before
-    the Glacial Period.--Mammals lived in Britain during the Second
-    Ice or Glacial Stage.--The Glacial Period does not separate one
-    Life-era from another.--Relation of Palæolithic Man to Glacial
-    Period.--Age of Contents of Caves in Glaciated Districts.
-
-
-_The Evidence of the Mammalia as to Climate._
-
-In the last three chapters we have seen that the cave-mammalia throw
-great light on the pleistocene geography of Europe, and that there is
-reason for the belief that the land surface then extended northwards
-and westwards, so as to include Ireland; and southwards to join Africa,
-in the direction of Sicily, Malta, and Gibraltar. We must now pass on
-to the consideration of the climate on this great continental area,
-which would allow of so large and varied a fauna existing in our
-quarter of the world.
-
-
-_The Southern Group of Animals._
-
-The pleistocene fauna is remarkable for the mixture of species. It
-consists of forms now banished to South Africa, Northern Asia, and
-America, or to the severe climate of high mountains, mingled with those
-which lived in Europe in the historic age, and those which have wholly
-disappeared from the face of the earth. We will take the living species
-first.
-
-The southern group consists of the following animals:--
-
-    Lion.
-    Caffir Cat.
-    Spotted Hyæna.
-    Striped Hyæna.
-    Serval.
-    Hippopotamus.
-    African Elephant.
-    Porcupine.
-
-At the present day the lion ranges over the whole of Africa, with the
-exception of Egypt and the Cape Colony, whence it has been driven out
-by the hand of man. In Asia, the maneless variety inhabits the valley
-of the Tigris and Euphrates, and the districts bordering on the Persian
-Gulf; and in India, according to Mr. Blyth, the province of Kattywar
-in Guzerat. Although now only found in these hot regions, it is
-proved, by the concurrent testimony of Herodotus, Aristotle, Xenophon,
-Ælian, and Pausanias, to have inhabited the mountains of Thrace, and
-of Asia Minor, and it probably became extinct in Europe before the
-end of the first century after Christ.[259] We may therefore infer
-that it possessed a sufficient elasticity of constitution to endure
-a considerable degree of cold, although its present distribution
-implies that it is better fitted to thrive in a tropical than in a cold
-climate. The Caffir cat (_Felis caffer_ of Desmarest) is an African
-species, which has been discovered by Mr. Ayshford Sanford and myself,
-in Somersetshire; it also occurs in the caves of Germany, France, and
-Gibraltar. The spotted hyæna now lives only in South Africa, while
-the striped species ranges through Africa and the warmer regions of
-Asia. It was extremely rare in Europe in the pleistocene age, and
-has not been identified in any deposit further north than Lunelviel,
-in southern France. The hippopotamus, now found only in middle and
-southern Africa, is proved by its fossil remains to have formerly dwelt
-in the region of the Lower Nile, as well as in Algeria. The serval and
-African elephant have been found in the Iberian peninsula, and the
-latter in Sicily.
-
-The evidence afforded by the animals, as to the pleistocene climate of
-those portions of Europe which they inhabited, differs considerably in
-point of value, but on the whole indicates that it was temperate, or
-comparatively hot; for although the elasticity of constitution which
-we know to have been possessed by the lion, was probably shared by
-the spotted hyæna, it is very unlikely that so aquatic an animal as
-the hippopotamus could have ranged from southern Europe, as far north
-as Yorkshire, under any other than temperate conditions. It could not
-have endured a winter sufficiently severe to cover the rivers with a
-thick coating of ice, without having its present habits profoundly
-modified; and such an alteration of habits would certainly leave its
-mark, in other modifications in the fossil skeleton than those minute
-differences which have been observed, when it is compared with that of
-the living _Hippopotamus amphibius_. The porcupine of southern Europe
-has been found as far north as the caves of Belgium (Schmerling).
-
-
-_The Northern Group._
-
-The northern group consists of those animals which are now only to be
-met with in the colder regions of the northern hemisphere, either in
-low latitudes or at great altitudes.
-
-    Marmot.
-    Pouched Marmot.
-    Lemming.
-    Alpine Hare.
-    Tailless Hare.
-    Glutton.
-    Arctic Fox.
-    Musk-sheep.
-    Reindeer.
-    Ibex.
-    Chamois.
-
-To this list the palæolithic man of the caves must be added, since he
-is probably related by blood to the Eskimos, and appeared in Europe
-simultaneously with the arctic group of animals.
-
-The testimony of these animals as to climate is directly opposed to
-that of the preceding group, since they now only flourish in the arctic
-regions, or in mountainous districts in which the climate is severe.
-The marmot, in the pleistocene age, lived in Belgium, and descended
-from the Alpine heights as far as the shores of the Mediterranean,
-where it has been met with in the caverns near Nice. The pouched
-marmot, _Spermophilus citillus_ of the Don and Volga, penetrated as
-far to the west as Somersetshire. The Alpine hare, now found only in
-the colder climates of northern Europe, Asia, and America (with the
-solitary exception of Ireland), ranged as far down the valley of the
-Rhine as Schussenreid, in Suabia. The two carnivores now dwelling in
-the colder regions of the north, the glutton or wolverine, and the
-arctic fox, have been discovered, the one as far south as France, the
-other as far as Schussenreid, and both probably occupied the whole of
-Germany, and of northern Russia, in the pleistocene age.
-
-The musk-sheep,[260] the most arctic in its habit of all the
-herbivores, is, at the present time, restricted to the high latitudes
-of North America, where it thrives in the desolate, treeless, barren
-grounds, not even being driven from its haunts by the extreme severity
-of the winter. It has been traced, by its fossil remains, from its
-present abode, across Behring’s Straits, and through the vast Siberian
-steppes, into Russia in Europe, Germany, Britain, and as far south and
-west as the barrier offered by the Pyrenees. Throughout this large area
-its remains occur in association with the reindeer, and both these
-animals, as I have remarked above, were hunted by the palæolithic
-dwellers in the caves of Aquitaine, just as they are now hunted by the
-Eskimos on the shores of the Arctic Ocean.
-
-If the present habits of these animals be any index to their mode
-of life in the pleistocene age, their presence in the area north of
-the Alps and Pyrenees implies that the climate in France, Germany,
-and Britain was severe, or analogous to that which they now enjoy
-on the tops of lofty mountains, or in the northern Asiatic steppes,
-or the high northern latitudes of America. But this conclusion is
-diametrically opposed to that which is based on the evidence of the
-southern group of animals.[261] And the remains of the two groups of
-animals are so associated together in the caves, and river-deposits of
-Europe, north of the Pyrenees, that it is impossible to deny the fact
-that it was the common feeding-ground of both during the same era.[262]
-
-
-_Probable Cause of Association of Northern and Southern Groups._
-
-Must we then infer that in the pleistocene age the present habits of
-the musk-sheep, the reindeer, chamois, or ibex, were so changed as to
-allow them to flourish side by side with the hippopotamus, or _vice
-versâ_? Was the climate colder than it is now in Europe, or was it
-hotter? How was this singular association of northern and southern
-species brought about? The problem may be solved if we refer to the
-present distribution of animals in northern Asia and North America. As
-the winter comes on the arctic species gradually retreat southwards,
-and occupy the summer feeding-grounds of the elk, red-deer, and other
-creatures which are unable to endure the extreme severity of an arctic
-winter. In the spring the latter pass northwards, to enjoy the summer
-herbage of that area, which had been the winter-quarters of the
-arctic group of animals. Thus there is a continued swinging to and
-fro, over the same region, of the arctic and the temperate animals,
-and their remains must necessarily become more or less associated in
-the river-deposits, as well as in caves, where these last happen to
-occur. In northern Asia, and in America, the only boundary between the
-northern and temperate zoological provinces is that constituted by the
-fluctuating annual temperature, and there are no great hilly barriers
-running east and west, to prevent free migration to the north or south.
-If reference be made to the map, Fig. 126, it will be seen that these
-conditions were amply satisfied in the pleistocene age. There were no
-physical barriers to migration, from the shores of the Mediterranean,
-as far north as Ireland. If the winter cold were severe, the reindeer
-and musk-sheep might advance as far south as the Pyrenees, and if
-the summer heat were intense there would be nothing to forbid the
-hippopotamus and the African carnivores advancing northwards. It seems
-to me that this is the only hypothesis which will satisfy all the facts
-of the case. The traces of glaciers and snow-fields where they are no
-longer found prove that the winter was severe; while the warmth of the
-summer seems to be sufficiently demonstrated by the presence of African
-species. Such extremes of temperature are presented, more or less, by
-all continents extending from high to low latitudes. They are modified
-in Europe at the present time by the warm current of the Gulf Stream,
-by the large area now occupied by the Mediterranean Sea, and by the
-submergence of the pleistocene lowlands on the Atlantic border.
-
-
-_The Temperate Group._
-
-The third group of pleistocene mammalia consists of those still living
-in the temperate zones of Europe, Asia, and America:
-
-    Beaver.
-    Hare.
-    Rabbit.
-    Wild Cat.
-    Martin.
-    Stoat.
-    Weasel.
-    Otter.
-    Brown Bear.
-    Grizzly Bear.
-    Wolf.
-    Fox.
-    Horse.
-    Urus.
-    Bison.
-    _Antelope saiga._
-    Wild Boar.
-    Stag.
-    Roe.
-
-The range of many of these animals has been profoundly modified since
-the pleistocene age. The _Antelope saiga_ of the Don and Volga lived
-as far to the west as Aquitaine. The grizzly bear, instead of being
-restricted to its American habitat in the Rocky Mountains, ranged
-over the whole of Siberia into Europe, as far to the south as the
-Mediterranean, and westwards as far as Gibraltar.
-
-The urus[263] still lives in the larger domestic cattle, and the bison
-is represented in Europe by those which are protected by the forest
-laws of Lithuania, and in North America by the vast herds which are
-rapidly being exterminated, like the red Indian, by the rifles of the
-settlers. The horse was as abundant, and as widely spread over Europe,
-as the urus and the bison; according to Prof. Brandt it now no longer
-lives in Siberia in a wild state.
-
-
-_Species common to Cold and Tropical Climates._
-
-The panther or leopard, which has been found alike in Britain, France,
-and Germany, has at the present day a most extended range through
-Africa, from Barbary to the Cape of Good Hope, and throughout Persia
-into Siberia. In this latter country Dr. Gothelf Fischer describes
-it as living in the same districts in the Altai Mountains, and in
-Soongaria, as the tiger. The fox and wolf are like instances of
-carnivores being able to endure great variations in temperature without
-being specifically modified. These three animals, therefore, tell us
-nothing as to the pleistocene climate.
-
-
-_Extinct Species._
-
-The extinct pleistocene species may also be divided into the same
-classes as the living, by an appeal to their geographical distribution.
-Two out of the three species of rhinoceros found in the caves (_R.
-megarhinus_ and _R. hemitœchus_), and an elephant with slightly curved
-tusks (_E. antiquus_), had their head-quarters south of the Alps and
-Pyrenees, whence they wandered northward as far as the latitude of
-Yorkshire. The pigmy elephant and the dwarf hippopotamus are peculiar
-to the south, and the _Machairodus latidens_, or large sabre-toothed
-felis, is a survival, from the pleiocene age, of a peculiarly southern
-type.
-
-The woolly rhinoceros, on the other hand, may be viewed as a northern
-form, since it is met with in vast abundance in the arctic regions
-of Siberia, as well as in Europe, and has not been found south of
-the Alps and Pyrenees. The cave-bear has not been discovered either
-in the extreme north or in the south of Europe, and may therefore be
-considered of temperate range; and the Irish elk, identified by Prof.
-Brandt, from the caves of the Altai Mountains, had a similar range in
-middle Europe. The mammoth, endowed with an elastic constitution, was
-able to endure the severity of an arctic climate in Siberia and North
-America, and the temperature of the latitude of Rome and the Gulf of
-Mexico,[264] and consequently tells us as little of the pleistocene
-climate as the panther, fox, or wolf.
-
-The evidence, therefore, as to climate, offered by the extinct animals
-in the caves is of the same nature as that of the living. There is
-the same mixture of northern and southern forms, which can only be
-accounted for satisfactorily by seasonal migrations, according to the
-summer heat and winter cold, such as those which are now observed to
-take place in Siberia and North America.
-
-Before we consider the relation of the pleistocene animals buried in
-the caves and river deposits to the glacial period, it is necessary to
-define what is meant by the term glacial.
-
-
-_Two Periods of Glaciation in Britain._
-
-At the close of the pleistocene period the climate gradually became
-colder, until ultimately it was arctic in severity in northern Europe.
-The researches of many eminent observers prove that an enormous sheet
-of ice, like that under which Greenland now lies buried, extended
-over North Britain, Wales, and Ireland, leaving its mark in the
-far-travelled blocks of stone, the moraines, and the grooves which pass
-over the surface irrespective of the minor contours. The land then,
-most probably, as Prof. Ramsay and Sir Charles Lyell believe, stood
-higher than it does now. To this succeeded a period of depression,
-during which the mountains of Wales were submerged to a height of
-at least 1,300 feet; and the waves of the sea washed out of the
-pre-existing glacial detritus the shingle and sand, termed the “middle
-drift,” which occurs also in Scotland and Ireland.[265] Then the land
-was re-elevated above the waves, and a second period of glaciers set
-in, traces of which occur abundantly in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland,
-in the white areas in Fig. 126. They were, however, of far less extent
-than those which preceded them, occupying isolated areas instead
-of forming one continuous icy covering to the country. The glacial
-phenomena may be briefly summed up as follows: 1. As the pleiocene
-temperature was lowered, the glaciers crept down from the tops of the
-mountains, until at last they united to form one continuous ice sheet,
-moving resistlessly over the smaller hills and valleys to the lower
-grounds, and the first ice or glacial period set in. 2. Then followed
-the era of depression beneath the sea. 3. And, lastly, on the land
-re-emerging from the sea the second ice or glacial period began. The
-climate during the marine depression must obviously have been milder
-than that of either of the glacial periods, because of the moderating
-effect of the wide extent of sea.
-
-The exact relation of the boulder clays with marine shells, in the
-centre and south of Britain, to the detritus left behind by the
-ice-sheet in the north, has not as yet been satisfactorily ascertained.
-It is very probable that the elevation of land in the north was
-simultaneous with a southern depression, which allowed of icebergs
-depositing their burdens in the eastern counties, in the valley of the
-Thames, and as far south as Selsea, on the coast of Sussex.
-
-
-_Three Climatal Changes represented on the Continent._
-
-These changes of climate have also been observed on the continent
-of Europe. The Swiss geologists have shown that the Alpine glaciers
-extended farther than they do at the present time, and that they
-present two stages of extension, the first of which is of greater
-magnitude than the second. The Alpine blocks and moraines have been
-traced far down into the plains of Lombardy, northwards into the
-valley of the Rhine, and in France as far south in the valley of the
-Rhone as Valence. The admirable essay and map brought by MM. Falsan
-and Chantre, before the meeting of the French Association for the
-Advancement of Science at Lyons, in 1873, show that there were two
-periods of glaciation in the valley of the Rhone, the one being due to
-the movement of an ice-sheet irrespective of the lower hills, the other
-being merely the work of the glaciers localized in the valleys. These
-in all probability correspond in point of time with the like stages of
-the complicated glacial phenomena in Britain. At this time the glaciers
-of the Pyrenees, now so small, extended at least from thirty to forty
-miles from their present position down into the plains, leaving behind
-most astounding evidences of their presence in the valley of the
-Garonne and elsewhere. On the Spanish frontier, for example, one of the
-precipitous sides of the valley, near the Pont du Roy, is so smoothed
-and polished that it is bare of vegetation except in the deep grooves,
-which offer a precarious support to the roots of ferns and of dwarf
-beeches. The hills of Dauphiny also and Auvergne were crowned with
-glaciers, and those of the latter have been shown by MM. Falsan and
-Chantre to have been conterminous with those of the Alps.
-
-The interglacial period of marine depression in Britain is represented
-in Switzerland by the lignite beds of Dürnten, Utznach, and Pfaffikon,
-the last of which rests upon and is covered by the boulder drift. The
-fossil remains from Dürnten, identified by Dr. Falconer and Prof.
-Rütimeyer, prove that two southern animals, _Elephas antiquus_ and
-_Rhinoceros megarhinus_, inhabited the district in the interval between
-the retreat of one set of glaciers and the advance of another. They
-probably migrated from the plains of Lombardy, where they abounded in
-the pleistocene age.
-
-
-_Europe invaded by Pleistocene Mammals before the Glacial Period._
-
-What is the precise relation of the pleistocene mammals to these two
-periods of cold? Did they invade northern and central Europe during
-the first or the second, before or after, the marine submergence
-indicated by the “middle drift?” We might expect, _à priori_, that as
-the temperature became lowered, the northern mammalia would gradually
-invade the region occupied before by the pleiocene forms, and that the
-reindeer, the mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros would gradually supplant
-the southern _Rhinoceros Etruscus_ and _Elephas meridionalis_. Traces
-of such an occupation would necessarily be very rare, since they would
-be exposed to the grinding action both of the advancing glacial sheet,
-and subsequently to that of the waves on the littoral zone during the
-depression and re-elevation of the land. At the time also that the
-greater part of Great Britain was buried under an ice-sheet, it could
-not have been occupied by animals, although they may have been, and
-most probably were, living in the districts farther to the south,
-which were not covered by ice. The labours, however, of Dr. Bryce,
-Prof. Archibald Geikie, and others prove that one at least of the
-characteristic pleistocene mammalia--the mammoth--lived in Scotland
-along with the reindeer before the deposit of the lower boulder-clay;
-while Mr. Jamieson has pointed out that it could not have occupied
-that area at the same time as the ice, and therefore must be referred
-to a still earlier date.[266] The teeth and bones discovered in the
-ancient land surface at Selsea, under the boulder drift, also very
-probably indicate that the mammoth lived in Sussex before the glacial
-submergence, although they were never admitted by Dr. Falconer to be
-of the same age as the remains of _Elephas antiquus_ from the same
-preglacial horizon. The animal also occurs in the preglacial forest-bed
-of Norfolk and Suffolk. On a careful examination of the whole evidence,
-I am compelled to believe, with Mr. Godwin-Austen and Prof. Phillips,
-that the _à priori_ belief that the pleistocene mammalia occupied
-Great Britain before the period of the ice-sheet and submergence is
-fully borne out by the few incontestable proofs that have been brought
-forward of the remains being found in preglacial deposits. And the
-scanty evidence on the point is just what might be expected from the
-rare accidents under which the bones in superficial deposits could have
-withstood the grinding of the ice-sheet, and the subsequent erosive
-action of the waves on the coast-line. It may therefore be concluded,
-that the pleistocene mammalia arrived in Europe before the temperature
-had reached its minimum in the glacial period. On the other hand, the
-occurrence of mammaliferous river strata, either in hollows of the
-boulder-clay as at Hoxne, or in valleys excavated after its deposition
-as at Bedford, prove that the characteristic animals occupied Britain
-after the retreat of the ice-sheet, and after the re-emergence of the
-land from beneath the glacial sea.
-
-
-_Mammalia lived in Britain during the Second Ice or Glacial Period._
-
-The distribution of the animals in the river deposits gives us a clue
-to the physical geography during the second ice period. In an essay
-read before the Geological Society in 1869, and in a second printed
-in the “Popular Science Review” in 1872, I showed that there was a
-singular irregularity in the contents of the river strata, and that
-while the fossil mammalia were abundant throughout the area (marked
-with dots in the map, Fig. 126), there were certain districts in which
-they had not been met with. One of these barren areas comprises (plain
-in the map, Fig. 126), nearly the whole of Wales. A second includes a
-large portion of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and
-the whole of Scotland (if the preglacial mammals in the low district
-between the Frith of Forth and Frith of Clyde in the map be omitted),
-and a third is represented by nearly the whole of Ireland. These areas
-are remarkable for the absence of the mammalia from the river deposits.
-They are also characterised by the freshness of the ice marks which
-they present. Nearly every valley has its own system of grooves and its
-own set of moraines; and the mounds of clay and marl left behind by the
-local glacier, as it slowly retreated to higher levels till it finally
-disappeared, are to be observed in great abundance. If we bring these
-facts into relation, the barrenness of the areas may be reasonably
-explained by the presence of glaciers, _while_ the pleistocene mammals
-were living in the south and east (see map, Fig. 126). A barrier of
-some kind may reasonably be inferred to have prevented their range over
-those districts, and its nature is indicated by the ice marks. It is
-very probable that these glaciers had not passed away before the close
-of the pleistocene age: for in that case the characteristic animals
-would be discovered in the river gravels, which are later than the
-deposits of local glaciers in those districts.
-
-
-_The Glacial Period does not separate one Life-era from another._
-
-The lowering of the temperature which culminated in the glacial period
-has left palpable traces behind in the changes which it caused in the
-European fauna. As the pleiocene climate became colder, the animals
-unfitted to endure the cold, such as the deer of the Indian types of
-Axis and Rusa, either migrated to the south or became extinct, while
-their feeding-grounds were invaded by the dwellers in the temperate
-zone, the stag, roe, bison, and other animals. These in their turn were
-pushed forward by the arctic group of animals, the musk-sheep, lemming,
-reindeer, and others, the progress being in the main steadily to the
-south while the cold was increasing, and the retreat being steadily to
-the north while it was decreasing. It will follow from this, that the
-same district in central or north-western Europe would be traversed by
-these migratory bodies of animals, both in their southern advance in
-preglacial and glacial times and their northern retreat in postglacial
-times, and that, therefore, their fossil remains cannot afford a
-means of fixing the preglacial, glacial, or postglacial, age of the
-deposit in which they are found, where it is not marked by traces of
-glaciation. Sir Charles Lyell’s view, that the glacial period cannot be
-taken as a landmark in the classification of the European pleistocene
-deposits, is fully borne out by the facts, and still less can it be
-taken as a hard and fast line between one fauna and another. It cannot
-be considered a life-era like the eocene, meiocene, pleiocene, or
-prehistoric divisions of the tertiary period.
-
-
-_Bone-caves inhabited before and after Ice Period._
-
-If we allow that the lowering of the temperature was the principal
-cause of the presence of temperate and arctic animals, in a region
-before inhabited by species fitted to live in a comparatively warm
-climate, it will follow that bone-caves cannot be said to be either
-pre- or postglacial, by an appeal to their fossil mammalia. If they
-were open before the minimum of temperature was reached, they would
-afford shelter to the animals then in the neighbourhood, and they would
-continue to be occupied in the south during the vast period of time
-represented by the enormous physical changes in the region north of
-the line of the Thames, during the development of the ice-sheet, the
-submergence and the re-elevation of nearly the whole of Britain and
-Ireland. As, however, the cold increased, the percentage of arctic
-animals would also increase, and the more temperate species be weeded
-out. For these reasons it has seemed to me, that the machairodus of
-Kent’s Hole, and the _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ of Oreston, represent
-an early stage of the pleistocene period, before the arctic mammalia
-were present in full force in the caves. It is very probable that vast
-herds of reindeer lived in the south of France, while northern Britain
-lay buried under the ice-sheet, as well as during the two succeeding
-physical changes.
-
-
-_Relation of Palæolithic Man to Glacial Period._
-
-What then is the relation of the palæolithic hunter of reindeer in
-France and Britain to the glacial period? Is he pre- or postglacial?
-The only evidence on the point is that offered by the associated
-mammalia which occupied France, Germany, and Britain before and after
-the point of minimum temperature was reached in these latitudes. Man
-may have inhabited the caves not merely of France, but of Devonshire
-and Somerset, at any time during that long period. The position of the
-palæolithic refuse-heap discovered by Prof. Fraas at Schussenreid,
-resting on a moraine of the extinct glacier of the Rhine, proves that
-the palæolithic Eskimos lived in Suabia after the retreat of the
-glacier when the temperature became warmer, towards the close of the
-pleistocene age or in the later glacial stage. The same conclusion
-has been arrived at by Mr. Prestwich as to the sojourn of palæolithic
-man (of the river-bed type) in Bedfordshire and Suffolk, the gravels
-in which the implements are found being of a later age than the
-boulder-clay of those districts. We have therefore proof that man
-lived in Germany and Britain after the maximum glacial cold had passed
-away, and we may also infer with a high degree of probability that
-he migrated into Europe along with the pleistocene mammalia in the
-preglacial age.
-
-
-_Test of age of contents of caves in Glaciated Districts._
-
-The probable date of the introduction of the contents into ossiferous
-caves in glaciated areas may be ascertained by an examination of
-the river deposits. If the animals found in the caves inhabited the
-surrounding country after the melting of the ice, their remains will
-occur in the postglacial gravels. If they are not found, it may be
-inferred that they had retreated from the district, before the latter
-were deposited. It is obvious that they could not have lived in any
-district while it was covered with ice or by the sea. It may therefore
-be concluded that their remains in the caves were most probably
-introduced before the glacial conditions had set in. Preglacial
-deposits in a cavern would be protected from the grinding of the
-ice-sheet, the action of the waves in the depression, and re-elevation
-of the land, and the subsequent glacial erosion which would inevitably
-destroy nearly all the fluviatile ossiferous strata. By this test the
-pleistocene strata in the Victoria Cave, near Settle, may be considered
-preglacial, as well as the hyæna-den at Kirkdale, which has always been
-referred by Prof. Phillips to that age. If this be allowed, the small
-fragment of human bone found by the Settle Cave Exploration Committee
-in the former cave in 1872 establishes the fact that man lived in
-Yorkshire before the glacial period. The man to whom it belonged was
-probably devoured by the hyænas which dragged into their den the woolly
-rhinoceros, reindeer, and other creatures whose gnawed bones were
-strewn on the floors.
-
-
-
-
-CHAPTER XII.
-
-CONCLUSION.
-
-  Classification of Pleistocene Strata by means of the Mammalia.--The
-    late, middle, and early Pleistocene Divisions.--The Pleiocene
-    Mammalia.--Summary of characteristic Pleiocene and Pleistocene
-    Species.--Antiquity of Man in Europe.--Man lived in India
-    in Pleistocene Age.--Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India
-    related to those of Europe?--Palæolithic Man lived in Palestine.--
-    Conclusion.
-
-
-The animals inhabiting the caves have been enumerated in the last
-three chapters, and we have discussed the inferences drawn from their
-distribution as to the pleistocene climate and geography of Europe. It
-remains for us now, in conclusion, to define the pleistocene, and to
-see in what relation it stands to the pleiocene period.
-
-
-_Classification of Pleistocene Strata by means of the Mammalia._
-
-The pleistocene period was one of very long duration, and embraced
-changes of great magnitude in the geography of Europe, as we have seen
-in the ninth and tenth chapters. The climate, which in the preceding
-pleiocene age had been temperate in northern and middle Europe, at the
-beginning of the pleistocene gradually passed into the extreme arctic
-severity of the glacial period. This change caused a corresponding
-change of the forms of animal life; the pleiocene species, whose
-constitutions were adjusted to temperate or hot climates, yielding
-place to those which were better adapted to the new conditions. And
-since there is reason for the belief that it was not continuous in
-one direction, but that there were pauses or even reversions towards
-the old temperate state, it follows that the two groups of animals
-would at times overlap, and their remains be intermingled with each
-other. The frontiers also of each of the geographical provinces must
-naturally have varied with the season; and the competition for the
-same feeding-grounds between the invading and retreating forms must
-have been long, fluctuating, and severe. The passage, therefore, from
-the pleiocene to the pleistocene fauna might be expected to have been
-extremely gradual in each area. The lines of definition between the
-two are to a great extent arbitrary, instead of being marked with
-sufficient strength to constitute a barrier between the tertiary and
-post-tertiary groups of life of Lyell, or between the tertiary and
-quaternary of French geologists. The principle of classification which
-I have proposed[267] is that offered by the gradual lowering of the
-temperature, which has left its mark in the advent of animals before
-unknown in Europe; and according to it I have divided the pleistocene
-deposits into three groups.
-
-1. Those in which the pleistocene immigrants had begun to disturb
-the pleiocene mammalia, but had not yet supplanted the more southern
-animals. No arctic mammalia had as yet arrived. To this group belongs
-the forest-bed of Norfolk and Suffolk, and the deposit at St. Prest,
-near Chartres.
-
-2. That in which the characteristic pleiocene deer had disappeared. The
-even-toed ruminants are principally represented by the stag, the Irish
-elk, the roe, bison, and urus. _Elephas meridionalis_ and _Rhinoceros
-etruscus_ had retreated to the south. To this group belong the
-brick-earths of the lower valley of the Thames, the river-deposit at
-Clacton, the cave of Baume in the Jura, and a river-deposit in Auvergne.
-
-3. The third division is that in which the true arctic mammalia were
-among the chief inhabitants of the region; and to it belong most of the
-ossiferous caves and river-deposits in middle and northern Europe.
-
-These three do not correspond with the preglacial, glacial, and
-postglacial divisions of the pleistocene strata, in central and north
-Britain; since there is reason to believe that all the animals which
-occupied Britain after the maximum cold had passed away, had arrived
-here in their southern advance before that maximum cold had been
-reached; or, in other words, were both pre- and postglacial.
-
-This classification does not apply to pleistocene river-strata south of
-the Alps and Pyrenees, into which the arctic mammalia never penetrated.
-
-
-_The Late Pleistocene Division._
-
-The late pleistocene division corresponds in part with the reindeer
-period of M. Lartet; but it comprehends also his other three periods;
-for the spotted hyæna, the lion, the cave-bear, the mammoth, the woolly
-rhinoceros, the bison, the reindeer, and the urus are so associated
-together in the caves and river deposits of Great Britain and the
-continent that they do not afford a means of classification. The
-arctic division of the mammalia, defined in the preceding chapter, was
-then in full possession of the area north of the Alps and Pyrenees, and
-the _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ and _Elephas meridionalis_ had disappeared.
-With three exceptions, to be noticed presently, all the ossiferous
-caverns of France, Germany, and Britain, belong to this division of the
-pleistocene.
-
-
-_The Middle Pleistocene Division._
-
-The middle division of the pleistocene mammalia may now be examined,
-or that from which the characteristic pleiocene deer had vanished,
-and were replaced by the invading forms from the temperate zones of
-northern Asia. It is represented in Britain by the mammalia obtained
-from the lower brick-earths of the Thames valley, at Crayford, Erith,
-Ilford, and Gray’s Thurrock, by those from the deposit at Clacton, and
-most probably by those of the older deposit in Kent’s Hole, and by the
-_Rhinoceros megarhinus_ of Oreston.[268] They consist of--
-
-    Man, _Homo_.
-    Lion, _Felis leo spelæa_.
-    Wild Cat, _F. catus_.
-    Spotted Hyæna, _Hyæna crocuta var. spelæa_.
-    Grizzly Bear, _Ursus ferox_.
-    Brown Bear, _U. arctos_.
-    Wolf, _Canis lupus_.
-    Fox, _C. vulpes_.
-    Otter, _Lutra vulgaris_.
-    Urus, _Bos primigenius_.
-    Bison, _Bison priscus_.
-    Irish Elk, _Cervus megaceros_.
-    Stag, _C. elaphus_.
-    Brown’s Fallow Deer, _C. Browni_.
-    Roedeer, _C. capreolus_.
-    Musk Sheep, _Ovibos moschatus_.
-    _Elephas antiquus._
-    Mammoth, _E. primigenius_.
-    Horse, _Equus caballus_.
-    Woolly Rhinoceros, _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_.
-    _R. hemitœchus._
-    _R. megarhinus._
-    Wild-boar, _Sus scrofa_.
-    Hippopotamus, _Hippopotamus amphibius_.
-    Beaver, _Castor fiber_.
-    Water-Rat, _Arvicola amphibia_.
-
-The discovery of a flint-flake in the undisturbed lower brick-earths
-of Crayford, by the Rev. O. Fisher, in the presence of the writer, in
-April 1872, proves that man was living while these fluviatile strata
-were being deposited.
-
-If these mammalia be compared with those of the forest-bed or the
-pleiocene age on the one hand, and with the late pleistocene on
-the other, it will be seen that they are linked to the former by
-_Rhinoceros megarhinus_, and to the latter by the musk sheep. The
-presence of the latter, the most arctic of the herbivores, in such
-strange company is most abnormal, and suggests the idea that the
-remains belong to two distinct eras. The skull, however, which I found
-at Crayford in 1867, and presented to the Museum of the Geological
-Survey, rested in intimate association with the bones of other species,
-is in the same mineral state, and bears no marks of being a “derived
-fossil.” It is the only trace of the animal as yet obtained from the
-lower brick-earths.
-
-The absence of the reindeer, so numerous in the valley of the Thames,
-while the late pleistocene strata were being accumulated by the
-river, and the abundance of remains of the stag, seem to me to point
-backwards rather than forwards in time, and to imply that the lower
-brick-earths are not of late pleistocene age; just as the absence
-of the characteristic early pleistocene species shows that they are
-not of that age. The evidence seems to be sufficient to establish a
-stage intermediate between the two. Nevertheless, it is sufficiently
-conflicting to cause Dr. Falconer to come to the conclusion that these
-strata are of pleiocene date, and Mr. Prestwich to believe that they
-belong to a late stage in the pleistocene.
-
-During the middle pleistocene, in the Thames valley, and at Clacton,
-the woolly rhinoceros, elephant, and mammoth competed for the same
-feeding-grounds with _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_, _R. megarhinus_,
-hippopotamus, and _Elephas antiquus_. Although all the characteristic
-pleiocene deer had retreated, the reindeer had not yet invaded that
-area: it was occupied by the stag, roe, the Irish elk, and Brown’s
-fallow deer. The whole assemblage of animals, the musk sheep being
-excepted, implies that the climate was less severe at this time, than
-when the reindeer spread over the same area in the late pleistocene
-age, and was far more numerous than the stag. It may, indeed, be
-objected that the classificatory value of the musk sheep is quite as
-great as that of _Rhinoceros megarhinus_; but in the case of the lower
-brick-earths, the evidence of the latter as to climate agrees with
-that of the whole assemblage of animals, while that of the former is
-altogether discordant.
-
-There are no caves either in Britain or on the continent which can
-be referred with certainty to this middle division. The machairodus,
-however, of Kent’s Hole, and of the cavern of Baume in the Jura (see
-p. 337), and the megarhine species of rhinoceros from the fissures of
-Oreston, probably inhabited those regions, while the temperate group of
-animals held possession of the valley of the Thames, and of that now
-sunk beneath the North Sea.
-
-
-_The Early Pleistocene Mammalia._
-
-The fossil mammalia must now be examined, which inhabited Great Britain
-during the early pleistocene period, and before the maximum severity
-of glacial cold had as yet been reached. The fossil bones from the
-forest-bed, which underlies the boulder-clay on the shores of Norfolk
-and Suffolk, have for many years attracted the attention of naturalists
-and geologists. The magnificent collections of the Rev. John Gunn, and
-the late Rev. S. W. King, gave Dr. Falconer the means of proving that
-the fauna of the ancient submerged forest differed from that of any
-geological period which we have hitherto discussed: and the careful
-diagnosis of all the fossils from this horizon which I have been able
-to meet with, shows that it was of a very peculiar character, being
-closely allied to the pleiocene of the south of France and of Italy,
-and yet possessing species which are undoubtedly pleistocene. The
-following list is necessarily very imperfect, since the fragmentary
-nature of the fossils renders a specific identification very hazardous;
-and it only includes those which I have been able to identify with any
-degree of certainty.
-
-    _Sorex moschatus._
-    _S. vulgaris._
-    _Talpa Europæa._
-    _Trogontherium Cuvieri._
-    _Castor fiber._
-    _Ursus spelæus._
-    _U. arvernensis._
-    _Canis lupus._
-    _C. vulpes._
-    _Machairodus._
-    _Cervus megaceros._
-    _C. capreolus._
-    _C. elaphus._
-    _Cervus Polignacus._
-    _C. carnutorum._
-    _C. verticornis._
-    _C. Sedgwickii._
-    _Bos primigenius._
-    _Hippopotamus major._
-    _Sus scrofa._
-    _Equus caballus._
-    _Rhinoceros etruscus._
-    _R. megarhinus._
-    _Elephas meridionalis._
-    _E. antiquus._
-    _E. primigenius._
-
-From the examination of this list, the peculiar mixture of pleiocene
-and pleistocene species is evident. The _Ursus arvernensis_, _Cervus
-Polignacus_, _Hippopotamus major_, _Rhinoceros etruscus_, and _R.
-megarhinus_, the horse, _Elephas meridionalis_, and _E. antiquus_
-were living in the pleiocene age in France and Italy, and probably in
-Norfolk. The cave-bear, the wolf, fox, mole, beaver, Irish elk, roe,
-stag, urus, wild-boar, and the mammoth have not as yet been discovered
-in the continental pleiocenes, as judged by the standards offered by
-the Val d’Arno and Southern France. They are more or less abundant in
-the late pleistocene age. This singular association seems to me to
-imply that the fauna of the forest-bed is intermediate between the two,
-and, from the fact that only three out of the whole series, viz. _Ursus
-arvernensis_, _Rhinoceros etruscus_, and _Cervus Polignacus_, are
-peculiar to the continental pleiocene, that it is more closely allied
-to the pleistocene than to the pleiocene.
-
-It is also very probable that this early pleistocene age was of
-considerable duration; for in it we find at least two forms (and the
-number will probably be very largely increased) which are unknown in
-continental Europe, although pleiocene and pleistocene strata have
-been diligently examined in France and Germany. The very presence of
-the _Cervus Sedgwickii_ and _C. verticornis_ implies that the lapse
-of time was sufficiently great to allow of the evolution of forms of
-animal life hitherto unknown, and which disappeared before the middle
-and late pleistocene stages. The _Trogontherium_ also, as well as the
-_Cervus carnutorum_, both of which occur in the forest-bed and in the
-gravel-beds of St. Prest, near Chartres, and which are peculiar to this
-horizon, point to the same conclusion.
-
-The deer of the forest-bed, in this list, do not represent
-approximately the number of species: there are at least five, and
-perhaps six, represented by a series of antlers, which I do not venture
-to quote, because I have not been able to compare them with those of
-the pleiocenes of the Val d’Arno, of Marseilles, or of Auvergne.
-
-Dr. Falconer pointed out that one of the peculiar characters of the
-fauna of the forest-bed is the presence of the mammoth; and the
-evidence on which he considered the animal to be of preglacial age
-in Europe has been fully verified by the molars from Bacton, which
-are now in the Manchester Museum. They are associated with _Elephas
-meridionalis_ and _E. antiquus_, and are incrusted with precisely the
-same matrix as the teeth and bones of those species.
-
-No caves have been discovered containing this peculiar assemblage of
-fossil animals.
-
-
-_The Pleiocene Mammalia._
-
-The relation of the pleistocene to the pleiocene fauna is a question
-of very great difficulty, because the latter has not yet been
-satisfactorily defined, although Prof. Gervais and Dr. Falconer have
-given the more important species from Auvergne, Montpellier, and
-the Val d’Arno. The following list is taken from Prof. Gervais’s
-great work “Zoologie et Paléontologie Françaises,” p. 349, the term
-pseudo-pleiocene merely implying that the fauna differs from that of
-the marine deposit of Montpellier, which he takes as his standard.
-
-
-_Pseudo-pleiocene of Issoire._
-
-    _Hystrix refossa._
-    _Castor issiodorensis._
-    _Arctomys antiqua._
-    _Arvicola robustus._
-    _Cervus pardinensis._
-    _C. arvernensis._
-    _C. causanus._
-    _Sus arvernensis.
-    Lepus Lacosti._
-    _Mastodon arvernensis._
-    _Tapirus arvernensis._
-    _Rhinoceros elatus?_
-    _Bos elatus._
-    _Cervus polycladus._
-    _C. ardens._
-    _C. cladocerus._
-    _C. issiodorensis._
-    _C. Perrieri._
-    _C. etueriarum._
-    _Ursus arvernensis._
-    _Canis borbonidus._
-    _Felis pardinensis._
-    _F. arvernensis._
-    _F. brevirostris._
-    _F. issiodorensis._
-    _Machairodus cultridens._
-    _Hyæna arvernensis._
-    _H. Perrieri._
-    _Lutra Bravardi._
-
-To these animals Dr. Falconer[269] adds _Hippopotamus major_, _Elephas
-antiquus_, and _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, and he identifies _Rhinoceros
-elatus_ with his new species _Rhinoceros etruscus_. Prof. Gaudry agrees
-with me in the belief that _Hyæna Perrieri_ is identical with _H.
-striata_ or the striped species.
-
-Prof. Gervais also identifies the _Equus robustus_ of M. Pomel, from
-the same locality, with the common Horse, _Equus fossilis_.
-
-The fauna of Montpellier is certainly very different from that of
-Issoire; but since it is neither meiocene nor pleistocene, it must
-belong to one of the intermediate stages of the pleiocene. It includes
-
-    _Semnopithecus monspessulanus._
-    _Macacus priscus._
-    _Chalicomys sigmodus._
-    _Lagomys loxodus._
-    _Mastodon brevirostris._
-    _Rhinoceros megarhinus._
-    _Tapirus minor._
-    _Antilope Cordieri._
-    _A. hastata._
-    _Cervus Cuvieri._
-    _C. australis._
-    _Sus provincialis._
-    _Hyænodon insignis._
-    _Hyæna ----?_
-    _Machairodus._
-    _Felis Christolii._
-    _Lutra affinis._
-
-The _Mastodon brevirostris_ of this list is considered by Dr. Falconer
-to be identical with _M. arvernensis_ of MM. Croiset and Jobert.
-
-The fauna of the Val d’Arno differs from that of Montpellier and of
-Auvergne, and yet is considered by Dr. Falconer to be eminently typical
-of the European pleiocene.[270] The animals identified by him in the
-museums of Italy are as follow:--
-
-    _Felis._
-    _Hyæna._
-    _Machairodus cultridens._
-    _Mastodon arvernensis._
-    _M. Borsoni._
-    _Elephas antiquus._
-    _Elephas meridionalis._
-    _Rhinoceros etruscus._
-    _R. megarhinus._
-    _R. hemitœchus._
-    _Hippopotamus major._
-
-All these animals, with the exception of _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_, have
-been discovered in the pseudo-pleiocene of Issoire, while the megarhine
-rhinoceros and _Mastodon arvernensis_ are the only two which have been
-obtained from the marine sands of Montpellier. The pleiocene animals,
-therefore, inhabiting Northern Italy are more closely allied to those
-of Auvergne than to those of Montpellier.
-
-If these three localities be taken as typical of the pleiocene strata,
-we shall find that several of the species range as far north as
-Britain, and occur in deposits which from the evidence of the mollusca,
-have been assigned to that age. _Mastodon arvernensis_, _Elephas
-meridionalis_, and _Ursus arvernensis_, have been obtained from the old
-land-surface which underlies the sand and shingle of the Norfolk Crag,
-in company with many forms of deer and antelopes which have not yet
-been identified, while the _Hipparion_ is found in the marine crags of
-Suffolk.
-
-The animals which especially characterize the pleiocene strata of
-Europe are _Machairodus cultridens_, _Mastodon arvernensis_ and _M.
-Borsoni_, besides the genus _Tapir_.
-
-If this fauna be compared with that of the preglacial forest-bed,
-it will be seen that the difference between them is very great. The
-pleiocene mastodon, tapir, the majority of the deer, and the antelopes
-are replaced by forms such as the roe and the red-deer, unknown up to
-that time. Nevertheless many of the pleiocene animals were able to hold
-their ground against the pleistocene invaders, although, subsequently,
-as I have already shown, they disappeared one by one, being ultimately
-beaten in the struggle for life by the new comers. The progress of
-this struggle has been used in the preceding pages as a means of
-classification. This fauna has not been discovered in any cave.
-
-
-_Summary of Characteristic Pleistocene and Pleiocene Species._
-
-The following are the salient points of the pleistocene age offered
-by the study of the land mammalia in the area north of the Alps and
-Pyrenees.
-
-
-THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD.
-
-A.--_The latest stage._
-
-    Palæolithic Man.
-    Woolly Rhinoceros, abundant.
-    Mammoth, abundant.
-    Reindeer, abundant.
-    Stag, comparatively rare.
-    Northern forms of life in full possession of area north of Alps
-        and Pyrenees.
-
-B.--_The middle stage._
-
-    Palæolithic Man.
-    _Machairodus latidens._
-    Stag, abundant.
-    Northern forms of life present, but not in force.
-    _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, still living.
-    Woolly Rhinoceros, present.
-
-C.--_The early stage._
-
-The following are animals peculiar to this stage:--
-
-    _Trogontherium Cuvieri._
-    _Cerus verticornis._
-    _Cervus Sedgwickii._
-    _C. carnutorum._
-
-The following make their appearance:--The beaver, musk-shrew,
-cave-bear, roe, stag, Irish elk, urus, and bison, wild-boar, horse,
-(2), mammoth, wolf, and fox.
-
-The pleiocene _Ursus arvernensis_, _Cervus Polignacus_, _Rhinoceros
-etruscus_, and _Elephas meridionalis_ still living.
-
-
-THE PLEIOCENE.
-
-    _Mastodon arvernensis._
-    _M. Borsoni._
-    _Hipparion gracile._
-    No living species of European Deer.
-
-The three subdivisions of the pleistocene do not apply to the region
-south of the Alps and Pyrenees, because the northern group of animals
-did not pass into Spain and Italy. In these two countries we find
-southern and pleiocene animals living throughout the pleistocene age,
-which in France and Britain lived only in the two earlier stages.
-
-
-_Antiquity of Man in Europe._
-
-No remains have been discovered up to the present time in any part of
-Europe which can be referred with certainty to a higher antiquity than
-the pleistocene age. The palæolithic people or peoples arrived in
-Europe along with the peculiar fauna of that age, and after dwelling
-here for a length of time, which is to be measured by the vast physical
-and climatal changes, described in the last three chapters, finally
-disappeared, leaving behind as their representatives the Eskimos
-tribes of arctic America. There is no evidence that they were inferior
-in intellectual capacity to many of the lower races of the present
-time, or more closely linked to the lower animals. The traces which
-they have left behind tell us nothing as to the truth or falsehood of
-the doctrine of evolution, for if it be maintained on the one hand,
-that the first appearance of man as a man, and not as a man-like
-brute, is inconsistent with that doctrine, it may be answered that
-the lapse of time between his appearance in the pleistocene age and
-the present day, is too small to have produced appreciable physical
-or intellectual change. Also, it must not be forgotten, that we have
-merely investigated the antiquity of the sojourn of man in Europe, and
-not the general question of his first appearance on the earth, with
-which it is very generally confounded. Dr. Falconer well remarked that
-the _origines_ of mankind are to be sought, not in Europe, but in the
-tropical regions, probably of Asia. To these we have no clue in the
-present stage of the inquiry. The higher apes are represented in the
-European meiocene and pleiocene strata, by extinct forms uniting in
-some cases the characters of different living species, but they do
-not show any tendency to assume human characters. It must indeed be
-allowed, that the study of fossil remains throws as little light as the
-documents of history on the relation of man to the lower animals. The
-historian commences his labours with the high civilization of Assyria
-and Egypt, and can merely guess at the steps by which it was achieved;
-the palæontologist meets with the traces of man in the pleistocene
-strata, and he too can merely guess at the antecedent steps by which
-man arrived even at that culture which is implied by the implements.
-The latter has proved that the antiquity of man is greater than the
-former had supposed. Neither has contributed anything towards the
-solution of the problem of his origin.
-
-
-_Man lived in India in Pleistocene Age._
-
-The researches of the Geological Surveyors has shown that in ancient
-times man, in the same stage of civilization as the palæolithic man of
-Europe, lived in Southern India and in the valley of the Narbadá. In
-1868[271] Mr. Bruce Foote described the flint implements which were
-discovered over a large area in the districts of Madras, either in the
-red clayey deposit known as Laterite, or in such positions as implied
-that they had been washed out of it. They all belong to the same rude
-types as those of the pleistocene strata of North-western Europe. A
-small fragment of bone was the only fossil which had up to that time
-been discovered in the Laterite, and this I was able to identify
-in 1869 as a portion of a human tibia of the abnormal platycnemic
-variety, which has been described in the fifth chapter of this work,
-from the European caves and tombs. The Lateritic deposits themselves
-are strictly analogous to our river-strata and brick-earths in their
-constitution, and in their resting at various levels above the sea,
-and were, as Mr. Foote remarks, formed under conditions different to
-those which are now going on in that district. They prove that the
-period of the sojourn of palæolithic man in Southern India is divided
-from the present day by considerable geographical changes, such as the
-elevation of land, and the erosion and breaking up of accumulations
-which were once continuous. We have seen that somewhat similar
-changes have happened in Europe, in the interval which separates the
-palæolithic period from our own time.
-
-The discovery of a rudely chipped implement of quartzite, of the
-pointed oval shape common in the gravels of Britain and France,
-published by Mr. Medlicott in 1873, in the “Records of the Geological
-Survey of India,” proves further that man was a member of the
-remarkable fauna which inhabited the valley of the Narbadá in ancient
-times. It was dug out of reddish unstratified clay by Mr. Hacket at a
-depth of three feet from the upper surface, which was covered by twenty
-feet of ossiferous gravel, on the left bank of the Narbadá near the
-valley of Bhutra. The clay belongs to the same fluviatile series as
-that from which the mammalia were obtained and named by Dr. Falconer in
-1828. Both clay and gravel are shown to be of fluviatile origin, by the
-presence of fresh-water mussels of the varieties still living in the
-adjacent river.
-
-The fossil bones belong to extinct and living animals. Among the
-former are two kinds of elephant (_E. namadicus_) and (_E. stegodon
-insignis_), one of which is closely allied to the European _E.
-antiquus_, two species of hippopotamus, one (_H. palæindicus_) with
-four incisors in front of the jaws like the African, and a second with
-six incisors belonging to the extinct division of hexaprotodon, a
-large ox (_Bos namadicus_), a deer and a bear. The living forms are
-represented by the buffalo (_Bubalus namadicus_), which is identical
-with the wild arnee from which the Indian domestic buffaloes have
-descended, and the gavial, or long-snouted Gangetic crocodile. This
-imperfect list, borrowed from Dr. Falconer,[272] shows that there is
-the same mixture of extinct with living forms in the valley of the
-Ganges, while the clays and gravels were being accumulated, as we
-have observed in the pleistocene deposits of Europe, and the fauna
-may therefore be referred to the pleistocene age, and probably, as
-Mr. Medlicott proposes, to the late division of that age. The exact
-correspondence of the quartzite implements with those which are so
-abundant in the European river-strata of the same age, adds additional
-weight to this conclusion.
-
-
-_Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related to those of Europe?_
-
-It is not a little remarkable that Dr. Falconer, writing in 1865 of the
-peculiar fauna of the Narbadá, should have held the view that man was
-living in India at that time, and that the memory of the hippopotamus
-was handed down in Aryan traditions, under the striking name of the
-water elephant. “After reflecting,” he writes, “on the question during
-many years in its palæontological and ethnological bearings, my leaning
-is to the view that _Hippopotamus namadicus_ was extinct in India long
-before the Aryan invasion, but that it was familiar to the earlier
-indigenous races.” (ii. p. 644.) This inference is proved to be
-literally true by the discovery of the palæolithic implements in the
-ossiferous strata of the Narbadá, which must have required long ages
-for their accumulation and subsequent erosion.
-
-We may, therefore, conclude that palæolithic man inhabited both Europe
-and India in the pleistocene age. And possibly the identity of the
-implements, in these two remote regions, may be accounted for in the
-same manner as the identity of Aryan root-words, by the view that their
-fabricators may have come from the same centre of dispersal, by the
-same routes as those which were subsequently used by the pre-Aryan, and
-Aryan, invaders of Europe and India. But whether this be accepted or
-not, it cannot be denied that the man who inhabited both these regions
-was in the same rude stage of human progress, and played his part in
-the same life-era.
-
-
-_Palæolithic Man lived in Palestine._
-
-The discovery, by the Abbé Richard,[273] of a palæolithic flint
-implement, of the ordinary river-bed type, on the surface of a stratum
-of gravel between Mount Tabor and the lake of Tiberias, lends great
-weight to the view that the Aborigines of India and Europe, whose
-implements are found in the deposits of rivers, migrated from the same
-centre, since it bridges over the great interval of space by which
-they were isolated. It is very probable, that future discoveries may
-reveal the presence of a tolerably uniform priscan population, in the
-pleistocene age, throughout this vast area: which as yet has only been
-explored by archæologists in a few isolated points, with the important
-results recorded in the preceding pages.
-
-
-_Conclusion._
-
-It now remains for us to sum up the results of the exploration of
-European caves, of which an imperfect outline has been given in this
-work. Their formation, and filling up, have an important bearing on the
-physical geography of the districts in which they occur, and reveal
-the great changes which are going on, in the calcareous rocks, at the
-present time. The study of the remains which they contain has led to
-the recognition of the fact, that the climate and geography of Europe,
-in ancient times, were altogether different from those of the present
-day.
-
-It has also made large additions to the history of the sojourn of man
-in Europe. We find a hunting and fishing race of cave-dwellers, in the
-remote pleistocene age, in possession of France, Belgium, Germany, and
-Britain, probably of the same stock as the Eskimos, living and forming
-part of a fauna, in which northern and southern, living and extinct,
-species are strangely mingled with those now living in Europe. In the
-neolithic age caves were inhabited, and used for tombs, by men of
-the Iberian or Basque race, which is still represented by the small,
-dark-haired, peoples of western Europe. They were rarely used in the
-bronze age. When we arrive within the borders of history in Britain,
-we find them offering shelter to the Brit-Welsh flying from their
-enemies after the ruin of the Roman empire, and throwing great light
-on the fragmentary records of those obscure times. In treating of these
-questions, it has been necessary to discuss problems of deep and varied
-interest to the ethnologist, physicist, and historian, some of which
-have been partially solved, while others await the light of the higher
-knowledge which will be the fruit of a wider experience.
-
-
-
-
-APPENDICES.
-
-
-
-
-APPENDIX I.--P. 30.
-
-ON THE INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF CAVE-HUNTING.
-
-  Instruments used in Cave-hunting.--The Search after Bone-caves.--
-    The three modes of Cave-digging.--Stalagmitic Floors to be broken
-    up.--Preservation of Fossil Bones.
-
-
-_Instruments used in Cave-hunting._
-
-The instruments which Mr. James Parker, Mr. Ayshford Sanford and myself
-have found most valuable in cave-hunting, apart from the tools of the
-workman, are as follow:--
-
-1. A hammer with an ash handle about twenty inches long, inserted into
-a square head of best steel, ending in a chisel edge in the same plane
-as the handle, weighing almost eight ounces, and seven inches in length.
-
-2. A steel chisel ten inches long.
-
-3. A prismatic compass.
-
-4. A thermometer for taking the temperatures of the air and water.
-
-5. An aneroid.
-
-6. A steel measuring tape.
-
-7. Abney’s patent level which is used for laying down datum-line for
-plan, as well as for taking the dips and angles.
-
-In making a plan we have found it useful to mark the datum-line by
-a stout string or wire and to measure from it as the work proceeds,
-indicating on the sides and floor of the cave the points of
-measurement, with paint or wooden pegs.
-
-8. A stout rope not less than twenty feet long with a horse’s girth at
-the end is necessary for the exploration of vertical fissures, so that
-the explorer may be let down without any great danger. No large unknown
-caves should be explored without a rope, or by a party less than three
-in number. In exploring the caves of Burrington Combe we used a rope
-sixty feet long. The descent into Helln Pot, described in the second
-chapter, p. 41, was effected in the following manner. A strong platform
-of timber was made over the open fissure, and from it a square “cage”
-or “basket” of the ordinary kind used in mining was let down for the
-first drop of 198 feet. It was prevented from twisting round by two
-guide ropes. For the rest of the falls we had two ladders eight feet
-long, and a rope, without which we should have been unable to reach the
-bottom.
-
-[Illustration:
-
-    |     |      a       |     |
-  --+-----+--------------+-----+--
-  g | ... |              | ... | g
-    |     |              |     |
-  b |  e  | c    d     c |  e  | b
-    |     |              |     |
-  g | ... |              | ... | g
-  --+-----+--------------+-----+--
-    |     |      a       |     |
-]
-
-9. In the exploration of water-caves, in which there are sometimes
-sheets of water of considerable size and depth, a raft may be used,
-such as that devised by Mr. James Parker for the navigation of the
-great cave of Wookey Hole. It consisted of a platform supported on
-barrels and built as follows: A frame of stout poles was made; two,
-_a a_, being eight feet long, with four others, _b_, _c_, lashed
-firmly across, each four feet in length. The space _d_ was converted
-into a platform by nailing boards across, and this was buoyed up by
-a beer-barrel at each end in the interspace _e_. The barrels were
-attached to the raft by two loops of rope _g_, passing over from _b_
-to _c_, and thus kept in place, although they freely twisted and
-turned in actual use. The ropes had an advantage over iron hoops for
-the attachment of the barrels, because when they were tightened the
-platform was raised above the water, when they were loosened it was
-lowered, and thus the raft could be adjusted to the weight to be
-carried, to the depth of the water, and the distance of the water-line
-from the roof. A raft of this kind will bear three persons, and is
-sufficiently light to be carried over the shallows. With it Mr. Parker
-made his way for a considerable distance in the Wookey Hole cavern,
-and subsequently I penetrated as far as the water-line would allow me
-to get. A long pole is also necessary for punting. Mr. Parker found
-by experience that a raft made of boards nailed on the top of two
-beer-barrels was too unstable to be of any use. In making his way
-across subterranean pools the cave-hunter ought to be prepared for
-accidents, for the depth is very uncertain, and the water sufficiently
-cold to cause cramp. For the exploration of ordinary water-caves a
-raft is unnecessary, but no attempt should be made without a rope. In
-Yorkshire and Derbyshire there is an unlimited field for adventure in
-the subterranean water-courses.
-
-10. The most convenient lights for use in caves are the common
-composite candles. Paraffin candles are open to the objection that they
-gutter, lanthorns do not give a sufficiently diffused light, and the
-smoke of paraffin torches, or flambeaux dipped in turpentine or tar is
-intolerable. Magnesium wire reveals the beauties of the higher roofs.
-
-
-_The Search after Ossiferous Caves._
-
-Many of the ossiferous caves, and especially those of the neolithic
-and pleistocene ages, have their entrances masked by débris which has
-been accumulated from the surface above during the long lapse of ages.
-In their discovery I have found rabbits, foxes, and badgers of the
-greatest service, since these animals generally make their burrows
-in such places. And where their earths are met with at the base of a
-vertical wall of rock, I have very generally found a cave. They were
-my sole guides to the discovery of the five sepulchral caves at Perthi
-Chwareu, described in the fifth chapter, in a district in which up to
-that time caves were not known to exist.
-
-The dwellers in caves very generally chose for their habitations the
-sunny side of the ravines and valleys, and the spots which commanded a
-wide view, and, therefore, their remains are to be looked for in those
-places, rather than on the cold and sunless sides, or where an enemy
-might approach without observation.
-
-
-_The Scientific Methods of Cave-digging._
-
-The exploration of an ossiferous cavern with sufficient accuracy to be
-of scientific value, may be carried out in all tunnel caves, or those
-extending horizontally into the rock, by one of the three following
-methods which may be adapted to the local conditions:--
-
-The first step to take in all cases is to make a plan of the entrance,
-and to cut a passage down to the rock at the entrance, so as to
-obtain a clear idea of the sequence of the strata. In the hyæna-den
-at Wookey Hole, we first of all cut a passage through the cave-earth
-which extended from the roof to the floor, and then removed the earth
-on either side in blocks, until ultimately the chamber and passages
-described in the eighth chapter were cleared of their contents. Our
-work was measured every evening, and each bone and object found was
-labelled with the date which was recorded on the ground plan. Vertical
-sections were also taken from time to time. This mode, supplemented
-by constant supervision of the workmen, was sufficiently accurate to
-satisfy the demands of scientific research.
-
-The Victoria Cave, where the demarcation between the strata was very
-distinct, was explored, while the work was under my direction up
-to September 1873, in a somewhat similar fashion. It was, however,
-impossible on account of the great depth of the deposits to cut a
-passage down to the rock at the entrance. We therefore examined the
-superficial strata throughout the cave, merely gauging the thickness of
-those below by sinking three shafts. Where a cave is sufficiently high
-to allow of the work being carried on, it is better to clear out one
-stratum before another is disturbed.
-
-The most elaborate and perfect method of cave exploration is that
-which has been used by the committee in Kent’s Hole, under the
-superintendence of Mr. Pengelly, who writes as follows:[274]--
-
-“The following is the method of exploration which has been observed
-from the commencement, and which it is believed affords a simple and
-correct method of determining the exact position of every object which
-has been found.
-
-“1. The black soil accessible between the masses of limestone on the
-surface was carefully examined and removed.
-
-“2. The limestone blocks occupying the surface of the deposits were
-blasted and otherwise broken up, and taken out of the cavern.
-
-“3. A line termed the ‘datum-line,’ is stretched horizontally from a
-fixed point at the entrance to another at the back of the chamber.
-
-“4. Lines, one foot apart, are drawn at right angles to the datum-line,
-and therefore parallel to one another, across the chamber so as to
-divide the surface of the deposit into belts termed ‘parallels.’
-
-“5. In each parallel the black mould which the limestone masses had
-covered is first examined and removed, and then the stalagmite breccia,
-so as to lay bare the surface of the cave-earth.
-
-“6. Horizontal lines, a foot apart, are then drawn from side to side
-across the vertical face of the section so as to divide the parallel
-into four layers or ‘levels,’ each a foot deep.
-
-“Finally each level is divided into lengths called ‘yards,’ each three
-feet long, and measured right and left from the datum-line as an axis
-of abscissæ.
-
-“In fine, the cave-earth is excavated in vertical slices or parallels
-four feet high, one foot thick, and as long as the chamber is broad,
-where this breadth does not exceed thirty feet. Each parallel is taken
-out in levels one foot high, and in each level in horizontal prisms
-three feet long and a foot square in the section, so that each contains
-three cubic feet of material.
-
-“This material, after being carefully examined _in situ_ by
-candlelight, is taken to the door and re-examined by daylight, after
-which it is at once removed without the cavern. A box is appropriated
-to each yard exclusively, and in it are placed all the objects of
-interest which the prism yields. The boxes, each having a label
-containing the data necessary for defining the situation of its
-contents, are daily sent to the honorary secretary of the committee,
-by whom the specimens are at once cleaned and packed in fresh boxes.
-The labels are numbered and packed with the specimens to which they
-respectively belong, and a record of the day’s work is entered in a
-diary.
-
-“The same method is followed in the examination of the black mould,
-and also of the stalagmitic breccia, with the single exception that in
-these cases the parallels are not divided into levels and yards.”
-
-A careful record of the work, and minute sections should be taken daily
-on the spot.
-
-
-_The Stalagmitic Floor to be broken up._
-
-In all cases the crystalline flooring of stalagmite and stalagmitic
-breccias which often occur, should be broken up, or, if necessary,
-blasted with gunpowder. The former very frequently conceals the
-pleistocene remains, and the latter, which is in Kent’s Hole many feet
-thick, often contains the traces of man and wild animals. Sometimes it
-is very difficult to distinguish the breccia from the rocky floor.
-
-Where the ossiferous deposit fills a vertical fissure it must be worked
-on the same plan as in ochre-mining, by sinking a shaft. To dig into it
-from below (where this is possible) is very dangerous, because of the
-large imbedded stones which fall sometimes without any warning.
-
-
-_The Preservation of Fossil Remains._
-
-The fossil bones and teeth, which have very generally lost their
-gelatine and have a tendency to crumble and split to pieces in drying,
-should be gradually dried, and from time to time saturated with a weak
-hot solution of gelatine or glue. Silicate of soda, sometimes called
-“liquid glass,” or melted paraffin (not the oil), may also be used for
-the same purpose. If the bones are extremely soft, they may be rescued
-from destruction by letting them dry in the matrix, saturating them
-and the matrix with a solution of gelatine, and then clearing off the
-latter. In this manner I preserved the skull of the musk sheep which is
-now in the Museum of the Geological Survey in Jermyn Street, London.
-
-
-
-
-APPENDIX II.--P. 40.
-
-  _Observations on the Rate at which Stalagmite is being accumulated in
-    the Ingleborough Cave._ Proceed. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manch. April
-    1873.
-
-
-The only attempt to measure with accuracy the rate of the accumulation
-of stalagmite in caverns, in this country, is that made by Mr. James
-Farrer in the Ingleborough Cave, in the years 1839 and 1845, and
-published by Prof. Phillips in the “Rivers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of
-Yorkshire” (second edition, 1855, pp. 34-35). The stalagmite of which
-the measurements were taken is that termed, from its shape, the Jockey
-Cap. It rises from a crystalline pavement to a height of about two
-and a half feet, and is the result of a deposit of carbonate of lime,
-brought down by a line of drops that fall into a basin at its top, and
-flow over the general surface. On March 13th, 1873, in company with
-Mr. John Birkbeck and Mr. Walker, I was enabled by the kindness of Mr.
-Farrer to take a set of measurements, to be recorded for use in after
-years.
-
-For the sake of insuring accuracy in future observations, three holes
-were bored at the base of the stalagmite, and three gauges of brass
-wire, gilt, inserted; gauge No. 1 in the following table being that on
-the S.S.E., No. 2 on N.N.E., No. 3 on the West side. The curvilinear
-dimensions were taken with fine iron wire, or with a steel measure;
-and the circumferential around the base along a line marked by the
-three gauges. The measurements 2, 3, and 4 of the table were taken on
-the 15th of March, by Mr. Walker, and their accuracy may be tested by
-the fact that they coincide exactly with No. 1, which I took two days
-before.
-
-The lengths of wire, properly labelled, are deposited in the Manchester
-Museum, the Owens College, for future observers.
-
-In the following table I have given my own measurements and compared
-them with those taken by Mr. Farrer.
-
-
-TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS.
-
-  +--------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+--------+
-  |                                | 13th  |       |       |           |Rate of |
-  |                                | Mar.  |       |30 Oct.| Increase  |Increase|
-  |                                | 1873. | 1839. | 1845. |   since   |  per   |
-  |                                |Inches.|Inches.|Inches.|1839.|1845.| annum. |
-  |                                |       |       |       |     |     | Inches |
-  +--------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-----+--------+
-  | 1 Basal circumference at       |       |       |       |     |     |·2941-  |
-  |     Gauges                     |128    |118    |120    | 10  |  8  |  ·2857 |
-  | 2 Gauge No. 1 to Gauge No. 2   | 52·625|       |       |     |     |        |
-  | 3   ”       2      ”       3   | 35·0  |       |       |     |     |        |
-  | 4   ”       3      ”       1   | 40·375|       |       |     |     |        |
-  | 5 Gauge No. 1 to hole in centre|       |       |       |     |     |        |
-  |                of basin at apex| 30    |       |       |     |     |        |
-  | 6   ”       2     ”       ”    | 29·5  |       |       |     |     |        |
-  | 7   ”       3     ”       ”    | 31·4  |       |       |     |     |        |
-  | 8 Height from Gauge No. 1      | 20·9  |       |       |     |     |        |
-  | 9   ”         ”         2 min  | 20·4  |       |       |     |     |        |
-  |10 Maximum                      | 29·7  |       |       |     |     |        |
-  |11 Tape measurement on slope    |       |       |       |     |     |        |
-  |     Gauge No. 1 to edge of apex| 26·7  |       |       |     |     |        |
-  |12  ”      No. 2     ”       ”  | 26·6  |21·0   |       | 5·6 |     |        |
-  |13  ”       ”   maximum      ”  | 36·0  |32·0   | 35·0  | 4·0 | 1·0 |        |
-  |14 Roof to apex of Jockey Cap   | 87    |       | 95·25 |     | 8·25|·2946   |
-  |15 Roof to tip of stalactite    |       |       | 10    |     |     |        |
-  |16 Stalactite to apex of Jockey |       |       |       |     |     |        |
-  |     Cap                        |       |       | 85·25 |     |     |        |
-  +--------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-----+--------+
-
-Unfortunately I have been unable to identify the exact spots where the
-stalagmite was measured by Mr. Farrer, so that the only measurement
-which affords any trustworthy data for estimating the rate of increase
-is number 14. With regard to this, the only possible ground of error
-is the erosion of the general surface of the solid limestone, of which
-the roof is composed, by carbonic acid, since the year 1845, and this
-is so small as to be practically inappreciable. We have, therefore,
-evidence that the Jockey’s Cap is growing at the rate of ·2946 of an
-inch per annum, and that if the present rate of growth be continued
-it will finally arrive at the roof in about 295 years. But even this
-comparatively short lapse of time will probably be diminished by the
-growth of a pendent stalactite above, that is now being formed in
-place of that which measured ten inches in 1845, and has since been
-accidentally destroyed. It is very possible that the Jockey Cap may
-be the result not of the continuous but of the intermittent drip of
-water containing a variable quantity of carbonate of lime, and that,
-therefore, the present rate of growth is not a measure of its past
-or future condition. Its possible age in 1845 was estimated by Prof.
-Phillips at 259 years, on the supposition that the grain of carbonate
-of lime in each pint was deposited. If, however, it grew at its present
-rate it may be not more than 100 years old. All the stalagmites and
-stalactites in the Ingleborough Cave may not date further back than the
-time of Edward III. if the Jockey Cap be taken as a measure of the rate
-of deposition.
-
-
-
-
-INDEX.
-
-
-  A.
-
-  Abbeville, flint implements of, 16.
-
-  Aborigines (palæolithic) of India, 428, 429.
-
-  Acid-worn joint, Doveholes, Derbyshire, 52.
-
-  Adams, Dr. Leith, explores bone-caves of Malta, 377;
-    finds tooth of pigmy hippopotamus in Candia, 378.
-
-  Adriatic Sea, the, 388.
-
-  Africa, mainland of, 379;
-    moraines in, 387;
-    physical geography of, in pleistocene age, 370;
-    species of European mammalia found in, 380.
-
-  African animals in the Iberian peninsula, 372;
-    elephant, the, 372, 376.
-
-  Age of cavern deposits, test of, 410.
-
-  Albert Cave, the, Settle, 101.
-
-  Alessi, Canon, cited, 376.
-
-  Algeria, fossil mammalia in, 379.
-
-  Alps, the, animals living to the North of, 359, 360;
-    glaciers of, 403.
-
-  Altai mountains, the, Irish elk in, 401;
-    panther in, 403.
-
-  America, animals in, 396-399.
-
-  Amiens, flint implements in the gravels of, 16.
-
-  Anatolia, the glaciers of, 383-385.
-
-  Anca, Baron, on caves of northern Sicily, 376.
-
-  Andalusia, prehistoric antiquities in, 209.
-
-  Animals in Brit-Welsh caves, 130, 131;
-    classificatory value of, 78;
-    domestic, derived from Asia, 137;
-    evidence of, as to climate, 392;
-    extinct species of, 400;
-    historic, 75, 76;
-    living under the care of man, 77;
-    migration of, 366;
-    northern group of, 395;
-    pleistocene, living to the north of the Alps, 359-361;
-    unknown in Britain in the prehistoric age, 266;
-    prehistoric, 265;
-    probable cause of association of species, 397;
-    southern group of, 393;
-    temperate group of, 399.
-
-  _Antelope saiga_, the, 336, 348, 399.
-
-  Antelopes, spread of, into Europe, 370.
-
-  Antiquity of Man in Europe, 424.
-
-  Aquitaine, implements in the caves of, 354, 355;
-    palæolithic hunters in, 347;
-    the people of, 356, 357.
-
-  Ardennes, rock denuded from the, 61.
-
-  Arenaceous rocks, caves in, 24.
-
-  Arnould, M., on the cave of Sclaigneaux, 218.
-
-  Arrows used by palæolithic hunters, 342.
-
-  Art of the Eskimos, 356.
-
-  Arthur’s cave, King, 290.
-
-  Ashmolean Museum, harpoons in the, 354, 356.
-
-  Asia, domestic animals of Europe derived from, 137;
-    the lion in, 393.
-
-  Ass, the, 77.
-
-  Atlantic Ocean, the, 380;
-    shore, the, at one hundred fathom line, 365.
-
-  Atlas mountains, glaciers of the, 386.
-
-  Aurignac, the cave of, 19;
-    bones found in, 246;
-    discovery of, 243;
-    interment in, 242;
-    skeletons of man above palæolithic stratum of, 245.
-
-  Austen, Mr. Godwin- (_see_ Godwin-Austen).
-
-  Auvergne, palæolithic men in, 21.
-
-  Avison, cave of, 18.
-
-  Axe, the river, 29.
-
-  Aymard, M., cited, 330.
-
-
-  B.
-
-  Badger, the (_see_ _Meles taxus_).
-
-  Banwell, cave at, 293.
-
-  Basques, the, eastern derivation of, 227, 228;
-    elements of, in British and French populations, 225;
-    in Britain and Ireland in the neolithic age, 215;
-    the Dolicho-cephali cognate with, 213;
-    the oldest neolithic population, 223.
-
-  Baumann’s Hole, 12.
-
-  Baume, the cave of, animals found in, 337.
-
-  Bayle, M., on animals from Mansourah, 379.
-
-  Bear, the, 75, 79, 131, 146;
-    in Germany, 278;
-    in the care of Kühloch, 27;
-    the cave, 138, 278, 401;
-    the grizzly, 278, 348, 376, 399.
-
-  Beard, Mr., of Banwell, cited, 15, 33;
-    explorations of, 292.
-
-  Beaumont, Mr. John, describes Wookey Hole, 29;
-    on fungoid structures, 69.
-
-  Beaver, the, 76, 79, 132.
-
-  Behrens, Dr., cited, 12.
-
-  Belgium, brachy-cephalic skulls found in, 228;
-    caves in, 20, 347;
-    dolicho-cephalic skulls in, 215.
-
-  Bell, Professor, on the ass, 77.
-
-  Bertrand, M. Eugène, cited, 175.
-
-  Billaudel, M., cited, 18.
-
-  Birkbeck, Mr., cited, 35;
-    descends into Helln Pot, 43.
-
-  Bishofferode, cave at, 4.
-
-  Bison, the, 80, 266, 359.
-
-  Blackmore, Dr., cited, 268, 269.
-
-  Black-Rock Cave, the, near Tenby, 68.
-
-  Blake, Mr. Carter, cited, 144.
-
-  Blyth, Mr., cited, 393.
-
-  Boar, the wild, 76, 79.
-
-  Bone-beds, the, in Wookey Hole Hyæna-den, 305-307.
-
-  Bone-caves, before and after the ice-period, 408;
-    exploration of, in Great Britain, 13;
-    in Southern Europe, 21, 370, 373, 375, 377;
-    the three classes of, 10.
-
-  Bone harpoon, found in Victoria Cave, 111.
-
-  Bones gnawed by hyænas, 282.
-
-  Bonney, Rev. T. G., cited, 28.
-
-  _Bos longifrons_, 78, 88, 125, 131, 133, 136, 144, 150, 166, 194,
-          256, 262, 269.
-
-  _Bos namadicus_, 428.
-
-  Bosco’s Den, 288.
-
-  Boulder clays, 403.
-
-  Brachy-cephali, the Belgian, 199, 219;
-    British, 193, 199;
-    French, 199, 202, 203;
-    represented by Celts, 229.
-
-  Bradley, Mr., cited, 190.
-
-  Brandt, Professor, cited, 399;
-    on the Irish Elk, 401.
-
-  Brenan, Mr., discoveries of, in Ireland, 335.
-
-  Bristol Channel, the, 290.
-
-  Britain, cave exploration in, 13;
-    during the second ice age, 406;
-    historic caves in, 81;
-    historic period in, 75;
-    inhabitants of, in the neolithic age, 191;
-    in the pleistocene age, 366;
-    mammalia in, during the second ice age, 406;
-    population of in time of Cæsar, 224;
-    raids of Picts and Scots in, 105;
-    range of dolicho-cephali in, and Ireland, 194;
-    Roman dominion in, 103;
-    two periods of glaciation in, 401;
-    wild animals in, 75.
-
-  British brachy-cephali, 198, 199.
-
-  Brit-Welsh caves, 129, 130.
-
-  Brixham, caves at, 16, 319;
-    implements and animals in, 320;
-    history of deposits in, 321.
-
-  Broca, M., cited, 156;
-    on Basque crania, 213;
-    on the Caverne de l’Homme Mort, 198, 200, 201;
-    derivation of the Basques from Africa, 227, 228;
-    on platycnemic _tibiæ_, 175;
-    sepulchral cave of Orrouy, 202.
-
-  Brome, Captain, researches of, 21, 204.
-
-  Bronze age in Britain, caves of the, 141;
-    armlet from Thor’s cave, 128;
-    articles from Heathery Burn, 142.
-
-  Brooches found in the Victoria cave, 98.
-
-  Brown, Mr. Edwin, on Thor’s cave, 128.
-
-  Browne, the Rev. G. F., explorations of, 26;
-    on the temperature of caves, 72.
-
-  Bruniquel, cave of, 40;
-    description of, 247;
-    interments of doubtful age in, 248.
-
-  Bryce, Dr., cited, 405.
-
-  Brysgill, cave of, 160.
-
-  _Bubalus namadicus_, 428.
-
-  Buckland, Dr., cited, 13, 18, 30, 120, 240, 293, 295, 300;
-    on Gailenreuth cave, 273, 274;
-    Kirkdale, 14, 280, 281, 283;
-    Kühloch, 276;
-    Paviland, 234.
-
-  Buffalo in Italy, 81.
-
-  Busk, Professor, cited, 13, 120, 155, 162, 189, 259;
-    on fossil bones in the Iberian peninsula, 372;
-    human bones from Perthi-Chwareu caves, 166-179;
-    human remains from Cefn tumulus, 180-186;
-    human skull from caves of Césaroda, 146, 147;
-    skulls found in Spain, 208, 209;
-    the Berbers, 212;
-    the fauna of Mentone, 373;
-    researches of, in caves of Gibraltar, 204-208, 371.
-
-
-  C.
-
-  Calcareous rocks, caves in, 25.
-
-  Caldy, cave of, 62, 63;
-    cave-pearls in, 66;
-    fungoid stalagmites in, 67;
-    island of, 289.
-
-  Campbell, Dr., cited, 196.
-
-  _Canis familiaris_, 131, 144, 150, 157, 166, 256;
-    _lupus_, 166;
-    _vulpes_, 131, 150, 166.
-
-  Capellini, Professor, cited, 258;
-    on the Grotta dei Colombi, 259.
-
-  _Capra hircus_, 131, 150, 166.
-
-  Carbonate of lime, circulation of, 71;
-    in Thames water, 70;
-    removed by streams, 69.
-
-  Cartaillac, M., cited, 247.
-
-  Carte, Dr., cited, 335.
-
-  Cat, Caffir, 394; domestic, 77, 81.
-
-  Cat-Hole cave, in Gower, 145.
-
-  Cave-pearls, 66.
-
-  Caves, biological division of, 6-9;
-    classification of palæolithic, 351;
-    conclusions as to prehistoric, 261;
-    containing remains of doubtful age, 232;
-    contents of historic, 131;
-    deposits in valleys and in, 272, 273;
-    exploration of European, 11;
-    filling up of, 61;
-    formation of, 50;
-    historic, in Britain, 81;
-    in the region of Craven, 106;
-    legends and superstitions of, 2;
-    not generally found in line of faults, 57;
-    of bronze age in Britain, 141;
-    of neolithic age, 149;
-    physical division of, 5;
-    physical history of, 23, 65;
-    relation of, to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines, 27, 54;
-    results of the exploration of European, 430;
-    temperature of, 71;
-    test of age of deposits in, 410;
-    used as places of refuge, 102;
-    various ages of, 58;
-      Albert, 101;
-      of Andalusia, 208, 209;
-      Aquitaine, 347, 354;
-      Aurignac, 243;
-      Avison, 18;
-      Banwell, 293;
-      Baumann’s Hole, 12;
-      Baume, 337;
-      Belgium, 347;
-      Bishofferode, 4;
-      Black Rock, 68;
-      Bosco’s Den, 288;
-      Britain, 278;
-      Brit-Welsh, 130;
-      Brixham, 319;
-      Bruniquel, 247;
-      Brysgill, 160;
-      Caldy, 62;
-      Canary Isles, 211;
-      Cat-Hole, 145;
-      Cavillon, 257;
-      Cefn, 164, 166, 286;
-      Césareda, 145;
-      Chauvaux, 215;
-      Colombi, 258;
-      Crawley Rocks, 288;
-      Cro-Magnon, 249;
-      Denbighshire, 18;
-      Derbyshire, 284;
-      Devonshire, 317;
-      Dowkerbottom, 101;
-      Dream, the, 284;
-      Engis, 234;
-      Fingal, 24;
-      France, 336;
-      Franconia, 12;
-      Gailenreuth, 273;
-      Gatekirk, 50;
-      Gendron, 239;
-      Genista, 205, 371;
-      Gibraltar, 204, 371;
-      Goatchurch, 31-34;
-      Gower, 288;
-      Heathery Burn, 141;
-      Hutton, 292;
-      Ingleborough, 36;
-      Ireland, 365;
-      Kelko, 101;
-      Kent’s-Hole, 324;
-      King Arthur, 290;
-      King’s Scar, 112;
-      Kirkdale, 280;
-      Kirkhead, 125;
-      Kühloch, 276;
-      Laugerie Basse, 339;
-      L’Homme Mort, 198, 200;
-      Llandebie, 194;
-      Llanamynech, 34;
-      Lombrive, 256;
-      Longberry Bank, 133;
-      Long Churn, 41;
-      Lunel-viel, 336, 375;
-      Maccagnone, 376;
-      Maghlak, 377;
-      Malta, 377;
-      Moustier, 341;
-      Naulette, 349;
-      Neanderthal, 240;
-      North Wales, 286;
-      Oban, 195;
-      Orrouy, 202;
-      Paviland, 232;
-      Peak, 34;
-      Pembrokeshire, 289;
-      Périgord, 337;
-      Perthi-Chwareu, 152, 157, 167;
-      Plas Heaton, 160, 287;
-      Poole, 34, 126;
-      Provence and Mentone, 373;
-      Reggio, 148;
-      Rians, 373;
-      Rhosdigre, 156, 166, 188;
-      San Ciro, 376;
-      Sclaigneaux, 218;
-      Sicily, 375;
-      South Wales, 288;
-      Thor’s, 127;
-      Uphill, 294;
-      Victoria, 81, 110, 118, 121, 284, 411;
-      Weathercote, 47;
-      Whitcombe, 140;
-      Woman’s, 210;
-      Wookey, 17, 29;
-      Yorkshire, 101, 278.
-
-  Caverne de l’Homme Mort, 198, 200.
-
-  Cavillon, cave of, 257;
-    palæolithic skeletons in, 257;
-    strata in, 374.
-
-  Cedars of Lebanon, the, Dr. Hooker on, 382.
-
-  Cefn, caves at, 286;
-    chambered tomb near, 161;
-    discovery of bones at, 15, 159;
-    Professor Busk on human remains from tumulus at, 180-184;
-    on skull from, 184-167.
-
-  Celts, brachy-cephali represented by, 229.
-
-  _Cervus alcis_, 137;
-    _capreolus_, 131, 150, 166;
-    _carnutorum_, 419, 424;
-    _elaphus_, 131, 150, 166;
-    _Polignacus_, 418, 419, 424;
-    _Sedgwickii_, 419, 424;
-    _verticornis_, 419, 424.
-
-  Césareda, caves of, 145;
-    evidence of cannibalism in, 147.
-
-  Chautre, M., cited, 403.
-
-  Chapel-en-le-Dale, valley of, 49, 56.
-
-  Chauvaux, cave of, 20, 215.
-
-  Chester, sack of, 110.
-
-  Chierici, l’Abbé, on remains from the cave of Reggio, 148.
-
-  Chillingham ox, the, 77, 90.
-
-  Christol, M. de, cited, 376.
-
-  Christy, Mr., cited, 19;
-    on the caves of Périgord, 337.
-
-  “Cirques” in calcareous rocks, 56.
-
-  Classification of pleistocene strata, 412-414.
-
-  Classificatory value of historic animals, 78.
-
-  Close, Rev. H. M., cited, 402.
-
-  Climate, evidence of animals as to, 392, 401;
-    pleistocene, 398.
-
-  Coast line of North-Western Europe in pleistocene age, 362.
-
-  Cochrane, Sir James, cited, 208.
-
-  Coins in the Victoria cave, Settle, 93.
-
-  Corsica, absence of cliffs in, 390.
-
-  Crania from Genista cave, 207.
-
-  Cranial terms, definition of, 190.
-
-  Craven, caves near, 106.
-
-  Crawley Rocks, the cavern of, 288.
-
-  Crayford, discovery of a flint-flake at, 416.
-
-  Cro-Magnon, cave of, 249;
-    ornaments found in, 254;
-    position of human skeletons in, 253;
-    section of deposits in, 250;
-    the human _tibiæ_ of, 176;
-    traces of occupation in, 251.
-
-  Cuvier, Baron, cited, 12, 13, 18.
-
-
-  D.
-
-  Dalebeck, the, course of, 49.
-
-  Dana, Professor, on caverns, 58.
-
-  Darbishire, Mr. R. D., reference to, 93.
-
-  Dauphiny, the hills of, 404.
-
-  Delgado, Senhor J. L., on researches in the caves of Césareda, 145,
-          146.
-
-  De Luc, M., cited, 12.
-
-  Denbighshire, sepulchral caves in, 18.
-
-  Denny, Mr., cited, 120.
-
-  Derbyshire, caves of, 284.
-
-  Desnoyers, M., cited, 25, 26, 28;
-    on the analogy between caverns and mineral veins, 57;
-    relation of caves to ravines, 55.
-
-  Devonshire, caves of, 317.
-
-  Dio Chrysostom Rhetor on the lion, 80.
-
-  Dog, the (_see_ _Canis familiaris_).
-
-  Dolicho-cephali, British, 191, 192;
-    their range in Britain and Ireland, 194-197;
-    cognate with the Basque, 218;
-    of Gibraltar, 204-207.
-
-  Dormouse of Malta, the, 267.
-
-  Dowkerbottom cave, 101, 102.
-
-  Dream-cave, near Wirksworth, 284.
-
-  Dubrueil, M., cited, 18.
-
-  Dupont, M., cited, 216, 237, 239;
-    discoveries of, 21, 235;
-    investigations of, in Dinant-sur-Meuse, 348;
-    on the Trou de Naulette, 349.
-
-  Durdham Down, fissures of, 291.
-
-  Dürnten, the lignite bed of, 404.
-
-
-  E.
-
-  Eagle, the, 150.
-
-  “Ebur fossile,” 11.
-
-  Egerton, Sir Philip, cited, 273.
-
-  Elephant, the African, 21;
-    found near Madrid, 372;
-    in Sicily, 376, 394.
-
-  _Elephas antiquus_, 266, 281, 373, 376, 400, 404, 417;
-    _melitensis_, 378, 400;
-    _meridionalis_, 266, 379, 419, 422, 424;
-    _namadicus_, 427;
-    _primigenius_ (_see_ _Mammoth_);
-    (_stegodon_) _insignis_, 427.
-
-  Elk, the, 79, 137.
-
-  Elmet, conquest of, 109.
-
-  Enamels in the north of England, 100;
-    mentioned by Philostratus, 101.
-
-  Engis, cave of, 234.
-
-  English invasion, the, 107.
-
-  Enniskillen, Lord, cited, 273.
-
-  _Equus fossilis_ of pleiocene age, 421.
-
-  Eskimos, art of the, 356;
-    implements of the, 354;
-    in Europe, 425;
-    probably the representatives of cave-dwellers, 358;
-    relation of cave-dwellers to, 353.
-
-  Esper, cited, 273.
-
-  Europe, Antiquity of man in, 424;
-    climatal changes on the continent of, 403;
-    pleistocene mammalia pre-glacial in, 404;
-    species of mammalia in Africa, and, 380;
-    Southern, bone-caves of, 370;
-    fauna in caves of, 368.
-
-  Evans, Mr. John, cited, 17, 147, 158, 243, 248, 267;
-    on coins, 94;
-    on the iron, bronze, and stone ages, 139;
-    on the palæolithic cave-dwellers, 351.
-
-  Evidence of soundings in Southern Europe, 380.
-
-
-  F.
-
-  Fairy Chamber, the, Caldy, 63, 64.
-
-  Falconer, Dr., cited, 17, 21, 156, 175, 281, 288, 316, 362, 404,
-          416, 418, 421, 425, 427;
-    on bones from San Ciro, 376;
-    on mammals in the Iberian peninsula, 372;
-    on the fauna of the forest bed, 420;
-    on the hippopotamus, 377;
-    on the _Hippopotamus namadicus_, 428, 429;
-    researches of, in caves of Gibraltar, 204-207.
-
-  Fallow deer, the, 77;
-    in Britain, 131;
-    in France, 80;
-    in Spain and Africa, 380.
-
-  Falsan, M., cited, 403.
-
-  Farrer, Mr., explorations of, 36;
-    on coins, 102;
-    on remains from Dowkerbottom cave, 113;
-    stalagmite, 39.
-
-  Fauna, cave, identical with river-bed, 362;
-    changes in the, of Great Britain, 78;
-    of Montpellier, 421;
-    of Southern Europe, 368, 373;
-    the pleiocene, 420;
-    the pleistocene, 393, 417;
-    the prehistoric, 136, 137.
-
-  _Felis caffer_, the, 138, 266, 388;
-    in Iberian peninsula, 372;
-    in Somerset, 394.
-
-  Fellowes, Sir Charles, cited, 164.
-
-  Fibulæ, enamelled, 99.
-
-  Fingal’s cave, 24.
-
-  Fischer, Dr. Gothelf, on the panther, 400.
-
-  Fisher, Rev. O., discovers a flint-flake at Crayford, 416.
-
-  Fisherton, valley-gravels at, 268.
-
-  Fissures, 37, 58;
-    of Durdham Down, 291;
-    of Mentone, 373;
-    of Windmill Hill, 371.
-
-  Flint flakes and scrapers in caves of Périgord, 339;
-    in caves of Mentone, 373;
-    in Perthi-Chwareu, 166;
-    Wookey Hole, 298.
-
-  Florus on the Aquitani, 7.
-
-  Foote, Mr. Bruce, cited, 156;
-    on flint implements from Madras, 426.
-
-  Fossil mammalia from the German Ocean, 364, 365.
-
-  Foville, M., cited, 170.
-
-  Fowl, the domestic, 77, 80.
-
-  Fox, the Arctic, 348, 396, 400.
-
-  Fraas, Professor, cited, 350, 409.
-
-  France, Basque peoples in, 226;
-    caves in, 18, 242, 336;
-    skulls from tumuli in, 203;
-    the dolicho-cephali and brachy-cephali in, 198.
-
-  Franconia, caves of, 12.
-
-  Franks, Mr., cited, 206;
-    on drawings of palæolithic hunters, 345;
-    on enamelling, 100;
-    on “late Celtic” art, 96, 99.
-
-  Freeman, Mr. E. A., on the dominion of West Wales in the days of
-          Ecgberht, 130;
-    on the Norman Conquest, 108.
-
-  Freshford, pleistocene deposits at, 269.
-
-  Fuhlrott, Dr., skull found by, 240.
-
-
-  G.
-
-  Gailenreuth, cave of, 12, 240, 273;
-    filled by a stream, 275.
-
-  Garonne, valley of the, 366.
-
-  Garrigou, M., cited, 316.
-
-  Gatekirk cavern, 50.
-
-  Gaudin, M. Charles, cited, 376.
-
-  Gaudry, Professor, cited, 421;
-    on fossil remains at Pickermi, 369.
-
-  Gaul and Spain, the peoples of, 220.
-
-  Gautier, M., cited, 247.
-
-  Geikie, Mr. James, cited, 263.
-
-  Geikie, Professor A., cited, 405.
-
-  Gendron, cave of, 239.
-
-  Genista, caves, the, 205;
-    articles in, 206;
-    human remains in, 207, 371.
-
-  Geography, pleistocene, 398.
-
-  German Ocean, fossil mammalia in, 364.
-
-  German race, the ancient, 230.
-
-  Germany, bears in, 278;
-    cave-exploration in, 11, 12.
-
-  Gervais, M., cited, 19;
-    list of pleiocene mammalia by, 420;
-    on _Equus robustus_, 421;
-    on mammalia from Algeria, 379.
-
-  Gesner, Dr., cited, 11.
-
-  Gibraltar, the neolithic caves of, 204, 371;
-    the Straits of, 389.
-
-  Gildas on the character of the English conquest, 104, 108.
-
-  Glacial period, the, 407;
-    the relation of palæolithic man to, 409.
-
-  Glaciation in Britain, two periods of, 401.
-
-  Glaciers of Alps, 403;
-    of Anatolia, 383;
-    of Lebanon, 382;
-    in Mediterranean area caused partly by elevation, 387;
-    of Pyrenees, 404.
-
-  Glutton, the, 206, 275, 396;
-    jaw of, from Plas Heaton cave, 287.
-
-  Goat, the (_see_ _Capra hircus_).
-
-  Goatchurch cave, 31, 32;
-    legend of the dog at, 34.
-
-  Goldfuss cited, 18, 273.
-
-  Godwin-Austen, Mr., cited, 263, 388, 405;
-    on the fresh-water mussel, 364;
-    researches of, 15.
-
-  Gosse, M., cited, 170, 193, 350.
-
-  Gower, caves of, 288.
-
-  Great Britain, cave-exploration in, 13;
-    historic period in, 75.
-
-  Green, Rev. J. R., on the conquest of Britain, 96.
-
-  Greenwell, Rev. Canon, discoveries of, in tumuli, 195.
-
-  Grey clays in Victoria cave, 116.
-
-  Grotto di Maccagnone, 376;
-    dei Colombi inhabited by cannibals, 258;
-    thigh-bone of child from, 260.
-
-  Guanches of the Canary Isles, the, 211.
-
-  Gunn, Rev. John, cited, 418.
-
-
-  H.
-
-  Harkness, Professor, cited, 402.
-
-  Hamy, Dr., cited, 349, 352;
-    on the cave-bear, 352.
-
-  Hare, the, at Perthi-Chwareu, 150, 166;
-    in Suabia, 395;
-    mentioned, 266, 348;
-    used for food in neolithic times, 165, 217, 373.
-
-  Harpoons used by palæolithic hunters, 342.
-
-  Heathery Burn, cave of, 141;
-    bronze articles in, 144.
-
-  Heaton, Mr., cited, 287.
-
-  Heer, Professor, on vegetables used in Swiss lake dwellings, 137.
-
-  Helln Pot, descent into, 41;
-    description of, 45;
-    exploration of, 43.
-
-  Hipparion found in Suffolk, 422;
-    _gracile_, 424.
-
-  Hippopotamus, 266;
-    _amphibius_, 138, 370, 394, 395, 417;
-    _liberiensis_, 377;
-    _major_, 377, 418;
-    _namadicus_, 428;
-    _palæindicus_, 427;
-    _Pentlandi_ (pigmy), 267, 377, 378, 400.
-
-  Historic animals, 75, 78;
-    period, definition of, 75;
-    period, difference between, and prehistoric, 134.
-
-  History, the evidence of, as to the peoples of Gaul and Spain, 220.
-
-  Hooker, Dr., cited, 386;
-    on the cedars of Lebanon, 382, 383.
-
-  Horse, the, 136, 150, 166, 399, 418.
-
-  Horseflesh, the use of, 132.
-
-  Howel Dha, the laws of, 77.
-
-  Hughes, Professor, cited, 287.
-
-  Hull, Professor, cited, 402.
-
-  Hunting grounds of palæolithic tribes, 367.
-
-  Hutton, cave of, 292.
-
-  Huxley, Professor, cited, 144, 155, 179;
-    on brachy-cephalic skulls, 193;
-    on dolicho-cephalic skulls, 195;
-    on the classification of crania, 190;
-    on the skull from Engis cave, 235;
-    on the skull from Neanderthal cave, 241.
-
-  Hyæna, the, animals at Wookey Hole introduced by, 310;
-    bones gnawed by, 282, 316;
-    gnawed jaw of, from Wookey, 313;
-    man coeval with, in Somerset, 300;
-    _Perrieri_, 421;
-    the, pleistocene occupation of, in Victoria cave, 118;
-    _spelæa_ (spotted), 138, 266, 372, 375, 394;
-    striped, 266, 336, 394.
-
-  Hyæna-den, characters of a, 314;
-    Kirkdale, 279.
-
-
-  I.
-
-  Iberian peoples, 225;
-    peninsula, the mammals in, 372.
-
-  Iberic dolicho-cephali, the, 212.
-
-  Ice period in Britain, 402, 406, 408.
-
-  Implements used by palæolithic hunters, 340, 366.
-
-  India, man in, in pleistocene age, 426.
-
-  Ingleborough cave, 36, 37.
-
-  Ireland, caves in, 335;
-    dolicho-cephalic skulls in, 194-197.
-
-  Irish-Celtic art, 97.
-
-  Irish Elk, the, 79, 137, 278, 401.
-
-  Iron age, the, cave of, 140, 141.
-
-  Issoire, pseudo-pleiocene mammalia of, 420.
-
-  Italy, animals in the museums of, 422.
-
-
-  J.
-
-  Jackson, Mr. Joseph, discovers the Victoria cave, 81, 84.
-
-  Jamieson, Mr., cited, 405.
-
-  Jeanjean, M., cited, 18.
-
-  Jewellery in Victoria cave, 95.
-
-  Jones, Professor Rupert, cited, 350.
-
-
-  K.
-
-  Kelko cave, 101.
-
-  Kent’s Hole cavern, 14, 17, 324, 325;
-    age of _machairodus_ of, 330;
-    deposits in, 326, 327;
-    the breccia in, 328, 329.
-
-  King, Rev. S. W., researches of, 246.
-
-  King’s Scar, cave in, carinate human femur in, 112, 195.
-
-  Kirkdale cave, 14, 279.
-
-  Kirkhead cave, 125.
-
-  Kühloch cave, 276, 277.
-
-
-  L.
-
-  Laing, Mr., cited, 178;
-    skulls obtained by, 195, 196.
-
-  Lagneaux, M., cited, 238, 239.
-
-  Lances used by palæolithic hunters, 342.
-
-  Laugerie Basse, cave at, 339.
-
-  Lartet, Professor E., cited, 19, 340, 414;
-    explorations of, 244;
-    on fossil remains found near Madrid, 372;
-    on the cave of Aurignac, 243;
-    on the cave of Périgord, 337;
-    on palæolithic caves, 351.
-
-  Lartet, Professor Louis, on the cave of Cro-Magnon, 250-252.
-
-  Lastic, Vicomte de, cited, 247.
-
-  Lebanon, the glaciers of, 382, 383.
-
-  Ledbury Hill, skull found near, 242.
-
-  Leibnitz, cited, 12.
-
-  Lemming, the, 138, 237, 266, 348.
-
-  _Lepus cuniculus_, 146, 150, 166, 373;
-    _timidus_ (_see_ Hare).
-
-  Ligurian tribes, the, 220, 222.
-
-  Limestone, caverns in, 26;
-    composition of, 51;
-    erosion of, 52.
-
-  Lion, the, 266, 348, 373;
-    extinct in Europe, 80;
-    range of, 393.
-
-  _Littorina littorea_ found in Cro-Magnon cave, 254.
-
-  Llanamynech, caves at, 34.
-
-  Llandebie, cave of, 194.
-
-  Lloyd, Mr., cited, 15, 286.
-
-  Lombrive, cave of, 256.
-
-  Longberry Bank, cave of, 133.
-
-  Long Churn cavern, the, 41.
-
-  Lortet, M., cited, 344.
-
-  Luard, Captain, discovers fossil mammals at Windsor, 365.
-
-  Lubbock, Sir John, cited, 243, 359;
-    on the stone age, 139.
-
-  Lunel-viel, cave of, 336, 375.
-
-  Lunier, Dr., cited, 170.
-
-  Lyell, Sir Charles, cited, 19, 235, 257, 267, 333, 402;
-    on the cave of Aurignac, 243, 245;
-    on the glacial period, 408.
-
-  Lynx, the, 146, 266.
-
-
-  M.
-
-  Maccagnone, Grotto di, 376.
-
-  _Machairodus cultridens_, 266;
-    _latidens_, 400, 417;
-    a pleiocene species, 332;
-    at Kent’s Hole, 324, 334;
-    in the cave at Baume, 337;
-    probable age of, 330.
-
-  Mackay, Mr., cited, 195.
-
-  Madras, flint implements found near, 426.
-
-  Madrid, fossil animals near, 372.
-
-  Maghlak cave, 377.
-
-  Malham Cove, 55.
-
-  Malta, bone-caves of, 377.
-
-  Mammalia, classification of pleistocene strata by means of, 412-415;
-    early pleistocene, 417;
-    evidence of, as to climate, 392;
-    in Algeria, 379;
-    in Britain during the second ice-age, 406;
-    in the Iberian peninsula, 372;
-    the pleiocene, 420.
-
-  Mammoth, the, 266, 278, 359, 401;
-    figure of, 346.
-
-  Man, antiquity of, in Europe, 424;
-    coeval with hyænas in Somerset, 300;
-    in India in pleistocene age, 426;
-    in Palestine, 429.
-
-  Manchester Museum, mammoth from Bacton in the, 420.
-
-  _Mangousta Widdringtoni_, the, in Spain and Africa, 380.
-
-  Marcel de Serres, cited, 18, 336, 375.
-
-  Marmot, the, 337, 395;
-    the pouched, 395.
-
-  Marion, M., cited, 373.
-
-  Martinez, Don Manuel Gongaray, on the prehistoric antiquities of
-          Andalusia, 209.
-
-  _Mastodon arvernensis_, 331, 332, 422-424;
-    _Borsoni_, 423, 424;
-    _brevirostris_, 422.
-
-  Maw, Mr. George, on coast of Mediterranean, 389;
-    on glaciers of the Atlas, 386;
-    on level in the Sahara, 390.
-
-  McEnery, Rev. J., discovers the _Machairodus latidens_ in Kent’s
-          Hole cavern, 330;
-    manuscripts of, 15.
-
-  McPherson, Mr., cited, 210.
-
-  Mediterranean area in meiocene age, changes of level in, 369, 390.
-
-  Mediterranean, the, physical condition of, in pleistocene age, 381,
-          388;
-    the shores of, 382.
-
-  Medlicott, Mr., cited, 427.
-
-  _Meles taxus_, 131, 144, 150, 166.
-
-  Mendip Hills, the, 59;
-    the caves of, 292;
-    the district of, 314.
-
-  Mentone, bone-caves of, 373.
-
-  Metcalfe, Mr., cited, 35;
-    descends into Helln Pot, 43.
-
-  Mineral condition of deposits in caves, 273.
-
-  Moggridge, Mr., cited, 373;
-    on the exploration of Mentone, 374.
-
-  Montpellier, the fauna of, 421.
-
-  Moraines in Anatolia, 384.
-
-  Morris, Mr. J. P., explores Kirkhead cave, 125.
-
-  Mortillet, M. de, on palæolithic caves, 353;
-    on pottery in the palæolithic age, 347.
-
-  Moustier, cave of, 341.
-
-  Murcièlagos, Cueva de los, description of, 209.
-
-  Musk sheep, the, 138, 266;
-    at Crayford, 416;
-    range of, 396.
-
-  _Myoxus Melitensis_, 377.
-
-
-  N.
-
-  Naulette, Trou de, remains found in the, 349.
-
-  Neanderthal cave, the, 21;
-    human skull found in, 240.
-
-  Neolithic age, interments of, 158.
-
-  Neolithic caves of France, 198;
-    of Gibraltar, 204;
-    of Spain, 208;
-    of Wales, 159, 166.
-
-  Neolithic races, range of, 189.
-
-  Nilsson, Professor, cited, 163;
-    on dwarfs, 2;
-    on origin of chambered tombs, 164, 165.
-
-  North Wales, the caves of, 286.
-
-
-  O.
-
-  Oban, remains in a cave at, 195.
-
-  Oreston cave, 13, 317;
-    _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ of, 415.
-
-  Orrouy, the sepulchral cave of, 202.
-
-  Owen, Professor, cited, 196, 324;
-    on the cave of Bruniquel, 247, 248.
-
-  Oxford Museum, the, human skull from cave of Llandebie in, 194;
-    molar of pigmy hippopotamus in, 378.
-
-
-  P.
-
-  Palæolithic art, 257;
-    caves, classification of, 351, 352;
-    hunters, instruments used by, 340;
-    hunters, not cannibals, 347;
-    implements, 354, 366;
-    man in Europe, 395, 429;
-    man, relation of, to glacial period, 409;
-    man in India, 426;
-    man in Palestine, 429;
-    man of the river-gravels, 351;
-    tribes, hunting grounds of, 367.
-
-  Palestine, palæolithic man in, 429.
-
-  Palgrave, Mr. Gifford, on glaciers of Anatolia, 383-385.
-
-  Panther, the, 266, 400.
-
-  Parker, Mr. James, cited, 30, 141, 194.
-
-  Paviland cave, 232.
-
-  Peak, cavern of the, 34.
-
-  Pembrokeshire, caves in, 289.
-
-  Pengelly, Mr., cited, 333;
-    on Brixham cave, 16, 323;
-    on Cavillon cave, 258;
-    on Devonshire caves, 317.
-
-  Pennington, Mr., cited, 126, 285.
-
-  Périgord, caves of, 19;
-    articles found in the, 337-339.
-
-  Perthes, M. Boucher de, on flint implements, 16, 17.
-
-  Perthi-Chwareu, pottery and implements from, 157;
-    Professor Busk on human bones from, 167-179;
-    refuse heap at, 149;
-    remains of animals at, 151, 153-155, 187;
-    remains of man at, 153-155;
-    sepulchral caves at, 152.
-
-  Phahlbauten, the Swiss, 165.
-
-  Phillips, Professor, cited, 284, 405, 411;
-    on formation of caves, 53;
-    on stalagmite, 39, 40;
-    on the Ingleborough cave, 36;
-    on the origin of caves, 26.
-
-  Physiography of Great Britain in late pleistocene age, 363;
-    of Mediterranean in pleistocene age, 381.
-
-  Picts and Scots, raids of, in Britain, 105.
-
-  Pickermi, fossil remains at, 369.
-
-  Plas Heaton, the tunnel-cave of, 160, 287.
-
-  Platycnemic leg-bones, 173-176.
-
-  Platycnemism, Professor Busk on, 177-179.
-
-  Pleiocene and pleistocene characteristic animals, 423;
-    species in Europe, mixture of, 418.
-
-  Pleiocene mammalia, the, 420;
-    period, the, 424;
-    species, _machairodus_ a, 332, 333.
-
-  Pleistocene age, the, 10;
-    animals living in, 359-361;
-    physiography of Mediterranean in, 381, 388;
-    remains of animals before the, 60;
-    climate and geography, 395;
-    coast-line of North-Western Europe, 362;
-    divisions, early, 417;
-    divisions, late, 414;
-    divisions, middle, 415;
-    relation of, to prehistoric period, 264, 265;
-    strata, classification of, 412.
-
-  Po, the river, 389.
-
-  Poole’s cavern, 34, 126.
-
-  Pot-holes and “cirques” in calcareous rocks, 56.
-
-  Porcupine, in Spain and Africa, 380;
-    found in Belgium, 395.
-
-  Prehistoric period, the, archæological classification of, 138;
-    conditions of life in, 262;
-    difference between the historic and, 134;
-    relation of pleistocene to, 264.
-
-  Prestwich, Mr., cited, 267, 271, 416;
-    on Brixham cave, 321, 322;
-    on carbonate of lime in Thames water, 69;
-    on the discoveries in the valley of the Somme, 17;
-    on the denudation of the Mendips and Ardennes, 61;
-    on palæolithic man, 410.
-
-  Provence, bone-caves of, 373.
-
-  Pruner-Bey, Dr., cited, 193.
-
-  Prunières, Dr., cited, 200.
-
-  _Purpura lapillus_ in cave of Cro-Magnon, 254.
-
-  Pyrenees, the, animals living to the North of the Alps and, 359-361;
-    glaciers of, 403.
-
-
-  Q.
-
-  Quatrefages, M. de, cited, 238.
-
-
-  R.
-
-  Rabbit, the (_see_ _lepus cuniculus_).
-
-  Ramsay, Professor, cited, 402.
-
-  Rat, the common, migrations of, 76.
-
-  Rattonneau, island of, 373.
-
-  Ravines, 54.
-
-  Reggio, cave of, in Modena, 148.
-
-  Reindeer, the, 76, 79, 278;
-    absence of, in middle pleistocene division, 416;
-    engraving of, 345, 356;
-    in the cave of Lombrive, 256;
-    in the caves of Périgord, 338;
-    in the Trou du Frontal, 237;
-    --period of M. Lartet, 414;
-    range of, 396.
-
-  Rhætic age, fossils of, 59.
-
-  _Rhinoceros etruscus_, 418, 419, 424;
-    _hemitœchus_, 281, 288, 372, 400, 417;
-    _megarhinus_, 266, 334, 400, 404, 415, 416-418;
-    _tichorhinus_ (woolly), 119, 138, 278, 400.
-
-  Rhosdigre cave, 188;
-    contents of, 166;
-    greenstone celt from, 156.
-
-  Rians, cave of, 373.
-
-  Richard, the Abbé, cited, 429.
-
-  Rivière, M., explorations of, 257, 373, 375.
-
-  Roedeer, the, 76.
-
-  Rolleston, Dr., cited, 195;
-    discovery of pigmy hippopotamus by, 378.
-
-  Roman dominion in Britain, 103, 104.
-
-  Rosenmüller, cited, 12, 13, 273.
-
-  Rütimeyer, Professor, cited, 136, 404.
-
-
-  S.
-
-  Sahara, the, changes of level in, 309.
-
-  Samian ware in the Victoria cave, 92;
-    in the Dowkerbottom cave, 102.
-
-  San Ciro, cave of, 376.
-
-  Schaaffhausen, M., cited, 147;
-    on the skull from Neanderthal, 241.
-
-  Schmerling, Dr., cited, 395;
-    researches of, 20, 234, 347.
-
-  Sclaigneaux, cave of, 218;
-    platycnemic tibia from, 219.
-
-  Sanford, Mr., Ayshford, cited, 31, 63, 140, 293, 307, 394.
-
-  Second ice or glacial period, 406.
-
-  Selsea, remains found at, 405.
-
-  Serres, M. de, cited, 19.
-
-  Serval, the, 21, 372, 394.
-
-  Sicily, bone-caves of, 21;
-    the Iberians in, 222;
-    species from, 376.
-
-  Skulls, measurements of brachy-cephalic and dolicho-cephalic, 199;
-    from Perthi-Chwareu, 171;
-    of doubtful antiquity, 236;
-    table of dolicho-cephalic, found in Britain and Ireland, 197.
-
-  Smith, Mr. Roach, on Roman coins, 83.
-
-  Smith, Rev. G. N., on Tenby bone-caves, 289.
-
-  Solutré, horse’s skeleton from, 344.
-
-  Somerset, hyænas in, 301;
-    mammalia in the caves of, 366.
-
-  Soreil, M., on the cave of Chauvaux, 216.
-
-  Soundings, evidence of, in Southern Europe, 380.
-
-  South Wales, caves of, 288;
-    mammalia in, 366.
-
-  Southern Europe, bone-caves of, 21.
-
-  Spain, articles found in a copper-mine in, 208;
-    historical evidence as to the peoples of Gaul and, 220-222.
-
-  Spratt, Admiral, explorations of, 21, 377.
-
-  Spring, Dr., discoveries of, 20;
-    on the cave of Chauvaux, 215, 216.
-
-  Stag, the, 76, 138.
-
-  Stalagmite, rate of the accumulation of, 39.
-
-  Stanley, Rev. E., cited, 286.
-
-  _Sus Indica_, the, 137.
-
-  _Sus palustris_, 262.
-
-  _Sus scrofa_, 131, 150, 166.
-
-  Switzerland, caves of, 350.
-
-  Symonds, Rev. W. S., explores King Arthur’s cave, 290, 291.
-
-
-  T.
-
-  Tapir, the 423.
-
-  Temperature of caves, 71.
-
-  Tenby, cave of Caldy near, 62;
-    the Black Rock near, 68.
-
-  Thames water, carbonate of lime in, 69, 70.
-
-  Thomas, Rev. D. R., on chambered tomb at Cefn, 163.
-
-  Thor’s cave, near Ashbourne, 127;
-    occupied by Brit-Welsh, 129.
-
-  Thurnam, Dr., cited, 144;
-    on classification of crania, 190;
-    on craniology of Britain in neolithic age, 191;
-    on dolicho-cephalic skulls, 192;
-    on skulls from cave of Orrouy, 202.
-
-  Tiddeman, Mr., on the Victoria cave, 85, 122.
-
-  Troglodytes, name of, 6.
-
-  _Trogontherium cuvieri_, 419, 424.
-
-  Tropical and cold climates, animals common to, 400.
-
-  Trou du Frontal, 236;
-    crania in, 238.
-
-  Tunbridge Wells, rocks at, 25.
-
-  Turner, Professor, on remains in a cave at Oban, 195.
-
-  _Turritella communis_ in cave of Cro-Magnon, 254.
-
-  Tuto, islands of, caves in, 59.
-
-  Tyddyn Bleiddyn, cairn of, 188.
-
-
-  U.
-
-  Ultz, burial-places of, in Westphalia, 147.
-
-  _Unio pictorum_ dredged from bottom of English Channel, 364.
-
-  Uphill, cave of, 294; skull from, 194.
-
-  Urus, the, 77, 80, 136, 373, 399.
-
-  _Ursus arctos_, 166, 335.
-
-  _Ursus arvernensis_, 418, 419, 422, 424.
-
-  _Ursus spelæus_, 375.
-
-
-  V.
-
-  Val d’Arno, fauna of the, 422.
-
-  Valleys, change in physical conditions of, 271;
-    deposits in caves and, 272;
-    in limestone districts, 54;
-    strata of sand and gravel in, 267, 268.
-
-  Victoria cave, the, bones of animals in, 88;
-    Brit-Welsh stratum in, 87;
-    bronze articles in, 90;
-    coins in, 93;
-    date of neolithic occupation in, 115;
-    discovery of, 81;
-    exploration of, 85;
-    grey clays in, 116;
-    human bone from oldest ossiferous stratum in, 411;
-    implements and ornaments in, 83, 95;
-    miscellaneous articles in, 90;
-    period of Brit-Welsh occupation in, 110;
-    pleistocene occupation by hyænas in, 118, 284;
-    pre-glacial age of pleistocene stratum in, 121-123, 411.
-
-  Vivian, Mr., cited, 15.
-
-  Virchow, Professor, cited, 238;
-    on dolicho-cephalic skulls, 217.
-
-  Vogt, Professor, cited, 257.
-
-
-  W.
-
-  Water, action of, in caves, 62.
-
-  Water caves of Derbyshire, 34;
-    of Somersetshire, 29;
-    of Yorkshire, 35, 50.
-
-  Weathercote, caves at, 47.
-
-  Whidbey, Mr., cited, 13.
-
-  Whitcombe’s Hole, a cave of the Iron Age, 140, 141.
-
-  Willett, Mr., cited, 295, 303.
-
-  Williams, Rev. D., explorations of, 292.
-
-  Williams, Rev John, on caverns in island of Tuto, 59.
-
-  Williamson, Rev. J., cited, 295, 296.
-
-  Wilson, Professor, cited, 196.
-
-  Winterbourne Stoke, the barrow of, 192.
-
-  Winwood, Rev. H. H., cited, 163;
-    discovers remains of animals at Freshford, 269;
-    explores the cave at Longberry Bank, 133.
-
-  Wolf, the, 400;
-    in Britain, 131;
-    in Spain, 146;
-    last, in Scotland, 76.
-
-  Woman’s cave, the, near Alhama, 210.
-
-  Wood, Colonel, cited, 17.
-
-  Wookey Hole, hyæna den of, 17, 295, 301, 302;
-    ashes and implements found at, 308;
-    bone-beds at, 305;
-    flint implements found at, 298;
-    hyæna den of, inhabited by man, 313;
-    legend of the dog at, 34;
-    the water cave of, 29.
-
-
-  X.
-
-  Xenophon on the panther, 80.
-
-
-  Y.
-
-  Yorkshire, caves in, 101, 278.
-
-
-THE END.
-
-
-LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS.
-
-
-
-
-FOOTNOTES
-
-
-[1] The Natural History of the Hartz Forest (Hercynia Curiosa),
-translated from the German of H. Behrens, M.D., by John Andree, 1670,
-p. 41.
-
-[2] Florus, lib. iii. c. x. Delphin. 4to. 1714, p. 112.
-
-[3] Since this was written, Sir C. Lyell has withdrawn his term
-“Post-pleiocene” in favour of Pleistocene. (“Antiquity of Man,” 4th
-edition, 1873.)
-
-[4] Hist. Anim. vol. i. Folio, 1603. Article “Monoceras.”
-
-[5] Described by Professor Owen, Quart. Geol. Journ. p. 417. See
-Hanbury on “Chinese Materia Medica,” 1862, 8vo. p. 40. Some of the
-dragons’ teeth were found in caves by Mr. Swinhoe.
-
-[6] Hercynia Curiosa.
-
-[7] See Cuvier, Oss. Foss. vol. iv. pp. 290 et seq.
-
-[8] The references are to be found in Cuvier, top. cit. and in
-Buckland, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” 4to. 1822. Most of them I have verified.
-
-[9] Phil. Trans. 1817, p. 176.
-
-[10] Pengelly, “Literature of Kent’s Cavern,” Devonshire Association.
-1868-9. “Kent’s Hole,” Lecture, delivered in Hulme Town Hall, 1872.
-
-[11] Comptes Rendus, 1847, pp. 649-50, et 1864, p. 230.
-
-[12] Prestwich, Phil. Trans. 1860. Proceed. Royal Soc. 1859.
-
-[13] Quart. Geol. Journ. Jan. 1861.
-
-[14] Falconer, Palæont. Mem. vol. ii. p. 498.
-
-[15] Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1865-72.
-
-[16] The authorities for this paragraph are Cuvier (Oss. Foss.),
-Desnoyers (Article “Grottes,” Dictionnaire Univ. d’Histoire Naturelle),
-Marcel de Serres (Cavernes à Oss. Foss. du Département de l’Aude,
-1839), Gervais (Paléontologie Française, 1859, and Nouvelles Recherches
-sur les Animaux Vertébrés, Vivants et Fossiles, 1868-9-70).
-
-[17] An. des Sc.: Nat. Zool. iv. sér. t. xv.
-
-[18] Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ.
-
-[19] Recherches sur les Oss. Foss. découverts dans les Cavernes de la
-Province de Liège, 4to. atlas folio.
-
-[20] Bull. de l’Académie Royale de Belgique, 1 sér. t. xx. p. 427,
-1853; 2 sér. t. xviii. p. 479, 1864; xxii. p. 187, 1866.
-
-[21] L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs de Dinant
-sur Meuse. Bruxelles, 1871. 2nd edit., 1872.
-
-[22] Ice-caves, 8vo. 1865, Longmans.
-
-[23] D’Orbigny, Dictionnaire Universel d’Histoire Naturelle, Article
-“Grottes.”
-
-[24] Quart. Geol. Journ. xxvii. 312.
-
-[25] When the English conquered Somerset from the Brit-Welsh, they
-translated the Celtic Ogo into Hole, whence the cave and village of
-Wookey Hole were named, just as they translated a neighbouring hill,
-called Pen, into Knowle, the generic Celtic term in each case being
-used to specify a particular object. There are many other instances of
-the like use of a Celtic name by the English conquerors of the Celts.
-In the Limestone plateau of Llanamynech, near Oswestry, there is a cave
-called “The Ogo.”
-
-[26] Phil. Trans. 1680, p. 1.
-
-[27] The cave is accessible, and can be examined without any climbing.
-
-[28] Both of these caves are kept in excellent order, and the latter is
-lighted with gas.
-
-[29] The cave is admirably preserved by the care of the owner, J.
-Farrer, Esq., and may be visited without any difficulty.
-
-[30] Rivers, Mountains, and Sea-coast of Yorkshire, 8vo. 1854, p. 34.
-
-[31] On the Ordnance Maps it is wrongly printed Alum Pot.
-
-[32] Op. cit. Article Grottes.
-
-[33] L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs de Dinant
-sur Meuse, Bruxelles, 1871.
-
-[34] The bare pavements above Malham Cove are worthy of a careful
-examination.
-
-[35] I have used the term incretionary as implying an accumulation of
-mineral matter from the circumference of a cavity towards its centre,
-as in the case of an agate. Concretionary action, with which it is
-generally confused, ought to be defined as the deposition of successive
-layers of matter round a nucleus or centre. The one action operates
-from the circumference to the centre, the other from the centre to the
-circumference.
-
-[36] Corals and Coral Islands, 1872, p. 361.
-
-[37] Prestwich, Ann. Address Geol. Soc. 1872, p. 84.
-
-[38] Phil. Trans. April 7th, 1680, p. 731.
-
-[39] “Ice-Caves in France and Switzerland.” Longmans, 1865, p. 296.
-
-[40] Leges Walliæ.
-
-[41] Bell, “British Quadrupeds,” 8vo. p. 386.
-
-[42] The authorities for the preceding paragraphs will be found
-in Chapter II. of my Preliminary Treatise on the “Relation of the
-Pleistocene Mammalia to those now living in Europe” (Palæont. Soc.
-1874).
-
-[43] Benedict. ad Mensas Ekkehardi Monachi Sangallensis, l. 129.
-
-[44] Buffon, Quadrupeds, l. v. p. 52; l. x. p. 67. Sir G. C. Lewis,
-“Notes and Queries,” 2nd series, l. ix. pp. 4, 5.
-
-[45] See Rolleston, Journ. Anat. and Phys., 1868, pp. 51-2. Lenz,
-“Zoologie der Alten.”
-
-[46] Fig. 19, A.
-
-[47] Roach Smith, “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, p. 72, 1844. It
-is noticed by Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Historic Society of Lancashire and
-Cheshire, May 11, 1865; and by Mr. Denny, Trans. Geol. and Polytechnic
-Soc. of West Riding, 1859.
-
-[48] “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, pp. 69, 70.
-
-[49] The Victoria Cave has engaged the attention of the following
-writers:--Farrer, Proceed. Soc. Antiquaries, vol. iv.;--Roach Smith
-and Jackson, “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, 1844;--Denny,
-Proceed. Geol. and Polytechnic Society of the West Riding of Yorkshire,
-1859;--Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Historic Society of Cheshire, May 11,
-1865;--Boyd Dawkins, “Nature,” April 21, 1870; British Assoc. Reports,
-1870; Macmillan’s Magazine, Sept. 1871; Journ. Anthrop. Institute,
-1871;--Tiddeman, “Nature,” 1872;--Boyd Dawkins and Tiddeman, British
-Assoc. Reports, 1872;--Tiddeman, Geol. Mag., Jan. 1873;--Boyd Dawkins,
-Proceed. Manch. Philosophical Soc., Feb. 1873;--Brockbank, Proceed.
-Manch. Philosophical Soc., March 1873.
-
-[50] See Palæont. Society, 1874--Boyd Dawkins’ Preliminary Treatise,
-Chapter II.
-
-[51] R. D. Darbishire, Proceed. Manchester Numismatic Society, Part II.
-1865: “On some Autonomous Coins of Ancient Spain.”
-
-[52] Vetusta Monumenta, vol. vi.
-
-[53] I have to thank the Rev. J. R. Green for allowing me to quote this
-passage from his work, which is now in the press.
-
-[54] Antiquités Suisses, Second Supplement; Lausanne, 1867, p. 15, Pl.
-xii. figs. 3, 4.
-
-[55] La Seine Inférieure, 4to., 1867, p. 203.
-
-[56] See Kemble, “Horæ Ferales,” 4to.; Description of Plates by A. W.
-Franks, p. 64.
-
-[57] ταῦτα φασι τὰ χρώματα τοὺς ἐν Ὠκεανῷ βαρβάρους ἐγχεῖν τῷ χάλκῳ
-διαπύρῳ, τὰ δὲ συνίστασθαι καὶ λιθοῦσθαι, καὶ σώζειν ἃ ἐγράφη (Icon.
-lib. i. c. 28). The art was evidently unknown in Rome at this time.
-
-[58] Notice des Émaux du Musée du Louvre, 1857, pp. 25, 26.
-
-[59] Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Hist. Soc. Lancashire and Cheshire, 1866.
-Limestone Caves of Craven.
-
-[60] Proc. Geol. and Polytechnic Soc. of West Riding of Yorkshire,
-1859, p. 45 _et seq._
-
-[61] Denny and Farrer, op. cit. 1864-5, 414 _et seq._; Farrer, Proc.
-Soc. Antiq. vol. iv.
-
-[62] The authorities for this paragraph are Gildas, Nennius, and
-others, printed in “Monumenta Historica Britannica,” folio, Rolls
-Publication.
-
-[63] “Repellunt nos Barbari ad mare, repellit nos mare ad Barbaros;
-inter hæc oriuntur duo genera funerum; aut jugulamur aut mergimur.”
-GILDAS, xvii.
-
-[64] “Britones de ipsis montibus, speluncis ac saltibus dumis consertis
-continue rebellabant.” GILDAS, xvii. Bæda, _Hist. Eccles._ lib. i. cxiv.
-
-[65] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, _passim_.
-
-[66] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, A.D. 449. “From Anglia, which has ever
-since remained waste between the Jutes and Saxons, came the men of East
-Anglia, Middle Anglia, Mercia, and all North-humbria.” The MS. A, from
-which this was taken, ends in A.D. 975. The passage was taken from Bæda
-who lived in the 8th century.
-
-[67] See E. A. Freeman, “Norman Conquest,” vol. i.
-
-[68] “Confovebatur ... de mari usque ad mare ignis orientalis
-sacrilegorum manu exaggeratus, et finitimas quasque civitates populans,
-qui non quievit accensus donec cunctam pene exurens insulæ superficiem,
-rubra occidentalem trucique oceanum linguâ delamberet.”--xxiv.
-
-[69] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
-
-[70] On the date of the conquest of Lancashire see “Manchester Phil.
-and Lit. Soc. Proc.” 1873, p. 25. In working out this somewhat
-difficult question, I am indebted to the Rev. J. R. Green for most
-valuable aid.
-
-[71] Gildas, Nennius, the Annales Cambriæ, Bæda, and the Anglo-Saxon
-Chronicle are the authorities for these statements.
-
-[72] The section of the Victoria Cave published by Mr. Tiddeman in the
-Geological Magazine expresses the relation of the clay with boulders
-to the cave-earth with greater clearness than I could observe on the
-ground. The laminated clay is not yet proved to occupy such a large
-area in the cave, or to be so regularly deposited, or so clearly
-defined. It occurs at _various_ levels in the mass of the grey clay
-in the section (to be seen on May 21, 1873), above and below the
-cave-earth.--“The Older Deposits in the Victoria Cave,” Geol. Mag. x.
-p. 11.
-
-[73] See Essays by the writer in “Pop. Sci. Rev.” Oct. 1871: “On the
-relation of the Pleistocene Mammalia to the Glacial period.” “On the
-Classification of the Pleistocene Strata of Europe by means of the
-Mammalia;” Quart. Geol. Journ. June 1872.
-
-[74] Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, 6^e Sér.
-tome v. 1849, Pl. xiii. Fig. 1.
-
-[75] See my “Pleistocene Mammals of Yorkshire,” Geol. and Polytechnic
-Soc. of West Riding of Yorks. Leeds, Aug. 6th, 1866.
-
-[76] See Brit. Ass. Reports, Bradford, 1873.
-
-[77] Mem. Anthrop. Soc. vol. ii. p. 358.
-
-[78] Sussex Archæol. Coll., 1863.
-
-[79] Trans. Midland Sci. Ass., Sess. 1864-5, pp. 1-6, 19, 29, Plates
-1-15, “Report on the Exploration of Thor’s Cave,” by E. Brown, Esq.
-
-[80] See E. A. Freeman, “Norman Conquest,” vol. i. p. 43.
-
-[81] Preliminary Treatise on the Relation of the Pleistocene Mammalia
-to those now living in Europe. Palæont. Soc. 1874, chap. ii.
-
-[82] “Equos etiam plerique in vobis comedunt, quod nullus Christianorum
-in orientalibus facit.” Haddan and Stubbs, “Councils and Ecclesiastical
-Documents relating to Great Britain and Ireland,” vol. ii. p. 459.
-
-[83] Laing, “Norway,” p. 316. Mr. Laing justly argues that the habit
-of eating horseflesh in Norway, where pasturage is scant, must have
-been acquired in the luxuriant grassy steppes of Central Asia by the
-ancestors of the Scandinavians.
-
-[84] Benedict. ad Mensas Ekkehardi Monachi Sangallensis, Pertz. Mon.
-Germ., vol. vi. p. 117.
-
-[85] “Pleistocene Mammalia.” Palæont. Soc. 1866. Introd. Internat.
-Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, Paris, and Norwich volumes.
-
-[86] These questions are treated in detail in my Preliminary Treatise,
-“Brit. Pleist. Mammalia.” Palæont. Soc. 1874.
-
-[87] “Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,” p. 2.
-
-[88] Somerset Archæol. and Nat. Hist. Soc. 1864. “On the Caverns of
-Burrington Combe.”
-
-[89] Elliott, “Geologist,” 1862, p. 34, ditto p. 167. Huxley, ditto, p.
-205. Carter Blake, ditto, p. 312. Mackie, “Proceed. Soc. Antiq.” 2nd
-Series, vol. ii. p. 177.
-
-[90] This woodcut, as well as Figs. 33 and 35, have been kindly lent by
-the Council of the Society of Antiquaries.
-
-[91] Commissao Geologica de Portugal. Estudos Geoligicos. Da Existencia
-do homen no nosso solo em Tempos mui remotos provada pelo estudos des
-cavernas. Primeiro opusculo. Noticea ácerca das Grutas da Césareda. Por
-J. F. N. Delgado com a versao em Francez por M. Dalhunty.
-
-[92] Ethnol. Journ. N.S. 7, p. 43.
-
-[93] For definition of these terms, see p. 190.
-
-[94] International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, Norwich Volume,
-p. 84.
-
-[95] International Congress, Paris Volume, p. 159.
-
-[96] Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 363.
-
-[97] Burial in the contracted posture, which is so characteristic of
-the neolithic age, was probably due, as is suggested by my friend Mr.
-John Evans, F.R.S., to the habit of sleeping in that posture and not
-at full length on a bed. The body was not laid out after death, but
-may have been folded together, as in the case of the ancient Peruvian
-mummies. No regularity, however, in the contracted posture could be
-observed in the many tumuli and caves which I have explored, although
-very generally the corpse had been interred on its side.
-
-[98] Edinburgh New Phil. Soc. (1833), No. 27, p. 40.
-
-[99] For the definition of the term, see p. 190.
-
-[100] Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, vol. ii. New
-Series, No. 1, April 1870, p. 45, pl. vii. fig. 3.
-
-[101] Nilsson’s “Stone Age,” translated by Sir J. Lubbock.
-
-[102] These are merely samples of the large number of human skulls and
-bones which were discovered.
-
-[103] Amongst the Keiss crania described by Prof. Huxley, this most
-closely resembles his No. 5; but it is of the same type as No. 3 and
-No. 7, and not very far from that of the Towyn-y-capel cranium, through
-which the transition to the Mewslade form (“Nat. Hist. Rev.” vol. i. p.
-174, pl. v.) is very easy.
-
-[104] The forms most closely resembling this skull amongst those from
-Keiss are Nos. 3 and 7.
-
-[105] Déformation du crâne resultant de la méthode la plus générale de
-couvrir la tête des enfans. Paris, 1834.
-
-[106] Essai sur les déformations artificielles du crâne, par L. A.
-Gosse, de Genève. Paris, 1855.
-
-[107] Recherches sur quelques déformations du crâne observées dans le
-Département des Deux-Sêvres (“Ann. Médico-psychologique”). Paris, 1852.
-
-[108] This index is obtained by dividing the least circumference by the
-length of the bone.
-
-[109] “Mémoires sur les ossemens des Eyzies.” Paris, 1868. “On the
-Human Skulls and Bones found in the Cave of Cro-magnon,” Reliquiæ
-Aquitanicæ, p. 97.
-
-[110] But these are by no means extreme instances of the Gibraltar
-_tibiæ_.
-
-[111] As regards the absolute dimensions of the skulls, it would seem
-that the Welsh crania stand high in the scale--quite as high as any of
-the existing races of mankind. I have made the comparison in a rough
-way in the following manner:--
-
-If the numbers representing the _length_, _breadth_, and _height_
-of the skull are added together, a number is obtained which will,
-of course, in some measure, indicate the gross dimensions of the
-skull. From the rather numerous data furnished by my own Tables of
-Measurements I obtained the results stated in the subjoined list,
-in which the gross mean dimensions of various sets of crania are
-contrasted.
-
-     1. Scandinavian priscan skulls of the neolithic epoch      18·88
-     2. Esquimaux and Greenlanders                              18·81
-     3. Perthi-Chwareu skulls                                   18·65
-     4. Modern European                                         18·58
-     5. Various ancient and priscan skulls                      18·55
-     6. Burmese                                                 18·55
-     7. Caffres and Zooloos (extratropical negroes)             18·45
-     8. Derbyshire tumuli                                       18·42
-     9. Tasmanian                                               17·95
-    10. Hottentot                                               17·80
-    11. Negroes (intertropical)                                 17·67
-    12. Australian                                              17·58
-    13. Bushmen                                                 17·48
-    14. Veddahs                                                 17·09
-    15. Andamanese                                              17·00
-
-[112] “Notes on the Human Remains from Keiss,” p. 85.
-
-[113] _Loc. cit._ p. 114.
-
-[114] Vol. i. p. 174, pl. v.
-
-[115] The stature is obtained, according to Prof. Humphry’s method,
-from the length of the femur, which is 27·5 of stature taken as 100.
-
-[116] Ορθος straight, γναθος jaw, with profile vertical, as opposed to
-προγναθος, with projecting jaws, or “snouty.”
-
-[117] “Anthropological Memoirs,” vols. i. and iii.; Huxley and Laing,
-“Prehistoric Remains in Caithness.”
-
-[118] “Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester,” vol. v. p. 213.
-
-[119] “Anthrop. Mem.” vol. i. p. 144.
-
-[120] Brit. Assoc. Report, 1871, p. 160, “On Human and Animal Bones and
-Flints, from a Cave at Oban, Argyleshire,” by Prof. Turner.
-
-[121] Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness,” p. 119 _et
-seq._
-
-[122] “Prehistoric Annals of Scotland.”
-
-[123] The evidence of cannibalism in the contents of the tumuli seems
-to me to be doubtful.
-
-[124] Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 182.
-
-[125] Bull. Soc. Anthrop. iv.
-
-[126] Anthrop. Mem. i. 490.
-
-[127] Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, 1869.
-
-[128] Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, 1869.
-
-[129] Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez, “Antiguedades Prehistoricas de
-Andalucia.” Madrid, 1868. 8vo.
-
-[130] “The Woman’s Cave,” 4to. Parts I. and II. 1870-1. Cadiz, Federico
-Joly y Velasco.
-
-[131] Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez, _op. cit._
-
-[132] Ethnological Journ. N.S. vii. p. 107.
-
-[133] Broca, “Bull. Soc. Anthrop.” s.s. t. i. p. 470; t. ii. p. 10-30;
-s.s. t. iii. p. 43-101. The cephalic index in the preceding Table
-differs slightly from that given by M. Broca. Thurnam, “Anthrop. Mem.”
-iii. p. 64 _et seq._
-
-[134] These skulls are preserved in the Museum of the Anthropological
-Society at Paris, where by the kindness of Dr. Broca I was allowed
-to study them in the autumn of 1873. Some were marked with the “tête
-annulaire.”
-
-[135] Laing and Huxley, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness.”
-
-[136] Spring, “Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belgique,” 1 sér. l. xx. p. 427; 2
-sér. l. xviii. p. 479; l. xxii. p. 187.
-
-[137] Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les Âges de la Pierre dans les environs
-de Dinant sur Meuse,” 2d edit. p. 222.
-
-[138] Soreil, “Sur Nouvelle Exploration de la Caverne de Chauvau,”
-Congrès Intern. Anthropologie et d’Archéologie Prehistoriques, p. 381
-_et seq._ Bruxelles, 1872.
-
-[139] International Congress, Bruxelles, 1872, p. 370.
-
-[140] Cæsar, i. 50.
-
-[141] “Bull. Soc. Anthrop de Paris,” 2 sér. t. 111., p. 118.
-
-[142] “Diodorus Siculus,” iv. 6; v. 39. Steur, “Ethnographie des
-Peuples de l’Europe,” p. 31 _et seq._; Donaldson, “Varronianw.” p.
-70 _et seq._ Dion. Hal. i 22. See also Niebuhr and Mommsen. The
-documentary evidence is so uncertain as to the affinities of the
-Ligurians that scarcely any two writers agree. “Quot homines tot
-sententiæ.”
-
-[143] Thucydides, vi. 2.
-
-[144] Tacitus, “Agricola,” xi.
-
-[145] Cæsar, i. 12.
-
-[146] Prof. Huxley brings them into relation with the ancient
-Egyptians, the “Melanochroi” of India, and the Australians, “Critiques
-and Addresses,” p. 134; Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, p. 92 _et
-seq._
-
-[147] See Prof. Huxley’s “Critiques and Addresses,” p. 167.
-
-[148] For a masterly account of the varying stature in Britain and
-Ireland, see Dr. Beddoe’s Essay, “Anthrop. Soc. Mem.” iii. p. 384-573.
-
-[149] “τοὺς μὲν Ἀκυϊτανοὺς τελέως ἐξηλλαγμένους οὐ τῇ γλώττῃ μόνον ἀλλὰ
-καὶ τοῖς σώμασιν, ἐμφερεῖς Ἰβήρεσι μᾶλλον ἢ Γαλάταις· τοὺς δὲ λοιποὺς
-Γαλατικοὺς μὲν τὴν ὄψιν, ὁμογλώττους δ’ οὐ πάντας, ἀλλ’ ἐνίους μικρὸν
-παραλλαττόντας ταῖς γλώτταις.”--Lib. iv. c. 1, §1.
-
-[150] The correspondence of my map, Fig. 68, with that of M. Broca, is
-one of those undesigned coincidences which are so valuable in arriving
-at truth, for his most admirable essay on the Ethnology of France did
-not come into my hands until my own map was engraved. M. Broca takes a
-different point of view to that advanced in these pages, holding that
-the Celts were dark and the Belgic were blue-eyed tall Kymri or Cimbri.
-The Celts known to history were undoubtedly a tall fair race.
-
-[151] In treating this difficult subject, I have purposely omitted to
-use the uncertain light of philology. We may expect to derive as much
-knowledge as to the relations between Tyrrhenian, Ligurian, Basque, and
-other obscure non-Aryan peoples from the study of languages, as we have
-already obtained of the Aryans by the same means. It is very probable
-that, like the Sanscrit, the Basque roots will be found widely spread
-both in Asia, Asia Minor, Europe, and N. Africa.
-
-[152] “Anthrop. Mem.” Vols. i. and iii. (Crania Britannica.)
-
-[153] See Huxley’s “Critiques and Addresses,” p. 167 _et seq._
-
-[154] “Rutilæ Caledoniam habitantium comæ, magni artus Germanicam
-originem asseverant.” Agricola, c. xi.
-
-[155] “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” p. 82 _et seq._
-
-[156] Schmerling, “Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles découverts
-dans les Cavernes de la province de Liége.” 4to. 1833-4, p. 29 _et seq._
-
-[157] Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les âges de la Pierre, dans les environs
-de Dinant-sur-Meuse,” p. ix. The implements are palæolithic (see p.
-22), but there is no evidence that they are of the same antiquity as
-the human remains. They may be, and probably are, much older.
-
-[158] “Man’s Place in Nature,” chap. iii. Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man,”
-1st edition, p. 63.
-
-[159] Dupont, _op. cit._ p. 56.
-
-[160] Prehistoric Congress, Brussels, 1872, p. 549 _et seq._
-
-[161] Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness.”
-
-[162] Intern. Congress, Brussels Volume, p. 549.
-
-[163] Dupont, _op. cit._ p. 140.
-
-[164] Buckland, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” p. 135. These specimens are in
-the Oxford Museum, and are identified by Lord Enniskillen as having
-been derived from Gailenreuth.
-
-[165] Schaaffhausen, translated by Busk, “Nat. Hist. Review,” April
-1861. Huxley, “Man’s Place in Nature,” iii. p. 156-171. Lyell’s
-“Antiquity of Man,” 1st edition, p. 75.
-
-[166] Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness,” p. 115.
-
-[167] Compare Lyell, 1st edition, p. 182 _et seq._, with 4th edition,
-p. 122 _et seq._
-
-[168] Phil. Trans. 159, p. 517.
-
-[169] Vogt, “Lectures on Man,” pp. 329-380. Thurnam, “Anthrop. Mem.” i.
-501.
-
-[170] It has been dug out in its natural position, and is now to be
-seen in the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, where I studied it in the
-summer of 1873.
-
-[171] Pengelly, “The Cave Man of Mentone,” Trans. Devon Ass. 1873.
-Moggridge, Brit. Ass. Edinburgh, 1873.
-
-[172] Prehistoric Congress, Bologna Volume, p. 391, 1873.
-
-[173] See on this point a valuable essay by Mr. Hyde Clark, “Palestine
-Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement,” N.S. April 1871, p. 97 _et seq._
-
-[174] The authorities for these facts will be found in my “Preliminary
-Treatise,” Palæont. Soc. 1874. The prehistoric age of the forest is
-to be fixed by the presence of the goat and _Bos longifrons_, both of
-which were unknown in Europe in the pleistocene age.
-
-[175] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xx. p. 188 _et seq._
-
-[176] See Prestwich, “Phil. Trans.” 1860, p. 277, and 1864, p. 247, and
-“Quart. Geol. Journ.” _passim_ 1859-70.
-
-[177] “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ.” 4to. 1824, p. 133.
-
-[178] I am indebted to Lord Enniskillen, who explored Gailenreuth along
-with Sir Philip Egerton, for several corrections in Buckland’s section.
-
-[179] Op. cit. p. 137.
-
-[180] Op. cit. p. 1. _et seq._
-
-[181] Op. cit. p. 38.
-
-[182] Buckland, op. cit. p. 61.
-
-[183] “Edinburgh New Phil. Soc.” No. 27, p. 40. Falconer, “Palæont.
-Mem.” ii. p. 541. I have examined nearly all the contents of these
-caves.
-
-[184] Anthrop. Institute Meeting, 9 Dec. 1873.
-
-[185] Buckland, op. cit. 80.
-
-[186] Op. cit. p. 80.
-
-[187] Falconer “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 498.
-
-[188] “On the Tenby Bone Caves,” by a Pembrokeshire Rector. London:
-Kent and Co.
-
-[189] See “Brit. Assoc. Rep.” 1871. “Geol. Mag.” viii. 433.
-
-[190] Buckland, _op. cit._ p. 60.
-
-[191] Buckland, _op. cit._ Rutter, “Delineations of Somerset,” p. 100.
-
-[192] See Buckland, _op. cit._ Rutter, _op. cit._
-
-[193] See “Catalogue of Mammalia, in Taunton Museum,” by W. A. Sanford,
-Esq. Som. Archæol. Soc.
-
-[194] Rutter gives a very good section of this cave (_op. cit._ p. 78).
-
-[195] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1862: On a Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole. Also
-“Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1863.
-
-[196] An incident connected with our work illustrates remarkably the
-attachment which a dog will suddenly show towards a stranger. In our
-lodging at Wells there was a beautiful Scotch deerhound, named “Luna,”
-whose master was away at the time. Luna persisted in being with us
-day and night. In the morning she walked with us to the cave, and
-lay watching at the entrance till we came out, for she was afraid to
-venture into the darkness. In the evening she returned home with us.
-She continued to do this the whole time of that year’s excavations. It
-was only natural to suppose that when we left she would, like other
-dogs, pick up new friends. But she did nothing of the kind. When we
-inquired the next year upon our return, we were told that poor Luna
-refused food the day we left, and gradually pined away and died.
-
-[197] Possibly it may have belonged to _Elephas_, but its more compact
-texture seems to me to indicate rhinoceros.
-
-[198] Bone needles were found in Kent’s Hole and in many foreign caves
-of this age.
-
-[199] These woodblocks were used in my essay on Hyænas in the “Natural
-History Review,” and have been lent by the kindness of Messrs. Williams
-and Norgate.
-
-[200] Pengelly, “Literature of the Oreston Caverns,” Trans. Dev. Ass.
-1872. Buckland, _op. cit._
-
-[201] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxvi. 457, _et seq._
-
-[202] “The Literature of the Caverns near Yealmpton, South Devon,” by
-W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.S.A. Trans. Devon Ass., 1870.
-
-[203] Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 486, 591.
-
-[204] Proceed. Royal Soc. xx. p. 514. “Report on the Exploration of
-Brixham Cave,” by W. Pengelly, F.R.S., G. Bush, F.R.S., John Evans,
-F.R.S., and Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S. This report was delayed by the
-death of Dr. Falconer.
-
-[205] “Ancient Stone Implements,” p. 46-8.
-
-[206] “Proceed. Royal Soc.” 1872, vol. xxii. p. 523-4.
-
-[207] “Trans. Devon Ass.” On the Introduction of Cavern Accumulations.
-
-[208] “Trans. Devon Ass.” 1870.
-
-[209] Pengelly, “Literature of Kent’s Hole:” Trans. Ass. Devon. 1868
-9-70. Godwin Austen, “Proceed. Geol. Soc.” iii. 286-7. “Trans. Geol.
-Soc.” vi. p. 433, _et seq._ Vivian, “Brit. Ass. Rep.” 1847, p. 73.
-
-[210] The committee consisted of Sir C. Lyell, Prof. Phillips, Sir John
-Lubbock, Mr. John Evans, Mr. Edward Vivian, Mr. William Pengelly, to
-which subsequently Mr. George Busk, Mr. Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. Ayshford
-Sanford were added.
-
-[211] For Figs. 96 to 100 I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Evans.
-
-[212] See Evans’ “Ancient Stone Implements,” Fig. 388. It is
-unnecessary to describe the implements.
-
-[213] For an account of Machairodus, see “Brit. Pleistocene Mammalia,”
-Palæont. Soc., _Felidæ_, cxxii. p. 184.
-
-[214] Gervais, “Zool. et Paléont. Françaises,” 1859, p. 251. “Animaux
-Vertébrés, Vivants et Fossiles,” 1867-9, p. 78, pl. xviii. Lartet,
-Prehistoric Congress, Paris Volume, 1868, p. 269.
-
-[215] These figures have been kindly lent by the Palæontographical
-Society.
-
-[216] “Journ. Royal Dublin Soc.” ii. p. 344.
-
-[217] “Journ. Geol. Soc. Dublin,” x. p. 147. “Journ. Royal Dublin Soc.”
-ii. p. 352.
-
-[218] Scott, “Geol. Soc. Dublin,” Feb. 10, 1864.
-
-[219] An account of the numerous caves of France will be found in the
-works of M. de Serres, “Revue Archéologique” and in the “Matériaux pour
-l’Histoire de l’Homme.”
-
-[220] Boyd Dawkins, “Brit. Pleist. Mam. Palæont. Soc.” 1872, p. 189.
-
-[221] Gervais, “Animaux Vertébrés,” p. 78, pl. xviii.
-
-[222] Lartet, International Congress, Paris Volume, p. 269.
-
-[223] “Cavernes du Périgord,” “Revue Archéologique,” 8vo. 1864.
-“Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,” 4to. 1865-74. This magnificent history of the
-researches, in the prosecution of which Mr. Christy lost his life, was
-published at his expense under the editorship of Prof. Rupert Jones,
-F.R.S., to whom I am indebted for the liberty to use the letterpress
-and engravings quoted in this book.
-
-[224] The same bones of the ox and horse are now imported into Britain
-from South America for the manufacture of buttons.
-
-[225] Boyd Dawkins, “Range of the Mammoth,” Pop. Sc. Rev. July, 1868.
-
-[226] “Recherches sur les oss. foss. découverts dans les Cavernes de
-Liége.” 4to.
-
-[227] Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs
-de Dinant-sur-Meuse.” 2nd edit. p. 187.
-
-[228] Dupont, _op. cit._ “Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belgique,” xxii. p. 20.
-Hamy, “Paléontologie Humaine,” p. 231.
-
-[229] The discovery will shortly be published by Prof. Heine, of Zurich.
-
-[230] “Matériaux pour l’Histoire de l’Homme,” May 1869, p. 272.
-
-[231] “Ancient Stone Implements.”
-
-[232] “Ann. des Sc. Nat.” 4th sér. t. 15, p. 231.
-
-[233] Hamy, _op. cit._ Lubbock, “Prehistoric Man.”
-
-[234] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” June 5, 1872.
-
-[235] Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 432. “Mém.
-Anthrop. Soc. de Paris,” 2nd sér. t. 6, p. 170.
-
-[236] “Eskimos in the South of Gaul.” Saturday Review, December 8th,
-1866. Edinburgh Review, “Prehistoric Times.” October 1870.
-
-[237] The authorities for the foreign lists of animals will be found in
-the “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1872, p. 424. The British animals have been
-determined principally by myself and Dr. Falconer.
-
-[238] “Classification of the Pleistocene Strata,” Quart. Geol. Journ.
-Nov. 1872, p. 410.
-
-[239] Godwin Austen, “Quart. Geol. Journ.” vol. i. p. 69. De la Bêche,
-“Theoretical Researches,” p. 190. Lyell, “Antiquity of Man,” 4th edit.
-p. 328.
-
-[240] The accumulation of the remains of reindeer in the limited area
-of the excavation was enormous.
-
-[241] “Les Oss. Foss. de Pikermi,” 4to.
-
-[242] Some parts of the rest of this chapter have been published in the
-“Popular Science Review,” March 1873.
-
-[243] “Palæontographical Memoirs,” vol. ii. p. 554. Busk, Prehistoric
-Congress, Norwich volume, 1869.
-
-[244] “Comptes Rendus,” xlvi. 1858.
-
-[245] Prehistoric Congress, Paris volume, p. 96.
-
-[246] “Brit. Ass. Reports,” Edinburgh, 1871.
-
-[247] “Brit. Assoc. Rep.” 1871.
-
-[248] _Découverte d’une Squelette Humaine de l’époque Paléolithique
-dans les Cavernes de Baoussé-Roussé, dites Grottes de Menton_, 1873;
-also Prehistoric Congress, Brussels volume. M. Rivière adds the Wapiti,
-or large variety, and the _Cervus Corsicanus_, or small variety of the
-stag, the chamois, and the woolly rhinoceros (the two last of which
-may be perhaps identical with the ibex and _R. hemitœchus_, determined
-by Prof. Busk, as neither is mentioned by M. Rivière), and the _Capra
-primigenia_ of Gervais, a large goat commonly found in neolithic caves.
-
-[249] The depth at which the skeleton was found is a matter of dispute,
-the estimates varying from seven feet (Pengelly) to (6·55 m.) 21·49
-feet (Rivière). Pengelly, _Cave man of Mentone_, “Trans. Devon Ass.”
-1873, pp. 10 and 13.
-
-[250] “Palæont. Mem.” ii. p. 543.
-
-[251] It is of the same species as the bear from Grays Thurrock.
-
-[252] Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. p. 552. Spratt, “Quart. Geol.
-Journ.” xxiii. p. 293.
-
-[253] “Bull. Soc. Géol. Fr.” 2^e sér. t. xi. p. 340.
-
-[254] Gervais, “Animaux Vertébrés Vivants et Fossiles,” 4to. p. 88.
-
-[255] Hooker, “Nat. Hist. Review,” II. p. 12, 1861.
-
-[256] _Nature_, vol. v. p. 444; vol. vi. 536.
-
-[257] “A Journey to Morocco, and the Ascent of the Great Atlas,” 8vo.
-Slater, Troubridge, Salop.
-
-[258] “Geological Notes on a Journey from Algiers to Morocco.” Geol.
-Soc. Feb. 25, 1874.
-
-[259] See “British Pleistocene Mammalia,” Palæont. Soc. _Felis spelæa_,
-c. xviii.
-
-[260] “_Ovibos moschatus_,” Palæont. Soc. 1872, p. 27, _et seq._
-
-[261] This is treated at greater length in my “Essay on
-Classification,” Quart. Geol. Journ. Nov. 1872, and in the
-“Introduction to British Pleistocene Mammalia,” Palæont. Soc.
-
-[262] Mr. James Geikie’s view (“The Great Ice-Age,” 8vo. 1874) that the
-mixture of the northern and southern forms is due to the destruction of
-ossiferous strata by streams, which subsequently deposited remains of
-widely different ages together, is rendered untenable by the fact that
-they are generally preserved in the same mineral state. It would have
-been impossible for this to have taken place without leaving decided
-traces behind in the rolled and water-worn condition of the older
-series, such as may be seen in the case of the eocene and meiocene
-fossils in the Red Crag of Suffolk.
-
-[263] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxii. 391.
-
-[264] See Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.”
-
-[265] I have to acknowledge the kind assistance of Professors Hull
-and Harkness, Mr. Kinahan, and the Rev. H. M. Close, in correlating
-the Irish with the English glacial deposits. The reader will find the
-glacial period most ably treated in Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man.”
-
-[266] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxi. 161.
-
-[267] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1872, p. 410.
-
-[268] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xx. p. 457.
-
-[269] “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. p. 49.
-
-[270] “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. pp. 189, 190.
-
-[271] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxiv. p. 484. “International Congress,”
-Norwich volume. See also “Evans’ Ancient Stone Implements,” p. 570.
-
-[272] “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 642, _et passim_.
-
-[273] This implement was exhibited before the Meeting of the British
-Association at Edinburgh, in 1871.
-
-[274] Brit. Ass. Reports, 1865, p. 18.
-
-
-
-
-Transcriber’s Notes
-
-
-Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a
-predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not
-changed.
-
-Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced
-quotation marks retained.
-
-Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.
-
-The corrections listed in “Additions and Corrections” at the beginning
-of the book have been made to the main text of this eBook. The
-additions have not been added. The errors listed for pages 196 and 201
-were not found in the text, and both the opening and closing inverted
-commas (quotation marks) have been removed on page 386.
-
-Unlike the printed book, all illustrations in this eBook appear between
-paragraphs, so the page references in the List of Illustrations do not
-necessarily match their actual positions. However, links, in versions
-of this eBook that support them, do lead directly to the corresponding
-illustrations.
-
-The Index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
-references.
-
-Text has many references to “Lartet” and just a few to “Lortet”. They
-seem to refer to the same person, but both are listed in the Index, so
-both spellings have been retained.
-
-Text refers to “Rev. J. MacEnery”, “Rev. J. McEnery” and “McEnery”.
-These all refer to the same person, but the correct spelling is
-uncertain, so both variations have been retained.
-
-Some of the fractional numbers (e.g., 1/1, 1/2) in illustration
-captions were unclear and may have been incorrectly transcribed.
-
-Most tables wider than 75 characters have been made narrower, either
-by using Keys to their column headings or, in the table on page 172,
-by segmenting it and repeating the first column in each segment. A
-few tables remain wider than 75 characters as they otherwise became
-unreadable.
-
-Page 2: “dwellings of evil spirits” was misprinted as “swellings”.
-
-Page 147: Footnote 95 (originally 2) was not referenced in the text.
-Transcriber has arbitrarily placed a reference to it.
-
-Page 199: “Valcleuse” currently is spelled “Valcluse”.
-
-Page 310: The reference to “Figs. 92, 93” was misprinted as
-“Figs. 92, 33” and has been corrected here.
-
-Page 339: Identifications of the three illustrations were added by
-Transcriber.
-
-Page 381: The top of the map was close to the physical book’s binding
-and was distorted during scanning. The Transcriber attempted to remedy
-this distortion.
-
-Page 436: The letters in the diagram were printed in italics. For
-readability, the Plain Text version of this eBook omits the underscores
-that indicate italics. The HTML and mobile versions use an image of the
-diagram.
-
-Page 449 (Index): “Caves, used as places of refuge” gave no page
-reference. The Table of Contents refers to page 102, and the Transcriber
-added that to the index entry.
-
-
-
-
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-<pre>
-
-The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cave Hunting, by William Boyd Dawkins
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
-other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
-the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org.  If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
-to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.
-
-Title: Cave Hunting
-       Researches on the evidence of caves respecting the early
-              inhabitants of Europe
-
-Author: William Boyd Dawkins
-
-Release Date: June 28, 2016 [EBook #52424]
-
-Language: English
-
-Character set encoding: UTF-8
-
-*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAVE HUNTING ***
-
-
-
-
-Produced by Chris Curnow, Sharon Joiner, Charlie Howard,
-and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
-http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images
-made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-</pre>
-
-
-<div class="transnote">
-<p class="center larger">Transcriber’s Notes</p>
-<p class="covernote">Text on the cover was added by Transcriber and placed in the Public Domain.</p>
-<p>Images of tables that may be too wide for some display devices have been included in the
-<a href="#Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this eBook, and the text of those tables contains
-links to the corresponding images.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h1>CAVE HUNTING.</h1>
-
-<hr />
-<div id="i_frontis" class="figcenter" style="width: 105px;">
-  <img src="images/i_000.jpg" width="105" height="101" alt="" /></div>
-<hr />
-
-<div id="if_i_001" class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;">
-  <img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="362" height="600" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption">
-  <p class="p0 b0"><i>Fig. 1.</i> <span class="in2"><i>Fig. 2.</i></span> <span class="in2"><i>Fig. 3.</i></span></p>
-  <p class="p0 b0"><i>Fig. 4.</i> <span class="in2"><i>Fig. 5.</i></span> <span class="in2"><i>Fig. 6.</i></span></p>
-  <p class="p0 b0"><i>Fig. 7.</i> <span class="in4"><i>Fig. 8.</i></span></p>
-
-  <p class="right small">C. F. Kell Lath. London F.C.</p>
-  <p class="p1">ENAMELS FROM THE VICTORIA CAVE. <a href="#Page_98">p98.</a></p>
-  <p class="small">London; Macmillan &amp; C<sup>o</sup>. 1874.</p></div></div>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p class="newpage p4 center xxlarge wspace">
-CAVE HUNTING,</p>
-
-<p class="p2 center vspace wspace"><span class="smaller">RESEARCHES ON</span><br />
-<span class="large">THE EVIDENCE OF CAVES</span><br />
-<span class="small">RESPECTING THE</span><br />
-<span class="large">EARLY INHABITANTS OF EUROPE</span></p>
-
-<p class="p2 center large wspace"><span class="xsmall">BY</span><br />
-W. BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A.,<br />
-<span class="xsmall"><i>Curator of the Museum and Lecturer in Geology in The Owens College, Manchester</i>.</span></p>
-
-<p class="p2 center smaller"><i>ILLUSTRATED BY COLOURED PLATE AND WOODCUTS.</i></p>
-
-<p class="p2 center wspace"><span class="bold">London:</span><br />
-<span class="gesperrt larger">MACMILLAN AND CO.</span><br />
-1874.</p>
-
-<p class="p1 center smaller">[<i>The Right of Translation and Reproduction is reserved.</i>]</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p class="newpage p4 center small vspace">
-LONDON:<br />
-R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,<br />
-BREAD STREET HILL.
-</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p class="newpage p4 center vspace">
-TO<br />
-
-<span class="large">THE BARONESS BURDETT COUTTS,</span><br />
-<br />
-THE FOUNDER OF THE SCHOLARSHIPS<br />
-FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCE<br />
-IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD,<br />
-<span class="large gesperrt">This Work is Dedicated,</span><br />
-AS A SLIGHT ACKNOWLEDGMENT FROM HER FIRST SCHOLAR.
-</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii">vii</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>The exploration of caves is rapidly becoming an important
-field of inquiry, and their contributions to
-our knowledge of the early history of the sojourn of
-men in Europe are daily increasing in value and in
-number. Since the year 1823, when Dr. Buckland
-published his famous work, the “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,”
-no attempt has been made to correlate, and bring into
-the compass of one work, the crude mass of facts which
-have been recorded in nearly every country in Europe.
-In this volume I have attempted to bring the history
-of cave-exploration down to the knowledge of to-day,
-and to put its main conclusions before my readers in
-one connected and continuous narrative. Since Dr.
-Buckland wrote, the momentous discovery of human
-relics along with the extinct animals in caves and
-river deposits has revolutionised the current ideas as
-to the antiquity and condition of man; and works
-of art of a high order, showing a familiarity with
-nature and an aptitude for the delineation of the forms
-of animals by no means despicable, have been discovered
-in the caves of Britain, France, Belgium, and
-Switzerland, that were the dwellings of the primeval
-European hunters of reindeer and mammoths. The
-discoveries in Kent’s Hole and in the caves of Belgium
-led to those in the caves of Brixham and Wookey Hole,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii">viii</a></span>
-and finally to those of Auvergne and the south of
-France, as well as of Germany and Switzerland.</p>
-
-<p>Archæology, also, by the use of strictly inductive
-methods, has grown from a mere antiquarian speculation
-into a science; and its students have proved the truth of
-the three divisions of human progress familiar to the
-Greek and Roman philosopher, and expressed in the
-pages of Hesiod and Lucretius&mdash;the Ages of Stone,
-Bronze and Iron. The subdivision of the first of these
-into the older, or palæolithic, and newer, or neolithic,
-by Sir John Lubbock, is the only refinement which has
-been made in this classification. Sir Charles Lyell has
-discussed the various problems offered by the general
-consideration of the first of these divisions in “The
-Antiquity of Man;” while Sir John Lubbock, in
-“Prehistoric Man,” has followed Dr. Keller and others
-in working out the past history of mankind by a comparison
-of the habitations, tombs, implements and
-weapons found in Europe, with those of modern savages.
-This work is intended to be to a considerable extent
-supplementary to theirs,&mdash;to treat of the formation of
-caves, and of the light thrown by their contents on the
-sojourn of man in Europe, on the wild animals, and on
-the changes in climate and geography.</p>
-
-<p>In treating of the caves of the historic period, I have
-given considerable prominence to the exploration of the
-Victoria Cave, near Settle, which has led to the discovery
-that many caverns were inhabited in this country
-during the fifth and sixth centuries, and that they contain
-works of art of a high order. In the difficult task of
-bringing them into relation with British history and art,
-I have to acknowledge the kind assistance of Mr. E.&nbsp;A.
-Freeman, the Rev. J.&nbsp;R. Green, and Mr. A.&nbsp;W. Franks.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix">ix</a></span>
-In the neolithic division of the prehistoric period, I
-have published at length my recent discoveries in the
-sepulchral caves of Denbighshire, and am allowed by my
-friend, Professor Busk, to reprint his description of the
-human bones. To his suggestive essay on the Gibraltar
-caves, as well as to the works of the late Dr. Thurnam,
-and of Professors Broca and Huxley, I am indebted for
-the clue to the identification of the neolithic dwellers in
-caves with the ancient Iberians or Modern Basques.
-That portion of the evidence which relates to France I
-have verified by a personal examination of the human
-remains from caves and tombs in the Museums of
-Bordeaux, Toulouse, Lyons and Paris.</p>
-
-<p>The results of the exploration of the Hyæna-den
-of Wookey Hole have been given in greater detail in
-the portion of the work devoted to the palæolithic age
-than they would have been, had they been before fully
-recorded. And in this division of the subject I have
-largely made use of the “Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,” which
-embodies the discoveries in Auvergne of my late friends
-Professor E. Lartet and Mr. Christy. To the editors of
-that work I am indebted for permission to use some of
-the plates and letterpress.</p>
-
-<p>The history of the pleistocene mammalia, in which
-palæolithic man forms the central figure, has been my
-especial study for many years. And the evidence which
-is offered by the animals as to the geography and climate
-of Europe, which I have published from time to time
-in the works of the Palæontographical Society, the
-<cite>Geological Journal</cite>, and in the <cite>Popular Science</cite>, <cite>British
-Quarterly</cite>, and <cite>Edinburgh Reviews</cite>, is collected together
-in this work, and brought into relation with the inquiry
-into the extension of ice over Europe in the glacial<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x">x</a></span>
-period, and into the soundings of the European seas.
-In approaching these and the like problems, I have done
-my best to arrive at the truth by visiting as far as
-possible the foreign localities and collections, and by
-correspondence with the discoverers of new facts.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to those names which I have already
-mentioned, I have to express my thanks to the Councils
-of the Society of Antiquaries, the Geological Society, and
-of the Anthropological Institute and to Mr. John Evans,
-for the use of woodcuts; to Mr. Rooke Pennington for
-looking over some of the proof sheets; and to Professors
-Gaudry, Rütimeyer, Lortet, Nilsson, and Steenstrüp, and
-the Rev. Canon Greenwell for aid of various kinds.
-But especially do I feel grateful to my old friend and
-master, the late lamented Professor Phillips, for frequent
-help and prudent counsel.</p>
-
-<p>In laying this book before my readers I would merely
-further remark, that it is a faint outline of a new and
-vast field of research, in which I have attempted to give
-prominence to the more important points, rather than a
-finished and detailed history of cave-exploration.</p>
-
-<p class="sigright">W.&nbsp;B.&nbsp;D.</p>
-
-<p class="in0 smaller">
-<span class="smcap">The Owens College, Manchester</span>,<br />
-<span class="in4"><i>20th July, 1874</i>.</span>
-</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi">xi</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<table id="toc" summary="toc">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER I.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">INTRODUCTION.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr class="small">
-    <td> </td>
-    <td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Legends and Superstitions connected with Caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_1">1&ndash;5</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Physical Division of the Subject</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_2">5, 6</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Biological Division</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_3">6</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Men and Animals</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_4">6</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Ethnological, Archæological, and Geographical Bearings</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_5">7&ndash;9</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Three Classes of Bone-Caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_6">10, 11</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">History of Cave-Exploration in Europe</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_7">11</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc1pad1"> ” </span><span class="toc1pad2"> ” </span> Germany</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_8">11, 12</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc1pad1"> ” </span><span class="toc1pad2"> ” </span> Great Britain</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_9">13&ndash;18</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc1pad1"> ” </span><span class="toc1pad2"> ” </span> France</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_10">18&ndash;20</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc1pad1"> ” </span><span class="toc1pad2"> ” </span> Belgium</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_11">20, 21</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc1pad1"> ” </span><span class="toc1pad2"> ” </span> Southern Europe</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_12">21, 22</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER II.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">PHYSICAL HISTORY OF CAVES.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves formed by the Sea and by Volcanic Action</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_13">23</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves in Arenaceous Rocks</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_14">24</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves in Calcareous Rocks of various ages</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_15">25&ndash;27</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Their Relation to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_16">27, 28</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Water-Cave of Wookey Hole</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_17">29&ndash;31</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Goatchurch Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_18">31&ndash;34</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Water-Caves of Derbyshire</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_19">34</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Water-Caves of Yorkshire&mdash;Ingleborough</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_20">35&ndash;39</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Rate of Deposit of Stalagmite</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_21">39&ndash;41</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Descent into Helln Pot</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_22">41&ndash;47</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves and Pots round Weathercote</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_23">47&ndash;50</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Formation of Caves, Pot-holes, and Ravines</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_24">50&ndash;57</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caverns not generally formed in line of Faults</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_25">57</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Various Ages of Caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_26">58&ndash;61</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Filling up of Caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_27">61</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave of Caldy</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_28">62&ndash;68</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii">xii</a></span></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Black-Rock Cave, Tenby</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_29">68</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Carbonate of Lime dissolved by Atmospheric Water</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_30">69&ndash;70</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Circulation of Carbonate of Lime</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_31">71</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Temperature of Caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_32">71&ndash;72</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Conclusion</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_33">73</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER III.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">HISTORIC CAVES IN BRITAIN.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Definition of Historic Period</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_34">74</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Wild Animals in Britain during the Historic Period</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_35">75&ndash;77</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Animals living under the care of Man</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_36">77</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Classificatory Value of Historic Animals</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_37">78&ndash;81</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Victoria Cave, Settle, Yorkshire&mdash;History of Discovery</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_38">81&ndash;85</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh Stratum</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_39">86&ndash;88</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Bones of the Animals</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_40">88&ndash;90</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Miscellaneous Articles</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_41">90&ndash;92</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Coins</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_42">93</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Jewellery, and its relation to Irish Art</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_43">94&ndash;101</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Similar remains in other Caves in Yorkshire</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_44">101</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves used as places of Refuge</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_45">102</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The evidence of History as to Date</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_46">103&ndash;111</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Britain under the Romans</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_47">103&ndash;105</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The inroads of the Picts and Scots</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_48">105</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The English Conquest</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_49">107</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Neolithic Stratum</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_50">111&ndash;115</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Approximate Date of the Neolithic Occupation</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_51">115</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Grey Clays</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_52">116&ndash;118</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Pleistocene Occupation by Hyænas</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_53">118&ndash;121</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Probable Pre-glacial Age of the Pleistocene Stratum</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_54">121&ndash;125</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Kirkhead Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_55">125</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Poole’s Cavern, Buxton</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_56">126</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Thor’s Cave, near Ashbourne</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_57">127&ndash;129</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Historic Value of Brit-Welsh group of Caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_58">129</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Principal Animals and Articles in Brit-Welsh Caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_59">130&ndash;132</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Use of Horse-flesh</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_60">132</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave of Longberry Bank, Pembrokeshire</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_61">133</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER IV.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">CAVES USED IN THE AGES OF IRON AND BRONZE.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_62">134&ndash;136</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Prehistoric Fauna</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_63">136&ndash;138</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Archæological Classification</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_64">138&ndash;140</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves of the Iron Age</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_65">140</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_66">141&ndash;145</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiii">xiii</a></span></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Caves of the Césareda in Portugal probably occupied by Cannibals</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_67">145&ndash;147</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave of Reggio in Modena</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_68">148</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER V.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">CAVES OF THE NEOLITHIC AGE.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Neolithic Caves in Great Britain&mdash;Perthi-Chwareu</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_69">149&ndash;156</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Rhosdigre</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_70">156&ndash;158</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Neolithic Caves in the neighbourhood of Cefn, St. Asaph</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_71">159&ndash;161</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Chambered Tomb near Cefn</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_72">161&ndash;164</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Correlation of Chambered Tomb with the Caves of Perthi-Chwareu and Cefn</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_73">164</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Contents of Caves and Tombs, tabulated</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_74">165&ndash;166</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Description of Human Remains by Professor Busk</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_75">166&ndash;187</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">General conclusions as to Human Remains</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_76">197&ndash;188</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER VI.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">THE RANGE OF NEOLITHIC DOLICHO-CEPHALI AND BRACHY-CEPHALI.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cranial Terminology</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_77">189&ndash;190</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_78">191&ndash;194</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Range of the Dolicho-cephali in Britain and Ireland</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_79">194&ndash;197</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Range of the Brachy-cephali</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_80">197</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Their Range in France</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_81">198</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caverne de l’homme Mort</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_82">198&ndash;202</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Sepulchral Cave of Orrouy</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_83">202</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Skulls from French Tumuli</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_84">203</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Dolicho-cephali of Iberian Peninsula&mdash;Gibraltar</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_85">204&ndash;208</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Spain&mdash;Cueva de los Murcièlagos</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_86">208&ndash;210</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Woman’s Cave near Alhama</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_87">210</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Guanches of the Canary Isles</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_88">211</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Iberic Dolicho-cephali of the same race as those of Britain</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_89">212</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Dolicho-cephali cognate with the Basque</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_90">213&ndash;215</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Sepulchral Cave of Chauvaux</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_91">215&ndash;218</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave of Sclaigneaux</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_92">218&ndash;220</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Evidence of History as to the Peoples of Gaul and Spain</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_93">220&ndash;223</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Basque Population the oldest</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_94">223</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Population of Britain</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_95">224</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Basque Characters in British and French Populations present</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_96">225&ndash;227</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Whence come the Basques?</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_97">227</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Celtic and Belgic Brachy-cephali</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_98">228&ndash;230</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Ancient German Race</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_99">230</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">General conclusions</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_100">231</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER VII.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiv">xiv</a></span></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">CAVES CONTAINING HUMAN REMAINS OF DOUBTFUL AGE.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Paviland Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_101">232&ndash;234</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave of Engis</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_102">234, 235</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Trou du Frontal</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_103">236&ndash;239</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave of Gendron</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_104">239</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Gailenreuth</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_105">240</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Neanderthal</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_106">240&ndash;241</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Aurignac</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_107">242&ndash;247</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Bruniquel</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_108">247, 248</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Cro-Magnon</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_109">249&ndash;256</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Lombrive</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_110">256</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Cavillon, near Mentone</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_111">257</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Grotta dei Colombi, Palmaria, inhabited by Cannibals</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_112">258&ndash;261</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">General conclusions as to Prehistoric Caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_113">261&ndash;263</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER VIII.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">THE PLEISTOCENE CAVES OF GERMANY AND GREAT BRITAIN.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Relation of Pleistocene to Prehistoric Period</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_114">264</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Magnitude of Interval</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_115">265</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Animals</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_116">265, 266</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Physical Changes&mdash;Excavation and filling up of Valleys</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_117">267&ndash;272</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Fisherton, near Salisbury</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_118">267</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Freshford, near Bath</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_119">269</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Comparison of Deposits in Valleys with those in Caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_120">272</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Difference of Mineral Condition</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_121">273</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Pleistocene Caves of Germany&mdash;Gailenreuth</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_122">273&ndash;276</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Kühloch</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_123">276&ndash;278</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Pleistocene Caves of Great Britain</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_124">278</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc3pad1">” </span> <span class="toc3pad2">” </span> Yorkshire&mdash;Kirkdale</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_125">279&ndash;284</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc3pad1">” </span> <span class="toc3pad2">” </span> Derbyshire&mdash;Dream Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_126">284, 285</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc3pad1">” </span> <span class="toc3pad2">” </span> North Wales, near St. Asaph</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_127">286, 287</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves of South Wales in Glamorgan and Carmarthen</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_128">288</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc4pad1">” </span> Pembrokeshire</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_129">289</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc4pad1">” </span> Monmouth</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_130">290</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc4pad1">” </span> Gloucestershire and Somersetshire</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_131">291</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc4pad1">” </span> the Mendip Hills&mdash;Hutton</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_132">292</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Banwell</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_133">293</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Uphill</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_134">294</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Hyæna Den, Wookey Hole</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_135">295&ndash;314</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The district of the Mendip higher in Pleistocene Age than now</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_136">314</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The condition of Bones gnawed by Hyænas</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_137">314&ndash;317</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Caves of Devonshire&mdash;Oreston</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_138">317, 318</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves at Brixham</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_139">319&ndash;324</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xv">xv</a></span></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Kent’s Hole</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_140">324&ndash;330</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Probable Age of the Machairodus in Kent’s Hole</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_141">330&ndash;335</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves of Ireland&mdash;Shandon</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_142">335</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER IX.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">THE INHABITANTS OF THE CAVES OF NORTH-WESTERN EUROPE, AND THE EVIDENCE OF THE FAUNA AS TO THE ATLANTIC COAST-LINE.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Caves of France</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_143">336</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave of Baume</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_144">337</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves of Périgord</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_145">337&ndash;347</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc4pad1">” </span> Belgium</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_146">347, 348</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Trou de Naulette</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_147">349</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves of Switzerland</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_148">350</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave-dwellers and Palæolithic Men of the River-gravels</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_149">351</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Classification of Palæolithic Caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_150">351&ndash;353</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Relation of Cave-dwellers to Eskimos</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_151">353&ndash;359</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Pleistocene Animals living north of the Alps and Pyrenees</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_152">359</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Relation of Cave to River-bed Fauna</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_153">362</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Atlantic Coast-line</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_154">362&ndash;366</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Distribution of Palæolithic Implements</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_155">366, 367</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER X.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">THE FAUNA OF THE CAVES OF SOUTHERN EUROPE, AND THE EVIDENCE AS TO THE MEDITERRANEAN COAST-LINE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Changes of Level in Mediterranean Area in Meiocene and Pleiocene Ages</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_156">369</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Bone-caves of Southern Europe</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_157">370</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves of Gibraltar</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_158">371, 372</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Bone-caves of Provence and Mentone</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_159">373&ndash;375</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc5pad1">” </span> Sicily</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_160">375&ndash;377</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc5pad1">” </span> Malta</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_161">377</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Range of Pigmy Hippopotamus</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_162">378</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Fossil Mammalia in Algeria</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_163">379</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Living Species common to Europe and Africa</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_164">379</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Evidence of Soundings</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_165">380&ndash;382</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Glaciers of Lebanon</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_166">382</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Glaciers of Anatolia</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_167">383&ndash;386</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc6pad1">” </span> of the Atlas Mountains</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_168">386</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc6pad1">” </span> probably produced by elevation above the Sea</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_169">387&ndash;389</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mediterranean Coast-line comparatively modern</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_170">389</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Changes of Level in the Sahara</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_171">390</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER XI.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvi">xvi</a></span></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">THE EUROPEAN CLIMATE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Evidence of the Mammalia as to Climate</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_172">392</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Southern Group of Animals</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_173">393&ndash;395</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Northern Group</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_174">395&ndash;397</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Probable cause of Association of Northern and Southern Groups</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_175">397, 398</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Temperate Group</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_176">399</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Species common to Cold and Tropical Climates</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_177">400</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Extinct Species</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_178">400</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Two Periods of Glaciation in Britain</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_179">401&ndash;403</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Three Climatal Changes on the Continent</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_180">403</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Europe invaded by Pleistocene Animals before the Glacial Period</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_181">404&ndash;406</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mammalia lived in Europe during the second Glacial Period</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_182">406</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Glacial Period does not separate one Life-era from another</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_183">407</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Bone-caves inhabited before and after the Glacial Period</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_184">408</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Relation of Palæolithic Man to Glacial Period</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_185">409</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Age of Contents of Caves in Glacial Districts</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_186">410</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER XII.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">CONCLUSION.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Classification of Pleistocene Strata by the Mammalia</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_187">412&ndash;414</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Late Pleistocene Division</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_188">414</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Middle Pleistocene Division</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_189">415&ndash;417</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Early Pleistocene Mammalia</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_190">417&ndash;420</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Pleiocene Mammalia</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_191">420&ndash;423</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Summary of Characteristic Pleistocene and Pleiocene Species</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_192">423, 424</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Antiquity of Man in Europe</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_193">424&ndash;426</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Man lived in India in the Pleistocene Age</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_194">426&ndash;428</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related to those of Europe?</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_195">428</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Palæolithic Man in Palestine</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_196">429</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Conclusion</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_197">430</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">APPENDIX I.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">ON THE INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF CAVE-HUNTING.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Instruments used in Cave-hunting</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_198">435</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Search after Bone-caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_199">437</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Three modes of Cave-digging</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_200">438</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Stalagmitic floors to be broken up</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_201">440</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Preservation of Fossil Remains</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_202">440</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">APPENDIX II.</td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Observations on the Accumulation of Stalagmite in the Ingleborough Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_203">442</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvii">xvii</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<table id="loi" summary="List of Illustrations">
-  <tr class="small">
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">FIG.</td>
-    <td class="tdr">PAGE</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs2">Coloured Enamels from Victoria Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_frontis"><i>Front.</i></a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">1   Diagram of Wookey Hole, Cave and Ravine</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_1">30</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">2   Diagram of Helln Pot and the Long Churn Cavern</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_2">41</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">3   Diagram of Helln Pot</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_3">42</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">4   Diagram of Helln Pot, showing Waterfall at the bottom</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_4">45</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">5   Waterfall in Pot-hole, at Weathercote</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_5">48</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">6   Diagram of Subterranean Course of Dalebeck</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_6">49</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">7   Diagram of an acid-worn joint, Doveholes, Derbyshire</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_7">52</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">8   Diagram of the Source of the Aire at Malham</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_8">55</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">9   A View in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_9">63</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">10   Stalagmites in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_10">63</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">11   The Fairy Chamber, Caldy</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_11">64</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">12   Pools in Fairy Chamber</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_12">65</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">13   Pool in Fairy Chamber</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_13">65</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">14   Edge of Pool in Fairy Chamber</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_14">65</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">15   Cone with Straw-column</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_15">65</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">16   Basin containing Cave-pearls</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_16">67</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">17   Fungoid Structures, magnified</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_17">67</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">18   Fungoid Structure, Black-rock Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_18">68</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">19   View of King’s Scar, Settle, showing the Entrances of the Victoria and Albert Caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_19">82</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">20   Longitudinal Section of Victoria Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_20">86</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">21   Vertical Section at the Entrance to the Victoria Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_21">87</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">22   Spoon-brooch</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_22">91</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">23   Ornamented Bone Fastener</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_23">92</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">24   Two Bone Links</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_24">92</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">25   Bronze Brooch</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_25">95</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">26   Bone Harpoon</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_26">112</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">27   Bone Bead</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_27">113</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">28   Stone Adze of doubtful origin</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_28">114</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">29   Section below Grey Clay, at Entrance to Victoria Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_29">117</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">30   Skull of Woolly Rhinoceros, showing the part which is not eaten by Hyænas</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_30">119</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">31   Bronze Bracelet from Thor’s Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_31">129</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">32   Bronze Knife, Heathery Burn</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_32">142</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">33   Bronze Armlet, Heathery Burn</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_33">143</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xviii">xviii</a></span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">34   Bronze Spear-head, Heathery Burn</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_34">143</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">35   Bronze Mould for casting a socketed Celt</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_35">143</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">36   Section of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_36">152</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">37   Plan of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_37">154</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">38   Greenstone Celt, Rhosdigre Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_38">157</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">39   Plan of Chambered Tomb at Cefn</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_39">162</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">40, 41, 42   Skull from Sepulchral Cave at Perthi-Chwareu</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_40">168</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">43, 44, 45   Skull from Sepulchral Cave at Perthi-Chwareu</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_43">169</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">46   Section of Femur</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_46">172</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">47, 48, 49, 50, 51   Section of Tibiæ</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_47">176</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">52, 53, 54   Platyenemic Tibiæ</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_52">177</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">55, 56, 57, 58   Human Femora</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_55">182</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">59, 60, 61   Skull from Cave at Cefn, St. Asaph</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_59">185</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">62, 63, 64   Skull from Genista Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_62">207</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">65, 66   Skull from Cave of Sclaigneaux</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_65">219</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">67   Platyenemic Tibia from Sclaigneaux</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_67">219</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">68   Map of the Distribution of Iberic, Celtic, and Belgic Peoples at dawn of History</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_68">221</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">69   Section of the Trou du Frontal</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_69">237</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">70   Diagram of the Cave of Aurignac</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_70">245</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">71   Section across the valley of the Vezère and rock of Cro-Magnon</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_71">249</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">72   Detailed Section of the Cave of Cro-Magnon</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_72">251</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">73   Thigh-bone of Child from Grotta dei Colombi</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_73">260</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">74   Section of Valley-gravels at Fisherton</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_74">268</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">75   Section of Valley-gravels at Freshford, Bath</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_75">270</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">76   Section of Gailenreuth Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_76">274</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">77   Plan of Kirkdale Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_77">279</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">78   Sections of Kirkdale Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_78">280</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">79   Molar of Hippopotamus</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_79">281</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">80   Leg-bones gnawed by Hyænas</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_80">282</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">81   The Dream-cave, Wirksworth</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_81">285</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">82   Left Lower Jaw of Glutton, Plas Heaton Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_82">287</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">83   Plan of Hyæna Den, Wookey Hole</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_83">297</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">84, 85, 86, 87   Four Views of Flint Implements from Wookey Hole</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_84">299</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">88   Section showing Contents of Hyæna Den</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_88">304</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">89   Transverse section of ditto</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_89">305</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">90   Longitudinal section</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_90">306</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">91   Longitudinal section</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_91">311</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">92   Gnawed Jaw of Hyæna from Wookey</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_92">313</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">93   Upper and Lower Jaws of Hyæna Whelp, Wookey</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_93">315</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">94   Thigh-bone of Woolly Rhinoceros gnawed by Hyænas, Wookey</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_94">316</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">95   Diagram of deposits in Brixham Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_95">320</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">96   Lanceolate Implement from Kent’s Hole</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_96">326</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">97   Oval Implements from Kent’s Hole</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_97">326</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">98   Harpoon from Kent’s Hole</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_98">327</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">99   Harpoon-head from Kent’s Hole</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_99">327</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">100   Hammer-stone</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_100">328</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xix">xix</a></span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">101, 102   Upper Canine of Machairodus, Kent’s Hole</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_101">331</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">103, 104, 105   Incisors of Machairodus, Kent’s Hole</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_103">333</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">106   Flint-flake, Les Eyzies</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_106">339</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">107   Flint Scraper, Les Eyzies</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_107">339</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">108   Flint Javelin-head, Laugerie Haute</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_108">339</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">109   Flint Arrow-head, Laugerie Haute</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_109">340</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">110   Bone needle, La Madelaine</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_110">340</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">111, 112   Harpoons of Antler, La Madelaine</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_111">342</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">113, 114   Arrow-heads, Gorge d’Enfer</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_113">342</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">115   Bone Awl, Gorge d’Enfer</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_115">342</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">116   Carved Handle of Reindeer Antler</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_116">343</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">117   Two sides of Reindeer Antler, La Madelaine</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_117">344</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">118   Horses engraved on Antler, La Madelaine</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_118">344</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">119   Group of Reindeer, Dordogne</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_119">345</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">120   Mammoth engraved on Ivory, La Madelaine</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_120">346</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">121   Carved Implement of Reindeer Antler, Goyet</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_121">348</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">122   Eskimos Spear-head, bone</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_122">353</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">123   Eskimos Arrow-straightener of Walrus-tooth</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_123">354</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">124   Eskimos Plane, or Scraper</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_124">355</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">125   Eskimos Hunting Scene</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_125">357</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">126   Map of the Physiography of Great Britain in Late Pleistocene Age</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_126">363</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">127   Molar of <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus Pentlandi</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_127">377</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">128   Molar of <i class="taxonomy">Elephas Melitensis</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_128">378</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">129   Map of the Physiography of the Mediterranean in the Pleistocene Age</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_129">381</a></td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xxi">xxi</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="LISTS_OF_SPECIES_AND_TABLES_OF_MEASUREMENTS"></a>LISTS OF SPECIES AND TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. </h2>
-</div>
-
-<table id="lists" summary="toc of lists and tables">
-  <tr class="small">
-    <td> </td>
-    <td class="tdr">PAGE</td>
-    <td>  </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">List of Animals extinct during the Historic Age</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_78">78</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Animals introduced during the Historic Age</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_79">79</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Coins found in the Victoria Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_93">93</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Principal Animals and Objects found in Brit-Welsh Strata in Caves</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_131">131</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Animals found in the Refuse-heap, Perthi-Chwareu</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_150">150</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Contents in Neolithic Caves and Cairn, North Wales</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_166">166</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Dimensions of Perthi-Chwareu Skulls</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_171">171</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Dimensions of Perthi Chwareu Tibiæ</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_173">173</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Proportions of ordinary Tibiæ</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_174">174</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Comparative Measurements of Skulls</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_179">179</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Table of Long Skulls from Britain and Ireland</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_197">197</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl toc7hang"><span class="toc7pad2">” </span> Measurements of British Brachy-cephali, and Gaulish and Belgic Brachy-cephali and Dolicho-cephali</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_199">199</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Measurements of various Skulls</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_213">213</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Measurements of Skulls of doubtful antiquity</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_236">236</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">List of Late Pleistocene Animals unknown in Britain in the Prehistoric Age</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_266">266</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Remains found in Wookey Hyæna Den</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_310">310</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Late Pleistocene Fauna north of Alps and Pyrenees</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_360">360, 361</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">List of Animals from the Caves of Gibraltar</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_372">372</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Fauna from the Caves of Mentone</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_373">373</a></td>
-    <td> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad3">” </span> Bone-caves of Sicily</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_376">376</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">List of Animals from the Middle Pleistocene</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_415">415</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span><span class="toc7pad4">” </span> <span class="toc7pad4">” </span>Early Pleistocene</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_418">418</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Pleistocene Mammalia</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_420">420, 422</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Characteristic Animals of the Pleistocene Period</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_423">423</a></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> <span class="toc7pad5">” </span> <span class="toc7pad5">” </span> <span class="toc7pad5">” </span> Pleiocene Period</td>
-    <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_424">424</a></td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a class="hidev" id="Page_xxii">xxii</a><a  id="Page_xxiii">xxiii</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="ADDITIONS_AND_CORRECTIONS"></a>ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, line 7, <em>for</em> “Cythæron” <em>read</em> “Cithæron.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, line 4, <em>for</em> “that” <em>read</em> “who.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, line 5, <em>for</em> “Seine” <em>read</em> “Somme.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, lines 29, 30, <em>for</em> “non-ossiferous” <em>read</em> “no ossiferous.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Fig_19">fig. 19</a>, <cite>for</cite> “<span class="smcap smaller">A</span>, <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, Albert, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>, Victoria” <em>read</em> “<span class="smcap smaller">A</span>, <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, Victoria, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>,
-Albert.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Fig_25">fig. 25</a>.&mdash;This design is to be seen in the chalice discovered in 1868,
-in a rath at Ardagh, Limerick, and described by the Earl of Dunraven (Trans.
-Royal Irish Acad. xxiv. Antiquities). The chalice is made of gold, silver, bronze,
-brass, copper, and lead, and from the identity of its inscription and ornament
-with those of Irish MSS. of ascertained age, may be referred to a date ranging
-from the 5th to the 9th centuries. It is also adorned with squares of blue and
-red enamel of the same kind as that of the brooches from the Victoria Cave,
-figured in the coloured plate. The same design is also presented by the “bronze
-head-ring” found in 1747 at Stitchel, in Roxburgh, (Wilson “Prehistoric Annals
-of Scotland,” ii. 146) as well as by one of the silver articles known as “The
-Norrie Law Relics,” found in a tumulus on the shore of the Bay of Largo,
-Firth of Forth. Of the coins found at the same place, the latest, belonging to
-Tiberius Constantine (d. 682), fixes the date as not earlier than the 7th century.
-Some of the sculptured stones of Scotland, such as the Dunnichen stone, are
-ornamented also in the same style, and, according to Professor Wilson, belong
-to “the transition period from the 4th to the 8th centuries, when pagan and
-Christian rites were obscurely mingled,” (ii. 259). In Scotland, therefore, as well
-as Ireland, this style of ornamentation is of the same age, corresponding in the
-main with that of Brit-Welsh articles in the Victoria Cave, proved by the associated
-coins to be later than the 4th century.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, line 4.&mdash;These teeth are considered by Dr. Leith Adams to belong to
-<i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i>, which has been discovered in other places in Yorkshire. They
-may possibly belong to that animal; but they may, with equal justice, be identified
-with the wide-plated variety of the teeth of the Mammoth. The great
-variation in the width of the component plates of the fossil teeth of Mammoth
-observable in the large series from Crayford and the caves of the Mendip Hills,
-and in those in the magnificent Museum of Lyons, causes me to hesitate in
-considering them to belong to the rarer species.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xxiv">xxiv</a></span>
-Page <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, line 2.&mdash;This has been verified while these sheets were passing
-through the press by the discovery of Brit-Welsh articles in a cave in Kirkcudbrightshire
-by Messrs. A.&nbsp;R. Hunt and A.&nbsp;J. Corrie, among which are bone
-fasteners similar in outline to that from the Victoria Cave (<a href="#Fig_23">Fig. 23</a>).</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.&mdash;In using this classification of crania, I have purposely attached
-higher value to the two extremes of skull form, or the long and the broad, than
-to the intermediate oval forms, which cannot be viewed as distinctive of race,
-because they may be the results either of the intermarriage of a long-headed
-with a short-headed people, or of variation from the type of one or other of them.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, heading, <em>for</em> “Dolicho-cepha” <em>read</em> “Dolicho-cephali.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, heading, <em>dele</em> “A”.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, note 2.&mdash;The “tête annulaire,” or annular depression, is also visible
-on some of the broad as well as the long skulls from a “Merovingian” cemetery
-at Chelles in the same collection. The association in this cemetery of the two
-skull-forms is probably due to the Merovingians being the masters, and the Celts
-the servants, and the conquerors and the vanquished being buried in the same
-spot.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, line 24, <em>for</em> “Volscæ” <em>read</em> “Volcæ.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, line 25, <em>for</em> “east” <em>read</em> “west.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, line 3, <em>dele</em> “that.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, line 3, <em>for</em> “set foot” <em>read</em> “settled.” The statement in the text is
-too strong. The conquest of Gaul by the Huns under Attila was averted by his
-defeat in the famous battle of Chalons.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, line 21, <em>for</em> “are” <em>read</em> “is.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.&mdash;Since this was written a new ossiferous deposit has been found in a
-fissure at Lothorsdale, near Skipton, from which the remains of the <i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i>
-and <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus amphibius</i> have been obtained.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.&mdash;The ossiferous fissure at Windy Knoll, near Castleton, recently
-explored by Messrs. Tym, Pennington, Plant, Walker and others, has added
-several animals to the pleistocene fauna of that district&mdash;the bison, roe, reindeer,
-bear, wolf, fox, and hyæna, the first of these species being remarkably abundant,
-and of all ages. The remains were probably introduced by a stream from a higher
-level.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, note 2, line 2, <em>for</em> “the Revue” and “les Matériaux” <em>read</em> “in the
-Revue” and “in the Matériaux.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, note 5, <em>for</em> “Aquitainicæ” <em>read</em> “Aquitanicæ.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, line 6, <em>for</em> “mind” <em>read</em> “minds.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, line 15, <em>for</em> “Port” <em>read</em> “Fort.”</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.&mdash;Mr. Ayshford Sanford adds the <i class="taxonomy">Felis Caffer</i> to the list from Bleadon,
-and the <i class="taxonomy">Gulo borealis</i> to that of the animals from Kent’s Hole.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, line 10, <em>dele</em> inverted commas.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, line 17, <em>for</em> “or from 1,000 to 2,000 feet lower than the glacial
-covering” <em>read</em> “thus differing by a line of from 1,000 to 2,000 feet from the
-glacial covering” (Palgrave).</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1">1</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CAVE-HUNTING"></a><span class="larger">CAVE-HUNTING.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<hr />
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">INTRODUCTION.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote class="inhead">
-
-<p>Legends and Superstitions connected with Caves.&mdash;The Physical
-Division of the Subject.&mdash;The Biological.&mdash;The Inhabitants of
-Caves.&mdash;Men and Animals.&mdash;Ethnological, Archæological, and
-Geographical Bearings.&mdash;The three Classes of Bone-Caves: Historic,
-Prehistoric, Pleistocene.&mdash;History of Cave Exploration in Europe:
-Germany, Great Britain, France, Belgium, Southern Europe.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="in0" id="hdr_1">Caves have excited the awe and wonder of mankind in
-all ages, and have figured largely in many legends and
-superstitions. In the Roman Mythology, they were the
-abode of the Sibyls, and of the nymphs, and in Greece
-they were the places where Pan, Bacchus, Pluto, and
-the Moon were worshipped, and where the oracles were
-delivered, as at Delphi, Corinth, and Mount Cithæron;
-in Persia they were connected with the obscure worship
-of Mithras. Their names, in many cases, are survivals
-of the superstitious ideas of antiquity. In France and
-Germany they are frequently termed “Fairy, Dragons’,
-or Devils’ Caves,” and, according to M. Desnoyers, they
-are mentioned in the invocation of certain canonized<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2">2</a></span>
-anchorites, who dwelt in them after having dispossessed
-and destroyed the dragons and serpents, the pagan superstition
-appearing in a Christian dress.</p>
-
-<p>In the Middle Ages they were looked upon as the
-dwellings of evil spirits, into the unfathomable abysses
-of which the intruder was lured to his own destruction.
-Long after the fairies and little men had forsaken the
-forests and glens of Northern Germany, they dwelt in
-their palaces deep in the hearts of the mountains,&mdash;in
-“the dwarf holes,” as they were called&mdash;whence
-they came, from time to time, into the upper air.
-Near Elbingrode, for example, in the Hartz, the legend
-was current in the middle of the last century, that
-when a wedding-dinner was being prepared the near
-relations of the bride and bridegroom went to the
-caves, and asked the dwarfs for copper and brass kettles,
-pewter dishes and plates, and other kitchen utensils.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a>
-“Then they retired a little, and when they came back,
-found everything they desired set ready for them at the
-mouth of the cave. When the wedding was over they
-returned what they had borrowed, and in token
-of gratitude, offered some meat to their benefactors.”
-Allusions, such as this, to dwarfs, according to Professor
-Nilsson, point back to the remote time when a small
-primeval race, inhabiting Northern Germany, was driven
-by invaders to take refuge in caverns,&mdash;a view that
-derives support from the fact that in Scandinavia the
-tall Northmen were accustomed to consider the smaller
-Lapps and Finns as dwarfs, and to invest them with
-magic power, just as in Palestine the smaller invading<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3">3</a></span>
-peoples considered their tall enemies giants. The cave
-of Bauman’s hole, also in the Hartz district, was said, in
-the middle of the last century, to have been haunted
-by divers apparitions, and to contain a treasure guarded
-by black mastiffs; and in Burrington Combe, in Somersetshire,
-some twenty years ago, a cave was dug out by
-a working man, under the impression that it contained
-gold. The hills of Granada are still believed, by the
-Moorish children, to contain the great Boabdil and his
-sleeping host, who will awake when an adventurous
-mortal invades their repose, and will issue forth to
-restore the glory of the Moorish kings.</p>
-
-<p>It is, indeed, no wonder that legends and poetical
-fancies such as these should cluster round caves, for
-the gloom of their recesses, and the shrill drip of the
-water from the roof, or the roar of the subterranean
-water-falls echoing through the passages, and the white
-bosses of stalagmite looming like statues through the
-darkness, offer ample materials for the use of a vivid imagination.
-The fact that often their length was unknown,
-naturally led to the inference that they were passages
-into another world. And this is equally true of the
-story of Boabdil, of that of the Purgatory of St. Patrick,
-in the north of Ireland, and of the course of the river
-Styx, which sinks into the rocks and flows through a
-series of caverns that are the dark entrance-halls of
-Hades. The same idea is evident in the remarkable
-story, related by Ælian (Lib. xvi. 16). “Among the
-Indians of Areia there is an abyss sacred to Pluto, and
-beneath it vast galleries, and hidden passages and
-depths, that have never been fathomed. How these
-are formed the Indians tell not, nor shall I attempt to
-relate. The Indians drive thither (every year) more<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4">4</a></span>
-than 3,000 different animals&mdash;sheep, goats, oxen, and
-horses&mdash;and each acting either from dread of the dreadful
-abyss, or to avert an evil omen in proportion to his
-means, seeks his own and his family’s safety by causing
-the animals to tumble in; and these, neither bound with
-chains nor driven, of their own accord finish their
-journey as if led on by some charm; and after they
-have come to the mouth of the abyss they willingly
-leap down, and are never more seen by mortal eyes.
-The lowing, however, of the cattle, the bleating of the
-sheep and of the goats, and the whinnying of the horses
-are heard above ground, and if anyone listen at the
-mouth, he will hear sounds of this kind lasting for a
-long time. Nor do they ever cease, because beasts are
-driven thither every day. But whether the sound is
-made by those recently driven in, or by some of those
-driven in some time before, I do not express an opinion.”
-The Roman Catholic Church took advantage of this
-feeling of superstitious awe, as late as the Middle Ages.
-At the time of the Reformation it was believed that a cave
-at Bishofferode would prove the death of some person in
-the course of the year, unless a public yearly atonement
-were made. Accordingly a priest came, on a certain
-day, to the chapel on the hill opposite, whence he passed
-in solemn procession to the cave, “and let down into it
-a crucifix, which he pulled up again, and took this
-occasion to remind them of hell, and to avoid the
-punishment due to their sins.”</p>
-
-<p>The beauty of the interiors of some of the caves
-could not fail to give rise to more graceful fancies
-than these. The fantastic shapes of the dripstone,
-with which they are adorned, now resembling Gothic
-pillars supporting a crystalline arcade, or jutting out<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5">5</a></span>
-in little spires and minarets, and very generally covering
-the floor with a marble-like pavement, and in some
-cases lining the pools of water with a fretwork of
-crystals that shine like the facets of a diamond, were
-fitting ornaments for the houses of unearthly beings,
-such as fairies.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_2"><i>The Physical Division of the Subject.</i></h3>
-
-<p>It is by no means my intention in this work to give a
-history of legends such as these, but to take my readers
-with me into some of the more important and more
-beautiful caves in this country. The exploration of the
-chambers and passages of which they are composed,
-the fording of the subterranean streams by which they
-are frequently traversed, or the descent into deep chasms
-which open in their floors, have the peculiar charm
-of mountaineering, not without a certain pleasurable
-amount of risk. But to physicist and geologist they
-offer far more than this. They give an insight into
-the wonderful chemistry by which changes are being
-wrought, at the present time, in the solid rock. Nor
-are the conclusions to which we are led by the investigation
-of these chemical changes merely confined to
-the interior of caves. They enable us to understand
-how some of the most beautiful scenery in Europe has
-been formed, and to realize the mode by which all
-precipices and gorges have been carved out of the
-calcareous rock. In the next chapter we shall see why
-it is that the combination of hill and valley, ravine
-and precipice, present the same general features in all
-limestone districts&mdash;why, for instance, the ravines of
-Palestine are the same as those of Greece, and both are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6">6</a></span>
-identical with those in Yorkshire. The origin and the
-history of caves will be examined, as well as their relation
-to the general physical geography of the calcareous
-strata. All these subjects are comprehended in the first
-or the physical division of cave-hunting.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_3"><i>The Biological Division.</i></h3>
-
-<p>We must now proceed to the definition of the scope
-and object of the second, or Biological, division of the
-subject.</p>
-
-<p id="hdr_4">Caves have been used by man, and the domestic
-animals living under his protection, from the earliest
-times recorded by history down to the present day.
-Those penetrating the rugged precipices of Palestine, we
-read in the Old Testament, served both for habitation
-and for burial, and, from the notices which are scattered
-through the early Greek writers, we may conclude that
-those of Greece were used for dwelling-places. The
-story of the Cyclops proves that they were also used as
-folds for goats. The name of Troglodytes, given to many
-peoples of the most remote antiquity, implies that there
-was a time in the history of mankind when Pliny’s
-statement “specus erat pro domibus” was strictly
-true (“Hist. Nat.” I. v. c. 56). The caves of Africa
-have been places of retreat from the remotest antiquity
-down to the French conquest of Algeria, and in 1845
-several hundred Arabs were suffocated in those of
-Dahra by the smoke of a fire kindled at the entrance
-by Marshal (then Colonel) Pelissier. Dr. Livingstone
-alludes in his recent letters to the vast caves of Central
-Africa, which offer refuge to whole tribes with their
-cattle and household stuff. In France, according to M.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7">7</a></span>
-Desnoyers, there are at the present time whole villages,
-including the church, to be found in the rock, which
-are merely caves modified, extended, and altered by
-the hand of man. The caves of the Dordogne were
-inhabited in the middle ages. Floras writes that
-the Aquitani, “callidum genus in speluncas se recipiebant,
-Cæsar jussit includi,”<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> and the same caves afforded
-shelter to the inhabitants of the same region in the wars
-of King Pepin against the last Duke of Aquitaine. In
-this country a small cave in Cheddar Pass was occupied
-till within the last few years. The caves in the northern
-counties are stated by Gildas to have offered a refuge to
-the Brit-Welsh inhabitants of Britain during the raids
-of the Picts and Scots; and in the year 1745 those of
-Yorkshire were turned to the same purpose during the
-invasion of the Pretender. We might reasonably expect
-to find in caves turned to these uses objects left behind,
-which would tell us something of the manners and
-customs of their possessors, and light up the catalogue
-of battles and intrigues of which history generally consists.
-The results obtained from the Brit-Welsh group
-of caves, treated in the <a href="#CHAPTER_III">third</a> chapter, show that this
-hitherto neglected branch of the inquiry is not without
-value to the historian.</p>
-
-<p id="hdr_5">Caves containing remains of this kind may be conveniently
-termed historic, because they may be brought
-into relation with history. It must, however, be carefully
-remarked that the term does not relate to history
-<em>in general</em>, but to that <em>in particular</em> of each country
-which happens to be under investigation. The misapprehension
-of this has caused great confusion, and many
-mistakes in archæological classification and reasoning.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8">8</a></span>
-Again, our experience of the habits of rude and uncivilized
-peoples would naturally lead us to look to caves,
-as the places in which we should be likely to meet with
-the remains of the men who lived in Europe before the
-dawn of history. Such remains we do find that, placed
-side by side with others from the tombs and dwellings,
-enable us to discover some, at least, of the races who
-lived in Europe in long-forgotten times, and to ascertain
-roughly the sequence of events in the remote past, far
-away from the historical border. It may, indeed, seem
-a hopeless quest to recover what has been buried in
-oblivion so long, and it is successful merely through the
-careful comparison of the human skeletons in the caves
-and tombs of Britain, France, and Spain, with those of
-existing races, and of the implements and weapons with
-those which are now used among savage tribes. By this
-means we shall see that there are good grounds for extending
-the range of the Iberian people over a considerable
-area in Europe, and for the belief that the Eskimos
-once lived as far south as Auvergne. In discussing both
-these problems it will be impossible to shut our eyes to
-the continuity that exists between geology, archæology,
-biology, and history&mdash;sciences which at first sight appear
-isolated from each other.</p>
-
-<p>The bones of the domestic animals in the caves will
-necessarily lead to the further examination of the appearance
-and disappearance of breeds under the care of man.
-And this complicated question has an important bearing
-not merely on the ethnology, but also on the history, of
-some of the European peoples. It must be admitted,
-however, that this branch of the subject is, as yet, known
-merely in outline, and we can only hope to ascertain a
-few facts which may form a basis for future investigation.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9">9</a></span>
-From another point of view the contents of caves are
-peculiarly valuable. They have been used as places of
-shelter, not merely by man, but by wild animals, from
-the time they first became accessible to the present
-day. In the same way, therefore, as now they contain,
-in their superficial layers, the bones of sheep, oxen,
-and horses, foxes, rabbits, and badgers, so in their deeper
-strata lie buried the remains of the animals which were
-living in Europe long before the historic times. In
-other words, they enable us to make out the groups
-of animals inhabiting the neighbouring districts, and
-which in many cases have either forsaken their original
-abodes or have become extinct. And since those
-which are extinct, or which have migrated, could not
-have lived where their remains are found under the present
-conditions of life, an inquiry into their history leads
-us into the general question of the ancient European
-climate and geography. It is obvious, for example, that
-the spotted hyæna, which formerly inhabited the caves
-of Sicily, could not have crossed over to that island after
-it was separated from Africa and Italy; and it would be
-impossible for the musk-sheep, the most arctic of the
-herbivora, to live as far south as Auvergne under the
-present climatal conditions. The presence, therefore, of
-these animals in these districts is proof in the one case
-of a geographical, and in the other of a climatal, change.</p>
-
-<p>The discussion of all these questions is comprehended
-under the second, or biological, division of cave-hunting,
-which may be defined as an inquiry into the remains of
-man and animals found in the caves, and into the conditions
-under which they lived in Europe.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10">10</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_6"><i>The three Classes of Bone-caves.</i></h3>
-
-<p>In the biological branch of the subject the caves
-will be treated first which are comprehended within
-the limits of history; then we shall pass on to the
-investigation of Prehistoric caves, or those which have
-been inhabited in the interval that separates history
-from the remote geological era, which is characterized
-by the existence of the extinct mammalia in Europe.
-And, lastly, those will be examined which have furnished
-the remains of the extinct animals, and which
-are termed by the geologists Pleistocene, from the
-fact that a larger percentage of existing species were
-then living than in the preceding Pleio-, Meio-, and
-Eocene periods. The equivalent terms “Quaternary,”
-used by many French geologists, and the “Post-pleiocene
-division of the Post-tertiary Formation,” used by
-Sir Charles Lyell, are not adopted in this work, because
-they imply a break in the continuity of life, which does
-not exist. “Pleistocene” was invented and subsequently
-discarded by Sir C. Lyell,<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> and is at present
-used by many eminent writers, such as Forbes, Phillips,
-Gervais, and others. The ossiferous caves will therefore
-be divided into the Historic, Prehistoric, and Pleistocene
-groups. And it will be more convenient to work backwards
-in time from the basis offered by history, than to
-begin with the Pleistocene, or oldest division, and bring
-the narrative down to the present day.</p>
-
-<p>This classification, founded in part on the principle<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11">11</a></span>
-of change in the animal world, and partly on the basis
-offered by history, coincides, only in part, with that
-of the archæologists based on the remains of man’s
-handiwork. The Pleistocene age is the equivalent of
-the Palæolithic, or that of rude unpolished stone; the
-Prehistoric represents the ages of polished stone, bronze,
-and iron in part, or those stages in human progress when
-the use of these materials became general for the purposes
-of every-day life; while the Historic covers merely
-the later portion of that of iron.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_7"><i>History of Cave-Exploration in Europe.</i></h3>
-
-<p id="hdr_8"><i>Germany.</i>&mdash;The rest of this chapter must be devoted to
-an outline of the history of cave-exploration during the last
-two centuries. The dread of the supernatural, which preserved
-the European caves from disturbance, was destroyed
-in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by the search
-after “ebur fossile,” or unicorn’s horn, which ranked high
-in the materia medica of those days as a specific for
-many diseases, and which was obtained, in great abundance,
-in the caverns of the Hartz, and in those of
-Hungary and Franconia. As the true nature of the drug
-gradually revealed itself, the German caves became
-famous for the remains of the lions, hyænas, fossil
-elephants, and other strange animals, which had been
-used for medicine. We owe the first philosophical discussion
-on the point to Dr. Gesner,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> who, although he
-maintained that the fossil unicorn consisted, in some
-cases, of elephant’s teeth and tusks, and in others of
-its fossil bones, did not altogether give up the idea of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12">12</a></span>
-its medicinal value. It is a singular fact, that fossil
-remains of a similar kind are, at the present time, used
-by the Chinese for the same purpose, and sold in their
-druggists’ shops.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> The cave which was most famous at
-the end of the seventeenth century was that of Bauman’s
-Hole, in the Hartz, in the district of Blankenbourg. It
-is noticed in the Philosophical Transactions for the year
-1662, and was subsequently described by Dr. Behrens,<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a>
-Leibnitz, De Luc, and Cuvier, along with others in the
-neighbourhood. Those of Hungary come next in point
-of discovery, the first notice of them being due to Patterson
-Hayne in 1672. They penetrate the southern
-slopes of the Carpathian ranges, and are known by the
-name of dragons’ caves, because the bones which they
-contain had been considered from time immemorial to
-belong to those animals by the country people. These
-remains were identified by Baron Cuvier as belonging to
-the cave-bear.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a></p>
-
-<p>It was not, however, until the close of the eighteenth
-century that the exploring of caves was carried on systematically,
-or their contents examined with any scientific
-precision. The caves of Franconia, in the neighbourhood
-of Muggendorf, were described by Esper in 1774, by
-Rosenmuller in 1804, and six years later by Dr. Goldfuss.
-The most important was that of Gailenreuth, both from
-the vast quantity of remains which it was proved to
-contain, and the investigations to which it led. The
-bones of the hyæna, lion, wolf, fox, glutton, and red<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13">13</a></span>
-deer were identified by Baron Cuvier; while some of the
-skulls which Dr. Goldfuss obtained have been recently
-proved, by Professor Busk, to belong to the grizzly bear.
-They were associated with the bones of the reindeer,
-horse and bison. Rosenmuller was of opinion that the
-cave had been inhabited by bears for a long series of
-generations; and he thus realized that these remains
-proved that the animals found in the cave had once
-lived in that district, and had not been swept from
-the tropics by the deluge. The interest in these discoveries
-was at its height in the year 1816, when Dr.
-Buckland visited the cave, and acquired that knowledge
-of cave-exploring which he was subsequently to use
-with such good effect in this country.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> From this
-time down to the present day, no new fact of importance
-has been added to our knowledge of caves
-by explorations in Germany.</p>
-
-<p id="hdr_9"><i>Great Britain.</i>&mdash;The first bone-cave systematically
-explored in this country was that discovered by Mr.
-Whidbey,<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> in the Devonian limestone at Oreston, near
-Plymouth, in 1816; and the remains obtained from it
-were identified by Sir Everard Home as implying the
-existence of the rhinoceros in that region. This discovery
-followed close upon the researches in Gailenreuth,
-and was due in some degree to the request which Sir
-Joseph Banks made, that Mr. Whidbey, in quarrying the
-stone for the Plymouth breakwater, should examine the
-contents of any caverns that he might happen to meet
-with. It preceded Dr. Buckland’s exploration of Kirkdale
-by about four years.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14">14</a></span>
-In the summer of 1821 a cave was discovered, in a
-limestone quarry at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire, which was
-found to contain bones and teeth of animals. On hearing
-of the discovery, Dr. Buckland posted at once from South
-Wales to the spot, and published the result of the explorations
-in the Philosophical Transactions for the next
-year. He brought forward evidence that the cave had
-been inhabited by hyænas, and that the broken and
-gnawed bones of the rhinoceros, mammoth, stag, bison,
-and horse belonged to animals which had been dragged
-in for food. He also established the fact that all these
-animals had lived in Yorkshire in ancient times, and that
-it was impossible for the carcases of the hyæna, rhinoceros,
-and mammoth to have been floated from those
-regions where they are now living into the position where
-he found their bones. He subsequently followed up the
-subject by investigating bone-caves in Derbyshire, South
-Wales, and Somerset, as well as in Germany, and published
-his great work, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” in 1822,
-which laid the foundations of the new science of cave-hunting
-in this country. The exploration of Kirkdale
-followed closely upon that of Gailenreuth, and was merely
-the application of those principles of research which had
-been discovered in Germany to caves in a new district.</p>
-
-<p>From this time forward bone-caves were discovered in
-Great Britain in increasing numbers, and explored by
-many independent observers. The famous cavern of Kent’s
-Hole, near Torquay, furnished the Rev. J. McEnery,
-between 1825 and the year 1841, in which he died,
-with the first flint implements ever discovered in a
-cave along with the bones of extinct animals. He recognized
-the fact that they may be proof of the existence
-of man during the time that those animals were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15">15</a></span>
-alive; but the scientific world was not then sufficiently
-educated to accept the antiquity of the human race on
-the evidence brought forward, and Dr. Buckland himself
-was so influenced by the opinions of his times, that he
-refused even to entertain the idea. Although the
-discovery was verified by the independent researches of
-Mr. Godwin Austin in 1840, and by the Torquay
-Natural History Society in 1846, the force of prejudice
-was so strong, that the matter was not thought even
-worthy of investigation. Mr. McEnery’s manuscripts
-were lost until the year 1859, when an abstract of them
-was published by Mr. Vivian, and subsequently they
-were printed in full by Mr. Pengelly, the able superintendent
-of the exploration which has been carried on
-by a committee of the British Association since 1865, by
-whom several thousand flint implements have been obtained,
-under the conditions pointed out by the Rev. J.
-McEnery and Mr. Godwin Austen.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p>
-
-<p>While the important question of the antiquity of man
-was being passed by as of no account, other caves were
-being examined in this country. Those of Banwell,
-Burrington, Sandford Hill, Bleadon, and Hutton, in the
-mountain limestone of the Mendip hills, were being
-worked by the Rev. J. Williams and Mr. Beard, and
-furnished the magnificent collection of mammalian bones
-now in the museum at Taunton. In North Wales, also, Mr.
-Lloyd discovered a similar suite of bones in the limestone
-caves in the neighbourhood of St. Asaph at Cefn,
-and in South Wales numerous remains were obtained by
-many explorers in those of Pembrokeshire and Gower.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16">16</a></span>
-The result of these discoveries was the proof that
-certain extinct animals, such as the woolly rhinoceros
-and the mammoth, had lived in this country in ancient
-times, along with two other groups of species which are
-at present known only to live in hot and cold climates&mdash;the
-spotted hyæna and hippopotamus of Africa, with the
-reindeer and the marmot of the colder regions of the
-earth.</p>
-
-<p>The discovery in 1858, and the exploration, of the now
-famous cave of Brixham, by the Royal and Geological
-Societies, marked the dawn of a new era in cave-hunting.
-Under the careful supervision of Mr. Pengelly, flint
-implements were discovered underneath stalagmite,
-and in association with the remains of the hyæna and
-woolly rhinoceros and mammoth, in undisturbed red
-loam, under conditions that prove man to have been
-living in Devonshire at the same time as those animals.
-This singularly opportune discovery destroyed for ever
-the doubts that had overhung the question of the
-antiquity of man, and of his co-existence in Europe
-in company with the animals whose remains occur both
-in the caverns and river-deposits.</p>
-
-<p>In 1847 M. Boucher de Perthes described certain
-rude flint implements that he obtained from the fluviatile
-gravels of Abbeville (“Antiquités Celtiques,”
-vol. i.), along with the bones of extinct animals; and his
-discovery was treated with the same scepticism in France
-as that of the Rev. J. McEnery in England, although it
-was verified by flint implements being discovered, under
-exactly the same conditions, in the gravels of Amiens,
-some forty miles away, by Dr. Rigollot.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> In the autumn
-of 1858, Dr. Falconer, who had been superintending the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17">17</a></span>
-work in the Brixham cave, visited the collection made by
-M. de Perthes, while on his way to examine the caves of
-Sicily, and recognizing man’s handiwork in the implements,
-he asked his friend Mr. Prestwich to explore the
-Valley of the Somme. This he accordingly did, and in
-company with Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., dug out with his
-own hands an implement from the undisturbed strata,<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a>
-and thus finally settled the disputed question. It is
-undoubtedly true, that scientific opinion was tending
-towards the acceptance of the evidence in favour of man
-having lived in Europe in the Pleistocene age; but the
-researches in Brixham cave established the fact on the
-highest possible authority, and confirmed the long-neglected
-discoveries in the valley of the Somme. By
-the end of 1859 it was fully accepted by the scientific
-world, and caused the exploration of caves to be carried
-on with increased vigour.</p>
-
-<p>In December 1859,<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> I began the exploration of the
-hyæna-den of Wookey Hole, near Wells, Somerset, in
-company with the Rev. J. Williamson, and obtained
-flint instruments along with the remains of the mammoth,
-hyæna, woolly rhinoceros, and other animals, under
-conditions that proved the contemporaneity of man with
-the extinct mammalia. And from that time down to
-the present date I have carried on researches in caves
-in various parts of Great Britain. In the district of
-Gower also, many ossiferous caverns were investigated,
-in 1858&ndash;9&ndash;60&ndash;1 by Colonel Wood and Dr. Falconer, and
-in one of them flint implements were obtained along with
-the bones of the extinct mammalia.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> Kent’s Hole, begun<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18">18</a></span>
-in 1865 by the British Association, and still being worked,
-furnishes annually a vast number of bones and teeth of
-hyænas, rhinoceroses, cave-bears, and horses, and other
-animals, along with flint and bone implements.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a></p>
-
-<p>In 1869 I had the good fortune to discover, and
-subsequently to explore, a group of sepulchral caves in
-Denbighshire, which had been used by an Iberian or
-Basque race in the Neolithic age (Chapter V.); and
-in the following year the Settle Cave Committee began
-their work in Yorkshire under my advice. And this
-has led to the important conclusion, that a group of
-caves, extending over a wide area in the centre and
-north of England, was occupied by the Brit-Welsh in the
-obscure interval which elapsed between the departure of
-the Roman legions and the English conquest.</p>
-
-<p id="hdr_10"><i>France.</i>&mdash;The researches of Buckland into the caves
-of Great Britain, and of Goldfuss and others into those
-of Germany, and more especially the publication of
-the “Ossemens Fossiles,” by Cuvier, gave an impetus
-to cave-exploration in France which yielded the same
-results as in our own country. The mammalia obtained
-from the cave of Fouvent (Haut Saone) in 1800 were
-described in the “Ossemens,” as well as those from
-Gondenans. In the Gironde, the Cave of Avison was
-explored by M. Billaudel in 1826&ndash;27. In the south,
-Marcel de Serres, aided by MM. Dubrueil and Jeanjean,
-examined the important Cave of Lunel-viel in 1824,
-and published their results in a work that holds the
-same position in France as the “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ”
-in England. The caverns of Pondres, Souvignargues, and
-of Bize were explored, the two first by M. Christol
-in 1829, the last by M. Tournal in 1833, and those of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19">19</a></span>
-Villefranche (Pyrénées-orient), Mialet (Gard), and
-Nabrigas (Lozère) were described by De Serres in
-1839, who subsequently added those of Carcas-sonne
-to the list in 1842. In this year MM. Prevost and
-J. Desnoyers explored the caves of Montmorency in
-the neighbourhood of Paris, and described the remains
-discovered in those of Bicêtre. The Cave of Pontil
-(Hérault) described by M. de Serres in 1847, was
-proved in 1864, by Professor Gervais, to contain
-two distinct strata, the neolithic lying over the palæolithic,
-as in Kent’s Hole.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a></p>
-
-<p>In 1860,<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> the famous Cave of Aurignac was proved, by
-the investigations of Professor Lartet, to have been inhabited
-by man in the life-time of the extinct mammalia.
-Three years later the caves of Périgord were explored
-by that gentleman, along with Mr. Christy, and yielded
-results which mark a new era in the history of man in
-the remote past. From the remarkable collection of implements
-and weapons, the habits and mode of life of the
-occupants can be ascertained with tolerable certainty,
-and from their comparison with the like articles now in
-use among savage tribes, it may be reasonably inferred
-that they were closely related in blood to the Eskimos.
-This most important question will be investigated in its
-proper place, in the chapter relating to the palæolithic
-caves of France. Professor Lartet, M. Louis Lartet, Sir
-Charles Lyell, and other eminent observers believe further,
-that the interments that have been discovered in Aurignac<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20">20</a></span>
-and in Cro Magnon,<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> in Périgord, are to be assigned
-to the same relative age as the occupation of the caves
-by man. From the fact, however, that the skeletons
-in both these cases were <em>above</em> the strata accumulated by
-the palæolithic cave-dwellers, it may be concluded that
-they were deposited after those strata were formed, in
-other words, that they are of a later age.</p>
-
-<p>From 1863 down to the present time very many caves
-have been explored in France without any further addition
-to our knowledge, excepting the verification of the
-facts, afforded by the caves of Brixham and of Périgord,
-as to the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia,
-and his probable identity in race with the Eskimos.</p>
-
-<p id="hdr_11"><i>Belgium.</i>&mdash;The caves of Belgium<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> have afforded evidence
-of precisely the same nature as those of England
-and France. Dr. Schmerling, of Liège, published the
-results of his researches, begun in 1829, into the bone-caves
-on the banks of the Meuse and its tributaries, in
-1833&ndash;4, and proved that the mammoth, rhinoceros, cave-bear,
-and hyæna formerly lived in that district. He also
-arrived at the conclusion that man was living at that
-remote time, from the discovery of flint-flakes and human
-bones along with the remains of those animals in the
-caves of Engis and Engihoul. In 1853,<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> Professor Spring
-discovered a quantity of burned, broken, and cut bones
-belonging to women and children, in the Cave of
-Chauvaux, which he considered to imply that it had been
-inhabited by a family of cannibals. Axes of polished<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21">21</a></span>
-stone were also met with, that indicated the relative age
-to be neolithic.</p>
-
-<p>To pass over the human skeleton found in the Neanderthal
-Cave in 1857 by Dr. Fuhlroth, which is of
-doubtful antiquity, the next discoveries of importance
-are those made by M. Dupont in the years 1864&ndash;70, in
-the province of Namur, that established the fact that the
-same race of men who inhabited Auvergne in the palæolithic
-age had also lived in Belgium. M. Dupont considers
-that the interments in the Trou de Frontal<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> belong
-also to the palæolithic age, and that therefore man at
-that remote time was possessed of religious ideas. Before,
-however, this view can be accepted, it will be necessary
-to show the exact relation of the bones of the reindeer,
-chamois, mammoth, and other animals found outside the
-slab of stone, at the mouth of the sepulchral chamber, to
-the human remains within. In this case, as in Aurignac
-and Cro Magnon, the evidence seems to me insufficient
-to establish so important a conclusion.</p>
-
-<p id="hdr_12"><i>Southern Europe.</i>&mdash;In southern Europe the bone-caves
-of Sicily, worked in 1829 for the sake of the animal
-remains to be used in sugar refining, were scientifically
-examined by Dr. Falconer in 1859; those of Malta by
-Captain Spratt in the same year; and those of Gibraltar by
-Captain Broome in the years 1862&ndash;8. They established
-the existence of the serval and the African elephant, and
-other characteristic African species, in Europe, and offer
-as we shall see in this work, important testimony as to
-the geography of the Mediterranean area in the Pleistocene
-age.</p>
-
-<p>In this outline of the history of cave-exploration it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22">22</a></span>
-will be seen, that the additions to our knowledge of the
-past have been neither few nor insignificant, nor in one
-line of inquiry. And if the attention which is now being
-directed to the subject be due to the general development
-of scientific thought, it is equally true, that the results
-have reacted on scientific thought in general, and have
-especially benefited the sciences of geology, archæology,
-and history. A rich field of investigation lies before the
-cave-hunter, in Greece, Palestine, Lycia, Persia, and the
-limestone plateaux of central Asia; and since these
-discoveries have been so valuable in central and north-western
-Europe, what may we not recover from the
-grasp of oblivion, of the infancy and early culture of
-mankind in the very birth-place and “pathway of the
-nations”?</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23">23</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">PHYSICAL HISTORY OF CAVES.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote class="inhead">
-
-<p>Caves formed by the Sea and by Volcanic Action.&mdash;Caves in Arenaceous
-Rocks.&mdash;Caves in Calcareous Rocks of various ages.&mdash;Their
-Relation to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines.&mdash;The
-Water-cave of Wookey Hole.&mdash;The Goatchurch Cave.&mdash;The
-Water-caves of Derbyshire.&mdash;Of Yorkshire.&mdash;The Ingleborough
-Cave.&mdash;The Rate of Deposit of Stalagmite.&mdash;The Descent into
-Helln Pot.&mdash;The Caves and Pots round Weathercote.&mdash;The Formation
-of Caves, Pot-holes, and Ravines.&mdash;Caverns not generally
-formed in line of Faults.&mdash;Of various Ages.&mdash;Their Filling-up.&mdash;The
-Cave of Caldy.&mdash;The Blackrock Cave.&mdash;Great quantity of Carbonate
-of Lime dissolved by Atmospheric Water.&mdash;The Circulation
-of Carbonate of Lime.&mdash;The Temperature of Caves.&mdash;Conclusion.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_13"><i>Caves formed by the Sea and by Volcanic Action.</i></h3>
-
-<p class="in0">In this chapter we shall treat of the origin of caves and
-of their place in physical geography. The most obvious
-agent in hollowing out caves is the sea. The set of the
-current, the tremendous force of the breakers, and the
-grinding of the shingle, inevitably discover the weak
-places in the cliff, and leave caves as the results of their
-work, modified in each case by the local conditions of
-the rock. Caves formed in this manner have certain
-characters which are easily recognized. Their floors<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24">24</a></span>
-are very rarely much out of the horizontal, their outlook
-is over the sea, and they very seldom penetrate
-far into the cliff. A general parallelism is also to be
-observed in a group in the same district, and their
-entrances are all in the same horizontal plane, or in
-a succession of horizontal and parallel planes. In some
-cases they are elevated above the present reach of
-the waves, and mark the line at which the sea formerly
-stood. From their generally inaccessible position sea-caves
-have very rarely been occupied by man, and the
-history of their formation is so obvious that it requires
-no further notice. Among them the famous Fingal’s
-Cave, off the north coast of Ireland, and that of Staffa,
-on the opposite shore of Scotland, hollowed out of
-columnar basalt, are perhaps the most remarkable in
-Europe.</p>
-
-<p>In volcanic regions also there are caves formed by
-the passage of lava to the surface of the ground, or by
-the imprisoned steam and gases in the lava while it was
-in a molten state: but these are of comparatively little
-importance so far as relates to the general question of
-caves, from the very small areas which are occupied by
-active volcanoes in Europe. They have been observed in
-Vesuvius, Etna, Iceland, and Teneriffe.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_14"><i>Caves in Arenaceous Rocks.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Caves also occur sometimes in sandstones, in which
-case they are the result of the erosion of the lines of the
-joints by the passage of subaërial water, and if the joints
-happen to traverse a stratum less compacted than the
-rest, the weak point is discovered, and a hollow is formed
-extending laterally from the original fissure. The massive<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25">25</a></span>
-millstone grit of Derbyshire and Yorkshire present many
-examples of this, as for instance in Kinderscout in the
-former county. The rocks at Tunbridge Wells also show
-to what extent the joints in the Wealden sandstones may
-become open fissures, more or less connected with caves,
-on a small scale, by the mere mechanical action of water.
-M. Desnoyers gives instances of the same kind in the
-Tertiary sandstones of the Paris basin, which have furnished
-remains of rhinoceros, reindeer, hyæna, and bear.
-Caverns, however, in the sandstone are rarely of great
-extent, and may be passed over as being of small importance
-in comparison with those in the calcareous
-rocks.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_15"><i>Caves in Calcareous Rocks of various ages.</i></h3>
-
-<p>It has long been known that wherever the calcareous
-strata are sufficiently hard and compact to support a
-roof, caves are to be found in greater or less abundance.
-Those of Devonshire occur in the Devonian limestone;
-those of Somerset, Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, Derbyshire,
-and Northumberland, as well as of Belgium and
-Westphalia, in that of the carboniferous age. In France
-also, those of Maine and Anjou, and most of those of the
-Pyrenees and in the department of Aude, are hollowed
-in carboniferous limestone, as well as the greater part of
-those in North America, in Virginia, and Kentucky.
-The cave of Kirkdale in Yorkshire, and most of those in
-Franconia and in Bavaria penetrate Jurassic limestones,
-which have received the name of Hohlenkalkstein from
-the abundance of caverns which they contain. They are
-developed on a large scale in the Swiss and French Jura,
-and in some cases afford passage to powerful streams,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26">26</a></span>
-and in others are more or less filled with ice, thus
-constituting the singular “glacières” that have been so
-ably explored by the Rev. G.&nbsp;F. Browne.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a></p>
-
-<p>The compact Neocomian and Cretaceous limestones
-contain most of the caverns of Périgord, Quercy, and
-Angoumois, and some of those in Provence and Languedoc,
-those of Northern Italy, Sicily, Greece, Dalmatia,
-Carniola, and Turkey in Europe, of Asia Minor and
-Palestine.</p>
-
-<p>The tertiary limestones, writes M. Desnoyers,<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> offer
-sometimes, but very rarely, caves that have become
-celebrated for the bones which they contain, such as
-those of Lunel-Viel, near Montpelier, those of Pondres
-and Souvignargues, near Sommières (Gard), and of Saint
-Macaire (Gironde). The same may also be said of the
-calcaire grossier of the basin of Paris.</p>
-
-<p>Certain rocks composed of gypsum also contain caverns
-of the same sort as those in the limestones. In Thuringia,
-for example, near Eisleben, they occur in the saliferous
-and gypseous strata of the zechstein, and are connected
-with large gulfs and cirques on the surface, which are
-sometimes filled with water. In the neighbourhood of
-Paris, and especially at Montmorency, they contain
-numerous bones of the extinct mammalia. M. Desnoyers
-points out their identity, in all essentials, with those
-in calcareous strata, and infers that they have been
-produced in the same way. Some of them may
-have been formed by the removal of the salt, which
-is very frequently interbedded with the gypsum, by
-the passage of water. In Cheshire the pumping of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27">27</a></span>
-brine from the saliferous and gypseous strata produces
-subterranean hollows, which sometimes fall in and
-eventually cause depressions on the surface, such as
-those which are now destroying the town of Northwich,
-and causing the neighbouring tidal estuary to extend
-over what was formerly meadow land. This explanation,
-however, will not apply to those in the neighbourhood
-of Paris, because there is no trace of their ever having
-contained salt.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_16"><i>The Relation of Caves to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The caverns hollowed in calcareous rocks present
-features by which they are distinguished from any others.
-They open, for the most part, on the abrupt sides of
-valleys and ravines at various levels, being arranged
-round the main axis of erosion just as branches are
-arranged round the trunk of a tree&mdash;as, for example, in
-Cheddar Pass. The transition in some cases from the valley
-to the ravine, and from the ravine to the cave, is so
-gradual, that it is impossible to deny that all three are
-due to the same cause. The caves themselves ramify in
-the same irregular fashion as the valleys, and are to be
-viewed merely as the capillaries in the general valley
-system, through which the rainfall passes to join the
-main channels. Very frequently, however, the drainage
-has found an outlet at a lower level, and its ancient
-passage is left dry; but in all cases unmistakeable proof
-of the erosive action of water is to be seen in the sand,
-gravel, and clay which compose the floor, as well as in
-the worn surfaces of the sides and the bottom.</p>
-
-<p>In all districts in which caves occur are funnel-shaped<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28">28</a></span>
-cavities of various sizes, known as “pot-holes” or
-“swallow-holes” in Britain, as “betoires,” “chaldrons du
-diable,” “marmites de géants,” in France, and as “kata-vothra”
-in Greece, in which the rainfall is collected before
-it finally disappears in the subterranean passages. They
-are to be seen in all stages; sometimes being mere shallow
-funnels, that only contain water after excessive rain, and
-at others as profound vertical shafts, into which the
-water is continually falling, as in Helln Pot, in Yorkshire.
-The cirques, also, described by M. Desnoyers, belong to
-the same class of cavities, although all those which are
-mentioned by the Rev. T.&nbsp;G. Bonney,<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> at the head of
-valleys, and in some cases hollowed in shale and igneous
-rocks, are most probably to be referred to the vertical,
-chisel-like action of streams flowing under physical
-conditions, that resemble those under which the cañons
-of the Colorado, or of the Zambesi, are being excavated,
-and in which frost, ice, and snow have played
-a very subordinate part.</p>
-
-<p>The intimate relation between pot-holes, caves, ravines,
-and valleys will be discussed in the rest of this chapter,
-and illustrated by English examples; and then we shall
-proceed to show that the chemical action of the carbonic
-acid in the rain-water, and the mechanical friction of the
-sand and gravel, set in motion by the water, by which
-Professor Phillips explains the origin of caves, will
-equally explain the pot-holes and ravines by which they
-are invariably accompanied.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29">29</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_17"><i>The Water-Cave of Wookey Hole, near Wells, Somerset.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Caves may be divided into two classes: those which
-are now mere passages for water, in which the history of
-their formation may be studied, and those which are dry,
-and capable of affording shelter to man and the lower
-animals. Among the water-caves, that of Wookey Hole<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a>
-is to be noticed first, since its very name implies that it
-was known to the Celtic inhabitants of the south of
-England, and since it was among the first, if not the first,
-of those examined with any care in this country, Mr.
-John Beaumont<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> having brought it before the notice of
-the Royal Society in the year 1680.</p>
-
-<p>The hamlet of Wookey Hole nestles in a valley,
-through which flows the river Axe, and the valley passes
-insensibly, at its upper end, into a ravine, which is closed
-abruptly by a wall of rock (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>), about two hundred
-feet high, covered with long streamers and festoons of
-ivy, and affording scanty hold, on its ledges and in its
-fissures, to ferns, brambles, and ash saplings. At its base
-the river Axe issues, in full current, out of the cave, the
-lower entrance of which it completely blocks up, since
-the water has been kept back by a weir, for the use of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30">30</a></span>
-paper-mill a little distance away. A narrow path through
-the wood, on the north side of the ravine, leads to the
-only entrance now open.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> Thence a narrow passage leads
-downward into the rock, until, suddenly, you find yourself
-in a large chamber, at the water level. Then you pass
-over a ridge, covered with a delicate fretwork of dripstone,
-with each tiny hollow full of water, and ornamented with
-brilliant lime crystals. One shapeless mass of dripstone
-is known in local tradition as the Witch of Wookey,
-turned into stone by the prayers of a Glastonbury monk.
-Beyond this the chamber expands considerably, being
-some seventy or eighty feet high, and adorned with
-beautiful stalactites, far out of the reach of visitors. The
-water, which bars further entrance, forms a deep pool,
-which Mr. James Parker managed to cross on a raft (see
-<a href="#APPENDIX_I">Appendix I</a>.) into another chamber, which was apparently
-easy of access before the construction of the weir.
-It was in this further chamber that Dr. Buckland found
-human remains and pottery.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_1" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-  <img src="images/i_030.jpg" width="600" height="189" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Wookey Hole Cave and Ravine.</div></div>
-
-<p>The cave has been proved to extend as far as the
-village of Priddy, about two miles off, on the Mendip hills,
-by the fact observed by Mr. Beaumont, that the water
-used in washing the lead ore at that spot, in his time,
-found its way into the river Axe, and poisoned cattle in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31">31</a></span>
-the valley of Wookey. And this observation has been
-verified during the last few years by throwing in colour
-and chopped straw. The stream at Priddy sinks into a
-swallow-hole (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>), and has its subterranean course
-determined by the southerly dip of the rock, by which
-the joints running north and south afford a more free
-passage to the water than those running east and west.
-The cave is merely a subterranean extension of the ravine
-in the same line, as far as the swallow-hole, and all
-three have been hollowed, as we shall see presently, by
-the action of the stream and of carbonic acid in the
-water.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_18"><i>The Goatchurch Cave.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The largest cavern in the Mendip hills is that locally
-known as the Goatchurch, which opens on the eastern
-side of the lower of the two ravines that branch from the
-magnificent defile of Burrington Combe, about two miles
-from the village of Wrington, at the height of about
-120 feet from the bottom of the ravine. After creeping
-along a narrow, muddy passage, with a steep descent to
-the west, at an angle of about 30°, you suddenly pass
-into a stalactitic chamber of considerable height and
-size. From it two small vertical shafts lead into the
-lower set of chambers and passages; the first being
-blocked up, and the second being close to a large barrel-shaped
-stalagmite, to which Mr. Ayshford Sanford, Mr.
-James Parker, and myself fastened our ropes when we
-explored the cave in 1864. The latter affords access
-into a passage, beautifully arched, and passing horizontally
-east and west, and just large enough to admit a man
-walking upright. At the further end numerous open<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32">32</a></span>
-fissures, caused by the erosion of the joints in the limestone,
-cross it at right angles, and pass into several ill-defined
-chambers, partially stalactitic, but for the most
-part filled with loose, bare, cubical masses of limestone.
-Two of the transverse fissures lead into a large chamber,
-at a lower level. At its lower end, on crawling along
-a narrow passage, we came into a second chamber,
-also of considerable height and depth, at the bottom of
-which the noise of flowing water can be heard through
-two vertical holes, just large enough to admit of access.
-On sliding down one of these we found ourselves in a
-third chamber, which was traversed by a subterranean
-stream, doubtless in part the same which disappears
-in the ravine, at a point eighty feet above by
-aneroid measurement. The temperature of the water,
-as compared with that of the stream outside (49° : 59°),
-renders it very probable that, between the point of disappearance
-in the ravine and reappearance in the cave,
-it is joined by a stream of considerable subterranean
-length, since the water could not have lost ten degrees
-in the short interval which it had to traverse, were it
-supplied only from the stream in the ravine. From
-the point of its disappearance in the cave, the water
-passes downwards to join the main current flowing
-underneath Burrington Combe, that gushes forth in great
-volume at Rickford. The lowest portion of the cave
-was eighteen or twenty feet below the stream, and 220
-feet below the entrance of the cavern.</p>
-
-<p>On examining the floors of the chambers and passages,
-we discovered that they were composed of the same kind
-of sediment as that which is now being deposited by the
-water in Wookey Hole, and there could be no doubt but
-that they had been originally traversed by water. For<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33">33</a></span>
-this to have taken place it is necessary to suppose that,
-while the Goatchurch was a water cave, the ravine on
-which it opens was not deeper than the entrance&mdash;in other
-words, that in the interval between the formation and
-excavation of the chambers and passages, to the present
-time, the ravine has been excavated in the limestone to
-a depth of a hundred and twenty feet, and the water
-which originally passed through the entrance has found
-its way, by a new series of passages, to the point where
-it appears at the bottom of the cave.</p>
-
-<p>We obtained evidence that the horizontal passage,
-immediately below the first vertical descent, had been
-inhabited at a very remote period. At the spot where
-Mr. Beard, of Banwell, obtained a fine tusk of mammoth,
-we found a molar of bear, and a fragment of
-flint, which were imbedded in red earth, and were underneath
-a crust of stalagmite of about two inches in thickness.
-It would follow from this, that the date of the
-formation of this part of the cave was before the time
-when the traces of elephants, bears, and of man were
-introduced.</p>
-
-<p>The cave is the resort of numerous badgers. On hiding
-ourselves in one of the transverse fissures, and
-throwing our light across the horizontal passage, these
-animals ran to and fro across the lighted field with extraordinary
-swiftness, and had it not been for the white
-streaks on the sides of their heads, which flashed back
-the light, they would not have been observed. Though
-they are rarely caught, they must be abundant in the
-district.</p>
-
-<p>Like all the other large caverns in the district, it has its
-legends. The dwellers in the neighbourhood, who have
-never cared to explore its recesses, relate that a certain<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34">34</a></span>
-dog put in here found its way out, after many days, at
-Wookey Hole, having lost all its hair in scrambling
-through the narrow passages. At Cheddar the same
-legend is appropriated to the Cheddar cave. At Wookey
-the dog is said to have travelled back to Cheddar. Some
-eighteen years ago, while exploring the limestone caves
-at Llanamynech, on the English border of Montgomeryshire,
-I met with a similar story. A man playing the
-bagpipes is said to have entered one of the caves, well
-provisioned with Welsh mutton, and after he had been
-in for some time his bagpipes were heard two miles from
-the entrance, underneath the small town of Llanamynech.
-He never returned to tell his tale. The few bones found
-in the cave are supposed to be those which he had picked
-on the way. This is doubtless another form of the story
-of the dog; both owe their origin to the vague impression,
-which most people have, of the great extent of
-caverns, and both versions are equally current in France
-and Germany.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_19"><i>The Water-caves of Derbyshire.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The celebrated cavern of the Peak, at Castleton in
-Derbyshire, presents the same essential character as that
-of Wookey Hole. It runs into the hill-side at the end
-of the ravine, and is traversed by a powerful stream of
-water, which has been met with in driving an horizontal
-adit in lead-mining at a considerable distance from the
-entrance, and finally traced to a distant swallow-hole.
-At a little distance from Buxton a smaller cave, known
-as Poole’s Cavern, is in part traversed by water, which
-has found an outlet at a lower level, and allowed of
-the present entrance being used by the Brit-Welsh<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35">35</a></span>
-(Romano-Celtic) inhabitants of the district as a habitation
-in the fifth and sixth centuries.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> There are, besides
-these, very many others, some known, others unknown,
-that debouch on the sides of the dales in Derbyshire
-and Staffordshire, and are all well worthy of examination,
-since they illustrate not merely the history of
-the formation of caves, but also have been proved to
-contain works of art, pottery and flint implements,
-and the remains of animals, such as the mammoth and
-rhinoceros.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_20"><i>The Water-caves of Yorkshire.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The caves in the mountain limestone of Yorkshire
-rival in size those of Carniola, or those of Greece, and
-they are to be seen in all stages of formation. In their
-gloomy recesses all the higher qualities of a mountaineer
-may be exercised, and there is sufficient danger to give a
-keen zest to their exploration. The mountain streams
-sometimes plunge into a yawning chasm, locally known
-as a pot, and at others emerge from the dark portals of a
-cave in full current. There is, perhaps, no place in the
-world where the subterranean circulation of water may
-be studied with better advantage.</p>
-
-<p>Ingleborough forms a centre from which the rainfall
-on every side finds its way into the dales, through a
-system of caves more or less complicated, which during
-the last forty years have been thoroughly explored by
-Mr. Farrer, Mr. Birkbeck, and Mr. Metcalfe. On the
-south it collects in a ravine, and then leaps into a deep
-bottle-shaped hole called “Gaping Gill,” into which Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36">36</a></span>
-Birkbeck unsuccessfully attempted to descend, the sharp
-edges of the rock cutting the rope, and very nearly
-causing a serious accident. In depth it is about three
-hundred feet. The stream thence finds its way through
-a series of chambers and passages until it reappears in the
-famous Ingleborough cave, that was explored by Mr.
-Farrer in the year 1837, and proved to pass into the
-rock between seven and eight hundred yards.</p>
-
-<p>The present entrance of the Ingleborough cave<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> is dry,
-except after heavy rains, when the current reverts to its
-old passage. The following admirable account of the
-interior is given by Professor Phillips:&mdash;<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a></p>
-
-<p>“From Mr. Farrer’s plan and description, as given in
-the ‘Proceedings of the Geological Society,’ June 14,
-1848, and from information obligingly communicated to
-me, a clear notion of the history of this most instructive
-spar grotto may be formed. For about eighty yards
-from the entrance the cave has been known immemorially.
-At this point Josiah Harrison, a gardener in
-Mr. Farrer’s service, broke through a stalagmitical barrier
-which the water had formed, and obtained access to a
-series of expanded cavities and contracted passages,
-stretching first to the N., then to the N.W.; afterwards
-to the N. and N.E., and finally to the E., till after two
-years spent in the interesting toil of discovery, at a
-distance of 702 yards from the mouth, the explorers
-rested from their labours in a large and lofty irregular
-grotto, in which they heard the sound of water falling
-in a still more advanced subterranean recess. It has
-been ascertained, at no inconsiderable personal risk, that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37">37</a></span>
-this water falls into a deep pool or linn at a lower level,
-beyond which further progress appears to be impracticable.
-In fact Mr. Farrer explored this dark lake by
-swimming&mdash;a candle in his cap and a rope round his
-body.</p>
-
-<p>“In this long and winding gallery, fashioned by
-nature in the marble heart of the mountain, floor, roof,
-and sides are everywhere intersected by fissures which
-were formed in the consolidation of the stone. To these
-fissures and the water which has passed down them, we
-owe the formation of the cave and its rich furniture of
-stalactites. The direction of the most marked fissures
-is almost invariably N.W. and S.E., and when certain
-of these (which in my geological work I have called
-master fissures) occur, the roof of the cave is usually
-more elevated, the sides spread out right and left, and
-often ribs and pendants of brilliant stalactite, placed at
-regular distances, convert the rude fissure into a beautiful
-aisle of primæval architecture. Below most of the
-smaller fissures hang multitudes of delicate translucent
-tubules, each giving passage to drops of water. Splitting
-the rock above, these fissures admit, or formerly admitted,
-dropping water: continued through the floor, the larger
-rifts permit, or formerly permitted, water to enter or
-flow out of the cave. By this passage of water, continued
-for ages on ages, the original fissure was in the
-first instance enlarged, through the corrosive action of
-streams of acidulated water; by the withdrawal of the
-streams to other fissures, a different process was called
-into operation. The fissure was bathed by drops instead
-of streams of water, and these drops, exposed to air
-currents and evaporation, yielded up the free carbonic
-acid to the air and the salt of lime to the rock. Every<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38">38</a></span>
-line of drip became the axis of a stalactitical pipe from
-the roof; every surface bathed by thin films of liquid
-became a sheet of sparry deposit. The floor grew up
-under the droppings into fantastic heaps of stalagmite,
-which, sometimes reaching the pipes, united roof and
-floor by pillars of exquisite beauty.”</p>
-
-<p>At the time of its exploration, the water stood at a
-considerably higher level inside than at the present time,
-and formed deep pools. The barrier of dripstone has been
-cut through, and the water level lowered, and a passage
-made for a considerable distance. Inside, the old water
-line, which separated the subaërial from the subaqueous
-dripstone, is very distinct, the former being deposited in
-thick bosses, crumpled curtains, drops, straws, pyramids,
-and other fantastic drip-structures, while the latter is
-honeycombed, and composed of rounded, grape-like
-masses. Between them an ice-like coating of stalagmite
-forms a dividing line, now supported in mid air, but
-that formerly shot across the surface of the pools that
-have been drained, or rested on the mud and stones
-which had been brought down by the stream in ancient
-times. In some places it still rests on the surface of the
-pools.</p>
-
-<p>A stalactitic curtain on the right-hand side presents a
-very singular appearance, its surface being covered with
-an abundant crop of tiny club-like bodies about one-tenth
-of an inch in length, and consisting each of a shining
-drop of water, enclosing a minute fungus. These may
-possibly explain in some degree the peculiar fungoid-appearance
-of certain small bosses of dripstone which
-I have met with in the caves of Pembrokeshire: for an
-accumulation of carbonate of lime on such a nucleus
-would produce the forms which they assume (see <a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39">39</a></span>
-There are also magnificent groups of dripstone, and
-each joint in the rock is adorned with lines, and pipes,
-and fringes of calc spar, or widened out into roof-shaped
-hollows, and traversed by deep, vertical grooves, caused
-by the passage of water laden with carbonic acid. The
-general surface of the roof, where the rock is bare, has
-had its fossils etched out by the acidulated water. In
-one place you may stand under a branching coral, with
-its sides and base distinctly marked, and in another fossil
-shells stand out almost in their original beauty.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_21"><i>Rate of the Accumulation of Stalagmite.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The rate at which the calcareous matter is being
-deposited at the present time is very easy to be
-estimated, for that accumulated since the passage was
-cleared out is white, and contrasts with the dirty, grey-red
-colour of the older kind. In one case a thickness of
-0·24 had been formed in thirty-five years, by the water
-flowing down the side of the passage excavated by Mr.
-Farrer, while in another, in about the same time, 0·05
-inch had been formed. This would give an annual
-accumulation of 0·0068 in the one case, and in the other
-about one-fifth of that amount. This rate does not
-agree with the rate of increase noted by Mr. Farrer and
-Professor Phillips in the case of a large stalagmite called
-the Jockey Cap, on which a line of drops is continually
-falling from one point in the roof. Its circumference
-in 1839 measured 118 inches, in 1845, 120 inches,
-and in 1873, I found it to be 128 inches. The annual
-rate of increase from 1845 to 1873 is ·2941 inch,
-and that from 1839 to 1845 is ·2857. I found,
-however, that the most remarkable increase was that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40">40</a></span>
-in height. In 1845 its apex was 95·25 inches from
-the roof, in 1873, 87 inches, which would imply an
-annual deposit of not less than ·2946. (See <a href="#APPENDIX_II">Appendix II</a>.)
-At this rate it will arrive at the roof in about 295 years.
-But even this comparatively short lapse of time will
-probably be diminished by the growth of a pendant
-stalactite above, that is now being formed in place of
-that which measured 10 inches in 1845, and has since
-been accidentally destroyed.</p>
-
-<p>It is very possible that the Jockey Cap may be the
-result, not of the continuous, but of the intermittent
-drip of water containing carbonate of lime, and that
-therefore the present rate of growth is not a measure of
-its past or future condition. Its age in 1845 was estimated
-by Professor Phillips at 259 years, on the supposition
-that all or nearly all of the carbonate of lime in
-each pint was deposited. If, however, it grew at its
-present rate, it may be not more than 100 years old;
-and if it be taken as a measure of the rate generally,
-all the stalagmites and stalactites in the cave may not
-date further back than the time of Edward III.</p>
-
-<p>It is evident, from this instance of rapid accumulation,
-that the value of a layer of stalagmite in measuring
-the antiquity of deposits below it, is comparatively
-little. The layers, for instance, in Kent’s Hole, which
-are generally believed to have demanded a considerable
-lapse of time, may possibly have been formed at the rate
-of a quarter of an inch per annum, and the human bones
-which lie buried under the stalagmite in the cave of
-Bruniquel, are not for that reason to be taken to be of
-vast antiquity. It may be fairly concluded, that the
-thickness of layers of stalagmite cannot be used as an
-argument in support of the remote age of the strata<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41">41</a></span>
-below. At the rate of a quarter of an inch per annum,
-twenty feet of stalagmite might be formed in 1,000
-years.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_22"><i>The Descent into Helln Pot.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The subterranean passages grouped round Helln Pot,
-a tremendous chasm near Selside, on the east of Simon’s
-Fell in Ribblesdale, illustrate in a remarkable degree
-the mode in which the water is at present wearing away
-the rock. Those which
-have been explored constitute
-the Long Churn
-Cavern, which is comparatively
-easy of access
-through a hole known as
-Diccan Pot (<a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>, <i>a</i>).
-On descending into it, the
-visitor finds himself in
-the bed of a stream that
-now roars in a waterfall,
-now gurgles over the
-large fallen blocks from
-the roof, and that here
-and there has worn for
-itself deep pools by the mechanical friction of the sand
-and pebbles brought down by the current. If it be
-followed down after passing over a waterfall, the light of
-day is seen streaming upwards beneath the feet from the
-point where the water leaps into the great chasm of
-Helln Pot (<a href="#Fig_2">Figs. 2</a>, <i>b</i>. 3, <i>a</i>). Above the entrance there
-is a complicated network of passages, some dry, and
-some containing streams which have not yet been
-fully explored.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_2" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-  <img src="images/i_041.jpg" width="251" height="321" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Helln Pot and the Long Churn Cavern.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42">42</a></span>
-The two actions by which caves are hewn out of the
-calcareous rock are seen here in operation side by side.
-Below the level of the stream the rock is seen to be
-smoothed and polished by the mechanical action of the
-materials swept down by the current. Above the water-level
-the sides of the cave are honeycombed and eaten
-into the most fantastic and complex shapes, the resultant
-surface (see <a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>) bearing small points and keen
-knife-edges of stone, that stand out in relief and mark
-the less soluble portions of the rock. This is due to the
-chemical effect of the carbonic acid in the water percolating
-through the strata.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_3" class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;">
-  <img src="images/i_042.jpg" width="403" height="422" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Helln Pot.</div></div>
-
-<p>The Helln Pot, into which the stream flowing through
-the Long Churn Cave falls, is a fissure (<a href="#Fig_2">Figs. 2</a>, <a href="#Fig_3">3</a>, <a href="#Fig_4">4</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43">43</a></span>
-a hundred feet long by thirty feet wide, that engulfs the
-waters of a little stream on the surface, which are dissipated
-in spray long before they reach the bottom. From
-the top you look down on a series of ledges, green with
-ferns and mosses, and, about a hundred feet from the
-surface, an enormous fragment of rock forms a natural
-bridge across the chasm from one ledge to another. A little
-above this is the debouchement of the stream flowing
-through the Long Churn Cave (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>, <i>a</i>), through which
-Mr. Birkbeck and Mr. Metcalfe made the first perilous
-descent in 1847. The party, consisting of ten persons,
-ventured into this awful chasm with no other apparatus
-than ropes, planks, a turn-tree, and a fire-escape belt.
-On emerging from the Long Churn Cave they stood on
-a ledge of rock about twelve feet wide, and which gave
-them free access to the “bridge” (<a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>, <i>b</i>). This was
-a rock ten feet long, which rested obliquely on the ledges.
-Having crossed over this, they crept behind the waterfall
-which descended from the top, and fixed their pulley,
-five being let down while the rest of the party remained
-behind to hoist them up again. In this way they reached
-the bottom of the pot, which before had never been trod
-by the foot of man. Thence they followed the stream
-downwards as far as the first great waterfall, down which
-Mr. Metcalfe was venturesome enough to let himself
-with a rope, and to push onwards until daylight failed.
-He was within a very little of arriving at the end of
-the cave into which the stream flows, but was obliged
-to turn back to the daylight without having accomplished
-his purpose. The whole party eventually, after
-considerable danger and trouble, returned safely from
-this most bold adventure.</p>
-
-<p>A second descent was made in 1848 from the surface,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44">44</a></span>
-and a third in the spring of 1870, in both of which
-Mr. Birkbeck took the lead. The apparatus employed
-consisted of a windlass (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>), supported on two
-baulks of timber, and a bucket, covered with a shield,
-sufficiently large to hold two people, and two guiding
-ropes to prevent the revolution of the bucket in mid
-air. There was also a party of navvies to look after
-the mechanical contrivances, and two ladders about
-eight feet long to provide for contingencies at the
-bottom. Thirteen of us went down, including three
-ladies. As we descended, the fissure gradually narrowed,
-until at the bottom it was not more than ten feet wide.
-The actual vertical descent was a hundred and ninety-eight
-feet. After running the gauntlet of the waterfall
-we landed in the bed of the stream, which hurried
-downwards over large boulders of limestone and lost
-itself in the darkness of a large cave, about seventy
-feet high. We traced it downwards, through pools and
-rapids to the first waterfall, of about twenty feet. This
-obstacle prevented most of the party going further, for
-the ladders were too short to reach to the bottom. By
-lashing them together, however, and letting them down,
-we were able to reach the first round with the aid of
-a rope, and to cross over the deep pool at the bottom.
-Thence we went on downwards through smaller waterfalls
-and rapids, until we arrived at a descent into a
-chamber, where the roar of water was deafening. Down
-to this point the daylight glimmered feebly, but here our
-torches made but little impression on the darkness. One
-of the party volunteered to go down with a rope, and
-was suddenly immersed in a deep pool; the rest,
-profiting by his misadventure, managed to cling on to
-small points of rock, and eventually to reach the floor<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45">45</a></span>
-of the chamber. We stood at last on the lowest
-accessible point of the cave, about 300 feet from the
-surface. It was indeed one of the most remarkable
-sights that could possibly be imagined. Besides the
-waterfall down which we came, a powerful stream poured
-out of a cave too high up for the torches to penetrate
-the darkness, and fell into a deep pool in the middle of
-the floor, causing such a powerful current of air that all
-our torches were blown out except one. The two streams
-eventually united and disappeared in a small black
-circling pool, which completely barred further ingress.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_4" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-  <img src="images/i_045.jpg" width="332" height="433" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Helln Pot, showing Waterfall at the Bottom.</div></div>
-
-<p>The floor of the pot and the cave was strewn with
-masses of limestone rounded by the action of the
-streams; and the water-channels were smoothed and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46">46</a></span>
-grooved and polished, in a most extraordinary way, by
-the silt and stones carried along by the current. Some
-of the layers of limestone were jet black, and others
-were of a light fawn-colour, and as the strata were
-nearly horizontal, the alternation of colours gave a
-peculiarly striking effect to the walls. Beneath each
-waterfall was a pool more or less deep, and here and
-there in the bed of the stream were holes, drilled in the
-rock by stones whirled round by the force of the water.
-High up, out of the present reach of the water, were old
-channels, which had evidently been watercourses before
-the pot and cave had been cut down to their present
-level. In the sides of the pot there are two vertical
-grooves reaching very nearly from the top to the bottom,
-which are unmistakeably the work of ancient waterfalls.
-There was no stalactite, but everywhere the water was
-wearing away the rock and enlarging the cave. We
-found our way back without any difficulty, a small
-passage on the right-hand side enabling us to avoid the
-very unpleasant task of scrambling up two of the waterfalls.
-We arrived finally at the top, after about five
-hours’ work in the cave, wet to the skin.</p>
-
-<p>We had very little trouble in making this descent,
-because of the completeness of Mr. Birkbeck’s preparations;
-but we could fully realize what a dangerous feat
-the first explorers performed when they ventured into
-an unknown chasm, comparatively unprepared. The
-very name “Helln Pot,” = Ællan Pot, or Mouth of Hell,
-testifies to the awe with which the Angles looked down
-into its recesses.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a></p>
-
-<p>Such is the interior of one of those great natural
-laboratories in which water is wearing away the solid<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47">47</a></span>
-rock, either hollowing it into caves or cutting it into
-ravines. At the bottom of Helln Pot it was impossible
-not to realize, that the enormous chasm had been
-formed by the same action as that by which it was
-being deepened before our eyes. It was merely a
-portion of the vast cave into which it led, which
-had been deprived of its roof, and opened out to
-the light of heaven. The bridge was but a fragment
-of the roof which happened to fall upon the two ledges.
-The rounded masses of rock at the bottom are fragments
-that have fallen probably within comparatively modern
-times. The absence of stalactites and of stalagmites
-proves that the destructive action is rapidly going on.</p>
-
-<p>The water-course at the bottom contained pebbles and
-boulders of limestone, and gritstone rounded by friction
-against one another and the rocky floor. The gritstone
-has probably been derived from the wreck of the boulder
-clay on the surface above the Helln Pot, and ultimately
-torn from the millstone grit of the higher hills in the
-district.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_23"><i>Caves and Pots at Weathercote.</i></h3>
-
-<div id="Fig_5" class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;">
-  <img src="images/i_048.jpg" width="381" height="391" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Waterfall in Pot-hole at Weathercote.</div></div>
-
-<p>On the north side of Ingleborough the series of
-caves and pots round the little Church of Chapel-en-le-Dale
-are especially worthy of attention. The chasm at
-Weathercote opens suddenly in the hill-side, and is
-perfectly accessible to visitors. You come suddenly
-upon a cleft a hundred feet deep, with its ledges covered
-with mosses, ferns, and brambles; at one end a
-body of water rushes from a cave, and under a great
-bridge of rock, and falls seventy-five feet, a mass of
-snow-white foam filling the bottom with spray (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>).
-The large masses of rock piled in wild confusion at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48">48</a></span>
-bottom, the dark shadows of the overhanging ledges,
-and the thick covering of green moss, to which the
-spray clings in tiny glittering drops, form a picture
-which cannot easily be forgotten. In the sunshine an
-almost circular rainbow is to be seen from the bottom.
-The stream passes from the bottom into a cave, and
-thence downwards to two large pots (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>), about two
-hundred yards away. In flood-time the channel has
-been known to become blocked up, and Weathercote has
-been filled to the brim. Usually after heavy rains the current
-is said to flow so violently into the first of the pot-holes,
-that it throws up stones at least thirty or forty feet
-from the bottom, with a peculiar rattling noise. From
-this strange phenomenon it is known as Jingle Pot, while
-the lower of the two is termed Hurtle Pot, because in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49">49</a></span>
-flood-time the water whirls so fast round, that it is
-“hurtled” out at the top. The water flowing through
-Weathercote is derived from the
-little stream of Ellerbeck, which
-disappears in the limestone hills
-about a mile to the north, and runs
-at right angles to Dalebeck, or the
-stream flowing down to Ingleton,
-which it has been proved to join
-at a spot below Jingle Pot, by
-Mr. Metcalfe, who made his way
-down into it from the chasm of
-Weathercote.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_6" class="figcenter" style="width: 914px;">
-  <img src="images/i_049.jpg" width="914" height="224" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Subterranean Course of Dalebeck.</div></div>
-
-<p>The course of Dalebeck, as you
-pass up the valley of Chapel-en-le-Dale,
-affords a striking instance of
-the dependence of scenery upon
-the nature of the rock. In its lower
-portion it has cut out for itself a
-deep ravine in the hard Silurian
-strata, in which you come upon
-the waterfalls, deep pools, and trees,
-that look as if they had been transported
-bodily from the district of
-Cader Idris, and inserted into the
-limestone scenery of the dales.
-The Silurian rocks are very much
-contorted, and on their waterworn
-edges lie the nearly horizontal limestone
-strata, in which the upper
-part of the valley has been scooped.
-As we rise the ravine opens into
-a valley (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>), along which the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50">50</a></span>
-beck flows, until suddenly it is lost in a fissure, at a place
-called Godsbridge. Its subterranean course is marked,
-first of all, by a small depression known as Sandpot, and
-still higher by Hurtle Pot. It ultimately reappears at
-the surface, above Weathercote, and after passing through
-a picturesque cavern, known as the Gatekirk, its fountainhead
-is reached. The subterranean portions of its course
-are in the same right line as the open valley, and the
-pot-holes have been formed in the same manner as
-Helln Pot, by the passage of water at a time when the
-drainage found its way down the valley at a higher
-level than at present, very much as it does now in times
-of extraordinary floods.</p>
-
-<p>Water-caves such as these are by no means uncommon
-in Yorkshire. In the dales there is scarcely a mass of
-limestone without its subterranean water system, as well
-as channels deserted by water, which are now dry caves
-situated at higher levels. These are always arranged on
-the line of the natural drainage, and generally open on
-the sides of the valleys and precipices. If you look
-northward from the flat crown of Ingleborough, you can
-see the ravines which radiate from it on the surface of
-the shale below, abruptly ending in pot-holes when they
-reach the limestone. In each case the streams reappear,
-issuing out of the caves at the points in Chapel-en-le-Dale,
-where the horizontal beds of limestone rest on the
-upturned edges of the impermeable Silurian rocks.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_24"><i>The Formation of Caves and their Relation to Pot-holes
-and Ravines.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The general conditions under which caves occur in
-limestone rocks, and the phenomena which they present,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">51</a></span>
-may be gathered from the above examples. Universally
-the pot-holes, ravines, and caverns are so associated
-together, that there can be but little doubt that they are
-due to the operation of the same causes.</p>
-
-<p>It requires but a cursory glance to see at once that
-running water was the main agent. The limestone is so
-traversed by joints and lines of shrinkage, that the
-water rapidly sinks down into its mass, and collects in
-small streams, which owe their direction to the dip of
-the strata and the position of the fissures. These
-channels are being continually deepened and widened
-by the mere mechanical action of the passage of stones
-and silt. But this is not the only way in which the
-rock is gradually eroded. The limestone is composed in
-great part of pure carbonate of lime, which is insoluble
-in water. It is, however, readily dissolved in any liquid
-containing carbonic acid, which is an essential part of
-our atmosphere, is invariably present in the rain-water,
-and is given off by all organic bodies. By this invisible
-agent the hard crystalline rock is always being
-attacked in some form or another. The very snails that
-take refuge in its crannies leave an enduring mark of their
-presence in a surface fretted with their acid exhalations,
-which sometimes pass current among geologists for the
-borings of pholades, and are the innocent cause of much
-speculation as to the depression of the mountain-tops
-beneath the sea in comparatively modern times. The
-carbonic acid taken up by the rain is derived, in the
-main, from the decomposing vegetable matter which
-generally forms the surface soil on the limestone.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_7" class="figleft up1" style="width: 90px;">
-  <img src="images/i_052.jpg" width="90" height="226" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Diagram of an acid-worn joint, Doveholes, Derbyshire.</div></div>
-
-<p>The view from the ancient camp on the top of Ingleborough
-offers a striking example of the effect of rain-water
-in eroding the surface of the limestone. As you<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52">52</a></span>
-look down over the dark crags of millstone grit, great,
-grey, pavement-like masses of limestone strike the eye,
-standing above the heather, perfectly bare, and in the
-distance resembling clearings, and in rainy weather
-sheets of snow. On approaching them the surface of
-erosion becomes more and more apparent, and the shapes
-due to the mere accident of varying hardness in the rock,
-or the varying quantity of water passing over it, present
-a most astonishing variety. There are, however, general
-principles underlying the confusion. The lines of joints
-in the strata being lines of weakness, searched out by
-the acid-laden water, have been widened into chasms,
-sometimes of considerable depth; and as they cross
-at right angles, the whole surface is formed of rectangular
-masses, each insulated from its fellow, and some of
-them detached from the strata beneath so as to form
-rocking-stones. The mode in which the acid
-has attacked one of these joints in the limestone
-of Doveholes in Derbyshire is represented
-in <a href="#Fig_7">Figure 7</a>, the surface being honeycombed
-and worn into sharp points, solely by
-chemical action. The minute fossil-shells also,
-and fragments of crinoid standing out in bold
-relief, lead to the same conclusion&mdash;that the
-denuding agent is chemical and not mechanical.
-Each of the upper surfaces of the blocks
-is traversed by small depressions, which are
-valley systems in miniature, in which the tiny
-valleys converge into a main trunk leading
-into the nearest chasm. There are also tiny caves and
-hollows, that are sometimes mistaken for borings made by
-pholas. In the chasms the vegetation is most luxuriant,
-and the dark green fronds of harts-tongue, the delicate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53">53</a></span>
-Lady-fern, and the graceful <i class="taxonomy">Asplenium nigrum</i>, grow
-with a rare luxuriance.</p>
-
-<p>In these pavements every feature of limestone scenery
-is represented on a minute scale. There are the valley
-systems on the surface, determined by the direction of
-the drainage; the long chasms represent the open valleys
-and ravines, and the caves and hollows, for the most
-part, run in the line of the joints.</p>
-
-<p>The carbonic acid has left precisely the same kind of
-proof of its work within the caves as we find above-ground;
-and it would necessarily follow, that to it, as
-well as to the mechanical power of the waters flowing
-through them, their formation and enlargement
-must be due, as Professor Phillips has pointed out in
-his “Rivers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of Yorkshire,”
-pp. 30&ndash;1.</p>
-
-<p>From the preceding pages it will be seen that caves
-in calcareous rocks are merely passages hollowed out
-by water, which has sought out the lines of weakness,
-or the joints formed by the shrinkage of the strata
-during their consolidation. The work of the carbonic
-acid is proved, not merely by the acid-worn surfaces of
-the interior of the caves, but also by the large quantity
-of carbonate of lime which is carried away by the water
-in solution. That, on the other hand, of the mechanical
-friction of the stones and sand against the sides and
-bottom of the water-courses, is sufficiently demonstrated
-by their grooved, scratched, and polished surfaces, and
-by the sand, silt, and gravel carried along by the
-currents. The generally received hypothesis, that they
-have been the result of a subterranean convulsion, is
-disproved by the floor and roof being formed, in very
-nearly every case, of solid rock; for it would be unreasonable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54">54</a></span>
-to hold that any subterranean force could act
-from below, in such a manner as to hollow out the
-complicated and branching passages, at different levels,
-without affecting the whole mass of the rock. Nor is
-there cause for holding the view put forth by M. Desnoyers<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a>
-or M. Dupont,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> that they are the result of the
-passage of hydrothermal waters. The causes at present
-at work, operating through long periods of time, offer a
-reasonable explanation of their existence in every limestone
-district; and those which are no longer watercourses
-can generally be proved to have been formerly traversed
-by running water, by the silt, sand, and rounded pebbles
-which they contain. In their case, either the drainage
-of the district has been changed by the upheaval or
-depression of the rock, or the streams have searched out
-for themselves a passage at a lower level.</p>
-
-<p>But if caves have been thus excavated, it is obvious
-that ravines and valleys in limestone districts are due
-to the operation of the same causes. If, for instance,
-we refer to <a href="#Fig_1">Figures 1</a> and <a href="#Fig_6">6</a>, we shall see that the open
-valley passes insensibly into a ravine, and that into a
-cave. The ravine is merely a cave which has lost its
-roof, and the valley is merely the result of the weathering
-of the sides of the ravine. There can be no manner
-of doubt but that, in both these cases, the ravine is
-gradually encroaching on the cave, and the valley on
-the ravine; and if the strata be exposed to atmospheric
-agencies long enough, the valley of the Axe will extend
-as far as Priddy (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>), and that of Dalebeck to the
-watershed above the Gatekirk cave (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55">55</a></span>
-In the same manner the lofty precipice of Malham
-Cove, near Settle, in Yorkshire (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>), is slowly falling
-away and uncovering the subterranean course of the
-Aire. Eventually the ravine thus formed will extend as
-far as Malham Tarn, and the Aire flow exposed to the
-light of day from its source to the sea.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a></p>
-
-<div id="Fig_8" class="figcenter" style="width: 472px;">
-  <img src="images/i_055.jpg" width="472" height="196" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Source of the Aire at Malham.</div></div>
-
-<p>This view is applicable to many if not to all ravines
-and valleys in calcareous rocks, such as the Pass at
-Cheddar, or the gorge of the Avon at Clifton, and those
-of Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Wales. And since the
-agents by which the work is done are universal, and
-calcareous rock for the most part of the same chemical
-composition, the results are the same, and the calcareous
-scenery everywhere of the same type. In the lapse of
-past time, so enormous as to be incapable of being grasped
-by the human intellect, these agents are fully capable
-of producing the deepest ravines, the widest valleys,
-and the largest caves.</p>
-
-<p>This view of the relation of caves to ravines was so
-strongly held by M. Desnoyers, that he terms the latter
-“cavernes à ciel ouvert.” I arrived independently at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56">56</a></span>
-the same conclusion after the study of the scenery of
-limestone for many years.</p>
-
-<p>In many cases, however, in northern latitudes and in
-high altitudes, the ravine or valley so formed has been
-subsequently widened and deepened by glacial action.
-That, for instance, of Chapel-en-le-Dale bears unmistakeable
-evidence of the former flow of a glacier, in the
-<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">roches moutonnées</i> and travelled blocks that it contains.
-To this is due the flowing contour and even slope of its
-lower portion.</p>
-
-<p>The pot-holes and “cirques” in calcareous rocks with
-no outlet at the surface, may also be accounted for by the
-operation of the same causes as those which have produced
-caves. Each represents the weak point towards
-which the rainfall has converged, caused very generally
-by the intersection of the joints. This has gradually
-been widened out, because the upper portions of the rock
-would be the first to seize the atoms of carbonic acid,
-and thus be dissolved more quickly than the lower
-portions. Hence the funnel shape which they generally
-assume, and which can be studied equally in the
-compact limestone or in the soft upper chalk. They
-are to be seen on a small scale also in all limestone
-“pavements.” Sometimes, however, the first chance
-which the upper portions of the funnels have of being
-eroded by the acidulated water, is more than counter-balanced
-by the increased quantity converging at the
-bottom, and the funnel ends in a vertical shaft. If the
-area in the rock thus excavated be sufficiently large to
-allow of the development of a current of water, the
-mechanical action of the fragments swept along its course
-will have an important share in the work, as we have
-seen to be the case in Helln Pot.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57">57</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_25"><i>Caves not generally found in Line of Faults.</i></h3>
-
-<p>In some few cases the lines of weakness which have
-been worn into caves, pot-holes, ravines, and valleys,
-may have been produced, as M. Desnoyers believes,
-by subterranean movements of elevation and depression;
-but in all those which I have investigated the faults
-do not determine the direction of the caverns. The
-mountain limestone of Castleton, in Derbyshire, offers
-an example of caves intersecting faults without any definite
-relation being traceable between them. The ramifications
-of the Peak cavern traverse the Speedwell Mine
-nearly at right angles, and the water flowing through
-it has been traced, Mr. Pennington informs me, to a
-swallow-hole near Chapel-en-le-Frith, running across two,
-if not three faults, which are laid down in the geological
-map. As a general rule caverns are as little affected
-by disturbance of the rock as ravines and valleys which
-have been formed in the main irrespective of the lines
-of fault.</p>
-
-<p>M. Desnoyers points out the close analogy between
-caverns and mineral veins, and infers that both are due
-to the same causes. This, undoubtedly, exists in that
-class of veins which are known to miners as “pipe”
-and “flat veins;” and there is clear proof, in the
-majority of cases, that the cavities in which the minerals
-occur have been formed by the action of running water,
-and have subsequently been more or less filled with
-their mineral contents; and these have been deposited
-on the sides of the cavity by the same “incretionary<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a>”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58">58</a></span>
-action, as that by which dripstone is now being formed
-in the present caves from the solution of carbonate of lime.
-Such veins present every conceivable form of irregularity,
-and frequently contain silt, sand, and gravel,
-which have been left behind by their streams, and their
-history is identical with that of the caverns.</p>
-
-<p>It is not so, however, with the second class of veins, the
-“rake,” “right running,” and “cross courses,” as the
-miners term them, or those which occupy lines of fault.
-The fissures which contain the ore are proved very frequently,
-by their scratched and grooved sides, and polished
-surfaces or slicken-sides, to have been the result of subterranean
-movements by which the rock has been broken
-by mechanical force. They have been subsequently
-modified, in various ways, by the passage of water, and
-filled with minerals, in the same manner as the preceding
-class. With this exception they present no analogy
-to the caverns, with which they contrast strongly in their
-rectilinear direction, as well as in their purely mechanical
-origin.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_26"><i>The various Ages of Caves.</i></h3>
-
-<p>It is very probable that caves were formed in calcareous
-rocks from the time that they were raised to the
-level of the sea, since they abound in the Coral Islands.
-“Caverns,” writes Prof. Dana,<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> “are still more remarkable
-on the Island of Atiu, on which the coral-reef<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59">59</a></span>
-stands at about the same height above the sea as on
-Oahu. The Rev. John Williams states&mdash;that there are
-seven or eight of large extent on the Island of Tuto;
-one he entered by a descent of twenty feet, and wandered
-a mile in one only of its branches, without finding an
-end to ‘its interminable windings.’ He says&mdash;‘Innumerable
-openings presented themselves on all sides as
-we passed along, many of which appeared to be equal
-in height, beauty, and extent to the one we were following.
-The roof, a stratum of coral-rock fifteen feet thick,
-was supported by massy and superb stalactitic columns,
-besides being thickly hung with stalactites from an inch
-to many feet in length. Some of these pendants were just
-ready to unite themselves to the floor, or to a stalagmitic
-column rising from it. Many chambers were passed
-through whose fret-work ceilings and columns of stalactites
-sparkled brilliantly, amid the darkness, with the
-reflected light of our torches. The effect was produced
-not so much by single objects, or groups of them, as by
-the amplitude, the depth, and the complications of this
-subterranean world.’”</p>
-
-<p>Calcareous rocks might, therefore, be expected to contain
-fissures and caves of various ages. In the Mendip
-Hills they have been proved by Mr. Charles Moore to
-contain fossils of Rhætic age, the characteristic dog-fishes,
-<i class="taxonomy">Acrodus minimus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">Hybodus reticulatus</i>, the elegant
-sculptured Ganoid fish, <i class="taxonomy">Gryrolepis tenuistriatus</i>, and the
-tiny marsupials, Microlestes and its allies. This singular
-association of terrestrial with marine creatures is due to
-the fact, that while that area was being slowly depressed
-beneath the Rhætic and Liassic seas, the remains were
-mingled together on the coast-line, and washed into the
-crevices and holes in the rock.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60">60</a></span>
-The older caves and fissures have very generally been
-blocked up by accumulations of calc-spar or other minerals,
-and they are arranged on a plan altogether independent
-of the existing systems of drainage.</p>
-
-<p>It is a singular fact that no fissures or caves should,
-with the above exception, contain the remains of animals
-of a date before the Pleistocene age. There can be but
-little doubt that they were used as places of shelter in all
-ages, and they must have entombed the remains of the
-animals that fell into them, or were swept into them by
-the streams. Caves there must have been long before, and
-the Eocene Palæotheres, and Anoplotheres met their death
-in the open pit-falls, just as the sheep and cattle do at
-the present time. The Hyænodon of the Meiocene had,
-probably, the same cave-haunting tastes as his descendant,
-the living Hyæna, and the marsupials of the Mesozoic
-age might be expected to be preserved in caves, like the
-fossil marsupials of Australia. The chances of preservation
-of the remains when once cemented into a fine
-breccia, or sealed down with a crystalline covering of
-stalagmite, are very nearly the same as those under
-which the Pleistocene animals have been handed down
-to us. The only reasonable explanation of the non-discovery
-of such remains seems to be, that the ancient
-suites of caves and fissures containing them, and for the
-most part near the then surface of the rock, have been
-completely swept away by denudation, while the present
-caverns were either then not excavated or inaccessible.</p>
-
-<p>Such an hypothesis will explain the fact that the
-no ossiferous caverns are older than the Pleistocene age,
-not merely in Europe, but in North and South America,
-Australia, and New Zealand. The effect of denudation
-in rendering the geological record imperfect, may be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61">61</a></span>
-gathered from the estimate, which Mr. Prestwich has
-formed, of the amount of rock removed from the crests
-of the Mendips and the Ardennes, which is in the one
-case a thickness “of two miles and more,” and in the
-other as much as “three or four miles.”<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> Under these
-conditions we could not expect to find a series of bone
-caves reaching far back into the remote geological past,
-since the caves and their contents would inevitably be
-destroyed.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_27"><i>The Filling up of Caves.</i></h3>
-
-<p>We must now consider the condition under which
-caves become filled up with various deposits. If the
-velocity of the stream in a water-cave be lessened, the
-silt, sand, or pebbles it was hurrying along will be
-dropped, and may ultimately block up the entire watercourse.
-In bringing this to pass, however, the carbonate
-of lime in the water plays a most important part. If
-the excess of carbonic acid by which it is held in solution
-be lost by evaporation, it immediately reassumes its
-crystalline form, and shoots over the surface of the pool
-like plates of ice, or is deposited in loose botryoidal
-masses at their sides and on their bottoms; and, since
-the atmospheric water very generally percolates through
-the crannies in the rock, the sides and roof of the channel,
-above the level of the water, are adorned with a
-stony drapery of every conceivable shape. The rate at
-which this accumulation takes place depends upon the
-free access of air necessary for evaporation, and is
-therefore variable,&mdash;as in the case of the Ingleborough
-cave. In all the caves which I have examined<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62">62</a></span>
-there is a free current of air. If a water-channel becomes
-blocked up by either or both these causes, the joints and
-fissures in the rock offer an outlet to the drainage, more
-or less free, at a lower level, as in the Ingleborough
-cave, Poole’s cave, near Buxton, and many others.
-Sometimes, however, owing to the increased rain-fall,
-or to the obstruction of the lower channels, the water
-re-excavates the old passages, as we shall see to have
-been the case with the famous caverns of Kent’s Hole
-and Brixham. In the summer of 1872, a sudden rain-fall
-not merely opened out for itself a new passage into a
-swallow-hole close to Gaping Gill, on the flanks of Ingleborough,
-but forced its way out through the old entrance
-of the Ingleborough cave, breaking up the calcareous
-breccia, and removing the large stones in its course. A
-cave obviously may become dry, either by the drainage
-passing along a lower level, or by the elevation of the
-district by subterranean energy. After it has been forsaken
-by the stream, the particles brought down by the
-atmospheric water percolating through the joints, tend
-to fill it up on the surface, and these may be either of
-clay, loam, or sand.</p>
-
-<p>These actions may be studied in this country in the
-well-known caves of Ingleborough, Buxton, Cheddar,
-Wookey Hole, and a great many others in Derbyshire,
-Yorkshire, Staffordshire, Durham, Cumberland,
-and Wales.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_28"><i>The Cave of Caldy.</i></h3>
-
-<div id="Fig_9" class="figcenter" style="width: 365px;">
-  <img src="images/i_063.jpg" width="365" height="161" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;A View in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy.</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_10" class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;">
-  <img src="images/i_063b.jpg" width="377" height="244" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Stalagmites in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy.</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_11" class="figcenter" style="width: 348px;">
-  <img src="images/i_064.jpg" width="348" height="430" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;The Fairy Chamber, Caldy.</div></div>
-
-<p>Among the most beautiful stalactite caverns in this
-country is that on the island of Caldy, immediately
-opposite to Tenby in Pembrokeshire, discovered some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63">63</a></span>
-years ago in the limestone cliff, and explored by Mr.
-Ayshford Sanford and the Rev. H.&nbsp;H. Winwood, in
-1866, and subsequently by the writer in 1871 and
-1872. On creeping through a narrow entrance with an
-outlook to the sea on a precipitous side of a quarry, a
-passage leads to a chamber of considerable horizontal
-extent, the bottom being covered with silt, on which
-stand pedestals of dripstone from an inch to two feet
-in length, each rising from a thin calcareous crust
-which does not altogether conceal the silt below. From
-it a low entrance leads into a fairy-like chamber, the
-floor consisting of a rich red, crystalline pavement, perfectly
-horizontal, and studded here and there with round<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64">64</a></span>
-bosses (<a href="#Fig_9">Figs. 9</a>, <a href="#Fig_10">10</a>, <a href="#Fig_11">11</a>), either red or snow-white. From
-the roof hang stalactites offering the same beautiful contrast
-of colours, forming a delicate canopy of tassels, or
-passing downwards to the floor and constituting slender
-shafts about three feet long, and about the diameter of
-straws. Each of these is hollow, translucent, and more
-or less traversed by water, and in some places each stood
-next its fellow, almost as close as the straws in a cornfield.
-Sometimes the shaft stands on a cone (<a href="#Fig_11">Fig. 11</a>)
-of dripstone, more or less raised above the floor. Small
-pools of water occupy hollows in the pavement, each
-lined with glittering crystals of calcite (<a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a>), which
-are slowly shooting over the surface, and converting
-some of the open hollows into bottle-shaped cavities<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65">65</a></span>
-(<a href="#Fig_13">Fig. 13</a>). Their sides and bottoms are covered with a
-crystalline growth of singular beauty, of which an idea
-may be formed by <a href="#Fig_14">woodcut 14</a>, which represents the
-edge. Where the
-drip happened to
-fall into a shallow
-pool, it gradually
-built up for itself a cone, on the lower portion of which
-the varying water-level is marked by horizontal rings of
-crystals (<a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a>), and the normal waterline
-by the upper horizontal plate. Sometimes
-these were united to the roof by
-a slender straw-shaft. In <a href="#Fig_11">Figure 11</a> the
-original shaft has been broken away, and
-as the direction of the drip has slightly
-shifted, a new one gradually descended, until finally it
-became cemented to the side of the cone.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_12" class="figright up1" style="width: 326px;">
-  <img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="326" height="58" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Pools in Fairy Chamber.</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_13" class="figright" style="width: 131px;">
-  <img src="images/i_065b.jpg" width="131" height="97" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Pool in Fairy Chamber.</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_14" class="figleft" style="width: 269px;">
-  <img src="images/i_065c.jpg" width="269" height="240" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Edge of Pool in Fairy Chamber.</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_15" class="figright" style="width: 179px;">
-  <img src="images/i_065d.jpg" width="179" height="216" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Cone with Straw-column.</div></div>
-
-<p>The history of these structures is very evident. The
-straw-like stalactites were formed by the evaporation
-of the carbonic acid from the surface of each drop of
-water, as it accumulated in one spot, and the consequent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66">66</a></span>
-deposit of carbonate of lime around its circumference.
-It could not be formed in the centre, because of the
-continual movement of the successive drops in falling.
-By a circumferential growth of this kind a small crystal
-tube, of the diameter of a drop, is slowly developed,
-which continues to lengthen until the result is one of the
-straw-columns, with a hole in the centre for the passage
-of the water, which cannot readily part with its carbonic
-acid till it arrives at the end of the tube. Sometimes
-the hole has been subsequently blocked up by calc-spar,
-or the general surface been covered over with successive
-layers, until it becomes a mass of considerable diameter.
-If the drop fell into a deep pool, the straw-column was
-continued down to the water-line; if in shallow water,
-or on the floor, a pedestal was built up, as is represented
-in the preceding figures. The crystallization going on in
-the pools is greater at the surface than below, because of
-the greater evaporation, and consequently the stalagmitic
-film is gradually extending over it on every side from
-the edges (<a href="#Fig_12">Figs. 12</a>, <a href="#Fig_13">13</a>).</p>
-
-<p>As I broke my way into some of the unexplored
-recesses, through the thickly planted straw-shafts, and
-scene after scene of fairy beauty, unsullied by man,
-opened upon my eyes, the ringing of the fragments on
-the crystalline floor that accompanied almost every
-movement made me feel an intruder, and sorry for
-the destruction.</p>
-
-<p>In some places, where the drip was continuous, and
-the calcareous basin which it had built up for itself
-shallow, small spherical bodies of calcite were so beautifully
-polished by friction in the agitated water, that they
-deserve the name of cave-pearls from their lustre. In
-<a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a> I have represented a tiny basin with its pearly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67">67</a></span>
-contents. Where the drip had ceased to be continuous
-each of these formed a nucleus for the deposit of calcite
-crystals, by which they were united to the bottom of
-the basin.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_16" class="figleft" style="width: 252px;">
-  <img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="252" height="113" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Basin containing Cave-pearls.</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_17" class="figright" style="width: 237px;">
-  <img src="images/i_067b.jpg" width="237" height="179" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Fungoid Structures, magnified.</div></div>
-
-<p>In the principal chamber in the cave, which is very
-nearly free from drip, the upper surfaces of the stones
-and stalagmites on the floor are covered with a peculiar
-fungoid-like deposit of calcite, consisting of rounded
-bosses, attached to the general
-surface by a pedicle
-(see <a href="#Fig_17">Figs. 17</a>, <a href="#Fig_18">18</a>) sometimes
-not much thicker
-than a hair. They stood
-close together at various
-levels, following the inequalities of the surface of
-attachment, and being on an average about 0·2 inch
-long. Several microscopical sections (<a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>) showed
-that each was formed originally
-on a slight elevation
-of the general surface, which
-would cause a greater evaporation
-of water than the
-surrounding portions, and
-therefore be covered with a
-greater deposit of calcite.
-This process would go on
-until the height was reached
-to which the water slowly passing over the general
-surface would no longer rise. Hence the remarkable
-uniformity of the height of the bosses. The evaporation
-is greater at the point furthest removed from
-the general surface, and therefore the apex is larger
-than the base (see <a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>). In <a href="#Fig_18">Figure 18</a> they stand<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68">68</a></span>
-as thickly together as trees in a virgin forest, and
-are developed in greatest vigour where the small eminences
-cause a greater evaporation than the small depressions,
-and are stoutest and strongest at the free edges.
-Some of the pedicles, as in the figure, present traces of
-erosion, the outer layers having been eaten away by acid-laden
-water.</p>
-
-<p>Some of these singular little bosses may have been
-moulded on minute fungi, such as those in the cave of
-Ingleborough, but their presence is not revealed by the
-microscope.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_29"><i>The Black-rock Cave, near Tenby.</i></h3>
-
-<div id="Fig_18" class="figleft" style="width: 253px;">
-  <img src="images/i_068.jpg" width="253" height="152" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Fungoid Structure, Black-rock Cave.</div></div>
-
-<p>I met with this remarkable kind of calcareous deposition
-in a second cave in the neighbourhood of Tenby.
-When examining the Black-rock quarries in 1871, the
-workmen pointed out a small opening which they believed
-to be the entrance of a cave, but which was too
-small for them to enter. By knocking off, however, a
-few sharp angles, I got into a small chamber about five
-feet high, with sides, roof, and bottom covered with
-massive dripstone. A few
-loose stones rested on the
-bottom. The whole surface,
-even including the
-stones upon the floor, one of
-which is figured (<a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>),
-was so completely covered
-with these peculiar fungoid
-bodies, that it was impossible
-to move without destroying hundreds of them.
-All were about the same height, 0·2 inches, snow-white,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69">69</a></span>
-or of a rich reddish brown, and conformed to the unequal
-surface on which they stood. It is quite impossible to
-describe the effect of a whole chamber bristling with
-these peculiar structures. The only author by whom
-they are mentioned, Mr. John Beaumont&mdash;who described
-the caves of Mendip in 1680, considered them to be
-veritable plants of stone.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> The beautiful forms assumed
-by the dripstone in the caves of Caldy and Black-rock
-are by no means uncommon, but I have never met with
-them anywhere else in such perfection. They may be
-studied in all stalactitic caverns.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_30"><i>Great Quantity of Carbonate of Lime dissolved by
-Atmospheric Water.</i></h3>
-
-<p>A small portion only of the carbonate of lime is deposited
-as tufa or dripstone in the neighbourhood of the
-rock from which it has been derived, as compared with
-that carried by the streams into the rivers, and the
-rivers into the sea. An idea of this quantity may be
-formed from the calculation of the solid matter conveyed
-down by the Thames, given by Mr. Prestwich in
-his Presidential Address to the Geological Society in
-1871, p. lxvii.</p>
-
-<p>“Taking the mean daily discharge of the Thames at
-Kingston at 1,250,000,000 gallons, and the salts in solution
-at nineteen grains per gallon, the mean quantity of
-dissolved mineral matter there carried down by the
-Thames every twenty-four hours is equal to 3,364,286
-lbs., or 150 tons, which is equal to 548,230 tons in the
-year. Of this daily quantity about two-thirds, or say<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70">70</a></span>
-1,000 tons, consist of carbonate of lime and 238 tons of
-sulphate of lime, while limited proportions of carbonate
-of magnesia, chlorides of sodium and potassium, sulphates
-of soda and potash, silica and traces of iron,
-alumina, and phosphates, constitute the rest. If we
-refer a small portion of the carbonates and the sulphates
-and chlorides chiefly to the impermeable argillaceous
-formations washed by the rain-water, we shall still have
-at least ten grains per gallon of carbonate of lime, due
-to the chalk, upper greensand, oolitic strata, and marlstone,
-the superficial area of which, in the Thames basin
-above Kingston, is estimated by Mr. Harrison at 2,072
-square miles. Therefore the quantity of carbonate of
-lime carried away from this area by the Thames is equal
-to 797 tons daily, or 290,905 tons annually, which gives
-140 tons removed yearly from each square mile; or, extending
-the calculation to a century, we have a total
-removal of 29,090,500 tons, or of 14,000 tons from
-each square mile of surface. Taking a ton of chalk, as
-a mean, as equal to fifteen cubic feet, this is equal to
-the removal of 210,000 cubic feet per century for each
-square mile, or of 9/100 of an inch from the whole surface
-in the course of a century, so that in the course of
-13,200 years a quantity equal to a thickness of about
-one foot would be removed from our chalk and oolitic
-districts.”</p>
-
-<p>This destructive action, operating through long periods
-of time, destroys not merely the general surface of the
-limestone, but, where it is localized by the convergence
-of water, is capable of excavating the deepest gorges
-and the longest caves. The quantity of material carried
-away in solution is a measure of the power of carbonic
-acid in the general work of denudation.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71">71</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_31"><i>The Circulation of Carbonate of Lime.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The circulation of carbonate of lime in nature presents
-us with a never-ending cycle of change. It is
-conveyed into the sea to be built up into the tissues
-of the animal and vegetable inhabitants. It appears in
-the gorgeous corallines, nullipores, calcareous sea-weeds,
-sea-shells, and in the armour of crustaceans. In the tissues
-of the coral-zoophytes it assumes the form of stony
-groves, of which each tree is a colony of animals, and in
-the wave-defying reef it reverts to its original state of
-limestone. Or, again, it is seized upon by tiny masses of
-structureless protoplasm, and fashioned into chambers of
-endless variety and of infinite beauty, and accumulated
-at the bottom of the deeper seas, forming a deposit analogous
-to our chalk. In the revolution of ages the bottom
-of the sea becomes dry land, the calcareous <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">débris</i> of
-animal and vegetable life is more or less compacted
-together by pressure and by the infiltration of acid-laden
-rain-water, and appears as limestone of various
-hardness and constitution. Then the destruction begins
-again, and caves, pot-holes, and ravines are again carved
-out of the solid rock.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_32"><i>The Temperature of Caves.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The air in caves is generally of the same temperature
-as the mean annual temperature of the district in which
-they occur, and therefore cold in summer and warm in
-winter. This would be a sufficient reason why they
-should be chosen by uncivilized peoples as habitations.</p>
-
-<p>The very remarkable glacières, or caves containing ice
-instead of water, in the Jura, Pyrenees, in Teneriffe, Iceland,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72">72</a></span>
-and other districts of high altitude and low temperature,
-in which the temperature even in summer does not
-rise much above freezing-point, may be explained by the
-theory advanced independently by De Luc and the Rev.
-G.&nbsp;F. Browne. “The heavy cold air of winter,” writes
-the latter, “sinks down into the glacières, and the
-lighter, warm air of summer cannot on ordinary principles
-dislodge it, so that heat is very slowly spread in
-the caves; and even when some amount of heat does
-reach the ice, the latter melts but slowly, since a kilogramme
-of ice absorbs 79° C. of heat in melting; and
-thus when ice is once formed, it becomes a material
-guarantee for the permanence of cold in the cave. For
-this explanation to hold good it is necessary that the
-level at which the ice is found should be below the level
-of the entrance to the cave; otherwise the mere weight of
-the cold air would cause it to leave its prison as soon as
-the spring warmth arrived.” It is also necessary that the
-cave should be protected from direct radiation and from
-the action of wind. These conditions are satisfied by all
-the glacières explored by Mr. Browne.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> The apparent
-anomaly that one only out of a group of caves exposed
-to the same temperatures should be a glacière, may be
-explained by the fact that these conditions are found in
-combination but rarely, and if one were absent there
-would be no accumulation of perpetual ice. It is very
-probable that the store of cold laid up in these caves,
-as in an ice-house, has been ultimately derived from
-the great refrigeration of climate in Europe in the
-Glacial Period.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73">73</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_33"><i>Conclusion.</i></h3>
-
-<p>In this chapter we have examined the physical history
-of caves, their formation, and their relation to pot-holes,
-cirques, and ravines; and we have seen that they are
-not the result of subterranean disturbance, but of the
-mechanical action of rain-water and the chemical action
-of carbonic acid, both operating from above. We have
-seen that cave-hunting is not merely an adventurous
-amusement, but also a quest that brings us into a great
-laboratory, so to speak, in which we can see the natural
-agents at work that have carved out the valleys and
-gorges, and shaped the hills wherever the calcareous
-rocks are to be found.</p>
-
-<p>The rest of this treatise will be devoted to the
-evidence which they offer as to the former inhabitants,
-both men and animals, of Europe.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74">74</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">HISTORIC CAVES IN BRITAIN.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote class="inhead">
-
-<p>Definition of Historic Period.&mdash;Wild Animals in Britain during the
-Historic Period.&mdash;Animals living under the care of Man.&mdash;Classificatory
-value of Historic Animals.&mdash;The Victoria Cave, Settle,
-Yorkshire.&mdash;History of Discovery.&mdash;The Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh
-Stratum.&mdash;The Bones of the Animals.&mdash;Miscellaneous
-Articles.&mdash;The Coins.&mdash;The Jewelry, and its Relation to Irish
-Art.&mdash;Similar Remains in other Caves in Yorkshire.&mdash;These Caves
-used as Places of Refuge.&mdash;The evidence of History as to Date.&mdash;Britain
-under the Romans.&mdash;The Inroads of the Picts and Scots.&mdash;The
-English Conquest.&mdash;The Neolithic Stratum.&mdash;The approximate
-Date of the Neolithic Occupation.&mdash;The Grey Clays.&mdash;The
-Pleistocene Occupation by the Hyænas.&mdash;The probable Preglacial
-Age of the Pleistocene Stratum.&mdash;The Kirkhead Cave.&mdash;Poole’s
-Cave, near Buxton.&mdash;Thor’s Cave, near Ashbourne.&mdash;Historic value
-of Brit-Welsh Group of Caves.&mdash;Principal Animals and Articles.&mdash;The
-use of Horse-flesh.&mdash;The Cave of Long-berry Bank.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_34"><i>Definition of Historic Period.</i></h3>
-
-<p class="in0">In the preceding chapter the origin of caves has been
-discussed, as well as their relation to the physical geography
-of the districts in which they are found. We
-must now pass on to the biological division of the subject,
-which relates to the animals that they contain and
-the inferences that may be drawn from their occurrence.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75">75</a></span>
-The caves will be divided into historic, prehistoric, and
-pleistocene, according to the principles laid down in the
-<a href="#CHAPTER_I">first</a> chapter.</p>
-
-<p>It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to define
-with precision the point where legend ends and history
-begins; but the line may be drawn with convenience at
-the first beginning of a connected and continuous narrative,
-rather than at the first isolated notice of a country.
-If we accept this definition, the historic period in Great
-Britain cannot be extended further back than the temporary
-invasion of Julius Cæsar, <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> 55, even if so far,
-since of the interval that elapsed between that event and
-the subjugation under Claudius, in the year <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 43, we
-know scarcely anything. Of the events which happened
-in this country before Cæsar’s invasion there is no documentary
-evidence, although, by the modern method of
-scientific research, we are able to extend the narrative
-away from the borders of history far back into the archæological
-and geological past.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_35"><i>Wild Animals in Britain during the Historic Period.</i></h3>
-
-<p>During the historic period great changes have taken
-place in the animals inhabiting Great Britain. The wild
-animals have been diminished in number, and their
-area of occupation has been narrowed by the increase
-of population and the improvement in weapons of destruction.
-The brown bear, inhabiting Britain during
-the time of the Roman occupation, was extirpated probably
-before the tenth century. The current belief that
-it was destroyed in Scotland by the founder of the
-Gordon family in 1057 is unsupported by any documentary
-evidence which I have been able to discover;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76">76</a></span>
-the crest of the Gordons, which is supposed to have been
-derived from the last of those animals slain in the island,
-consisting of three boars’, not <em>bears’</em>, heads. The last
-wolf is said to have been destroyed in Scotland in 1680,
-while in Ireland the animal lingered thirty years later to
-be a terror to the defenceless beggars. It was deemed
-worthy of a special decree for its destruction in the reign
-of Edward I. The wild boar was extinct before the
-reign of Charles I., while the beaver, which was hunted
-for its fur on the banks of the Teivi in Cardiganshire
-during the time of the first Crusade, became extinct
-shortly afterwards. The stag was so abundant in the
-south of England as recently as the reign of Queen
-Anne, that she saw a herd of no less than five hundred
-between London and Portsmouth. At present the animal
-lives only in a half-wild condition, in the forest of Exmoor
-and the Highlands of Scotland; while the roedeer
-is now only found wild in Scotland, although it formerly
-ranged throughout the length and breadth of the
-country.</p>
-
-<p>The reindeer is proved to have been living in Caithness
-as late as the year 1159, by a passage in the
-Orkneyinga Saga.</p>
-
-<p>The common rat, <i class="taxonomy">Mus decumanus</i>, is the only wild or
-semi-wild animal that has migrated into this country
-during the historic period contrary to the will of man.
-In 1727 it (<i class="taxonomy">Pallas, Glires</i>) had begun to invade
-Southern Russia from the regions of Persia and the
-Caspian Sea. Thence it swiftly spread over Asia Minor,
-and while it was advancing to the west overland, it
-was carried by ships to nearly all the ports in the
-world. It arrived in Britain certainly before the year
-1730, and has since nearly exterminated the black<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77">77</a></span>
-indigenous species. It is the only wild animal which
-is known to have invaded Europe since the pleistocene
-age, with the exception, perhaps, of the true elk.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_36"><i>Animals living under the care of Man.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The fallow-deer, indigenous in the countries bordering
-on the Mediterranean, was probably introduced by the
-Romans, since its remains occur in refuse-heaps of
-Roman age, such as that of London Wall, and of Colchester,
-while it has not been met with in older deposits.
-To them, also, we probably owe the introduction of the
-pheasant, which was sufficiently abundant in the neighbourhood
-of London in the time of Harold to be
-mentioned as one of the articles of food eaten on feast-days
-by the households of the Canons at Waltham Abbey
-in 1059. The domestic fowl has left the first traces of
-its presence in this country in the Roman refuse-heaps,
-although it was known to the Belgæ, according to the
-testimony of Cæsar, before the first Roman invasion.</p>
-
-<p>The earliest mention of the domestic cat in this
-country is to be found in the laws of Howel Dha,<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> that
-were probably codified at the end of the tenth or in the
-eleventh century, although many of the enactments may
-be of a much earlier date. The king’s cat is assessed at
-eightpence, or twice as much as that belonging to any
-subject. The ass<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> was certainly known in Britain in the
-days of Æthelred (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 866&ndash;871), when, according to Professor
-Bell, its price was fixed at the large sum of twelve
-shillings. The larger breed of cattle represented by the
-Chillingham ox, and descended from the great Urus,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78">78</a></span>
-first appears in this country about the time of the English
-invasion. It gradually spread over those districts
-conquered by the English, until the small aboriginal
-dark-coloured, short-horn <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, which was
-the only domestic breed in the prehistoric and Roman
-times, is now only to be met with in the hill country of
-Wales and of Scotland, in which the Brit-Welsh or
-Romano-Celtic inhabitants still survive.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_37"><i>Classificatory value of Historic Animals.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The principal changes in the fauna of Great Britain
-during the historic age are the extinction of the bear,
-wolf, beaver, reindeer, and wild boar, and the introduction
-of the domestic fowl, the pheasant, fallow-deer, ass,
-the domestic cat, the larger breed of oxen, and the common
-rat; and as this took place at different times, it is
-obvious that these animals enable us to ascertain the
-approximate date of the deposit in which their remains
-happen to occur. And for this purpose the following
-table<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> may be <span class="locked">consulted:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<div id="list_78"><div id="list_79">
-<table id="exin" summary="animals extinct and introduced">
-  <tr class="hdr">
-    <td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Animals Extinct.</span></td></tr>
-  <tr class="smaller">
-    <td> </td>
-    <td> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Brown bear</td>
-    <td class="tdc">circa</td>
-    <td class="tdc">500&ndash;1000</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Reindeer</td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td>
-    <td class="tdc">1200</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Beaver</td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td>
-    <td class="tdc">11&ndash;1200</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Wolf</td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td>
-    <td class="tdc">1680</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Wild boar</td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td>
-    <td class="tdc">1620</td></tr>
-  <tr class="hdr">
-    <td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Animals Introduced.</span><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79">79</a></span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Domestic fowl</td>
-    <td class="tdc">before</td>
-    <td class="tdc">55 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Fallow-deer</td>
-    <td class="tdc">circa</td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Pheasant</td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Domestic ox of Urus type</td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td>
-    <td class="tdc">449 <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Ass</td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td>
-    <td class="tdc">800&ndash;850</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cat</td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td>
-    <td class="tdc">800&ndash;1000</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Common rat</td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td>
-    <td class="tdc">1727&ndash;30</td></tr>
-</table></div></div>
-
-<p>Some or other of these animals are met with in the
-peat-bogs and alluvia, and in caves, but far more abundantly
-in the refuse-heaps left behind by man, by whom
-they have here been used either for service or for food.</p>
-
-<p>The disappearance of certain wild species, from the
-areas in which they lived on the continent, in historic
-times, has not been ascertained so accurately as in this
-country, and many animals, which have become extinct
-in our restricted and highly-cultivated island, are still
-to be found in the continental forests, morasses, and
-mountains. The brown bear is still to be met with in
-the Pyrenees, the Vosges, and in the wilder and more
-inaccessible portions of northern, middle, and southern
-Europe. The wolf still survives in France, and during
-the late German war preyed upon the slain after some of
-the battles. It, as well as the wild boar, ranges throughout
-the uncultivated regions of the continent. The beaver
-still lives in the waters of the Rhone, as well as in the
-rivers of Lithuania and of Scandinavia, and the reindeer,
-now restricted to the regions north of a line passing
-east and west through the Baltic, extended further south,
-in sufficient numbers to be remarked by Cæsar, among the
-more noteworthy animals living in the great Hercynian
-forest, which overshadowed northern Germany in his
-days. This forest also afforded shelter to the true elk<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80">80</a></span>
-and the bison, both of which still live in Lithuania, as
-well as to the Urus, which was hunted by Charles the
-Great, near Aachen, and probably became extinct in the
-fifteenth or sixteenth century. The lion inhabited the
-mountains of southern Thrace in the days of Herodotus
-and of Aristotle, and became extinct in Europe between
-330 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> and the days of Dio Chrysostom Rhetor
-(<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 100), who expressly says that there were no lions
-in Greece in his time. The panther also inhabited the
-same district when Xenophon wrote his “Treatise on
-Hunting.”</p>
-
-<p>The fallow-deer was believed by the late Professor
-Edouard Lartet to have been introduced into France by
-the Romans. On a visit, however, to Paris in September
-1873, Professor Gervais called my attention to an
-antler of the animal in the Jardin des Plantes, said to
-have been found in a refuse-heap along with axes of
-polished stone. It must therefore have lived in France
-in the Neolithic age, if it were obtained from an undisturbed
-deposit. It gradually spread into Germany and
-Switzerland, until in the eleventh century it was sufficiently
-abundant to be mentioned among the articles of
-food in a metrical grace of the monks of St. Gall.</p>
-
-<div class="poem-container">
-<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="i0">“Imbellem damam faciat benedictio summam.”<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a><br /></span>
-</div></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>The domestic fowl is to be recognized on Gallic coins
-before the Roman invasion, and therefore was probably
-known at the very dawn of Gallic history. The larger
-breed of oxen, descended from the Urus type, has been
-known in France, Germany, Lombardy, Scandinavia,
-and Switzerland, in the remote division of the prehistoric<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81">81</a></span>
-age known as the Neolithic.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> The buffalo, on
-the other hand, of the Roman Campagna, was introduced
-into Italy, according to Paulus Diaconus, in the year
-596, and the domestic cat,<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> known to the Greeks from
-their intercourse with Egypt, became familiar to the
-eyes of the inhabitants of Rome and Constantinople
-as early as the fourth century after Christ.</p>
-
-<p>It is evident from the survival of the wolf, the bear,
-beaver, reindeer, and the wild boar on the continent at
-the present time, that the chronological table which I
-have constructed for Britain is inapplicable to Europe in
-general. In the present state of our knowledge of the
-varying ranges of the animals, it seems impossible to
-form any similar scheme.</p>
-
-<p>The historic caves are characterized by the presence
-of some of these animals, as well as of coins and pottery,
-and other articles by which the date of their occupation
-may be ascertained.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_38"><i>The Victoria Cave, Settle, Yorkshire.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The most important historic cave in this country is
-that discovered by Mr. Joseph Jackson, near Settle, in
-Yorkshire, on the coronation day of Queen Victoria, in
-1838, and which has therefore been called the Victoria
-Cave. It runs horizontally into the precipitous side of
-a lonely ravine known as King’s Scar (<a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>), at a
-height of about 1,450 feet above the sea, according to
-Mr. Tiddeman, and it consists of three large ill-defined
-chambers filled with débris nearly up to the roof.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82">82</a></span></p>
-
-<div id="Fig_19" class="figcenter" style="width: 465px;">
-  <img src="images/i_082.jpg" width="465" height="543" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;View of King’s Scar, Settle, showing the entrances of the Victoria and
-  Albert Caves (from a photograph). <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>, <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, Victoria; <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>, Albert.</div></div>
-
-<p>The entrances face to the south-west, and open at
-the bottom of an overhanging cliff at the point where
-a scree, or accumulation of fragments from the cliff
-above, gradually slopes down to the bottom of the
-valley, about one hundred feet below. When Mr.
-Jackson made his discovery, he passed inwards through
-a small entrance,<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> and was rewarded by finding in the
-earth on the floor a number of Roman coins, together<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83">83</a></span>
-with ornaments and implements of bronze, and some
-brooches of singular taste and beauty, with implements
-of bone, and large quantities of broken bones
-and fragments of pottery. The collection was very miscellaneous;
-for besides iron spear-heads, nails, daggers,
-spoon-brooches of bone, spindle-whorls, beads of amber
-and of glass, there were bronze brooches, finger-rings,
-armlets, bracelets, buckles, and studs. All were lying
-pêle-mêle together, side by side with the broken bones
-of the animals, and the whole set of remains, with the
-exception of some of the brooches, was of the kind
-which is usually met with in the neighbourhood of
-Roman camps, cities, and villas which have been sacked.</p>
-
-<p>The fragments of Samian ware and Roman pottery
-scattered through the mass, as well as coins of Trajan
-and Constantine, proved further, that the cave had been
-inhabited after the Roman invasion, and not earlier than
-the middle of the third century; and the rude imitations
-of Roman coins were, according to Mr. Roach Smith,<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a>
-probably in circulation for some centuries after the
-departure of the Romans from Britain.&mdash;“And although
-some of these remains are indicative of sepulture, yet
-from the evidence furnished there appears no positive
-proof of their having formed part of funereal deposits.
-A more satisfactory conclusion seems to arise in considering
-that these caves (<i>i.e.</i> the group) may have been
-used as places of refuge by the Romanized Britons
-during the troublous times at and after the close of the
-fourth century.” This conclusion we shall see fully borne<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84">84</a></span>
-out by the evidence subsequently obtained. Mr. Jackson
-gives the following account of the <span class="locked">discovery:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p>“The entrance was nearly filled up with rubbish, and
-overgrown with nettles. After removing these obstructions,
-I was obliged to lie down at full length to get in.
-The first appearance that struck me on entering was
-the large quantity of clay and earth, which seemed as if
-washed in from without, and presented to the view
-round pieces like balls of different sizes. Of this clay
-there must be several hundred waggon loads, but
-abounding more in the first than in the branch caves.
-In some parts a stalagmitic crust has formed, mixed with
-bones, broken pots, &amp;c. It was on this crust I found
-the principal part of the coins, the other articles being
-mostly imbedded in the clay. In the other caves very
-little has been found. When we get through the clay,
-which is very stiff and deep, we generally find the rock
-covered with bones, all broken and presenting the
-appearance of having been gnawed. The entrance into
-the inner cave has been walled up at the sides. In the
-inside were several large stones lying near the hole, any
-one of which would have completely blocked it up by
-merely turning the stone over. I pulled the wall down,
-and the aperture was now about a yard wide, and two
-feet high. On digging up the clay at about nine or ten
-inches deep, I found the original floor; it was hard and
-gravelly, and strewed with bones, broken pots, and other
-objects. The roof of the cave was beautifully hung
-with stalactites in various fantastic forms and as white
-as snow.”<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p>
-
-<p>The interest in these discoveries led Mr. Denny, Mr.
-Farrer, and other gentlemen to examine the superficial<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85">85</a></span>
-stratum from time to time, until, in 1870, Sir James
-Kay-Shuttleworth, Mr. Walter Morrison, Mr. Birkbeck,
-and other gentlemen in the neighbourhood formed a
-committee for the investigation of the contents of the
-cave, which had been placed at their disposal by the
-courtesy of the owner, the late Mr. Stackhouse. They
-were aided by the assistance of Sir C. Lyell, Sir. J.
-Lubbock, and Mr. Darwin, Professor Phillips, Mr.
-Franks, and others, and by a grant obtained from the
-British Association, and have carried on the work since
-that time with comparatively little interruption. Mr.
-Jackson, the original discoverer, superintended the
-workmen; while I identified the works of art and the
-mammalian remains that were discovered, and drew up
-for the committee the reports brought before the British
-Association in 1870, 1871, and 1872, and before the
-Anthropological Institute in 1871. Mr. Tiddeman also
-contributed a report on the physical history of the cave,
-which is printed in the British Association Report for
-1872, and subsequently in the Geological Magazine,
-January 1873.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86">86</a></span><a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_39"><i>The Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh Stratum.</i></h3>
-
-<div id="Fig_20" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-  <img src="images/i_086.jpg" width="600" height="349" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal Section of Victoria Cave.</div></div>
-
-<p>The committee resolved not to begin at the entrance
-which Mr. Jackson discovered in 1838 (<a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a> <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>), but
-to make a new passage, at a point where daylight could
-be seen through the chinks of the broken débris, which
-there prevented access. Ground was broken on a small
-plateau in front of this (<a href="#Fig_19">Figs. 19</a> <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, <a href="#Fig_20">20</a>), which, from the
-sunny aspect and commanding view, would naturally be
-chosen by the dwellers in the cave as their more usual
-place for eating and lounging, and in which we might
-therefore expect to find the remains of whatever they
-had dropped or lost. The gloomy recesses of a cave,
-indeed, even if lit up by large fires or by torches, are
-not fitted for any other purpose than for sleeping or
-concealment; and if we add in this case the damp cold
-clay under foot and the constant drip of the water overhead,
-it was only reasonable to infer that most of their
-life was spent out of doors, and that the cave was used
-merely as a place of retirement for shelter. As the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87">87</a></span>
-trench progressed we dug first of all through a thickness
-of two feet (<a href="#Fig_20">Figs. 20</a>, <a href="#Fig_21">21</a>) of angular blocks of limestone,
-that had fallen from the cliff above, and that rested on
-a black layer (No. 4) containing the kind of remains
-which we had expected. The layer was composed of
-fragments of bone and charcoal, surrounding the burnt
-stones which had formed the ancient hearths, and contained
-large quantities of the broken bones of animals
-which had been used for food, and coins and articles of
-luxury, as well as those instruments which were more
-naturally suited for the half-savage life of dwellers in
-caves. As we opened out the new mouth, the angular
-fragments disappeared and the black layer rose to the
-surface, composing the floor, and lying in some places
-beneath enormous blocks of limestone which had fallen
-from the roof since its accumulation, and being continuous
-with the layer in which Mr. Jackson first made
-his discoveries.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_21" class="figcenter" style="width: 511px;">
-  <img src="images/i_087.jpg" width="511" height="274" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Vertical Section at the Entrance to the Victoria Cave.</div></div>
-
-<p>It was evident that this stratum had been formed
-during the sojourn of man in the cave, and we shall<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88">88</a></span>
-find, in the examination of the remains which it furnished,
-proof that it is connected with the obscure history of
-Britain during the fifth and sixth centuries. We will
-take each group of objects in its proper class, beginning
-with what at first sight seems the least promising, the
-broken bones of the animals that supplied the inhabitants
-with food.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_40"><i>The Bones of the Animals.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The bones of the Celtic short-horn (<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>)
-were very abundant, and proved that a variety of ox,
-indistinguishable from the small dark mountain cattle of
-Wales and Scotland, was the chief food of the inhabitants.
-A variety of the goat with simple recurved
-horns, which is commonly met with in the Yorkshire
-tumuli explored by Canon Greenwell, and in the deposits
-round Roman villas in Great Britain, furnished the
-mutton; while the pork was supplied by a domestic
-breed of pigs with small canines; and since the bones
-of the last animal belong for the most part to young
-individuals, it is clear that the young porker was
-preferred to the older animal. The bill of fare was
-occasionally varied by the use of horse-flesh, which
-formed a common article of food in this country down
-to the ninth century. To this list must be added the
-venison of the roedeer and stag, but the remains of these
-two animals were singularly rare. Two spurs of the
-domestic fowl, and a few bones of wild duck and grouse,
-complete the list of animals which can with certainty
-be affirmed to have been eaten by the dwellers in
-the cave. The numerous unbroken bones, some very
-gigantic, of the badger, and those of the fox, wildcat,
-hare, and water-vole, commonly called water-rat,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89">89</a></span>
-have probably been introduced subsequently, from
-those animals having used the cave as a place of shelter.
-There were also bones of the dog, which from their
-unbroken condition proved that the animal had not
-been used for food, as it certainly was used by the
-men who lived in the caves of Denbighshire in the
-Neolithic age. The whole group of remains implies
-that the dwellers in the Victoria Cave lived upon
-their flocks and herds, rather than by the chase.
-And since the domestic fowl was not known in
-Britain until about the time of the Roman invasion, the
-presence of its remains fixes the date of the occupation
-as not earlier than that time. On the other hand, since
-the small Celtic short-horn (<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>) was the only
-domestic ox in use known in Roman Britain, and since
-it disappeared from those portions of the country which
-were conquered by the English, along with its Celtic
-possessors, the date is fixed in the other direction as being
-not much later than the Northumbrian conquest of that
-portion of Yorkshire. I shall return to this part of
-the subject presently; here I will only remark, that
-the present distribution of the lineal descendants of the
-Celtic short-horn, the small, dark-coloured Scotch and
-Welsh cattle, corresponds with those regions on which
-the Celtic population fell back before the English. And
-its survival in Wales, and until comparatively recently in
-Cornwall, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, may be
-accounted for by the fact, that in those districts the
-Celtic populations of Roman Britain were not displaced
-by the English invaders.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></p>
-
-<p>The larger breed of cattle known in its purity as the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90">90</a></span>
-white ox of Chillingham, from which all our purely
-English breeds have been derived, was imported originally
-by the English, and spread over the whole country
-which they occupied, until at last the smaller and more
-ancient oxen survived only in a few isolated areas in the
-north and west of Britain. This displacement of the
-Celtic short-horn by the English oxen of the Urus type
-corroborates, in a striking degree, the truth of Mr.
-Freeman’s view of the ruthless destruction of everything
-Roman and Celtic at the hands of the English. It is
-clear, therefore, that from the examination of the bones
-we may infer that the cave was occupied before the
-Celtic short-horn was supplanted in this district by
-the larger domestic breed of oxen, and after the introduction
-of the domestic fowl, that is to say, in the
-interval which elapsed between the Roman and English
-invasions.</p>
-
-<p>We must now treat of the remains of man’s handiwork
-in the cave.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_41"><i>Miscellaneous Articles.</i></h3>
-
-<div id="Fig_22" class="figright up2" style="width: 107px;">
-  <img src="images/i_091.jpg" width="107" height="600" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;Spoon-brooch (natural size).</div></div>
-
-<p>The ornaments and implements of bone consist of
-carefully smoothed pins, and points intended to be fitted
-to a handle, knife-handles made of bone and antler;
-three spindle-whorls made of the perforated head of a
-femur; a stud; a perfect spoon-shaped fibula (<a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>),
-which corresponds with one of those in the Museum of
-the Royal Irish Academy, as well as several fragments,
-and which when in use was passed through holes in
-the clothes, in such a manner that the two ends alone
-were visible. These are ornamented, and the shaft
-and the whole back is more or less polished by wear.
-Eight articles bear a close resemblance to the handles
-of gimlets (<a href="#Fig_23">Figs. 23</a>, <a href="#Fig_24">24</a>), and most probably have been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91">91</a></span>
-used as studs, or links, for fastening together clothing.
-The fact, indeed, that some have the
-central hole worn by the friction of a
-thong or string of some kind, coupled
-with the worn state of some of their
-surfaces, renders this guess very likely
-to be true. In <a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>, <i>a</i>, the ornament
-in right lines, which once covered the
-surface as in <a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>, <i>b</i>, is very nearly
-obliterated by friction against some
-soft body such as clothing. A reference
-to the figures will give a better
-idea of their shape and ornamentation
-than a mere description. Two perforated
-discs may have been used as
-studs. There are also many nondescript
-articles, consisting of sockets
-made of antler of stag, and bone rods
-carefully rounded, together with cut
-bones of uncertain use. For the identification
-of the ivory boss of a sword-hilt
-I am indebted to the kindness of
-Mr. Franks.</p>
-
-<p>Besides the ornaments in bone and
-antler, there were seven glass beads,
-five transparent and two of a bluish
-tint, and one of jet turned in a lathe;
-as well as a fragment of a jet bracelet.
-Among the articles of daily use were
-many rounded pebbles, with marks of
-fire upon them, which had probably
-been heated for the purpose of boiling
-water. Pot-boilers, as they are called,
-of this kind are used by many savage<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92">92</a></span>
-peoples at the present day, and if we wished to heat
-water in a vessel that would not stand the fire, we
-should be obliged to employ a similar method. Other
-stones formed parts of ancient hearths, and two or three
-grooved slabs of sandstone had evidently been used
-for rounding and sharpening bone pins. The fragments
-of pottery were very abundant, and were all of the type
-usually found round Roman villas. One fragment of
-Samian ware was ornamented with the representation of
-a hunt.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_23" class="figcenter" style="width: 447px;">
-  <img src="images/i_092.jpg" width="447" height="216" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Ornamented Bone-fastener (natural size).</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_24" class="figcenter" style="width: 339px;">
-  <img src="images/i_092b.jpg" width="339" height="171" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Two Bone-links; <i>a</i> worn, <i>b</i> unworn (natural size).</div></div>
-
-<p>This group of articles throws but little light on the
-date of the occupation of the cave. The Samian ware,
-and the ivory boss of a Roman sword, merely imply that
-it was either Roman or post-Roman.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93">93</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_42"><i>The Coins.</i></h3>
-
-<p>If we turn now to the coins, we shall find the date to
-lie within narrower limits than those fixed by the
-animals. They consist <span class="locked">of:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p id="list_93" class="in0 in2">
-Two silver of Trajan, d. 117.<br />
-Four bronze of Tetricus I., 267&ndash;274.<br />
-One bronze of Tetricus II., 267&ndash;274.<br />
-One bronze of Gallienus, d. 268.<br />
-One bronze of Constantine II., d. 343.<br />
-One bronze of Constans, d. 353.<br />
-Three barbarous imitations in bronze of coins of Tetricus, circa 400&ndash;500 <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span>
-</p>
-
-<p>In a group of coins such as this the latest only give a
-clue to the date, since the earlier may have remained in
-circulation long after they were struck. In India, for
-example, those of Alexander the Great have not yet
-disappeared from the country, and in Spain, in the shops
-of Malaga, Moorish, Roman, and even Phœnician coins
-were current in 1863, as well as all those which have been
-struck since.<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> We may therefore disregard the earliest
-coins, and fix our attention more particularly on those of
-the Constantine family, and the bronze minimi mentioned
-last in the list. The presence of the coin of
-Constans implies that the cave was occupied either
-during or after 337 <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span>, when he ascended the throne;
-while the date of the minimi has not been ascertained
-with accuracy. “They abound upon all Roman sites,
-such as Verulam and Richborough. In size they come
-nearest to those struck under Arcadius and his successors,
-and I think that you will not be far wrong in
-assigning them to the first half of the fifth century.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94">94</a></span>
-The latest of the genuine Roman coins found in this
-country are those of Arcadius and Honorius; at least,
-the finding of any of later date is quite exceptional.
-What the currency was between that time and the commencement
-of the Saxon coinage it is hard to say. It
-seems probable, however, that gold and silver had nearly
-disappeared, and that the needs of a small local commerce
-were supplied by the Roman copper coins of which
-abundance remained in the country, and by small pieces
-struck after their model, not improbably by private
-speculators.” This opinion, which Mr. John Evans, F.R.S.,
-has been kind enough to write me, coincides with that
-of Mr. Newton, as well as that of Mr. Roach Smith;
-and we may therefore assume, with tolerable certainty,
-that the cave was inhabited during the first half of the
-fifth century or afterwards, at a time when the withdrawal
-of the Roman Legions had left the colony of
-Britain, whose youth and vigour had been consumed in
-the fierce struggle of the rivals for the throne of the
-West, a prey to the barbarian invaders.</p>
-
-<p>It is of course conceivable that some of these coins
-may have been dropped at one time, and some at another,
-but nevertheless it seems very probable that the whole
-accumulation belongs to the same relative age. But
-whether this be accepted or not, it is certain the cave
-was inhabited during the time that the minimi were in
-circulation,&mdash;that is to say, during the first half of the
-fifth century, or from that time forwards.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_43"><i>The Jewellery, and its Relation to Irish Art.</i></h3>
-
-<p>This conclusion as to the date, derived from the coins,
-is confirmed in a remarkable degree by the examination
-of the articles of luxury. Besides two bronze brooches<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95">95</a></span>
-of the Roman pattern, known by archæologists as harp-shaped
-(<a href="#i_frontis">Coloured Plate</a>, fig. 5), was one of the split-ring
-type, with a moveable pin, which is generally assigned to
-the later period of the Roman occupation of this country.
-One type of brooch was composed of two circular plates
-of bronze, soldered together, the front being very thin
-and bearing flamboyant and spiral patterns in relief (<a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>), of admirable design and execution. The original
-of the figure was discovered by Mr. Jackson, and is
-more perfect than any of those which we obtained in
-our excavations. It is altogether
-unlike any Roman brooch properly
-so called, both in its composite
-make and style of ornament. A
-similar brooch has been discovered
-at Brough Castle, in Westmoreland,
-and was figured in the
-Proceedings of the Antiquarian
-Society (vol. iv. 129), by Sir
-James Musgrave, and a second is
-preserved in the Museum of the
-Royal Irish Academy (492). The style corresponds
-with that of a medallion on a Runic casket of silver-bronze,
-figured by Prof. Stevens, and stated to have
-been obtained from Northumbrian Britain, as well
-as that of a brooch in the Museum at Mainz, assigned
-by the same authority to the third or fourth century.
-It is also to be met with in the illuminations of one
-of the Anglo-Saxon Gospels at Stockholm, as well as
-in those of the Gospels of S. Columban, preserved
-in the library of Trinity College, Dublin, and in the
-“Book of Kells” (8&ndash;900).<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> In all these cases it cannot be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96">96</a></span>
-affirmed to be Roman, and it is not presented by ornaments
-of either purely English or Teutonic origin. It
-is most closely allied to that work which is termed
-by Mr. Franks “late Celtic.” From its localization in
-Britain and Ireland, it seems to be probable that it is of
-Celtic derivation; and if this view be accepted, there is
-nothing at all extraordinary in its being recognized in
-the illuminated Irish Gospels. Ireland, in the sixth and
-seventh centuries, was the great centre of art, civilization,
-and literature; and it is only reasonable to suppose
-that there would be intercourse between the Irish Christians
-and those of the west of Britain during the time
-that the Romano-Celts, or Brit-Welsh, were being slowly
-pushed to the westward by the heathen English invader.
-Proof of such an intercourse we find in the brief notice
-in the “Annales Cambriæ,” in which Gildas, the Brit-Welsh
-historian, is stated to have sailed over to Ireland
-in the year <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 565. It is by no means improbable
-that about this time there was a Brit-Welsh migration
-into Ireland, as well as into Brittany.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_25" class="figright" style="width: 190px;">
-  <img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="190" height="189" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Bronze Brooch (natural size).</div></div>
-
-<p>Nor is it at all strange that the same style of ornament
-should occur in some few cases in North Germany.</p>
-
-<p>“The conquest of Britain,” writes the Rev. J.&nbsp;R.
-Green (“History of the English People,” p. 16<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a>), “had
-thrust a wedge of heathendom into the heart of the
-Western Church. On the one side lay Italy and Gaul,
-whose Churches owned obedience to the see of Rome, on
-the other the free Celtic Church of Ireland. But the
-condition of the two portions of Western Christendom
-was very different. While the vigour of Latin Christianity
-was exhausted in a bare struggle for life, Ireland<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97">97</a></span>
-as yet unscourged by invaders had drawn from its
-conversion an energy such as it has never known since.
-Christianity had been received there with a burst of
-popular enthusiasm. Letters and arts sprang up rapidly
-in its train; the science and Biblical knowledge which
-had fled from the continent took refuge in famous
-schools which made Durrow and Armagh the universities
-of the West. The new life soon beat too strongly
-to brook confinement within insular bounds. Patrick,
-the first missionary of Ireland, had not been half a
-century dead, when Celtic Christianity flung itself with
-a fiery zeal into battle with the mass of heathenism
-which had rolled in upon the Christian world. Irish
-missionaries laboured among the Picts of the Highlands,
-among the Frisians of the northern seas; Columban
-founded monasteries in Burgundy and the Apennines;
-the canton of St. Gall still commemorates in its name
-the missionary before whom the spirits of flood and fell
-fled wailing over the waters of the Lake of Constance.
-For a time it seemed as if the course of the world’s history
-was to be changed, as if the older race that Roman
-and Teuton had swept before them had turned to the
-moral conquest of its conquerors, as if Celtic and not
-Latin Christianity was to mould the destinies of the
-Churches of the West.”</p>
-
-<p>It is impossible that Irish-Celtic art should not
-have made itself felt wherever the Irish missionaries
-penetrated, and especially in the gorgeous illuminated
-Gospels, which it was the pride of S. Columban and
-his school to have made, and which now excite our
-wonder and admiration. The early Christian art in
-Ireland grew out of the late Celtic, and was, to a
-great extent, free from the influence of Rome, which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98">98</a></span>
-is stamped on the Brit-Welsh art of the same age
-in this country. The style, therefore, of these circular
-brooches, from its correspondence with that of the Irish
-illuminated gospels, affords reasonable grounds for the
-belief that the Victoria Cave was inhabited in the sixth
-century, or possibly later, but before the English invaders
-had swept the Brit-Welsh away from the district.</p>
-
-<p>Two other brooches were also discovered in the
-black layer, which are even of greater interest than those
-which have just been described. The one represents a
-dragon (<a href="#i_frontis">colored Plate</a>, fig. 3), with its eye made of red
-enamel; the other (<a href="#i_frontis">colored Plate</a>, fig. 7) shaped, like the
-letter S, has its front composed of an elaborate cloissonnée
-pattern in red, blue, and yellow enamels, and
-is of the same design as two brooches in the British
-Museum, discovered, one near Whittington Hill, in Gloucestershire,
-and the other near Malton, in Yorkshire.
-All three were, undoubtedly, turned out of the same
-artistic school, and they may have been made by one
-workman. The enamel, in all these examples, seems
-to have been inserted into hollows in the bronze, and
-then to have been heated so as to form a close union
-with them, and in some cases where it has been broken,
-as in <a href="#i_frontis">colored Plate</a>, fig. 7, small fragments still remain
-to attest the completeness of the fusion with the bronze.
-The style of workmanship is neither Roman nor Teutonic.
-An enamelled fibula with spirals in relief, found
-at Reichenbach<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> (Soleure) in a post-Roman sepulchre,
-and figured by Bonstettin, is of a similar design, and
-it may be traced also in two brooches obtained by
-the Abbé Cochet, from the Merovingian Cemetery of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99">99</a></span>
-Envermeu,<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> although they are of more massive and
-square construction than those of Yorkshire.</p>
-
-<p>One harp-shaped brooch (<a href="#i_frontis">colored Plate</a>, fig. 1) is
-ornamented with diamonds of blue enamel, separated
-by small triangles of red, and shows in its Roman design
-and Celtic ornamentation the union between Celtic and
-Roman art. A similar specimen from Brough Castle,
-Westmoreland, is preserved in the British Museum, and
-may have been turned out of the same workshop. We
-also met with an enamelled disk (<a href="#i_frontis">colored Plate</a>, fig. 6),
-and a finger-ring (<a href="#i_frontis">fig. 4</a>) of bronze-gilt, ornamented with
-blue enamel.</p>
-
-<p>Several enamelled fibulæ in the British Museum, obtained
-by Sir James Musgrave, at Kirby Thore, Westmoreland,
-belong to the same style of art as those of the
-Victoria cave, and were associated with the same class of
-remains. Shields,<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> scabbards, horse trappings, and other
-articles have also been discovered in this county, decorated
-in the same fashion with coloured enamels, and especially
-a bronze vase from the late Roman tumuli, called the
-Bartlow Hills. They all belong to the class termed “late
-Celtic” by Mr. Franks, and are considered by him to be
-of British manufacture.</p>
-
-<p>This view is supported by the only reference to the
-art of enamelling which is furnished by the classical
-writers. Philostratus, a Greek sophist, who left Athens
-in the beginning of the third century to join the Court
-of Julia Domna, the wife of the Emperor Severus,
-writes:&mdash;“It is said that the barbarians living in or by
-the ocean, pour these colors (those of the horse trappings)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100">100</a></span>
-on heated bronze, that these adhere, grow as hard
-as stone, and preserve the designs that are made in
-them.”<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> Mr. Franks’ opinion that this passage relates
-to Britain, seems to be more probable than that of the
-eminent French archæologist, M. de Laborde, who holds
-that it relates to Gaul and especially to “Belgica.”<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p>
-
-<p>When we consider the variety of enamelled objects
-which have been discovered in the north of England, it
-seems to be by no means improbable that the principal
-centre of the art enamelling was here rather than in the
-south; and this conclusion is considerably strengthened
-by the fact that under the Romans political power
-centered in the district between the Humber and the
-Tyne, and that York, and not London, was the capital of
-Britain and the seat of the Roman Prefect. It is worthy
-of remark, that since the Emperor Severus built the wall
-which bears his name, marched in person against the
-Caledonians, and died at York, the account of the
-enamels may have been brought to the court of the
-Empress Julia from this very region, and thus come to
-be recorded by Philostratus.</p>
-
-<p>Two harp-shaped fibulæ, obtained by Mr. Jackson
-from the Victoria cave, and ornamented with enamel,
-are coated with silver, and in one of them two small
-blocks of that metal still remain firmly imbedded in the
-bronze. It is very probable that most of the ornaments
-were plated either with silver or gold, traces of which,
-in some cases, still remain.</p>
-
-<p>Among the miscellaneous objects in metal are a bronze<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101">101</a></span>
-wire brooch (<a href="#i_frontis">colored Plate</a>, fig. 8), two bracelets, composed
-of twisted bronze-gilt wire; and one fragment in solid
-bronze, ornamented with right lines; one plain bronze
-finger-ring; two small buckles, respectively of bronze
-and of iron, and a small bronze flattened pin (<a href="#i_frontis">colored
-Plate</a>, fig. 2), ending in two points to which, at first, we
-were unable to assign a use. When, however, the two
-points were compared with the circles on the ornaments
-of bone (<a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>), there was but little doubt that this
-curious object was employed as a pair of fixed compasses.
-There were also iron articles which were too
-much corroded to admit of a guess at their probable use,
-besides a Roman key, knife-blades, and a spear-head
-discovered by Mr. Jackson.</p>
-
-<p>The number of ornaments found in the Victoria Cave
-from time to time by various explorers is very considerable.
-They are scattered in the private collections
-of Messrs. Jackson and Eckroyd Smith, and in the
-Museums of Giggleswick Grammar-school, and of Leeds,
-and the British Museum.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_44"><i>Similar remains in other Caves in Yorkshire.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Victoria cave is by no means the only one in the
-district that has furnished works of art and the remains
-of animals. The Albert cave (<a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>, <i>c</i>.) close by is, as
-yet, only explored sufficiently to prove that it contains
-the same kind of objects; and from that of Kelko, overlooking
-Giggleswick, they have been obtained by Mr.
-Jackson;<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> as well as from that of Dowker-bottom between
-Arncliffe and Kilnsay, by Mr. James Farrer and Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102">102</a></span>
-Denny.<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> From the last, seven spoon-shaped brooches
-of bone, and two spindle-whorls of Samian ware of
-the bottom of a vase, are preserved in the British
-Museum, as well as a bronze needle, and brooches
-both harp-shaped and discoid, and fragments of pottery.
-Three coins in bronze, according to Mr. Farrer,<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a>
-prove that the date of the accumulation is late or post-Roman,
-one being of Claudius Gothicus, whose reign
-ended <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 270, and two belonging to the Tetrici, <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span>
-267&ndash;273, since they would remain in circulation for
-some time after they were struck. A bronze pin, in
-the possession of Mr. Jackson, from Dowker-bottom, is
-remarkable for the head being plated with silver.</p>
-
-<p>The fragment of flattened antler from this cave, referred
-by Mr. Denny to the elk, most probably belongs to the
-crown of an old antler of the stag, and the remains of
-the “Canis primævus” of that author cannot be distinguished
-from those of a large dog. The bones of the
-wolf, and an enormous stag in the Museum of the
-Philosophical Society at Leeds, are probably much older
-than the Brit-Welsh stratum.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_45"><i>These Caves used as Places of Refuge.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The presence of these works of art, in association with
-the remains of the domestic animals used for food, is
-only to be satisfactorily accounted for in the way proposed
-by Mr. Dixon. Men accustomed to luxury and
-refinement were compelled, by the pressure of some great
-calamity, to flee for refuge, and to lead a half-savage life
-in these inclement caves, with whatever they could<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103">103</a></span>
-transport thither of their property. They were also
-accompanied by their families, for the number of personal
-ornaments and the spindle-whorls imply the
-presence of the female sex. We may also infer that
-they were cut off from the civilization to which they
-had been accustomed, since they were compelled to
-extemporize spindle-whorls out of the pieces of the
-vessels that they brought with them, instead of using
-those which had been manufactured for the purpose.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_46"><i>The evidence of History as to the Date.</i></h3>
-
-<p>We have already seen from the examination of the
-coins, that the Victoria cave was occupied during or after
-the first half of the fifth century, and from the works of
-art that it may have been, and probably was, occupied at
-a later time. To fix the latest possible limit to the occupation
-of the group of caves to which it belongs, we
-must appeal to contemporary history.</p>
-
-<p id="hdr_47">During the first four centuries of Roman dominion in
-Britain, the spread of the manners and arts of the great
-mistress of the world followed close upon her success in
-arms; and the policy of one of the greatest of her generals,
-Agricola, bore fruit in the adoption of her civilization by
-the British provincials. The population clustered round
-the Roman stations, and cities sprang up, such as Chester,
-Bath, York, and Lincoln, between which a ready communication
-was maintained by the roads that still remain
-as monuments of engineering skill, and which, in many
-cases, have been used uninterruptedly from that time to
-the present day. Agriculture was carried on to such an
-extent, that Britain became one of the principal corn-producing
-regions of the Roman Empire; and a commerce
-with foreign countries was carried on from the ports on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104">104</a></span>
-banks of the Thames and the Severn (Gildas, i.). The
-mineral sources were also fully explored; tin was sought
-in the mines of Cornwall, lead in those of Derbyshire
-and Somersetshire, and iron in the forest of Dean, Sussex,
-and Northumberland. Nor was this material prosperity
-unaccompanied by the signs of luxury and culture.
-Numerous villas were dotted throughout the province,
-resembling in size and plan the quadrangle of a mediæval
-college at Oxford or Cambridge, and even in ruins
-astonishing us by their magnitude and the beauty of
-their tessellated pavements. York was the capital of
-the province and the centre of government, and consequently
-Yorkshire must have been, if anything, more
-completely penetrated with the Roman arts and civilization
-than any other part of Britain. The relation of the
-Roman conquerors to the conquered Celtic inhabitants was
-somewhat analogous to that which now exists between
-the English and the subject nations in India. Latin was
-the language spoken by the higher classes in the cities, of
-the army, and probably of the courts of law; while in
-the country the Celtic tongue held its ground, and still
-survives in the language of Wales. Christianity was
-probably professed in this country about the time of
-Constantine, and became the dominant religion by the
-middle of the fifth century, if not before.</p>
-
-<p>Underneath all the outward signs of prosperity during
-the Roman rule in Britain, there were causes at work
-which ensured the ruin of the province. The policy of
-centralization, and the very perfection of the machinery
-for government on autocratic principles, which brought
-about the destruction of the Roman Empire, as in our
-own days they have nearly ruined France, bore fruit in
-Britain in the helpless apathy of the provincials when<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105">105</a></span>
-the machinery was broken up. It is therefore no wonder
-that when the Roman garrison was finally withdrawn
-from this country, in the year 409, the provincials
-were left an easy prey to their enemies. Nor need we
-wonder that they set up isolated centres of government,
-which we may term communes, in the year 410, in
-which each city stood out for itself, instead of combining
-together for the common weal. From this time forward
-the inhabitants of the Roman province of Britain, severed
-from the Roman Empire, became a prey to the many
-tyrants who sprang up, and the anarchy followed so
-pathetically described by Gildas. It was at this time
-that the coinage became debased, and Roman coins
-afforded the patterns for the small bronze minimi of the
-Settle cave,<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> which are so abundant among the ruins
-of Roman cities in this country, such as St. Alban’s.</p>
-
-<p id="hdr_48">The invaders of Britain must now be considered. The
-Picts and Scots had secured a rude liberty under the
-protection of their mountains and morasses, rather than
-by their success in arms against the Roman legions, and
-their raids into the Roman province had been curbed by
-the walls and lines of forts, extending, the one from the
-Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, the other from the
-Solway Firth to the Tyne. In spite of these, however,
-from time to time, in the fourth century, they carried
-desolation into Northumberland and Yorkshire, even if
-they did not penetrate farther into the south. And on
-the withdrawal of the Roman legions, at the beginning of
-the fifth century, their raids were organized on a much
-larger scale. In the pages of Gildas we have a melancholy
-picture of their results. In the letter written to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106">106</a></span>
-Ætius, the Roman commander in Gaul, in 446, the
-Britains are described as sheep, and the Picts and Scots
-as wolves. “The barbarians drive us back to the sea;
-the sea drives us back again to perish at the hands of
-the barbarians,” are the words put into the mouth of the
-embassy.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> One plea for aid, which they advanced, is
-especially interesting, because it shows incidentally that
-the Roman civilization did not disappear with the withdrawal
-of the legions&mdash;the plea that unless they were
-succoured the name of Rome would be dishonoured.
-Nerved by despair, the British in the following year take
-up arms, and, according to Gildas, leave their houses and
-lands, and taking shelter in mountains and forests, and
-in caves,<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> succeed in driving back their Pictish and
-Scottish enemies.</p>
-
-<p>It is very significant that <em>caves</em> should be mentioned
-in this account; for the region of Craven is one of the
-very few in the country in which they are sufficiently
-abundant to allow of their being used as places of
-shelter on a scale sufficiently large to be recorded in
-history; and when we consider that one of the natural
-highways from Scotland into central England lies
-through that district, it seems to me extremely probable
-that the group of caves of which Victoria is one
-is that referred to. On this point it is worthy of record,
-that in the year 1745, when the younger Pretender was
-at Shap, and it was doubtful whether he would take the
-route through Ribblesdale or by way of Preston, the eldest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107">107</a></span>
-son of one of the landowners near Settle, was hidden,
-along with the family plate, in a Cave close to the
-Victoria, in the belief that the Highlanders were in the
-habit of eating children as well as of laying hands on
-the precious metals. The historical notice tallies exactly
-with the geographical position, and is not inconsistent
-with the evidence offered by the coins and other remains.
-The date, therefore, of the occupation may probably be
-assigned as about the middle of the fifth century.</p>
-
-<p id="hdr_49">This, however, is not the latest date that can be
-assigned. In the year 449, the three ships which
-contained Hengist and his warriors, landed at Ebbsfleet,
-in Thanet, and the first English colony was founded
-among a people who were known to the strangers as
-“Brit-Welsh.”<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> From that time a steady immigration
-of Angle, Jute, Saxon, and Frisian set in towards the
-eastern coast of Britain, as far north as the Firth of
-Forth, until, in the first half of the sixth century, the
-whole of the eastern part of our island was taken possession
-of by various tribes,<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> whose names, for the most
-part, still survive in the names of our counties. The
-principal rivers also afforded them a free passage into
-the heart of the country, and the kingdom of Mercia gradually
-expanded until it embraced, not only the basin
-of the Trent, but reached as far as the line of the Severn.
-The river Humber afforded a base of operations for the
-Anglian freebooters, who founded the kingdom of Deira
-or modern Yorkshire; while the camp of Bamborough<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108">108</a></span>
-was the centre from which Ida, who landed with fifty
-ships in the year 547, conquered Bernicia, or the region
-extending from the river Tees to Edinburgh. The tide
-of English colonization rolled steadily westward, until, at
-the close of the sixth century, the hilly and impassable
-districts culminating in the Pennine Chain, and extending
-southwards from Cumberland and Westmoreland,
-through Yorkshire and Derbyshire, formed the barrier
-between the Brit-Welsh kingdoms of Elmet and Strathclyde
-on the east, and the English on the west. To the
-south of this the Brit-Welsh dominion was bounded by
-the river Severn, and included Chester and the whole of
-the basin of the Dee; while Somerset, Devon, and
-Cornwall, and the district round Bradford and Malmesbury
-formed the kingdom of West Wales.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></p>
-
-<p>The long war by which the borders of England were
-gradually pushed to the west, at the expense of the
-Brit-Welsh, was one of the most fearful of which we
-have any record. The English invaders came over, with
-their wives and children and household stuff, in such
-force that the country which they left behind was left
-desolate for several centuries. Worshippers of Thor and
-Odin, and living a free life, equally divided between
-farming, hunting, and war, they were mortal foes to
-Christianity and to Roman civilization. They destroyed
-the Brit-Welsh cities with fire and sword; and the ashes
-of the Roman villas, which are to be found in nearly
-every part of the Roman province of Britain, testify to
-the keenness of their hate to everything which was at
-once Christian, Roman, and Celtic. Gildas forcibly describes
-the destruction which they wrought among his
-countrymen, by the metaphor that “the flame kindled<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109">109</a></span>
-in the east, raged over nearly all the land, until it flared
-red over the western ocean.”<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> In the conquered districts
-the Brit-Welsh were either exterminated or enslaved,
-and their civilization was wholly replaced by the rude
-culture of the English.</p>
-
-<p>It follows, from the nature of this conquest, that any
-group of remains, such as those in the caves under consideration,
-must be assigned to the time before the
-English had possession of the district, and we must therefore
-see what historical proof is to be found on the point.</p>
-
-<p>At the close of the sixth century the Brit-Welsh
-kingdom of Elmet (in the basin of the river Aire)&mdash;a
-name which still survives in Barwick-in-Elmet, a little
-village about seven miles to the north-east of Leeds&mdash;extended
-over the country round Leeds and Bradford,
-passing westwards towards, if not into, Lancashire, and
-northwards probably so as to embrace Ribblesdale, and
-forming a barrier to the westward advance of the English
-possessors of eastern Yorkshire. Its downfall will
-give us the latest possible limit which we are seeking for
-the Brit-Welsh occupation of the Victoria Cave. The
-two kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia had united to form
-the powerful state of Northumbria, at the beginning of
-the seventh century, under Æthelfrith, who carried on the
-war against the Brit-Welsh with greater vigour than his
-predecessors. In 607<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> he marched along the line of the
-Trent, through Staffordshire, avoiding thereby the difficult
-and easily-defended hilly country of Derbyshire and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110">110</a></span>
-East Lancashire, to the battle near Chester, famous for
-the destruction of the power of Strathclyde, and the
-death of the monks of Bangor, who fought against him
-with their prayers. By this decisive blow, the English
-first set foot on the coast of the Irish Channel, and
-Strathclyde and Elmet, on the one hand, were cut
-asunder from Wales. On the other Chester was so
-thoroughly destroyed that it remained in ruins for
-nearly three centuries, to be rebuilt by Æthelflæd, “the
-Lady of the Mercians,” in 907, and the plains of Lancashire
-lay open to the invader.<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> This western advance
-of the Northumbrians was completed by the conquest of
-Elmet, in 616, by Eadwine, and the whole district from
-Edinburgh, as far south as the Humber, and as far west
-as Chester, became subject to his rule.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> The latest possible
-date, therefore, that can be assigned for the occupation
-of these caves by the Brit-Welsh is determined by
-that event. It cannot be later than the first quarter of
-the seventh century, or the time when what remained of
-Roman art and civilization in that district was swept
-away by the ancestors of the present dalesmen. The
-relics in the caves must have been accumulated in the
-two centuries which elapsed between the recall of the
-legions in the days of Honorius and the English conquest.
-They are traces of the anarchy which existed in those
-times, and they tell a tale of woe, wrought on the Brit-Welsh,
-by Pict, Scot, or Englishman, as eloquently as
-the lament of Gildas, or the mournful verses of Talliesin.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111">111</a></span>
-They complete the picture of the desolation of those
-times revealed by the ashes of the villas and cities
-which were burned by the invaders.</p>
-
-<p>We have now examined the evidence as to date offered
-by the contents of these caves, and we have seen that it
-agrees with the contemporary history. It may therefore
-be concluded that it lies in the fifth and sixth
-centuries, possibly the first quarter of the seventh.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_50"><i>The Neolithic Stratum.</i></h3>
-
-<div id="Fig_26" class="figleft up1" style="width: 120px;">
-  <img src="images/i_112.jpg" width="120" height="600" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;Bone Harpoon (natural size).</div></div>
-
-<p>This occupation of the Victoria Cave by the Brit-Welsh
-is a mere episode in its history. It was inhabited
-by man in the neolithic age, at a time so remote that
-the interval between it and the historical period can
-only be measured by the rude method by which geologists
-estimate the relative age of the rocks. At the
-entrance the dark Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh stratum
-(<a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>, No. 4; <a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>, No. 4) lay buried, as we have
-seen, under an accumulation of angular fragments of stone
-which had fallen from the cliff. It rested on a similar accumulation
-(<a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>, No. 3; <a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>, No. 3) which was no
-less than six feet thick, and at the bottom of this, at the
-point where it was based on a stiff grey clay, a bone harpoon
-(<a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26</a>) was discovered, as well as charcoal; a bone
-bead (<a href="#Fig_27">Fig. 27</a>), three rude flint flakes, and the broken
-bones of the brown bear, stag, horse, and Celtic shorthorn
-(<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>). The harpoon is a little more
-than three inches long, with the head armed with two
-barbs on each side, and the base presenting a mode of
-securing attachment to the handle which has not before
-been discovered in Britain. Instead of a mere projection
-to catch the ligatures by which it was bound to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112">112</a></span>
-shaft, there is a well-cut barb on either side, pointing in
-a contrary direction to those which form the head.
-Ample use for such an instrument would be found in
-Malham tarn, some three miles off, and
-very probably also in that which formerly
-existed close by at Attermire, but which
-has been choked up by peat, and is now
-turned into grass-land by drainage. The
-remains of the brown bear consist of
-numerous hollow bones and teeth, and
-the shaft of a femur with its articular
-ends broken off, has been polished by
-friction against some soft substance, so
-that its surface has a lustre like that of
-glass.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_27" class="figright" style="width: 129px;">
-  <img src="images/i_113.jpg" width="129" height="101" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span> Bone-bead (natural size.)</div></div>
-
-<p>The question naturally arises, who were
-the ancient inhabitants of the cave whose
-rude implements occur in this lower stratum?
-From the few remains which we
-discovered, they were hunters and fishermen,
-and the possessors of domestic oxen,
-and possibly horses, and in a much lower
-state of civilization than the Brit-Welsh
-inhabitants who succeeded them in the
-cave after a long interval. There is no
-proof that they used a coinage, or that
-they were acquainted with metal. The
-conclusion that they were neolithic is
-based on the following evidence:&mdash;In
-1871 the Exploration Committee examined
-a small cave about 200 yards off, in King’s
-Scar, and obtained the broken bones of the stag, Celtic
-short-horn (<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>), goat, and horse, a whetstone,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113">113</a></span>
-and a rudely chipped scraper, to which, subsequently,
-Mr. John Birkbeck, jun., made the important
-addition of part of a human thigh-bone. This set of
-remains, the human thigh-bone excepted, agrees with
-those in the lower stratum in the Victoria Cave, not
-merely in the absence of metal, but also in affording
-signs of a comparatively rude civilization; and we might
-reasonably expect that the two caves so close to each
-other, would have been occupied by the same people at
-approximately the same time. If this be allowed, the
-thigh-bone may be assigned to one of these earlier inhabitants,
-the place of habitation being, as is frequently
-the case, subsequently used for purposes
-of burial. The thigh-bone itself is characterized
-by the great development of
-the muscular ridge known to anatomists
-as the <i class="taxonomy">linea aspera</i>, implying the peculiar
-flatness of shin which is termed
-by Professor Busk platycnemism. This
-peculiar form has been met with in the neolithic tumuli
-of Yorkshire, explored by the Rev. Canon Greenwell, as
-well as in the human remains which I have discovered
-in the neolithic caves and chambered tombs of Denbighshire;
-and since it has not been observed in any human
-skeletons in this country which are not of that age, it
-may be fairly taken to prove that a neolithic people
-formerly lived in Ribblesdale. And further, since the
-traces of rude culture met with in these two caves are
-the same as those which characterize neolithic burial and
-dwelling places throughout Europe, they may be assigned
-to that remote age. Similar human remains were obtained
-by Mr. Farrer from the Dowker-bottom Cave, and imply
-that that cave also was used as a neolithic burial-place.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114">114</a></span>
-The identification of this race with the Basque
-or Iberian stock, from which are descended the small,
-dark peoples of Derbyshire, Wales, and certain parts of
-Ireland, must be referred to the chapters on the Neolithic
-Caves.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_28" class="figcenter" style="width: 416px;">
-  <img src="images/i_114.jpg" width="416" height="256" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;Stone Adze: <i>a</i>, side view; <i>b</i>, edge (natural size).</div></div>
-
-<p>The reputed discovery of an adze (<a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a>), of a
-variety of greenstone which Mr. Wyndham identifies
-with melaphyr, many years ago in the Victoria Cave,
-may offer additional evidence as to its having been
-occupied by a neolithic tribe. It was presented to the
-Museum of the Philosophical Society at Leeds by Mr.
-Jackson, and figured by Mr. Denny among the remains
-from the Caves of Craven, and presents characters
-that have not, to my knowledge, been met with in
-any other neolithic implement found in Great Britain:
-one end being roughly chipped for insertion into a
-socket, while the other is carefully ground into a
-chisel edge. In these respects, as Mr. O’Callaghan and
-Mr. Denny have observed, it bears a striking resemblance
-to the stone adzes used by the South Sea Islanders,
-and especially in Tahiti;&mdash;a resemblance so strong that,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115">115</a></span>
-unless it had been traced from the hands of the discoverer
-into the Museum at Leeds, it would be considered
-by many archæologists as an implement actually
-obtained from the South Seas. It may have been derived
-from the lower stratum, which furnished the equally
-peculiar harpoon, <a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26</a>.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_51"><i>The Approximate Date of the Neolithic Occupation.</i></h3>
-
-<p>From the position in which these remains occurred,
-it is obvious that a neolithic tribe occupied the cave
-before the accumulation of the angular fragments, six
-feet in thickness (<a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>, No. 3; <a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>, No. 3), just
-as the date of the Brit-Welsh occupation is fixed as
-being after this, and before the accumulation of the
-two feet of débris above (No. 5). And in this we have a
-means of roughly estimating the interval of time between
-them. It is clear that the accumulation of two feet of
-angular fragments, torn away by the action of the
-weather from the cliff, has been formed in about 1,200
-years, <i>i.e.</i> between the Brit-Welsh occupation and the
-present time. If it be admitted that equal quantities
-of the cliff have been weathered away in equal times, it
-will follow that the thickness of six feet between the
-Brit-Welsh stratum and that under examination was
-formed during a time thrice as long, or 3,600 years; and
-that consequently the date of the earlier occupation of
-the cave by man is fixed as being about 4,800, or 5,000
-years ago. It is perfectly true, that in ancient times
-the frosts may have been more intense than they are
-now, and therefore that the rate of weathering may have
-been faster. To the objection that possibly a large mass
-of cliff may have tumbled down at one time, and subsequently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116">116</a></span>
-been disintegrated, it may be answered, that at the
-point at the entrance where the section was taken there
-was no evidence of any such fall; the angular blocks,
-both above and below the Brit-Welsh stratum, being as
-nearly as possible of the same size, and not lying with
-their faces parallel to each other, as would have been the
-case had they been disintegrated fallen blocks. Nevertheless
-this attempt to fix a date cannot lay claim to
-scientific precision, and in that respect is neither better,
-nor worse, than any other similar attempt founded on
-the rate at which a valley is being excavated, or alluvium
-being deposited, or on the retrocession of a waterfall,
-such, for example, as Niagara. It is merely valuable as
-enabling us to form some sort of idea of the high
-antiquity of the neolithic men who left these remains
-behind in the cave.</p>
-
-<p>As the trench (see <a href="#Fig_20">Figs. 20</a>, <a href="#Fig_21">21</a>) begun on the outside
-passed into the entrance of the cave, the accumulation
-of stones above the neolithic stratum disappeared, and
-the latter became intermingled with the Brit-Welsh layer
-above, so that it would have been impossible to distinguish
-the one from the other had not the talus marked
-the interval in the plateau outside. The talus also
-above the Brit-Welsh stratum ceased at the entrance,
-although here and there large blocks of stone, fallen
-from time to time from the roof, rested on its upper
-surface.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_52"><i>The Grey Clays.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Immediately below the neolithic stratum, a deposit of
-stiff grey clay of unknown depth occupies both the
-entrance and the inside of the cave (<a href="#Fig_20">Figs. 20</a>, <a href="#Fig_21">21</a>), containing
-fragments of limestone and large angular blocks<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117">117</a></span>
-which had fallen from the roof. A shaft sunk to a depth
-of twenty-five feet near the entrance failed to arrive at
-the bottom, but presented the following section in
-descending order: stiff grey clay with layer of stalagmite
-six feet thick; a finely laminated calcareous clay twelve
-feet thick; and below, a similar bed of clay to that on the
-surface. In a second shaft sunk to the depth of twelve
-feet farther within the cave, the base of the grey clay
-was not reached.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a></p>
-
-<div id="Fig_29" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
-  <img src="images/i_117.jpg" width="400" height="360" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;Section below Grey Clay at entrance.</div></div>
-
-<p>A third shaft, at the entrance, however, penetrated the
-clay, No. 1 of <a href="#Fig_20">Figs. 20</a>, <a href="#Fig_21">21</a>, <a href="#Fig_29">29</a>, at a depth of about five
-feet, and revealed the existence below of a reddish-grey
-loamy cave-earth (<a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>), containing bones and
-teeth of the same animals as those from the caverns<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118">118</a></span>
-of Kent’s Hole, Wookey Hole, and others, which belonged
-to a group that invaded Europe before the glacial period,
-and that inhabited the region north of the Alps and the
-Pyrenees in pre- and post-glacial times.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a></p>
-
-<p>We subsequently discovered the cave-earth to be from
-three to four feet thick, and that it rested on an accumulation
-(<a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>) of large blocks of limestone, the interstices
-between which were filled with clay, sometimes laminated
-and at others homogeneous, as well as with coarse sand.
-Below this we broke into an empty passage, one side
-of which was formed by the solid rock, and the other of
-blocks of stone imbedded in the clay.</p>
-
-<p>As we opened out a horizontal passage towards the
-cave-earth, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>, from the outside, the talus (<a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>) of
-angular débris was cut through first, which gradually
-became more and more clayey in its lower portions: at
-one point, <span class="smcap smaller">D</span>, there were several glaciated blocks, some
-imbedded in clay and others perfectly free. It rested
-obliquely on the edges of the cave-earth, and passed
-gradually at the entrance into the clay occupying the
-interior of the cave.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_53"><i>The Pleistocene Occupation by Hyænas.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The remains of the spelæan variety of the spotted
-hyæna were very abundant in the cave-earth, consisting
-of fragments of skulls, jaws, and bones, and especially
-of coprolites, which formed irregular floors, accumulated
-during successive occupations of the cave by
-that animal. All the bones were gnawed and scored by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119">119</a></span>
-teeth, the lower jaws were without the angle and coronoid
-process (see <a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a>), and the hollow bones which contain
-marrow were broken, while those which were solid and
-marrowless were for the most part perfect: and this held
-good, not merely of the remains of the hyæna, but of those
-of all the animals which constituted their prey. The bones,
-for example, of the woolly rhinoceros are represented
-merely by the hard distal portion of the shaft of the
-humerus, and of the solid bones of the ulna and radius,
-while the only portions of skull are the solid pedestal
-offered by the nasal bones on which the front horn was
-supported, and a few smaller fragments. The pedestal
-in question is depicted by the dark shaded portion of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120">120</a></span>
-<a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>, the outline of the skull and lower jaw being
-taken from one of Professor Brandt’s plates of the
-Woolly Rhinoceros found in Siberia.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> The teeth which
-imply the presence of the mammoth (milk molars 3 and
-4) were those of a young individual, as is very generally
-the case in caves which have been occupied by hyænas.
-The young would naturally be more exposed to the attack
-of those cowardly beasts of prey than the adult, armed
-with its long curved tusks, and defended, not merely by its
-thick skin, but also by the covering of wool and long hair
-which is peculiar to the species. Besides these animals,
-the reindeer, red-deer, bison, horse, the brown, grizzly, and
-great cave bears, were preyed upon by the hyænas and
-dragged into the cave. All these species were discovered
-within an area of a few square yards of cave-earth,
-which passes into the interior of the cave under
-the grey clay. They belong to that well-defined group
-known as pleistocene, quaternary, or post-pleiocene, which
-was proved to have inhabited Yorkshire<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> in ancient times
-from Dr. Buckland’s discoveries in Kirkdale, and Mr.
-Denny’s examination of the river-deposit at Leeds, in
-which the remains of the hippopotamus were obtained.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_30" class="figcenter" style="width: 439px;">
-  <img src="images/i_119.jpg" width="439" height="452" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;Skull of Woolly Rhinoceros, showing the part which is not eaten by the hyænas.</div></div>
-
-<p>The last and most important addition to this fauna
-is that of man, a fragment of fibula in the same
-mineral condition as the rest of the pleistocene bones,
-having been identified by Professor Busk with an
-unusually massive recent human fibula. Although the
-fragment is very small, its comparison with the abnormal
-specimen in Professor Busk’s possession removes all doubt<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121">121</a></span>
-from my mind, as to its having belonged to a man, who
-was contemporary with the cave-hyæna and the other
-pleistocene animals found in the cave.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_54"><i>The probable Pre-glacial Age of the Pleistocene Stratum.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Is this occupation of the Victoria Cave by the pleistocene
-mammalia pre-glacial or post-glacial?&mdash;before, or
-after, the great lowering of the temperature in northern
-Europe? This difficult question can only be answered
-by an appeal to the physical history of the clay and
-cave-loam, and to the evidence as to glacial action in
-the district, and to the distribution of the mammalia
-in Great Britain during the pleistocene period. Glaciers
-have left their marks in nearly every part of Lancashire
-and Yorkshire, and especially in the neighbourhood of
-the Victoria Cave. The hill-sides around are studded
-with large ice-borne Silurian rocks; boulder-clay occupies
-nearly every hollow on the elevated plateaux; and
-moraines are to be observed in nearly every valley.
-At the entrance of the cave itself, ice-scratched Silurian
-grit-stones are imbedded in the clay, which abuts directly
-on the cave-loam, and passes insensibly into the clay,
-with angular blocks of limestone within the cave. They
-may possibly be the constituents of a lateral moraine <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in
-situ</i>, as Mr. Tiddeman suggests, or they may merely
-be derived from the waste of boulder-clay which has
-dropped from a higher level.</p>
-
-<p>The latter view seems to me to be most likely to be
-true, because some of the boulders have been deprived
-of the clay in which they were imbedded, and are piled
-on each other with empty space between them, the clay<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122">122</a></span>
-being carried down to a lower level and re-deposited.
-Their position, however, on the edges of the cave-earth
-implies, in any case, that they had been dropped after
-its accumulation.</p>
-
-<p>There is another point to be considered in the physical
-evidence. The deposits above the cave-earth,
-occupying the interior and entrance of the cave, have
-been introduced by the rains, either through the
-entrance, or through the crevices which penetrate the
-roof, and consist of a finer detritus washed out of the
-boulder-clay on the surface at a higher level. The cave-earth,
-however, although it has been introduced in the
-same way, cannot be accounted for on the supposition
-that it was derived from the boulder-clay, with which
-it contrasts in the fact that it is a loam, of a reddish
-grey colour, containing a large percentage of carbonate
-and phosphate of lime.</p>
-
-<p>Similar deposits, characterized by their red colour, are
-to be found in nearly all the caves of the south of England,
-in France, and southern Europe, not complicated,
-as here, by the glacial phenomena of the district. Had
-the layer been formed in the Victoria Cave, from the
-destruction of the boulder-clay, it would have been
-identical in composition with the deposits above.</p>
-
-<p>The laminated portions of the grey clay are considered
-by Mr. Tiddeman to have been formed by the flow of
-water through the entrance, derived from the daily
-melting of the glacier which occupied the valley in
-ancient times, and he compares it with a similar lamination
-in the boulder-clay at Ingleton, which has
-been described by Mr. Binney in the neighbourhood of
-Clifton, near Manchester, under the expressive name of
-“book-leaves.” Since, however, similar accumulations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123">123</a></span>
-are being formed at the present time at the bottom of
-pools in many caves, as, for example, in that of Ingleborough,
-they cannot be taken to imply a glacial origin.
-They are not found merely in one spot in the Victoria
-Cave, but are scattered, more or less, through the general
-mass of the clay, and occur abundantly even below the
-cave-earth, having been deposited in the interstices
-between the large blocks of limestone. In these positions
-they are of uncertain age, and there is no reason why
-some of the hollows which we discovered below the
-cave-earth (<a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>) should not be filled with them at
-the present time by the heavy rains. They dip at all
-angles, and are conformable to the surfaces on which
-they have been dropped.</p>
-
-<p>The most important argument in favour of the
-pre-glacial age of the mammaliferous cave-earth is
-afforded by the range of the animals in Great Britain
-during the time that certain areas were occupied by
-glaciers. In a paper read before the Geological Society
-in 1869, I showed that those areas in Great Britain in
-which the marks of glaciers were the freshest and most
-abundant coincided with those which were barren of
-the remains of the pleistocene mammalia, and I therefore
-inferred that this was due to the fact, that the
-areas in question were covered by ice at the time that
-pleistocene animals were so numerous in the caves, and
-river-deposits of southern and eastern England, and on
-the continent. In a map published in 1871, Cumberland,
-Westmoreland, Lancashire, and the greater portion
-of Yorkshire are represented as being one of these
-barren areas, in which no pleistocene mammalia have
-been observed. It is obvious that the hyænas, bears,
-mammoths, and other creatures found in the pleistocene<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124">124</a></span>
-stratum, could not have occupied the district when it
-was covered by ice; and had they lived soon after the
-retreat of the ice-sheet, their remains would occur in the
-river-gravels, from which they are absent throughout a
-large area to the north of a line drawn between Chester
-and York, whilst they occur abundantly in the glacial
-river deposits south of that line. On the other hand,
-they belong to a fauna, that overran Europe, and must
-have occupied this very region before the glacial period,
-since their remains have been found in pre-glacial strata
-to the north in Scotland, to the south at Selsea, and
-to the east in Norfolk and Suffolk. It may, therefore,
-reasonably be concluded that they occupied the cave in
-pre-glacial times, and that the stratum in which their
-remains lie buried, was protected from the grinding of
-the ice-sheet, which destroyed nearly all the surface
-accumulations in the river-valleys, by the walls and
-roof of rock, which has since, to a great extent, been
-weathered away.<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> This view is also held by Mr.
-Tiddeman.</p>
-
-<p>The exploration of the Victoria Cave, which has
-hitherto yielded such interesting evidence of three distinct
-occupations&mdash;first by hyænas, then by neolithic
-men, and lastly by the Brit-Welsh, is by no means
-complete. The cave itself is of unknown depth and
-extent, and the mere removal of so much earth and
-clay as it is at present known to contain will be a
-labour of years. The results of the exploration, up
-to the present time, are of almost equal value to the
-archæologist, to the historian, and the geologist, and
-prove how close is the bond of union between three
-branches of human thought which at first sight appear<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125">125</a></span>
-remote from each other. The discussion of the problems
-connected with the neolithic and pleistocene
-strata must be referred to the <a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> and following
-chapters.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_55"><i>The Kirkhead Cave.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Other caves in this country, besides the group under
-consideration in Yorkshire, have been occupied by the
-Brit-Welsh. That known as the Kirkhead Cave, on
-the eastern shore of the Promontory of Cartmell, on the
-northern shore of Morecambe Bay, explored by Mr.
-J.&nbsp;P. Morris,<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> and a Committee of the Anthropological
-Society in 1864&ndash;5, contained remains of the same type
-as those of the Brit-Welsh stratum in the Victoria Cave.
-In the débris which formed the floor and extended to an
-unknown depth below, a coin of Domitian, “a trefoil-shaped
-Roman fibula,” a pin, ornamented with green
-enamel, and a bronze ring were discovered in association
-with broken remains of domestic animals&mdash;<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>,
-pig and goat, dog and horse, as well as stag,
-roe, wild goose, and many human bones. A bronze celt
-and a spear-head were also found, at a depth respectively
-of five and six feet, and a flint flake at a
-depth of seven feet; and fragments of pottery, a bead
-of amber, cut bones, the perforated head of the femur,
-and other articles. From this group of remains it may
-be inferred that the cave was occupied by the Brit-Welsh,
-and before them by the users of bronze, and
-possibly by a neolithic people, and that it had at some
-time or another been used as a place of burial. Just
-inside the entrance, which overlooked the sea at a
-height of 45 feet, a semi-circular breastwork of large<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126">126</a></span>
-stones rendered the cave habitable, and capable of easy
-defence.</p>
-
-<p>Mr. Morris’s view that the discovery of a bronze celt,
-flint flakes, and coins in this cave proves that all three
-were in use at the same time, and by the same people, is
-not borne out by the published account of the excavation.
-There is no proof that the deposit had not been disturbed,
-or that the articles were not dropped at different
-times. And in support of this conclusion, it may be
-advanced, that there is no case on record of the discovery
-of bronze celts or swords along with any Roman coins
-under conditions which would prove that they were in
-use at the same time. Had such been the case the
-ruins of the many Roman villas and cities, destroyed by
-the English, would have furnished some examples. At
-Silchester, even such a rare article as a Roman eagle has
-been met with. There is every reason to believe with
-Sir John Lubbock, Mr. Evans, and other eminent
-archæologists, that the use of bronze for weapons had
-been superseded by that of iron before the dawn of
-history in this country. It is otherwise with the flint
-flakes; since my discovery of several inside a Roman
-coffin at Hardham, near Pulborough, in Sussex, in a
-cemetery that belongs to the later portion of the Roman
-dominion in Britain, proves that they were used for
-some purpose at that time.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_56"><i>Poole’s Cave, near Buxton.</i></h3>
-
-<p>In the collection of articles obtained from Poole’s Cave,
-in Buxton, in Derbyshire, I identified, in 1871, in
-company with Mr. Pennington, bronze Roman coins,
-minimi, Samian and other ware, and large quantities of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127">127</a></span>
-broken bones of the same animals as those from the
-Victoria Cave. A bronze harp-shaped fibula of the type
-of <a href="#i_frontis">Fig. 5</a> of the coloured Plate is inlaid with silver, and
-is so perfect that it might still be used.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_57"><i>Thor’s Cave, near Ashbourne.</i></h3>
-
-<p>A cave also, in Staffordshire, four miles from Ilam,
-explored by the Midland Scientific Association in 1864,<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a>
-under the supervision of Mr. Carrington, has furnished
-articles of the same kind as those of Yorkshire. It is
-known as Thor’s cave, and penetrates the lofty cliff of
-limestone, on the south side of the river Manifold, at a
-height of about 254 feet from the bottom of the valley,
-and about 900 feet above the sea, running horizontally
-inwards, and being divided inside by a row of buttressed
-columns into two noble gothic aisles. Its bottom was
-occupied by clay, in which, near the entrance, there were
-thick layers of charcoal at depths of two, three, and
-four feet below the surface, mingled with broken bones
-and pottery, that indicated the spots where fires had
-been kindled. The articles discovered were as <span class="locked">follows:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p>“<i>Bronze.</i>&mdash;Armlet, two fibulæ of harp pattern (see
-<a href="#i_frontis">coloured Plate</a>, Fig. 5), two plain breast-pins and rings,
-a curious wheel-shaped instrument.</p>
-
-<p>“<i>Iron.</i>&mdash;Large triangular fork, arrow-heads, lance-heads,
-several knives and a chopper, of singular shapes,
-reaping hook (?), adze, pins, two girdle hooks (?), &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p>“<i>Bone.</i>&mdash;Seven snags of deer’s horns, variously cut and
-perforated, several others not perforated, curious bone
-comb ornamented with circles, flat bone perforated with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128">128</a></span>
-four holes, two leg-bones carved at the ends, pin, a large
-quantity of bones of animals that had been consumed for
-food.</p>
-
-<p>“<i>Stone.</i>&mdash;Greenstone pounder, fragments of querns,
-perforated disk, &amp;c.</p>
-
-<p>“<i>Pottery.</i>&mdash;A large collection of fragments of various
-periods, among the rest several pieces of true Samian
-ware.”</p>
-
-<p>Mr. Edwin Brown, from whose report this list is taken,
-concludes that Thor’s cave was occupied during “the
-late Celtic and Romano-Celtic periods.” The harp-fibulæ
-are of a pattern identical with several of those discovered
-in the Victoria Cave, and the holes at their upper ends
-were probably intended for the reception of enamel.
-The bronze instrument, consisting of a disk cut out into
-a flamboyant pattern like that of the round brooch from
-the Victoria Cave (<a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>), and joined to a central stem
-ornamented with waved lines, was intended for suspension;
-possibly, as Mr. Carrington suggests, it may have
-been used for spinning. It is a remarkably fine example
-of Brit-Welsh or late Celtic art. The bone comb is of the
-same type as those from the Brit-Welsh caves of Yorkshire.
-It is evident, from Mr. Brown’s account, that there
-were distinct layers of occupation; but, unfortunately,
-the articles found in each were not separated from the
-rest. One armlet (<a href="#Fig_31">Fig. 31</a>), composed of a thin plate
-of bronze, and ornamented with a dotted-line pattern,
-is of the peculiar type which is characteristic of the
-bronze age.</p>
-
-<p>The cave had also been used as a place of sepulture,
-for near “the pulpit rock,” and at a depth of five feet
-from the surface, a skeleton rested in the sitting posture
-which is so characteristic of neolithic interments in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129">129</a></span>
-Europe. It had also been entered by man even before
-any of these accumulations. “In the south recess,
-behind and below any traces of man’s occupation, the
-diggers came upon a kind of flooring of tabular masses
-of breccia stretching almost across the cave, and on one
-side attached firmly to the wall,” beneath which rested,
-in the undisturbed clay, a deer’s horn, rudely sawn across
-and perforated by two holes.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_31" class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;">
-  <img src="images/i_129.jpg" width="310" height="151" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;Bronze Bracelet from Thor’s Cave.</div></div>
-
-<p>Thor’s Cave, therefore, like the Victoria, has been
-occupied by man in the Brit-Welsh stage of the historic
-period, as well as in the bronze, and possibly in the
-neolithic ages.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_58"><i>Historic Value of Brit-Welsh Group of Caves.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The discovery that caves were used as habitations by
-men accustomed to the elegance of civilized life, not
-merely in Yorkshire, but in districts so far removed from
-each other as Staffordshire and the extreme north of
-Lancashire, during the fifth and sixth centuries, implies
-the pressure of a far-reaching calamity by which they
-were driven from their homes. It completes and rounds
-off the story of the social condition of the country during
-these troubled times, which is revealed in the sacked<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130">130</a></span>
-and burned Brit-Welsh cities and villas, as well as in the
-scanty records of the English invasion.</p>
-
-<p>Subsequent investigation will probably show that
-caves were occupied at this time in every part of the
-country which was conquered by the English. In the
-upper stratum of Kent’s Hole, for example, near Torquay,
-similar articles, with the exception of the enamels,
-have been discovered. There, however, the occupation
-may have been considerably later than in the caves of
-Yorkshire, because the Roman civilization was not supplanted
-in Devonshire by the English until the beginning
-of the ninth century. The river Tamar then marked the
-frontier between the English, and the Brit-Welsh of the
-promontory of Cornwall, which represented the dominion
-of West Wales in the days of Ecgberht.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a></p>
-
-<p>In the numerous caves of Wales, on the other hand,
-which I have explored, there is no trace of inhabitants
-of the fifth and sixth centuries, a circumstance that is
-easily accounted for by the fact that Wales was not
-invaded at that time by the English. There would
-therefore be no reason for the civilized Brit-Welsh to
-fly to caves for refuge.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_59"><i>Principal Animals and Articles in Brit-Welsh Caves.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The following are the more important animals and
-articles found in the group of caves under consideration.
-The species are identical with those which I have tabulated
-from refuse-heaps of Roman age.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131">131</a></span><a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a></p>
-
-<h4 id="list_131"><i>List of Principal Animals and Objects found in Brit-Welsh Strata in Caves.</i></h4>
-
-<table class="listobjects" summary="brit-welsh strata">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Animals.</span></th>
-    <th class="tdc">Victoria</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Kelko</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Dowker<br />Bottom.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Kirk-<br />head.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Poole’s<br />Cavern.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Thor’s<br />Cave.</th></tr>
-  <tr class="hdr">
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Domestic.</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis familiaris</i>&mdash;Dog</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">?</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>&mdash;Pig</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">?</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>&mdash;Horse</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">?</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>&mdash;Celtic Short-horn</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">?</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Capra hircus</i>&mdash;Goat</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">?</td></tr>
-  <tr class="hdr">
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Wild.</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis vulpes</i>&mdash;Fox</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">?</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Meles taxus</i>&mdash;Badger</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus elaphus</i>&mdash;Stag</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">?</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus capreolus</i>&mdash;Roe</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">?</td></tr>
-  <tr class="topspace">
-    <td class="tdl">Roman coins or imitations</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Enamelled ornaments in bronze</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Bronze ornaments inlaid with silver</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Iron articles</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Samian ware</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Black ware</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Bone-spoon fibulæ (<a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>)</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl">Bone combs</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">...</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>All the less important animals and articles are omitted
-from this list. It will be observed that the brown bear,
-the wolf, and the fallow-deer are absent. The brown
-bear was probably at this time very rare in Britain,
-since its remains have been met with in but two out of
-the many Roman refuse-heaps in the country, at London
-and Colchester. The well-known lines of Martial, however,
-imply that it was imported from Britain to Rome at
-this <span class="locked">time&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<div class="poem-container">
-<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="iq">“Nuda Caledonio sic pectora præbuit urso,<br /></span>
-<span class="i0">Haud falsa pendens in cruce Laureolus.”<br /></span>
-</div></div>
-</div>
-
-<p>It probably became extinct about the ninth or tenth
-century. The wolf obviously would not be likely to be
-used for food, although it probably was abundant in the
-district. The fallow-deer also had not penetrated into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132">132</a></span>
-the hilly districts, although it had become naturalized in
-this country by the Romans, so as to have been frequently
-used as an article of food before the English invasion.
-I have seen its characteristic antlers in refuse-heaps,
-both in London and Colchester, which have furnished
-Roman coins and pottery.</p>
-
-<p>The beaver was probably very rare in the fifth and
-sixth centuries, and has been met with in no cave-deposit,
-either historic or prehistoric, in this country.
-It was, however, known to the Anglian conquerors
-of Yorkshire (Northumbria), who called Beverley (lea,
-leag-) after its name.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_60"><i>The Use of Horseflesh.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The broken bones of the horse, in all the caves above
-mentioned, leave no room to doubt that horseflesh was a
-common article of food at that time. It was so, indeed,
-throughout Roman Britain, and after the English invasion
-was used as late as the Council of Celchyth,<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> in the
-year 787. It was forbidden by the Church because it was
-eaten by the Scandinavian peoples in honour of Odin.
-In Norway,<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> Hacon, the foster-son of Æthelstan, was compelled
-to eat it by the bonders, in 956, and the revolt of
-the bonders which ended in the bloody battle of Stikklestadt,
-in which Olaf met his death, in 1030, was caused
-by his cruelties to the eaters of horseflesh. As Christianity
-prevailed over the worship of Thor and Odin, it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133">133</a></span>
-was banished from the table. The present prejudice
-against its use is a remarkable instance of the change in
-taste, which has been brought about by an ecclesiastical
-rule aimed against a long-forgotten faith. The rule was
-not, however, always obeyed, for the Monks of St. Gall,
-in the eleventh century, not only ate horseflesh, but
-returned thanks for it, in a metrical grace, written by
-Ekkehard the Younger (died 1036):&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="poem-container">
-<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
-<span class="i0">“Sit feralis equi caro dulcis sub cruce Christi.”<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a><br /></span>
-</div></div>
-</div>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_61"><i>The Cave of Longberry Bank.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The cave of Longberry Bank, near Penally, in Pembrokeshire,
-may also be classed with those which were
-inhabited in historic times, since it contained red fine-grained
-pottery of a kind commonly found in the ruins
-of Roman villas. It was explored by the Rev. H.&nbsp;H.
-Winwood, in 1866, in whose collection are the remains of
-the <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, goat, badger, dog, as well as shells of
-oyster, large limpets and mussel from the neighbouring
-shore. Some of the bones are burned. Several human
-vertebræ and a metacarpal were probably the traces of an
-interment of unknown date; and the two flint flakes are
-of uncertain age.</p>
-
-<p>The results obtained by the exploration of the
-caves described in this chapter are to be taken merely
-as the first-fruits of a new line of inquiry, which is
-likely to throw light on many points relating to art,
-history, and the range of the animals, and not as being
-perfect or final. On the continent, no historic caves of
-importance have as yet been explored.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134">134</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">CAVES USED IN THE AGES OF IRON AND OF BRONZE.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote class="inhead">
-
-<p>The Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time.&mdash;The Prehistoric
-Fauna.&mdash;The Archæological Classification.&mdash;Caves of the
-Iron Age.&mdash;Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain.&mdash;The Caves of
-Césareda in Portugal probably occupied by Cannibals.&mdash;The Cave
-of Reggio in Apulia.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_62"><i>The Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time.</i></h3>
-
-<p class="in0">It will be necessary before we examine the group of
-caves used by man in prehistoric times, to point out the
-important difference in the measurement of time within
-and beyond the borders of history. When we speak,
-for example, of the date of the Norman Conquest, we
-imply that we can ascertain by historical records, not
-merely that it succeeded the invasion of Britain by the
-English or Danes, and happened before our own time,
-but that the interval which separates it from those events
-can be accurately measured by the unit of years. If, however,
-we attempt to ascertain the date of any event which
-happened outside the historical limit, we shall find that
-it is a question solely of relation. When we speak, for
-example, of the neolithic age, we merely mean a certain
-stage of human progress which succeeded the palæolithic,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135">135</a></span>
-and preceded the bronze age, but we have no
-proof of the length of the interval dividing it from the
-one or the other. The historic “when?” implies “how
-long ago?” the prehistoric “when?” merely implies a
-definition before and after certain events, without any
-idea of the measurement of the intervals.</p>
-
-<p>An attempt to ascertain the absolute date of prehistoric
-events must of necessity fail, since it is based
-on the improbable assumption that the physical agents
-have acted uniformly, and that therefore the results may
-be used as a natural chronometer. The present rate of
-the accumulation of <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">débris</i>, as at the Victoria Cave of
-the preceding chapter, or of that of silt in the deltas
-of rivers, such as the Nile, or the Tinière, may convey
-a rough idea of the high antiquity of prehistoric deposits;
-but a slight change either of the climate, or of the
-rainfall, would invalidate the conclusion. When the
-greater part of Europe lay buried under forest, when
-Palestine supported a large population, and when glaciers
-crowned some of the higher mountains of Africa, such
-as the Atlas, the European and Egyptian climates
-were probably moister than at the present time, and
-the rainfall and the floods greater, and consequently the
-accumulation of sediment quicker than the observed rate
-under the present conditions. And in the same way all
-estimates of the lapse of past time, based upon the
-excavation of a river valley, or the retrocession of a
-waterfall, such as Niagara, lie open to the same kind of
-objection. It is not at all reasonable to suppose that
-the complex conditions which regulate the present rate
-of erosion, have been the same during the time the work
-has been done, and it therefore follows that the work
-done is a measure of the power employed, and not of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136">136</a></span>
-the length of time during which it has been in operation.
-We must, therefore, give up the idea of measuring the
-past beyond the memory of man, as represented in
-historical documents, by the historic unit of years. We
-can merely trace a definite sequence of events, separated
-one from another by uncertain intervals. And for that
-series of events which extends from the borders of
-history back to the remote age where the geologist,
-descending the stream of time, meets the archæologist,
-I have adopted the term prehistoric.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_63"><i>The Prehistoric Fauna.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The prehistoric period is characterized by the arrival
-of the domestic animals in Europe, under the care of
-man. The dog, swine, horse, horned-sheep, goat, <i class="taxonomy">Bos
-longifrons</i>, and the larger ox descended from an ancestor,
-according to Professor Rütimeyer, of the type of the
-great Urus, make their appearance together, in association
-with the remains of man, in the neolithic stage of
-civilization.<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> Subsequently they spread over the whole
-of our continent, for the most part under the care of
-man. The <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, however, and possibly also
-the Urus, reverted to feral conditions, just as the horses
-and oxen, in the Americas and Australia, have done at
-the present time, and their remains are therefore frequently
-found in association with animals undoubtedly
-wild. The domestic horse, the variety of hog descended
-from the wild boar, and the domestic cattle derived from
-the Urus, may possibly have passed under the yoke of man,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137">137</a></span>
-in Europe, since their wild stocks were to be found in
-that area, both in the prehistoric and pleistocene times.
-This, however, cannot be affirmed of the swine descended
-from the southern variety of <i class="taxonomy">Sus Indica</i>, or of the Celtic
-shorthorn, of the sheep, or goat, since their wild ancestors
-were not indigenous in Europe. These animals must
-have been domesticated in some area outside Europe;
-and since central Asia is the region where the wild stocks
-still exist, from which all the domestic animals are
-descended, it is reasonable to suppose that they were
-domesticated in that region, and thence introduced, by a
-race of shepherds and herdsmen, into our quarter of
-the world.</p>
-
-<p>This conclusion is considerably strengthened by the
-evidence which Professor Heer has advanced, as to the
-vegetables used by the dwellers on piles in the Swiss
-lakes, among which some, such as the two kinds of
-millet, the six-rowed barley (hordeum hexastichon), the
-Egyptian wheat (triticum turgidum), and a weed (Silene
-cretica), accidentally brought along with them, are
-distinctively of southern derivation.</p>
-
-<p>The most important wild animals living in this
-country during the prehistoric period are the urus, the
-gigantic skulls of which occur in the peat bogs of
-England and Scotland, the Irish elk, the moose (<i class="taxonomy">Cervus
-alces</i>), and the reindeer. The two last are far more
-abundant in the north than in the south of Britain; their
-remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood of
-London, those of both animals at Walthamstow, and
-those of the latter at Crossness in Kent, on the banks
-of the Thames. The remains of the bison have not been
-recorded from any prehistoric deposit in this country.</p>
-
-<p>The Irish elk is the only animal which has become<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138">138</a></span>
-extinct; while the moose, or true elk, is the only wild
-species which has not been proved to have been living
-in the preceding age. The stag was very abundant.</p>
-
-<p>The prehistoric fauna is distinguished from that of the
-pleistocene not merely by the appearance of the animals
-above mentioned, which were hitherto unknown, but by
-the absence of many species which were living during
-the latter period. The cave bear, woolly rhinoceros, and
-mammoth, for example, became extinct, the musk-sheep
-and lemming were banished from a temperate latitude to
-take refuge in the regions of the north, while the spotted
-hyæna, the hippopotamus, and Felis caffer, retired to the
-warm regions of Africa, where they are still living.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_64"><i>The Archæological Classification.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The prehistoric period has been classified by the
-archæologists according to the stages of human progress
-which it presents. At the frontier of history, in each
-country, we find that the dwellers were acquainted with
-the use of iron, and had found it to be the most convenient
-material for the manufacture of cutting weapons
-and implements. Before this the voice of tradition
-points out that bronze was the only material used for
-these purposes, and stone before bronze. These three
-stages of human culture, or the ages of iron, bronze, and
-stone, have been fully verified by investigations which
-have been made in various parts of Europe, into the
-prehistoric habitations and burial-places of man.</p>
-
-<p>This classification by no means implies an exact
-chronology, or that any one of these ages, with the
-exception perhaps of the first, covered the whole of
-Europe at the same point of time, but that the order in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139">139</a></span>
-which they followed each other is the same in each
-country which has been explored. There is good reason
-for the belief, that at the time the Egyptian and Assyrian
-empires were in the height of their glory, Northern
-Europe was inhabited by rude polished-stone-using races.
-And it is a well-ascertained fact, that while the inhabitants
-of Britain and Scandinavia were in their bronze age, the
-Etruscans and Phœnicians were in their full power in
-the south. It is obvious again, that, even in the same
-country, the poorer classes must have been long content
-to use the ruder and more common materials for their
-daily needs, while the richer and more powerful used the
-rarer and more costly. These three ages must therefore
-necessarily overlap. “Like the three principal colours
-of the rainbow,” writes Mr. Evans,<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> “these three stages
-of civilization overlap, intermingle, and shade off the one
-into the other; and yet their succession, as far as Western
-Europe is concerned, appears to be equally well defined
-with that of the prismatic colours, though the proportions
-of the spectrum may vary in different countries.” They
-cannot reasonably be viewed as hard and fast lines of
-division, mapping off successive quantities of time.</p>
-
-<p>The age of stone is subdivided by Sir John Lubbock
-into the neolithic periods, or that in which polished stone
-was the only material used for cutting, and the palæolithic,
-in which mankind had not learnt to grind and
-polish his implements. The latter belongs to the pleistocene,
-or quaternary period, since the palæolithic implements
-are found in association with the remains of the
-animals characteristic of that age.</p>
-
-<p>The prehistoric caves, therefore, may be divided into
-three classes if the archæological method of analysis be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140">140</a></span>
-employed: 1, into those containing evidence of the use
-of iron; 2, those containing proof of the knowledge of
-bronze; 3, and lastly, those in which traces of polished
-stone weapons have been discovered unassociated with
-metals. By the animal remains which they contain
-they may be distinguished from those of the pleistocene
-age, both by the absence, as well as the presence of
-certain species which have been enumerated.</p>
-
-<p>From the archæological point of view, two out of the
-four ages are still represented. Stone is, at the present
-time, the only material used in the more remote regions
-of Australia, although it is fast being replaced by iron,
-which has superseded bronze, and is spreading rapidly
-over the whole earth. The group of historic caves
-described in the preceding chapter may be said to belong
-to the iron age, that is to say, to that later portion of it
-in which the events are recorded in history.</p>
-
-<p>The traces of the occupation of caves by man in the
-iron and bronze ages are so extremely scarce, that it is
-certain that they were but rarely used as habitations.
-Man had sufficiently advanced in civilization in those
-times to construct artificial dwellings and tombs for
-himself, instead of using the natural shelters which
-were so very generally occupied in Europe by his
-ruder neolithic predecessors.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_65"><i>Cave of the Iron Age.</i></h3>
-
-<p>In the course of the systematic exploration of caves
-in the Mendip Hills, carried on by Messrs. Ayshford
-Sanford, Parker, and myself, a cave was examined in
-Burrington Combe, near Wrington, in Somerset, which
-may be referred to the iron age, and which we named
-Whitcombe’s Hole. It opened upon the side of that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141">141</a></span>
-magnificent combe, at a height of about 135 feet from
-the bottom and fifteen from the top, and ran horizontally
-inwards, the floor being formed of an accumulation of
-earth mingled with charcoal, and containing numerous
-broken bones and teeth. The latter belonged to the wolf,
-fox, badger, rabbit, hare, stag, goat, and Celtic shorthorn.
-In the lower portion were the fragments of a rude, unornamented
-urn of a coarse black ware, with the rim
-turned at right angles, along with a bent piece of
-iron, which bears a strong resemblance to those found
-strengthening the corners of wooden coffins in the Gallo-Roman
-graves on the banks of the Somme. The
-fractures of the bones, with one exception, were caused
-by the hand of man, and not by the teeth of the carnivora.
-The position renders the cave eminently fitted for
-concealment, for while commanding an extensive view
-down the Combe, it is invisible both from above and
-below, and opening on the face of an almost vertical
-cliff, it is easily defended. If the urn be sepulchral, the
-interment must be of a later date than the occupation,
-because it is made in the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">débris</i> which resulted from the
-latter.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_66"><i>Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The cave of Heathery Burn,<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> near Stanhope, in Weardale,
-co. Durham, is the only one in this country that
-has furnished a large series of articles of the bronze
-age. It is described by Mr. Elliott as running into the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142">142</a></span>
-precipitous side of a ravine, at a height of about 10 to
-12 feet above the level of the Stanhope Burn, and as
-being partially traversed by water. Since its discovery in
-1861, it has been altogether destroyed by the removal
-of the stone to be used as a flux in smelting the ore of
-the Weardale Iron Company, and an admirable section
-of its contents was therefore visible from time to time.
-A stratum of sand at the bottom, two feet nine inches
-thick, deposited by the stream, and containing angular
-masses of limestone that had dropped from the roof, was
-covered by a sheet of stalagmite three inches in thickness.
-On this rested a mass of bones and implements imbedded
-in silt or sand, and sealed over by a thickness of stalagmite
-of from two to eight inches.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_32" class="figcenter" style="width: 371px;">
-  <img src="images/i_142.jpg" width="371" height="80" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;Bronze Knife, Heathery Burn (natural size).</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_33" class="figleft" style="width: 201px;">
-  <img src="images/i_143.jpg" width="201" height="201" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;Bronze Armlet, Heathery Burn.</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_34" class="figright up2" style="width: 120px;">
-  <img src="images/i_143b.jpg" width="120" height="600" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;Bronze Spearhead, Heathery Burn (½ size).</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_35" class="figleft" style="width: 196px;">
-  <img src="images/i_143c.jpg" width="196" height="336" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;Bronze Mould for casting a socketed celt.</div></div>
-
-<p>On removing the upper of these two stalagmitic floors
-a perfect human skull was discovered, along with broken
-bones of animals, charcoal, limpet shells, bone pins, an
-instrument of bone like a paper-knife, coarse pottery
-with fragments of chert imbedded in its mass, a portion
-of a jet armlet, as well as several boars’ tusks. The same
-stratum at another place furnished a singular bronze
-knife with a socket for the handle (<a href="#Fig_32">Fig. 32</a>),<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> bronze pins,
-celts, an armlet of twisted wire (<a href="#Fig_33">Fig. 33</a>), along with
-shells of limpet, mussel, and oyster, and charcoal, and at
-a third, on the other side of the watercourse, a bronze<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143">143</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_144">144</a></span>
-spear-head. Subsequently, many articles were added to
-the above list, seven pins, three rings, two split-rings,
-a “razor,” disk, three socketed celts, one chisel, two
-gouges, and four spear-heads of bronze, and a fine
-bracelet, and two ornaments of the horse-shoe, or split-ring
-type, made of thin plates of gold. One of the
-spear-heads, in the collection of the Rev. Canon Greenwell,
-is represented in <a href="#Fig_34">Fig. 34</a>. There were also waste
-pieces of bronze, and the half of a bronze mould for
-casting celts, <a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a>, in which one of the associated
-celts had actually been cast, since it is of the same pattern.
-These articles were probably concealed in the cavern by
-workers in bronze, who were prevented, by some unforeseen
-accident, from obtaining them again. The charcoal
-and the broken bones of the <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, badger, and
-dog, imply that the cave had been used as a habitation;
-and possibly the two human skulls, which have been
-described by Professor Huxley and Mr. Carter Blake, may
-have belonged to the possessors of the hoard of bronze
-and gold. Both were discovered in the same stratum
-and below the floor of stalagmite.</p>
-
-<p>The more perfect of the two skulls is considered by
-Professor Huxley to belong to the same long-headed
-race of men as that found at Muskham, in the valley of
-the Trent,&mdash;to a form which he terms the River-bed type,
-and that cannot be separated from those obtained from
-the long tumuli of the South of England, and considered
-by Dr. Thurnam to belong to a Neolithic Basque,
-or Iberian population.</p>
-
-<p>Articles distinctly of the bronze age have been already
-noticed as having been met with in the caves of Kirkhead,
-in Cartmell, and in Thor’s Cave, in Staffordshire.
-From the latter the bracelet of thin bronze, <a href="#Fig_31">Fig. 31</a>, was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145">145</a></span>
-obtained by Mr. Carrington, of Wetton. The rarity of
-bronze implements in caves in Britain and the Continent
-is probably, to a large extent, due to the value of the
-material, and to the fact that it could be re-melted. If
-a bronze article happened to be broken, the pieces
-would naturally be kept for future use, and not thrown
-away, as in the case of a fractured stone implement.
-The former, therefore, are rare, the latter comparatively
-abundant.</p>
-
-<p>The cave called the Cat-Hole, in Gower (Glamorgan),
-explored by Colonel Wood in 1864, contained several
-human skeletons, flint flakes, fragments of red pottery
-marked with a string, cut bones, a stone muller, and
-a bronze socketed celt. The last is of the same pattern
-as some of those in the collection of the Rev. Canon
-Greenwell, from Heathery Burn, and has been cast in
-a mould similar in size and ornamentation to that
-figured in <a href="#Fig_35">woodcut 35</a>.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_67"><i>The Caves of Césareda probably occupied by Cannibals.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The contents of three caves<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> in the Iberian peninsula,
-referable to the dawn of the bronze age, render it very
-probable that the use of human flesh was not unknown
-in those times.</p>
-
-<p>In 1867 Senhor J.&nbsp;L. Delgado described his researches
-in the caverns of Césareda, in the valley of the Tagus,
-in the Casa da Maura, Lapa Furada, and Cova da Maura.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146">146</a></span>
-The first of these contained two distinct strata. The
-lower, consisting of sand mixed with fragments of rock,
-rested on the stalagmite, and contained fragments of
-charcoal, one implement of bone, and many of flint, a
-scraper, a flake, and an arrow-head. The broken bones
-and teeth belonged to the following animals:&mdash;The lynx,
-fox, brown-bear, dog and wolf, a species of deer, the
-water-vole, and the rabbit. None of the remains of the
-carnivora had been subjected to the action of fire, or
-had been used for food. A human skull with lower jaw
-was dug out of the deepest part, but, since the matrix
-had been disturbed, it had probably been interred after
-the accumulation of the deposit.</p>
-
-<p>It is recognized by Professor Busk<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> as belonging to
-the same long type as the skulls of the caves of Gibraltar
-and the Basque graveyard, measuring in length
-6·7 inches, in breadth 5·3, in height 5·5, and therefore
-possessing cephalic and latitudinal indices of ·785 and
-·820.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></p>
-
-<p>The upper stratum, a sandy loam, contained a large
-quantity of stones, and numerous articles fabricated by
-man: polished-stone axes, flakes, and other instruments
-of flint, bone, and antler, fragments of coarse black
-pottery, with bits of calcareous spar imbedded in its
-substance, and two plates of schist ornamented with a
-rude design, which may have been used as amulets.
-Fragments of charcoal were scattered throughout the
-matrix, and adhered to some of the pottery and to the
-burnt pebbles. The most abundant remains were those
-of man. They were to be counted by thousands, and
-were so fragmentary and scattered that it was impossible<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147">147</a></span>
-to put together one perfect skeleton. The teeth, belonging
-for the most part to children or fully-grown adults,
-were particularly abundant. The long bones had lost,
-very generally, their articular ends, had been fractured
-longitudinally, and some of them had been cut and
-scraped. It is therefore probable that this accumulation
-was formed by a tribe of cannibals: the evidence that
-human flesh formed their principal food being precisely
-of the same nature as that by which the flint-folk of the
-Périgord are proved to have subsisted on the flesh of
-the reindeer. Professor Busk,<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> however, is inclined to
-believe the facts in support of cannibalism insufficient.
-The associated animals consisted of the bat, dormouse,
-rabbit, horse, a small ox, allied to <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, sheep
-or goat, wild cat, wolf, fox, and dog. The contents
-of the other two caves were precisely of the same
-nature, and had been accumulated under the same
-conditions.</p>
-
-<p>A bronze arrow-head, discovered in the upper stratum,
-and the ornamentation of the stone amulet, consisting of
-alternate triangles and zigzag ladders, as remarked by
-Mr. John Evans, indicate that the upper deposit belongs
-to the age of bronze, and probably to an early stage,
-when stone was being superseded by bronze, since many
-stone celts were found in the same spot.</p>
-
-<p>The ancient burial-places of Ultz, in Westphalia,
-furnish a second case of the practice of cannibalism,
-according to M. Schaaffhausen of Bonn<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a>. They are
-probably of the age of bronze.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148">148</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_68"><i>The Cave of Reggio, in Modena.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The human remains in a cave in the province of
-Reggio,<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> on the northern flank of the Apennines, brought
-before the Prehistoric Congress at Bologna by M. l’Abbé
-Chierici, and considered by him to be proofs of cannibalism,
-are probably merely the result of interment in a
-refuse-heap that had previously been accumulated. They
-were associated with bronze pins, rivets, polished-stone
-axes, and various implements of bone, fragments of
-pottery and of charcoal, bones of pig, sheep, and dog,
-and belong therefore to the period of transition from the
-neolithic to the bronze age.</p>
-
-<p>The caves have contributed but very little to our
-knowledge of the bronze-folk in any part of Europe.
-Examples, such as those given above, are scattered through
-France and Spain, but they are not sufficiently important
-to require notice. We could not expect that men, in
-the high state of civilization implied by the beautiful
-jewellery and ornaments which are distinctive of the
-bronze-folk, would have chosen the wild, half-savage life
-which is involved in cave-habitation.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149">149</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">CAVES OF THE NEOLITHIC AGE.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote class="inhead">
-
-<p>Neolithic Caves in Great Britain.&mdash;The Refuse-heap at Perthi-Chwareu.&mdash;The
-Sepulchral Caves.&mdash;The Neolithic Caves in the
-neighbourhood of Cefn, St. Asaph.&mdash;The Chambered Tomb near
-Cefn.&mdash;Interments in Tomb and Caves of the same age.&mdash;Contents
-of Tomb and Caves.&mdash;Description of Human Remains
-by Professor Busk&mdash;From Cave No. 1 at Perthi-Chwareu&mdash;from
-Cairn at Cefn&mdash;from Cave at Cefn.&mdash;General Conclusions as to
-Human Remains.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="in0">It is evident, from the scanty remains found in caves,
-that they were not the normal habitations of men in the
-Bronze or Iron stages of culture. We shall, however,
-find that they were used by the neolithic peoples, both
-for shelter and for burial, in nearly every portion of
-Europe which has been explored.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_69"><i>Neolithic Caves in Great Britain.&mdash;Perthi-Chwareu.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The most remarkable examples of caves, turned to
-both these uses, in Britain, are offered by the group
-clustering round a refuse-heap at Perthi-Chwareu, a
-farm high up in the Welsh hills, about ten miles to the
-east of Corwen, and a mile to the west of the little
-village of Llandegla, in Denbighshire.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150">150</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><i>The Refuse-heap.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The first intimation of any prehistoric remains in that
-locality was afforded by a small box of bones forwarded
-to me by Mr. Darwin, in 1869; and this I was able to
-follow up, through the kind assistance of Mrs. Lloyd,
-the owner of the property on which they were found,
-from time to time, during 1869&ndash;70&ndash;71&ndash;2. The mountain
-limestone, which there forms hill and valley, consists
-of thick masses of hard rock, separated by soft beds of
-shale, and contains large quantities of <em>producti</em>, crinoids
-and corals. The strata dip to the south, at an angle
-of about 1 in 25, and form two parallel ridges, with
-abrupt faces to the north, and separated from each
-other by a narrow valley, passing east and west along
-the strike. The remains sent by Mr. Darwin were
-obtained from a space between two strata near the top
-of the northern ridge, whence the intervening softer
-material had been carried away by water. Its maximum
-height was 6 inches, and its width 20 feet or more;
-and it extended in a direction parallel to the bed of
-the rocks. The bones, which had evidently been washed
-in by the rain, and not carried in by any carnivora,
-belong to the following <span class="locked">species:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p id="list_150" class="in0 in4">
-<i class="taxonomy">Canis familiaris</i>&mdash;The Dog.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Canis vulpes</i>&mdash;The Fox.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Meles taxus</i>&mdash;The Badger.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>&mdash;The Pig.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Cervus capreolus</i>&mdash;The Roe-deer.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Cervus elaphus</i>&mdash;The Red-deer.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Capra hircus</i>&mdash;The Goat.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>&mdash;The Celtic Short-horn.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>&mdash;The Horse.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Arvicola amphibius</i>&mdash;The Water-rat.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Lepus timidus</i>&mdash;The Hare.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Lepus cuniculus</i>&mdash;The Rabbit.<br />
-The Eagle.
-</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151">151</a></span>
-Nearly all the bones were broken, and belonged to
-young animals. Those of the Celtic short-horn, of the
-sheep or goat, and of the young pig, were very abundant;
-while those of the roe and stag, hare and horse, were
-comparatively rare. The remains of the domestic dog
-were rather abundant, and the percentage of young
-puppies implies also that they, like the other animals,
-had been used for food. Possibly the hare may also
-have been eaten, but its remains were scarce, and belonged
-to adults. Some of the bones had been gnawed
-by dogs. The only reasonable cause that can be assigned
-for the accumulation of the remains of these animals is,
-that the locality was inhabited by men of pastoral habits,
-but yet to a certain extent dependent on the chase, and
-that the relics of their food were thrown out to form a refuse-heap.
-The latter had altogether disappeared from
-the surface of the ground, from the action of the rain and
-other atmospheric causes, while those portions of it which
-chanced to be washed into the narrow interspace between
-the strata were preserved, to mark the spot which it
-once occupied.</p>
-
-<p>There was nothing in the deposit that fixes the date
-of its accumulation. It may have been of the stone,
-bronze, or iron age; but from the presence of the goat,
-short-horned ox, and dog, it certainly does not date so far
-back as the epoch of the reindeer, mammoth, rhinoceros,
-and cave-hyæna. The presence of the Celtic short-horn
-throws no light upon the antiquity, because for centuries
-after it had ceased to be the domestic breed in England
-it remained in Wales, and still lives in the small black
-Welsh cattle, that are lineal descendants of those
-which furnished beef to the Roman provincials in
-Britain.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152">152</a></span></p>
-
-<h3><i>The Sepulchral Caves.</i></h3>
-
-<div id="Fig_36" class="figcenter" style="width: 551px;">
-  <img src="images/i_152.jpg" width="551" height="356" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;Section of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu. Scale 12 feet to 1 inch.</div></div>
-
-<p>While the refuse-heap was being explored, I chose a
-small depression (<a href="#Fig_36">Fig. 36</a> <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>) in the precipitous side of the
-southern ridge, that formed a kind of rock shelter overlooking
-the valley, and that seemed to be a likely place
-for the abode of man, or of wild animals. On setting
-the men to work, in a few minutes we began to discover
-the remains of dog, marten-cat, fox, badger, goat, Celtic
-short-horn, roe-deer and stag, horse, and large birds.
-Mixed with these, as we proceeded, we began to find
-human bones, between and underneath large masses of
-rock, that were completely covered up with red silt and
-sand. As these were cleared away, we gradually realized
-that we were on the threshold of a sepulchral cave. In
-the small space then excavated, human remains, belonging
-to no fewer than five individuals, were found. Subsequently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153">153</a></span>
-the work was carried on by Mrs. Lloyd, under
-the careful supervision of her agent Mr. Reid. The rock-shelter
-narrowed into a “tunnel cave,” that penetrated
-the rocks in a line parallel to the bedding, and, roughly
-speaking, at right angles to the valley, having a width
-varying from 3 feet 4 inches to 5 feet 6 inches, and a
-height from 3 feet 4 inches to 4 feet 6 inches.</p>
-
-<p>The entrance was completely blocked up with red
-earth and loose stones, the latter, apparently, having
-been placed there by design (<a href="#Fig_36">Figs. 36</a>, <a href="#Fig_37">37</a>). The inside
-of the cave was filled with red earth and sand to within
-about a foot of the roof. The remains were found, for
-the most part, on or near the top; but in some cases
-they were deep down. One human skull, for example,
-was found six inches only above the rocky floor. The
-human bones were associated with those of the animals
-of which a list has been given, and occurred in little
-confused heaps. One human femur was in a perpendicular
-position. The account of the continuation of
-the digging is given almost in the words of Mrs. Lloyd.
-On the second day, after an hour’s work, a human skull
-was found near the roof of the cave, resting on a femur;
-then eleven feet explored brought to light a large
-quantity of human bones, including nine femurs. The
-third and fourth days were devoted to clearing out the
-cave (<a href="#Fig_36">Fig. 36</a>&ndash;<a href="#Fig_37">7</a> <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>) up to this point, and to excavating
-about four feet further in, or fifteen from the entrance.
-During the work two teeth of a horse were found, resting
-on the floor near the entrance, and nine more about ten
-feet within the cave; also a boar’s tusk of remarkable
-size, and close by a mussel and cockle-shell, and valve of
-<i class="taxonomy">Mya truncata</i>, along with a quantity of human and
-other bones; including five skulls, more or less perfect,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154">154</a></span>
-and many fragments. All these skulls were found
-between the tenth and fifteenth feet from the entrance.
-During the fifth and sixth days, the work was superintended
-by Mr. Reid, who entirely cleared the cave for
-about thirteen feet further: the first eight feet yielded a
-small quantity of human and other bones, including the
-perfect skull of a marten-cat and the incisor of a wild
-boar. The only implement found in the cave, a broken
-flint flake, occurred here, and a nearly perfect human
-skull, lying face downwards, with the pelvis adhering to
-one side. The last five feet furnished only two bones,
-both of the short-horned ox. The end of the cave was
-composed of unproductive grey clay. (<a href="#Fig_36">Figs. 36</a>&ndash;<a href="#Fig_37">7</a> <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>.)</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_37" class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;">
-  <img src="images/i_154.jpg" width="360" height="476" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;Plan of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155">155</a></span>
-Small fragments of charcoal occurred throughout the
-cave, and a great many rounded pebbles from the boulder
-clay of the neighbourhood.</p>
-
-<p>The human remains belong for the most part to very
-young or adolescent individuals, from the small infant
-to youths of twenty-one. Some, however, belong to
-men in the prime of life. All the teeth that had been
-used were ground perfectly flat. The skulls belong to
-that type which Professor Huxley terms the “river-bed
-skull.” Some of the tibiæ present the peculiar flattening
-parallel to the median line, which Professor Busk denotes
-by the term platycnemic, and some of the femora were
-traversed by a largely developed and prominent <i class="taxonomy">linea
-aspera</i>; but these peculiarities were not seen on all the
-femora and tibiæ, and cannot therefore be considered
-characteristic of race, but most probably of sex. They
-were not presented by any of the younger bones.</p>
-
-<p>All the human remains had undoubtedly been buried
-in the cave, since the bones were in the main perfect,
-or only broken by the large stones which had subsequently
-fallen from the roof. From the juxtaposition
-of one skull to a pelvis, and the vertical position of one
-of the femora, as well as the fact that the bones lay in
-confused heaps, it is clear that the corpses had been
-buried in the contracted posture, as is usually the case
-in neolithic interments. And since the area was insufficient
-for the accommodation of so many bodies at one
-time, it is certain that the cave had been used as a
-cemetery at different times. The stones blocking up the
-entrance were probably placed as a barrier against the
-inroads of wild beasts.</p>
-
-<p>These remains are the first in this country which
-present the peculiar character of platycnemism, noticed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156">156</a></span>
-by Professor Busk and Dr. Falconer in human remains
-in the caves of Gibraltar, and by Dr. Broca in some of
-those from the dolmens of France, and subsequently in the
-celebrated skeletons found in the cave of Cro-magnon. I
-have also observed the same peculiar flattening of the
-tibia in the only fragment of human bone obtained by
-Mr. Foote, in the Lateritic deposits of the eastern coast
-of Southern India, along with the stone implements
-figured in the Norwich Volume of the International Congress
-of Prehistoric Archæology (1868, p. 224).</p>
-
-<p>The remains of the animals associated with the human
-bones belong to the same species as those mentioned
-above from the débris of a refuse-heap, and are in a
-similar broken and split condition. They may have
-been deposited at the same time as the human skeletons,
-but, from the fact that some of them are gnawed by
-dogs, it is most probable that they were accumulated
-while the cave was used as a dwelling. If the bodies
-were placed on an old floor of occupation, and afterwards
-disturbed by rabbits and badgers, the remains
-would be mingled together as they were found to be
-mingled. The contents had evidently been disturbed by
-the burrowing of all these animals.</p>
-
-<p id="hdr_70">Subsequently we discovered and explored no less than
-four other sepulchral caves, within a few hundred yards
-of the refuse-heap, in which the corpses had been buried
-in the same crouching posture. From one on the farm
-of Rhosdigre we obtained a perfect celt of polished
-greenstone which had never been used (<a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38</a>),
-together with several flint flakes, and numerous fragments
-of pottery, rude, black inside, hand-made, and
-containing in their substance small fragments of limestone.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157">157</a></span>
-Similar potsherds are preserved in the Oxford Museum,
-from the superficial deposits of the caves of Gailenreuth
-and Kuhlock, and I have observed them also among the
-remains from Kent’s Hole. The celt was most probably,
-from its unworn condition, buried with the dead,
-and it stamps the neolithic age of the interments of the
-whole group.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_38" class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;">
-  <img src="images/i_157.jpg" width="324" height="528" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;Greenstone Celt, Rhosdigre Cave. (Nat. size.)</div></div>
-
-<p>Among the broken bones from this cave were the teeth
-of the brown bear, and the lower jaw of a wolf; and
-the fractured bones of the dog implied that that animal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158">158</a></span>
-ministered to the appetite, as well as obeyed the commands,
-of the neolithic inhabitants. I have met with
-similar evidence of the use of dog’s flesh for food among
-the broken bones which Canon Greenwell obtained from
-the neolithic tumuli of the Yorkshire Wolds. On the
-other hand, the marks of the teeth of dogs, or wolves,
-on some of the human femora, implied that those
-animals made their way into this cave and feasted on
-the corpses.</p>
-
-<p>The neolithic age of these interments is proved, not
-merely by the presence of the stone axe, or of the flint
-flakes, but by the burial in a contracted posture,<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> and the
-fact that the skulls are identical with those obtained
-from chambered tombs in the south of England proved
-to be neolithic by Dr. Thurnam.</p>
-
-<p>The number of skeletons of all ages, and of both sexes,
-buried in these caves was very considerable; and they
-had been placed on the old floor of occupation at successive
-times. In that of Rhosdigre the accumulation of
-charcoal, broken bones, and fragments of pottery below
-some of the human skeletons, proved that it had been
-used for a habitation before it was used for a burial-place.
-It is very probable that originally the head of a
-family, or a clan, or a tribe, was buried in his own cave-dwelling,
-and that it was afterwards used as a cemetery
-for his blood relations and followers.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159">159</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_71"><i>The Neolithic Caves in the neighbourhood of Cefn, near
-St. Asaph.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The same class of remains, referable to the neolithic
-age, have been met with in the caves in the limestone
-cliffs of the beautiful valleys of the Clwyd and the
-Elwy, near St. Asaph. In the collection of fossil bones
-in the possession of Mrs. Williams Wynn, discovered in
-1833, in a cave at Cefn, by Mr. Edward Lloyd,<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> is a
-human skull and lower jaw, along with platycnemic
-limb-bones. They were found mingled with the bones
-of goat, pig, fox, and badger, and cut antlers of the
-red-deer, inside the lower entrance of the cave, in which
-the extinct pleistocene animals were found in the valley
-of the Elwy. Four flint flakes also were discovered
-along with them.</p>
-
-<p>The skull in its general features strongly resembles
-those found in the group of caves at Perthi-Chwareu,
-and presents a cephalic index<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> of ·770, which comes
-within the limits of the extreme forms from that locality.
-Professor Busk, however, as will be seen in his account
-of this skull, because of its low altitudinal index&mdash;·702,
-as compared with ·710 of the lowest Perthi-Chwareu
-skull&mdash;is inclined to view it as of a different type. The
-conditions, on the other hand, under which it was found
-appear to me to be circumstantial evidence that the
-interment is of the same relative age as that of Perthi-Chwareu.
-Both were in caves: in both the remains of
-the same domestic and wild animals were found in the
-same fragmentary condition. Flint flakes also occurred
-in both; and what is more important, the platycnemic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160">160</a></span>
-limb-bones in both imply a somewhat similar mode of
-life in the people to whom they belonged. This body of
-evidence, in favour of the interments having been made
-by the same race of men who lived some time in Denbighshire,
-seems to me of greater weight than that to the
-contrary afforded by the difference of ·008 in the altitudinal
-indices of the skulls. After a comparison of the
-carefully prepared measurements of the crania published
-in the “Crania Britannica” with those published elsewhere,
-I cannot resist the conviction, that if similar
-modes of life and of burial in Britain imply an identity
-of race, cranial variation within the limits of that race is
-by no means very small. Absolute purity of blood in an
-island so near the Continent as Britain cannot be looked
-for; and unity of type resulting from isolation from other
-races, such as that presented by the Australians, is not
-likely to be met with. It is therefore very probable that
-some of the variations may be accounted for by the blending
-of different ethnical elements in one race. I am consequently
-inclined to view the interments in these two
-caves as having been made by the same people, in spite of
-the small cranial difference manifested by the Cefn skull.</p>
-
-<p>The cave in Brysgill, a small ravine leading into the
-valley of the Elwy, explored by Mr. Mainwaring and
-Mrs. Williams Wynn in 1871, furnished evidence of the
-occupation of man, probably of the neolithic age. From
-a dark layer composed of loam, black with fragments of
-charcoal, a flint arrow-head, a core, a flake, and broken
-bones of the horse, <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, goat, and dog, were
-obtained, as well as a few human bones which had not
-been broken by design.</p>
-
-<p>The excavations carried on in the small tunnel-cave
-of Plas-Heaton, by Mr. Heaton and Professor Hughes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161">161</a></span>
-have shown that it was inhabited at two different ages.
-In the upper or prehistoric stratum were broken bones of
-the dog, badger, goat, <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, and stag; while
-in the lower, or pleistocene, were the remains of the
-hyæna, reindeer, cave-bear, and the lower jaw of the
-glutton.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_72"><i>The Chambered Tomb near Cefn, St. Asaph.</i></h3>
-
-<p>While the caves at Perthi-Chwareu were being explored,
-the accidental discovery of human remains in the
-cairn of Tyddyn Bleiddyn, near Cefn, St. Asaph, in 1869,
-led to a systematic examination of its contents by Mrs.
-Williams Wynn, under the superintendence of the Rev.
-D.&nbsp;R. Thomas, myself, and the Rev. H.&nbsp;H. Winwood,
-which has resulted in the proof, that the people who
-buried their dead in caves used stone-chambered tombs
-for the same purpose.</p>
-
-<p>The cairn of loose fragments of limestone had been
-removed for road-mending before the cap-stones of the
-stone chamber were exposed, and these were broken
-before any scientific observation was made. The Rev.
-D.&nbsp;R. Thomas, however, rescued many of the human
-remains from destruction, and began the exploration
-which defined the extent of the chamber <span class="smcap smaller">A</span> (<a href="#Fig_39">Fig. 39</a>).</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_39" class="figleft up1" style="width: 194px;">
-  <img src="images/i_162.jpg" width="194" height="425" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;Plain of Chambered Tomb at Cefn.</div></div>
-
-<p>Subsequently it was resumed in my presence, and the
-chamber <span class="smcap smaller">A</span> (<a href="#Fig_39">Fig. 39</a>) fully cleared out. At the point <i>c</i>
-it was partially shut off from the passage <span class="smcap smaller">B</span> by a slab
-of stone 18 inches high. The passage led from the
-chamber in a northern direction, and was 6 feet long
-by 2 wide. The chamber gradually narrowed towards
-the passage, being 5 feet wide at its broad end, and 9
-feet long. In the passage, as well as in the chamber,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162">162</a></span>
-there were human bones belonging to individuals who
-had been buried in a crouching posture. Unfortunately,
-as the remains have been scattered, it is impossible to
-ascertain the exact number of the burials. I have,
-however, restored one skull and examined seven frontal
-bones, and other remains, which indicate that there were
-at least twelve persons, varying in age from infancy to
-full prime, buried in this tomb. In
-addition to these, there is a large
-box of bones in the possession of
-the Rev. D.&nbsp;R. Thomas, as well
-as other remains in other hands.
-But although the exact number of
-bodies interred cannot be made
-out, there is full proof that there
-were too many to have been deposited
-at one time in so small a
-cubic area; and therefore they
-must have been deposited at different
-times, as in the caves at
-Perthi-Chwareu. There were no
-remains of either wild or domestic
-animals; and the only foreign
-object was a small slightly chipped
-flint pebble. From the remarkable
-conformation of the nasal bones of
-some of the skulls, it would seem likely that the burial-place
-belonged to one family; but, for a reason (see
-Notes on Human Remains, <a href="#Page_183">p. 183</a>) stated by Professor
-Busk, this is by no means a certain inference.</p>
-
-<p>The plan of the chamber and passage corresponds
-with that of the long barrow of West Kennet, figured
-in the “Crania Britannica,” and with that of the cromlech<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163">163</a></span>
-of Le Creux des Fées, Guernsey, described by
-Lieutenant Oliver.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> In the former of these the corpses
-were buried in a contracted posture, along with flint
-scrapers and fragments of rude pottery. In the latter
-the original contents have disappeared. To speak in
-general terms, the chamber and passage belong to the
-class of tombs which Dr. Thurnam names “Long Barrows,”
-and Professor Nilsson “Ganggräben,” and which
-are found in Scandinavia and France, as well as in
-Britain. And it is worthy of note that the partial
-insulation of the chamber <span class="smcap smaller">A</span> (<a href="#Fig_39">Fig. 39</a>) from the passage <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>
-by a slab (<i>c</i>), which does not reach up to the height
-of the walls, is to be seen in similar tombs both in
-Guernsey and in Brittany.</p>
-
-<p>A second and larger chamber, composed of cave slabs
-of limestone, was discovered in the same cairn in 1871
-by the Rev. D.&nbsp;R. Thomas, and completely excavated by
-him along with myself and the Rev. H.&nbsp;H. Winwood.
-It was of a rudely triangular form, 10 feet long by 6
-wide, traversed by a partition of slabs, and provided
-with a narrow passage 10 feet long by 2 feet 6 in
-width, opening to the north, and fenced off completely
-from the chamber by a slab, as in the preceding case.
-Both the chamber and the passage were full of human
-remains of all ages, buried in a contracted posture;
-the number of interments being far too great to have
-allowed the bodies to have been deposited at one time.
-From the former I identified the broken jaw of a roebuck
-and remains of goat, a broken flint, and round
-pebbles of quartz, while in the latter there were the teeth
-and bones of the dog and the pig.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164">164</a></span>
-Some of the tibiæ from both the chambers were
-platycnemic, but that character was only to be recognized
-in the older bones. The skulls, from the second
-of the two chambers, agree so exactly with those from
-the caves, that it is not necessary to add to the table
-of measurements which Professor Busk has drawn up
-(<a href="#list_171">p.&nbsp;171</a>).</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_73"><i>Correlation of Chambered Tomb with Interments in the
-Caves of Perthi-Chwareu and Cefn.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Nor are we without evidence that the builders of
-this cairn belonged to the same race as those who buried
-their dead in the caves of Perthi-Chwareu and of Cefn.
-The crania and the limb-bones are identical, and in both
-the tombs and caves the dead were buried in a contracted
-posture.</p>
-
-<p>Why then, it may be asked, were the remains of
-animals so rare in the one and so abundant in the
-other? In my opinion this difference may be explained
-by the hypothesis, invented by Professor Nilsson, of the
-origin of chambered tombs.<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> The idea of the “gallery
-graves,” according to that high authority, was derived
-from the subterranean house in which the deceased
-lived, and in which he was buried after his death, after
-the fashion of the Eskimos at the present day. The plan
-of the houses, like that of the ancient Lycian dwellings
-described by Sir Charles Fellowes, was preserved in the
-tombs, and probably for many ages after houses were no
-longer made in that fashion; since the principle of conservatism
-and the force of custom are more deeply<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165">165</a></span>
-rooted in religious and solemn ceremonial than in the
-changes of every-day life.</p>
-
-<p>The rarity of the remains of the animals may be
-explained by the fact of these tombs never having been
-used as dwellings, while their abundance in the caves
-may be accounted for by the latter having been inhabited
-by man, and thus the idea of the dead resting in his
-own house would be the cause of burial both in caves
-and chambered tombs. It is not at all strange that the
-same race should have used both for sepulture, when we
-consider that a “gallery grave” is an artificial cave, and
-that natural caves are few in number.</p>
-
-<p>This ancient race is proved by the remains to have
-been pastoral, rather than dependent on the chase, their
-principal food being the domestic goat, the short-horn
-(<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>), the horse, and hog. They are also
-proved to have been neolithic, not merely by the discovery
-of a polished stone axe in one of the caves, but
-also by the shape of the “gallery graves,” which Professor
-Nilsson and Dr. Thurnam agree in referring to
-that stage of culture.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_74"><i>Table of Contents of Caves and Chambered Tomb.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The contents of the caves and the stone chambers
-may be gathered from the Table which we give on
-the next page.</p>
-
-<p>The broken bones of the hare prove that there was no
-prejudice against its flesh, as was the case among the
-neolithic dwellers in the Swiss Pfahlbauten. We shall
-see in the next chapter that the animal was also eaten
-by the dwellers in the neolithic caves both of France
-and Belgium.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166">166</a></span></p>
-
-<h4 id="list_166"><a href="#if_p_166"><i>List of Objects in Neolithic Caves and Cairn in North Wales.</i></a></h4>
-
-<table class="listobjects" summary="objects in neolithic caves in North Wales">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Animals.</span></th>
-    <th class="tdc">Refuse-<br />heap,<br />Perthi-<br />Chwareu.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Cave No.1.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Cave No. 2.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Cave<br />Rhosdigre<br />No. 1</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Cave<br />Rhosdigre<br />No. 2.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Cave<br />Rhosdigre<br />No. 3.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">The Cefn<br />Cave.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Cairn of<br />Tyddyn<br />Bleiddyn,<br />near Cefn.</th></tr>
-  <tr class="hdr">
-    <td class="tdc small">DOMESTIC.</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis familiaris</i>&mdash;Dog</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>&mdash;Pig</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>&mdash;Horse</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>&mdash;Celtic Short-horn</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Capra hircus</i>&mdash;Goat</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td></tr>
-  <tr class="hdr">
-    <td class="tdc small">WILD.</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis lupus</i>&mdash;Wolf</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis vulpes</i>&mdash;Fox</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Meles taxus</i>&mdash;Badger</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus arctos</i>&mdash;Bear</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>&mdash;Wild Boar</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus elaphus</i>&mdash;Stag</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus capreolus</i>&mdash;Roe</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus cuniculus</i>&mdash;Rabbit</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus timidus</i>&mdash;Hare</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr class="topspace">
-    <td class="tdl">Polished Celts</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Flint Flakes or Chips</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Pottery</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Human Skeletons</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl">Platycnemic bones</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td>
-    <td class="tdc">X</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_75"><i>Description of the Human Remains by Professor Busk.</i></h3>
-
-<p>For the following account of the human remains, reprinted
-from the “Journal of the Ethnological Society,”
-January 1871, I am indebted to the kindness of my
-friend Professor Busk, to whom examples of all the
-forms were <span class="locked">forwarded:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<h4><i>Notes on the Human Remains.</i> By Professor <span class="smcap">Busk</span>, F.R.S.</h4>
-
-<h5>§ 1. <span class="smcap">Introduction.</span></h5>
-
-<p>The remains discovered in the sepulchral cave at Perthi-Chwareu,
-according to a list furnished by Mr. Boyd Dawkins, are as under; but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167">167</a></span>
-I believe this catalogue does not include all that were found in the
-locality.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a></p>
-
-<p>1. Eleven more or less perfect skulls, some, however, represented
-by mere fragments.</p>
-
-<p>2. Twelve mandibles.</p>
-
-<p>3. Seven arm-bones or <i class="anatomy">humeri</i>&mdash;four right and three left.</p>
-
-<p>4. Six <i class="anatomy">ulnæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>5. Twenty-two thigh-bones, including five pairs, five odd ones of
-the right side, and seven of the left; and amongst them are three of
-very young children.</p>
-
-<p>6. Seventeen <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> or leg-bones, nine of the right and eight of the
-left side, and apparently none of them in pairs; so that there must
-probably have been a good many more.</p>
-
-<p>7. Eight <i class="anatomy">astragali</i>.</p>
-
-<p>8. Nine <i class="anatomy">calcanea</i>, or heel-bones.</p>
-
-<p>The number of individuals, therefore, whose relics were deposited
-in this cavern could not have been less than sixteen, and may have
-been many more. They appear to have been of all ages and of
-both sexes.</p>
-
-<p>Of the other bones of the skeleton, of which there must have been
-abundance, I have received no information.</p>
-
-<p>In the Cefn Cave there were <span class="locked">discovered:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-1. One mandible.<br />
-2. One <i class="anatomy">humerus</i>.<br />
-3. Two <i class="anatomy">ulnæ</i>.<br />
-4. A pair of thigh-bones.<br />
-5. A pair of leg-bones.
-</p>
-
-<p class="in0">and in the <span class="locked">tumulus:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-1. Portions of seven skulls.<br />
-2. Two right <i class="anatomy">humeri</i>.<br />
-3. A pair of <i class="anatomy">ulnæ</i>.<br />
-4. A right <i class="anatomy">femur</i>.
-</p>
-
-<p>From St. Asaph the only bone that has come under my observation
-is a single <i class="anatomy">calvaria</i>.</p>
-
-<h5>§ 2. <span class="smcap">Description of the Bones from the Cavern at
-Perthi-Chwareu.</span></h5>
-
-<p>(a.) <i>General Condition.</i>&mdash;In general condition, as regards colour and
-texture, these bones present some, but no very striking, differences;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168">168</a></span>
-on the whole they are much alike, though it might be supposed that
-some have lain longer in the ground than the others. One or
-two among them (but these are apparently the younger bones) are
-fragile; the majority, however, are as firm as common churchyard
-bones, and some have quite the natural degree of hardness. They are
-of a lightish-yellow colour, do not adhere to the tongue, and afford
-scarcely any earthy smell when breathed upon or moistened: only
-one among them presents any staining from oxide of manganese; and
-this exists in diffuse blotches, and is not at all of the dendritic form.
-Many are partially covered with a very thin film of crystalline
-carbonate of lime.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_40" class="figcenter" style="width: 527px;">
-  <img src="images/i_168.jpg" width="527" height="362" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 40, 41, 42.</span>&mdash;Skull from Sepulchral Cave at Perthi-Chwareu.</div></div>
-
-<p>(b.) <i>The Skulls.</i>&mdash;Of these only three of the more perfect have come
-under my observation. These alone will form the subject of what I
-have to remark on this portion of the skeleton. But in the subjoined
-Table&nbsp;I. (p.&nbsp;171) I have given, together with the dimensions of these
-three, those of five others which have been furnished to me by
-Mr. Dawkins.</p>
-
-<p>In the specimen No. 1 (Figs 40, 41, 42) the entire facial part is
-wanting, together with the whole of the base and a great part of one
-side of the <i class="anatomy">calvaria</i>. The skull is of an oval form, symmetrical, with
-a rather prominent occiput. The region of the vertex is slightly and
-evenly arched; and the forehead, though not high, is vertical, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169">169</a></span>
-slightly compressed on the sides. The sutures are all open and finely
-serrated. The frontal sinuses are distinct though small. The supra-orbital
-ridge is thin, but rather prominent towards the external angular
-process. The mastoid processes are very large, and the digastric
-<i class="anatomy">fossa</i> remarkably deep. The occipital spine is very prominent, as are
-the lateral ridges. The temporal ridges, also, and, in short, all the
-muscular impressions, are very strongly marked.</p>
-
-<p>The skull is evidently that of a powerful, muscular man, in the
-prime of life, and apparently of robust, but not coarse build.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a></p>
-
-<div id="Fig_43" class="figcenter" style="width: 524px;">
-  <img src="images/i_169.jpg" width="524" height="466" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 43, 44, 45.</span>&mdash;Skull from Sepulchral Cave at Perthi-Chwareu.</div></div>
-
-<p>Skull No. 2 (<a href="#Fig_43">Figs. 43, 44, 45</a>) is that of an adult male, presenting
-as nearly as possible the same dimensions, form, and other characters
-as that above described, except that the bone is somewhat thicker and
-heavier. The muscular ridges and impressions are even more strongly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170">170</a></span>
-developed than in the former, and especially the temporal ridges
-immediately above the external angular processes. The left <i class="anatomy">maxilla</i>
-remains loosely attached, containing the two bicuspid teeth, which are
-of small size, and worn quite flat, and to such an extent as to render
-it probable that the man was somewhat advanced in years, although
-none of the sutures are closed. The face is strictly orthognathous, and
-the skull dolichocephalic and aphanozygous.<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a></p>
-
-<p>Skull No. 3 is the entire <i class="anatomy">calvaria</i> of a very young individual. The
-two milk-molars remain on either side; and behind them the first
-true molar is fully out, but not in the least worn. The incisors and
-canines have fallen out. The former, from the size of the <i class="anatomy">alveoli</i>,
-were of the permanent set, but not the latter. The age of the
-individual, therefore, may be estimated as about seven or eight.</p>
-
-<p>The only point worthy of notice in this <i class="anatomy">calvaria</i> is the existence of
-a well-marked depression across the middle of the occipital bone,
-which appears exactly as if it had been caused by the constriction of
-a bandage. The depression barely extends beyond the lambdoidal
-suture into the parietals. It requires, perhaps, some imagination to
-perceive the slight traces of a corresponding depression in the forepart
-of the skull; but I think a faint depression may be there perceived
-on careful inspection. The effect of the occipital constriction,
-if it be such, reminds one of some of the deformed French skulls
-described by M. Foville<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> and by M. Gosse.<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> In all other respects the
-skull is well formed and symmetrical. It is strictly orthognathous,
-and of a broad oval shape.</p>
-
-<p>If deformed artificially, it would come under the head of “tête
-annulaire” of M. Gosse; and Dr. Foville shows that this kind of
-deformation arises from the popular custom of applying a kind of
-bandage round the head of the new-born infant, which, passing over
-the anterior fontanelle, descends obliquely, and is crossed behind the
-occiput and brought back and tied in front. This band, or “serre-tête,”
-he states, is worn during the first year, and for a longer period
-by female children than by males. Dr. Lunier gives pretty nearly the
-same account, adding, however, further particulars.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> It may be
-remarked, also, that the Berbers, who formed great part of the Moorish<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171">171</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_172">172</a></span>
-forces that invaded Europe in the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries,
-used to elongate the skull posteriorly and flatten the forehead.</p>
-
-<h6 id="list_171"><a href="#if_p_171"><span class="smcap">Table I.</span>&mdash;<i>Dimensions of Perthi-Chwareu Skulls.</i></a></h6>
-
-<table class="listobjects" border="1" summary="skull dimensions">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc">No.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Length.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Breadth.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Height.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Least frontal breadth.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Greatest frontal breadth.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Parietal breadth.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Occipital breadth.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Zygomatic breadth.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Frontal radius.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Vertical radius.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Parietal radius.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Occipital radius.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Maxillary radius.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Fronto-nasal radius.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Circum-<br />ference.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Longi-<br />tudinal arc.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">(<i>a</i>) Frontal.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">(<i>b</i>) Parietal.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">(<i>c</i>) Occipital.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Frontal transverse arc.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Vertical transverse arc.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Parietal transverse arc.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Occipital transverse arc.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Latitudinal or cephalic index.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Altitudinal index.</th></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">1.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">14·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·760</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">2.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·750</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·710</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">3.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">19·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">14·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">11·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 12·45</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">11·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·800</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·846</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">4.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">23·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">16·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·?</td>
-    <td class="tdc">11·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">14·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·797</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·797</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">5.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">18·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">11·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·746</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">6.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">19·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">14·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">14·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">11·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·794</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">7.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">8.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">19·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">11·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">11·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·743</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl smaller">Mean<a href="#Footnote_A" class="fnanchor">A</a></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 7·07</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 4·64</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 3·42</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">11·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> ·765<a id="FNanchor_A" href="#Footnote_A" class="fnanchor">A</a></td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl smaller">Cefn Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21.0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·770</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·702</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl smaller">Cefn Tumulus</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 7·38</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 5·65</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 5·55</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">10·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·765</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl smaller">Ditto</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 4·35</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 4·35</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 4·45</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 13·25</td>
-    <td class="tdc">11·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 5·35</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 4·35</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 5·05</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 4·35</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 13·25</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 13·25</td>
-    <td class="tdc">10·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl smaller">Genista Cave,<br />Gibraltar</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 7·95</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 4·45</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 4·25</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 3·75</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">14·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">11·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·748</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·714</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl smaller">Ditto</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 7·35</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 4·75</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 3·65</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">4·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">11·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·761</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·889</td></tr>
-</table>
-<div class="footnote b1">
-
-<p class="center b1"><a id="Footnote_A" href="#FNanchor_A" class="fnanchor">A</a> In taking this mean, the cephalic index of the young skull, No. 3, is omitted; if included, the mean would be ·785.</p></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_46" class="figleft up1" style="width: 154px;">
-  <img src="images/i_172.jpg" width="154" height="179" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span></div></div>
-
-<p>(c.) <i>Thigh-bones.</i>&mdash;I have had an opportunity of examining only a
-single perfect specimen of the thigh-bones. This is an entire bone,
-18·2 inches long, with a least circumference of 3·5. Its perimetral
-index<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> consequently is ·192, which is about the normal standard. The
-<i class="anatomy">linea aspera</i>, at the middle of the bone more especially, is very
-prominent, so that the bone may be termed, in some degree, carinated
-(<a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a>). The shaft is straight; and the chief peculiarities, besides
-the prominent <i class="anatomy">linea aspera</i>, which it presents, are (1) an unusual
-compression in the antero-posterior direction in the upper part, for the
-extent of about three inches below the <i class="anatomy">trochanter minor</i>. At about
-two inches below that process, or at a point corresponding with the
-lower part of the insertion of the <i class="anatomy">pectineus</i> muscle, the shaft measures
-·9 × 1·45, whilst in three other ordinary <i class="anatomy">femora</i>
-with which I have compared it, the bone at
-the corresponding part measures ·9 × 1·20,
-·9 × 1·10, ·9 × 1·15, showing that the Perthi-Chwareu
-<i class="anatomy">femur</i> is unusually expanded laterally
-in the upper part of the shaft. The consequence
-is to give the bone at that part a peculiar
-aspect, which is especially seen in an acute
-internal angle, and one rather less acute externally,
-instead of the usually rounded internal
-and external borders. (2) The distal extremity
-appears to be rather disproportionately
-large as compared with a recent well-formed bone of the same
-length, the condyles measuring 2·5 × 3·3 instead of 2·4 × 3·05; and
-the lower part of the shaft is also somewhat expanded. But the
-chief peculiarity, as above remarked, is the compression of the shaft
-in the upper part. Besides the <i class="anatomy">linea aspera</i>, all the muscular impressions
-are strongly marked, and especially those for the insertion of
-the <i class="anatomy">gluteus maximus</i> and the <i class="anatomy">trochanter minor</i>. The neck is long and
-very oblique, and the head, upon which only a small portion of the
-articular surface is left, must have had a diameter of about 1·9.</p>
-
-<p>Mr. Boyd Dawkins has furnished me with the principal dimensions
-of several other <i class="anatomy">femora</i>, varying in length from 16 to 18 inches, and
-affording an average length of about 17, corresponding to a mean
-height of the individuals of about 5 ft. 4 in. to 5 ft. 5 in., the tallest being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173">173</a></span>
-perhaps 5 ft. 6 in., and the shortest about 5 ft. 2 in., no doubt a woman.
-The mean perimetral index of the eight <i class="anatomy">femora</i> is ·186, which shows, in
-comparison with the usual thickness of well-formed male thigh-bones
-of the present day, a certain degree of slenderness. That this is not
-altogether owing to the circumstance that the bones include those of
-perhaps more than one female is proved by the fact that in no
-instance does the perimetral index exceed ·192, and in one thigh-bone,
-18″·2 long, it is not more, if the circumference is correctly given, than
-·178, the normal perimetral index for the adult male <i class="anatomy">femur</i> in this
-country being taken as about ·194.</p>
-
-<p>(d.) <i class="anatomy">Tibiæ.</i>&mdash;Of the leg-bones brought under my notice, five are
-entire and five more or less defective. The principal dimensions and
-proportions of these bones, so far as they could be taken, are given in
-the subjoined Table.</p>
-
-<h6 id="list_173"><a href="#if_p_173"><span class="smcap">Table II.</span>&mdash;<i>Dimensions, &amp;c., of Perthi-Chwareu Tibiæ.</i></a></h6>
-
-<table class="listobjects" summary="perri-chwareu dimensions">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc">No.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Length.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Transverse<br />diameter,<br />proximal<br />end.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Least<br />circum-<br />ference.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Antero-<br />posterior<br />diameter and<br />transverse<br />diameter<br />of shaft.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Perimetral<br />index.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Latitudinal<br />index.</th></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">1.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">14·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">140 × 80</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·214</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·571</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">2.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">120 - 75</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·211</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·625</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">3.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">135 × 80</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·227</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·592</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">4.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">125 × 70</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·193</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·541</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">5.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 2·75</td>
-    <td class="tdc">100 × 70</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·211</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·700</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">6.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">135 × 90</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·666</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">7.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">140 × 90</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·642</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">8.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">130 - 70</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·538</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">9.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">135 × 85</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·629</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr totline">
-    <td class="tdc">Mean.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 2·86</td>
-    <td class="tdc">129 × 79</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·211</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·611</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>In this Table the <em>length</em> means the extreme length of the bone as
-measured from the summit of the spinous process to the point of the
-internal malleolus; and the numbers in the fifth column represent the
-antero-posterior and the transverse diameter of the shaft at the point
-where the popliteal line terminates at the inner border of the bone,
-which is usually about an inch and a half below the nutritive
-foramen. The <em>latitudinal</em> index represents the relation that the
-transverse diameter bears to the antero posterior, and it is employed
-to indicate, with some degree of precision, the actual amount of
-compression or flattening of the shaft as compared with the normal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174">174</a></span>
-form, which may, so far as my observations show, be taken for the
-ordinary English <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> as from ·700 or ·800, or in the mean at ·730,
-as will be seen in the subjoined Table, which contains the proportions
-of thirteen leg-bones taken indiscriminately from a drawer in the
-College of Surgeons.</p>
-
-<h6 id="list_174"><a href="#if_p_174"><span class="smcap">Table III.</span>&mdash;<i>Proportions, &amp;c., of ordinary Tibiæ.</i></a></h6>
-
-<table class="listobjects" summary="tibia proportions">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc">No.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Length.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Transverse<br />diameter,<br />proximal<br />end.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Least<br />circum-<br />ference.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Antero-<br />posterior<br />diameter and<br />transverse<br />diameter<br />of shaft.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Perimetral<br />index.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Latitudinal<br />index.</th></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">1.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">16·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 3·15</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">130 × 100</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·202</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·769</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">2.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">16·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">150 × 115</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·213</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·766</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">3.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 2·95</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">120 × 90</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·189</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·750</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">4.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 2·95</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">140 × 90</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·122</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·642</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">5.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">130 × 90</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·150</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·692</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">6.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">140 × 90</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·213</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·642</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">7.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">140 × 90</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·187</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·642</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">8.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">120 × 85</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·187</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·709</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">9.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">120 × 90</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·187</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·782</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">10.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">3·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">120 × 95</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·193</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·791</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">11.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">120 × 90</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·214</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·750</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">12.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">13·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 2·75</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">120 × 85</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·201</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·708</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc">13.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">100 × 85</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·187</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·850</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr totline">
-    <td class="tdc">Mean.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">15·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 2·88</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">126 × 91</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·188</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·730</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>Comparison of the mean proportions given in the two Tables
-<span class="locked">shows:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p>(1) That the Perthi-Chwareu leg-bones are, on the whole, shorter,
-and absolutely smaller in all dimensions but one, viz. in the antero-posterior
-diameter of the shaft, which, notwithstanding the smaller
-size generally of the bones, is rather greater (that is to say, in the
-proportion of 129 to 126) than in the ordinary run of English <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>(2) That their perimetral index is greater, showing that, in proportion
-to their length, the Welsh bones are somewhat thicker, or in
-the proportion of 211 to 188.</p>
-
-<p>(3) But the most marked difference is seen in the latitudinal index,
-which in the Perthi-Chwareu bones is ·611, and in those of the
-ordinary type ·730, varying in the former case from ·538 to ·700, and
-in the latter from ·642 to ·850; but the last is probably an exceptional
-case. In accordance with this, we find that the mean transverse<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175">175</a></span>
-diameter of the shaft at the point above indicated is greatly under
-the usual mark, viz. as 79 to 91.</p>
-
-<p>It is clear, therefore, that the Perthi-Chwareu <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> are more compressed
-or flattened than the usual run of modern European <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>; in
-other words, they belong to the platycnemic type.</p>
-
-<p>As this is, I believe, the first instance in which the occurrence of
-<i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> of this peculiar conformation has been observed in this country,
-the circumstance is of some interest, especially with relation to the
-occurrence of priscan bones of the same type elsewhere.</p>
-
-<p>This peculiar conformation of the <i class="anatomy">tibia</i>, to which we gave the name
-of “platycnemic,” was, I believe, first noticed by Dr. Falconer and
-myself, in 1863, in the human remains procured by Captain Brome
-from the Genista Cave, on Windmill Hill, Gibraltar, of which
-an account will be found in the Transactions of the International
-Congress of Prehistoric Archæology for the year 1868 (p.&nbsp;161); and
-about the same time, or in May 1864, M. Broca<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> independently
-observed the same condition in <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> procured from the dolmen of
-Chamant (Oise), and afterwards in bones from the dolmen of
-Maintenon (Eure-et-Loire). Similar bones have since been noticed in
-other localities on the Continent, as, for instance, in the diluvium of
-Montmartre, by M. Eugène Bertrand. But that the peculiarity in
-question is not common in all the varieties of priscan man belonging
-to the reindeer period is shown by the fact that it has not been
-observed in any of the <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> exhumed by M. Dupont in the Belgian
-caves.</p>
-
-<p>M. Broca’s almost exhaustive remarks upon the anatomical, physiological,
-and pathological relations of this form of <i class="anatomy">tibia</i> leave but little
-to be said under those heads. I would, however, venture to add a few
-words as to its ethnological significance. But before doing so I would
-remark that there appear to be two forms of platycnemism, apparently
-indicative of some difference in the cause or nature of this aberration
-from the more usual shape of the bone. To save many words, I
-subjoin outlines of several well-marked instances of platycnemic bones,
-all drawn of the natural size and in the same position, the letter (<i>a</i>)
-in each corresponding to the interosseous ridge, and (<i>b</i>) to the <i class="anatomy">crista</i>
-or shin.</p>
-
-<p>The line <i>b c</i>, drawn through the <i class="anatomy">crista</i> and the middle of the
-posterior surface of the bone, is bisected by another (<i>a d</i>), drawn at
-right angles to it, at the level of the interosseous ridge.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176">176</a></span>
-In <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47</a>, which represents what may be regarded as a normal
-<i class="anatomy">tibia</i>, the length of that portion of the antero-posterior line which is
-behind the transverse line is to that of the anterior as 274 to 1,000,
-whilst in <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 48</a>, taken from M. Broca’s outline of the Cro-magnon
-<i class="anatomy">tibia</i>, which would seem to represent the extremest degree of platycnemism
-as yet observed, the proportion in question is as 623 to 1,000.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_47" class="figcenter" style="width: 419px;">
-  <img src="images/i_176.jpg" width="419" height="243" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 47, 48.</span></div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_49" class="figcenter" style="width: 505px;">
-  <img src="images/i_176b.jpg" width="505" height="267" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 49, 50, 51.</span></div></div>
-
-<p>Figs. 49, 50, 51, are taken from as many of the Gibraltar <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>,<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> in
-which the proportion varies from 600 to 523, whilst it will be observed
-that in <a href="#Fig_52">Figs. 52, 53, 54</a>, taken from the most platycnemic of the Perthi-Chwareu
-<i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>, the proportion in one only differs in any considerable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177">177</a></span>
-degree from the extreme normal proportion shown in <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47</a>; and in
-this it is as 512 to 1,000, whilst in <a href="#Fig_52">Fig. 53</a>, which is nevertheless
-undoubtedly platycnemic, the proportion is exactly the same as in the
-most triangular form of bone.</p>
-
-<p>It would seem, therefore, that platycnemism may arise from an
-unusual antero-posterior expansion of the bone, either in front or
-behind the level of the interosseous ridge. What this difference may
-indicate, or of what importance it may be in the consideration of
-questions relating to platycnemism, I am not prepared to discuss; but
-as in all probability it is connected with a difference in the cause of
-the deformation (if it be deformation), I have thought that the
-observation should be recorded, and would merely, in addition, remark
-that, so far as I have noticed, the occasional and not infrequent
-platycnemism observed in the shin-bones of negroes is what may be
-termed anterior.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_52" class="figcenter" style="width: 494px;">
-  <img src="images/i_177.jpg" width="494" height="255" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 52, 53, 54.</span></div></div>
-
-<p>With respect to the ethnological value of the platycnemic <i class="anatomy">tibia</i>, I conceive
-we are as yet very much in the dark. That it is a race-character
-would seem to me in the highest degree improbable, seeing that it
-would be difficult to find any other points of resemblance between the
-Cro-magnon platycnemic men and those whose remains were met with
-in the Gibraltar caves, although the platycnemism is of the same
-kind in each; and still less could the former gigantic race be identified
-with the occupants of the Perthi-Chwareu sepulchre, from whom they
-differ not only in stature, but even more remarkably in cranial
-conformation.</p>
-
-<p>If, then, platycnemism cannot be regarded as of any value as a
-race-character, it can <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">a fortiori</i> be still less looked upon as indicative<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178">178</a></span>
-of simian tendencies, a notion that M. Broca seems somewhat inclined
-to favour. It is quite true that the <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> of the gorilla and of the
-chimpanzee are, to a certain extent, platycnemic; but it is by no
-means so much so as the human platycnemic bone. The <i class="anatomy">tibia</i> of a
-male gorilla in the College of Surgeons has a latitudinal index of ·681,
-and that of a female of ·650, whilst that of the chimpanzee is ·611,
-or exactly the mean of the Perthi-Chwareu bones. It is needless to
-insist upon the other marked distinctions between the simian and the
-human <i class="anatomy">tibia</i>; but as regards platycnemism it will be obvious, if we
-are disposed to trace it to any genetic descent, that the descendant
-has, in this respect, at one time far out-simianized the Simiæ.</p>
-
-<p>But this comparison with the anthropoid apes may, perhaps, afford
-ground for a suggestion respecting some possible connection between
-this peculiar form of the <i class="anatomy">tibia</i> and the habits of the people amongst
-whom it has been observed. One great distinction between the
-human and the simian foot consists in their respective adaptations to
-totally distinct functions. In the one case it is simply an organ of
-support and progression; in the other, for the most part, of prehension.
-This necessarily involves a considerable difference in the proportions,
-&amp;c., of the muscles by which the greater mobility and adaptability of
-the foot, and more particularly of the digits, are ensured. Would it
-not, then, be admissible to inquire how far, at any rate, posterior
-platycnemism may be connected with the greater freedom of motion
-and general adaptability of the toes enjoyed by those peoples whose
-feet have not been subjected to the confinement of shoes or other
-coverings, and who at the same time have been compelled to lead an
-active existence in a rude and rugged or mountainous and wooded
-country, where the exigencies of the chase would demand the utmost
-agility in climbing and otherwise?</p>
-
-<p>Some common cause of this kind would seem to be not improbable;
-and it would not, perhaps, be difficult to ascertain whether it is a
-<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">vera causa</i> or not. But, with respect to this, observations are at
-present wanting.</p>
-
-<p>From the foregoing data we may <span class="locked">conclude:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p>(1) That the Perthi-Chwareu bones belonged to a race characterized
-by the proportionally rather large dimensions of the cranium, whose
-form presents nothing very remarkable, and is pretty nearly conformable
-to several of those found by Mr. Laing in the ancient
-shell-mounds in Shetland.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179">179</a></span><a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a></p>
-
-<p>(2) That this form is distinctly different from that of the Mewslade
-skull, in which the vertical region is somewhat flattened, as is the
-case also with several Anglesey crania, which, however, appear to
-pass, by gradual transition, into the Keiss and Perthi-Chwareu shape,
-through such a form as that of the Towyn-y-capel skull figured by
-Professor Huxley;<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a> and the whole of them consequently may be
-regarded as belonging to the so-called “River-bed skulls” of that
-author, excepting the Borris cranium, which appears to belong to a
-different type altogether.</p>
-
-<p>(3) That the people whose remains were found in this locality were
-of low stature (the mean height, deduced from the lengths of the
-long bones, being little more than 5 feet), the tallest being 5 ft. 6 in.,
-and the shortest adult not more than 4 ft. 10 in., the intermediate
-ones being 5 ft. 1 in. and 5 ft. 2 in.</p>
-
-<p>(4) That the proportions of the long bones are rather thick, and
-the muscular impressions in all are very strongly marked.</p>
-
-<p>(5) That the <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> are, for the most part, of a much more compressed
-form than those of the modern English, but that this platycnemism
-does not appear to be exactly of the same kind as that which
-is exhibited in the Gibraltar bones and in those from Cro-magnon (as
-figured by M. Broca), the difference consisting in the fact that in the
-two latter instances the bone is expanded backwards behind the
-transverse plane at the interosseous ridge as much as it is in front of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180">180</a></span>
-that plane, whilst in the Welsh <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> it is the anterior portion of the
-shaft only which is expanded; or, in other words, the platycnemism
-in them is due simply to an absolute compression of the shaft.</p>
-
-<h5>§ 3. <span class="smcap">Human Remains from the Cefn Tumulus.</span></h5>
-
-<p>These remains, as submitted to my inspection, consist <span class="locked">of:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p>(1) Portions of three frontal bones, two of which are nearly complete,
-and one constituted of little more than the superciliary region.</p>
-
-<p>(2) Two parietals and a left temporal, probably belonging to the
-same skull as the more mutilated frontal.</p>
-
-<p>(3) Portions of four thigh-bones, two left and two right, one of
-the latter wanting the proximal, the other both extremities.</p>
-
-<p>We have thus the remains of three individuals from this interment.</p>
-
-<p>I. <i>The Frontal Bones.</i>&mdash;No. 1. The least transverse diameter,
-immediately behind the external angular processes, is 3″·6, and its
-greatest (at the coronal suture) about 4″·3. Longitudinal arc, 4″·1.
-The profile outline of the forehead is slightly receding; the frontal
-sinuses moderately developed; and the supraorbital border thin and
-acute, whilst the glabellar eminence is large and prominent. The
-bone is a good deal compressed on the sides, so as to have almost the
-appearance of having formed part of a cymbecephalic skull. The
-bone itself is thin, and probably without any <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">diploë</i>.</p>
-
-<p>No. 2 presents exactly the same characters, except that the longitudinal
-arc is greater, being 5″·3. The postorbital or least transverse
-diameter is 3″·4, and the coronal or greatest 4″·4. The frontal
-sinuses are well developed; the supraorbital ridge rather prominent,
-but thin and sharp; the external angular process prominent and
-thick. Glabellar eminence large and prominent. The nasals remain
-<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in situ</i>, and project almost, if not quite, horizontally forwards, with a
-rapid curve at first, and then straight out. The general contour of
-the bone is exactly like that of No. 1, in which also, although the
-nasals are wanting, the position of the surface by which they were
-attached shows that they must in all probability have resembled those
-of No. 2. The <i class="anatomy">crista galli</i> of the ethmoid, which is left <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in situ</i>, is
-remarkably thick and high.</p>
-
-<p>No. 3 is a portion of a larger and wider bone, the postorbital
-diameter being at least 4″·0. The frontal sinuses are very large, but
-distinctly defined, as the remainder of the supraorbital border is not
-thickened. Owing perhaps to the greater prominence of the sinuses,
-the glabella does not appear so protuberant as in the other instances.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181">181</a></span>
-The nasal bones remain and project forwards in the same curious
-fashion as in No. 2. The frontal crest on the inner surface is
-remarkably developed, being at least half an inch high, though it is
-separated by a wide notch from the equally strongly developed <i class="anatomy">crista
-galli</i> of the ethmoid.</p>
-
-<p>No. 4, when the three bones of which it is composed are put
-together, consists of the greater part of the parietal region of the
-skull, to which, as before said, the last-described frontal may have
-belonged. The left parietal is quite perfect; and a considerable
-portion of the right also remains, together with the entire left
-temporal; so that a very sufficient estimate of the proportions of the
-parietal region of the skull can be obtained.</p>
-
-<p>As well as can be estimated, the parietal longitudinal arc, or length
-of the sagittal suture, is 5″·2. The vertical transverse arc, or that
-drawn from one auditory foramen to the other, over the point of
-junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures, is 12″·2, the parietal
-13″, and the occipital 12″·2. In the temporal bone, the external
-auditory foramen is large, the mastoid process of moderate size, but
-the digastric fossa is wide and deep. The channels for the middle
-meningeal artery and its branches are large and deep; and very deep
-depressions on the sides of the sagittal suture show that the <i class="anatomy">glandulæ
-Pacchioni</i> must have been greatly developed. The bone is very thin,
-and with scarcely a trace of <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">diploë</i> where its structure is visible.
-None of the sutures, however, which are strongly serrated, are in the
-slightest degree closed, although, as I should imagine, the skull must
-have been that of a man beyond the middle period of life.</p>
-
-<p>II. <i>The Thigh-bones.</i>&mdash;Two of these bones, which, though much
-alike, differ sufficiently to show that they did not belong to the same
-individual, are decidedly carinate.</p>
-
-<p>No. 1 wants the upper and lower ends. The least circumference of
-the shaft, which is at a point about 3½ inches below the <i class="anatomy">trochanter
-minor</i>, is 3″·2. That process, as well as all the other muscular impressions,
-is strongly developed; and that for the insertion of the <i class="anatomy">gluteus
-maximus</i> is peculiar in presenting the form of a deep elongated pit
-instead of a roughened elevation as usual. The antero-posterior and
-transverse diameters of the shaft, about 1½ inches below the <i class="anatomy">trochanter
-minor</i>, are ·85 × 1·4; and the shaft at this part, like that of the above-described
-from Perthi-Chwareu, presents a rather acute or narrow
-external and internal border instead of the usual more rounded form.
-Lower down, the shaft becomes strongly carinate; and, owing to the
-flattened form of the anterior surface, its transverse section affords a
-subtriangular figure (<a href="#Fig_55">fig. 55</a>). The walls, or cortical substance, are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182">182</a></span>
-rather thicker than usual, and the substance of the bone is dense
-and hard.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_55" class="figleft" style="width: 142px;">
-  <img src="images/i_182.jpg" width="142" height="130" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span></div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_56" class="figright" style="width: 147px;">
-  <img src="images/i_182b.jpg" width="147" height="155" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span></div></div>
-
-<p>No. 2 is very similar in character to the foregoing, but is not quite
-so much compressed in the upper part, measuring ·8 × 1·2. Nevertheless
-the inner border is very acute, and the outer more so than in
-the common form of <i class="anatomy">femur</i>. The shaft lower down is not so strongly
-carinate as it is in the former instance, but is still so in some degree
-(<a href="#Fig_56">Fig. 56</a>); and the walls (or cortical substance) are still thicker in
-proportion.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_57" class="figleft" style="width: 145px;">
-  <img src="images/i_182c.jpg" width="145" height="130" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span></div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_58" class="figright" style="width: 146px;">
-  <img src="images/i_182d.jpg" width="146" height="165" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span></div></div>
-
-<p>No. 3. A third specimen consists of the lower half, or rather more,
-of the right <i class="anatomy">femur</i>. The least circumference is 3″·2. The bone exhibits
-no special external characters, and is in no degree carinated.
-The shaft, at about the middle of its length, is somewhat angular in
-front; and the pit for the origin of the <i class="anatomy">popliteus</i> muscle is deeper and
-perhaps larger than in most bones of the same size. The texture of
-the cortical substance is quite eburneous; and it is extremely thick,
-so that the medullary canal is reduced to a calibre of little more than
-0″·25 in its longest diameter. The shaft, however, is straight, and
-exhibits no other sign whatever of having been affected with <i class="anatomy">rachitis</i>.
-It is, however, a curious circumstance that many of the Gibraltar
-thigh-bones, most of which are carinate, present the same thickening
-of the cortical substance (<a href="#Fig_57">Fig. 57</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183">183</a></span>
-No. 4. A fourth specimen is constituted of merely a portion of the
-shaft, about 12 inches long, and without either extremity. Its least
-diameter is 3″·3, and its antero-posterior and transverse diameters, at
-the same point as in the other bones, 1 × 1·25, or pretty nearly in
-the usual proportions. Nevertheless the bone, throughout its whole
-remaining extent, is less rounded on the inner side of the shaft than
-is usual. The <i class="anatomy">trochanter minor</i> is of gigantic size; and the shaft of
-the bone, about and below the middle, exhibits a subtriangular aspect
-(<a href="#Fig_58">Fig. 58</a>), though scarcely to be called carinate. The cortical substance
-is of the normal thickness.</p>
-
-<p>III. <i class="anatomy">Tibiæ.</i>&mdash;No. 1 consists of the greater portion of the left tibia,
-wanting only the lower extremity. The proximal end measures 2·9
-× 1·9; and the diameters of the shaft, about the middle, are 1·2 ×
-·75, giving a latitudinal index of ·620. The shin is remarkably sharp
-and prominent, and rather curved over to the outer side; and the
-apparent compression or tendency to platycnemism may in some
-measure be referred more to the production in front of the anterior
-part of the bone than to actual narrowing of the posterior side of the
-triangle, which is nevertheless rather more rounded than in most
-cases. The axis of the shaft is quite straight; and the bone has not
-the least rickety appearance.</p>
-
-<p>No. 2 is also a portion of the left tibia. Both extremities are
-wanting, and the bone offers nothing worthy of remark. Its least
-circumference is 2″·65; and the shaft, at the middle, measures 1″·1
-× ·65; so that the latitudinal index is about ·640, showing a slight
-degree of compression. The entire length of the bone may be estimated
-as rather more than 13 inches, corresponding to a height of
-about 5 ft. 4 in. or 5 ft. 5 in., so that the subject may be supposed to
-have been a female.</p>
-
-<p>These remains represent at least four individuals&mdash;one probably
-somewhat aged, another of strong and robust make, and one, in
-all probability, a woman&mdash;in fact, a family group. No correct idea
-can be formed of the cranial conformation of these persons. In
-general shape it would seem to correspond with that of the Perthi-Chwareu
-skulls; but two of them at any rate are of smaller size, if
-we may judge from the least frontal diameter. The forehead also is
-perhaps a little more reclined. The most striking feature in two of
-the specimens, and which appears also to have existed in a third, is
-the extraordinary projection forwards of the nasal bones. In the
-present case this may probably be regarded as a family peculiarity;
-but with reference to it, it should be remembered that M. Broca<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184">184</a></span>
-described a very similar condition in the skull of the “Old man” of
-Cro-magnon, in whom, he says, “the ridge of the nose, slightly
-depressed at its base, rises again almost immediately, and advances
-boldly forward, making a rapid curve, with the concavity directed
-rather forward and especially upward, so that the lower ends of the
-<i class="anatomy">ossa nasi</i> are placed 18 mm. (·7 inch) in front of a line dropped
-vertically from the fronto-nasal suture.”</p>
-
-<p>The condition of the bones from the Cefn tumulus differs very
-considerably from that of the remains from Perthi-Chwareu. They
-all have an appearance of much greater antiquity. With the exception
-of the very dense <i class="anatomy">femur</i>, they adhere to the tongue; and they are all
-deeply stained with manganous oxide, by which the substance even
-of the hardest portions is stained to a depth of more than one-eighth
-of an inch. That this discoloration, which for the most part does
-not assume the dendritic appearance, is due to manganese and not to
-any vegetable stain, is quite certain.</p>
-
-<p>The form of the skull, so far as it can be ascertained from such
-imperfect remains, and the rather platycnemic shape of the <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>, may
-perhaps justify our supposing that the Cefn bones belong to a
-cognate race to those whose remains were deposited at Perthi-Chwareu,
-or to one which had lived under similar conditions. But the cranial
-data are hardly sufficient to allow of any satisfactory inference being
-drawn from them: and as regards the <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>, it has already been
-pointed out that platycnemism cannot, in the present state of our
-knowledge, be regarded as an important ethnological character amongst
-priscan peoples, though it may undoubtedly be considered a character
-betokening remote antiquity.</p>
-
-<h5>§ 4. <span class="smcap">Skull from the Cefn Cave, near St. Asaph.</span></h5>
-
-<p>The only specimen of human remains from this locality is a nearly
-entire <i class="anatomy">calvaria</i>, wanting the whole of the face below the superciliary
-border.</p>
-
-<p>In the middle of the left parietal bone is a small irregular opening,
-with short radiating lines of fracture proceeding from it; but this
-appears to have been recently caused, and from the inside.</p>
-
-<p>The bone generally is of a brown colour, and, as regards firmness,
-in a natural condition; and it does not adhere to the tongue. Judging
-from its aspect alone, it would not appear to be of any very great
-antiquity; but as it has lain in a dry soil, and sheltered from rain or
-moisture, this appearance may be deceptive.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185">185</a></span>
-Its dimensions are given in <a href="#list_171">Table I</a>. (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">supra</i>), from which it will be
-seen that the cephalic or latitudinal index is ·770, and the altitudinal
-·702. It belongs, therefore, to the category of subbrachy-cephalic
-skulls of Thurnam and Professor Huxley.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_59" class="figcenter" style="width: 523px;">
-  <img src="images/i_185.jpg" width="523" height="364" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 59, 60, 61.</span>&mdash;Skull from Cave at Cefn, St. Asaph.</div></div>
-
-<p>In the side view (<i class="anatomy">norma lateralis</i>&mdash;Plate 7, <a href="#Fig_59">Fig. 59</a>), it so closely
-resembles, except in one respect, that described and figured by Professor
-Huxley (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">loc. cit.</i> p. 125, <a href="#Fig_59">Figs. 60, 61</a>) from the bed of the Nore, at Borris,
-in Ireland, that we can scarcely refuse to recognize a common character
-between them, which, since in the present case it cannot be looked upon
-as denoting a mere family relationship, may reasonably be regarded as
-indicative of some affinity of race. The chief difference observable
-in this view of the two skulls is the greater development of the frontal
-sinuses in the Borris <i class="anatomy">calvaria</i>. The occipital view (<i class="anatomy">norma occipitalis</i>,
-Fig. 8 is also very similar, except that in the Borris skull the greatest
-width appears to be in the temporal, and in the other the parietal
-region. In the Borris skull, also, there is a shallow groove in the
-course of the sagittal suture, which does not exist in that from
-St. Asaph.</p>
-
-<p>The Borris skull is said to be of the extraordinary length of 8
-inches; and this may account for the much lower cephalic index of
-the skull, whose absolute width in reality somewhat exceeds the Cefn<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186">186</a></span>
-specimen (5″·9 and 5″·7), whilst the altitudinal as compared with the
-latitudinal is but very little greater than it would be were the skulls
-reduced to the same breadth. They may both, therefore, be regarded
-as “low,” or, as this class of skull might be termed, in the euphonious
-language of craniologists, “tapinocephalic.” One great peculiarity
-of the Cefn <i class="anatomy">cranium</i> (which exists also, but apparently not to quite
-so great a degree, in the other) is the absolute horizontality of the
-plane of the subinial portion of the occipital bone. And it is to
-this flattening that the comparative lowness may perhaps be chiefly
-attributed.</p>
-
-<p>The sutures, where visible, appear to be open. The mastoid
-processes and all other muscular impressions are strongly marked.</p>
-
-<p>A third skull of very similar character, except that it is not so much
-depressed, has come under my observation. It was discovered in a
-submarine or, rather, subterranean peat-bed or ancient forest, 30 feet
-below the sea-level, at Sennen, near the Land’s End, in Cornwall;
-and a brief notice and outline figure of it will be found in the
-“Natural History Review” for 1861.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> The Sennen skull has the
-same elongated form; but it is higher than either the Cefn, St.
-Asaph, or Borris crania, having an altitudinal index of ·730.</p>
-
-<p>On the whole, these three skulls (<i>i.e.</i> those from Borris, Sennen,
-and St. Asaph) would appear to have a common character, and to be of
-a different type from either the Perthi-Chwareu or the Mewslade form.</p>
-
-<p>As a rule it may, I think, be stated that in all brachy-cephalic skulls
-the breadth exceeds the height, whilst the reverse is the case in the
-dolicho-cephalic. Individual exceptions are of course not unfrequently
-met with, more especially among very mixed races, such as the modern
-English; but I am myself acquainted with only two dolicho-cephalic
-<em>races</em>, properly so termed, in which the rule does not hold good. These
-are the Tasmanian (not Australian) and the Bushman.</p>
-
-<p>Any exceptions, therefore, to either rule among ancient and, consequently,
-less mixed races are worthy of being noted.</p>
-
-<p>As regards modern brachy-cephalic skulls the law holds almost
-universally, the only marked exception, except in an individual here
-and there, being in two Karén skulls, in which, although both
-decidedly brachy-cephalic, the respective indices stand as ·848 to ·924,
-and as ·790 to ·842.</p>
-
-<p>Among priscan brachy-cephalic skulls the most remarkable and
-important exceptions I have met with occur among the neolithic crania
-in the Copenhagen Museum, more than half of which are brachy-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187">187</a></span>cephalic,
-and most of the others nearly so, the mean cephalic index of 21
-skulls being ·790, whilst the mean altitudinal is as high as ·810. In
-fact, out of 12 skulls whose indices vary from ·795 to ·838, no fewer
-than 10 have the latitudinal index less than the altitudinal.</p>
-
-<p>The exceptions to the rule as applied to dolicho-cephalic skulls also
-appear to be far more common among the ancient than among the
-modern, excepting the two races I have above referred to.</p>
-
-<p>In a long list of ancient and priscan skulls, I find the following
-having the tapino-cephalic <span class="locked">character:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<table class="listobjects" summary="tapino-cephalic skull dimensions">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc"> </th>
-    <th class="tdc">L. Ind.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Alt. Ind.</th></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">1. From the Thames alluvium at Old Ford</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·792</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·753</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">2. From the same deposit at East Ham</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·774</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·690</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">3. From the same deposit at Battersea</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·763</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·745</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">4. From the same deposit at London Bridge</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·762</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·611</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">5. From tumulus at Stanshope</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·763</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·684</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">6. A Guanche skull</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·775</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·737</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">7. A Guanche skull</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·763</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·684</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl">8. Cefn, St. Asaph’s</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·770</td>
-    <td class="tdr">·702</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="in0">The number is but small, it must be confessed, and perhaps hardly
-sufficient to do more than prove the rule; but still I think it will be
-found worth inquiry whether a departure from the rule in question
-was more frequent among the unmixed or little-mixed races of ancient
-times than it is amongst similarly unmixed races of the present day;
-and whether consequently its infraction in a considerable number
-of instances may or may not be indicative of a lower type, as which
-we are accustomed to regard the Tasmanian and Bushman races.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_76"><i>General Conclusions as to Human Remains.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The human remains in the caves of Perthi-Chwareu
-and Cefn, and in the cairn near the latter place, imply
-that the men to which they belonged were a short race,
-the tallest being about 5 feet 6 inches, and the shortest 4
-feet 10 inches.<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> Their skulls are orthognathic,<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> or not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188">188</a></span>
-presenting a lower jaw advancing beyond the vertical line
-dropped from the forehead; in shape ortho-cephalic, or
-subbrachy-cephalous, and of fair average capacity. The
-face was oval and the cheek-bones were not prominent.
-Some of the individuals were characterised by the
-peculiar flattening of shin (platycnemism), which probably
-stood in relation to the free action of the foot
-that was not impeded by the use of a rigid sole or
-sandal. This character, however, is neither peculiar to
-race, nor to be viewed as a tendency towards the simian
-type of leg. These conclusions, which Professor Busk
-has arrived at from the examination of the remains
-which were submitted to him, have been fully borne out
-by the numerous skeletons which have been subsequently
-discovered, both in the sepulchral caves at Rhosdigre
-and in a second chamber in the cairn of Tyddyn Bleiddyn
-near Cefn.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189">189</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">THE RANGE OF NEOLITHIC DOLICHO-CEPHALI AND BRACHY-CEPHALI.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote class="inhead">
-
-<p>Relation of Human Remains to those found in Tumuli in Britain.&mdash;The
-Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali.&mdash;Their Range in Britain
-and Ireland&mdash;in France.&mdash;The Caverne de l’Homme Mort.&mdash;The
-Sepulchral Cave of Orrouy.&mdash;The Tumuli.&mdash;In Belgium.&mdash;The
-Sepulchral Caves of Chauvaux and Sclaigneaux.&mdash;The Dolicho-cephali
-of the Iberian Peninsula&mdash;Gibraltar&mdash;Spain.&mdash;Cueva de
-los Murcièlagos.&mdash;The Woman’s Cave near Alhama in Granada.&mdash;The
-Guanches of the Canary Isles.&mdash;Iberic Dolicho-cephali of the
-same race as those of Britain, France, and Belgium&mdash;Cognate or
-Identical with the Basque Race.&mdash;Evidence of History as to
-the Peoples of Gaul and Spain.&mdash;The Basque Populations the
-Oldest.&mdash;The Population of Britain.&mdash;Basque characters in Present
-Population of Britain and France.&mdash;Whence came the Basques?&mdash;The
-Celtic and Belgic Brachy-cephali.&mdash;The Ancient German
-Race.&mdash;General Conclusions.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_77"><i>The Relation of the Human Remains to those found in
-British Tumuli.</i></h3>
-
-<p class="in0">Before we examine the relation of this ancient neolithic
-race of men to those who have left their remains
-in tumuli and caves in other regions, it is necessary to
-define the cranial terminology, as adopted by Professors
-Busk, Huxley, Dr. Thurnam, and other high authorities.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190">190</a></span>
-The term “cephalic index” indicates “the ratio of the
-extreme transverse to the extreme longitudinal diameter
-of the skull, the latter measurement being taken as
-unity” (Huxley).</p>
-
-<p>The most convenient classification of crania is that
-adopted by Dr. Thurnam and Professor Huxley,<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> and
-based on the cephalic index.</p>
-
-<table summary="cephalic index">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr rpad top">I.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Dolicho-cephali, or long skulls with cephalic index at or below</td>
-    <td class="tdr w2">·73</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td> </td>
-    <td class="tdl">Subdolicho-cephali <span class="in4">”</span> <span class="in4">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdr">from ·70 to ·73</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr rpad top">II.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Ortho-cephali, or oval skulls</td>
-    <td class="tdr">”<span class="in1"> ·74 to ·79</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td> </td>
-    <td class="tdl">Subbrachy-cephali</td>
-    <td class="tdr">”<span class="in1"> ·77 to ·79</span></td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr rpad top">III.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Brachy-cephali or broad skulls</td>
-    <td class="tdr">at or above ·80</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>It has been objected that skull form is of no value
-in determining race, because it varies so much at the
-present time among the same peoples, presenting the
-extremes of dolicho- and brachy-cephalism as well as
-every kind of asymmetry. This, however, is due to our
-very abnormal conditions of life, and to the mixture of
-different races brought about by the needs of commerce,
-as in Manchester and Vienna, as is pointed out by
-Mr. Bradley.<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a></p>
-
-<p>In prehistoric times, neither of these causes of variation
-made themselves seriously felt. There was little, if any,
-peaceful movement of races, but war was the normal
-condition, and society was not sufficiently advanced to
-remove man from the influence of his natural environment.
-The objection may therefore be dismissed as not
-applicable to the skulls in question.</p>
-
-<p>The extent to which abnormal conditions of life are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191">191</a></span>
-capable of modifying the shape of skulls may be gathered
-from the comparison of the skull of an Irish hog with
-that of its ancestor the wild-boar, or even that of a
-hyæna kept in confinement with that of a wild animal
-of the same species. (See Osteol. Series, Brit. Mus.)</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_78"><i>The British Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The materials for working out the craniology of
-Europe, in prehistoric times, do not justify any sweeping
-conclusion as to the distribution of the various races,
-but those which Dr. Thurnam (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i>) has collected
-in Britain offer a firm basis for such an inquiry. In
-the numerous long barrows and chambered “gallery
-graves” of our island, which from the invariable absence
-of bronze, and the frequent presence of polished stone
-implements, may be referred to the neolithic age, the
-crania belong, with scarcely an exception, to the first
-two of these divisions. In the round barrows, on the
-other hand, in which bronze articles are found, they
-belong mainly to the third division, although some are
-ortho-cephalous. Sometimes, as in the case of Tilshead,
-the crania in the primary interment, over which the
-long barrow was raised, are long, while those in the
-secondary, which have been made after the heaping up
-of the barrow, are broad.</p>
-
-<p>On evidence of this kind Dr. Thurnam concludes, that
-Britain was inhabited in the neolithic age by a long-headed
-people, and that towards its close it was invaded
-by a bronze-using race, who were dominant during the
-bronze age. This important conclusion has been verified
-by nearly every discovery which has been made in this
-country since its publication. The long skulls graduate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192">192</a></span>
-into the broad, the oval skulls being the intermediate
-forms; and this would naturally result from the intermingling
-of the blood of the two races. There may,
-however, have been a tendency towards ortho-cephalism
-in the dolicho-cephali, without any admixture of foreign
-blood, since absolute unity of form could not be expected.</p>
-
-<p>The skull of the primary interment in the barrow of
-Winterbourne Stoke is taken by Dr. Thurnam as typical
-of the dolicho-cephalic class. “The greatest length is
-7·3 inches (the glabello-inial diameter 7·1 inches); the
-greatest breadth is 5·5 inches, being in the proportion of
-75 to the length taken as 100. The forehead is narrow
-and receding, and moderately high in the coronal region,
-behind which is a trace of transverse depression. The
-parietal tubers are somewhat full, and add materially
-to the breadth of this otherwise narrow skull. The
-posterior borders of the parietals are prolonged backwards,
-to join a complex chain of Wormian bones in the
-line of the lambdoid suture. The superior scale of the
-occiput is full, rounded, and prominent; the inion more
-pronounced than usual in this class of dolicho-cephalic
-skulls. The superciliaries are well marked, the orbits
-rather small and long; the nasals prominent, the
-facial bones short and small; the molars flat and almost
-vertical; the alveolars short, but rather projecting. The
-mandible is comparatively small, but angular; the chin
-square, narrow, and prominent.”<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a></p>
-
-<p>Dolicho-cephalic skulls in general (and in part ortho-cephalic)
-are possessed, according to Dr. Thurnam, of
-the following characters (Vol. iii. p. 69):&mdash;“The supraciliary
-ridges are less strongly marked than in the brachy-cephalic.
-There is none of the prognathism, exaggerated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193">193</a></span>
-malar breadth or great width of the nasal openings, which
-give such an air of savageness and ferocity to the New
-Caledonians and Caroline Islanders; but the very reverse
-of all these. They are indeed more orthognathic even
-than many Europeans, and the facial characters generally
-are mild, and without exaggerated development in any
-one direction.” Their faces are oval. The upper jaw is
-small, and the sockets of the incisors and canine almost
-vertical. The supra-occipital region is full and rounded,
-and there is a post-coronal annular depression on the
-skull, termed by Dr. Gosse “tête annulaire.” The
-length is mainly due to the development of the occiput,
-a condition that is termed by M. Broca “dolicho-cephalie
-occipitale,” as distinguished from the “dolicho-cephalie
-frontale” of other races. The teeth are worn flat. The
-bones associated with the skulls of this character show
-that the stature of the race was short, 5 feet 5 inches
-being the average height.</p>
-
-<p>In the brachy-cephalic, or broad skulls, on the other
-hand, the supraciliary ridges are more strongly marked
-than in the preceding group; the cheek-bones are high
-and broad, the sockets for the front teeth are oblique,
-and the mouth projects beyond the vertical dropped from
-the forehead, presenting the character of prognathism.
-The face, instead of being oval, is angular or lozenge-shaped.
-On the back of the head the occipital tuberosity,
-or probole, is the most prominent feature, and
-there is also generally an occipital flattening, which may
-have been caused by the use of an unyielding cradle-board
-in infancy. The entire maxillary apparatus is so
-largely developed, that the term “macrognathic,” introduced
-by Professor Huxley, is particularly applicable
-to them. The “type mongoloide” of Dr. Pruner-Bey<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194">194</a></span>
-is closely allied to, if not identical with, this form
-of skull.</p>
-
-<p>The stature of the British brachy-cephali is much
-greater than that of the dolicho-cephali, the average for
-the adult male being 5 feet 8·4 inches, according to Dr.
-Thurnam.</p>
-
-<p>The human remains from the caves and chambered-tombs
-of Denbighshire belong to the first of these divisions,
-in the possession of every one of the characters
-assigned to it by Dr. Thurnam, although the crania
-belong to the ortho-cephalous portion of the series, that
-is, tending towards broad-headedness. It may therefore
-be inferred that they belong to the same race as the
-neolithic raisers of the long-barrows, a race which we
-shall presently see to be identical with the ancient
-Iberians and modern Basques.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_79"><i>The Range of the Dolicho-cephali in Britain and
-Ireland.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The same class of human remains has been obtained
-from caves in other districts in Great Britain. In the
-Oxford Museum a human skull, from the cave of Llandebie,
-possesses cephalic index of ·72; while a second,
-from the cave of Uphill in Somersetshire, explored by
-Mr. James Parker in 1863, measures ·723. (See <a href="#Page_197">p. 197</a>.)
-The latter was associated with rude pottery, charcoal,
-and the remains of the following animals: the wild-cat,
-dog, fox, badger, pig, stag, <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, goat, and
-water-rat. Most of the remains belong to young individuals,
-and some have been gnawed by dogs, wolves,
-or foxes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195">195</a></span>
-In Yorkshire a human femur presenting an enormous
-development of the linea aspera, which implies the
-possession of the platycnemic character, has been met
-with in a cave in King’s Scar, near Settle (see <a href="#Page_113">p. 113</a>),
-and fragments of a long skull are preserved in the
-Museum at Leeds from that of Dowkerbottom.</p>
-
-<p>Professor Turner has described<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a> the remains found in
-a cave in the Old Red sandstone on the shore of the bay
-of Oban in 1869 by Mr. Mackay. There were two
-human skeletons, along with the broken and burnt bones
-of the roe and stag, limpet-shells, flint nodules, and flint
-flakes. One of the leg-bones is platycnemic, and the
-fragments of skull may probably be referred to the
-dolicho-cephalic type.</p>
-
-<p>The same type of skull has also been obtained by
-the Rev. Canon Greenwell, from the neolithic tumuli of
-Yorkshire, along with the same group of animals as in
-the caves at Perthi-Chwareu, the <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, goat,
-horse, dog, and stag; and Professor Rolleston, F.R.S.,
-informs me that some of the associated human leg-bones
-are platycnemic. It is also recognized by Professor
-Huxley as identical with his river-bed type of skulls
-from alluvial deposits near Muskham in the valley of
-the Trent, Ledbury Hall in the valley of the Dove, and
-in Ireland from the bed of the Nore in Queen’s County,
-and from that of the river Blackwater. To it also
-Professor Huxley refers<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> five or six out of the seven
-skulls obtained by Mr. Laing from the stone cists in the
-burial mound at Keiss in Caithness, and associated with
-rude weapons and implements of bone and stone. They<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196">196</a></span>
-probably belonged to the inhabitants of the neighbouring
-burgh, or circular stone dwelling, in and around
-which were the broken bones of the following animal
-remains: the <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, goat, stag, hog, horse, dog,
-fox, grampus or small whale, dolphin or some other
-small cetacean, great auk (<i class="taxonomy">Alca impennis</i>, now extinct
-in Europe), lesser auk, cormorant, shag, solan goose, cod,
-lobster, and shell-fish. A lower jaw also of a child,
-broken after the same manner as other refuse bones,
-is considered by Professor Owen and Mr. Laing to prove
-that human flesh was sometimes used for food. The
-reindeer was living in the district at this time, since
-its remains have been identified by Dr. Campbell from
-the Harbour mound, one of the many refuse-heaps in
-the neighbourhood.</p>
-
-<p>The same kind of skull is also described by Professor
-Wilson under the name of “boat-shaped” or “kumbe-cephalic,”
-from the ancient stone chambers and tumuli
-of Scotland.<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a></p>
-
-<p>In the Table on the next page, showing the relative
-size and shape of the more important long skulls of
-Britain and Ireland, it will be seen that the extreme
-long-headedness of those from the long barrows is
-not possessed by those either of the caves and tombs of
-Denbighshire or of the river-bed type of Huxley, represented
-by the skulls from Muskham, Ledbury, Blackwater
-(Ireland), and Keiss.</p>
-
-<p>The greater breadth of the skulls from the caves and
-tombs of Denbighshire, as compared with those of the
-typical long skulls from the long barrows, may possibly
-be due to a mixture with the broad-headed race. In
-that case, however, none of the tallness, or prognathism,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197">197</a></span>
-of the latter has been handed down. It is most probably
-a mere variation within the limits of one race,
-and is unaccompanied by the fusion of dolicho-cephalic
-with brachy-cephalic characters, such as M. Broca and
-Dr. Thurnam have observed in the skulls from tombs
-and caves in France.</p>
-
-<div id="list_197">
-<p class="p1 b0 center small"><a href="#if_p_197">(Image of Table)</a></p>
-<table id="table197" class="listobjects" summary="skull measurements">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Skulls.</span></th>
-    <th class="tdc">Length.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Breadth.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Height.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Circum-<br />ference.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Latitud.<br />or Ceph.<br />Index.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Alt.<br />Index.</th></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mean of 48 males, Brit., Thurnam, long barrows</td>
-    <td class="tdl">7·7</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·62</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·715</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·730</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mn of 19 females, Brit., Thurnam long barrows</td>
-    <td class="tdl">7·45</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·3</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·710</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·730</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mn of 10 skulls, Perthi-Chwareu Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdl">7·07</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·765</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Skull from Llandebie Cave</td>
-    <td class="tdl">7·3</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·720</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="tbl197pad2">” </span>Uphill</td>
-    <td class="tdl">7·36</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·43</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·723</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mean of 6 skulls from Keiss. (Huxley)</td>
-    <td class="tdl">7·22</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·45</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·19</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·755</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·716</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Skull from Muskham (Huxley)</td>
-    <td class="tdl">7·0</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·770</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="tbl197pad2">” </span>Ledbury Hall (Huxley)</td>
-    <td class="tdl">7·15</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·770</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="tbl197pad2">” </span>Blackwater, Ireland (Huxley)</td>
-    <td class="tdl">7·2</td>
-    <td class="tdl">5·65</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·780</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<p>From the examples given in the preceding pages it
-is evident that, in ancient times, long-headed men
-of small stature inhabited the whole of Britain and Ireland,
-burying their dead in caves, but more generally in
-chambered tombs. They were farmers and shepherds,
-and in this country in the neolithic stage of culture.
-In the solitary case offered by the Harbour mound at
-Keiss they were cannibals.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_80"><i>The Range of the Brachy-cephali.</i></h3>
-
-<p>No human remains of the brachy-cephalic, or broad
-type, as defined by Dr. Thurnam have been obtained<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198">198</a></span>
-from the caves in Britain. The evidence, however, is
-decisive that, in the Bronze age, a tall, round-headed,
-rugged-featured race occupied all those parts of Britain
-and Ireland that were worth conquering, and drove
-away to the west or absorbed the smaller neolithic
-inhabitants. And the identity of their skull-form, in
-the series of interments in the round and bowl-shaped
-barrows, extending from the Bronze age down to the
-date of the Roman occupation of Britain, shows that,
-both in the North and the South, this large-sized
-coarse-featured people was in possession at the time of
-the Roman conquest.</p>
-
-<p>The size and shape of the typical broad crania may
-be gathered from the first two columns of the following
-Table, which is an abstract of those published by Dr.
-Thurnam in “Crania Britannica,” and the “Memoirs of
-the Anthropological Society.”</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199">199</a></span></p>
-
-<h4 id="list_199"><a href="#if_p_199"><i>Measurements of British Brachy-cephali, and Gaulish and Belgic
-Brachy-cephali and Dolicho-cephali.</i></a></h4>
-
-<table id="table199" class="listobjects" summary="brachy-cephali measurements">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Skull.</span></th>
-    <th class="tdc">Date.<a id="FNanchor_B" href="#Footnote_B" class="fnanchor">B</a></th>
-    <th class="tdc">Length.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Breadth.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Height.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Circum-<br />ference.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Latitudinal<br />or Cephalic<br />index.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Altitudi-<br />nal index.</th></tr>
-  <tr class="hdr smaller">
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">TYPICAL BROAD SKULLS.&mdash;BRITAIN.</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mean of 56 males, Brit. Round Barrows</td>
-    <td class="tdc">N.B.I.</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 7·28</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·9 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·81</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·77</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl">Mean of 14 females, Brit. Round Barrows</td>
-    <td class="tdc">N.B.I.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20· </td>
-    <td class="tdc">·81</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·77</td></tr>
-  <tr class="hdr smaller">
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">LONG AND SHORT SKULLS.&mdash;FRANCE.</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Tumulus, Noyelles-sur-mer-Somme</td>
-    <td class="tdc">N.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·81</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·79</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">“Grotto,” Nogent les Vièrges, Oise</td>
-    <td class="tdc">N.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·8p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21· </td>
-    <td class="tdc">·80</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·76</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·71</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·71</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·7p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·80</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·73</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·9p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·85</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·79</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·74</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·75</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·2p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·70</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·75</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Dolmen Du Val, Senlis, Oise</td>
-    <td class="tdc">N.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">19·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·84</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·81</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·77</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·78</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·76</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·80</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·8 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·80</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ”   Chamant  ” <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc">N.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·3 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·71</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·78</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·74</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·72</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave, Orrouy, Oise</td>
-    <td class="tdc">N.B.(?)</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·8 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·78</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·72</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·8p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·77</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·74</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·75</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·81</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·9p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·83</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·78</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">19·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·82</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·80</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">19·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·85</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·83</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·9 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·81</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·75</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·75</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·84</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·75</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc">N.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·8 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·78</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·77</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·9 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·81</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Lombrive, Ariège</td>
-    <td class="tdc">N.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">19·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·82</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·82</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Dolmen, Meudon, Seine et Oise</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7· </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 5·95p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·85</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·84</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·2</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·7 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·79</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·76</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Lozerres</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·8p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21· </td>
-    <td class="tdc">·79</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·78</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Tomb, Maintenon; Eure et Loire</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 7·25</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·75</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·71</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Tumulus, Bougon, Deux Sèvres</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20· </td>
-    <td class="tdc">·80</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Dolmen, Meloisy, Côte d’Or</td>
-    <td class="tdc">N.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·75</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Avignon(?), Vaucleuse</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·8 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·84</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·70</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Genthod, Geneva</td>
-    <td class="tdc">I.</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·75</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·74</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6p</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·81</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·78</td></tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mean</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·1</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·78</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·77</td></tr>
-  <tr class="topspace">
-    <td class="tdl">Judge’s Cave, Gibraltar (Busk)</td>
-    <td class="tdc">(?)</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">19·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> ·792</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Chauvaux Cave (Virchow)</td>
-    <td class="tdc">N</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 7·35</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·3 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">71·8  </td>
-    <td class="tdc">1·8</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Sclaigneaux Cave. Skull 1. (Arnould)</td>
-    <td class="tdc">N</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 7·35</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·5 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">81·1  </td>
-    <td class="tdc">73·7 </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="t199in">”</span> <span class="in2">2.</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 7·25</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·25</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 5·25</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">81·6  </td>
-    <td class="tdc">70·6 </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="t199in">”</span> <span class="in2">3.</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·75</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl">    ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="t199in">”</span> <span class="in2">4.</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 6·95</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="p0 b1 center"><a id="Footnote_B" href="#FNanchor_B" class="fnanchor">B</a> N, Neolithic; B, Bronze; I, Iron.</p></div>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_81"><i>The Range of the Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali
-in France in the Neolithic Age.&mdash;The Caverne de
-l’Homme Mort.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The researches of M. Broca and Dr. Thurnam into
-the caves and tombs of France prove that the small
-dolicho-cephali and the tall brachy-cephali lived in that
-country in the neolithic age. We are indebted to the
-former for a most important account of the Caverne de
-l’Homme Mort, which reproduces all the essential points
-which we have observed in the sepulchral caves of
-Denbighshire.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200">200</a></span></p>
-
-<p id="hdr_82">The Caverne de l’Homme Mort<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> is situated in a lonely
-ravine that penetrates the wild limestone plateau, in
-the south-west of the department of Lozère, near the
-hamlet of Vialle, in the commune of St. Pierre des
-Tripiés. It was discovered by the peasants, and its
-contents were partially disturbed by their search after
-hidden treasure before it was explored by Dr. Prunières.
-In front of the cave was a platform, composed of earth
-mingled with fragments of charcoal, forming a layer
-about forty centimetres thick, in which were the stones
-of seven hearths, flint-flakes and scrapers, lance-heads,
-broken bones of the hare, fallow-deer, roe, pig (or wild-boar).
-All the flints were worked, and one lance-head
-had been chipped out of the stump of a celt and presented
-portions of the polished surface, thus fixing the
-neolithic age of the accumulation. Coarse pottery was
-also met with.</p>
-
-<p>The bones of the hare were very abundant, and
-proved that there was no prejudice against the use of
-its flesh. In the caves of Perthi-Chwareu we have also
-seen that this was the case.</p>
-
-<p>The refuse-heaps ceased abruptly at the entrance of
-the cave, at a point where the traces of a wall, composed
-of large stones, was visible. Immediately behind this
-were human bones, in a thick layer of dry sand, scattered
-about in the wildest confusion, which was probably
-the result of successive interments, as well as of subsequent
-disturbance by burrowing animals and treasure-seekers.
-Two bone-points and a flint arrow-head were
-the only implements discovered within the sepulchral
-chamber.</p>
-
-<p>Two small human bones, bearing undoubted marks of
-having been burnt, were discovered in the refuse-heap;
-but they do not, as M. Broca justly observes, imply the
-practice of cannibalism, since they may have fallen out<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201">201</a></span>
-of the burial-place, and subsequently have come into
-contact with the fire on one of the hearths.</p>
-
-<p>It is impossible to estimate the number of interments
-in this cave. Exclusive of the many skulls which have
-been destroyed or lost, M. Prunières obtained nineteen
-very nearly perfect, which are described by M. Broca
-as seven male, six female, three of uncertain sex, and
-three children. They are remarkable for the softness
-of their contours, the delicacy of their features, and the
-orthognathism of their faces. The forehead is wide and
-high, and the vertex and the occipital region of the
-skull well rounded. The cephalic index varies between
-·680 and ·78, the mean of the whole series being ·732.</p>
-
-<p>M. Broca remarks, that these crania contrast strongly
-with those of the present broad-headed inhabitants of
-the district, and that they differ from those found in
-the dolmens by M. Prunières in their greater length,
-in the smallness of their features, and the weakness of
-their muscular impressions. The study of the bones of
-the skeleton confirms these differences. The men who
-buried their dead in the Caverne de l’Homme Mort
-were smaller than the dolmen builders, their bones were
-more slender, and they were altogether a less muscular
-race. They are considered by M. Broca to represent the
-neolithic aborigines; and if his description and measurements
-be compared with those of the dolicho-cephali
-of Britain, given by Dr. Thurnam (p.&nbsp;191 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i>), it will
-be seen that they are identical with the latter, which is
-the oldest race yet known to have occupied Great Britain
-since the close of the pleistocene period.</p>
-
-<p>At a little distance from the sepulchral cave, and in
-the same ravine, M. Broca explored a large cavern, which
-had been occupied, probably by the same people, since<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202">202</a></span>
-the same kind of instruments were discovered as in the
-refuse-heap. So that we have here, side by side, the
-abode and the sepulchre of the same ancient tribe.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_83"><i>The Sepulchral Cave of Orrouy.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The sepulchral cave of Orrouy (Oise) described by M.
-Broca, in which the remains of about fifty individuals
-were interred, furnished both types of skull, united,
-according to Dr. Thurnam and M. Broca,<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a> by a series of
-intermediate forms, that prove a fusion of blood between
-the broad- and the long-headed peoples. On referring
-to the preceding Table (p.&nbsp;199) it will be seen that the
-cephalic index varies from ·75 to ·88. Eight out of the
-series of twenty-one skulls united the characteristic
-dolicho-cephalous fore-head with the brachy-cephalous
-middle and hind-head. “We have here,” writes Dr.
-Thurnam, “a veritable hybrid form of cranium, resulting
-from the mixture or crossing, under certain circumstances
-unknown to us, of a dolicho-cephalous with
-a brachy-cephalous race.”</p>
-
-<p>“... In the Orrouy skulls of hybrid form, two
-encephalic growth-tendencies appear to me distinguishable;
-one, the longitudinal or fronto-occipital; the other
-a transverse, or bi-parietal and temporal one. Now the
-remarkable supramastoid depressions, visible in the hindhead
-of these skulls, seem to be well explained by the
-idea of an intersection or crossing of these two tendencies
-in the brain-growth; corresponding, as they
-must have done, to the angles formed by the posterior
-surfaces of the middle, the lower surfaces of the posterior<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203">203</a></span>
-and temporal lobes of the cerebrum, and the upper surface
-of the cerebellum.”<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a></p>
-
-<p>In eight out of thirty-four humeri the fossa of the
-olecranon is perforated.</p>
-
-<p>The human remains occurred in the same confusion
-as at Perthi-Chwareu, and were associated with fragments
-of coarse pottery, flint flakes, and bones of ruminants.
-The occurrence of polished stone celts indicates
-the neolithic age of the interment.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_84"><i>Skulls from French Tumuli.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Both long and broad skulls also occur in the chambered
-tombs of France, although the latter by far predominate.
-Those from the Long Barrow at Chamant
-are dolicho-cephalic and ortho-cephalic, with cephalic
-index ranging from ·71 to ·78 (Broca), and other similar
-cases are quoted by Dr. Thurnam from Noyelles-sur-Mer,
-Fontenay, and other tumuli. In the large sepulchral
-chamber at Meudon, that contained 200 skeletons, the
-majority of the skulls were brachy-cephalic, although
-twenty of them were of the ortho-cephalic type. This
-mixture may be accounted for, most probably, by the
-two races, which are clearly defined from each other in
-Britain, being intermingled in France.</p>
-
-<p>Dr. Thurnam, summing up the whole evidence as
-regards the distribution of races in the tombs of Gaul,
-concludes that the two races came into contact in Gaul
-at an earlier period in the neolithic age than in Britain.
-And this must necessarily have been the case from the
-geographical position of our island, which could only be
-invaded, in those times, by the races in possession of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204">204</a></span>
-contiguous mainland of France and Belgium. Both
-these regions must have been conquered before an invasion
-could have taken place.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_85"><i>The Dolicho-cephali of the Iberian Peninsula, Gibraltar.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The researches carried on from 1863 to 1868, by
-Captain Brome, aided by Dr. Falconer and Professor
-Busk,<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a> into the caves of Gibraltar, have resulted in the
-proof that, in the neolithic age, that barren rock was
-inhabited by a race of men identical with that which is
-found in the long barrows and caves of Great Britain.</p>
-
-<p>The enlargement of the military prison on the top of
-Windmill Hill revealed the existence of a deep fissure,
-containing dark earth, mingled with charcoal and broken
-bones, which led into a series of chambers. The upper
-of these is described by Captain Brome as being completely
-choked up to the roof with earth, charcoal, and
-decomposed bones of mammals, birds, and fishes, flint
-flakes, and pottery. Below were two floors of stalagmite,
-filled with loose stones and earth, through which
-a shaft penetrated into a fissure at a lower level, leading
-into a lower chamber that had a free communication
-with the surface, since the current of air was so strong
-as to extinguish the lamps. In this also human remains
-and works of art were met with. The passages were
-very complicated, and in some of them a red breccia
-contained the remains of the pleistocene mammals, the
-spotted hyæna, the <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i>, and others.
-This series of passages and chambers is described by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205">205</a></span>
-Captain Brome and Professor Busk as “Genista Cave
-No. 1.”</p>
-
-<p>A second, or “Genista, No. 2,” was discovered by
-Captain Brome opening on the surface near the West
-Cliff, with its floor covered with stalagmite, under which
-was the same class of remains as that above mentioned.
-Subsequently a third and fourth, “Genista, 3 and 4,”
-were explored with the same results, of which the latter,
-opening on the face of a vertical cliff 40 feet below the
-summit, from its difficulty of access must have been
-used as a place of refuge rather than of habitation or
-burial. With this exception, the whole group of Genista
-Caves contained human bones, resting in the greatest
-confusion, and proving that since the bodies had been
-interred the contents had been disturbed, either by the
-burrowing of animals or by the action of water, pools of
-which were present in some of the chambers. Evidence
-of the former presence of water was to be seen in the
-sheets of stalagmite on most of the floors. The same
-confusion would result, as is suggested by Professor
-Busk, by interments at successive times. The intimate
-association of the fractured bones of the animals, and the
-charcoal, broken pottery, and other traces of occupation,
-with the human bones, may be accounted for in the same
-manner as the similar mixture of remains in the caves
-of Denbighshire. If the caves had been inhabited at
-one time, and subsequently set apart for burials, the
-human bones would become intermingled with the
-accumulation of refuse on the floors by the causes above
-mentioned.</p>
-
-<p>The bones of the animals associated with the human
-remains belong, according to Professor Busk, to the
-domestic ox of various sizes, goat, ibex, hog, arvicola,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206">206</a></span>
-hare, rabbit, badger, dog, and a species of phocæna, fish,
-birds, and marine and land molluscs. The pottery is for
-the most part hand-made, coarse and imperfectly burnt;
-and the vessels in some cases had singular perforated
-spouts, similar to those still in use by the Kabyles of
-Algeria, and some of the Berber tribes. Some of it,
-however, is of a fine red ware turned in the lathe, and
-probably introduced at a later period, even, as remarked
-by Mr. Franks, after the Roman occupation of Spain, to
-which he refers a bronze fish-hook, the only metallic
-article found in the group of caves. The implements of
-bone consist of a needle, and rounded pins and spikes.
-One cannon-bone of a small ox bears marks of sharp
-cuts with an edge of metal, inflicted probably, as
-Professor Busk suggests, “in an attempt to hamstring
-the animal, as is sometimes done at the present day in
-the Spanish bull-ring.” It may possibly be more modern
-than the stone implements found in the same cave.</p>
-
-<p>The associated stone articles are celts of polished
-greenstone, similar to that found in the neolithic cave
-at Perthi-Chwareu (<a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38</a>), flakes, a greenstone chisel,
-querns and rubbing-stones, a whetstone perforated for suspension,
-and a fragment of an armlet made of alabaster.
-A small lump of coarse plumbago may have been used
-for personal ornament.</p>
-
-<p>The human remains examined by Professor Busk
-belonged to a large number of individuals of all ages,
-and are for the most part in a fragmentary condition.
-Some of the thigh-bones are carinate, and remarkable
-for the enormous development of the <i class="anatomy">linea aspera</i>
-and the thickness of their walls (<a href="#Fig_57">Fig. 57</a>), the medullary
-cavity being reduced to a small size, as in
-those figured from the tumulus at Cefn. Some of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207">207</a></span>
-tibiæ are platycnemic, presenting the peculiar lateral
-flattening which first attracted the attention of Dr.
-Falconer and Professor Busk (<a href="#Fig_49">Figs. 49, 50, and 51</a>), but
-which M. Broca has since determined in the tumuli
-and caves of France, and I have discovered in those of
-Denbighshire (p.&nbsp;177).</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_62" class="figcenter" style="width: 526px;">
-  <img src="images/i_207.jpg" width="526" height="456" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 62, 63, 64.</span>&mdash;Cranium from Genista Cave (Busk).</div></div>
-
-<p>The only two crania sufficiently perfect to allow of a
-comparison being made, from Genista Cave No. 3, are
-perfectly symmetrical, and belong to a high type
-(<a href="#Fig_62">Figs. 62, 63, and 64</a>). “They are dolicho-cephalic, quite
-orthognathous, and wholly aphanozygous. In one the
-frontal sinuses are considerably more developed than
-they are in the other, but in neither is there any thickening<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208">208</a></span>
-of the supra-orbital border” (Busk). The teeth are
-worn flat. They both belonged to men in the prime of
-life. A third skull, from Genista Cave No. 1, belongs
-to the same type. The measurements of the two most
-perfect skulls are given in the same table as those from
-North Wales (p.&nbsp;171).</p>
-
-<p>Gibraltar has also been occupied in ancient times by
-broad-headed men, similar, in M. Broca’s opinion, to those
-interred in the cave of Orrouy. In 1864 human bones,
-together with a skull (for measurements see <a href="#Page_199">p. 199</a>),
-were dug out of the Judge’s Cave by Sir James Cochrane.
-The tibiæ are platycnemic, and the skull is described
-by Professor Busk as being “perfectly symmetrical,
-brachy-cephalic, slightly prognathous, but with vertical
-teeth, aphanozygous. The forehead is well arched, and
-the supra-orbital border slightly elevated, the orbits
-being square, and the nasal opening elongated and pyriform.”
-The cephalic index is ·792. The age of these
-skeletons is uncertain.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_86"><i>Spain.&mdash;Cueva de los Murcièlagos.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Professor Busk<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> calls attention to the fact, that a long
-skull similar to that from Gibraltar has been found in
-Spain, in an ancient copper-mine of the Asturias, together
-with hammers made of antler, and that it bears
-“the closest possible resemblance” to the Basque skulls,
-described by M. Broca, from Guipuscoa on the Spanish
-and St. Jean de Luz on the French side of the Pyrenees.
-He points out, also, the resemblance which exists between
-the crania figured by Don Gongora y Martinez, from the
-caverns and dolmens of Andalusia and those under<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209">209</a></span>
-consideration; finally arriving at the conclusion that
-“a pretty uniform priscan race at one time pervaded
-the peninsula from one end to the other, and that this
-race is at the present day represented by, at any rate,
-a part of the population now inhabiting the Basque
-provinces.”</p>
-
-<p>In the work of Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a>
-referred to, there is a most interesting account of the
-prehistoric antiquities of Andalusia. Several interments
-are described in the Cueva de los Murcièlagos, a cave
-running into the limestone rock, out of which the grand
-scenery of the southern part of the Sierra Nevada has
-been, to a great extent, carved. In one spot, a group of
-three skeletons was met with, one of which was adorned
-with a plain coronet of gold, and clad in a tunic made
-of esparto-grass, finely plaited, so as to form a pattern
-which resembles some of the designs on gold ornaments
-from Etruscan tombs. At a spot further within, a
-second group of twelve skeletons lay in a semicircle,
-around one considered by Don Manuel to have belonged
-to a woman, covered with a tunic of skin, and wearing
-a necklace of esparto-grass, a marine shell pierced for
-suspension, the carved tusk of a wild boar, and earrings
-of black stone. There were other articles of plaited
-esparto-grass, such as baskets and sandals; flint flakes,
-pieces of a white marble armlet, polished axes of the
-type of <a href="#Fig_38">fig. 38</a>, bone awls, and a wooden spoon, together
-with pottery of the same type as that from Gibraltar,
-fragments of charcoal, and bones of animals.</p>
-
-<p>Although, in this cave, there were no traces of metal,
-except gold, in a second, in the same neighbourhood,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210">210</a></span>
-similar interments were met with in association with
-copper (bronze) implements, and with pottery of the
-same kind.</p>
-
-<p>These interments in caves are of the same order
-as those from Gibraltar; and since the skulls agree
-with those from the latter, there can be little doubt
-but that, in the neolithic age, the long-headed small
-race under discussion had possession of the southern
-provinces.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_87"><i>The Woman’s Cave, near Alhama.</i></h3>
-
-<p>This conclusion derives additional support from the
-discoveries subsequently made by Mr. McPherson<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a>
-in the Woman’s Cave, near Alhama, in Grenada, of
-implements of bone, flint, and greenstone of the neolithic
-age, mingled with charcoal, pottery, and human
-skeletons of the same type as those from Gibraltar.
-The human skull, figured by Mr. McPherson, is dolicho-cephalic,
-and the thigh-bone is remarkable for the extreme
-development of the <i class="anatomy">linea aspera</i>, which assumes
-the form of a stout ridge sweeping from one extremity
-of the shaft to the other.</p>
-
-<p>This long-headed race, burying their dead in caves,
-also erected dolmens in Andalusia. In the dolmen
-of De los Eriales<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a> human remains were discovered along
-with bronze (copper?) lance-heads, and pottery of the
-same sort as that of the caves. It is, therefore, evident
-that the practice of burial in caves, and of erecting
-dolmens, was carried on by the same people in Britain,
-in France, and in Spain.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211">211</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_88"><i>The Guanches of the Canary Isles.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Guanches,<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> the ancient inhabitants of the Canary
-Isles, are considered by Berthollet, Glas, and other high
-authorities, to be allied to the Berbers of North Africa in
-language. At the time of their discovery and conquest
-by the Spaniards, they are described by Miss Haigh as
-being unacquainted with the use of any metal, and as
-fashioning their weapons out of a black, hard stone.
-The Guanches of Teneriffe lived principally in caves, preferring
-for their winter residence those near the coast, and
-“in the summer those in the higher parts in the interior
-of the island, whence they could enjoy the fresh air of
-the hills.” Some of these caves have been excavated by
-the hand of man, and are divided into square chambers,
-containing rock-hewn benches, “and deep niches made
-to contain vessels of milk or water.” They had also
-stone houses, thatched with straw or fern. They also
-buried their dead in sepulchral caves, belonging each to
-a family or clan, entrances to which are carefully concealed,
-and are now discovered only by accident. In them
-the dead were placed either upright, or lying side by side
-on wooden scaffolds, after having been prepared with
-salt and butter and thoroughly dried and wrapped in
-the tanned skins of sheep or goat. In some cases the
-prepared body was placed in the sitting posture.</p>
-
-<p>They were possessed of a settled government by
-“Menceys,” or chiefs subordinate to one head, and
-were divided into “nobles and common people, and
-had a code of punishment for the robber, murderer,
-and adulterer.”</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212">212</a></span>
-Their food consisted of sheep and goats, roasted
-barley ground between two stones, and the fruit of the
-arbutus, date-palm and fig, as well as fish and rabbits.
-Their fences were made of reed, their ropes and nets
-of rushes, and their baskets, mats, and bags, of palm-leaves.
-They manufactured vessels out of clay or hard
-wood, needles of fishbones, beads of clay, and they
-especially excelled in the art of tanning. The civilization
-of this very interesting people may fairly be
-taken to be a fragment of that of North Africa and
-of Europe in the neolithic age, protected by insulation
-from the influences by which it was swept away from
-the countries bordering on the shores of the Mediterranean,
-just as the old Norse customs and legends are
-preserved by the present inhabitants of Iceland in
-greater purity than in Norway.</p>
-
-<p>The Berbers are viewed by Professor Busk as of the
-same non-Aryan stock as the Basque, and the civilization
-of the Guanches may therefore be taken to represent
-that of the Iberic peoples of Spain, among whom
-caves were used in like manner for habitation and
-burial.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_89"><i>Iberic Dolicho-cephali of the same Race as those of Britain.</i></h3>
-
-<p>If this group of Iberic skulls be compared with those
-from the caves and tumuli of Great Britain (see Table,
-<a href="#list_197">p. 197</a> and that below) it will be seen, that what Professor
-Busk observes of the ancient population of Spain
-is equally true of that of our country in the neolithic age.
-And the identity of form is especially remarkable in
-the crania from the sepulchral caves at Perthi-Chwareu,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213">213</a></span>
-the difference between them being so small as to be of
-little <span class="locked">account:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<table id="list_213" class="listobjects" summary="Iberic Dolicho-cephali">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc"> </th>
-    <th class="tdc">Length.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Brdth.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Height.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Circum-<br />ference.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Ceph.<br />index.</th></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mean of 10 skulls from Perthi-Chwareu</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·07</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·765</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mean of 2 skulls from Genista Cave, No. 3 (Busk)</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·35</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 5·55</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·9</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·7</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·755</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mean of 40 male Basque skulls from Guipuscoa (Thurnam)</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·2 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·760</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mean of 20 female, ditto</td>
-    <td class="tdc">6·9 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·3</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·760</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mean of 19 skulls,chiefly male</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·4 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·760</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl">Mean of 57 female ditto, St. Jean de Luz</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·02</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·799</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_90"><i>The Dolicho-cephali cognate with the Basque.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Nor can the truth of Professor Busk’s conclusion, that
-the group of skulls in question belong to a people akin
-in blood to the modern Basques, be disputed. We are
-indebted to M. Broca<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">133</a> for the elaborate description of
-seventy-eight Basque crania from a village cemetery in
-Guipuscoa, and of fifty-eight from an ossuary at St. Jean
-de Luz, in which they had been collected in the reign of
-Francis I., 1532. In both these groups the long and oval
-types predominated, the broad type being represented by
-6·4 (Thurnam) per cent. in the one, and 37·36 per cent.
-(Broca) in the other; a difference that is doubtless caused
-by the greater mixture of blood in the south-west of
-France than in the north-west of Spain, shut off from
-the broad-headed Gallic tribes by the Pyrenees.<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">134</a> Six<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214">214</a></span>
-skulls, obtained by Professor Virchow from Bilbao, agree
-in all particulars with those from Guipuscoa. M. Broca
-has further shown, that this group of Spanish skulls
-offers all the characters of the black-haired, swarthy,
-oval-faced, Basque population of the surrounding region,
-and it therefore follows, that they may be taken
-as standards of comparison, as typical of the ancient
-Basque crania, modified, it may be, to some extent, by
-the infusion of other blood. Their agreement, therefore,
-with the skulls from Gibraltar implies that the latter are
-also Basque. And since they agree also with those from
-the cave of Perthi-Chwareu, as may be seen in the preceding
-Table, the men who buried their dead in the
-caves of North Wales in the neolithic age, are proved
-to belong to the same stock.</p>
-
-<p>The same long-headed, small race also inhabited
-France, side by side with the broad-headed Gallic
-tribes; and since to it belong the skeletons in the
-Cave de l’Homme Mort, which M. Broca refers to the
-neolithic aborigines, it may reasonably be concluded
-that in Gaul, as in Britain, it was the older of the two
-races. The two have also been met with in the caves of
-Belgium. If we allow that an aboriginal Basque population
-spread over the whole of Britain, France, and
-Belgium, and that it was subsequently dispossessed by
-broad-headed invaders, the two extremes of skull-form
-and of stature, and of the gradations between them, may
-be satisfactorily explained. And this view coincides
-with the well-ascertained facts of history.</p>
-
-<p>Dr. Thurnam was the first to recognize that the long
-skulls, out of the long barrows of Britain and Ireland,
-were of the Basque or Iberian type, and Professor
-Huxley holds that the river-bed skulls belong to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215">215</a></span>
-same race.<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">135</a> (Compare Table <a href="#list_197">p. 197</a> with the preceding.)
-We have therefore proof, that an Iberian or Basque population
-spread over the whole of Britain and Ireland in
-the neolithic age, inhabiting caves, and burying their
-dead in caves and chambered tombs, just as in the
-Iberian Peninsula also in the neolithic age.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_91"><i>Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali in Neolithic Caves
-of Belgium.&mdash;Chauvaux.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Both these forms of skull have been met with in Belgium,
-the one in the famous cave of Chauvaux, the
-other in that of Sclaigneaux.</p>
-
-<p>The first of these is a rock-shelter passing into a small
-cave, at the base of the limestone cliff on the Meuse,
-opposite the little village of Rivière, between Dinant
-and Namur. It was known to contain human remains
-in 1837&ndash;8, and was partially explored in 1842
-by Dr. Spring, who published his account of the discoveries
-in 1853, and subsequently in 1864 and 1866.
-Below a thin layer of loam was a floor of stalagmite,
-concealing a vast number of broken human bones mixed
-pêle-mêle with those of wild and domestic animals,
-and associated with charcoal and coarse pottery. Two
-polished stone celts indicated the neolithic age of the
-accumulation; one of them resting close to a skull
-which had been fractured by a blow from a blunt
-instrument, such as it may have inflicted. The human
-bones belonged to infants and young adults.</p>
-
-<p>From the fractured and burnt bones of the animals it
-is clear that they had been accumulated in the cave<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216">216</a></span>
-daring the time that it was inhabited by man. Dr.
-Spring<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">136</a> inferred that the broken human bones proved
-that human beings, as well as the animals, formed the
-food of the cave-dwellers, and further, since all the human
-remains belong to young individuals, that the cannibalism
-was not accidental, or caused by famine, but the
-result of a deliberate selection.</p>
-
-<p>The facts which induced Dr. Spring to come to this
-conclusion are interpreted by M. Dupont<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">137</a> in a different
-manner. He holds, that the proportion of young
-individuals is not greater in Chauvaux than that which
-he has observed in other sepulchral caves in Belgium,
-and that there is nothing which forbids the supposition
-that this also was used as a place of interment. The
-human bones may have been broken by the foxes and
-badgers, which are so abundant in the district, and
-have been mixed, by their continual burrowing, with
-the remains of the animals in the old refuse-heap
-accumulated on the floor during the habitation of man.
-Such a mixture of remains we have already observed in
-the caves of North Wales and Gibraltar. The recent
-researches of M. Soreil<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">138</a> leave no room for doubting
-the truth of M. Dupont’s interpretation. Two perfect
-human skeletons were discovered along with flint
-flakes, pottery, a barbed arrow-head, and many scattered
-human bones not broken by design, while the long
-bones of the associated animals bore unmistakeable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217">217</a></span>
-traces of having been split for the sake of the marrow.
-On one long bone, for example, of the ox, there were
-cuts made by a flint implement, as well as the mark of
-the blow by which it had been split longitudinally; and
-another ox-bone, and the canine of a boar, bore marks of
-burning. The bones of the animals were very abundant,
-and belonged to the following species: beaver, hamster,
-and other small rodents, hare, badger, fox, boar, stag,
-roe, ox, and goat. In this case, as in the caves of
-Perthi-Chwareu, and of l’Homme Mort, the inhabitants
-had used the hare for food, as well as the other
-animals, and did not share the prejudice against the
-use of its flesh for food, which Cæsar remarks of the
-inhabitants of Britain (Comm. 1, xii.).</p>
-
-<p>The cave must, therefore, be viewed as a place of
-sepulture for a neolithic people, whose implements
-abound in the neighbourhood, and not as having been
-inhabited by a race of cannibals.</p>
-
-<p>The bodies had been interred in the crouching posture,
-with their thighs bent, their heads resting on their arms,
-and their faces turned towards the valley. They rested
-side by side in two small holes, which had been dug in
-the deposit containing the bones of the animals, and the
-skeletons were cemented to the rock by stalagmite, and
-surrounded by large stones. They belonged to individuals
-far past the prime of life.</p>
-
-<p>Both skulls were dolicho-cephalic, and the most
-perfect of them is described by Professor Virchow as
-presenting a parietal flattening, which is probably
-analogous to the “tête annulaire,” so commonly
-present in the long skulls of the neolithic age. It
-possesses a cephalic index of ·72 (·718 Virchow). The
-sutures in both the skulls were very nearly obliterated.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218">218</a></span>
-The measurements are given in the Table in
-page 199.</p>
-
-<p>The crania, in all these characters, are to be classified
-with the long skulls from the caves and chambered
-tombs of France, Britain, and Spain. They belong to
-people in the same stage of culture, and practising the
-same mode of burial in a crouching posture. Chauvaux
-is the furthest cave to the east on the continent of
-Europe, in which traces of this long-headed race have
-been observed.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_92"><i>The Cave of Sclaigneaux.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The cave of Sclaigneaux,<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">139</a> explored by M. Arnould,
-near the hamlet of that name, fourteen miles from
-Namur, has been proved to contain human bones,
-lying mixed with those of the animals in the refuse-heap
-on the floor, as in the cave of Chauvaux. The
-animals belonged to existing <span class="locked">species:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-Hedgehog.<br />
-Badger.<br />
-Beech-marten.<br />
-Weazel.<br />
-Fox.<br />
-Dog.<br />
-Wild Cat.<br />
-Hare.<br />
-Rabbit.<br />
-Ox.<br />
-Goat.<br />
-Stag.<br />
-Boar.<br />
-Horse.<br />
-Rodents.
-</p>
-
-<p>Bones of birds, frogs, and fishes were also met with.
-Intermingled with these were human skeletons, disposed
-in a rude sort of order, and belonging to bodies which
-had been interred at different times. From the lower
-jaws M. Arnould calculates that the number of bodies
-interred was not less than sixty-two, of which twelve
-belonged to aged individuals, twenty-one to those in the
-prime of life, sixteen to young adults, and thirteen
-to children.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219">219</a></span></p>
-
-<div id="Fig_65" class="figcenter" style="width: 494px;">
-  <img src="images/i_219.jpg" width="494" height="243" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 65, 66.</span>&mdash;Skull from Cave of Sclaigneaux. (Arnould.)</div></div>
-
-<p>The crania (<a href="#Fig_65">Figs. 65, 66</a>) are brachy-cephalic (see
-Table, <a href="#list_199">p. 199</a>), and are possessed, according to M.
-Arnould, of the following characters. The apex of the
-cranial vault is flattened, probably artificially, and the
-parietal bosses are largely developed, to which is due
-the great width of the skull. The surciliary ridges are
-strongly marked, and the malar bones are prominent.
-In all these particulars they agree with
-the broad skulls, as defined by Dr. Thurnam,
-discovered in the round tumuli
-of Britain and the sepulchral caves of
-France.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_67" class="figright up1" style="width: 134px;">
-  <img src="images/i_219b.jpg" width="134" height="179" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>&mdash;Platycnemic tibia, from Sclaigneaux.</div></div>
-
-<p>Some of the leg-bones presented the
-antero-posterior flattening, or platycnemism,
-observed in the skeletons from
-the caves of Gibraltar, and in France
-and Great Britain (<a href="#Fig_67">Fig. 67</a>). It is due,
-as in those from North Wales, to the
-anterior expansion of the bone, and not to the posterior,
-as is the case with those from the cave of Cro-Magnon.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220">220</a></span>
-A beautifully chipped arrow-head, with barbs and
-central tongue for insertion into the shaft, of the same
-type as one from Chauvaux, implies that these remains
-belong to the neolithic age. Implements of bone, and
-a shell perforated for suspension, were also found.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_93"><i>The Evidence of History as to the Peoples of Gaul and Spain.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The extension of this non-Aryan race through France,
-Spain, and Britain, in ancient times, based solely on the
-evidence of the human remains, is confirmed by an
-appeal to the ethnology of Europe within the historic
-period. In the Iberian peninsula the Basque populations
-of the west are defined from the Celtic of the east by the
-Celtiberi inhabiting the modern Castille (see Map, <a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a>). In Gaul the province of Aquitania extended as
-far north, in Cæsar’s time,<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">140</a> as the river Garonne, constituting
-the modern Gascony, to which was added, in
-the days of Augustus, the district between that river
-and the Loire; a change of frontier that was probably
-due to the predominance of Basque blood in a mixed
-race in that area similar to the Celtiberi of Castille.
-The Aquitani were surrounded on every side, except the
-south, by the Celtæ, extending as far north as the Seine,
-as far to the east as Switzerland and the plains of Lombardy,
-and southwards, through the valley of the Rhone
-and the region of the Volcæ, over the Eastern Pyrenees
-into Spain. The district round the Phocæan colony of
-Marseilles was inhabited by Ligurian tribes, who held
-the region between the river Po and the Gulf of Genoa,
-as far as the western boundary of Etruria, and who probably<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221">221</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_222">222</a></span>
-extended to the west along the coast of Southern
-Gaul as far as the Pyrenees.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">141</a> They were distinguished
-from the Celtæ, not merely by their manners and customs,
-but by their small stature and dark hair and eyes,
-and are stated by Pliny and Strabo to have inhabited
-Spain. They have also left marks of their presence in
-Central Gaul in the name of the Loire (Ligur), and possibly
-in Britain in the obscure name of the Lloegrians.
-They invaded Sicily<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">142</a> as the Sikelians, and <em>if</em> the latter
-be identified with the Sikanians considered by Thucydides<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">143</a>
-and other writers to be of Iberian stock, it will
-follow that they are a cognate race. Their stature and
-swarthy complexion, as well as the ancient geographical
-position conterminous with the Iberic population of Gaul
-and Spain, confirm this conclusion. The non-Aryan and
-probably Basque population of Gaul was therefore cut
-into two portions by a broad band of Celts, which crosses
-the Eastern Pyrenees, and marks the route by which the
-Iberian peninsula was invaded.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_68" class="figcenter" style="width: 535px;">
-  <img src="images/i_221.jpg" width="535" height="930" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>&mdash;Distribution of Basque, Celtic, and Belgic Peoples, at dawn of History.</div></div>
-
-<p>The ancient population of Sardinia is stated by Pausanias
-to be of Libyan extraction, and to bear a strong
-resemblance to the Iberians in physique and in habits
-of life, while that of Corsica is described by Seneca as
-Ligurian and Iberian. The ancient Libyans are represented
-at the present day by the Berber and Kabyle
-tribes which are, if not identical with, at all events
-cognate with the Basques. We may therefore infer that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223">223</a></span>
-these two islands were formerly occupied by this non-Aryan
-race, as well as the adjacent continents of Northern
-Africa and Southern Europe.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_94"><i>The Basque Population the Oldest.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The relative antiquity of these two races in Europe
-may be arrived at by this distribution. The Basques,
-Sikani or Ligurian, are the oldest inhabitants, in their
-respective districts, known to the historian; while the
-Celts appear as invaders, pressing southwards and westwards
-on the populations already in possession, flooding
-over the Alps and under Brennus sacking Rome, and
-by their union with the vanquished in Spain constituting
-the Celtiberi. We may therefore be tolerably certain
-that the Basques held France and Spain before the invasion
-of the Celts, and that the non-Aryan peoples
-were cut asunder, and certain parts of them left&mdash;Ligurians,
-Sikani, and in part Sardinians and Corsicans&mdash;as
-ethnological islands, marking, so to speak, an ancient
-Basque non-Aryan continent which had been submerged
-by the Celtic populations advancing steadily
-westwards.</p>
-
-<p>At the time of the Roman conquest of Gaul, the
-Belgæ were pressing on the Celts, just as the latter
-pressed the Basques, the Seine and the Marne forming
-their southern boundary, and in their turn being pushed
-to the west by the advance of the Germans in the Rhine
-provinces. Thus we have the oldest population, or
-Basque, invaded by the Celts, the Celts by the Belgæ,
-and these again by the Germans; their relative positions
-stamping their relative antiquity in Europe.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224">224</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_95"><i>The Population of Britain.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Celtic and Belgic invasion of Gaul repeated itself,
-as might be expected, in Britain. Just as the Celts
-pushed back the Iberian population of Gaul as far south
-as Aquitania, and swept round it into Spain, so they
-crossed over the Channel and overran the greater portion
-of Britain, until the Silures, identified by Tacitus<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">144</a> with
-the Iberians, were left only in those fastnesses that
-formed subsequently a bulwark for the Brit-Welsh against
-the English invaders. And just as the Belgæ pressed
-on the rear of the Celts as far as the Seine, so they
-followed them into Britain, and took possession of the
-“Pars Maritima,”<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">145</a> or southern counties. The unsettled
-condition of the country at the time of Cæsar’s invasion
-was, probably, due to the struggle then going
-on between Celts and Belgæ.</p>
-
-<p>The evidence offered by history as to the distribution
-of these races confirms that which has been arrived
-at by the examination of the caves and tumuli. In
-the one case the Basque peoples are merely known
-in a fragmentary condition in Britain, Gaul, and Sicily,
-while in the other those fragments are joined together
-in such a way as to show that, in the neolithic
-age, they extended uninterrupedly through Western
-Europe, from the Pillars of Hercules in the south to
-Scotland in the north, before they were dispossessed by
-their broad-headed enemies. It is impossible to define
-with precision their ethnological relation to the non-Aryan
-inhabitants of Italy and the coasts of the Mediterranean,
-such as the Etruscans and Tyrrhenians. I<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225">225</a></span>
-am, however, inclined to hold that they are all branches
-of the same race of “Melanochroi,” differing far less
-from each other than the Celtic from the Scandinavian
-branch of the Aryan family.<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">146</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_96"><i>Basque Element in present British and French Populations.</i></h3>
-
-<p>This non-Aryan blood is still to be traced in the
-dark-haired, black-eyed, small, oval-featured peoples in
-our own country in the region of the Silures, where the
-hills have afforded shelter to the Basque populations
-from the invaders.<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">147</a> The small swarthy Welshman of
-Denbighshire is in every respect, except dress and
-language, identical with the Basque inhabitant of the
-Western Pyrenees, at Bagnères de Bigorre.</p>
-
-<p>The small dark-haired people of Ireland,<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">148</a> and especially
-those to the west of the Shannon, according to
-Dr. Thurnam and Professor Huxley, are also of Iberian
-derivation, and singularly enough there is a legendary
-connection between that island and Spain. The human
-remains from the chambered tombs as well as the riverbeds
-prove that the non-Aryan population spread over the
-whole of Ireland as well as the whole of Britain. The
-main mass of the Irish population is undoubtedly Celtic,
-crossed with Danish, Norse, and English blood.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226">226</a></span>
-The Basque element in the population of France
-is at the present time centered in the old province of
-Aquitaine, in which the jet-black hair and eyes, and
-swarthy complexion, strike the eye of the traveller, now
-as in the days of Strabo,<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">149</a> and form a vivid contrast
-with the brown hair and grey eyes of the inhabitants of
-Celtica and Belgica (see Map, <a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a>). If <a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a>
-be compared with the map published by Dr. Broca
-(“Mémoires d’Anthropologie,” t. i. p. 330), which shows
-at a glance the average complexion prevailing in each
-department, and the relative number of exemptions per
-1,000 conscripts, on account of their not coming up to
-the standard of height (1·56 metre = 5 feet 1½ inches),
-it will be seen that the only swarthy people outside
-the boundary of Aquitaine constitute five ethnological
-islands. Of these Brittany is by far the largest, probably
-because its fastnesses afforded a shelter to the Basques,
-who were being driven to the south-west. The department
-of the Meuse, in the north, and those of Tarn
-and Arriège, in the south, are also sundered from
-the main body, while those of the Upper and Lower
-Alps present us with the descendants of the ancient
-Ligurian tribes.</p>
-
-<p>The people with dark-brown hair, considered by Dr.
-Broca to be the result of the intermingling of a dark
-with a fair race, are scattered about through Aquitaine,
-and occur only in two departments in northern Celtica.
-The fair people, on the other hand, are massed in northern
-Celtica and Belgica. The relation of complexion to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227">227</a></span>
-stature may be gathered from the following table of
-exemptions per 1,000 for each <span class="locked">department:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<table id="table227" summary="complexion-stature">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Départements noirs</td>
-    <td class="tdc">98·5</td>
-    <td class="tdc">to</td>
-    <td class="tdc">189  </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc227pad1">”</span> gris-foncés</td>
-    <td class="tdc">64· </td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 97  </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc227pad1">”</span> gris-clairs</td>
-    <td class="tdc">48·8</td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 63·8</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc227pad1">”</span> blancs-clairs</td>
-    <td class="tdc">23· </td>
-    <td class="tdc">”</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 48·5</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="in0">From this table it is evident that the swarthy people are
-the smallest and the fair the tallest, the intermediate
-shades being the result of fusion between the two
-extremes.</p>
-
-<p>The distribution therefore of the small swarthy Basque,
-and tall fair Celtic and Belgic races in France at the
-present time, corresponds essentially with that which we
-might have expected from the evidence both of history
-and of the neolithic caves and tombs.<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">150</a></p>
-
-<p>When we consider the many invasions of France, and
-the oscillations to and fro of peoples, the persistence of
-the Basque population is very remarkable. It is not a
-little strange that the type should be so slightly altered
-by intermarriage with the conquering races.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_97"><i>Whence came the Basques?</i></h3>
-
-<p>From what region did the Basques invade Europe?
-M. Broca, from their identity with the Kabyles and
-Berbers, holds that they entered Europe from northern<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228">228</a></span>
-Africa, spreading over Spain, and passing over the
-Pyrenees into southern France. It seems, however, to
-me, from their range as far north as Scotland,
-and at least as far to the east as Belgium, that they
-travelled by the same route that the Celtic, Belgic, and
-Germanic tribes travelled long ages afterwards, coming
-from the east and pushing their way to the west: and
-that while one section chose this route, another
-mastered northern Africa, following the same westward
-direction as the Saracens. On this hypothesis this great
-pre-Aryan migration would start from the central
-plateau of Asia, from which all the successive invaders
-of Europe have swarmed off.</p>
-
-<p>This view of the eastern derivation of the Basque
-peoples is confirmed by the examination of the breeds
-of domestic animals which they possessed. The <i class="taxonomy">Bos
-longifrons</i>, the sheep, and the goat are derived from
-wild stocks that are now to be found only in central
-Asia; and the dog and breed of swine with small canines
-were also probably imported after they had become the
-servants of man in the east.<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">151</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_98"><i>The Celtic and Belgic Brachy-cephali.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The occurrence of broad-skulls in the tumuli in this
-country, and in caves and tumuli in France, proves that
-the Basque peoples were invaded during the neolithic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229">229</a></span>
-age. And since Dr. Thurnam has shown that they
-are identical in form with Celtic and Belgic skulls,<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> it
-follows that one or the other of these, probably the Celtic
-or the older, was in possession of portions of Britain,
-Ireland, and Gaul at that remote time. It is of course
-conceivable that non-Celtic races, physically allied to
-the Celts or Belgæ, are represented by the human remains
-in question; but in that case they have left no
-mark behind by which they can be identified. And the
-supposition is rendered improbable to the last degree by
-the fact, that the older or conquered race&mdash;the Basque&mdash;still
-survives, in the area under consideration, the invasions
-and vicissitudes which it has undergone. <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">A fortiori</i>,
-would their conquerors have had a still greater
-chance of survival, in the fastnesses which are offered
-by these countries. It is therefore reasonable to presume
-that the broad-headed peoples in the neolithic caves and
-tombs are represented by the Celts, and possibly, though
-not probably, in part by the Belgæ, rather than by
-the equally broad-headed Wends, Sclavonians, and Fins,
-which are not known by the historian to have settled
-in Gaul or in Britain. The successive invasions
-of Europe have been invariably from the east to the
-west, so far as we have any certain knowledge; and it is
-most improbable that Wends, Fins, or Sclaves should
-have occupied these countries and subsequently have
-retreated eastwards against the current of the Celtic,
-Belgic, and Germanic invasions.</p>
-
-<p>The Celtæ may, therefore, be inferred to have occupied
-Gaul and Britain in the ages of polished stone, bronze,
-and of iron, their encroachment on the non-Aryan peoples
-being regulated by their strength, and the amount of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230">230</a></span>
-pressure on their rear. The Belgæ probably were not
-known in Gaul until the later portion of the iron age,
-and were of small importance as compared with the
-Celts, whose arms were felt alike in Greece, Italy, Spain,
-and Asia Minor.</p>
-
-<p>The Celts were a tall, fair-haired, blue-eyed race
-(Xanthochroi), contrasting strongly with the Basque
-“Melanochroi”, and in those particulars agreeing with
-the Germans.<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">153</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_99"><i>The Ancient German Race.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Germans, in the days of Cæsar, were advancing
-on the Belgæ in the Rhine provinces, and on the
-Helvetii in Switzerland, and are recognized by Tacitus,<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">154</a>
-in Britain as the red-haired, tall inhabitants of Caledonia.
-Subsequently they spread over the west and south of
-Europe, as Goths, Franks, Scandinavians, English and
-Normans; in this country sweeping the Brit-Welsh into
-the hilly fastnesses of Wales, making settlements on
-many points of the coasts of Ireland, and leaving behind
-them, to this day, a considerable infusion of German
-blood in the Celtic and Basque populations. They were,
-unlike the present inhabitants of North Prussia and
-southern and middle Germany, a dolicho-cephalic people,
-their length of head being due, according to Gratiolet,
-to a frontal instead of an occipital development, which
-causes the long-headedness of the Basques. The Anglo-Saxon
-skull is defined by Dr. Thurnam as prognathous,
-with large facial bones, and with a cephalic index<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231">231</a></span>
-averaging ·75. And these characters are equally to
-be found in the Gothic, Frankish, and Scandinavian
-crania.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_100"><i>General Conclusions.</i></h3>
-
-<p>In this outline of the ethnology of Gaul and Britain,
-it will be seen that two out of the three ethnical elements
-(if the Belgic be classed with the Celtic), of which the
-present population is composed, can be recognized in the
-neolithic users of caves and builders of chambered tombs.
-A non-Aryan race either identical or cognate with the
-Basque is the earliest traceable in these areas in the
-neolithic age, and it probably arrived in Europe by the
-same route as the Celtic and Germanic, passing westwards
-from the plains of central Asia.</p>
-
-<p>There is no evidence of Spain having been peopled
-from northern Africa, the identity of the Berber and
-Kabyle with the Basque being due to their being
-descended from the same non-Aryan stock in possession
-of southern and western Europe, and northern Africa.
-They are to be looked upon as cousins rather than
-as connected by descent in a right line.</p>
-
-<p>The Basque race was probably in possession of Europe
-for a long series of ages, before hordes either identical
-or cognate with the Celts gradually crept westward over
-Germany into Gaul, Spain, and Britain, driving away,
-or absorbing, the inhabitants of the regions which they
-conquered.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232">232</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">CAVES CONTAINING HUMAN REMAINS OF DOUBTFUL AGE.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote class="inhead">
-
-<p>The Caves of Paviland.&mdash;Engis.&mdash;Trou du Frontal.&mdash;Gendron.&mdash;Neanderthal.&mdash;Gailenreuth.&mdash;Aurignac.&mdash;Bruniquel.&mdash;Cro-Magnon.&mdash;
-Lombrive.&mdash;Cavillon, near Mentone.&mdash;Grotta dei Colombi in Island
-of Palmaria, inhabited by Cannibals.&mdash;General Conclusions.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="in0">There are many prehistoric caves in Britain and on the
-Continent which do not contain remains sufficiently
-characteristic to fix the date of their use, either for
-occupation or burial, unless the term neolithic be understood
-to cover the wide interval between the palæolithic
-stage of the pleistocene on the one hand, and the bronze
-age on the other.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_101"><i>The Paviland Cave.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Cave of Goat’s Hole<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">155</a> at Paviland, in Glamorganshire,
-explored by Dr. Buckland in 1823, offers an instance
-of an interment having been made in a pre-existent
-deposit of the pleistocene age. It consists of a chamber
-facing to the sea, in a cliff of limestone 100 feet high,
-at a level of from 30 to 40 feet above the high-water
-mark. Its floor was composed of red loam, containing
-the remains of the woolly-rhinoceros, hyæna, cave-bear,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233">233</a></span>
-and mammoth. Close to a skull with tusks of the
-last animal a human skeleton (equalling in size the
-largest male skeleton in the Oxford Museum) was discovered;
-and in the soil, “which had apparently been
-disturbed by ancient diggings,” were fragments of charcoal,
-a small chipped flint, and the sea-shells of the
-neighbouring shore. Certain small ivory ornaments,
-found close to the skeleton, are considered by Dr.
-Buckland to have been carved out of the tusks of the
-mammoth near which they rested; and he justly
-remarks that, “as they must have been cut to their
-present shape at a time when the ivory was hard, and
-not crumbling to pieces, as it is at present at the
-slightest touch, we may from this circumstance assume
-for them a high antiquity.”</p>
-
-<p>May we not also infer, from the fact of the manufactured
-ivory and the tusks from which it was cut being
-in precisely the same state of decomposition, that the
-tusks were preserved from decay, during the pleistocene
-times, by precisely the same agency as those now found
-perfect in the polar regions&mdash;namely, the intense cold;
-that after the skull of the mammoth had been buried
-in the cave, the tusks, thus preserved, were used for the
-manufacture of ornaments; and that, at some time subsequent
-to the interment of the ornaments with the corpse,
-a climatal change has taken place, by which the temperature
-in England, France, and Germany has been
-raised, and the ivory became decomposed that up to
-that time had preserved its gelatine? On this point it is
-worthy of remark that fossil tusks have been discovered
-in Scotland sufficiently perfect to be used as ivory.
-The ornaments may, however, not have been made from
-the fossil tusks.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234">234</a></span>
-The presence of the bones of sheep underneath the
-remains of mammoth, bear, and other animals, coupled
-with the state of the cave earth, which had been disturbed
-before Dr. Buckland’s examination of the cave,
-would prove that the interment is not of pleistocene date.
-No traces of sheep or goat have as yet been afforded by
-any pleistocene deposit in Britain, France, or Germany.</p>
-
-<p>Dr. Buckland’s conclusion, that the interment is relatively
-more modern than the accumulation with remains
-of the extinct mammalia, must be accepted as the true
-interpretation of the facts. The intimate association
-of the two sets of remains, of widely diverse ages, in
-this cave show that extreme care is necessary in cave
-exploration.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_102"><i>The Cave of Engis.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Human remains have been obtained from some of the
-caves of Belgium under circumstances which are generally
-considered to indicate that they are of the same antiquity
-as the skeletons of the animals with which they are associated.
-The possibility, however, of the contents of caves
-of different ages being mixed by the action of water, or
-by the burrowing of animals, or by subsequent interments,
-renders such an association of little value, unless
-the evidence be very decided. The famous human skull
-discovered by Dr. Schmerling<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">156</a> in the cave of Engis,
-near Liége, in 1833, is a case in point. It was obtained
-from a mass of breccia, along with bones and teeth of
-mammoth, rhinoceros, horse, hyæna, and bear; and subsequently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235">235</a></span>
-M. Dupont<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">157</a> found in the same spot a human
-ulna, other human bones, worked flints, and a small
-fragment of coarse earthenware. The discovery of this
-last is an argument in favour of the human remains being
-of a later date than the extinct mammalia, since pottery
-has not yet been proved to have been known to the
-palæolithic races who co-existed with them, while it is
-very abundant in neolithic burial-places and tombs.
-The fact of all the objects being cemented together by
-calcareous infiltration is no test of relative age, which
-cannot be ascertained without distinct stratification,
-such as that in the caves of Wookey and Kent’s Hole.</p>
-
-<p>It seems therefore to me, that the conditions of the
-discovery are too doubtful to admit of the conclusion of
-Sir Charles Lyell and other eminent writers, that the
-human remains are of palæolithic age.</p>
-
-<p>The skull is described by Professor Huxley<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">158</a> as being
-of average size, its contour agreeing equally well with
-some Australian and European skulls; it presents no
-marks of degradation, “and is in fact a fair average
-human skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher,
-or might have contained the thoughtless brains of
-a savage.” Its measurements fall within the limits of
-the long-skulls described in the preceding chapter, and
-it certainly belongs to the same class.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236">236</a></span>
-The following Table will show the variation in size
-and form of the skulls mentioned in this chapter:</p>
-
-<h4><i>Measurements of Skulls of doubtful antiquity.</i></h4>
-
-<div id="list_236">
-<table id="table236" class="listobjects" summary="doubtful antiquity">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc"> </th>
-    <th class="tdc">Length.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Breadth.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Height.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Circum-<br />ference.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Cephalic<br />index.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Altitudinal<br />index.</th></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Engis (Huxley)</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 7·7 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·4 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">20·5 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">·700</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Trou du Fronta (Pruner-Bey)</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 6·9 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·6 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21·55</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·811</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·704</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Gailenreuth (Dawkins)</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 6·82</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·5 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21·55</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·813</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·813</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Neanderthal (Schaaffhausen)</td>
-    <td class="tdc">12·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·75</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">23·  </td>
-    <td class="tdc">·720</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cro-Magnon, No. 1 (Broca)</td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·95</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·86</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">22·36</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·730</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc236pad1">”</span> <span class="toc236pad2">”</span> 2 <span class="toc236pad3">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·52</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·39</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">21·26</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·71 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl"><span class="toc236pad1">”</span> <span class="toc236pad2">”</span> 3 <span class="toc236pad3">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc">7·94</td>
-    <td class="tdc">5·94</td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td>
-    <td class="tdc">22·24</td>
-    <td class="tdc">·74 </td>
-    <td class="tdc">&mdash;</td></tr>
-</table></div>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_103"><i>Trou du Frontal.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The human skeletons in the Trou du Frontal, situated
-in a picturesque limestone cliff on the banks of the
-Lesse, near Furfooz, are considered by M. Dupont to
-be of the same age as the contents of the caves close
-by the Trou des Nutons and Trou Rosette, which have
-been inhabited by palæolithic savages. The following
-is the section (<a href="#Fig_69">Fig. 69</a>) which he gives of the deposits.
-Close to the river Lesse is the alluvium (No. 1), below
-which is a clay (No. 2), with angular blocks passing
-upwards under the rock shelter, and filling the cave.
-Under this is a stratum of loam (No. 3), resting on
-gravel (No. 4). Sixteen human skeletons were discovered
-in the sepulchral cavity (<span class="smcap smaller">S</span>), at the mouth of
-which was a large slab of rock (<span class="smcap smaller">D</span>), by which it was
-originally blocked up. A singular urn, with a round
-bottom and with the handles perforated for suspension,
-was found at the entrance, together with flint flakes,
-ornaments in fluorine, and eocene shells perforated for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237">237</a></span>
-suspension. Outside, at the points <span class="smcap smaller">H H</span>, was an accumulation
-of broken bones, belonging to the lemming,
-tailless hare (Lagomys), beaver, wild cat, boar, horse,
-stag, urus, chamois, goat, and other animals, birds and
-fishes. From the occurrence of fragments belonging to
-two reindeer, it is considered by M. Dupont to belong
-to the reindeer age. The old hearth was close by, at
-<span class="smcap smaller">F</span> (<a href="#Fig_69">Fig. 69</a>).</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_69" class="figcenter" style="width: 533px;">
-  <img src="images/i_237.jpg" width="533" height="331" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>&mdash;Section of the Trou du Frontal. (Dupont.)</div></div>
-
-<p>From this section we may infer, that the rock-shelter
-was used by man at the points <span class="smcap smaller">H H</span> and <span class="smcap smaller">F</span> before the
-formation of the stratum No. 2, which is probably
-merely subaerial rain-wash, due to the disintegration of
-the adjacent rocks, and that the sepulchral cavity was
-a place of burial either before, or while No. 2 was
-accumulated. Can we further conclude that there is any
-necessary connection between the refuse-heap and the
-sepulchre in point of time? M. Dupont holds that the
-contents of all the caves in the cliff are palæolithic, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238">238</a></span>
-that the sepulchral cavity is therefore of that age.<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">159</a> It
-seems to me, however, that the evidence in favour of
-this view is not conclusive. The burial place may have
-belonged to one people, and the refuse-heaps in the
-neighbouring caves and <em>outside</em> the slab in the rock-shelter
-of the Trou du Frontal to another. The form of
-the urn is remarkably like some of those which have
-been obtained from the neolithic pile-dwellings of
-Switzerland, and therefore may possibly imply that
-the interment is of that age.</p>
-
-<p>The human remains were mixed <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">pêle mêle</i> with stones
-and yellow clay within the chamber. Two skulls, sufficiently
-perfect to allow of measurement, show that their
-possessors were broad-headed (brachy-cephalic), and of
-the same type as those of Sclaigneaux. They are considered
-by the late Dr. Pruner-Bey to belong to the
-“type Mongoloide,” and are believed by M. Dupont
-to prove that the palæolithic inhabitants of Belgium
-were a Mongoloid race. They seem, however, to be
-of the same general order as the broad-skulls from the
-neolithic caves and tombs of France, and from the round
-barrows of Great Britain, as well as those from the
-neolithic tombs of Borreby and Moën in Scandinavia.
-And they are looked upon by MM. de Quatrefages,
-Virchow, and Lagneaux,<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">160</a> as presenting the same type
-as that which is to be recognized in the present population
-of Belgium, in the neighbourhood, for example, of
-Antwerp.</p>
-
-<p>These affinities may be explained by the view advanced
-by Dr. Thurnam, that the broad-heads of the
-British, French, and Scandinavian tombs are cognate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239">239</a></span>
-with the modern Fin; or by the higher generalisation
-of Prof. Huxley, that the Swiss “Dissentis” skull, the
-South German, the Sclavonian, and the Finnish, belong
-to one great race of fair-haired, broad-headed, Xanthochroi
-“who have extended across Europe from Britain
-to Sarmatia, and we know not how much further to the
-east and south.”<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">161</a></p>
-
-<p>Besides these broad crania, M. Lagneaux<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">162</a> calls attention
-to a fragment, sufficiently perfect to indicate a skull
-of the long type (très dolicho-céphale), and that differed
-from them in many other particulars. In the Trou du
-Frontal, therefore, there is proof that a long and a short-headed
-race lived in Belgium side by side, just as a
-similar association in the cave of Orrouy establishes the
-same conclusion as to the neolithic dwellers in France.
-And since skulls of both these types have been discovered
-in the neolithic caves of Sclaigneaux and Chauvaux,
-the interment in the Trou du Frontal may probably
-be referred to that date.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_104"><i>The Cave of Gendron.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The sepulchral cave of Gendron<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">163</a> on the Lesse, in
-which fourteen skeletons were discovered lying at full
-length, and in regular order, along with one flake and
-some fragments of pottery, is of uncertain age, since
-those articles were found at the entrance, and have no
-necessary connection with the interments. And if they
-were deposited at the same time, M. Dupont’s view that
-they stamp the neolithic age is rendered untenable by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240">240</a></span>
-the fact that flakes and rude pottery were in use as late
-as the date of the Roman conquest of Britain, and are
-frequently met with in association with articles of
-bronze and of iron. And for the same reasons the
-neolithic age of the human bones in the Trou de Sureau
-and of the Trou de Pont-à-Lesse is open to considerable
-doubt. The contents, however, prove these caves to be
-post-pleistocene.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_105"><i>Cave of Gailenreuth.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The same uncertainty overhangs the age of the interments
-in the cave of Gailenreuth, in Franconia, from
-which Dr. Buckland<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">164</a> obtained a human skull of the
-same broad type as that from Sclaigneaux, along with
-fragments of black coarse pottery, one of which is ornamented
-with a line of finger-impressions. The skull is
-remarkable for the great width of the parietal protuberances,
-and the flattening of the upper and posterior
-region of the parietal bone. Its measurements are given
-in the Table, <a href="#list_236">p. 236</a>, from which it will be seen that it
-belongs to the same class of skulls as those from the
-neolithic caves and tumuli of France.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_106"><i>Cave of Neanderthal.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The extraordinary skull found in 1857 in the cave of
-Neanderthal,<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">165</a> by Dr. Fuhlrott, with some of the other
-bones of the skeleton, was not associated with any other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241">241</a></span>
-animals from which its age could be inferred. “Under
-whatever aspect,” writes Professor Huxley, “we view this
-cranium, whether we regard its vertical depression, the
-enormous thickness of its supraciliary ridges, its sloping
-occiput, or its long and straight squamosal suture, we
-meet with ape-like characters, stamping it as the most
-pithecoid of human crania yet discovered. But Prof.
-Schaaffhausen states that the cranium, in its present
-condition, holds 1033·24 cubic centimetres of water, or
-about 63 cubic inches, and as the entire skull could
-hardly have held less than an additional 12 cubic inches,
-its capacity may be estimated at about 75 cubic inches,
-which is the average capacity given by Morton for
-Polynesian and Hottentot skulls.</p>
-
-<p>So large a mass of brain as this would alone suggest
-that the pithecoid tendencies, indicated by this skull,
-did not extend deep into the organization, and this
-conclusion is borne out by the dimensions of the other
-bones of the skeleton, given by Prof. Schaaffhausen,
-which show that the absolute height and relative proportions
-of the limbs were quite those of a European
-of middle stature. The bones are indeed stouter, but
-this, and the great development of the muscular ridges
-noted by Dr. Schaaffhausen, are characters to be expected
-in savages. The Patagonians, exposed without shelter or
-protection to a climate possibly not very dissimilar from
-that of Europe at the time during which the Neanderthal
-man lived, are remarkable for the stoutness of their
-limb-bones.</p>
-
-<p>In no sense, then, can the Neanderthal bones be regarded
-as the remains of a human being intermediate
-between men and apes; at most they demonstrate the
-existence of a man whose skull may be said to revert<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242">242</a></span>
-somewhat towards the pithecoid type&mdash;just as a carrier,
-or a poulter, or a tumbler may sometimes put on the
-plumage of its primitive stock, the <i class="taxonomy">Columba livia</i>.”</p>
-
-<p>This skull, like the preceding, belongs to the dolicho-cephalic
-division, reaching the enormous length of
-twelve inches, with a parietal breadth of 5·75.</p>
-
-<p>A long-skull found near Ledbury Hill in Derbyshire,
-and belonging to the river-bed type of Prof. Huxley,
-comes so close to this one of Neanderthal, that were it
-flattened a little and elongated, and possessed of larger
-supraciliary ridges, it would be converted into the nearest
-likeness which has yet been discovered.<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">166</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_107"><i>The Caves of France.&mdash;Aurignac.</i></h3>
-
-<p>In the cave of Neanderthal, the question of the antiquity
-of the human remains is not complicated by the
-juxtaposition of extinct pleistocene animals or of palæolithic
-implements. Those caves, however, in France
-which claim especial attention, Aurignac, Bruniquel, and
-Cro-Magnon, are equally famous for their interments,
-and the palæolithic implements which they have furnished,
-along with the remains of the mammoth, woolly
-rhinoceros, and other extinct animals.</p>
-
-<p>They have both been inhabited by palæolithic man,
-and been used some time for burial. Does the period of
-habitation coincide with that of the burial? This important
-question has been answered almost universally in the
-affirmative, and the interments are viewed as evidence
-of a belief in the supra-natural among the most ancient
-inhabitants of Europe, as well as offering examples of
-their physique.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243">243</a></span>
-The famous cave of Aurignac, near the town of
-that name, in the department of the Haute Garonne,
-was explored and described by the late M. Ed. Lartet,
-and his conclusions were adopted by Sir Charles
-Lyell in the first three editions of the “Antiquity
-of Man.” In the fourth edition,<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">167</a> however, the latter
-author, after a reconsideration of all the circumstances,
-qualifies his acceptance of the palæolithic age of the
-interments, and shares the doubts which have been expressed
-by Sir John Lubbock and Mr. John Evans.
-The evidence is as <span class="locked">follows:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p>M. Lartet’s account falls naturally into two parts:
-first, the story which he was told by the original discoverer
-of the cave; and, secondly, that in which the
-results of his own discoveries are described. We will
-begin with the first. In the year 1852, a labourer,
-named Bonnemaison, employed in mending the roads,
-put his hand into a rabbit-hole (<a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a>, <i>f</i>), and drew
-out a human bone, and having his curiosity excited,
-he dug down until, as his story goes, he came to a
-great slab of rock. Having removed this, he discovered
-on the other side a cavity seven or eight feet in height,
-ten in width, and seven in depth, almost full of human
-bones, which Dr. Amiel, the Mayor of Aurignac, who
-was a surgeon, believed to represent at least seventeen
-individuals. All these human remains were collected,
-and finally committed to the parish cemetery, where
-they rest to the present day, undisturbed by sacrilegious
-hands. Fortunately, however, Bonnemaison in digging
-his way into the grotto, had met with the remains
-of extinct animals, and works of art; and these were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244">244</a></span>
-preserved until, in 1860, M. Lartet accidentally heard
-of the discovery, and investigated the circumstances on
-the spot. He found that Bonnemaison, and the sexton
-who had buried the human remains, had taken so little
-note of the place where they were interred, that it could
-not be identified, and on examining the cave he found
-that the interior had been ransacked, and the original
-stratification to a great extent disturbed. M. Lartet’s
-exploration showed that a stratum containing the remains
-of the cave-bear, lion, rhinoceros, hyæna, mammoth,
-bison, horse, and other animals, and palæolithic
-implements, like those of Périgord, extended from the
-plateau (<i>d</i>) outside into (<i>b</i>) the cave. On the outside he
-met with ashes, and burnt and split bones, which proved
-that it had been used as a feasting-place by the palæolithic
-hunters; within he detected no traces of charcoal, and
-no traces of the hyænas, which were abundant outside.
-Inside he met with a few human bones in the earth
-which Bonnemaison had disturbed, which were in the
-same mineral condition as those of the extinct animals,
-and he, therefore, inferred that they were of the same
-age. Such is the summary of the facts which M. Lartet
-discovered. He has, of his own personal knowledge,
-only proved that Aurignac was occupied by a tribe
-of hunters during the palæolithic age, and that it had
-been used as a burial-place.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_70" class="figcenter" style="width: 509px;">
-  <img src="images/i_245.jpg" width="509" height="304" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the Cave of Aurignac.</div></div>
-
-<p>Is he further justified in concluding that the period of
-palæolithic occupation coincides with that in which the
-burial took place? Bonnemaison’s recollections may be
-estimated at their proper value by the significant fact,
-that, in the short space of eight years intervening
-between the discovery and the exploration, he had
-forgotten where the skeletons had been buried. And<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245">245</a></span>
-even if his account be true in the minutest detail, it
-does not afford a shadow of evidence in favour of
-the cave having been a place of sepulchre in palæolithic
-times, but merely that it had been so used at
-some time or another. If we turn to the diagram constructed
-by M. Lartet to illustrate his views (“Ann. des
-Sc. Nat. Zool.,” 4<sup>e</sup> sér., t. xv., pl. 10), and made for
-the most part from Bonnemaison’s recollections; or to
-the amended diagram (<a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a>) given by Sir Charles
-Lyell (“Antiquity of Man,” 1st ed., Fig. 25), we shall see
-that the skeletons are depicted <em>above</em> the stratum (<i>b</i>) containing
-the palæolithic implements and pleistocene mammalia;
-and therefore, according to the laws of geological
-evidence, they must have been buried after the subjacent
-deposit was accumulated. The previous disturbance
-of the cave-earth does away with the conclusion,
-that the few human bones found by M. Lartet are
-of the same age as the extinct mammalia in the deposit.
-The absence of charcoal inside was quite as likely to be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246">246</a></span>
-due to the fact that a fire kindled inside would fill
-the grotto with smoke, while outside the palæolithic
-savage could feast in comfort, as to the view that the
-ashes are those of funereal feasts in honour of the
-dead within, held after the slab had been placed at the
-entrance. The absence of the remains of hyænas from
-the interior is also negative evidence, disproved by
-subsequent examination.</p>
-
-<p>The researches of the Rev. S.&nbsp;W. King, in 1865, complete
-the case against the current view of the palæolithic
-character of the interments, since they show that M.
-Lartet did not fully explore the cave, and that he consequently
-wrote without being in possession of all the
-facts. The entrance was blocked up, according to Bonnemaison,
-by a slab of stone, which, if the measurements
-of the entrance be correct, must have been at least nine
-feet long and seven feet high, placed, according to M.
-Lartet, to keep the hyænas from the corpses of the dead.
-It need hardly be remarked, that the access of these
-bone-eating animals to the cave would be altogether incompatible
-with the preservation of the human skeletons,
-had they been buried at the same time. The enormous
-slab was never seen by M. Lartet, and it did not keep
-out the hyænas. In the collection made by the Rev. S.
-W. King from the interior there are two hyænas’ teeth,
-and nearly all the antlers and bones bear the traces of
-the gnawing of these animals. The cave, moreover, has
-<em>two</em> entrances instead of one, as M. Lartet supposed
-when his paper in the “Annales” was published. The
-bones of the sheep, or goat, also obtained from the
-inside, and preserved in the Christy Museum, afford
-strong evidence that the interment is not palæolithic;
-and a fragment of pottery, agreeing exactly with that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247">247</a></span>
-used in the neolithic age, probably indicates its relative
-antiquity. This conclusion has also been arrived at by the
-two most recent explorers, MM. Cartaillac and Gautier.</p>
-
-<p>The skeletons, therefore, in the Aurignac cave cannot
-be taken to be of the same age as the stratum on which
-they rested; but, so far as there is any evidence, may
-probably be referred to the neolithic age, in which the
-custom of burial in caves prevailed throughout Europe.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_108"><i>Cavern of Bruniquel.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The famous cavern of Bruniquel, explored by the
-Vicomte de Lastic in 1863&ndash;4,<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">168</a> and described by Professor
-Owen, is also one of the class which has furnished
-human bones, along with the remains of the extinct
-mammalia. It penetrates a cliff in the Jurassic limestone,
-opposite the little village of Bruniquel (Tarn and
-Garonne), about forty feet above the level of the river
-Aveyron. The bottom was covered with a sheet of
-stalagmite, resting on earth and blocks of stone, for the
-most part finely cemented into a breccia, that is black
-with the particles of carbon constituting the “limon
-noir” of the workmen, four or five feet thick, beneath
-which is the “limon rouge,” or red earth without
-charcoal, from three to four feet thick. Every part of
-the breccia is charged with the broken remains of the
-wolf, rhinoceros, horse, reindeer, stag, Irish elk and bison,
-and palæolithic implements of flint and bone; some of
-the latter having well-executed designs of the heads of
-horses and reindeer, which prove that the cave had
-been used as a place of habitation by the hunters of
-those animals. Imbedded in the breccia at a depth
-of from three to five feet human bones were met<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248">248</a></span>
-with, and in two recesses several individuals, including
-a child, were found, one of which Professor Owen and
-the Vicomte de Lastic disinterred with sufficient care
-to prove that the body had been buried in the crouching
-posture. The only calvarium sufficiently perfect to
-allow of a comparison belonged to the dolicho-cephalic
-type, and was very fairly developed.</p>
-
-<p>Professor Owen infers, from the intimate association
-of the human bones with the palæolithic implements
-and mammalia, that the cave of Bruniquel was used
-as a burial-place by the same people who had used
-it for habitation, and advances, in support of this, that
-the bones of man and of the animals are exactly in the
-same state of preservation, having lost the same amount
-of gelatine. The evidence, however, does not seem to
-be altogether conclusive. If the interment had been
-made after the palæolithic inhabitants had forsaken the
-cave, the association of the human bones with the
-refuse bones in their old refuse-heap must inevitably
-have taken place. And if, further, water charged with
-carbonate of lime percolated the mass, it would be converted
-into a hard breccia, and ultimately covered with
-a sheet of stalagmite. This calcification may have taken
-place in modern times. A modern bone, as Mr. Evans
-has observed in the case of Aurignac, may lose its
-gelatine in a comparatively short time, and become
-chemically identical with those which have been imbedded
-in the same matrix for long ages. The
-mineral condition, therefore, is an uncertain test of
-relative antiquity.</p>
-
-<p>For these reasons it seems to be doubtful whether the
-interment is of the same age as the occupation. The
-skull-shape, and the burial in the crouching posture,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249">249</a></span>
-point rather in the direction of the long-headed race,
-that buried their dead in caves, in the neolithic age,
-in France, Spain, Belgium, and Great Britain.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_109"><i>The Cave of Cro-Magnon.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The human skeletons in the cave of Cro-Magnon, at
-Les Eyzies, a little village on the banks of the Vezère in
-Périgord, fall into the same doubtful category as those of
-Aurignac. The cave (<a href="#Fig_71">Fig. 71</a>, <i>f</i>), situated at the base of
-a low cliff, was completely concealed by a talus of loose
-débris, four metres thick, which had fallen from above.
-(<a href="#Fig_71">Fig. 71</a>, <i>b</i>.)</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_71" class="figcenter" style="width: 507px;">
-  <img src="images/i_249.jpg" width="507" height="258" alt="" />
-  <div class="captionl"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>&mdash;Section across the Valley of the Vezère, and through the rock of Cro-Magnon.</p>
-
-<p>Level of the Vezère at low water, 58·25 metres above the sea.</p>
-
-<p>Height of cave above the Vezère, 15 metres; above the sea-level, 73·25
-metres.</p>
-
-<p>Distance from the cave to the river, 177 metres.</p>
-
-<table id="list249" class="wide" summary="identifiers">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>a</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Railroad.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>b</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Talus.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>c</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Great block of stone.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>d</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Ledge of rock.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">P</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Limestone.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">M</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Detritus of the slopes and alluvium of the Valley.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>e</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Rock of Cro-Magnon.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>f</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>g</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Château and Village of Les Eyzies, in the Valley of the Beaune.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>h</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Gatekeeper’s house.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>i</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Railway bridge over the Vezère.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>j</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Caves of Le Cingle.</td></tr>
-</table>
-</div></div>
-
-<p>It forms one of a group of caves at various heights
-above the Vezère, which are very well represented in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250">250</a></span>
-the preceding figure, which I am kindly allowed to
-borrow from the “Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ” (Fig. 39).</p>
-
-<p>At the time of its discovery in 1868, in the course of
-making an embankment for the railway close by, and
-of obtaining material for mending the roads, it was
-completely blocked up. On the removal of this (<i>b</i>),
-by the contractors MM. Bertoú-Meyroú and Delmarés,
-the entrance was exposed, and human remains and
-worked flints revealed, which were carefully exhumed
-in the presence of MM. Laganne, Galy, and Simon.
-At this stage of the exploration M. Louis Lartet
-was deputed, by the Minister of Public Instruction, to
-superintend the work, and from his report the following
-account is taken (Lartet and Christy, “Rel. Aq.,” p. 66)
-by the courtesy of the editors.</p>
-
-<p>“The cave of Cro-Magnon is formed by a projecting
-ledge of cretaceous limestone (rich with fossil corals
-and polyzoans), having a thickness of 8 metres and a
-length of 17 metres (<a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">P</span>). The bed which it
-overlies, and the destruction of which has given rise to the
-cave, abounds with <i class="taxonomy">Rhynchonella vespertilio</i>, which is a
-type fossil, fixing the geological horizon. The débris of
-this marly and micaceous limestone had accumulated on
-the original floor of the cavern to a great thickness, at
-least for 0·70 metres (see <a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>), when the hunters
-of the reindeer stopped here for the first time, leaving as
-a trace of their short stay a blackish layer (<a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>),
-from 0·05 to 0·15 metre thick, containing worked
-flints, bits of charcoal, broken or calcined bones, and
-in its upper portion the elephant tusk before alluded
-to (<a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a>, <i>a</i>).</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_72" class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;">
-  <img src="images/i_251.jpg" width="430" height="429" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>&mdash;Detailed Section of the Cave of Cro-Magnon, near Les Eyzies.<br />
-  Scale = 1/100 (1 centimetre to 1 metre).</p>
-
-<table id="list250" class="wide" summary="identifiers">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">A</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Débris of soft limestone.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">B</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">First layer of ashes, &amp;c.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">C</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Calcareous débris.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">D</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Second layer of ashes, &amp;c.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">E</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Calcareous débris, reddened by fire under the next layer of ashes, &amp;c.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">F</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Third layer of ashes, &amp;c.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">G</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Red earth, with bones, &amp;c.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">H</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Thickest layer of ashes, bones, &amp;c.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">I</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Yellowish earth, with bones, flints, &amp;c.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">J</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Thin bed of hearth-stuff.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">K</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Calcareous débris.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">L</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Rubbish of the Talus.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">N</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Crack in the projecting ledge of rock.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">P</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Projecting shelf of hard limestone.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">Y</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Place of the pillar made to support the roof.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>a</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Tusk of an elephant.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>b</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Bones of an old man.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>c</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Block of gneiss.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>d</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Human bones.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><i>e</i></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Slabs of stone fallen from the roof at different times.</td></tr>
-</table>
-</div></div>
-
-<p>“This first hearth is covered by a layer (<span class="smcap smaller">C</span>), 0·25 metre
-thick, of calcareous débris, detached bit by bit from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251">251</a></span>
-roof, during the temporary disuse of the shelter. Then
-follows another thin layer of hearth-stuff (<span class="smcap smaller">D</span>), 0·10
-metre thick, also containing pieces of charcoal, bones,
-and worked flints. This bed is in its turn overlain by a
-layer of fallen limestone rubbish (<span class="smcap smaller">E</span>), 0·50 metre thick.
-Lastly, there is over these a series of more important
-layers, all of them containing, in different proportions,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252">252</a></span>
-charcoal, bones (broken, burnt, and worked), worked
-flints (of different types, but chiefly scrapers), flint cores,
-and pebbles of quartz, granites, &amp;c. from the bed of the
-Vezère, and bearing numerous marks of hammering.
-Altogether these layers seem to have reference to a
-period during which the cave was inhabited, if not continuously,
-at least at intervals so short as not to admit
-of intercalations of débris falling from the roof between
-the different hearth-layers which correspond with the
-successive phases of this (the third) period of habitation.
-The first (lowest) of these layers (<span class="smcap smaller">F</span>) is full of charcoal,
-and has a thickness of 0·20 metre; it does not touch the
-back of the cave, but extends a little further than the
-earlier layers. At its line of contact with the calcareous
-débris beneath, the latter is strongly reddened with the
-action of fire.</p>
-
-<p>“On the last-mentioned hearth-layer is a bed of
-unctuous reddish earth (<span class="smcap smaller">G</span>), 0·30 metre thick, containing
-similar objects, though in less quantities. Last in
-succession is a carbonaceous bed (<span class="smcap smaller">H</span>), the widest and
-thickest of all, having an average thickness of 0·30
-metre; at the edges it is only 0·10 metre thick; but
-in the centre, where it cuts into the subjacent deposits,
-which were excavated by the inhabitants in making the
-principal hearth, it attains a depth of 1·60 metre. This
-bed, being by far the richest in pieces of charcoal, in
-bones, pebbles of quartz, worked flints, flint cores, and
-bone implements, such as points or dart-heads, arrowheads,
-&amp;c., may be regarded as indicative of a far more
-prolonged habitation than the previous.</p>
-
-<p>“Above this thick hearth-layer is a bed of yellowish
-earth (<span class="smcap smaller">I</span>), rather argillaceous, also containing bones, flints,
-and implements of bone, as well as amulets or pendants.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253">253</a></span>
-This appears to be limited upwards by a carbonaceous
-bed (<span class="smcap smaller">J</span>), very thin, and of little extent, 0·05 metre thick,
-which M. Laganne observed before my arrival, but of
-which only slight traces remained afterwards.</p>
-
-<p>“It was on the upper part of this yellow band (<span class="smcap smaller">I</span>), and
-at the back of the cave, that the human skeletons and
-the accessories of the sepulture were met with; and all
-of them were found in the calcareous débris (<span class="smcap smaller">K</span>), except
-in a small space in the furthest hollow at the back of
-the cave. This last deposit also contains some worked
-flints, mixed up with broken bones, and with some uninjured
-bones referable to small rodents and to a peculiar
-kind of fox.</p>
-
-<p>“Lastly, above these different layers, and all over the
-shelter itself, lay the rubbish of the talus (four to six
-metres thick), sufficient in itself, according to what we
-have said above about its mode of formation, to carry
-back the date of the sepulture to a very distant period
-in the prehistoric age.</p>
-
-<p>“As for the human remains, and the position they
-occupied in bed <span class="smcap smaller">I</span>, the following are the results of my
-careful inquiries in the matter. At the back of the cave
-was found an old man’s skull (<i>b</i>), which alone was on
-a level with the surface, in the cavity not filled up in
-the back of the cave, and was therefore exposed to the
-calcareous drip from the roof, as is shown by its having
-a stalagmitic coating on some parts. The other human
-bones, referable to four other skeletons, were found
-around the first, within a radius of about 1·50 metre.
-Among these bones were found, on the left of the old
-man, the skeleton of a woman, whose skull presents in
-front a deep wound, made by a cutting instrument, but
-which did not kill her at once, as the bone has been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254">254</a></span>
-partly repaired within; indeed our physicians think that
-she survived several weeks. By the side of the woman’s
-skeleton was that of an infant which had not arrived at
-its full time of fœtal development. The other skeletons
-(<a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a>, <i>d</i>) seem to have been those of men.</p>
-
-<p>“Amidst the human remains lay a multitude of
-marine shells (about 300), each pierced with a hole,
-and nearly all belonging to the species <i class="taxonomy">Littorina littorea</i>
-so common on our Atlantic coasts. Some other species,
-such as <i class="taxonomy">Purpura lapillus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Turritella communis</i>, &amp;c.,
-occur, but in small numbers. These are also perforated,
-and, like the others, have been used for necklaces,
-bracelets, or other ornamental attire. Not far from the
-skeletons, I found a pendant or amulet of ivory, oval,
-flat, and pierced with two holes. M. Laganne had
-already discovered a smaller specimen; and M. Ch.
-Grenier, schoolmaster at Les Eyzies, has kindly given
-me another, quite similar, which he had received from
-one of his pupils. There were also found near the
-skeletons several perforated teeth, a large block of
-gneiss, split and presenting a large smoothed surface;
-also worked antlers of reindeer, and chipped flints, of
-the same types as those found in the hearth-layers
-underneath.</p>
-
-<p>“... The presence, at all levels, of the same kind
-of flint scrapers, as finely chipped as those of the Gorge
-d’Enfer, and of the same animals as in that classic
-station, evidently shows them to be relics of the successive
-habitation of the Cro-Magnon shelter by the
-same race of nomadic hunters, who at first could use
-it merely as a rendezvous, where they came to share the
-spoils of the chase taken in the neighbourhood; but
-coming again, they made a more permanent occupation,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255">255</a></span>
-until their accumulated refuse and the débris gradually
-raised the floor of the cave, leaving the inconvenient
-height of only 1·20 metre between it and the roof;
-and then they abandoned it by degrees, returning once
-more at last to conceal their dead there. No longer
-accessible, except perhaps to the foxes above noticed,
-this shelter, and its strange sepulture, were slowly and
-completely hidden from sight by atmospheric degradation
-bringing down the earthy covering, which, by its
-thickness, alone proves the great antiquity of the burial
-in the cave.”</p>
-
-<p>These conclusions as to the age of the burial do not
-seem to me to be supported by the facts of the case. That
-the cave was inhabited by a tribe of palæolithic hunters
-there can be no doubt, but no evidence has been brought
-forward that it was used by them for the burial of their
-dead. They “abandoned it by degrees,” but what proof
-is there that <em>they</em> “returned once more to conceal their
-dead”? The interments are at a higher horizon than the
-strata of occupation, and therefore later, and although
-palæolithic implements have been found “near” them,
-the value of the latter, in indicating the date, is destroyed
-by their occurrence throughout the old floors below.
-If we suppose that long after the cave had been inhabited
-by the hunters of the reindeer, it was chosen by
-a family as a burial-place, all the conditions of the discovery
-will be satisfied. The pre-existent strata would
-be disturbed in the process of burial, and the burrowing
-of foxes, and possibly of rabbits, might bring the palæolithic
-implements into close association with the human
-bones. Taking the whole evidence into account, I should
-feel inclined to assign the interment to the neolithic
-age, in which cave-burial was so common; but whatever<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256">256</a></span>
-view be held, the facts do not warrant the human
-skeletons being taken as proving the physique of the
-palæolithic hunters of the Dordogne, or as a basis for an
-inquiry into the ethnology of the palæolithic races.</p>
-
-<p>The largest cranium (see Table, <a href="#list_236">p. 236</a>), belonging to
-an old man, had the frontal region well developed, is
-orthognathic, with upturned nasals, and dolicho-cephalic.
-The occipital protuberance, or probole, is small. The
-bones of the extremity imply a stature of not less than
-five foot eleven inches for the man; the femur is carinate,
-and the tibiæ platycnemic (see <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 48</a>).</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_110"><i>The Cave of Lombrive.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The human bones, obtained by MM. Garrigou, Filhol,
-and Rames, from the cave of Lombrive<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">169</a> in the Department
-of Ariège, are, equally with those cited above, of
-doubtful antiquity. They were discovered on the superficial
-sandy loam, passing in places into a calcareous
-breccia, which rests at various levels in the chambers,
-passages, and fissures, along with bones of the brown-bear,
-urus, small ox, reindeer, stag, horse, and dog.
-From the occurrence of the reindeer the deposit is
-assigned to the palæolithic age. But since this animal
-has been proved to have been eaten in Scotland by the
-neolithic men of Caithness, and to have inhabited Britain
-in the prehistoric age, it is by no means improbable that
-it may also have lived in the region of the Pyrenees in
-post-pleistocene times. The presence of the dog and the
-small domestic ox (<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons?</i>) fixes the date of
-the accumulation as not being earlier than prehistoric;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257">257</a></span>
-for both those animals were introduced into Europe by
-neolithic peoples.</p>
-
-<p>The two human skulls, described by Professor Vogt,
-from this deposit confirm this conclusion, since they are
-of the broad type, and differ in no important character
-(Thurnam) from those of the neolithic brachy-cephali of
-France and Belgium.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_111"><i>The Cave of Cavillon, near Mentone.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The cave of Cavillon, explored by M. Rivière, in 1872,
-in the neighbourhood of Mentone, a few hundred yards on
-the Italian side of the frontier of France, is another case
-of the occurrence of human remains in association with
-those of the extinct animals. The floor is composed of
-dark earth, full of charcoal and fragments of bones,
-mingled with blocks of stone which have dropped from
-the roof. Below it, at a depth of six and a half metres,
-a skeleton was met with, as well as flint-flakes, rude
-instruments of bone, and a number of shells perforated
-for suspension. The skull was covered with a head-dress
-of more than 200 perforated sea-shells. It rested in an
-attitude of repose, with the legs and arms bent,<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> as may
-be seen in the admirable photo-lithograph given by M.
-Rivière in the volume of the “International Congress of
-Prehistoric Archæology,” published at Brussels, pl. 6.
-The teeth and bones of hyæna, lion, woolly rhinoceros,
-mammoth, and other pleistocene animals occurred both
-in the soil above and below, and for that reason both the
-discoverer and Sir Charles Lyell believe that the interment
-dates back to the time when those animals were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258">258</a></span>
-living. If, however, neolithic savages, or those of a later
-age, had buried the skeleton in the earth containing the
-extinct animals, all the circumstances which have been
-noticed, either by Mr. Pengelly or Mr. Moggridge,<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">171</a> may
-be satisfactorily explained. There are no stalagmites
-to divide one stratum from another, and were an interment
-made in the cave at the present time, the
-discoverer two or three centuries hence might assert,
-with equal justice, that it took place in the pleistocene
-age, because of the association with the animals characteristic
-of that remote period.</p>
-
-<p>The superficial portions of the cave-earth had certainly
-been disturbed, and there is no evidence that the
-disturbance did not extend down to the horizon where
-the skeleton rested. Nevertheless, Mr. Pengelly concludes
-that the interment is of palæolithic age from its
-analogy with that of Cro-Magnon and Paviland, which
-we have seen to be of equally doubtful antiquity. It
-seems to me that this conclusion, which is almost universally
-accepted, is not warranted by the facts, and that
-it cannot be used in support of any speculation as to the
-condition of man in the pleistocene age.</p>
-
-<p>The skull is described by M. Rivière as long, the
-thigh-bones are strongly carinate, and the tibiæ are
-platycnemic as in the case of those from Cro-Magnon,
-Gibraltar, Sclaigneaux, and North Wales.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_112"><i>Grotta dei Colombi in Island of Palmaria, inhabited
-by Cannibals.</i></h3>
-
-<p>We are indebted to Professor Capellini for an account
-of the exploration of the Grotta dei Colombi, a cave in a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259">259</a></span>
-vertical cliff in the island of Palmaria,<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">172</a> overlooking to
-the south the Gulf of Spezzia. In the red loam, composing
-the floor, were numerous flakes and scrapers, a
-rounded “striker” of Saussurite, quartz, pebbles, fragments
-of pottery, a bone needle, a whistle made of the
-first phalange of a goat’s foot, shells perforated for
-suspension, <i class="taxonomy">Natica mille-punctata</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Pectunculus glycimeris</i>,
-and <i class="taxonomy">Patella cærulea</i>, together with bones of
-goat, hog, ox, wolf, wild cat, and broken and cut human
-bones belonging to children and young adults.</p>
-
-<p>Among the remains Professor Capellini draws attention
-in particular to the thigh-bones, scorched by fire, one of
-which bears incisions on its posterior face made by a flint
-implement in cutting away the flesh (Pl. 73, <i>a</i>), and is
-also marked by scraping. He considers that they belong
-to an ape, closely allied to the <i class="taxonomy">Macacus innuus</i> of Gibraltar
-and North Africa, and concludes, therefore, that the
-animal was living in Palmaria at the time that the
-cave was inhabited. This identification is forbidden
-by the spongy texture, the rounded contour, and the
-absence of epiphyses that imply that the bone was very
-young, and that in the adult it would be far larger than
-any thigh-bone of the apes. On comparing his figures
-with eight femora belonging to young children, from the
-cairn at Cefn, and the caves at Perthi-Chwareu, I find
-that they agree in every particular with two, the flattening
-of the inferior extremity, considered by Prof.
-Calori to be a non-human character, being equally met
-with in all, and being relatively greater in the younger
-than the older. They offer, therefore, unmistakeable
-proof that the inhabitants of the cave were cannibals
-(<a href="#Fig_73">Fig. 73</a>). I am informed by my friend, Prof. Busk,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260">260</a></span>
-that the bone figured belonged
-to a child about eight years
-old. The outline <i>b</i> in the
-figure represents the contour
-of one of the femora from the
-cavern at Cefn, described in
-the <a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> chapter.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_73" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-  <img src="images/i_260.jpg" width="600" height="135" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>&mdash;Thigh-bone of child from Grotta dei Colombi (Capellini). <i>a</i>, Cuts; <i>b</i>, Outline of corresponding thigh-bone from cavern at Cefn.</div></div>
-
-<p>In this cave, as in those
-quoted above, there are no
-polished stone implements, or
-works of art, that establish
-that these feasts were carried
-on in the cave by neolithic
-cannibals, for the rude flint-flakes
-and bone articles, taken
-by Professor Capellini to fix
-its date, are common both to
-the palæolithic and the bronze
-ages. Nevertheless, since the
-inhabitants have left behind
-no trace of any metal, and
-since their food was wholly
-supplied by the existing animals,
-they were probably in
-the neolithic stage of culture,
-if this be taken to
-cover the wide interval extending
-from the pleistocene
-to the age of bronze. They
-are proved, by the rudeness
-of their implements, to have
-been savages of a very low
-order.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261">261</a></span>
-We may gather from various allusions, and stories
-scattered through the classical writers, such for example
-as that of the Cyclops, that the caves on the shores
-of the Mediterranean were inhabited by cannibals in
-ancient times. In the island of Palmaria we meet
-with unmistakeable proof that it was no mere idle
-tale or poetical dream. But we have no proof that
-cannibalism was universally practised at any stage in
-the history of man. All the caves of Europe, explored
-up to the present time, merely afford some three or four
-examples in the neolithic and bronze ages. In the
-pleistocene there is no instance which is devoid of
-doubt. This atrocious practice is therefore to be viewed
-as abnormal, and it probably became ingrafted into the
-religious ideas of the nations of antiquity from the
-horror by which it was surrounded, ultimately surviving
-in the form of human sacrifices to the offended gods.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_113"><i>General Conclusions as to Prehistoric Caves.</i></h3>
-
-<p>We have seen in the <a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">sixth</a> chapters that
-the prehistoric caves which are so unimportant in the
-ages of bronze and iron, were used in the neolithic
-age throughout western Europe both for habitation
-and burial, and that they therefore offer us most
-valuable materials for working out the ethnology of
-Europe at that remote time. The two races of men,
-the remains of which they contain, are represented
-by the modern Basque and Berber on the one hand,
-and on the other by the Celt, and in Russia and
-Germany by the cognate Finn, Sclave, and Wend.
-And since all the human remains described in the
-present chapter, those of Cro-Magnon and possibly of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262">262</a></span>
-the Grotta dei Colombi being exempted, belong to one
-of other of these types, they may be referred to the neolithic
-age with a high degree of probability. In the
-present stage of the inquiry, it is much safer to put
-them into a distinct class, apart from those to which we
-can assign a relative age with tolerable certainty.</p>
-
-<p>In the long ages which elapsed between the close
-of the pleistocene period and the dawn of history
-other races than these may have occupied Europe,
-and have passed away without leaving any clue as
-to their identity. But in the present state of our
-knowledge we are justified only in concluding, that
-the oldest population in prehistoric times was non-Aryan,
-the traces of which are left behind not merely
-in the caves and tombs, but in language,<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">173</a> and in the
-small dark-haired inhabitants of western and southern
-Europe.</p>
-
-<p>The prehistoric peoples lived under physical conditions
-very different from those of central and
-western Europe at the present time; the surface of the
-country being covered with rock, forest, and morass,
-which afforded shelter to the elk, bison, urus, stag,
-megaceros, and wild boar, as well as to innumerable
-wolves. They arrived from the east with cereals and
-domestic animals, some of which, such as the <i class="taxonomy">Bos
-longifrons</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Sus palustris</i>, reverted to their original
-wild state. From the very exigencies of their position
-they lived partly by hunting, and they gradually pushed
-their way westward, carrying with them the rudiments
-of that civilization which we ourselves possess.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263">263</a></span>
-It is an open question whether they came into contact
-with the palæolithic races which preceded them.</p>
-
-<p>The climate which they enjoyed was sufficiently severe
-to allow the reindeer to inhabit the district on which
-now stands the city of London, and its severity may also
-be inferred from the thickness of the bark of the Scotch
-firs, observed by Mr. Godwin-Austen in the submarine
-forests of the south of England, and by Mr. James
-Geikie in those of Scotland. The area of Great Britain
-was greater then, than now, since a plain extended
-seawards from the coast-line, nearly everywhere, supporting
-a dense forest of Scotch fir, oak, birch, and
-alder, the relics of which are to be seen in the beds
-of peat, and the stumps of the trees, near low-water
-mark on most of our shores. And it may be inferred
-that the forest extended a considerable distance from
-the present sea margin, from the large size of the
-trunks of the trees.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264">264</a></span><a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">174</a></p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">THE PLEISTOCENE CAVES OF GERMANY AND GREAT BRITAIN.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote class="inhead">
-
-<p>Relation of Pleistocene to Prehistoric Period.&mdash;Magnitude of the Interval.&mdash;Animals.&mdash;Physical
-changes.&mdash;Excavation and filling up
-of Valleys: Fisherton; Freshford.&mdash;Comparison of Deposits in
-Valleys with those of Caves.&mdash;Differences of Mineral Condition.&mdash;The
-Pleistocene Caves of Germany: Gailenreuth; Kühloch.&mdash;Of
-Great Britain.&mdash;The Caves of Yorkshire: Kirkdale.&mdash;Of Derbyshire:
-The Dream Cave.&mdash;Of North Wales, near St. Asaph.&mdash;Of
-South Wales, in counties of Glamorgan, Caermarthen, Pembroke.&mdash;Of
-Monmouth.&mdash;Of Gloucestershire.&mdash;Of Somersetshire: Uphill,
-Banwell, Bleadon, Sandford Hill, Wookey Hole.&mdash;The District of
-Mendip higher in Pleistocene age than now.&mdash;The condition of
-bones gnawed by Hyænas.&mdash;The Caves of Devonshire: Oreston;
-Brixham; Kent’s Hole.&mdash;The probable age of the Machairodus of
-Kent’s Hole.&mdash;Those of Ireland, Shandon.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_114"><i>Relation of Pleistocene to Prehistoric Period.</i></h3>
-
-<p class="in0">We have seen, in the <a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">sixth</a> chapters, that the
-caves offer valuable information as to the prehistoric
-ethnology of Europe, and that they prove the ancient
-neolithic population to stand directly related to the
-Basque and Celtic elements in the present inhabitants of
-Britain, France, and Spain. We shall discover in the
-course of this and the following chapters that no such<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265">265</a></span>
-continuity can be made out between the palæolithic
-man of the pleistocene age and any of the races now
-living in our quarter of the world; and we shall see
-that he is separated from his neolithic successor by
-an interval of time, the length of which cannot be
-measured in terms of years. Before the pleistocene
-group of caves be examined, it will be necessary to
-define the relation that exists between the prehistoric
-and the pleistocene periods.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_115"><i>The Animals&mdash;Magnitude of Interval.</i></h3>
-
-<p id="hdr_116">The prehistoric mammalia consist, as we have seen
-(p.&nbsp;136), with the solitary exception of the Irish elk, of
-the wild animals at present living in Europe, together
-with the domestic species and varieties introduced by
-man, probably from central Asia. In the rest of this
-work we shall have to deal, not merely with the wild
-animals at present inhabiting Europe, but also with
-those which have either become extinct, or have migrated
-to Asia, America, or Africa. Besides this addition to
-the European fauna in the pleistocene age, the total
-absence of the domestic animals is a most important
-feature. The dog, goat, sheep, Celtic short-horn, and
-domestic swine are conspicuous by their absence: the
-reputed association of their remains with those of the
-pleistocene mammals being due, in all the cases which
-I have examined in France and Britain, to a confusion
-between distinct strata in the same cave or river-deposit,
-which are respectively of pleistocene and prehistoric or
-historic ages. Thus in the excavations in the gravel
-underneath London, the Celtic short-horn and goat of
-the superficial strata are very generally mixed with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266">266</a></span>
-reindeer and mammoth of the pleistocene gravels below,
-by the collectors, and the names of the domestic animals
-have crept into the pleistocene lists. None of the domestic
-animals have been recorded from any carefully explored
-strata of that age in any part of Europe.</p>
-
-<p>The following late pleistocene species were unknown
-in Britain in the prehistoric <span class="locked">age:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p id="list_266" class="in0 in4">
-Glutton.<br />
-Spotted hyæna.<br />
-Panther.<br />
-Lion.<br />
-Lynx.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Felis Caffer.</i><br />
-Musk-sheep.<br />
-Bison.<br />
-Hippopotamus.<br />
-Lemming.<br />
-Pouched marmot.<br />
-Tailless hare.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Lepus diluvianus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Arvicola Gulielmi.</i><br />
-Cave-bear.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">R. tichorhinus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus.</i><br />
-Mammoth.
-</p>
-
-<p>The glutton, lynx, bison, and lemming, still live in
-Europe, the spotted hyæna, <i class="taxonomy">Felis Caffer</i>, and hippopotamus
-are peculiar to Africa, the lion to Africa and Asia,
-and the last seven species are extinct. The <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus
-cultridens</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i> probably disappeared
-in an early stage of the pleistocene. It may
-reasonably be inferred, from the migration and extinction
-of so many species between the close of the pleistocene
-and beginning of the historic period, that the interval
-was of considerable length; for it would be impossible
-for such changes to have taken place in a short time.</p>
-
-<p>The same sharp line of demarcation exists between
-the two faunas on the continent. The panther, <i class="taxonomy">Felis
-Caffer</i>, lynx, spotted hyæna, musk-sheep, hippopotamus,
-and the extinct group disappeared. The African elephant
-forsook Spain and Sicily, the striped hyæna the south of
-France, before the prehistoric period; while the <i class="taxonomy">Elephas
-meridionalis</i> and pigmy hippopotamus of Sicily, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267">267</a></span>
-the pigmy elephant and gigantic dormouse of Malta,
-became extinct. Speaking in general terms, the wild
-fauna of Europe, as we have it now, dates from the
-beginning of the prehistoric age, and consists merely of
-those animals which were able to survive the changes
-by which their pleistocene congeners were banished or
-destroyed. The arrival of the domestic animals under
-the care of man in the neolithic age, and their extension
-over the whole of Europe in a wild or semi-wild state,
-coupled with the disappearance of the wild species mentioned
-above, constitutes a change in the mammal life
-at least as important as any of those which define the
-meiocene from the pleiocene, or the pleiocene from the
-pleistocene periods.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_117"><i>Physical changes&mdash;The excavation and filling up of Valleys.</i></h3>
-
-<p id="hdr_118">The magnitude of the interval between the two
-periods may also be gathered from the great changes
-which have taken place in physical geography. In
-nearly every valley in Great Britain, certain areas to
-be mentioned presently excepted, are strata of sand
-and gravel, proved to be of pleistocene age by their
-fossil mammals, and by their fluviatile shells to have
-been deposited by rivers. They occur at various heights,
-forming sometimes terraces, and at others isolated
-patches, which were accumulated when the river flowed
-at their level, and before the valleys were cut down to
-their present depth. Those at Fisherton near Salisbury,
-described by Sir Charles Lyell, Mr. Prestwich, Mr. John
-Evans,<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">175</a> and others, may be taken as an example.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268">268</a></span></p>
-
-<div id="Fig_74" class="figcenter" style="width: 477px;">
-  <img src="images/i_268.jpg" width="477" height="230" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>&mdash;Section of Valley-gravels at Fisherton. (Evans.)</div></div>
-
-<p>The valley through which the river Wily flows is
-excavated in the chalk (<a href="#Fig_74">Fig. 74</a>), and on its northern side
-fluviatile deposits occur at two levels, represented in
-the accompanying section. One patch of gravel, about
-twelve feet thick, <i>a</i>, lies about eighty feet above the
-present level of the Wily; while a second, <i>b</i>, consisting
-of clayey brickearth or loam, with seams of gravel, and
-fluviatile shells, sweeps down from a lower point to the
-bottom of the valley, and passes under the river. From
-the deposit <i>a</i>, Dr. Blackmore obtained many rudely-chipped
-implements, of the same palæolithic type as
-those found with the extinct mammalia in the gravel
-beds at Amiens and Abbeville in the valley of the
-Somme. In the deposit <i>b</i>, fossil mammalia were met
-with belonging to the following <span class="locked">animals:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-Spotted hyæna.<br />
-Lion.<br />
-Reindeer.<br />
-Stag.<br />
-Bison.<br />
-Urus.<br />
-Musk-sheep.<br />
-Wild boar.<br />
-Horse.<br />
-Woolly rhinoceros.<br />
-Mammoth.<br />
-Lemming.<br />
-Pouched marmot.<br />
-Hare.
-</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269">269</a></span>
-Dr. Blackmore subsequently discovered a flint implement
-along with these animals, of the same type as those
-previously met with in the deposit <i>a</i>.</p>
-
-<p>A horizontal stretch of alluvium, <i>c</i>, deposited by the
-floods, occupies the present bottom of the valley. In
-this section it is plain that the gravels and brickearth at
-<i>a</i> and <i>b</i> were deposited by a river, which formerly flowed
-at those levels. In other words, the valley of the Wily was
-excavated during the time that the pleistocene strata <i>a</i>
-and <i>b</i> were being formed, while palæolithic man and
-the extinct animals were living in the neighbourhood.
-The position also of <i>b</i> below the present bottom of the
-valley proves that the latter then was deeper than it is
-now. The prehistoric alluvium, <i>c</i>, represents the last
-stage in the history of the valley in which it is beginning
-to be filled with the deposits of floods. While it was
-being accumulated none of the animals of <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> were
-living in the district except the hare, urus, stag, horse,
-and wild boar.</p>
-
-<p id="hdr_119">A somewhat similar section is exposed in the valley of
-the Avon at Freshford, near Bath, in a railway cutting,
-at a height of about thirty-five feet above the river. A
-thick mass of gravel abuts directly against a cleft of inferior
-oolite (<a href="#Fig_75">Fig. 75</a>), and gradually dies down to the alluvium.
-In it Mr. Charles Moore discovered the remains of the
-musk-sheep, and the Rev. H.&nbsp;H. Winwood those of the
-mammoth, bison, horse, and reindeer. In this case the
-pleistocene strata occupied the side of one of the valleys
-which had been deepened since the time of their deposit.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_75" class="figcenter" style="width: 717px;">
-  <img src="images/i_270.jpg" width="717" height="350" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>&mdash;Section of Valley-gravels at Freshford, Bath.<br />
-  4, Red loam, 5ft. 6in.; 3, Oolitic wash, 1ft.; 2, Clay with flints, 4ft. 10in.; 1, Gravel with fossil mammals, 8ft.</div></div>
-
-<p>The alluvium in the neighbourhood of Bath contains
-in its lower portion a layer of peat, with bones of the
-Celtic short-horn (<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>), stag, roe, horse, goat,
-and pig; and in its upper part are old refuse heaps,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270">270</a></span>
-proved to be Roman by the coins and ware, which
-are also met with at various points underneath the
-surface soil, and sometimes at considerable depths.
-It is, therefore, of prehistoric and historic age, and since<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271">271</a></span>
-it is found only in the valley bottoms, we may conclude
-that the present courses of the rivers along the sides
-of which it is found date back from the prehistoric age;
-while their ancient courses are marked by the fluviatile
-deposits with the extinct mammalia standing at various
-levels, the higher being the older. In the section at
-Fisherton we have evidence that the river flowed at a
-lower level in the pleistocene age than in the prehistoric,
-and in that at Freshford that the lower portion of the
-valley had been excavated after the pleistocene strata
-had been formed. One or other of these physical changes
-is to be traced in nearly all river valleys.<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">176</a> We may
-conclude that both imply a considerable lapse of time,
-because similar changes are now produced with extreme
-slowness. In the pleistocene river deposits, which lie
-scattered about at various heights on the valley sides,
-we seek in vain for neolithic implements, or domestic
-animals. In the low-lying alluvia, and accumulations
-of peat, we seek equally in vain for traces of palæolithic
-man, or of the extinct mammalia, except the
-Irish elk.</p>
-
-<p>We may also gather, from the localization of the prehistoric
-alluvia close to the present streams, that the
-time represented by its accumulation is insignificant
-in comparison with the long lapse of ages implied by
-the pleistocene gravels and brickearths, that were deposited
-at various heights during the excavation of the
-valleys. The general surface of the valleys has undergone
-but little change since history began, and the
-excavation by the rivers has been so small as to have
-escaped accurate measurement. The alluvia represent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272">272</a></span>
-the principal work done since the close of the pleistocene
-period.</p>
-
-<p>The most important testimony that the interval between
-the two periods was very long, is offered by the
-climatal change, and the severance of Britain from the
-continent. The arctic severity of the pleistocene winter
-in these latitudes had passed away before the prehistoric
-age, and the pleistocene valleys of the North Sea, St.
-George’s Channel, the British, and Irish Channels had
-been depressed beneath the waves of the sea before any
-prehistoric strata yet known had been deposited. The
-evidence that these changes actually took place must be
-referred to the two following chapters.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_120"><i>Comparison of Deposits in Valleys with those in Caves.</i></h3>
-
-<p>If these valley deposits be compared with the contents
-of some of the bone caves, such, for example, as
-those of the Victoria Cave (compare <a href="#Fig_74">Figs. 74</a> and <a href="#Fig_75">75</a>
-with <a href="#Fig_20">Figs. 20</a>, <a href="#Fig_21">21</a>, <a href="#Fig_29">29</a>), it will be seen that they present
-the same section. The pleistocene gravels and brick-earths
-of the one correspond with the lower strata of the
-other, and contain the same extinct animals. The prehistoric
-alluvium of the one is represented by the layer
-containing neolithic bronze or iron implements, as well
-as the same animals; while the historic strata are
-represented in both by the superficial accumulations.
-The only difference indeed between the one and the
-other is, that in the former the strata of the three
-periods are spread over a wide area, while in the
-latter they are super-imposed in vertical order, the
-pleistocene below, the prehistoric in the middle, and
-the historic on the surface.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273">273</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_121"><i>Difference in Mineral Condition of Deposits in Caves.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The prehistoric, and the historic strata in caves differ
-from the pleistocene in their physical constitution. They
-are darker in colour, and more loosely stratified, and
-contain bones in a more friable and less mineralized
-condition, and are more free from stalagmite.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_122"><i>The Caves of Germany: Gailenreuth.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The use of fossil bones for medicinal purposes led, as
-I have already mentioned in the <a href="#CHAPTER_I">first</a> chapter, to the
-exploration of caves, which were first scientifically examined
-in Germany towards the close of the eighteenth
-century. They abound in all the limestone plateaux,
-especially in the region of Franconia, and in that of the
-Hartz. Among them the most interesting, perhaps, is
-that of Gailenreuth, explored by Esper, Rosenmüller,
-Goldfuss, Buckland, Lord Enniskillen, and Sir Philip
-Egerton. It penetrates a lofty cliff, that forms a side of
-the deep gorge which the river Weissent has cut in the
-rock, at a point about three hundred feet above the
-water level.</p>
-
-<p>The entrance, Dr. Buckland<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">177</a> writes, is about seven
-feet high and twelve feet broad, and within it a short
-passage leads into two chambers (<a href="#Fig_76">Fig. 76</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span> and <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>),<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">178</a> hung
-with stalactites, and with the floors covered by a dense
-stalagmitic pavement, that has been more or less broken
-up by repeated diggings. These floors are perfectly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274">274</a></span>
-horizontal, the level of that of <span class="smcap smaller">B</span> being considerably
-below that of <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>. They rest on an accumulation of
-reddish grey loam, containing pebbles, and angular
-limestone blocks, and vast quantities of the bones and
-teeth of the animals formerly living in the district. The
-depth of this ossiferous deposit has not been ascertained,
-but in the further end of the chamber <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, it has been
-proved to be more than twenty-five feet thick.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_76" class="figcenter" style="width: 537px;">
-  <img src="images/i_274.jpg" width="537" height="426" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>&mdash;Section of Gailenreuth Cave. (Buckland.)</div></div>
-
-<p>The remains of the animals lie scattered in the wildest
-confusion; sometimes being completely matted together,
-but more generally each bone is enveloped in earth.
-They belong to the lion, the cave variety of the spotted
-hyæna, the cave-bear, grizzly bear, mammoth, Irish elk,
-and reindeer, as well as to those species which are still<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275">275</a></span>
-to be found in Germany, such as the glutton, brown bear,
-wolf, fox, and stag.</p>
-
-<p>It is very difficult to account for such an accumulation
-as this, but it was probably introduced through
-the present entrance, and thence into the chamber <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>,
-passing from the higher to the lower levels. The teeth-marks
-on the bones show that some of the animals
-had formed the prey of the hyænas, but had they
-introduced all the bones there would have been distinct
-strata marking the floors of occupation, as in
-Wookey Hole (<a href="#Fig_88">Fig. 88</a>). Moreover, no perfect skulls,
-such as those of the bears, would have escaped their
-powerful teeth. The pebbles in the loam bear testimony
-to the passage of a current of water. And if
-we suppose that the cave was subject to floods, such
-as those in the water-caves described in the <a href="#CHAPTER_II">second</a>
-chapter, the scattering of the bones through the loam
-may be explained. This, however, could not have
-happened had the cave then opened on the face of
-a nearly vertical cliff, and the only condition under
-which it would have been possible is, that the present
-entrance should have been directly connected with a
-stream flowing from the surface, that is to say, over the
-space now occupied by the gorge of the Weissent. If
-this view, advanced by Dr. Buckland, be accepted, the
-remoteness of the date of the filling up of the cave may
-be measured by the fact, that since that time the gorge
-has been cut down by the Weissent to a depth of more
-than 300 feet.</p>
-
-<p>The stream by which the contents of the cave were
-introduced had a course probably analogous to that of
-Dalebeck (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>) and the remains of the animals were
-caught up from the surface, and accumulated in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276">276</a></span>
-subterranean chambers which it traversed. Their abundance
-offers no obstacle to this view, since wild animals
-frequent their drinking places in vast numbers, and fall
-a prey to the carnivora which lurk near the streams,
-and very many tumble into the natural pitfalls, or swallow-holes,
-so universal in limestone districts.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_123"><i>The Cave of Kühloch.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Very many other caves occur in the neighbourhood,
-most of them, such as those of Zahnloch, celebrated for
-the abundance of fossil teeth, Mokas, Rabenstein, and
-others, of which the cave of Kühloch alone demands
-notice.</p>
-
-<p>The cave of Kühloch is situated opposite to the castle
-of Rabenstein, in the gorge of the Esbach, at about thirty
-feet from the bottom. Its exterior presents a lofty arch
-in a nearly perpendicular cliff, about thirty feet wide and
-twenty feet high, and the entrance gradually leads into
-two large chambers “both of which terminate in a close
-round end, or cul-de-sac, at the distance of about 100
-feet from the entrance. It is intersected by no fissures,
-and has no lateral communications connecting it with
-any other caverns, except one small hole close to its
-mouth, and which opens also to the valley.” The first
-thirty feet present a steep slope towards the entrance.
-Dr. Buckland describes the contents of the chambers in
-the following words:<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">179</a>&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>“It is literally true that in this single cavern (the size
-and proportions of which are nearly equal to those of
-the interior of a large church) there are hundreds of
-cart-loads of black animal dust entirely covering the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277">277</a></span>
-whole floor, to a depth which must average at least six
-feet, and which, if we multiply this depth by the length
-and breadth of the cavern, will be found to exceed 5,000
-cubic feet. The whole of this mass has been again and
-again dug over in search of teeth and bones, which it
-still contains abundantly, though in broken fragments.
-The state of these is very different from that of the
-bones we find in any of the other caverns, being of a
-black, or, more properly speaking, dark umber colour
-throughout, like the bones of mummies, and many of them
-readily crumbling under the finger into a soft dark powder
-resembling mummy powder, and being of the same
-nature with the black earth in which they are embedded.
-The quantity of animal matter accumulated on this floor
-is the most surprising, and the only thing of the kind
-I ever witnessed; and many hundred&mdash;I may say thousand&mdash;individuals
-must have contributed their remains to
-make up this appalling mass of the dust of death. It
-seems in great part to be derived from comminuted and
-pulverized bone; for the fleshy parts of animal bodies
-produce by their decomposition so small a quantity of
-permanent earthy residuum, that we must seek for the
-origin of this mass principally in decayed bones. The
-cave is so dry, that the black earth lies in the state of
-loose powder, and rises in dust under the feet; it also
-retains so large a proportion of its original animal matter
-that it is occasionally used by the peasants as an enriching
-manure for the adjacent meadows. I have stated
-that the total quantity of animal matter that lies within
-this cavern cannot be computed at less than 5,000 cubic
-feet; now allowing two cubic feet of dust and bones for
-each individual animal, we shall have in this single
-vault the remains of at least 2,500 bears, a number<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278">278</a></span>
-which may have been supplied in the space of 1,000
-years by a mortality at the rate of two and a half per
-annum.”</p>
-
-<p>Dr. Buckland’s explanation, that the cave was inhabited
-by bears for long generations, is probably true. The
-absence of pebbles and silt show that water had no
-share in the introduction of the remains; their preservation
-is due to the dryness of the cave, and to its
-proximity to the outer atmosphere.</p>
-
-<p>The famous caves of Sundwig, Schartsfeld, and Bauman’s
-Hole, belong to the same class as Gailenreuth, and
-offer no differences which need be described.</p>
-
-<p>These explorations establish the fact that, in the
-antediluvian age which we now term pleistocene, the
-lion, the cave-bear and grizzly bear, and cave-hyæna
-abounded in Germany, and that they sought as their
-prey not merely the wild animals now living in that
-region, but the reindeer, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros,
-and Irish elk. All the discoveries in the German caves
-from the date of the exploration of Gailenreuth have
-merely verified this conclusion without adding any new
-fact of importance.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_124"><i>The Caves of Great Britain.</i></h3>
-
-<p>These discoveries in the German caves led to the
-exploration of those in our country. Dr. Buckland
-visited Gailenreuth in 1816, and in 1821 applied the
-result of his knowledge gained in Germany to the investigation
-of the famous cavern of Kirkdale.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279">279</a></span><a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">180</a></p>
-
-<h3><i>The Hyæna-den at Kirkdale.</i></h3>
-
-<div id="Fig_77" class="figcenter" style="width: 765px;">
-  <img src="images/i_279.jpg" width="765" height="529" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>&mdash;Plan of Kirkdale Cave. (Taylor.)</div></div>
-
-<p id="hdr_125">The cave of Kirkdale (<a href="#Fig_77">Figs. 77</a>, <a href="#Fig_78">78</a>) was discovered in
-a quarry in the vale of Pickering, about twenty-five
-miles to the NN.E. of York, at a point where the dale
-of Holmbeck joins Kirkdale. The entrance, eighty feet
-above the valley bottom and twenty feet from the surface
-of the plateau above, was about three feet high and six
-feet wide, and led into a passage from five to ten feet
-wide, which ran nearly horizontally into the rock, and
-branched off into smaller ramifications. Its general form
-and size may be gathered from the examination of the
-accompanying woodcuts, which were published by Mr.
-Taylor in “Macmillan’s Magazine,” in September 1862.
-The roof was for the most part free from stalactite, and
-there was no continuous coating of stalagmite on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280">280</a></span>
-floor, but merely here and there a few calcareous bosses
-termed “cows’ paps” by the workmen.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_78" class="figcenter" style="width: 790px;">
-  <img src="images/i_280.jpg" width="790" height="458" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>&mdash;Sections of Kirkdale Cave. (Taylor.)</div></div>
-
-<p>A layer of fine red loam covered the bottom, in the
-lower portions of which were large numbers of gnawed
-and broken bones, and teeth, for the most part of the
-same species as those formed in the German caves. In
-some places they were lying in little confused heaps,
-and in others, where the loam was thin, were exposed
-to the calcareous drip and cemented into a mass, their
-upper portions projecting through the stalagmite “like
-the legs of pigeons through pie-crust,” and their irregular
-distribution resembling that of the fragments scattered
-on the floor of a dog-kennel.</p>
-
-<p>The remains of the animals were incredibly abundant,
-when the small space in which they were packed was
-taken into consideration. Those of the hyæna are estimated
-by Dr. Buckland as belonging to between two or
-three hundred individuals of all ages. The lion and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281">281</a></span>
-cave-bear, the wild boar, the hippopotamus (<a href="#Fig_79">Fig. 79</a>) an
-extinct kind of elephant (<i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus</i>), and the rhinoceros
-named by Dr. Falconer <i class="taxonomy">R. hemitœchus</i>, the reindeer,
-and Irish elk are also represented, but the species
-of most common occurrence are the bison and the horse.
-With a few exceptions all the bones with marrow were
-broken, and scarred by teeth, while the solid and marrowless
-were more or less perfect.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_79" class="figright" style="width: 237px;">
-  <img src="images/i_281.jpg" width="237" height="202" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>&mdash;Molar of Hippopotamus. (Buckland.)</div></div>
-
-<p>Dr. Buckland’s method of solving the problem of the
-introduction of remains of so many and different animals
-into so small a space,
-is a model of scientific analysis.
-He argues from the
-abundance of the remains of
-the hyæna, and from the
-correspondence of their teeth
-with the marks on the bones,
-and from the quantity of
-their coprolites, that the cave
-was inhabited by many generations
-of those animals, and
-that the gnawed fragments were relics of their prey. The
-hyænas of the present day inhabit caves strewn with the
-bones of their prey, which are crushed by their powerful
-jaws into the same form as those of Kirkdale. He further
-demonstrated the truth of his conclusion by the crucial
-experiment of subjecting the leg-bone of an ox to a
-spotted hyæna from the Cape of Good Hope, in Wombwell’s
-Menagerie. “I was able,” he writes,<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">181</a> “to observe
-the animal’s mode of proceeding in the destruction of
-bones: the shin-bone of an ox being presented to this
-hyæna, he began to bite off with his molar teeth large<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282">282</a></span>
-fragments from its upper extremity, and swallowed
-them whole as fast as they were broken off. On his
-reaching the medullary cavity, the bone split into
-angular fragments, many of which he caught up greedily
-and swallowed entire: he went on cracking it till he had
-extracted all the marrow, licking out the lowest portion
-of it with his tongue: this done, he left untouched the
-lower condyle, which contains no marrow, and is very
-hard. The state and form of this residuary fragment
-are precisely like those of similar bones at Kirkdale;
-the marks of teeth on it are very few, as the bone usually
-gave off a splinter before the large conical teeth had
-forced a hole through it; these few, however, entirely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283">283</a></span>
-resemble the impressions we find on the bones at Kirkdale;
-the small splinters also in form and size, and
-manner of fracture, are not distinguishable from the
-fossil ones. I preserve all the fragments and the gnawed
-portions of this bone, for the sake of comparison by the
-side of those I have from the antediluvian den in Yorkshire:
-there is absolutely no difference between them,
-except in point of age. The animal left untouched the
-solid bones of the tarsus and carpus, and such parts of
-the cylindrical bones as we find untouched at Kirkdale,
-and devoured only the parts analogous to those which are
-there deficient. The keeper, pursuing this experiment
-to its final result, presented me the next morning with
-a large quantity of <i class="anatomy">album græcum</i>, disposed in balls,
-that agree entirely in size, shape, and substance with
-those that were found in the den at Kirkdale. The
-power of his jaws far exceeded any animal force of the
-kind I ever saw exerted, and reminded me of nothing
-so much as of a miner’s crushing mill, or the scissors
-with which they cut off bars of iron and copper in the
-metal foundries.”</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_80" class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;">
-  <img src="images/i_282.jpg" width="325" height="448" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>&mdash;Leg-bones gnawed by Hyænas&mdash;1, of Ox in Menagerie; 2, of Bison in Kirkdale. (Buckland.)</div></div>
-
-<p>The exact correspondence of one of the fragments of
-the tibia of an ox, gnawed by the Cape hyæna, with the
-corresponding bone of the bison from Kirkdale, may be
-gathered from a comparison of the two figured in
-<a href="#Fig_80">Fig. 80</a>, in which the teeth-marks <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and <i>c</i>, are very
-distinct. The same kind of identity runs through the
-whole series of bones gnawed by the living and fossil
-hyænas.</p>
-
-<p>Dr. Buckland’s conclusion, that the Kirkdale cave was
-the den of the spotted hyænas (<i class="taxonomy">H. crouta</i>) that preyed
-upon the animals of Yorkshire in ancient times, and
-that it was undisturbed down to the time of its exploration,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284">284</a></span>
-cannot be disputed. The tread of the hyænas in
-their passage to and fro had polished some of the bones
-and jaws scattered on the floor, and the polished surfaces
-were uppermost, the rest of the fragments being rough.
-And Prof. Phillips informs me that the leg-bone of a
-ruminant was discovered wedged into a small fissure
-in the floor, with that portion which was within reach of
-the hyæna’s teeth gnawed away, while the rest was
-uninjured. The hyæna had lost his bone in the fissure,
-and was only able to nibble the end which projected.
-In these incidents we have a vivid picture of an hyæna’s
-den in Yorkshire during the pleistocene age, with the
-contents left in their natural order and not rearranged
-by the passage of water.</p>
-
-<p>The Victoria cave near Settle, in Yorkshire, described
-in the <a href="#CHAPTER_III">third</a> chapter, has also been occupied by hyænas.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_126"><i>Caves of Derbyshire: the Dream-cave near Wirksworth.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Dream-cave, near Wirksworth,<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">182</a> in Derbyshire,
-contrasts with that of Kirkdale in the perfect state of
-the bones which it contains. It was discovered in 1822,
-in following a vein of lead (<a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>). The miners
-suddenly broke into a hollow, <i>c</i>, filled with red earth
-and stones, and as they continued their shaft downwards
-the sides continually closed upon them until the roof of
-a cave was revealed. A nearly perfect skeleton of the
-rhinoceros was discovered in the earth, as well as bones
-of the horse, reindeer, and urus. After a large quantity
-of the earth had been removed, the surface soil, <i>i</i>, at a little
-distance began to sink, and ultimately a vertical shaft<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285">285</a></span>
-was found to connect the cave with the surface. Into
-this the animals had fallen, just as at the present time
-sheep and oxen frequently perish in similar natural pitfalls
-in the limestone strata.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_81" class="figcenter" style="width: 538px;">
-  <img src="images/i_285.jpg" width="538" height="432" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>&mdash;The Dream-cave, Wirksworth. (Buckland.)</p>
-
-<table id="list285" summary="identifiers">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">A</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Shaft following lead-vein.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">B</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Supposed continuation of lead-vein.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">C</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">D</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Swallow-hole.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">E</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Ossiferous loam.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">F</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Antler of deer.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">G</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Rhinoceros.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">H</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Limestone.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">I</span></td>
-    <td class="tdl">Natural entrance.</td></tr>
-</table>
-</div></div>
-
-<p>Other caves and fissures in Derbyshire have yielded
-remains of the extinct animals: those of Balleye, near
-Wirksworth, and of Doveholes, near Chaple-en-le-Frith,
-the mammoth, and a small cave in Hartle Dale, near
-Castleton, explored by Mr. Pennington and myself in
-1872, the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286">286</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_127"><i>The Caves of North Wales, near St. Asaph.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The ossiferous caves and fissures at Cefn, near St.
-Asaph, in the mountain limestone that forms the south
-side of the Vale of Clwyd, were first described in 1833,<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">183</a>
-by the Rev. Edward Stanley, afterwards Bishop of Norwich,
-who explored that which Mr. E. Lloyd had discovered
-about half-way down the vertical cliff, in the
-grounds of Cefn Hall. It consists of a narrow passage,
-turning on itself, and communicating with the surface of
-the cliff by two entrances, which were completely blocked
-up with red silt, containing a vast quantity of bones in
-very bad preservation. The bottom has not yet been
-reached. In one portion I found, in 1872, a deposit of
-comminuted bone with scarcely any mixture of loam,
-that rose in clouds of dust as it was disturbed. The
-animals belonged to the same class as those of Germany,
-the cave-bear, spotted hyæna, and reindeer, as well as
-the hippopotamus, <i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros
-hemitœchus</i> of the Kirkdale cave. Pebbles derived from
-the boulder clay, and rounded waterworn fragments of
-bone, showed that the contents had been introduced into
-this cave by a stream. Some of the remains, which
-were marked with teeth, may have been introduced by
-the hyænas. The flint-flakes found with the human
-skull and cut antlers of stag, already referred to in the
-<a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> chapter, were discovered in the lower entrance.</p>
-
-<p>The same group of animals has been obtained by Mrs.
-Williams Wynn, the Rev. D.&nbsp;R. Thomas, and myself out
-of a horizontal cave at the head of the defile leading<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287">287</a></span>
-down from Cefn to Pont Newydd, in which the remains
-are embedded in a stiff clay, consisting of rearranged
-boulder clay, and are in the condition of waterworn
-pebbles. From it I have identified the brown, grizzly,
-and cave-bear. A further examination by the Rev. D.
-R. Thomas, and Prof. Hughes, has recently resulted in
-the discovery of rude implements of felstone, and a tooth
-which has been identified by Prof. Busk as a human
-molar of unusual size.<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">184</a></p>
-
-<div id="Fig_82" class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;">
-  <img src="images/i_287.jpg" width="442" height="236" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>&mdash;Left Lower Jaw of Glutton, Plas Heaton Cave.</div></div>
-
-<p>A third cave in the neighbourhood at Plas Heaton,
-explored in 1870 by Mr. Heaton and Prof. Hughes, furnished
-the remains of the cave-bear, spotted hyæna, bison,
-and reindeer, and a remarkably fine specimen of the lower
-jaw of a glutton (<a href="#Fig_82">Fig. 82</a>), which I have described in the
-“Geological Journal” (vol. xxvii. p. 406). In a fourth
-cave, at Gallfaenan, the bear and reindeer were discovered.
-It is evident from the presence of numerous
-bones gnawed by hyænas in these caves, that the valleys
-of the Clwyd and the Elwy were the favourite haunts
-of that animal in the pleistocene age.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288">288</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_128"><i>Caves of South Wales in the counties of Glamorgan
-and Caermarthen.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The earliest cavern explored in South Wales is that
-of Crawley Rocks,<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">185</a> Oxwich Bay, about twelve miles from
-Swansea. It was discovered in quarrying the mountain
-limestone in 1792, and contained the remains of the
-elephant, rhinoceros, ox, stag, and hyæna. It was completely
-destroyed before Dr. Buckland identified these
-animals in the collection of Miss Talbot of Penrice Castle.<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">186</a></p>
-
-<p>The line of cliffs, bounding the rocky peninsula of
-Gower, contains the cave of Paviland, described in the
-<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">seventh</a> chapter (<a href="#Page_232">p.&nbsp;232</a>), as well as the group explored by
-Colonel Wood of Start Hall, from the year 1848<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">187</a> to the
-present time, Bacon Hole, Minchin Hole, Bosco’s Den,
-Devil’s Hole, Crow Hole, Raven’s Cliff, Spritsail Tor, and
-Long Hole, which are described by the late Dr. Falconer.
-The <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i> was met with in comparative
-abundance, and in association with the woolly rhinoceros,
-mammoth, and <i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus</i>. In Bosco’s Den there
-were no less than 750 shed antlers of reindeer; and in
-Long Hole, many flint-flakes were discovered in 1860
-underneath the stalagmite, and in association with the
-extinct mammalia, which prove, as Dr. Falconer points
-out, that man inhabited that district in the pleistocene
-age.</p>
-
-<p>These caves and fissures were at all levels in the cliff,
-and in some the bottoms were covered with a stratum of
-marine sand with sea shells, which showed that they
-had been washed by the sea before they had been filled
-by the ossiferous débris. Most of them had probably<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289">289</a></span>
-been filled by streams in the same manner as Gailenreuth
-and Wirksworth. They abound on the coast
-merely because a clear section has been worn by the
-waves. A straight cut through the rocks in any part of
-the district would probably show them to occur in equal
-abundance inland.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_129"><i>Caves in Pembrokeshire.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The patches of limestone on the opposite side of Caermarthen
-Bay, in the neighbourhood of Tenby, also
-contain ossiferous caverns. The Rev. G.&nbsp;N. Smith,<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">188</a> of
-Gumfriston, has made a fine collection of bones and
-teeth of mammoth and hyæna, from a fissure in the
-Blackrock Quarry, close to Tenby, from a fissure in the
-cliff on Caldy Island, and from the Coygan cave in an
-outlier of limestone, near Pendine, and has discovered
-flakes of flint and of a peculiar hornstone in the “tunnel
-cave” termed the Hoyle, underneath stalagmite, in a
-stratum containing bones of the bear and reindeer.
-With the exception of the fissure in the Blackrock
-Quarry none of these have been fully explored. On a
-visit to Tenby, in 1872, I obtained many flint flakes, and
-bones broken by man, from the breccia in the Hoyle;
-and from a fissure on Caldy Island, numerous bones and
-teeth of young wolves, which represented a whole litter,
-and two metatarsals of bison, cemented together into a
-compact mass.</p>
-
-<p>The discovery of mammoth, rhinoceros, horse, Irish
-elk, bison, wolf, lion, and bear, on so small an island as
-Caldy, indicates that a considerable change has taken<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290">290</a></span>
-place in the relation of the land to the sea in that district
-since those animals were alive. It would have
-been impossible for so many and so large animals to
-have obtained food on so small an island. It may
-therefore be reasonably concluded that, when they
-perished in the fissures, Caldy was not an island, but
-a precipitous hill, overlooking the broad valley now
-covered by the waters of the Bristol Channel, but then
-affording abundant pasture. The same inference may
-also be drawn from the vast numbers of animals found
-in the Gower caves, which could not have been supported
-by the scant herbage of the limestone hills of that district.
-We must, therefore, picture to ourselves a fertile
-plain occupying the whole of the Bristol Channel, and
-supporting herds of reindeer, horses, and bisons, many
-elephants and rhinoceroses, and now and then being
-traversed by a stray hippopotamus, which would
-afford abundant prey to the lions, bears, and hyænas
-inhabiting all the accessible caves, as well as to their
-great enemy and destroyer man. We shall see in the
-<a href="#CHAPTER_IX">ninth</a> chapter that the elevation of the whole district
-above its present level is part of the general elevation
-of north-western Europe, and no mere small or local
-phenomenon.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_130"><i>Cave in Monmouthshire.</i></h3>
-
-<p>King Arthur’s cave,<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">189</a> on the side of a beautifully
-wooded knoll, overlooking the valley of the Wye, near
-Whitchurch, in Monmouthshire, explored by the Rev.
-W.&nbsp;S. Symonds in 1871, is a hyæna den, like that of
-Kirkdale, containing the gnawed remains of the lion,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291">291</a></span>
-Irish elk, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and reindeer.
-Flint flakes, however, occurred in the undisturbed strata,
-which prove that it was also the resort of man. Mr.
-Symonds believes that the sand and gravel inside were
-deposited by the Wye, at a time when it flowed 300
-feet above its present course, or before the valley was
-cut down to that depth. If this conclusion be true, the
-date of the occupation must be separated from the present
-day by a vast interval, which is only to be measured
-by the subsequent erosion of the valley by the slow
-operation of the subaerial agents, running water, ice,
-snow, and carbonic acid.</p>
-
-<p>The only remains of the mammoth which I have
-examined belong to young individuals, and consist of the
-second and third milk-molars, a fact which I have very
-generally observed in hyænas’ dens. The older mammoths
-would not fall an easy prey to so cowardly an
-animal. The cave had also been inhabited by man after
-the pleistocene age, for coarse pottery of the neolithic
-kind, and flint flakes, were dug out of an upper stratum,
-while I was watching the excavation, in company with
-the Rev. W.&nbsp;S. Symonds, and the “Wanderers” field club.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_131"><i>Caves of Gloucestershire and Somersetshire.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The outliers of mountain limestone, on the southern
-side of the Bristol Channel, have long been known for
-their ossiferous caverns and fissures. From a fissure in
-Durdham Down,<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">190</a> near Bristol, Mr. J.&nbsp;S. Miller obtained
-fragments of bones, about the year 1820, and among
-them Dr. Buckland notices the fossil joint of the hind-leg
-of a horse, the astragalus being held in natural position,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292">292</a></span>
-between the tibia and the calcaneum, by stalagmite.
-Subsequently a large series of animals of the same
-species as those of Gower were discovered in it by Mr.
-Stutchbury, and are preserved in the Bristol Museum.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_132"><i>Caves of the Mendip Hills.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The caves of the Mendip Hills were known to contain
-bones as early as the middle of the eighteenth century,
-when that of Hutton,<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">191</a> near Weston-super-Mare, was discovered
-in working the ochre and calamine which fills
-some of the fissures. The miners having opened an
-ochre pit, south of the little village of Hutton, discovered
-a fissure in the limestone full of good ochre, which they
-followed to a depth of eight yards, until it led into a
-cavern, the floor of which was formed of ochre, with large
-quantities of white bones on the surface, and scattered
-through its mass. Dr. Calcott describes the bones as
-projecting from the sides, roof, and floor of the excavation
-in such quantities as to resemble the contents of a
-charnel-house. Subsequently it was fully explored by
-the Rev. D. Williams, and Mr. Beard, of Banwell.</p>
-
-<p>We owe the exploration of the neighbouring caves
-of Banwell, Sandford Hill, Bleadon, Goat’s Hole, in
-Burrington Combe, and Uphill,<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">192</a> to the joint labours of
-the two above-mentioned gentlemen, extending over
-the period which elapsed between 1821 and 1860. The
-vast quantity of remains which they obtained can only
-be realized by a visit to the Museum of the Somerset
-Archæological and Natural History Society, at Taunton.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293">293</a></span><a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">193</a>
-They belong to the same species as those already mentioned
-from the caves of South Wales. The fauna of the
-Mendip is, however, characterized by the great number
-of lions, and by a few fragments of the glutton. Of the
-former animal, Mr. Ayshford Sanford and myself have
-met with sufficient remains to figure nearly every portion
-of the skeleton, and the skulls prove that it was
-not a tiger, as it is considered to be by some naturalists,
-but a true lion, differing in no respect, except in its large
-size, from those now living in Asia and Africa.</p>
-
-<p>All these caverns consist of chambers at various levels
-more or less connected with fissures, and, from the perfect
-condition of the bones they must have been inaccessible
-to the bone-destroying hyæna. Their contents
-were introduced, as is suggested by Dr. Buckland, from
-the surface by streams falling into swallow-holes (see
-<a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>), which have now, under the changed physical
-conditions, ceased to flow.</p>
-
-<p id="hdr_133">The extraordinary quantity of remains preserved in
-one cave may be, to some extent, verified by a visit to
-that at Banwell. It consists of two large chambers,
-the upper one filled with thousands of bones of bison,
-horse, and reindeer, taken out of the red silt which
-originally filled it to the roof; the lower one full
-of the undisturbed contents, from which the bones
-project in the wildest confusion. This accumulation
-has been introduced by water, through a vertical fissure
-which opened on the surface. It is evident, from
-the very nearly perfect skulls of wolf and bear which
-were discovered, that the cave was not used as a den
-by the hyænas. They are, however, proved to have
-been living close by at the time, since their skulls, and
-the gnawed antlers of reindeer, have been discovered<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294">294</a></span>
-inside. They were probably swept in by the stream
-along with the other bones.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_134"><i>The Uphill Cave.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Cave of Uphill,<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">194</a> discovered in 1826, by some
-workmen, and explored by the Rev. D. Williams, merits
-especial notice, from the peculiar conditions under which
-the remains of the extinct animals occurred. Like the
-other caves of the Mendips, it consists of fissures opening
-into chambers. In the upper part of one of these
-fissures were the remains of rhinoceros, hyæna, bear,
-horse, bison, and wild boar, imbedded in loam which
-rested on two large masses of limestone that had fallen
-so as to block up the fissure. Below this were no remains
-of the extinct animals, and the fissure ultimately
-led into a cave opening upon the line of cliffs. This
-latter had been inhabited within historic times, since
-many bones of sheep, or goat, and pieces of pottery,
-were met with, as well as a coin of the Emperor Julian.
-In this case, owing to the extraordinary accident of the
-fissure being blocked up by a fall of stone, the pleistocene
-accumulation is vertically above the historic; and
-had the barrier given way, Mr. Williams would undoubtedly
-have discovered the remains of the extinct
-mammalia, lying in a heap above the comparatively
-modern historic stratum. It seems to me very probable
-that some such accident may have caused the occurrence
-of the pleiocene machairodus in the Kent’s Hole cavern,
-in association with the pleistocene mammalia. In the
-long lapse of ages between the pleistocene and the present
-day, such accidents would be likely to occur in some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295">295</a></span>
-few caverns, and we might expect to find remains of
-widely different ages, in certain exceptional cases, lying
-side by side, or even the older resting vertically over the
-newer. At all events we must conclude, that superposition,
-or association, cannot be rigidly enforced as
-tests of relative age in all ossiferous caverns.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_135"><i>The Hyæna-den of Wookey Hole.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The Hyæna-den of Wookey Hole,<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">195</a> near Wells, on the
-south side of the Mendips, which I explored with the
-Rev. J. Williamson in 1859, and in the following years
-with Messrs. Willett, Parker, and Ayshford Sanford, is
-worthy of a more detailed notice, because it was among
-the first caverns in this country in which works of art
-were found under conditions that proved the co-existence
-of man with the extinct mammalia.</p>
-
-<p>The ravine in which it was discovered, in 1852, is one
-of the many which pierce the dolomitic conglomerate,
-or petrified sea-beach, of the Triassic age, resting at the
-foot of the cliffs from which it was torn by the waves,
-and overlying the lower slopes of the Mendips (see
-<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>). Open to the south, it runs almost horizontally
-into the mountain-side, until closed abruptly northwards
-by a perpendicular wall of rock, 200 feet or more in
-height, ivy-covered, and affording a dwelling-place to
-innumerable jackdaws. Out of a cave at its base, in
-which Dr. Buckland discovered pottery and human teeth,
-flows the river Axe, in a canal cut in the rock. In
-cutting this passage, that the water might be conveyed
-to a large paper-mill close by, the mouth of the hyæna-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296">296</a></span>den
-was intersected in 1852, and from that time up to
-December 1859 it was undisturbed save by rabbits and
-badgers, and even they did not penetrate far into the
-interior, or make deep burrows. Close to the mouth of
-the cave the workmen (employed in making this canal)
-found more than 300 Roman coins, among which were
-those of Allectus and of Commodus. When the Rev. J.
-Williamson and myself began our exploration, about
-twelve feet of the entrance of the cave had been cut
-away, and large quantities of the earth, stones, and animal
-remains had been used in the formation of an embankment
-for the stream which runs past the present entrance of
-the cave.</p>
-
-<p>According to the testimony of the workmen, the bones
-and teeth formed a layer about twelve inches in thickness,
-which rested immediately upon the conglomerate-floor,
-while they were comparatively scarce in the overlying
-mass of stones and red earth. The workmen state
-also that at the time of the discovery of the cave the hillside
-presented no concavity to mark its presence. So completely
-was the cave filled with débris up to the very roof,
-that we were compelled to cut our way into it. Of the
-stones scattered irregularly through the matrix of red
-earth, some were angular, others water-worn; all are
-derived from the decomposition of the dolomitic conglomerate
-in which the cave is hollowed. Near the
-entrance, and at a depth of five feet from the roof, were
-three layers of peroxide of manganese, full of bony
-splinters, and, passing obliquely up towards the southern
-side of the cave and over a ledge of rock that rises
-abruptly from the floor: further inwards they became
-interblended one with another, and at a distance of
-fifteen feet from the entrance were barely visible. In<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297">297</a></span>
-and between these the animal remains were found in
-the greatest abundance.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_83" class="figcenter" style="width: 439px;">
-  <img src="images/i_297.jpg" width="439" height="637" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>&mdash;Plan of Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole.</p>
-
-  <p>Right lines = sections; dotted areas = bone-beds; shaded areas = ashes and implements.</p></div></div>
-
-<p>While cutting our way inwards (<a href="#Fig_83">Figs. 83</a> and <a href="#Fig_88">88</a>), we
-found an angular piece of flint, which had evidently been
-chipped by human agency, and a water-worn fragment
-of a belemnite, which probably had been derived from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298">298</a></span>
-the neighbouring marlstone rocks. Bones and teeth of
-the woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, stag, Irish elk, mammoth,
-hyæna, cave-bear, lion, wolf, fox, and horse rewarded
-our labours; and frogs’ remains, cemented together by
-stalagmite, were abundant at the mouth. The teeth
-preponderated greatly over the bones, and the great bulk
-were those of the horse. The hyæna-teeth also were
-very numerous, and in all stages of growth, from the
-young unworn to the old tooth worn down to the very
-gums. Those of the mammoth had belonged to a young
-animal, and one had not been used at all. The hollow
-bones were completely smashed and splintered, and
-scored with tooth-marks, while the solid carpal, tarsal,
-and sesamoid bones were uninjured, as in the Kirkdale
-Cave. The organic remains were in all stages of decay,
-some crumbling to dust at the touch, while others were
-perfectly preserved and had lost very little of their
-gelatine.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_84" class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;">
-  <img src="images/i_299.jpg" width="378" height="600" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 84, 85, 86, 87.</span>&mdash;Four Views of Flint Implements found in the Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole, near Wells.</div></div>
-
-<p>In 1860 we resumed our excavations; and, in addition
-to the above remains, found satisfactory evidence of
-the former presence of man in the cave. Our search
-was rewarded by one oval implement of white flint, of
-rude workmanship (<a href="#Fig_84">Figs. 84, 85, 86, 87</a>), one chert
-arrow-head, a roughly-chipped and a round flattened
-piece of chert, together with various splinters of flint,
-which had apparently been knocked off in the manufacture
-of some implement. Two rudely-fashioned bone
-arrow-heads were also found, which unfortunately were
-subsequently lost by the photographer to whom they
-were sent; they resembled in shape an equilateral
-triangle with the angles at the base bevelled off. All
-were found in and around the same spot, in contact
-with some hyæna-teeth, between the dark bands of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299">299</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_300">300</a></span>
-manganese, at a depth of four feet from the roof, and
-at a distance of twelve feet from the present entrance
-(<a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, <i>a</i>).</p>
-
-<p>That there might be no mistake about the accuracy
-of the observations, I examined every shovelful of débris
-as it was thrown out by the workman; while the
-exact spot where they were excavating was watched by
-my colleague. The figured implement was picked out
-of the undisturbed matrix by him; the rest were found
-by me in the earth thrown out from the same place.</p>
-
-<p>The lines of peroxide of manganese must have been
-accumulated on the old floors of the cave, because they
-were associated with numerous splinters and gnawed
-animal remains; and there can be no doubt that the latter
-were introduced by the hyænas. Those animals have
-a peculiar habit, as Dr. Buckland proved by experiment,
-of gnawing similar bones in precisely the same way;
-and a comparison of the relics of the meals of the hyænas
-in the Zoological Gardens with those in the cave, shows
-that the latter have passed between the jaws of a like
-animal that once inhabited Somersetshire. Coprolites of
-the same animal were very abundant, and in some places
-formed a greyish-white layer of phosphate of lime.
-There were also other equally unmistakeable traces of
-the animal in fragments of bone, polished by their
-tread, as in the Kirkdale cave. It is, therefore, only
-reasonable to suppose that these remains of animals were
-brought into the cave from time to time by hyænas,
-and left on the floors. That they were not introduced
-by water is proved by the preservation of the delicate
-processes and points of bone, which would certainly have
-been broken <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in transitu</i>. Since, then, the implements,
-which, beyond doubt, had been fashioned by man, were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301">301</a></span>
-underneath one of these old floors, it was certain that
-man was contemporary in the district with the hyæna
-and the animals on which it preyed, and the fact that
-they were found only on one spot implies that they
-were deposited by the hand of man. To suppose that
-a savage would take the trouble to excavate a trench
-twenty-four feet long&mdash;for twelve feet of the former
-mouth of the cave had been cut away&mdash;with miserable
-implements, and consequently with great labour, and
-having excavated it again to fill it up to the very roof,
-is little less than absurd. Nor could such an operation
-take place in such a deposit, without the stratification of
-the layers being destroyed. The absence of pottery and
-human bones precludes the idea of the cave ever having
-been a place of sepulture, such as Aurignac or Bruniquel.
-This discovery, therefore, of itself stamps the contemporaneity
-of man with the extinct mammalia, and following
-close on the similar discoveries in Brixham cave, to be
-mentioned presently, puts the question beyond all doubt.</p>
-
-<p>In April 1861 we resumed our excavations; and, as
-we made our way inwards, found that the cave began to
-narrow, and ultimately to bifurcate, one branch extending
-vertically upwards, while the other appeared to
-extend almost horizontally to the right hand. As we
-reached the middle constricted passage, the teeth became
-fewer, while the stones were of larger size than any that
-we had hitherto discovered. The great majority of the
-gnawed antlers of deer were found at this part, also the
-posterior half of a cervine skull, the right upper jaw of
-wolf, and, what is more remarkable, a stone with one of
-its surfaces coated with a deposit apparently of stalagmite:
-this, however, was much lighter than stalagmite,
-and not so good a conductor of heat; and, on analysis,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302">302</a></span>
-I found that it consisted of phosphate of lime, with a
-little carbonate, and a very small portion of peroxide of
-manganese. Doubtless the surface of the stone, covered
-with phosphate of lime, formed part of the ancient floor
-of the cave, and hence was coated with <i class="anatomy">album græcum</i>;
-while the lower part, being imbedded in the earth on the
-floor, was not so coated. This deposit may, perhaps,
-explain the absence of round balls of coprolite, which,
-assuming that the cave at the time was more damp than
-that at Kirkdale, would be trodden down on the floor
-by the hyænas, instead of presenting a rounded form.
-The stone also itself exhibits tooth-marks underneath
-the coating of <i class="anatomy">album græcum</i>, and probably was gnawed
-by the hyænas, like the antlers, for amusement. This
-discovery proves that violent watery action had but
-small share, if any, in filling the cave; for in that case
-the soft covering would have been removed from the
-stone. Similar evidence is offered by the wonderful
-preservation of some of the more delicate fragments of
-bone, such as the palatine process of the maxilla of the
-wolf.</p>
-
-<p>The section made in cutting this passage presented
-irregular layers of peroxide of manganese, full of bony
-splinters, and each more or less covered by a layer of
-bones in various stages of decay. These layers were
-absent from the upper portion of the passage. There
-were masses of prisms of calc-spar scattered confusedly
-through the matrix. After excavating the vertical
-branch as far as we dared (for the large stones in it
-made the task dangerous), we were compelled to leave
-off, having penetrated altogether only thirty-four feet
-from the entrance. No flint implements rewarded our
-search this year. Teeth were far more numerous than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303">303</a></span>
-bones, probably because they are more durable as well
-as because of their rejection by the hyænas. One jaw
-was bitten in two, and the fragments found about a foot
-apart in the undisturbed matrix, just as they had been
-dropped from the mouth of the hyæna.</p>
-
-<p>In the spring of 1862 Mr. Parker, Mr. Willett, and
-myself resolved to verify the association of articles of
-man’s handiwork along with the extinct mammalia, by
-cleaning out the cave, which was courteously placed at
-our disposal by the owner, Mr. Hodgekinson.</p>
-
-<p>Our first task was to clear the contents out of the
-portion of the cave nearest the mouth, or the antrum
-(<a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>), and as we excavated onwards many traces
-of the presence of man were met with. A wide area on
-the left-hand side (<i>b</i>), where the roof and floor of the
-cave gradually met together, furnished innumerable fragments
-of charcoal, and many flint implements associated
-with the remains of the horse, rhinoceros, and hyæna.
-One fragment of bone in particular, belonging to the
-rhinoceros, had been calcined, and its carbonized condition
-bore unmistakeable testimony that it had been
-burnt while the animal juices were present. There were
-many other bones also burnt, which indicated the place
-where fires had been kindled, and food cooked. As we
-dug our way forward we met with a third area (<i>c</i>), that
-furnished flint and chert implements under the same conditions
-of deposit as that which tempted us to carry on
-our excavations. Its relation to the old floors of hyæna-occupation
-is shown by the dark lines over the area <i>c</i>
-in <a href="#Fig_88">Fig. 88</a>. At last the large open chamber (<span class="smcap smaller">A</span>) was
-cleared; it measured about thirty feet wide by six feet
-high, and it extended forty feet inwards. On the left
-there was a small upward-turning passage, very nearly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304">304</a></span>
-blocked up with a mass of stalagmite; at the farther
-end a vertical fissure extended upwards (<span class="smcap smaller">F</span>), to the surface.
-This fissure has subsequently been proved to extend
-downwards to the right, and will doubtless furnish
-large quantities of animal remains to future explorers.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_88" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-  <img src="images/i_304.jpg" width="600" height="417" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>&mdash;Section through <span class="smcap smaller">A</span> of <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, showing contents of Hyæna-den.<br />
-  <i>c</i> = flint implements; thick lines above = old floors.</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_89" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
-  <img src="images/i_305.jpg" width="267" height="117" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>&mdash;Transverse Section through <span class="smcap smaller">B</span> of <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>.<br />
-  1 = red earth; 2 = bone-bed; 3 = dark earth.</div></div>
-
-<p>The large chamber now turned abruptly to the left,
-and we gradually worked our way into a small horizontal
-passage about four feet high. Here there was an
-interval of from three to four inches between the roof
-and contents, traversed by stalactites, which in some
-places formed a smooth undulating drapery with stony
-tassels, and in others tiny pillars extending down to the
-débris, and, as it were, propping up the roof. These
-pedestals (see <a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a>) gradually expanded into round
-plates of stalagmite, which sometimes met and formed a
-continuous crust. In some places an infiltration of carbonate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305">305</a></span>
-of lime had cemented organic remains, stones,
-and earth into a hard mass, which had to be broken up
-with gunpowder before it could be removed out of the
-cave. The excitement of extracting from these blocks
-their treasures was of the very keenest, for we could not
-tell what a stroke of the hammer would reveal. Sometimes
-an elephant’s tooth suddenly came to light, at
-others a hyæna’s jaw, or a rhinoceros’ tooth, or the
-antler of a reindeer, or the canine of a bear. The bones
-were so numerous that they scarcely attracted attention.
-In one fragment of this breccia, now in the Brighton
-Museum, are a tusk and carpal of mammoth, the right
-ulna of the woolly rhinoceros, and an antler of reindeer.
-In a second, two shoulder-blades and two haunch bones
-of the woolly rhinoceros, with a coprolite and lower jaw
-of cave hyæna. As the men removed the large blocks
-they were brought to the mouth of the cave to be
-broken up by our smaller instruments. Presently the
-passage narrowed to about six feet, and presented the
-following section (<a href="#Fig_89">Fig. 89</a>). On the floor of the cave
-there was a layer of red earth two feet in thickness,
-and, as usual, containing a few organic remains and
-many stones (<a href="#Fig_89">Fig. 89</a>, 1). Upon this rested a most
-remarkable accumulation of bones, and teeth, matted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306">306</a></span>
-and compacted together, from three to four inches thick,
-and extending horizontally from one side of the passage
-to the other (<a href="#Fig_89">Fig. 89</a>, 2). Next came a layer of dark
-red earth (<a href="#Fig_89">Fig. 89</a>, 3), loose and friable, three to four
-inches thick, supporting in its surface a few rounded
-stalagmites, and a few stalactitic pillars, that spanned
-the interval of from three to four inches between it and
-the roof. This bone-bed was about seven feet wide and
-fourteen feet long, affording, therefore, a square area of
-ninety-eight feet (see dotted area <span class="smcap smaller">B</span> <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, and in <a href="#Fig_90">Fig. 90</a>). The enormous quantity of the remains of animals
-present cannot fairly be estimated even by the large
-number preserved, because most of the bones were as
-soft as wet mortar. The five hundred and fifty specimens
-obtained must be looked upon merely as a small
-fraction of the whole.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_90" class="figcenter" style="width: 536px;">
-  <img src="images/i_306.jpg" width="536" height="145" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal Section through <span class="smcap smaller">B</span> and <span class="smcap smaller">C</span> of <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, showing bone-beds.<br />
-  Dotted area = bone-bed.</div></div>
-
-<p>We presently passed beyond the bone-bed, and found
-that the passage bifurcated (<a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span> and <span class="smcap smaller">D</span>), the
-smaller branch going straight forwards and gently upwards
-(<a href="#Fig_90">Fig. 90</a>), while the larger stretched at right
-angles from it and passed gently downwards. In the
-former there was a second bone-bed similar in every
-respect to that already described, which continued
-undiminished in thickness until it rested directly on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307">307</a></span>
-the floor. It afforded a square area of about fifteen
-feet. The passage was about sixteen inches high and
-three feet wide, and gradually narrowed until at a
-distance of twelve feet from the bifurcation a stalactite
-six inches long reached the floor and formed a vertical
-bar, as if to forbid another ingress. When this had
-been explored as far as we could crawl, the larger branch
-(<a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">D</span>, and <a href="#Fig_91">Fig. 91</a>) engaged our attention, and we
-soon discovered a third layer of bones of the same character
-as the others, and in the same position, excepting
-that in some places it was in immediate contact with
-the roof. In width it was six, in length fourteen, and
-in square area eighty-four feet. From its further end to
-the termination of the passage there was not the slightest
-vestige of bones or teeth, and a stiff grey clay rested on
-a horizontal layer of sand on the floor. Here the passage
-suddenly turned upwards until it became so small
-and barren that it was not worth our while to pursue it
-farther. It doubtless rises to the surface, like the large
-fissure opposite the entrance of the cave shown in <a href="#Fig_88">Fig. 88</a>.<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">196</a></p>
-
-<p>The exploration was resumed the following year by
-Mr. Ayshford Sanford and myself, and yielded vast<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308">308</a></span>
-quantities of fossil remains. We cleared out the space
-marked 1863 in the plan, and discovered a flint implement
-at the point marked <i>d</i>, in <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>. My friend the
-late Mr. Wickham Flower has also worked the cave,
-more particularly at the right-hand side of the entrance
-chamber.</p>
-
-<p>The ashes and implements were found in positions,
-near the mouth of the cave, where man himself may
-have placed them (see <a href="#Fig_83">Figs. 83</a>, <a href="#Fig_88">88</a>), with the exception
-of the flint implement at <i>d</i>, and an ash of bone imbedded
-in the earthy matrix between the canine tooth
-and a coprolite of the hyæna, and cemented to a
-fragment of dolomitic conglomerate. This was found
-far in the cave, either at the entrance of the passage
-<span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, or in the middle of the passage <span class="smcap smaller">D</span>. The latter
-passage yielded the only rolled flint without traces of
-man’s handiwork. The materials out of which the implements
-were made were used pretty equally. All
-those, like <a href="#Fig_84">Fig. 84</a>, were of flint; all those chipped into
-a rounded form and flat-oval in section of chert from
-the Upper Greensand; while the flakes consisted of
-both used indifferently. Besides these three typical
-forms, which were most abundant, is a fourth, in form
-roughly pyramidal, with a smooth and flat base, and a
-cutting edge all round. Of these we found but two
-examples, both consisting of chert. In form they are
-exactly similar to several hundreds found in a British
-village at Stanlake, in Berkshire, and to those I discovered
-in a cemetery of the same age at Yarnton, near
-Oxford. They strongly resemble a cast I have of one
-found by M. Lartet in the cave of Aurignac. Were it
-not for this similarity, I should look upon them as
-cores from which flakes had been struck. The rest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309">309</a></span>
-are mere splinters, irregular in form, and probably
-made in the manufacture of the various flint and chert
-implements. All the flint implements have been altered
-in colour and structure, either by heat or, as is
-more probable, by some chemical action. Without exception,
-the old surfaces present a waxy lustre (by the
-absence of which forgeries are easily detected), the colour
-is of a uniform milk-white, and the ordinary conchoidal
-fracture is replaced by that of porcelain. Some are not
-harder than chalk. I have met with weathered and calcined
-flints in Sussex in which similar changes are
-observable, and in which the difference in the results of
-chemical action and heat can hardly be detected. The
-chert implements, on the other hand, show no traces of
-any such changes, but are similar in colour and structure
-to the rocks from which they came&mdash;the Upper Greensand
-of the Blackdown Hills.</p>
-
-<p>All the fragments of calcined bone, with the exception
-of one already mentioned, were found near the entrance
-(see <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, <i>b</i>), and in a place more suitable for a fire than
-any other in the cave. I can identify none of them as
-human. The coarse texture, the structure, and the
-thickness of one indicate a fragment of a long bone of the
-rhinoceros.<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">197</a> All resemble many splinters strewn about
-in other parts of the cave, which are not calcined, but
-were evidently introduced by the hyænas. The calcination
-may therefore be due to the accident of their lying
-upon the surface at the time the fire was kindled.</p>
-
-<p>The remains obtained in 1862&ndash;3 from three to four
-thousand in number, afford a vivid picture of the animal
-life of the time in Somerset. They belong to the following<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310">310</a></span>
-animals, the numbers representing the jaws and
-teeth only, and the <span class="locked">implements:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<table id="list_310" summary="numbers of remains">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Man</td>
-    <td class="tdr">35</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave-Hyæna</td>
-    <td class="tdr">467</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave-Lion</td>
-    <td class="tdr">15</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave-Bear</td>
-    <td class="tdr">27</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Grizzly Bear</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Brown Bear</td>
-    <td class="tdr">11</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Wolf</td>
-    <td class="tdr">7</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Fox</td>
-    <td class="tdr">8</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Mammoth</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Woolly Rhinoceros</td>
-    <td class="tdr">233</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i></td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Horse</td>
-    <td class="tdr">401</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Great Urus</td>
-    <td class="tdr">16</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Bison</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">The Irish Elk</td>
-    <td class="tdr">35</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Reindeer</td>
-    <td class="tdr">30</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Red Deer</td>
-    <td class="tdr">2</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">Lemming</td>
-    <td class="tdr">1</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>The remains of these animals were so intermingled
-that they must have been living together at the same
-time. They lie large with small, the more with the less
-dense, and are not in the least degree sorted by water.
-There is no evidence of the hyæna succeeding to the
-cave-bear, or the reindeer to the urus, or that the bears
-came here to die, as in some of the German caves, or
-that the herbivores fell, or were swept into open fissures,
-and left their remains, as in the caves of Hutton and
-Plymouth. On the contrary, the numerous jaws and
-teeth of hyæna, and the marks of those teeth upon nearly
-every one of the specimens, show that they alone introduced
-the remains that were found in such abundance.
-And they preyed not merely upon horses, uri,
-and other herbivores, but upon one another (<a href="#Fig_92">Figs. 92</a>, <a href="#Fig_93">93</a>), and they even overcame the cave-bear and
-lion in their full prime. Some of the bones of the
-larger animals, and in particular a leg-bone of a
-gigantic urus, have been broken short across and not
-bitten through&mdash;a circumstance which points towards
-one of the causes of the vast accumulation of bones in so
-small a cave. It is well known that wolves and hyænas<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311">311</a></span>
-at the present day are in the habit of hunting in packs,
-and of forcing their prey over precipices. The Wookey
-ravine is admirably situated for this mode of hunting,
-and would not fail to destroy any animal forced into it
-from the hill-side. It is therefore very probable that
-the hyænas sometimes caught their prey in this manner.
-They would not have dared to attack the bears and lions
-unless these had been disabled.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_91" class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;">
-  <img src="images/i_311.jpg" width="385" height="134" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal Section through <span class="smcap smaller">D</span> of <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>.<br />
-  Dotted area = bone-bed.</div></div>
-
-<p>But if all the remains of the animals were introduced
-by the hyænas, they certainly in some cases do not
-occupy the exact position in which they were left by
-those animals. One of the bone layers (<a href="#Fig_91">Fig. 91</a>)
-for instance, actually touched the roof. This, indeed,
-has been used as an argument in favour of their having
-been introduced by water, from some unknown repository.
-But if this hypothesis be admitted, we are landed
-in the following dilemma: either the introducing current
-of water must have passed down the vertical passages,
-or upwards through the horizontal mouth of the
-cave. In the former case the three bone layers would
-not have been found in the narrow passages, but would
-have been swept out into the wide chamber, where the
-force of the hypothetical current must have abated. In
-the latter case the great bulk of the remains would have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312">312</a></span>
-been found in the chamber, and not in the smaller passages.
-Moreover, the absence of marks of transport by
-water, and especially of that sorting action which water
-as a conveying agent always manifests, renders the view
-of their being so introduced untenable. On the other
-hand, the horizontality of the layers of bone, and the
-presence of sand and of red earth, imply that water was
-an agent in re-arranging the bones and in introducing
-some of the contents of the cave. The only solution of
-the difficulty that I can hazard is the occurrence of floods
-from time to time, during the occupation of the hyænas,
-similar to those which now take place in the caverns of the
-neighbourhood. A few years ago, the outlet of the Axe
-in the great cave was partially blocked up, and the water
-rose to a height of upwards of sixteen feet, leaving a
-horizontal deposit of red earth of the same nature as that
-in the hyæna-den. Now if we suppose that similar floods
-were caused by an obstruction in the ravine below the
-hyæna-den, it may have been flooded, just as the upper
-galleries of the great cave, and the water laden with
-sediment might have elevated the layers of matted bone,
-and some of the scattered remains on the surface, while
-the current was insufficient to disturb the stones, or to
-affect to any extent the deposits of former floods. The
-buoyancy of the organic remains is not required to be
-greater, on this hypothesis, than in that of their having
-been introduced by a current through the vertical passages.
-Some of the wet bones taken straight from the
-cave were sufficiently light to be carried down by the
-current of the Axe.</p>
-
-<p>All these facts taken together enable us to form a clear
-idea of the condition of things at the time the hyæna-den
-was inhabited. The hyænas were the normal occupants<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313">313</a></span>
-of the cave, and thither they brought their prey.
-We can realize those animals pursuing elephants and
-rhinoceroses along the slopes of the Mendip, till they
-scared them into the precipitous ravine, or watching until
-the strength of a disabled bear or lion ebbed away sufficiently
-to allow of its being overcome by their cowardly
-strength. Man appeared from time to time on the scene,
-a miserable savage armed with bow and spear, unacquainted
-with metals, but defended from the cold by coats
-of skin.<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">198</a> Sometimes he took possession of the den and
-drove out the hyænas; for it is impossible for both to
-have lived in the same cave at the same time. He
-kindled his fires at the entrance, to cook his food, and
-to keep away the wild animals; then he went away,
-and the hyænas came to their old abode. While all
-this was taking place there were floods from time to time
-until eventually the cave was completely blocked up
-with their deposits.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_92" class="figcenter" style="width: 424px;">
-  <img src="images/i_313.jpg" width="424" height="229" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>&mdash;Gnawed jaw of Hyæna, from Hyæna-den at Wookey (1/2).<br />
-  Dotted outline = portion eaten.</div></div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314">314</a></span>
-The winter cold at the time must have been very
-severe to admit of the presence of the reindeer and
-lemming.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_136"><i>The district of the Mendip Hills at a higher level than now.</i></h3>
-
-<p>When we reflect on the vast quantities of the remains
-of the animals buried in the caves of so limited an area
-as the Mendip Hills, it is evident that there must have
-been abundance of food to have enabled them to live
-in the district. The great marsh now extending from
-Wells to the sea, and cutting off the Mendips from the
-fertile region to the south, was probably a rich valley at a
-higher level than at present, joining the westward plains
-now submerged under the Bristol Channel. An elevation
-of from 100 to 300 feet would produce the physical
-conditions necessary for the sustenance of the herbivora
-found in the caves both in South Wales and Somersetshire.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_137"><i>The characters of a Hyæna-den.</i></h3>
-
-<div id="Fig_93" class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
-  <img src="images/i_315.jpg" width="700" height="388" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>&mdash;<span class="smcap smaller">A</span> and <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, upper and lower jaws of Hyæna-whelp, Wookey.</div></div>
-
-<p>The remains of the animals which have been eaten by
-the cave-hyæna, may be recognized by the following
-characters. All are more or less scored by teeth, and
-the only perfect bones are those which are solid, or of
-very dense texture. The skulls are represented merely
-by the harder portions. That of the woolly rhinoceros,
-for example, by the hard pedestal which supports the
-anterior horn (see <a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>). Several of these pedestals
-occurred in the Wookey hyæna-den. The lower jaws
-also have lost their angle and coronoid process, and are
-gnawed to the pattern of the shaded portion of <a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a>,
-the less succulent part bearing the teeth being rejected.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315">315</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_316">316</a></span>
-This holds good of the jaws of all the animals so persistently,
-that out of more than two hundred from
-Wookey there was only one exception. The jaw of the
-glutton (<a href="#Fig_82">Fig. 82</a>), from Plas
-Heaton, is also gnawed to
-the same shape, and one of
-those of the cave-bear from
-the cavern of Lherm, considered
-by M. Garrigou to
-have been fashioned by the
-hand of man into an implement,
-seems to me, after a
-careful comparison in company
-with Dr. Falconer, referable
-solely to the gnawing
-of the hyæna. In <a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a>, the lower jaw of an
-adult hyæna is represented,
-and in <a href="#Fig_93">Fig. 93</a> (1) the upper
-and lower jaws of a hyæna-whelp.
-In the latter the
-teeth marks <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are remarkably
-distinct.<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">199</a></p>
-
-<div id="Fig_94" class="figcenter" style="width: 248px;">
-  <img src="images/i_316.jpg" width="248" height="511" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>&mdash;Left Thigh-bone of Woolly Rhinoceros gnawed by Hyænas; Shaded parts left. (Wookey Hole.)</div></div>
-
-<p>The marrow-containing
-bones are also universally
-splintered away, until either
-the articular ends alone are left, as in <a href="#Fig_80">Fig. 80</a>, or in
-some cases, as in that of the femur of woolly rhinoceros
-(<a href="#Fig_94">Fig. 94</a>), the dense central portion bearing the
-third trochanter is preserved. This fragment is extremely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317">317</a></span>
-abundant in nearly all the hyæna-caves in
-this country. From the invariable habit of the hyæna
-leaving the bones of its prey in fragments of this
-kind, their dens are characterized by the absence of
-perfect long-bones and skulls, and consequently, when
-these occur in a cave it is certain proof that it was not
-occupied by these animals. In a great many caves,
-however, the gnawed fragments are associated with the
-perfect bones, as, for example, at Banwell, a circumstance
-that may be accounted for by the untouched carcases
-and the gnawed fragments being swept in from the
-surface by a stream falling into a swallow-hole. In all
-hyæna-dens also are large quantities of <i class="anatomy">album græcum</i>,
-as well as fragments of bone more or less polished by
-the friction of the hyæna’s feet.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_138"><i>The Caves of Devonshire.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The ossiferous caves on the south coast of Devonshire,
-explored during the last fifty years, are by far the most
-important in this country, since they were the first which
-were scientifically examined, and the first which established
-the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia.</p>
-
-<p>We owe the full details of their history to the labours
-of the distinguished cave-hunter Mr. Pengelly, F.R.S.,<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">200</a>
-whose writings are freely used in the following account.</p>
-
-<h3><i>The Oreston Caves.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The first intimation of the presence of fossil bones in
-the district was furnished by Mr. Whidbey, the engineer<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318">318</a></span>
-in charge of the construction of the Plymouth breakwater,
-who discovered numerous bones and teeth, imbedded
-in clayey loam, in some cavernous fissures at Oreston,
-which were brought before the Royal Society by Sir
-Everard Home in 1817. Thus Dr. Buckland’s researches
-in Kirkdale were anticipated by four years. From time
-to time, since that date, several other fissures and
-caves close by have furnished remains of rhinoceros,
-mammoth, hyæna, lion, and other animals. Among the
-bones and teeth originally sent up by Mr. Whidbey are
-several which were identified by Prof. Busk,<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">201</a> as belonging
-to the <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i>, a species that is
-vastly abundant in the pleiocene strata of northern Italy
-and is also represented in the early pleistocene forest-bed
-of Norfolk and Suffolk, and in the lower brickearths of
-the valley of the Thames at Grays and Crayford. This
-is the only case on record of the discovery of the animal
-in a cavern deposit.</p>
-
-<p>The cavernous fissures in the neighbourhood of Yealmpton,<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">202</a>
-about seven miles east-south-east from Plymouth,
-explored by Mr. Bellamy and Colonel Mudge, R.A., F.R.S.
-in 1835&ndash;6, contained the remains of the hyæna and
-rhinoceros, and the other animals more usually associated
-with them. They were probably filled, as in the case
-of Oreston, mainly by the streams which introduced the
-pebbles. They may, however, from time to time have
-been inhabited by the hyænas, although the presence of
-three skulls of that animal forbids the supposition that
-they dragged in all the fossil bones.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319">319</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_139"><i>The Caves at Brixham.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The series of fissures accidentally discovered in 1858,
-in quarrying the rock which overlooks the little fishing
-town of Brixham, known as the Windmill cave, was
-selected by the late Dr. Falconer,<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">203</a> as a spot in which
-thorough investigation would be likely to decide the then
-doubtful question of the co-existence of man with the
-extinct mammalia. Kent’s Hole had been disturbed by
-repeated diggings, and the results might be viewed with
-suspicion. He, therefore, urged the importance of a
-systematic examination of this virgin cave with such
-effect, that it was undertaken by the Royal and Geological
-Societies, and a committee was appointed, comprising,
-amongst others, Dr. Falconer, Prof. Ramsay, Mr.
-Prestwich, Sir Charles Lyell, Prof. Owen, Mr. Godwin-Austen,
-and Mr. Pengelly. To the superintendence of
-the last is mainly due the minute care with which the
-exploration was conducted. The remains have been
-identified by Dr. Falconer and Prof. Busk. The work
-was commenced in July 1858, and completed in the
-summer of 1859.<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">204</a></p>
-
-<p>The cave consists of three principal galleries, with
-diverging passages, running in the direction of the joints
-from north to south, and from east to west, communicating
-with the surface at four points. The following is
-the general section (<a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>) of the deposits in descending
-order.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320">320</a></span>
-(A.) On the floor was a layer of stalagmite, varying
-from a few inches to upwards of a foot in thickness,
-and containing only twenty-five bones, among which
-were the humerus of a bear, and the antler of a reindeer.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_95" class="figleft" style="width: 269px;">
-  <img src="images/i_320.jpg" width="269" height="464" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>&mdash;Diagram of Deposits in Brixham Cave. (Pengelly.)</div></div>
-
-<p>(B.) Reddish cave-earth with fragments and blocks
-of limestone, and of stalagmite, generally averaging from
-two to four feet. In it
-1,102 bones were discovered
-irregularly scattered
-through its mass, and
-belonging to mammoth,
-woolly rhinoceros, lion,
-cave, grizzly, and brown
-bears, reindeer, and others.
-They varied in state of
-preservation, and some
-were scored and marked
-by teeth. Associated with
-these, thirty-six rude flint
-implements were met with,
-of indisputable human
-workmanship, and of the
-same general order as
-those figured by the Rev.
-J. MacEnery from Kent’s
-Hole. Among them was
-one lanceolate implement
-with rounded point and unworked butt end, considered
-by Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., of the type of those usually
-found in the valley gravels.<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">205</a> There was, therefore, the
-most conclusive evidence that man inhabited the neighbourhood,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321">321</a></span>
-either before or during the time of the accumulation
-of <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, and before those physical changes took
-place by which the red silt ceased to be deposited, or
-the stalagmite above began to be formed.</p>
-
-<p>(C.) At the bottom of the cave-earth was a deposit of
-gravel, principally of rounded pebbles and devoid of
-fossils.</p>
-
-<p>The early history of the cave, as shown by these deposits,
-is given by Mr. Prestwich, in the report presented
-to the Royal Society, as <span class="locked">follows:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p>“Looking at all the phenomena of Brixham cave,
-the conclusion your reporter has arrived at is, that the
-formation of the cave commenced and was carried on
-simultaneously with the excavation of the valley; that
-the small streams flowing down the upper tributary
-branches of the valley entered the western openings of
-the cave and, traversing the fissures in the limestone,
-escaped by lower openings in the chief valley, just as
-the Grotto d’Arcy was formed by an overflow from the
-cave taking a short cut through the limestone hills,
-round which the river winds. These tributary streams
-brought in the shingle bed (<a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>), which fills the
-bottom of the fissure. It was only during occasional
-droughts, when the streams were dry, that the cave seems
-to have been frequented by animals, their remains being
-very scarce in that bed, while indications of man are comparatively
-numerous. As the excavation of the valley
-proceeded, the level of the stream was lowered and became
-more restricted to the valley-channel. The cave
-consequently became drier, and was more resorted to by
-predatory animals, who carried in their prey to devour,
-and was less frequented by man. At the same time with
-the periodical floods, which there is every reason to believe,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322">322</a></span>
-from other investigations, were so great during the quaternary
-period, the cave would long continue to be subject
-to inundations, the muddy waters of which deposited
-the silt forming the cave-earth, burying progressively the
-bones left from season to season by succeeding generations
-of beasts of prey. By the repetition at distant
-intervals of these inundations, and by the accumulation
-during the intervening periods of fresh crops of bones,
-the bone-bearing cave-earth, B, was gradually formed.
-During this time the occasional visits of man are indicated
-by the rare occurrence of a flint implement, lost,
-probably, as he groped his way through the dark passages
-of the cave. As the valley became deeper, and as
-with the change of climate at the close of the (pleistocene)
-quaternary period the floods became less, so did
-the cave become drier and more resorted to by animals.
-At last it seems to have become a place for permanent
-resort for bears; their remains in all stages of growth,
-including even sucking cubs, were met with in the upper
-part of the cave-earth, in greater numbers than were the
-bones of any other animals. These animals resorted
-especially to the darker and more secluded flint-knife
-gallery, where 221 out of 366 of their determinable bones
-were found, whereas only twenty-six were met with in
-the reindeer gallery.</p>
-
-<p>“Finally, as the cave became out of the reach of the
-flood waters, the drippings from the roof, which up to
-this period had, with the single exception before mentioned,
-been lost in the accumulating cave-earth, or deposited
-in thin calcareous incrustations on the exposed
-bones, now commenced that deposit of stalagmite which
-sealed up and preserved undisturbed the shingle and
-cave-earth deposited under former and different conditions.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323">323</a></span>
-The cave, however, still continued to be the
-occasional resort of beasts of prey; for sparse remains of
-the reindeer, together with those of the bear and rhinoceros,
-were found in the stalagmite floor. After a time
-the falling in of the roof at places (and any earthquake
-movement may have detached blocks from it), and the
-external surface weathering, stopped up some parts of the
-cave, and closed its entrances with an accumulation of
-débris. From that time it ceased to be accessible, except
-to the smaller rodents and burrowing animals, and
-so remained unused and untrodden until its recent discovery
-and exploration.”<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">206</a></p>
-
-<p>Mr. Pengelly points out<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">207</a> an episode in the history of
-the cave, between the formation and the filling up with
-its present contents, which is of considerable importance,
-viewed in relation to the deposits in Kent’s Hole. Over
-the empty space in <span class="smcap smaller">D</span>, of <a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>, is an ancient stalagmite
-floor, <span class="smcap smaller">E</span>, constituting the present ceiling, and shutting off
-D from the true roof above, <span class="smcap smaller">E</span>. At the time this was
-formed, the cave must have been filled up to that level
-with débris, fragments of which are set in the inferior
-portion of the calcareous sheet. Subsequently, and before
-the present contents, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span> and <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, were introduced, the
-whole of this material has been swept away, probably
-by an unusual flood similar to that alluded
-to in the <a href="#CHAPTER_II">second</a> chapter in the Clapham cave. The
-pieces of stalagmite in the cave-earth are, probably,
-some of the relics of the older floor. This filling up,
-re-excavating, and re-filling with its present contents,
-are phenomena which considerably complicate the problems<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324">324</a></span>
-offered not merely by Brixham cave, but also by
-those of Kent’s Hole.</p>
-
-<p>Two other caverns in the neighbourhood of Brixham,
-the “Ash Hole” and “Bench,” have also yielded the
-remains of the reindeer, hyæna, and several other
-pleistocene species, and are fully described by Mr.
-Pengelly, in his essays contributed to the Devonshire
-Association.<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">208</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_140"><i>Kent’s Hole.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The celebrated cave of Kent’s Hole,<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">209</a> known from time
-immemorial, was first found to contain fossil bones by
-Mr. Northmore, and Sir W.&nbsp;C. Trevelyan in 1824, and
-was subsequently explored by the Rev. J. MacEnery
-in the five following years, during which he met with
-flint implements in association with the extinct animals
-in the undisturbed strata, and obtained the teeth of
-the sabre-toothed feline, named by Prof. Owen <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus
-latidens</i>, which has never before or since been
-discovered in any other cavern in Britain. His manuscripts
-unfortunately were not used until they passed
-into the hands of Mr. Vivian, of Torquay, who published
-an abstract in 1859. Subsequently they were published
-in full by Mr. Pengelly, in 1869. The discovery of the
-flint implements, verified by Mr. Godwin Austen in
-1840, and six years later also by a committee of the
-Torquay Natural History Society, was received with incredulity
-by the scientific world, until the result of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325">325</a></span>
-exploration of the Brixham cave had placed the fact of
-the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia
-beyond all doubt. In 1864 a committee<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">210</a> was appointed
-by the British Association for the carrying on the investigation,
-which from that time to the present has been
-conducted under the careful supervision of Mr. Pengelly.</p>
-
-<p>The cave consists of two parallel series of chambers
-and galleries, an eastern and a western, which penetrate
-the low cliff of Devonian limestone in the direction of
-the joints, with a northern and southern entrance, very
-nearly at the same level, “about fifty feet apart, from
-180 to 190 feet above the level of mean tide, and about
-seventy feet above the bottom of the valley immediately
-adjacent.” The largest chamber of the eastern series is
-sixty-two feet from east to west, and fifty-three from
-north to south. The extent of the cave has not yet been
-ascertained.</p>
-
-<p>The contents, examined with the minutest care (on
-Mr. Pengelly’s method, see <a href="#APPENDIX_I">Appendix I</a>.), were found to
-be arranged in the following order.</p>
-
-<p>(A.) The surface was composed of dark earth varying
-in thickness from a few inches to a foot, on which rested
-large blocks of limestone, fallen from the roof. It contained
-mediæval remains, Roman pottery, and combs
-fashioned out of bone, similar to those discovered in the
-Victoria and Dowkerbottom caves in Yorkshire, which
-prove that the cave was frequented during the historic
-period. A barbed iron spear-head, a bronze spear-head,
-other bronze articles, and polished stone celts, establish<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_326">326</a></span>
-the fact that it was also used during the iron, bronze,
-and neolithic ages. This stratum contained the broken
-bones of the short-horn (<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>), goat, and
-horse, large quantities of charcoal, and was to a great
-extent a refuse-heap like that in the Victoria cave.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_96" class="figleft" style="width: 152px;">
-  <img src="images/i_326.jpg" width="152" height="383" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>&mdash;Lanceolate Implement from Kent’s Hole (1/1). (Evans.)<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">211</a></div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_97" class="figright" style="width: 314px;">
-  <img src="images/i_326r.jpg" width="314" height="400" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>&mdash;Oval Implement from Kent’s Hole (1/1) (Evans.)</div></div>
-
-<p>(B.) Below this was a stalagmite floor, varying in
-thickness from one to three feet, covering</p>
-
-<p>(C.) The red earth, with stones, bones of the extinct
-animals, and flint implements, associated together
-in the greatest confusion, as well as large lumps of
-stalagmite and of breccia, which had been torn out of a
-pre-existent floor. In the “vestibule,” near one of the
-entrances, a black layer beneath the stalagmite, composed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_327">327</a></span>
-to a great extent, of charcoal, indicated the
-position of the fire-places, and contained a vast number
-of rude unpolished palæolithic implements. There were
-also local stalagmitic bands. The flint implements were
-met with at various depths, and consist of three distinct
-types: the lanceolate, <a href="#Fig_96">Fig. 96</a>, the oval, with edge carefully
-chipped for cutting, <a href="#Fig_97">Fig. 97</a>, and the flake (see
-<a href="#Fig_106">Fig. 106</a>). Besides these a few implements have been
-discovered of the same shape as those found in the gravel
-beds; in outline and section roughly triangular, and
-tapering to a point from a blunt base, which was probably
-intended to be held in the hand.<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">212</a> Several articles
-of bone and antler were also met with, comprising an
-awl, or piercer, a needle with the eye large enough to
-admit small packthread, and three harpoon-heads, one of
-which is barbed on both sides (<a href="#Fig_98">Fig. 98</a>), the others being
-merely barbed on one side (<a href="#Fig_99">Fig. 99</a>). A rounded pebble
-of coarse red sandstone, battered into a cheese-like form,
-by being used as a hammer (<a href="#Fig_100">Fig. 100</a>), was also found.
-All these articles bring the palæolithic inhabitants of
-Kent’s Hole into relation with those of the caves and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_328">328</a></span>
-rock-shelters of the south of France, to be described in
-the next chapter.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_98" class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;">
-  <img src="images/i_327.jpg" width="313" height="78" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>&mdash;Harpoon from Kent’s Hole (1/1). (Evans.)</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_99" class="figcenter" style="width: 576px;">
-  <img src="images/i_327b.jpg" width="576" height="65" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>&mdash;Harpoon-head from Kent’s Hole (1/1). (Evans.)</div></div>
-
-<p>(D.) The cave-earth rested on a compact, dark red
-breccia composed of angular fragments of limestone and
-pebbles of sandstone embedded in a sandy calcareous
-paste, identical in constitution with the fragments of the
-older breccia discovered in the cave-earth. It has furnished
-bones of bears, and four flint implements. The
-cave-earth, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>, and the breccia, <span class="smcap smaller">E</span>, seem to stand to one
-another in an inverse ratio as regards thickness: where
-the former was thin, the latter was sometimes as much
-as twelve feet thick. From this relation, as well as from
-the imbedded fragments of the latter, it may be concluded
-that the former is the more modern, and that in
-the interval between their accumulation the latter had
-been, to a considerable extent, broken up.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_100" class="figcenter" style="width: 245px;">
-  <img src="images/i_328.jpg" width="245" height="173" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>&mdash;Hammer-stone (1/2). (Evans.)</div></div>
-
-<p>There is very good reason for the belief, that before
-any of the present cave-earth was introduced, Kent’s
-Hole had been filled nearly to the roof by an older
-cave accumulation, now represented by the undisturbed
-breccia and the included fragments. In a portion
-of the cave termed the “gallery,” there is a sheet of
-stalagmite, extending overhead from wall to wall, and
-constituting a ceiling that reaches from wall to wall,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_329">329</a></span>
-without further support than that offered by its own
-cohesion. Above it, in the limestone rock, there is a
-considerable alcove. This branch of the cavern, therefore,
-is divided into three stories or flats, that below the
-floor occupied with cave-earth, that between the floor
-and the ceiling entirely unoccupied, and that above the
-ceiling also without a deposit of any kind. For such a
-sheet of stalagmite to have been formed it is absolutely
-necessary for the cave to have been filled up to its level
-with materials of some kind, just as it is necessary for
-the formation of a film of ice that it should be crystallized
-from the surface of water. We may, therefore, infer
-that Kent’s Hole, like Brixham, was originally filled up
-to the level of the ceiling (see <a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">E</span>), then that the
-contents were swept out, with the exception of the
-breccia, and lastly, that the present cave-earth was
-introduced. The occurrence of the remains of bear, and
-of flint implements, in this breccia also proves that man
-and bears were living in the district, while it was being
-accumulated, probably by the action of the floods to
-which, from time to time, the cave was subjected. All
-the flint implements in the breccia are of the ruder and
-larger form which is presented by those from the pleistocene
-deposits of the Somme, Seine, and the rivers of the
-south and east of England.</p>
-
-<p>While engaged in the identification of the mammals
-in 1869, with Mr. W.&nbsp;A. Sanford, I detected splinters
-of bears’ canines, from the cave-earth, remarkable for
-their density, crystalline structure, and semi-conchoidal
-fracture, which were in the same mineral state as
-those from the older breccia. One of these had been
-fashioned into a flake after its mineralization, and presented
-an edge chipped by use. The tooth from which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_330">330</a></span>
-it was struck was, probably, imbedded and mineralized
-in the older breccia, then washed out of it, and afterwards
-chosen for the manufacture of an implement. It
-was already fossil and altered in structure in the palæolithic
-age.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_141"><i>The probable Age of the Machairodus of Kent’s Hole.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The most remarkable animal discovered in the cave,
-by the Rev. J. MacEnery, is the <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i>,<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">213</a>
-or large lion-like animal, armed with double-edged
-canines, in shape like the blade of a sabre, and with two
-serrated edges. Five canines and two incisors were dug
-out of the cave-earth, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>, in the Wolf’s Passage, along
-with vast quantities of bones and teeth of the mammoth,
-rhinoceros, Irish elk, horse, and hyæna. One of the
-canines is represented in <a href="#Fig_101">Figs. 101, 102</a>, which are taken
-from one of the original plates drawn for Dr. Buckland,
-and now in the Museum of the Torquay Natural History
-Society. The two incisors, <a href="#Fig_103">Figs. 103, 104, 105</a>, are
-also characterised by their serrated edges. A third was
-discovered by the exploration committee in the same
-spot, in 1872, scarcely to be distinguished from that in
-<a href="#Fig_103">Figs. 103, 104</a>, which finally dispelled the scepticism of
-some eminent naturalists as to whether any of these
-teeth had been obtained in the cave by the Rev. J. MacEnery.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_101" class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;">
-  <img src="images/i_331.jpg" width="326" height="493" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 101, 102.</span>&mdash;Upper Canine of Machairodus, Kent’s Hole (1/1). (MacEnery.)</div></div>
-
-<p>The <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i> has been found in pleistocene
-strata in two localities in France: in a deposit of
-diluvium, near Puy, by M. Aymard, and in the cavern
-of Baume in the Jura, considered by M. Lartet to be of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_331">331</a></span>
-preglacial age.<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">214</a> In the latter it was associated with the
-horse, ox, wild-boar, elephant, a non-tichorine species
-of rhinoceros, the cave-bear, and the spotted hyæna. In
-the autumn of 1873, I met with proof that the animal
-also lived in France in the pleiocene period. M. Lortet,
-the Director of the Museum of Natural History, at
-Lyons, called my attention to a canine, in the Palais des
-Beaux Arts, which coincides exactly in all its dimensions
-with one of those from Kent’s Hole. It was found at
-Chagny (Saône et Loire) near Dijon, along with <i class="taxonomy">Mastodon
-arvernensis</i>, the Etruscan or megarhine species of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_332">332</a></span>
-rhinoceros, horse, beaver and hyæna, somewhat resembling
-that from the Crag (<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna antiqua</i>) of Suffolk
-described by Mr. Lankester. The species, therefore, is
-pleiocene, and it belongs to a genus which is widely
-distributed in the meiocene strata of Europe and North
-America, as well as in the pleiocene of Europe.</p>
-
-<p>To what era in the complicated history of Kent’s Hole
-is this animal to be assigned? The more ancient, or the
-more modern? The evidence on this point is, to a certain
-extent, contradictory. On the one hand it is a pleiocene
-species, belonging to a group of animals that inhabited
-Europe before the lowering of the temperature caused
-the invasion of the arctic mammalia from the north and
-the east: it is moreover of a distinctly southern type.
-In the teeth marks on the incisors, <a href="#Fig_103">Figs. 103, 104, 105</a>,
-as well as on the canines, we have unmistakeable traces
-of the presence of the hyæna; and since the spotted
-hyæna abounds in the cave, to its teeth the marks in
-question may probably be referred. It seems, therefore,
-probable that the animal inhabited Devonshire during
-an early stage of the pleistocene period, before the arctic
-invaders had taken full possession of the valley of
-the English Channel, and of the low grounds which
-now lie within the 100-fathom line off the Atlantic
-shore of Western France. There must necessarily have
-been a swinging to and fro of animal life over the
-great, fertile low-lying region, which is now submerged
-(see Map, <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>); and before the temperature of
-France had been sufficiently lowered to exterminate or
-drive out the southern forms, it is most natural to
-suppose that in warm seasons some of the southern
-mammalia would find their way northwards, and especially<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_333">333</a></span>
-a formidable carnivore such as the machairodus.
-The extreme rarity of its remains forbids the hypothesis
-that it was a regular inhabitant of Britain during the
-pleistocene age.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_103" class="figcenter" style="width: 508px;">
-  <img src="images/i_333.jpg" width="508" height="317" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 103, 104, 105.</span>&mdash;Incisors of Machairodus, Kent’s Hole (1/1). (MacEnery.)<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">215</a></div></div>
-
-<p>On the other hand, the recent discovery of a second
-incisor in the uppermost portion of the cave-earth, in
-July 1872, in the same condition as the remains usually
-found, and associated with the bones and teeth of hyæna,
-horse, and bear, is considered by Sir Charles Lyell and
-Mr. Pengelly proof of the animal having lived during the
-deposition of the later cave-earth, or in the later stage
-of the pleistocene. The condition of a bone, however, is
-a very fallacious guide to its antiquity, and although the
-fragments of the older contents of the cave are in a different
-mineral state, it is improbable that the ossiferous
-contents of so large a cave should have been mineralized
-exactly in the same way. Nor is an appeal to its perfect<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_334">334</a></span>
-state conclusive, since several teeth of bear, which I have
-examined from the breccia, are equally perfect.</p>
-
-<p>The view of the high antiquity of machairodus in
-Kent’s Hole derives support from the discovery of <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros
-megarhinus</i> at Oreston, a species which is very
-abundant in the Italian pleiocene strata, and not uncommon
-in those of France,&mdash;a species with its headquarters
-in the south, but ranging as far north as Norfolk
-in the early stage of the pleistocene age, represented by
-the forest bed of Cromer, and that lived in the valley
-of the Thames, while the gravel-beds of Crayford and
-Grays Thurrock were being deposited by the ancient
-river. The occurrence of either of these animals in a
-cave is exceptional, and the presence of both in caves on
-the edge of the great plain extending southwards from
-the present coastline of Devon, seems to me to imply
-that both were open during the early stage of the pleistocene,
-while the pleiocene mammalia were retreating
-before the southward advance of the mammoth, woolly
-rhinoceros, spotted hyæna, reindeer, and their congeners,
-at a time anterior to the lowering of the temperature
-that culminated in the glacial period. For these reasons
-it seems to me probable that the machairodus belongs
-to an early rather than a late stage in the history of
-Kent’s Hole.</p>
-
-<p>There is an important point of resemblance between
-the mode of the occurrence of the machairodus in Kent’s
-Hole, and of the megarhine rhinoceros at Oreston. The
-remains of both were met with only <em>in one spot</em>, and
-were not scattered through the chambers and passages.
-It may have happened that in the physical changes
-which those caves have undergone, both were preserved
-in a fissure like that described in the Uphill cave<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_335">335</a></span>
-(p.&nbsp;294), and that subsequently they dropped down and
-became imbedded in a newer deposit. In fixing the age
-of strata in caves it seems to me that the zoological
-evidence is of far greater weight than that of mere
-position, which may be the result of accidental circumstances.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_142"><i>The Caves of Ireland.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The caves of Ireland would probably afford as rich a
-fauna as those of Britain, had they been explored with
-equal care. In one at Shandon, near Dungarvan, Waterford,
-remains of the brown bear (<i class="taxonomy">U. arctos</i>) reindeer,
-horse, and mammoth were discovered in 1859, by Mr.
-Brenan.<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">216</a> The first of these animals became extinct in
-Ireland before the historic period, while it survived in
-Britain at least as late as the Roman occupation.</p>
-
-<p>The cave-bear is also recorded by Dr. Carte,<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">217</a> from the
-same place, but the thigh bone assigned to it seems to
-me to belong to the brown, or common species. The
-mammoth, so abundant in Britain, has only been discovered
-in two other localities in Ireland, at Whitechurch
-near Dungarvan, and at Magherry near Belturbet.<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">218</a></p>
-
-<p>The range of these animals over Great Britain and
-Ireland in the pleistocene age enables us to realize the
-ancient physical geography, which will be treated in the
-next and following chapters as part of the general question
-of the physical condition of north-western Europe
-at that time.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336">336</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead center">THE INHABITANTS OF THE CAVES OF NORTH-WESTERN
-EUROPE, AND THE EVIDENCE OF THE FAUNA AS TO THE
-ATLANTIC COASTLINE.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote class="inhead">
-
-<p>The Caves of France, Baume, of Périgord.&mdash;Caves and Rock-shelters
-of Belgium, Trou de Naulette.&mdash;Caves of Switzerland.&mdash;Cave-dwellers
-and Palæolithic Men of River-deposits.&mdash;Classification of
-Palæolithic Caves.&mdash;Relation of Cave-dwellers to Eskimos.&mdash;Pleistocene
-animals living north of Alps and Pyrenees.&mdash;Relation of
-Cave to River-bed Fauna.&mdash;The Atlantic Coastline.&mdash;Distribution
-of Palæolithic Implements.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_143"><i>The Caves of France.</i></h3>
-
-<p class="in0">The caves of France have been proved, by the explorations
-carried on during the course of the present century,
-to contain the same animals, introduced under the same
-conditions as those which we have already described.
-Some species, however, have been met with which have
-not been discovered in this country. In the cave of
-Lunel-viel, for example, the common striped hyæna of
-Africa (<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna striata</i>) has been found by Marcel de
-Serres, to whom belongs the credit of being the first systematic
-explorer of caverns in France. In that of Bruniquel,
-the ibex, now found only in the higher mountains
-in Europe, the chamois and the <i class="taxonomy">Antelope saiga</i>, an animal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_337">337</a></span>
-inhabiting the plains of the region of the Volga and of
-southern Siberia, have been identified by Prof. Owen;
-while in the collection obtained by Mr. Moggridge from
-the caves of Mentone, Prof. Busk has recognized the
-marmot. With these exceptions there is no distinction
-between the faunas of the bone-caves of this country
-and of France.<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">219</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_144"><i>The Cave of Baume.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i>,<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">220</a> or great sabre-toothed
-feline of Kent’s Hole, has been discovered in the cave
-of Baume in the Jura, according to M. Gervais,<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">221</a> along
-with the horse, ox, wild-boar, elephant, a non-tichorhine
-species of rhinoceros, the spotted hyæna, and the
-cave-bear, or the same group of animals as that with
-which it is found in Kent’s Hole. The cave is considered
-by M. Lartet<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">222</a> to be of preglacial age.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_145"><i>The Caves of Périgord.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The caves and rock-shelters of Périgord, explored by
-the late M. Lartet and our countryman, Mr. Christy,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_338">338</a></span><a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">223</a>
-1863&ndash;4, have not only afforded cumulative proof of the
-co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia, but have
-given us a clue as to the race to which he belonged.
-They penetrate the sides of the valleys of the Dordogne
-and Vezère at various levels, as may be seen in <a href="#Fig_71">Fig. 71</a>, and are full of the remains left behind by their
-ancient inhabitants, which give as vivid a picture of the
-human life of the period, as that revealed of Italian
-manners in the first century by the buried cities of
-Herculaneum and Pompeii. The old floors of human
-occupation consist of broken bones of animals killed in
-the chase, mingled with rude implements, weapons of
-bone, and unpolished stone, and charcoal and burnt
-stones which point out the position of the hearths.</p>
-
-<p>Flakes (<a href="#Fig_106">Fig. 106</a>) without number, rude stone-cutters,
-awls, lance-heads, hammers, saws made of flint or of chert,
-rest pêle-mêle with bone needles, sculptured reindeer antlers,
-engraved stones, arrow-heads, harpoons, and pointed
-bones, and with the broken remains of the animals which
-had been used as food, the reindeer, bison, horse, the
-ibex, the saiga antelope, and the musk sheep. In some
-cases the whole is compacted by a calcareous cement into
-a hard mass, fragments of which are to be seen in the
-principal museums of Europe. This strange accumulation
-of débris marks, beyond all doubt, the place where
-ancient hunters had feasted, and the broken bones and
-implements are merely the refuse cast aside. The reindeer
-formed by far the larger portion of the food, and must
-have lived in enormous herds at that time in the centre
-of France. The severity of the climate at the time may
-be inferred by the presence of this animal, as well as by
-the accumulation of bones on the spots on which man
-had fixed his habitation. Indeed, had not this been the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_339">339</a></span>
-case, the decomposition of so much animal matter would
-have rendered the place uninhabitable even by the lowest
-savage.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_107"><div id="Fig_108">
-<div id="Fig_106" class="figcenter" style="width: 528px;">
-  <img src="images/i_339.jpg" width="528" height="474" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>&mdash;Flint-flake, Les Eyzies (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>&mdash;Flint Scraper, Les
-Eyzies (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>&mdash;Flint Javelin-head,
-Laugerie Haute (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</p></div></div></div></div>
-
-<p>Besides the animals mentioned above, the cave-bear
-and lion have been met with in one, and the mammoth
-in five localities, and their remains bear marks of cutting
-or scraping, which show that they fell a prey to hunters.
-The Irish elk, also, and the hyæna occur respectively in
-the cave of Laugerie Basse, and of Moustier, but the latter
-certainly did not gain access to the refuse-heaps, because
-the vertebræ are intact which it is in the habit of eating.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_340">340</a></span>
-For the same reason also, M. Lartet infers that the
-hunters were not aided in the chase by the dog.
-There is no evidence that they were possessed of any
-domestic animal. There were no spindle wheels to
-indicate a knowledge of spinning, nor potsherds to show
-an acquaintance with the potter’s art. In both these
-respects they resemble the Fuegians, Eskimos, and Australians,
-and contrast strongly with the neolithic races.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_109" class="figleft" style="width: 103px;">
-  <img src="images/i_340.jpg" width="103" height="339" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>&mdash;Flint Arrow-head, Laugerie Haute (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_110" class="figright" style="width: 25px;">
-  <img src="images/i_340r.jpg" width="25" height="355" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>&mdash;Bone needle, La Madelaine (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div>
-
-<p>The broken bones show that the reindeer furnished the
-more usual food, and next to that the horse, and then
-the bison. And from the absence of the vertebræ and
-pelvic bones of the two latter animals, M. Lartet concludes
-that they were cut up where they were killed, and
-the meat stripped from the backbone and the pelvis.
-Their food was probably cooked by boiling, the number
-of round stones used for heating water and bearing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_341">341</a></span>
-marks of fire, like the “pot boilers” of some of the
-American Indians, being very considerable.</p>
-
-<p>Among the stone implements flint flakes were incredibly
-numerous, and the number of chips scattered
-about as well as the blocks of flint from which they had
-been struck, proved that they had been made on the
-spot; most of these flakes were notched by use (<a href="#Fig_106">Fig. 106</a>). Instruments with the ends carefully rounded off
-(<a href="#Fig_107">Fig. 107</a>) were also abundant, and from their analogy
-with similar instruments used by the Eskimos, there
-can be but little doubt that they were intended for the
-preparation of skins (compare <a href="#Fig_107">Fig. 107</a> with <a href="#Fig_124">Fig. 124</a>).
-The ends of some were chipped to a point for insertion
-into a handle, while others rounded at both ends were
-probably used freely in the hand. In the cave of Moustier
-oval implements were met with, resembling those
-figured from the caverns of Kent’s Hole and Wookey
-(<a href="#Fig_84">Figs. 84</a> and <a href="#Fig_97">97</a>). The spear, javelin, and arrow-heads
-of flint presented two modes of attachment to the shaft,
-the base of some being squared off with a notch above
-for the ligature (as in <a href="#Fig_108">Fig. 108</a>), while in others (<a href="#Fig_109">Fig. 109</a>) it tapered off into a point intended for insertion.
-This latter form has been obtained also in Kent’s Hole.</p>
-
-<p>The bone needles are carefully smoothed, and were
-pierced with a neatly-made eye (<a href="#Fig_110">Fig. 110</a>) by means of
-pointed flakes which were found along with them, and
-the use of which M. Lartet demonstrated by experiment.
-They had been sawn out of the compact metacarpals
-and tarsals of the reindeer<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">224</a> and the horse,
-and subsequently rounded on fragments of sandstone,
-the grooves of which fitted them. In this, therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_342">342</a></span>
-we have not merely the evidence that the hunters were
-in the habit of sewing, but also we have vividly brought
-before us the very method by which their needles were
-manufactured. They were probably used for sewing
-skins together, the tendon of a reindeer forming the
-thread, as among the modern Eskimos.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_113"><div id="Fig_115">
-<div id="Fig_111" class="figcenter" style="width: 511px;">
-  <img src="images/i_342.jpg" width="511" height="539" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figs. 111, 112.</span>&mdash;Harpoons of Antler, La Madelaine. (Lartet and Christy.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Figs. 113, 114.</span>&mdash;Arrow-heads, Gorge d’Enfer. (Broca.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>&mdash;Bone Awl, Gorge d’Enfer (1/1). (Broca.)</p></div></div></div></div>
-
-<p>The heads of arrows and lances are made principally
-out of reindeer antler, and are barbed, the barbs generally
-being grooved, and carved on both sides of the axis<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_343">343</a></span>
-(<a href="#Fig_111">Figs. 111, 112, 113</a>); but in some cases, as in <a href="#Fig_111">Fig. 114</a>,
-the barbs are only on one side. Many bones and antlers
-are variously carved into shapes for which it is impossible
-to assign a definite use. <a href="#Fig_111">Fig. 115</a> is a bone awl.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_116" class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;">
-  <img src="images/i_343.jpg" width="379" height="146" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>&mdash;Carved Handle of Reindeer Antler (1/2). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_117" class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;">
-  <img src="images/i_344.jpg" width="420" height="223" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>&mdash;Two sides of Reindeer Antler, La Madelaine (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_118" class="figcenter" style="width: 437px;">
-  <img src="images/i_344b.jpg" width="437" height="125" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>&mdash;Horses engraved on Antler, La Madelaine (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div>
-
-<p>The most remarkable remains left behind by man in
-these refuse-heaps are the sculptured reindeer antlers,
-and the figures engraved on fragments of schist and on
-ivory. A well-defined outline of an ox stands out
-boldly from one piece of antler. A second presents us
-with a most elegant design: a reindeer is kneeling down
-in an easy attitude with its head thrown up in the air,
-so that the antlers rest on the shoulders, and the back
-of the animal forms an even surface for a handle, which
-is too small to be grasped in an ordinary European hand
-(<a href="#Fig_116">Fig. 116</a>). In a third a man stands close to a horse’s
-head, and hard by is a fish like an eel; and on the other
-side of the same cylinder are two heads of bison, drawn
-with sufficient clearness to ensure recognition by anyone
-who had ever seen that animal (<a href="#Fig_117">Fig. 117</a>). On a fourth the
-natural curvature of one of the tines has been taken advantage
-of by the artist to engrave the head, and the
-characteristic recurved horns of the ibex; and on a
-fifth are figures of horses (<a href="#Fig_118">Fig. 118</a>), in which the upright
-disheveled mane and shaggy ungroomed tail are represented
-with admirable spirit. At first sight it would<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_344">344</a></span>
-appear that the artist had drawn the heads out of all
-proportion to the bodies. A horse’s skeleton, however,
-from the palæolithic “station” at Solutré, lately set up
-in the Museum at Lyons, proves that this is not the case,
-since, as M. Lortet pointed out to me, it is remarkable
-for its massive head, and small body. In <a href="#Fig_119">Fig. 119</a> a
-group of reindeer are seen, two on their backs, and
-two in the act of walking. The Irish elk, red-deer,
-and probably rhinoceros, are also depicted, the figures
-upon the hard schist being feebly and uncertainly drawn,
-as might be expected from the character of the tools.
-The most clever sculptor of modern times would,
-probably, not succeed very much better if his graver
-was a splinter of flint, and stone and bone were the
-materials to be engraved. One peculiarity runs through
-the figures of animals. With but two exceptions none<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_345">345</a></span>
-of the feet are represented, a circumstance which is
-probably due, as Mr. Franks has suggested to me, to the
-fact that the hunters merely represented what they saw
-of the animal, of which the feet would be concealed by
-the herbage.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_119" class="figcenter" style="width: 492px;">
-  <img src="images/i_345.jpg" width="492" height="295" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>&mdash;Group of Reindeer, Dordogne. (Broca.)</div></div>
-
-<p>The most striking figure that has been discovered
-is that of the mammoth,<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">225</a> <a href="#Fig_120">Fig. 120</a>, engraved on a fragment
-of its own tusk, the peculiar spiral curvature of
-the tusk and the long mane, which are not now to be
-found in any living elephant, proving that the original
-was familiar to the eye of the artist. The discovery
-of whole carcases of the animal in northern Siberia,
-preserved from decay in the frozen cliffs and morasses,
-has made us acquainted with the existence of the long
-hairy mane. Had not it thus been handed down to
-our eyes, we should probably have treated this most
-accurate drawing as a mere artist’s freak. Its peculiarities
-are so faithfully depicted that it is quite impossible<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_346">346</a></span>
-for the animal to be confounded with either of the
-two living species. These drawings probably employed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_347">347</a></span>
-the idle hours of the hunter, and perpetuate the scenes
-which he witnessed in the chase. They are full of artistic
-feeling, and are evidently drawn from life. The mammoth
-is engraved on its own ivory, the reindeer generally
-on reindeer antler, and the stag on stag antler.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_120" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-  <img src="images/i_346.jpg" width="600" height="274" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>&mdash;Mammoth engraved on Ivory, La Madelaine (1/2). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div>
-
-<p>From all these facts we must picture to our minds, that
-these ancient dwellers in the caves of Aquitaine lived by
-hunting and fishing, that they were acquainted with
-fire, and that they were clad with skins sewn together
-with sinews or strips of intestines. That they did not
-possess the dog is shown, not merely by the negative
-evidence of its not having been discovered, but also by
-the fact that the bones which it invariably eats, such
-as the vertebræ, are preserved. They did not possess
-any domestic animals, and there is no evidence that
-they were acquainted with the potter’s art. M. de
-Mortillet’s view, that the art of making pottery was
-unknown in the palæolithic age, seems to me to be
-probably true, the reputed cases of the discovery of
-potsherds being always connected with suspicious circumstances,
-which render it probable that they were
-subsequently introduced.</p>
-
-<p>Besides the remains of the animals in the refuse-heaps
-were fragmentary portions of human skeletons, which,
-however, were not scraped or broken so as to imply the
-practice of cannibalism.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_146"><i>Caves of Belgium.</i></h3>
-
-<div id="Fig_121" class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;">
-  <img src="images/i_348.jpg" width="379" height="152" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>&mdash;Carved Implement of Reindeer Antler, Goyet (1/2). (Dupont.)</div></div>
-
-<p>The researches of Dr. Schmerling<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">226</a> into the caves of
-Belgium, in 1829&ndash;30, revealed the fact that the animals<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_348">348</a></span>
-so abundant in the caves of Germany, were equally
-numerous in those in the neighbourhood of Liége, and
-the flint flakes, and the fragments of human bones, which
-he found may possibly be of palæolithic age. He also
-discovered the remains of the porcupine, a species no
-longer living north of the Alps and Pyrenees. The
-systematic exploration, however, of the palæolithic caves
-in that district was not carried out until, in the year
-1864, M. Dupont<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">227</a> began the investigation of those in
-the neighbourhood of Dinant-sur-Meuse, on behalf of
-the Belgian Government. His results, based upon the
-examination of upwards of twenty caves and rock-shelters,
-are published in a series of papers read before
-the Royal Academy of Belgium and subsequently in a
-separate work. Besides the remains of the animals
-living in Belgium within the historic period, he met
-with the ibex, chamois, and marmot, which are now to
-be found only in the mountainous districts of Europe,
-the tailless hare, lemming, and arctic fox, of the
-northern regions, the <i class="taxonomy">Antelope saiga</i>, grizzly bear, lion,
-hyæna, and others. Most of these species occurred in
-refuse accumulations, their remains being in the fragmentary
-condition of those of the French caves. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_349">349</a></span>
-associated implements are of the same type as those of
-Périgord, and some of them are ornamented in the same
-manner as, for example, that from the cavern of Goyet,
-<a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a>, termed a “bâton de commandement,” but
-which, from its analogy with similar articles in the
-British Museum, is most probably an arrow-straightener.
-Those of flint are also of the same kind, and in several
-of the caves there was the same association of fragmentary
-human remains with the relics of the feasts as
-in the French refuse-heaps.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_147"><i>Trou de Naulette.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The human remains consisting of a lower jaw, ulna
-and metatarsal, discovered in the large cavern of Naulette,<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">228</a>
-on the left bank of the Lesse, in association with the
-broken remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth, reindeer,
-chamois, and marmot, are undoubtedly of palæolithic
-age, since they rested in an undisturbed stratum. M.
-Dupont gives the following section in descending order.</p>
-
-<table id="table349" summary="strata">
-  <tr class="small">
-    <td class="tdr"> </td>
-    <td class="tdl"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">METRES.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr top">1.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Sandy grey and yellow clay</td>
-    <td class="tdc">2·90</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr top">2.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Yellow grey clay with stones and bones of ruminants</td>
-    <td class="tdc">0·45</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr top">3.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Stalagmite.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr top">4.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Tufa.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr top">5.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Three bands of clay alternating with stalagmite.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr top">6.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Sandy clay with human bones at the depth of four metres.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr top">7.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Stalagmite.</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdr top">8.</td>
-    <td class="tdl">Cave-earth with bones gnawed by hyænas.</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>The human jaw is remarkable for its prognathism,
-which, according to Dr. Hamy, is greater than that which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_350">350</a></span>
-has been observed in any living races. The cave had
-afforded shelter to the hyænas before it had been used
-by man.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_148"><i>The Caves of Switzerland.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The caves of Switzerland also contain the same class of
-rude implements and carvings. Prof. Rupert Jones has
-called my attention to a recent discovery of carved reindeer
-antlers, and harpoon-heads, similar to those figured
-from the Dordogne, in a cave in the Canton of Schaaffhausen,<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">229</a>
-along with the bones of hyæna, reindeer, and
-mammoth. In that of Veyrier,<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">230</a> carved implements were
-found along with the remains of the ox, horse, chamois,
-and ibex, some of which, shown to me by Dr. Gosse, at
-the meeting of the French Association for the Advancement
-of Science, at Lyons in 1873, are of the same form
-and size as the arrow-straightener from the cave of Goyet
-(<a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a>).</p>
-
-<p>We may, therefore, infer that the same palæolithic
-race of men once ranged over the whole region from the
-Pyrenees and Switzerland, as far to the north as Belgium.
-And since Prof. Fraas has obtained similar implements
-from a refuse-heap at Schussenreid in Würtemberg, they
-wandered as far to the east as that district, while the
-discoveries in Kent’s Hole and Wookey Hole prove that
-they extended as far to the west as Somersetshire and
-Devonshire.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_351">351</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_149"><i>Cave-dwellers and Palæolithic Men of the River-gravels.</i></h3>
-
-<p>These palæolithic cave-dwellers are considered by Mr.
-Evans<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">231</a> to belong to the same race as those who have left
-their rude flint implements in the river-gravels in the
-valleys of the Thames, the Somme, the Seine, and in the
-eastern counties, as far to the north as Peterborough.
-We must, however, allow that a marked difference is to
-be observed between a series of flint implements found
-in the caves, as compared with a series found in the river-strata,
-although some forms are common to the two; as
-for instance some of those found in Brixham and Kent’s
-Hole. This difference can scarcely be explained on the
-supposition that the small things would be less likely to
-be preserved in the fluviatile deposits, because it leaves
-the rarity in the caves of the larger fluviatile forms unaccounted
-for. It is perhaps safer, in the present state
-of our knowledge, to consider the two sets to be distinct
-from each other. The direct superposition in Kent’s
-Hole of the stratum with the ordinary cave-type of implement,
-over that with the ordinary fluviatile type,
-may perhaps prove that the latter is the older.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_150"><i>Classification of Palæolithic Caves.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The palæolithic caves are divided by M. Lartet<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">232</a> into
-four groups, according to the species of animals which
-they contain; into those of the age of the cave-bear, of
-the age of the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_352">352</a></span>
-age of the reindeer, and of the age of bison. Dr. Hamy
-follows Sir John Lubbock,<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">233</a> in considering the age of the
-cave-bear to be co-extensive with that of the mammoth,
-and in the classification of caves he adopts a series of
-transitions. M. Dupont divides the caves of Belgium
-into those belonging to the age of the mammoth, and to
-that of the reindeer.</p>
-
-<p>It is easy to refer a given cave to the age of the reindeer
-or of the mammoth because it contains the remains
-of those animals, but the division has been rendered
-worthless for chronological purposes, by the fact that
-both these animals inhabited the region north of the Alps
-and Pyrenees at the same time, and are to be found
-together in nearly every bone-cave explored in that area.
-The difference between the contents of one palæolithic
-cave and another, is probably largely due to the fact that
-man could more easily catch some animals than others,
-as well as to the preference for one kind of food before
-another. And the abundance of the reindeer, which is
-supposed to characterise the reindeer period, may reasonably
-be accounted for by the fact, that it would be more
-easily captured by a savage hunter, than the mammoth,
-woolly rhinoceros, cave-bear, lion, or hyæna. The classification
-will apply, as I have shown in my essay on the
-pleistocene mammalia,<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">234</a> neither to the caves of this
-country, of Belgium, nor of France, and my views are
-shared by M. de Mortillet,<a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">235</a> after a careful and independent
-examination of the whole evidence.</p>
-
-<p>The division of the caves also into ages, according to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_353">353</a></span>
-the various types of implements found in them, proposed
-by M. de Mortillet, seems to be equally unsatisfactory;
-for there is no greater difference in the implements of any
-two of the palæolithic caves, than is to be observed between
-those of two different tribes of Eskimos, while the
-general resemblance is most striking. The principle of
-classification by the relative rudeness, assumes that the
-progress of man has been gradual, and that the ruder
-implements are therefore the older. The difference, however,
-may have been due to different tribes, or families,
-having co-existed without intercourse with each other,
-as is now generally the case with savage communities;
-or to the supply of flint, chert, and other materials for
-cutting instruments, being greater in one region than in
-another.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_151"><i>Relation of Cave-dwellers to Eskimos.</i></h3>
-
-<div id="Fig_122" class="figcenter" style="width: 527px;">
-  <img src="images/i_353.jpg" width="527" height="111" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>&mdash;Eskimos Spear-head, bone (1/2).</div></div>
-
-<div id="Fig_123" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
-  <img src="images/i_354.jpg" width="600" height="151" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>&mdash;Eskimos Arrow-straightener of Walrus Tooth (1/1). (Brit. Mus.)</div></div>
-
-<p>Can these cave-dwellers be identified with any people
-now living on the face of the earth? or are they as completely
-without representatives as their extinct contemporaries,
-the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros?
-Absolute certainty we cannot hope to obtain on the
-point, but the cumulative evidence enables an answer to
-be given which is probably true. Along the American
-shore of the great Arctic Ocean, in the region of everlasting
-snow, dwell the Eskimos, living by hunting and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_354">354</a></span>
-fishing, speaking the same
-language, and using the
-same implements from the
-Straits of Behring on the
-west, to Greenland on the
-east. Their implements and
-weapons, brought home by
-the arctic explorers, enable
-us to institute a comparison
-with those found in
-the palæolithic caves. The
-harpoons in the Ashmolean
-collection at Oxford,
-brought over by Captain
-Beechey and Lieut. Harding
-from West Georgia, as
-well as those in the British
-Museum, are almost identical
-in shape and design
-with those from the caves
-of Aquitaine and Kent’s
-Hole; the only difference
-being that some of the
-latter have grooved barbs.
-The heads of the fowling
-and fishing spears, darts,
-and arrows, as well as the
-form of their bases for insertion
-into the shafts, are
-also identical (<a href="#Fig_122">Fig. 122</a>), as
-may be seen from a comparison
-of <a href="#Fig_122">Fig. 122</a> with
-<a href="#Fig_99">Figs. 99</a> and <a href="#Fig_113">114</a>. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_355">355</a></span>
-curiously carved instrument, <a href="#Fig_123">Fig. 123</a>, which the Eskimos
-use for straightening their arrows is variously
-ornamented with designs of animals, analogous to those
-cut on the reindeer antlers in Aquitaine; and if it be
-compared with the so-called “bâton de commandement,”
-<a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a>, it will be seen, that the latter also was probably
-intended for the same purpose;
-the difference in the shape
-of the hole in the two figured
-specimens being also observable
-in the series of Eskimos arrow-straighteners
-in the British Museum,
-and being largely due to
-friction by use. Many of the implements
-are the same in form. An
-Eskimos stone scraper for preparing
-skins, or plane for smoothing wood,
-is represented in <a href="#Fig_124">Fig. 124</a>, which
-is inserted in a handle of fossil
-mammoth ivory, obtained from the
-frozen ice-cliffs on the shores of the
-Arctic sea. If it be compared with
-<a href="#Fig_107">Fig. 107</a> from the caves, it will be
-seen to be of the same pattern. It
-is indeed not a little singular, that
-the handle in which it is imbedded
-should have been formed out of the
-tusks of the same species of elephant
-as that which was depicted by the palæolithic
-hunter (see <a href="#Fig_120">Fig. 120</a>), in the south of France.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_124" class="figright" style="width: 172px;">
-  <img src="images/i_355.jpg" width="172" height="479" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>&mdash;Eskimos Plane or Scraper (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div>
-
-<p>Some of the Eskimos lance-heads of stone in the
-British Museum are of the same type as that figured
-from the caves of the Dordogne (<a href="#Fig_108">Fig. 108</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_356">356</a></span>
-The most remarkable objects brought home from the
-northern regions are the implements of bone and antler
-which are ornamented with the figures of animals hunted
-by the Eskimos on sea or land. On the side of one bow
-in the Ashmolean Museum, used for drilling holes, you
-see them harpooning the whale from their skin boats,
-and catching birds. On a second they are harpooning
-walrus and catching seals; on a third the seals are being
-dragged home. The huts in which they live, the tethered
-dogs, the boat supported on its platform, and their daily
-occupations are faithfully represented. One bow is
-ornamented with a large number of porpoises, while
-on another is a reindeer hunt in which the animals are
-being attacked while they are crossing a ford. On a bone
-implement in the British Museum from Fort Clarence,
-the reindeer are being shot down by archers (<a href="#Fig_125">Fig. 125</a>).
-The arrow straightener, <a href="#Fig_123">Fig. 123</a>, is adorned with a
-reindeer hunting scene, in which the animals are seen
-browsing and unsuspicious of the approach of the hunters,
-who are advancing, clad in reindeer skins and wearing
-antlers on their heads.</p>
-
-<p>A comparison of these various designs with those
-from the caves of France and Belgium shows an identity
-of plan and workmanship, with this difference only, that
-the hunting scenes familiar to the palæolithic cave-dweller
-were not the same as those familiar to the
-Eskimos on the shores of the Arctic Ocean. Each sculptured
-the animals he knew, and the whale, walrus, and
-seal were unknown to the inland dwellers in Aquitaine,
-just as the mammoth, bison, and wild horse are unknown
-to the Eskimos. The reindeer, which they both knew,
-is represented in the same way by both. The West
-Georgians made their dirks of walrus tooth, and ornamented<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_357">357</a></span>
-them with carvings of the backbones of fishes;
-the people of Aquitaine used for the same purpose reindeer
-antlers, and ornamented them with figures of that
-animal (see <a href="#Fig_116">Fig. 116</a>). And it is worthy of remark that
-the latter had sufficient artistic feeling to depict the
-mammoth on mammoth ivory, the reindeer generally on
-reindeer antler, and the stag on its own antler.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_125" class="figcenter" style="width: 527px;">
-  <img src="images/i_357.jpg" width="527" height="81" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>&mdash;Eskimos Hunting-scene (1/1). (Fort Clarence.)</div></div>
-
-<p>An appeal to the habits of these two peoples, now
-separated by so wide an interval of space and time, tends
-also to show that they are descended from the same
-stock. The method of accumulating large quantities of
-the bones of animals around their dwelling-places, and the
-habit of splitting the bones for the sake of the marrow,
-is the same in both. Their hides were prepared by the
-same sort of instruments and in the same manner, and
-the needles with which they were sewn together are of
-the same pattern. The few remains of man among the
-relics of feasts in the caves of Belgium and France, show
-the same disregard of sepulture as that implied by the
-human skulls lying about along with numerous bones of
-walrus, seal, dog, bear, and fox, in an Eskimos camp in
-Igloolik, which were carried away by Captain Lyon,
-without the slightest objection on the part of the relatives
-of the dead.</p>
-
-<p>All these facts can hardly be mere coincidences, caused
-by both peoples leading a savage life under similar circumstances:
-they afford reasons for the belief that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_358">358</a></span>
-the Eskimos of North America are connected by blood
-with the palæolithic cave-dwellers of Europe. To the
-objection that savage tribes living under similar conditions
-use similar instruments, and that, therefore, the
-correspondence of those of the Eskimos with those of the
-reindeer folk does not prove that they belong to the
-same race, the answer may be made, that there are no
-two savage tribes now living which use the same set of
-implements, without being connected by blood. The
-agreement of one or two of the more common and ruder
-instruments may be perhaps of no value in classification,
-but if a whole set agree, fitted for various uses, and some
-of them rising above the most common wants of savage
-life, we must admit that the argument as to race is
-of very great value. The implements found in Belgium,
-France, or Britain differ scarcely more from those now
-used in West Georgia, than the latter do from those now
-in use in Greenland or Melville Peninsula. The conclusion,
-therefore, seems inevitable, that so far as we have
-any evidence of the race to which the dwellers in the
-Dordogne belong, that evidence points only in the direction
-of the Eskimos.</p>
-
-<p>This conclusion is to a great extent confirmed by a
-consideration of the animals found in the caves. The
-reindeer and the musk sheep afford food to the Eskimos
-now, just as they afforded it to the palæolithic hunters in
-Europe. No naturalist would deny that the pleistocene
-musk sheep is of the same species as that of North America,
-and although the animal is extinct in Europe and
-Asia, its remains, scattered through Germany, Russia in
-Europe, and Siberia, show that it formerly ranged in the
-whole of that area. The enormous distance, therefore, of
-southern France from the northern shores of America,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_359">359</a></span>
-cannot be considered as an obstacle to this view, for, to
-say the least, palæolithic man would have had the same
-chance of retreating to the north-east as the musk sheep.
-The mammoth and bison have also been tracked by
-their remains in the frozen river gravels and morasses
-through Siberia, as far to the north-east as the American
-side of the Straits of Behring. Palæolithic man appeared
-in Europe with the arctic mammalia, lived in Europe
-along with them, and disappeared with them. And
-since his implements are of the same kind as those of
-the Eskimos, it may reasonably be concluded that he is
-represented at the present time by the Eskimos, for it is
-most improbable that the convergence of the ethnological,
-and zoological evidence should be an accident.
-These views,<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">236</a> which I advanced in 1866, have been to
-a great extent accepted by Sir John Lubbock in his last
-edition of Prehistoric Man.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_152"><i>Pleistocene Animals living to the North of the Alps
-and Pyrenees.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The principal mammalia inhabiting Britain, France,
-and Germany during the pleistocene age, and contemporary
-with man in Europe, are given in the following
-table, which shows that the fauna of the region to
-the north of the Alps and Pyrenees was remarkably
-uniform. The cave-fauna of Provence, Italy, and Spain,
-will be treated of in the next chapter.</p>
-
-<p class="b2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_360">360</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p1 b0 center small"><a href="#if_p_360">(Image of Table)</a></p>
-<table id="list_360" class="listobjects species p2 b1" summary="Pleistocene Species, part 1">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc">Species.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Gailenreuth Cave</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Kirkdale</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Victoria</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Cefn</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Plas-<br />newydd</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Plas Heaton</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Gallfaenan</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Paviland</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Bacon’s Hole</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Minchin Hole</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Bosco’s Den</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Crow Hole</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Ravenscliff</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Spritsail Tor</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Long Hole</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Blackrock Fissure</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Caldy Fissure</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Coygan Cave</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Hoyle Cave</th>
-    <th class="tdc">King Arthur’s Cave</th></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Homo palæolithicus</i>&mdash;Palæolithic Man</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Spermophilus citillus</i>&mdash;Pouched Marmot</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Arctomys marmotta</i>&mdash;Common Marmot</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Castor fiber</i>&mdash;Beaver</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus timidus</i>&mdash;Hare</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus variabilis</i>&mdash;Alpine Hare</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus cuniculus</i>&mdash;Rabbit</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus diluvianus</i>&mdash;Extinct Hare</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lagomys pusillus</i>&mdash;Tailless Hare</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mus lemmus</i>&mdash;Lemming</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hystrix dorsata</i>&mdash;Porcupine</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis leo</i> (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">var. spelæa</i>)&mdash;Lion</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis pardus</i>&mdash;Leopard</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis Lynx</i>&mdash;Lynx</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis caffer</i>&mdash;Caffir Cat</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis catus</i>&mdash;Wild Cat</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Gulo borealis</i>&mdash;Glutton</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hyæna crocuta</i> (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">var. spelæa</i>)&mdash;Spotted Hyæna</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hyæna striata</i>&mdash;Striped Hyæna</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mustela martes</i>&mdash;Marten</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mustela putorius</i>&mdash;Polecat</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mustela erminea</i>&mdash;Weasel</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lutra vulgaris</i>&mdash;Otter</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus arctos</i>&mdash;Brown Bear</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">?</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus ferox</i>&mdash;Grizzly Bear</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus spelæus</i>&mdash;Cave-Bear</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis lupus</i>&mdash;Wolf</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis vulpes</i>&mdash;Fox</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis lagopus</i>&mdash;Arctic Fox</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas primigenius</i>&mdash;Mammoth</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas Africanus</i>&mdash;African Elephant</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>&mdash;Horse</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>&mdash;Woolly Rhinoceros</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Bos urus</i>&mdash;Urus</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Bos bison</i>&mdash;Bison</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ovibos moschatus</i>&mdash;Musk Sheep</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Capra ibex</i>&mdash;Ibex</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Capella rupicapra</i>&mdash;Chamois</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Antilope saiga</i>&mdash;Saiga</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>&mdash;Wild Boar</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus elaphus</i>&mdash;Stag</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus capreolus</i>&mdash;Roe</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus megaceros</i>&mdash;Irish Elk</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus tarandus</i>-Reindeer</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus amphibius</i> (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">var. major</i>)&mdash; Hippopotamus</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p class="b2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_361">361</a></span></p>
-
-<p class="p1 b0 center small"><a href="#if_p_361">(Image of Table)</a></p>
-<table id="list_361" class="listobjects species p2" summary="Pleistocene Species, part 2">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc">Species.</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Durdham</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Hutton</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Banwell</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Bleadon</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Uphill</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Sandford Hill</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Wookey Hole</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Brixham</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Kent’s Hole</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Moustier</th>
-    <th class="tdc">La Madelaine</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Laugerie Haute</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Laugerie Basse</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Gorge d’Enfer</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Cro Magnon</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Les Eyzies</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Lunel Viel</th>
-    <th class="tdc">Belgian Caves</th>
-    <th class="tdc">River Deposits, Britain</th>
-    <th class="tdc">River Deposits, France</th></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Homo palæolithicus</i>&mdash;Palæolithic Man</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Spermophilus citillus</i>&mdash;Pouched Marmot</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Arctomys marmotta</i>&mdash;Common Marmot</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Castor fiber</i>&mdash;Beaver</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus timidus</i>&mdash;Hare</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x?</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x?</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus variabilis</i>&mdash;Alpine Hare</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus cuniculus</i>&mdash;Rabbit</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus diluvianus</i>&mdash;Extinct Hare</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lagomys pusillus</i>-Tailless Hare</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mus lemmus</i>&mdash;Lemming</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hystrix dorsata</i>&mdash;Porcupine</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis leo</i> (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">var. spelæa</i>)&mdash;Lion</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis pardus</i>&mdash;Leopard</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis Lynx</i>&mdash;Lynx</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis caffer</i>&mdash;Caffir Cat</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis catus</i>&mdash;Wild Cat</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">?</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Gulo borealis</i>&mdash;Glutton</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hyæna crocuta</i> (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">var. spelæa</i>)&mdash;Spotted Hyæna</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hyæna striata</i>&mdash;Striped Hyæna</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mustela martes</i>&mdash;Marten</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mustela putorius</i>&mdash;Polecat</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mustela erminea</i>&mdash;Weasel</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lutra vulgaris</i>&mdash;Otter</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus arctos</i>&mdash;Brown Bear</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus ferox</i>&mdash;Grizzly Bear</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus spelæus</i>&mdash;Cave-Bear</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">(?)</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis lupus</i>&mdash;Wolf</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis vulpes</i>&mdash;Fox</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis lagopus</i>&mdash;Arctic Fox</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas primigenius</i>&mdash;Mammoth</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i></td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas Africanus</i>&mdash;African Elephant</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>&mdash;Horse</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>&mdash;Woolly Rhinoceros</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i></td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Bos urus</i>&mdash;Urus</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Bos bison</i>&mdash;Bison</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">?</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ovibos moschatus</i>&mdash;Musk Sheep</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Capra ibex</i>&mdash;Ibex</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Capella rupicapra</i>&mdash;Chamois</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Antilope saiga</i>&mdash;Saiga</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>&mdash;Wild Boar</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus elaphus</i>&mdash;Stag</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus capreolus</i>&mdash;Roe</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus megaceros</i>&mdash;Irish Elk</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus tarandus</i>&mdash;Reindeer</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">+</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">+</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus amphibius</i> (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">var. major</i>)&mdash;Hippopotamus</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">(?)</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td>
-    <td class="tdc">x</td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_362">362</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_153"><i>Cave Fauna the same as River-bed Fauna.</i></h3>
-
-<p>If this list<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">237</a> of animals from the caves be compared
-with that of the river-deposits of Britain and the continent,
-it will be seen that the same fauna is present in
-both, and that they are therefore of the same geological
-age.<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">238</a> This was the conclusion to which Dr. Falconer
-was led by the examination of the caves of Gower, and
-it has been confirmed by every subsequent discovery.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_154"><i>The Pleistocene Coast-line of North-Western Europe.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The identity of the British pleistocene fauna with that
-of the continent, leads to the conclusion that in the
-pleistocene age Britain was connected with the adjacent
-countries by a bridge of land, over which the wild animals
-had free means of migration. And this might be brought
-about by a comparatively small elevation of the area.
-The soundings show that Britain and Ireland constitute
-merely the uplands of a plateau now submerged to the
-extent of about 100 fathoms, on the side of the Atlantic.
-On the east it extends at a depth of from twenty to
-fifty fathoms, in the direction of Belgium; and on the
-south it is only sunk from twenty to forty fathoms below
-the sea-level. Immediately to the westward of this
-line the sea deepens so suddenly, that there is scarcely
-any difference between the lines of 100 and of 200<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_363">363</a></span>
-fathoms, and the depth rapidly increases to 2,000. Were
-this plateau elevated above the sea to an extent of 100<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_364">364</a></span>
-fathoms, the tract shaded in the map (<a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>) would
-unite the British Isles to the continent, and the Thames
-and other rivers on the eastern coast would unite with
-the Elbe and the Rhine to form a river debouching on
-the North Sea, somewhat after the manner which I have
-represented by taking the deepest line of soundings. The
-Straits of Dover would then be the watershed between
-this valley of the German Ocean, as it may be termed,
-and that of the English Channel, in which the Seine and
-the Somme and other French rivers joined those of the
-south coast, and ultimately reached the Atlantic. Evidence
-that the latter river flowed in the course assigned
-to it in the map is afforded by the discovery of the
-fresh-water mussel (<i class="taxonomy">Unio pictorum</i>), recorded by Mr.
-Godwin Austen<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">239</a> to have been dredged up by Captain
-White from a depth of from 50 to 100 fathoms, not
-very far from what I have taken to be its mouth. We
-are also indebted to Mr. Godwin Austen for the
-discovery near this spot of banks of shingle and littoral
-shells, which indicate the position of the ancient
-coast-line.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_126" class="figcenter" style="width: 627px;">
-  <img src="images/i_363.jpg" width="627" height="850" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span>&mdash;Physiography of Great Britain in Late Pleistocene Age.</p>
-
-  <p>Shaded area = land now submerged; dotted area = region occupied by animals;<br />
-  plain area = region occupied by glaciers.</p></div></div>
-
-<p>The view that the 100-fathom line marks the limit of
-the pleistocene land surface to the west, is held by Sir
-H. de la Bêche, Mr. Godwin Austen, Sir Charles Lyell,
-and other eminent geologists, and it is supported by
-many facts that can be explained in no other manner.
-To pass over the discovery of a fresh-water shell at the
-bottom of the English Channel, quoted above, the distribution
-of fossil mammalia at the bottom of the German
-Ocean (represented in <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a> by the dotted area) is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_365">365</a></span>
-analogous to that which we find in the river gravels and
-brick-earths on the land. The quantity of teeth and
-bones belonging to the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros,
-horse, reindeer, and spotted hyæna, and other animals,
-dredged up by the fishermen in the German Ocean is
-almost incredible. Mr. Owles, of Yarmouth, informed
-me in 1868 that off that place there is a bank on which
-the fishing nets are rarely cast without bringing up
-fossil remains. It seems most probable, that these accumulations
-have been formed under subaerial conditions near
-the drinking places, or below the fords, which were
-used for ages by the pleistocene animals. I might quote
-as an example of a similar deposit of fossils on the land,
-that discovered in 1866 by Captain Luard, R.E., in
-digging the foundations of the new cavalry barracks at
-Windsor, which consisted mainly of bones and antlers
-of reindeer, with a few carnivores, such as the brown
-bear and wolf, that usually follow reindeer in their
-migrations in Siberia.<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">240</a> Were this submerged it would
-be a case precisely similar to that off Yarmouth.</p>
-
-<p>The ancient forest, exposed at low water under the
-cliffs on the Norfolk and Suffolk shores, flourished when
-the land stood higher than it does now. Traces of a
-similar forest, also at, and below, low-water mark, have
-been met with on the shore at Selsea, near Chichester,
-in Sussex; and remains of the mammoth have been
-dredged up in several places off the coast, as for example
-in Torbay and in Holyhead harbour, or found in gravel
-beds near low-water mark, as in the Isle of Wight, and
-on the north coast of Somerset at St. Audries, near
-Watchet, where a skull with gigantic tusks rested in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_366">366</a></span>
-gravel. In all these facts we have ample proof that
-Britain stood at a higher level in the pleistocene age
-than at the present day.</p>
-
-<p>The vast abundance also of the mammalia in the caves
-of South Wales and Somerset, and their presence in the
-Island of Caldy, and it may be added in Ireland, can
-only be accounted for by the elevation of the present
-sea-bottom, so as to allow of their migration over
-plains covered with abundant pasture. It seems, therefore,
-to me that the accompanying map, <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>, represents
-with tolerable accuracy the ancient coast-line of
-Britain, and of the adjacent parts of the continent in
-the pleistocene age. The fertile valleys of the English
-Channel, Bristol Channel, and the German Ocean, would
-afford sustenance to a large and varied fauna, and
-numerous herbivores, such as the reindeer, bison, and
-horse, would supply food to the palæolithic hunters, who
-followed them in their annual migrations. And it must
-be remarked on this hypothesis, that the valley of the
-Garonne would offer a free passage both to the animals
-and to the hunters of Auvergne down to the prairie, extending
-as far as the 100-fathom line off the French
-coast, and that the hunting grounds would reach to
-Devonshire and Somerset without any barrier except that
-offered by the rivers. It is therefore no wonder that the
-implements in the caves of Kent’s Hole, Wookey Hole,
-and the South of France, should be of the same type.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_155"><i>Distribution of Palæolithic Implements in this Area.</i></h3>
-
-<p>This geographical configuration in pleistocene times
-may perhaps account for the distribution of the palæolithic
-implements in the river gravels. The Seine and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_367">367</a></span>
-the Somme debouch into the same valley as the rivers of
-the south of England, and the Straits of Dover mark the
-position of a low watershed leading into the valley of
-the German Ocean, on the sides of which, in the eastern
-counties, river-bed implements are so numerous. These
-are of the same type in northern France, Sussex, Hampshire,
-Kent, and as far north as the Wash; and were
-therefore used by the same race of men. The difference
-between them and those of the cave-dwellers in the south
-and west, may be due to their possessors occupying different
-hunting grounds. Each tribe of American Indians
-at the present time has its own territory for hunting,
-which is jealously guarded against encroachment, and
-in which the articles peculiar to the tribe are being
-accumulated in the refuse-heaps, while other sets are
-being accumulated in other districts. If we suppose that
-the palæolithic savages divided up their hunting grounds
-in this manner, the difference which exists between the
-implements of the river-beds and caves may be readily
-explained, as well as their being found for the most part
-in different areas.</p>
-
-<p>The pleistocene climate in the area north of the Alps
-and Pyrenees will be treated in the <a href="#CHAPTER_XI">eleventh</a> chapter,
-after the examination of the cave-fauna of southern
-Europe.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_368">368</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead center">THE FAUNA OF THE CAVES OF SOUTHERN EUROPE AND THE
-EVIDENCE AS TO THE MEDITERRANEAN COAST-LINE IN
-THE PLEISTOCENE AGE.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote class="inhead">
-
-<p>Changes of Level in the Mediterranean area in Meiocene and Pleiocene
-Ages.&mdash;Bone-caves of Southern Europe.&mdash;Of Gibraltar.&mdash;Of Provence
-and Mentone.&mdash;Of Sicily.&mdash;Of Malta.&mdash;Range of Pigmy
-Hippopotamus.&mdash;Fossil Mammalia in Algeria.&mdash;Living Species common
-to Europe and Africa.&mdash;Evidence of Soundings.&mdash;The Glaciers
-of Lebanon.&mdash;Of Anatolia.&mdash;Of Atlas.&mdash;Glaciers probably produced
-by elevation above the Sea.&mdash;Mediterranean Coast-line comparatively
-modern.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="in0">In the preceding chapter we have seen that north-western
-Europe was elevated, during the pleistocene age, to an
-extent of at least 600 feet above its present level; so
-that Ireland was united to Britain, and Britain was
-joined to the mainland of Europe, proof of this elevation
-being dependent upon the soundings on one hand,
-and the distribution of the fossil mammalia on the other.
-Such a change must necessarily have affected the whole
-physical conditions of the area, since the substitution of
-a mass of land for a stretch of sea, and the higher altitude
-of the land, would tend to produce climatal extremes of
-considerable severity. It is indeed no wonder that
-during this time of continental elevation, the hills of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_369">369</a></span>
-Wales, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Cumbria, and Scotland
-should be crowned with glaciers, or that there should
-have been a migration to and fro of animals, comparable
-to that which is now going on in Siberia and the
-northern portions of North America. The condition of
-southern Europe at that time has a most important
-bearing on any conclusion which may be drawn as to
-the pleistocene climate in France, Germany, or Britain.
-For if it be proved that the Mediterranean Sea was then
-smaller than it is now, the greater land-surface would
-increase both the heat of the summer and the cold of
-the winter in central and north-western Europe.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_156"><i>Changes of Level in Mediterranean area in Meiocene
-and Pleiocene Ages.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The geological evidence that the Mediterranean region
-has been subjected to oscillations of level during
-the tertiary period, is clear and decisive. Prof. Gaudry<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">241</a>
-has proved, in his work on the fossil remains found at
-Pikermi, that the plains of Marathon, now so restricted,
-must have extended in the meiocene age far south into
-the Mediterranean, so as to afford pasture to the enormous
-troops of hipparions and herds of antelopes, the mastodons
-and large edentata, revealed by his enterprise. The
-rocky area of Attica, as now constituted, could not have
-supported such a large and varied group of animals, nor
-could the broken hills and limestone plateaux have been
-inhabited by hipparions and antelopes, if their habits at
-all resembled those of their descendants living at the
-present time. It may, therefore, reasonably be concluded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_370">370</a></span>
-that Greece, in those times, was prolonged southwards,
-and united to the islands of the Archipelago by a stretch
-of land. If Africa were then as now the head-quarters
-of the antelopes, it is very probable that one of the lines
-by which they passed over into Europe, and spread over
-France and Germany, was in this direction. Nevertheless,
-it must be admitted that the changes of level, which
-have taken place since the meiocene age in those regions,
-are so complicated as to render it almost impossible to
-restore the meiocene geography.</p>
-
-<p>In the succeeding, or the pleiocene age, the presence
-of the African hippopotamus in Italy, France, and Germany,
-can only be accounted for by a more direct connection
-with the African mainland than is offered by a
-route through Asia Minor. It would seem, therefore,
-that the Mediterranean Sea could not then have formed
-the same barrier to the northern migration of the animals
-which it does now. In many regions, however, the
-present land was then sunk beneath the sea, and marine
-strata, of pleiocene age, were accumulated in the Val
-d’Arno, Sicily, and southern France.</p>
-
-<p>The physical geography<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">242</a> of the Mediterranean in the
-pleistocene age may be ascertained with considerable
-accuracy by the distribution of the animals, coupled with
-the evidence of the soundings.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_157"><i>Bone-caves of Southern Europe.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The mammalia in the bone-caves of southern Europe
-differ from those of the region north of the Alps and
-Pyrenees in the absence of the arctic species, and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_371">371</a></span>
-presence of some which are of a more strictly southern
-type. Nevertheless, the influence of the mountains in
-lowering the temperature in their neighbourhood is to be
-traced in the presence of the remains of certain animals.
-Thus, in the caves of Gibraltar we find an ibex, which
-cannot be distinguished from those of the Spanish sierras,
-and in Mentone and Provence, a marmot, specifically
-identical with that of the Alps.</p>
-
-<p>The bone-caves in the neighbourhood of the Mediterranean
-afford most important testimony as to the geographical
-changes which have taken place, since the
-animals found in them lived in that region. We will
-take those of the Iberian peninsula first.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_158"><i>Caves of Gibraltar.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Ossiferous caverns have long been known to occur in
-the fortified rock of Gibraltar,<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">243</a> but were not examined
-scientifically until the year 1863, when the researches of
-Captain Brome, Prof. Busk, and Dr. Falconer, proved that
-pleistocene species were buried in considerable numbers
-in its cavities and fissures. Of these the most important
-is the great perpendicular fissure in Windmill Hill, called
-the Genista cave, which has been traced down to more
-than a depth of 200 feet. From the upper portion
-were obtained the polished stone implements, human
-skulls, and other neolithic remains described in the
-<a href="#CHAPTER_VI">sixth</a> chapter, <a href="#Page_204">p. 204</a>, which prove that Gibraltar was
-inhabited by the Basques in the neolithic age, while
-the remains from the lower revealed the presence of a
-singularly mixed group of animals.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_372">372</a></span>
-The fossil bones have been referred by Prof. Busk and
-Dr. Falconer to the following <span class="locked">species:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p id="list_372" class="in0 in4">
-<i class="taxonomy">Lepus cuniculus</i>, rabbit.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Felis leo</i>, lion.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">F. pardus</i>, panther.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">F. caffer.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">F. pardina</i>, lynx.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">F. serval</i>, serval.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Ursus ferox</i>, grizzly bear.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Canis lupus</i>, wolf.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>, horse.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Capra ibex</i>, ibex.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>, wild-boar.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Cervus elaphus</i>, red deer.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. capreolus</i>, roe.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. dama</i>, fallow deer.
-</p>
-
-<p>The spotted hyæna, the serval, and <i class="taxonomy">Felis caffer</i>, are
-species now peculiar to Africa, and it is obvious that
-they could not have found their way into Gibraltar
-under the present physical conditions of the Mediterranean.
-Elephants and rhinoceroses could not have lived
-on so barren and treeless a rock, unless it had overlooked
-a fertile plain, nor would the carnivora have chosen it
-for their dens, had it then been cut off from the feeding-grounds
-of the herbivores. Their presence, therefore, as
-Dr. Falconer justly remarks, implies the existence of
-land now sunk beneath the waves, but then extending
-southwards to join Africa.</p>
-
-<p>To the African animals, mentioned above as inhabiting
-the Iberian peninsula in the pleistocene age, M.
-Lartet has added the African elephant (<i class="taxonomy">E. Africanus</i>)
-and the striped hyæna (<i class="taxonomy">II. striata</i>), which have been
-found in a stratum of gravel near Madrid along with
-flint implements.<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">244</a> None of the purely arctic mammalia,
-such as the reindeer, musk sheep, or woolly rhinoceros,
-so abundant in France, Germany, and Britain, have been
-met with south of the Pyrenees.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_373">373</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_159"><i>Bone-caves of Provence and Mentone.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The arctic animals are also absent from the numerous
-bone-caves and bone breccias of Provence and Mentone.
-The pleistocene fauna of Provence consists, according to
-M. Marion,<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">245</a> of the spotted hyæna, and lion, <i class="taxonomy">Elephas
-antiquus</i> or straight-tusked elephant, <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i>,
-wild-boar, urus, stag, horse, and rabbit. The
-breccias in the island of Ratonneau have also furnished
-the porcupine, brown bear, and tailless hare. Man is
-proved to have been living in the district at the time by
-the discovery of perforated and cut bones, in the cave of
-Rians.</p>
-
-<p>The fissures and caves of Mentone, explored by Mr.
-Moggridge<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">246</a> in 1871, and subsequently by M. Rivière,
-contained a fauna composed, according to Prof. Busk, of
-the following <span class="locked">species:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p id="list_373" class="in0 in4">
-Marmot.<br />
-Field-vole.<br />
-Lion.<br />
-Panther.<br />
-Lynx.<br />
-Wild-cat.<br />
-Spotted hyæna.<br />
-Wolf.<br />
-Fox.<br />
-Brown bear.<br />
-Cave-bear.<br />
-Roe.<br />
-Stag.<br />
-Ibex.<br />
-Urus.<br />
-Horse.<br />
-Wild-boar.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus.</i>
-</p>
-
-<p>Along with these were large quantities of charcoal
-and flint flakes, which proved that man had inhabited
-the district while the deposits were being formed.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_374">374</a></span>
-Mr. Moggridge gives the following account of the
-results of his exploration:&mdash;<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">247</a></p>
-
-<p>“The caves of the red rocks, half a mile out of Mentone,
-are in lofty rocks of jurassic limestone on the shore
-of the Mediterranean, and at an average height of 100
-feet above that sea, the rocks themselves attaining an
-elevation of 260 feet. They have now been repeatedly
-rifled by the learned or the curious; but when the
-principal cave (Cavillon) was nearly intact, the author
-made a section of it from the modern or highest floor,
-down to the solid rock. There were five floors formed
-in the earth by long-continued trampling; on each, and
-near the centre, were marks of fire, around which broken
-bones and flints were abundant, except upon the lowest,
-where but few bones occurred, and no flints. The bones
-were those of animals still existing. Few implements
-were found, but many chips of flint, some cores and
-stones used as hammers. Perhaps this cave was used as
-a place for manufacturing flints, which must have been
-carried from their native bed, distant about one mile.</p>
-
-<p>“There is nothing to evince the action of water; on
-the contrary, the numerous stones that occur are all
-angular.... Below these caves a slope of about 180
-feet descends to the edge of the sea. Through the upper
-part of this slope, at distances from the cave of from 0
-to ten feet, is a railway cutting 600 feet long, fifty-four
-feet deep, and sixty feet above the sea. The mass removed
-in making this cutting was composed of angular
-stones not waterworn. Loose at the surface, it soon
-became a more or less mature breccia, for the most part
-so hard that it was blasted with gunpowder.” In this
-breccia, and at various depths, some of more than thirty<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_375">375</a></span>
-feet, the author has taken out teeth of the bear (<i class="taxonomy">Ursus
-spelæus</i>) and of the hyæna (<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna spelæa</i>) while with
-and below those teeth he found flints worked by man.</p>
-
-<p>The subsequent exploration by M. Rivière<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">248</a> has resulted
-in no important addition to the fauna: the famous
-human skeleton having been, as I have already remarked
-in the <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">seventh</a> chapter, interred in the pleistocene strata,
-and probably not palæolithic. It may possibly be of the
-era of the upper floors described by Mr. Moggridge, in
-which all the remains belong to living species.<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">249</a></p>
-
-<p>This cave-fauna is more closely related to that of
-southern Europe than to that north of the Alps and
-Pyrenees. The striped hyæna found in the cave of
-Lunel-viel, Hérault, by Marcel de Serres, along with
-the reindeer and other animals, probably belongs to the
-same southern group.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_160"><i>Bone-caves of Sicily.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Certain members of the African fauna are also proved
-to have ranged northwards over Europe in the direction
-of Sicily, by the discoveries in the caves of that island.
-The Sicilian bone-caves have been worked for the sake<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_376">376</a></span>
-of the bones since the year 1829; and of these many
-shiploads were sent to Marseilles from San Ciro, belonging,
-according to M. de Christol, principally to the
-hippopotamus. In 1859,<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">250</a> Dr. Falconer examined the
-collections made from this cave, as well as those which
-remained <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in situ</i>, and carried on further researches into
-a second in the neighbourhood, known as the Grotto di
-Maccagnone, and in the following year two others were
-discovered and explored in northern Sicily by Baron
-Anca. The species were as <span class="locked">follows:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p id="list_376" class="in0 in4">
-<i class="taxonomy">Homo</i>, man.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Felis leo</i>, lion.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna crocuta</i>, spotted hyæna.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Ursus ferox</i>,<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">251</a> grizzly bear.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Canis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Cervus</i>, deer.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Bos</i>, ox.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Equus</i>, horse.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>, boar.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Elephas Africanus</i>, African elephant.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus major</i>, hippopotamus.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus Pentlandi.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Lepus.</i>
-</p>
-
-<p>The presence of man was indicated by charcoal and
-flint flakes.</p>
-
-<p>The African elephant was obtained from three caves:
-from that of San Teodoro, by Baron Anca; from Grotta
-Santa, near Syracuse, by the Canon Alessi; and from a
-cave near Palermo, by M. Charles Gaudin. It is obvious
-that the presence of this animal, as well as of the spotted
-hyæna, in Sicily can only be accounted for on the hypothesis
-that a bridge of land formerly existed, by which
-they could pass from their head-quarters, that is to say
-Africa. On the other hand the presence of the grizzly
-bear, and of the <i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i> implies that they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_377">377</a></span>
-passed over into Sicily, from their European headquarters,
-before the existence of the Straits of Messina,
-since both animals are abundant on the mainland of
-Europe. The larger species of hippopotamus, doubtfully
-referred by Dr. Falconer to the <i class="taxonomy">H. major</i> (= <i class="taxonomy">H. amphibius</i>),
-may have crossed over either from Italy, where
-its remains are very abundant in the pleiocene and
-pleistocene strata, or from Africa.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_127" class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;">
-  <img src="images/i_377.jpg" width="289" height="175" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span>&mdash;Molar of <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus Pentlandi</i> (1/1). (Sicily.)</div></div>
-
-<p>A small species of hippopotamus, <i class="taxonomy">H. Pentlandi</i>, <a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>, occurs in incredible abundance in the Sicilian caves.
-It bears the same relation, in point of size, to the fossil
-variety of the African hippopotamus, as the living <i class="taxonomy">H.
-liberiensis</i> does to the latter.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_161"><i>Bone-caves of Malta.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The bone-caves of Malta were first scientifically explored
-by Admiral Spratt, in 1858, and subsequently by
-Dr. Leith Adams, and others. The Maghlak Cave near
-the town of Crendi, contained large quantities of the
-<i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus Pentlandi</i>, together with the gigantic
-dormouse, named <i class="taxonomy">Myoxus Melitensis</i>. A short distance
-off a second cavern, explored by Dr. Leith Adams, contained
-numerous remains of at least two species of pigmy<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_378">378</a></span>
-elephant about the height of a small horse. Its small size
-may be gathered from the accompanying woodcut (<a href="#Fig_128">Fig. 128</a>) of the last lower true molar, taken from the lithograph
-published in Dr. Falconer’s “Palæontographical
-Memoirs,” vol. ii. pl. xii.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_128" class="figcenter" style="width: 437px;">
-  <img src="images/i_378.jpg" width="437" height="145" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span>&mdash;Molar of <i class="taxonomy">Elephas Melitensis</i>, Malta (2/3). (Falconer.)</div></div>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_162"><i>Range of Pigmy Hippopotamus.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The pigmy hippopotamus has lived also in other districts
-in the Mediterranean region. One of its teeth,
-now preserved in the British Museum, was discovered
-by Dr. Leith Adams, in Candia. In 1872 I identified
-in the Oxford Museum a last lower true molar, which
-extends the range of this species to the mainland of
-Europe. It was obtained by Dr. Rolleston from a
-Greek tomb at Megalopolis, in the Peloponese, and was
-probably derived from one of the many caves in the
-limestone of that district. For this extinct animal to
-have spread from Sicily to Malta, from Malta to Candia,
-and from Candia to the Peloponese, or vice versâ, these
-three islands must have been united to the Peloponese
-and have been the higher grounds of land, now submerged
-beneath the waves of the Mediterranean.</p>
-
-<p>The view therefore, advanced by Dr. Falconer and
-Admiral Spratt, that Europe was connected with Africa<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_379">379</a></span>
-by a bridge of land, extending northwards from Sicily,
-is fully borne out by an examination of the fossil
-remains both of that island and of Malta (see <a href="#Fig_129">Fig. 129</a>).<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">252</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_163"><i>Fossil Mammalia in Algeria.</i></h3>
-
-<p>If the African mainland extended to Europe in the
-direction of the Straits of Gibraltar, and of Malta and
-Sicily, so as to afford passage for the African mammalia
-into Europe, it would equally afford passage for the
-southern advance into Africa of some of the European
-mammalia. Evidence of this we meet with in a stratum
-of clay at Mansourah, near Constantine, in Algeria,
-described by M. Bayle in 1854.<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">253</a> The animals which he
-obtained, consisting of the ox, antelope, hippopotamus,
-and elephant, have been described by Prof. Gervais.
-An examination of his figure of a fragment of a molar
-tooth leaves no room for doubt, that the <i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i>
-was living in north Africa during the pleistocene
-age; that is to say an extinct animal, the head-quarters
-of which are to be found in Italy, ranged as far south
-as northern Africa.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_164"><i>Living Species common to Europe and Africa.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The former continuity of Africa by way of the Iberian
-peninsula and Sicily, may also be inferred by the
-distribution of the mammalia at the present time.
-Prof. Gervais<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">254</a> observes that most of the insectivora are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_380">380</a></span>
-the same in Europe and north Africa. The genette and
-ferret (<i class="taxonomy">Fœtorius furo</i>), the <i class="taxonomy">Mangousta Widdringtoni</i>
-(Gray), and the fallow deer, are common to Spain
-and Africa. The porcupine of Algeria belongs to the
-same species as that of Italy and Sicily, and the wild
-boar does not present any characters of importance by
-which it can be separated from that of Europe. From
-the present range, therefore, of the mammalia the same
-conclusion may be drawn as to the continuity of Africa
-with Europe as is afforded by their distribution in the
-pleistocene age.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_165"><i>Evidence of Soundings.</i></h3>
-
-<p>These conclusions derived from the study of the
-mammalia, are corroborated and supplemented by the
-evidence of the soundings. As we enter the Straits of
-Gibraltar (<a href="#Fig_129">Fig. 129</a>) the Atlantic Ocean shallows, until
-between Tangiers and Tarifa it is not more than from
-270 to 300 fathoms. Between Tarifa and Ceuta the
-sea measures from 300 to 400 fathoms, and thence, in
-passing eastwards, suddenly deepens to the extent of
-over 1,500 fathoms. An elevation of 400 fathoms
-would be quite sufficient to raise a barrier of land
-between Morocco and Spain, and to insulate the deep
-Mediterranean basin from the Atlantic. The soundings
-between Sicily and Tunis are 260 fathoms; between the
-former place and Malta, 55 fathoms; between Malta
-and the African mainland, 34·4 fathoms. An elevation
-of 400 fathoms would suffice therefore to connect Africa
-with Sicily, and to insulate the eastern from the western
-Mediterranean depths. To the east of Sicily the soundings
-reveal a depth of over 2,000 fathoms, and this deep<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_381">381</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_382">382</a></span>
-basin extends as far to the east as Cyprus and Asia
-Minor. Between Candia and the Peloponese, the sea is
-460 fathoms deep. An elevation therefore from 400 to
-500 fathoms would allow of the passage of <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus
-Pentlandi</i> from Candia to the Peloponese, and
-thence by southern Italy into Sicily and Malta. I have
-therefore represented in the map what would be the
-necessary result of the elevation of the bottom of the
-Mediterranean to that extent. Two great barriers of
-land would unite Africa with Spain and Italy, and
-enable the African mammalia to find their way into
-the regions north of the Mediterranean Sea. The
-shallowness of the sea at those two points indicates the
-existence of the sunken barriers. The African elephant
-however did not pass far northwards, since it has only
-been met with in Spain and Sicily.</p>
-
-<div id="Fig_129" class="figcenter" style="width: 852px;">
-  <img src="images/i_381.jpg" width="852" height="535" alt="" />
-  <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 129.</span>&mdash;Physiography of Mediterranean in Pleistocene Age.</div></div>
-
-<p>Such a change in level as this would convert the
-Adriatic into dry land, and cause the islands of the
-Grecian Archipelago to rise high above the surrounding
-plains. The 500-fathom line is therefore taken to represent
-the probable sea margin of the pleistocene age,
-although in centres of volcanic activity, such as Sicily
-and the Archipelago, local changes of level, even of
-greater magnitude, may have taken place.</p>
-
-<p>This view of the former elevation of the Mediterranean
-area to a height of from two to three thousand feet above
-the present level will go far to explain the remarkable
-traces of glaciers discovered in Syria, Anatolia, and
-Morocco.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_166"><i>The Glaciers of Lebanon.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Dr. Hooker, in his journey to Syria in 1860, discovered
-that the cedars of Lebanon grew principally on one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_383">383</a></span>
-spot, on old moraines which traverse the head of the
-Kedisha valley. This valley terminates in broad, shallow,
-open basins at a height of about 6,000 feet above
-the sea, resembling the corries of the Highlands; and
-one of these, in which the cedars grew, was divided
-into two distinct flats by a transverse range of ancient
-moraines from 80 to 100 feet high and with perfectly
-defined boundaries. “The rills from the surrounding
-heights collect in the upper flat, and form one stream,
-which winds among the moraines on its way down to
-the lower flat, whence it is precipitated into the gorge of
-the Kedisha. The cedars grow on that portion of the
-moraine which immediately borders this stream, and
-nowhere else; they form one group about 400 yards
-in diameter, with an outstanding tree or two not
-far from the rest, and appear as a black speck in the
-great area of the corry and its moraines, which contain
-no other arborious vegetation, nor any shrubs, but a few
-berberry and rose bushes that form no feature in the
-landscape.”<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">255</a></p>
-
-<p>In ancient times, therefore, the glaciers descended to a
-height of about 6,000 feet above the sea, and were fed
-by the perennial snow-fields of the crest of Lebanon.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_167"><i>The Glaciers of Anatolia.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The former presence of glaciers at nearly the same
-altitude has also been proved by the travels of Mr.
-Gifford Palgrave in Anatolia,<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">256</a> especially in the valley
-through which the Chorok flows, and in the mountainous
-country to the north-east, between Georgia and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_384">384</a></span>
-Black Sea. The river Chorok runs about 120 miles in
-a north-easterly direction, and is separated from the
-Euxine by a mountain chain reaching a height of 11,000
-feet, thus forming a long strip of land, which is called
-Lazistan after its inhabitants, a tribe of Lazes. It then
-turns suddenly to the north, where it falls into the sea.
-The southern side is determined by mountains of Cretaceous,
-Jurassic, and Plutonic rocks, which form the
-watershed between the tributaries of the Black Sea and
-Persian Gulf. Three large moraines are to be found on
-the southern side of the valley, their lower extremity
-about 5,000, their upper origin nearly 8,000 feet above
-the sea. No moraines are seen where the chain does
-not reach an altitude of 7,000 feet, though angular
-boulders are not uncommon. The upper mountain
-contours are invariably rounded, and smoothed off, and
-the sides are scooped too widely for the depressions to
-have been caused by water. Low down in the valley
-the slopes terminate in rifted precipices.</p>
-
-<p>That these moraines were posterior to the volcanic
-eruptions in the district, is evident from the examination
-of a broad stone ridge, near the highest point to the east
-of Erzeroum, where at a height of 7,000 feet the Jurassic
-limestone was interrupted by a volcanic outbreak of
-several miles in extent. Traces of a crater were visible.
-Above, the granite peaks rose to a height of 9,000 feet;
-below, a wide moraine crossed the road, composed of
-volcanic fragments mixed with granite. Consequently,
-it must have been formed after the volcano had become
-extinct. Similar traces are to be found at Keskeem
-Boughaz. Mr. Palgrave concludes “that the ice-cap of
-the north-eastern Anatolian watershed, in post-pleiocene
-(pleistocene) times, must have reached downwards, on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_385">385</a></span>
-the northern side of the range, to 7,000 feet above the
-present sea-level, while some of the glaciers issuing from
-it descended to about 4,500 of the same measurement.”
-Striated and ice-worn boulders, especially of granite,
-were very abundant. This region, it must be observed,
-is within sight of the lofty granite range of Tortoom,
-which is “streaked with perpetual snow.”</p>
-
-<p>After leaving the Chorok valley and getting on to the
-watershed, at a distance of fifty miles to the north-east, Mr.
-Palgrave reached the main ridge or backbone of the land.
-Here, among the limestone ledges, about 6,400 feet above
-the sea, is a colossal moraine, formed of worn granite
-blocks, partly overgrown with forest, and descending from
-a height of over 8,000 feet. It is divided, by a valley,
-from a lofty undulating granite plateau that is scooped
-out here and there into deep oval lakes, always full of
-blue water. The sides of the plateau are strewn with
-boulders of granite, brought from the higher peaks about
-five miles off. These boulders occur in greater or less
-abundance down to the basin of the Ardahan, near the
-sources of the Kur or Cyras, which joins the Araxes
-before flowing into the Caspian. The height of this
-Ardahan basin is about 6,500 feet; it is, but for a slight
-easterly slope, a water level. The bottom consists of
-deep alluvial soil mixed with detritus and boulders; the
-sides are rounded and smoothed, and bear every mark of
-long ice-covering. These plateaux, studded with lakes,
-stretch east to Russo-Georgia, till their greatest height is
-gained at Kel Dagh, a mountain about 11,000 feet high:
-thence they descend to the plains of Georgia and the
-Black Sea.</p>
-
-<p>No glacial marks have been observed on the seaward
-side of the range, except at Hamshun in the Lazistan<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_386">386</a></span>
-mountains, between the River Riom and Trebizond.
-Here, at 6,900 feet, is a granite-strewn plateau, thinly
-green with grass, sheltered from the sea by lofty peaks
-on the north-west, and backed to the south-east by
-tremendous jagged granite cliffs, the highest 12,500
-feet above the sea. The plateau itself is about forty
-miles in length, irregular in breadth, its surface rounded
-and jotted over with boulders. But just as my track
-led near under the base of Verehembek, at an altitude
-of 8,300 feet, it crossed a large broad moraine, descending
-from the higher slopes, and having its base in a broad
-bare valley not far below, which showed that here, at
-the highest and widest part of the Lazistan chain,
-perpetual ice had once existed in sufficient quantity to
-furnish at least one glacier. From this case it seems
-that the limited ice-cap of the Hamshun highlands
-extended no further down than 8,500 or 9,000 feet, thus
-differing by a line of from 1,000 to 2,000 feet from the
-glacial covering of the inland range.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_168"><i>The Glaciers of the Atlas Mountains.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Similar traces of glaciers have been observed in the
-Atlas mountains by Mr. George Maw,<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">257</a> in his travels
-in Morocco with Dr. Hooker and Mr. Ball in 1871.
-“After four hours’ continued ascent,” he writes (p.&nbsp;19),
-“the termination of the glen comes into full view, and
-we observe with great interest that it is closed by a
-group of moraines, proving the former existence of
-glaciers in the Atlas, and confirming my opinion that
-the great boulder beds flanking the chain are also of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_387">387</a></span>
-glacial origin. Two villages, probably the highest in the
-Atlas, are built on the principal moraine; Eitmasan, at
-its base, at a height of 6,000 feet, and Arroond, near its
-summit, at a height of 6,800 feet; the terminal angle of
-the larger moraine having a vertical height of 800 feet.
-It is composed of immense blocks of porphyry, lying
-at a steep angle of repose, up which it takes us nearly
-an hour to climb. The existence of these moraines in
-latitude 30½° N. (the latitude of Alexandria) is perhaps
-the most interesting fact we noticed during our journey,
-for this is the most southerly point at which the evidence
-of extinct glaciers has been observed, and tends to confirm
-the opinion entertained by many geologists, that
-the refrigeration during the glacial period was almost
-Universal.”</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_169"><i>Glaciers probably the result of elevation above the Sea.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The elevation of the African moraines above the sea,
-of about 6,000 feet and upwards, is nearly the same as
-those of Asia Minor. If the mountains of the Atlas,
-Lazistan, and Lebanon shared in the upward movement
-of the Mediterranean area, the addition of 3,000 feet to
-the height could not fail to leave marks behind of the
-low temperature thereby caused. It is very probable,
-that during the time the Mediterranean was reduced to
-two land-locked seas, these mountains were covered with
-snow-fields, and constituted the ice-sheds of glaciers.</p>
-
-<p>From the range of the mammalia we have inferred the
-existence of land barriers, extending across from Africa
-to Spain and Italy, and from Candia to Greece, and their
-actual existence beneath the sea has been proved by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_388">388</a></span>
-soundings, which necessitate an elevation of from 400
-to 500 fathoms to bring them above the sea-level. We
-have also seen that the higher mountains, which most
-probably participated in this upward movement, bear
-traces of a lower temperature in the moraines of the
-Atlas and Lazistan. The hypothesis of such an elevation
-during the pleistocene age may therefore be taken to be
-proved so far as it explains two widely different classes of
-facts, the distribution of the mammals and the existence
-of glaciers where they are now unknown.</p>
-
-<p>The physical condition of the Mediterranean area, in
-the pleistocene age, may be summed up as follows. The
-mainland of Africa extended northwards to join Europe,
-in the direction of Gibraltar and Italy. The islands of
-Malta and Sicily were hilly plateaux, overlooking an
-undulatory plain. Corsica and Sardinia were joined to
-Italy, Majorca and Minorca to Spain, Candia to Peloponese,
-and Cyprus to Asia Minor. The area now occupied
-by the Adriatic Sea constituted the lower valley of the
-Po, and the Archipelago was a plain studded with
-volcanic cones; and at the same time glaciers crowned the
-higher mountains of northern Africa and of Asia Minor.</p>
-
-<p>The substitution of land for a stretch of sea, in the
-Mediterranean, could not fail to cause the summer heat
-to be more intense in the region to the north than at
-the present time, while the increased elevation would
-produce a greater severity of winter cold, as Mr. Godwin
-Austen has pointed out in the case of the hills of
-Devonshire. When, indeed, we consider that the pleistocene
-land surface extended from the snowy heights
-of Atlas, as far north as the 100-fathom line off the
-coast of Ireland, we might expect to find African animals,
-such as the spotted hyæna and <i class="taxonomy">Felis caffer</i>, ranging as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_389">389</a></span>
-far north as Yorkshire, for the only barrier to their
-migration would be that offered by the severity of
-a pleistocene winter.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_170"><i>Mediterranean Coast-line comparatively modern.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The submergence of the barriers, and the constitution
-of the Mediterranean as we find it now, have probably
-taken place but a short time ago, from the geological
-point of view, though we know that for the last
-3,000 years the coast-line has been on the whole
-unchanged, except from the silting out of the sea by the
-sediment of rivers, such as the Po, and the elevation
-and depression of small areas by volcanic energy, as at
-Santorin. The physical character of the shores testifies
-to the truth of this view.</p>
-
-<p>“On entering the Straits of Gibraltar,” Mr. Maw
-writes, “from the Atlantic, a notable change takes place
-in the aspect of the coast. Cape St. Vincent, on the
-Atlantic coast, presents a bold line of cliffs to the sea,
-and bluff cliffs extend many miles towards the Straits;
-but as soon as these are passed, a change of coast-form
-takes place, which must be noticeable to every observer.
-Cliffs on the sea-board become the exception, and the
-general line of the coast is merely a shelving under the
-sea of the general hill-and-valley system of the land, the
-sea running up all the depressions, and the land elevations
-spreading out into the sea with scarcely any abrupt
-cliff-line of demarcation. The uneven sea-bottom of the
-Straits seems to be a continuation of the contour of the
-adjacent land, consisting of rolling alternations of hill
-and valley, which must have received its conformation
-by subaerial agencies.”</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_390">390</a></span>
-“Corsica, and the adjacent islands of Elba, Capraja,
-and Monte Christo, are also remarkable for the absence
-of cliffs, and are wanting in those abrupt escarpements
-separating land and water which are so abundant on our
-own coasts. Their aspect is that of mountain-tops
-rising out of the sea, suggesting to the eye the seaward
-prolongation of their subaerial contour of sloping hillsides
-and river-cut valleys, as though the sea had not
-stood sufficiently long at its present level to excavate an
-escarpement. The deep intersecting bays that occur along
-the coast from Marseilles to the Riviera suggest the
-same conclusion, the undulating land surface spreading
-down to the water’s edge, and the deep bays running up
-the intervening valleys, which must have had an origin
-common with that of their landward prolongations.”</p>
-
-<p>It is impossible to shut our eyes to the full force of
-this reasoning. The present aspect of the Mediterranean
-is, geologically speaking, a thing of yesterday.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_171"><i>Changes of Level in the Sahara coincident with those
-in the Mediterranean.</i></h3>
-
-<p>But if the Mediterranean area has been depressed to an
-amount of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet since the pleistocene
-age, we have proof that the region to the south has been
-elevated to that extent in comparatively modern times.
-Mr. Maw,<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">258</a> in his journey in 1873 to the Northern
-Sahara, observed raised beaches at a height of 2,000 feet,
-and loam and shingle-beds as high as 2,700 feet. He
-therefore concludes that the part of the Sahara which he
-explored had been raised at least 3,000 feet above the
-sea. These changes of level, the same in amount, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_391">391</a></span>
-in opposite directions, were probably compensatory and
-simultaneous. Northern Africa may have been cut off
-from the central and southern portions of the continent
-by the sea extending over the Sahara, during the time
-that the Mediterranean was represented by the two inland
-salt lakes figured in the accompanying map (<a href="#Fig_129">Fig. 129</a>). And while the region of the Sahara was being
-elevated, that of the Mediterranean was probably being
-depressed.</p>
-
-<p>These changes in the relation of sea to land, and the
-greater elevation of the mountains in the neighbouring
-countries, must have affected not merely the climate of
-southern, but also of north-western Europe, and ought
-not to be left out of account in any theory relating to
-pleistocene climate.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_392">392</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">THE EUROPEAN CLIMATE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote class="inhead">
-
-<p>The evidence of the Mammalia as to Climate.&mdash;The Southern Group.&mdash;The
-Northern Group.&mdash;Probable cause of Association of Northern
-and Southern Groups.&mdash;The Temperate Group.&mdash;Species common
-to Cold and Tropical Climates.&mdash;Extinct Species.&mdash;Two Periods
-of Glaciation in Britain.&mdash;Three Climatal Changes represented on
-the Continent.&mdash;Europe invaded by Pleistocene Mammals before
-the Glacial Period.&mdash;Mammals lived in Britain during the
-Second Ice or Glacial Stage.&mdash;The Glacial Period does not
-separate one Life-era from another.&mdash;Relation of Palæolithic
-Man to Glacial Period.&mdash;Age of Contents of Caves in Glaciated
-Districts.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_172"><i>The Evidence of the Mammalia as to Climate.</i></h3>
-
-<p class="in0">In the last three chapters we have seen that the
-cave-mammalia throw great light on the pleistocene
-geography of Europe, and that there is reason for the
-belief that the land surface then extended northwards
-and westwards, so as to include Ireland; and southwards
-to join Africa, in the direction of Sicily, Malta, and
-Gibraltar. We must now pass on to the consideration
-of the climate on this great continental area, which
-would allow of so large and varied a fauna existing in
-our quarter of the world.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_393">393</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_173"><i>The Southern Group of Animals.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The pleistocene fauna is remarkable for the mixture
-of species. It consists of forms now banished to South
-Africa, Northern Asia, and America, or to the severe
-climate of high mountains, mingled with those which
-lived in Europe in the historic age, and those which have
-wholly disappeared from the face of the earth. We will
-take the living species first.</p>
-
-<p>The southern group consists of the following <span class="locked">animals:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-Lion.<br />
-Caffir Cat.<br />
-Spotted Hyæna.<br />
-Striped Hyæna.<br />
-Serval.<br />
-Hippopotamus.<br />
-African Elephant.<br />
-Porcupine.
-</p>
-
-<p>At the present day the lion ranges over the whole of
-Africa, with the exception of Egypt and the Cape
-Colony, whence it has been driven out by the hand of
-man. In Asia, the maneless variety inhabits the valley
-of the Tigris and Euphrates, and the districts bordering
-on the Persian Gulf; and in India, according to Mr.
-Blyth, the province of Kattywar in Guzerat. Although
-now only found in these hot regions, it is proved,
-by the concurrent testimony of Herodotus, Aristotle,
-Xenophon, Ælian, and Pausanias, to have inhabited the
-mountains of Thrace, and of Asia Minor, and it probably
-became extinct in Europe before the end of the first
-century after Christ.<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">259</a> We may therefore infer that it
-possessed a sufficient elasticity of constitution to endure<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_394">394</a></span>
-a considerable degree of cold, although its present distribution
-implies that it is better fitted to thrive in a
-tropical than in a cold climate. The Caffir cat (<i class="taxonomy">Felis
-caffer</i> of Desmarest) is an African species, which has
-been discovered by Mr. Ayshford Sanford and myself,
-in Somersetshire; it also occurs in the caves of Germany,
-France, and Gibraltar. The spotted hyæna now
-lives only in South Africa, while the striped species
-ranges through Africa and the warmer regions of Asia.
-It was extremely rare in Europe in the pleistocene age,
-and has not been identified in any deposit further north
-than Lunelviel, in southern France. The hippopotamus,
-now found only in middle and southern Africa, is proved
-by its fossil remains to have formerly dwelt in the region
-of the Lower Nile, as well as in Algeria. The serval and
-African elephant have been found in the Iberian peninsula,
-and the latter in Sicily.</p>
-
-<p>The evidence afforded by the animals, as to the pleistocene
-climate of those portions of Europe which they
-inhabited, differs considerably in point of value, but on
-the whole indicates that it was temperate, or comparatively
-hot; for although the elasticity of constitution
-which we know to have been possessed by the lion, was
-probably shared by the spotted hyæna, it is very
-unlikely that so aquatic an animal as the hippopotamus
-could have ranged from southern Europe, as far north as
-Yorkshire, under any other than temperate conditions.
-It could not have endured a winter sufficiently severe
-to cover the rivers with a thick coating of ice, without
-having its present habits profoundly modified; and
-such an alteration of habits would certainly leave its
-mark, in other modifications in the fossil skeleton than
-those minute differences which have been observed, when<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_395">395</a></span>
-it is compared with that of the living <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus
-amphibius</i>. The porcupine of southern Europe has been
-found as far north as the caves of Belgium (Schmerling).</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_174"><i>The Northern Group.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The northern group consists of those animals which
-are now only to be met with in the colder regions of the
-northern hemisphere, either in low latitudes or at great
-altitudes.</p>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-Marmot.<br />
-Pouched Marmot.<br />
-Lemming.<br />
-Alpine Hare.<br />
-Tailless Hare.<br />
-Glutton.<br />
-Arctic Fox.<br />
-Musk-sheep.<br />
-Reindeer.<br />
-Ibex.<br />
-Chamois.
-</p>
-
-<p>To this list the palæolithic man of the caves must be
-added, since he is probably related by blood to the
-Eskimos, and appeared in Europe simultaneously with
-the arctic group of animals.</p>
-
-<p>The testimony of these animals as to climate is directly
-opposed to that of the preceding group, since they
-now only flourish in the arctic regions, or in mountainous
-districts in which the climate is severe. The
-marmot, in the pleistocene age, lived in Belgium, and
-descended from the Alpine heights as far as the shores of
-the Mediterranean, where it has been met with in the
-caverns near Nice. The pouched marmot, <i class="taxonomy">Spermophilus
-citillus</i> of the Don and Volga, penetrated as far to the
-west as Somersetshire. The Alpine hare, now found
-only in the colder climates of northern Europe, Asia, and
-America (with the solitary exception of Ireland), ranged
-as far down the valley of the Rhine as Schussenreid, in
-Suabia. The two carnivores now dwelling in the colder<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_396">396</a></span>
-regions of the north, the glutton or wolverine, and the
-arctic fox, have been discovered, the one as far south as
-France, the other as far as Schussenreid, and both
-probably occupied the whole of Germany, and of northern
-Russia, in the pleistocene age.</p>
-
-<p>The musk-sheep,<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">260</a> the most arctic in its habit of all
-the herbivores, is, at the present time, restricted to the
-high latitudes of North America, where it thrives in the
-desolate, treeless, barren grounds, not even being driven
-from its haunts by the extreme severity of the winter.
-It has been traced, by its fossil remains, from its present
-abode, across Behring’s Straits, and through the vast
-Siberian steppes, into Russia in Europe, Germany,
-Britain, and as far south and west as the barrier offered
-by the Pyrenees. Throughout this large area its remains
-occur in association with the reindeer, and both these
-animals, as I have remarked above, were hunted by the
-palæolithic dwellers in the caves of Aquitaine, just as
-they are now hunted by the Eskimos on the shores of the
-Arctic Ocean.</p>
-
-<p>If the present habits of these animals be any index
-to their mode of life in the pleistocene age, their presence
-in the area north of the Alps and Pyrenees implies
-that the climate in France, Germany, and Britain was
-severe, or analogous to that which they now enjoy on
-the tops of lofty mountains, or in the northern Asiatic
-steppes, or the high northern latitudes of America. But
-this conclusion is diametrically opposed to that which
-is based on the evidence of the southern group of animals.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_397">397</a></span><a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">261</a>
-And the remains of the two groups of animals are so
-associated together in the caves, and river-deposits of
-Europe, north of the Pyrenees, that it is impossible to
-deny the fact that it was the common feeding-ground
-of both during the same era.<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">262</a></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_175"><i>Probable Cause of Association of Northern and Southern Groups.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Must we then infer that in the pleistocene age the
-present habits of the musk-sheep, the reindeer, chamois,
-or ibex, were so changed as to allow them to flourish
-side by side with the hippopotamus, or <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">vice versâ</i>? Was
-the climate colder than it is now in Europe, or was it
-hotter? How was this singular association of northern
-and southern species brought about? The problem may
-be solved if we refer to the present distribution of animals
-in northern Asia and North America. As the
-winter comes on the arctic species gradually retreat
-southwards, and occupy the summer feeding-grounds of
-the elk, red-deer, and other creatures which are unable
-to endure the extreme severity of an arctic winter. In
-the spring the latter pass northwards, to enjoy the
-summer herbage of that area, which had been the winter-quarters
-of the arctic group of animals. Thus there<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_398">398</a></span>
-is a continued swinging to and fro, over the same region,
-of the arctic and the temperate animals, and their remains
-must necessarily become more or less associated in the
-river-deposits, as well as in caves, where these last happen
-to occur. In northern Asia, and in America, the only
-boundary between the northern and temperate zoological
-provinces is that constituted by the fluctuating annual
-temperature, and there are no great hilly barriers
-running east and west, to prevent free migration to the
-north or south. If reference be made to the map, <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>, it will be seen that these conditions were amply
-satisfied in the pleistocene age. There were no physical
-barriers to migration, from the shores of the Mediterranean,
-as far north as Ireland. If the winter cold were
-severe, the reindeer and musk-sheep might advance as
-far south as the Pyrenees, and if the summer heat were
-intense there would be nothing to forbid the hippopotamus
-and the African carnivores advancing northwards.
-It seems to me that this is the only hypothesis which
-will satisfy all the facts of the case. The traces of
-glaciers and snow-fields where they are no longer found
-prove that the winter was severe; while the warmth of
-the summer seems to be sufficiently demonstrated by
-the presence of African species. Such extremes of temperature
-are presented, more or less, by all continents
-extending from high to low latitudes. They are modified
-in Europe at the present time by the warm current of
-the Gulf Stream, by the large area now occupied by the
-Mediterranean Sea, and by the submergence of the pleistocene
-lowlands on the Atlantic border.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_399">399</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_176"><i>The Temperate Group.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The third group of pleistocene mammalia consists of
-those still living in the temperate zones of Europe, Asia,
-and America:</p>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-Beaver.<br />
-Hare.<br />
-Rabbit.<br />
-Wild Cat.<br />
-Martin.<br />
-Stoat.<br />
-Weasel.<br />
-Otter.<br />
-Brown Bear.<br />
-Grizzly Bear.<br />
-Wolf.<br />
-Fox.<br />
-Horse.<br />
-Urus.<br />
-Bison.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Antelope saiga.</i><br />
-Wild Boar.<br />
-Stag.<br />
-Roe.
-</p>
-
-<p>The range of many of these animals has been profoundly
-modified since the pleistocene age. The <i class="taxonomy">Antelope
-saiga</i> of the Don and Volga lived as far to the
-west as Aquitaine. The grizzly bear, instead of being
-restricted to its American habitat in the Rocky Mountains,
-ranged over the whole of Siberia into Europe, as
-far to the south as the Mediterranean, and westwards as
-far as Gibraltar.</p>
-
-<p>The urus<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">263</a> still lives in the larger domestic cattle, and
-the bison is represented in Europe by those which are
-protected by the forest laws of Lithuania, and in North
-America by the vast herds which are rapidly being
-exterminated, like the red Indian, by the rifles of the
-settlers. The horse was as abundant, and as widely
-spread over Europe, as the urus and the bison; according
-to Prof. Brandt it now no longer lives in Siberia
-in a wild state.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_400">400</a></span></p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_177"><i>Species common to Cold and Tropical Climates.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The panther or leopard, which has been found alike
-in Britain, France, and Germany, has at the present
-day a most extended range through Africa, from Barbary
-to the Cape of Good Hope, and throughout Persia into
-Siberia. In this latter country Dr. Gothelf Fischer
-describes it as living in the same districts in the Altai
-Mountains, and in Soongaria, as the tiger. The fox
-and wolf are like instances of carnivores being able to
-endure great variations in temperature without being
-specifically modified. These three animals, therefore,
-tell us nothing as to the pleistocene climate.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_178"><i>Extinct Species.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The extinct pleistocene species may also be divided
-into the same classes as the living, by an appeal to their
-geographical distribution. Two out of the three species
-of rhinoceros found in the caves (<i class="taxonomy">R. megarhinus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">R.
-hemitœchus</i>), and an elephant with slightly curved tusks
-(<i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus</i>), had their head-quarters south of the Alps
-and Pyrenees, whence they wandered northward as far
-as the latitude of Yorkshire. The pigmy elephant and
-the dwarf hippopotamus are peculiar to the south, and
-the <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i>, or large sabre-toothed felis,
-is a survival, from the pleiocene age, of a peculiarly
-southern type.</p>
-
-<p>The woolly rhinoceros, on the other hand, may be
-viewed as a northern form, since it is met with in vast
-abundance in the arctic regions of Siberia, as well as in
-Europe, and has not been found south of the Alps and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_401">401</a></span>
-Pyrenees. The cave-bear has not been discovered either
-in the extreme north or in the south of Europe, and
-may therefore be considered of temperate range; and the
-Irish elk, identified by Prof. Brandt, from the caves of
-the Altai Mountains, had a similar range in middle
-Europe. The mammoth, endowed with an elastic constitution,
-was able to endure the severity of an arctic
-climate in Siberia and North America, and the temperature
-of the latitude of Rome and the Gulf of
-Mexico,<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">264</a> and consequently tells us as little of the pleistocene
-climate as the panther, fox, or wolf.</p>
-
-<p>The evidence, therefore, as to climate, offered by the
-extinct animals in the caves is of the same nature as
-that of the living. There is the same mixture of northern
-and southern forms, which can only be accounted for
-satisfactorily by seasonal migrations, according to the
-summer heat and winter cold, such as those which are
-now observed to take place in Siberia and North America.</p>
-
-<p>Before we consider the relation of the pleistocene
-animals buried in the caves and river deposits to the
-glacial period, it is necessary to define what is meant by
-the term glacial.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_179"><i>Two Periods of Glaciation in Britain.</i></h3>
-
-<p>At the close of the pleistocene period the climate
-gradually became colder, until ultimately it was arctic in
-severity in northern Europe. The researches of many
-eminent observers prove that an enormous sheet of ice,
-like that under which Greenland now lies buried, extended
-over North Britain, Wales, and Ireland, leaving<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_402">402</a></span>
-its mark in the far-travelled blocks of stone, the moraines,
-and the grooves which pass over the surface irrespective
-of the minor contours. The land then, most probably,
-as Prof. Ramsay and Sir Charles Lyell believe, stood
-higher than it does now. To this succeeded a period of
-depression, during which the mountains of Wales were
-submerged to a height of at least 1,300 feet; and the
-waves of the sea washed out of the pre-existing glacial
-detritus the shingle and sand, termed the “middle drift,”
-which occurs also in Scotland and Ireland.<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">265</a> Then the
-land was re-elevated above the waves, and a second
-period of glaciers set in, traces of which occur abundantly
-in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, in the white areas in
-<a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>. They were, however, of far less extent than
-those which preceded them, occupying isolated areas
-instead of forming one continuous icy covering to the
-country. The glacial phenomena may be briefly summed
-up as follows: 1. As the pleiocene temperature was
-lowered, the glaciers crept down from the tops of the
-mountains, until at last they united to form one continuous
-ice sheet, moving resistlessly over the smaller
-hills and valleys to the lower grounds, and the first
-ice or glacial period set in. 2. Then followed the era
-of depression beneath the sea. 3. And, lastly, on the
-land re-emerging from the sea the second ice or glacial
-period began. The climate during the marine depression
-must obviously have been milder than that of either of
-the glacial periods, because of the moderating effect of
-the wide extent of sea.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_403">403</a></span>
-The exact relation of the boulder clays with marine
-shells, in the centre and south of Britain, to the detritus
-left behind by the ice-sheet in the north, has not as yet
-been satisfactorily ascertained. It is very probable that
-the elevation of land in the north was simultaneous with
-a southern depression, which allowed of icebergs depositing
-their burdens in the eastern counties, in the valley
-of the Thames, and as far south as Selsea, on the coast
-of Sussex.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_180"><i>Three Climatal Changes represented on the Continent.</i></h3>
-
-<p>These changes of climate have also been observed
-on the continent of Europe. The Swiss geologists
-have shown that the Alpine glaciers extended farther
-than they do at the present time, and that they present
-two stages of extension, the first of which is of
-greater magnitude than the second. The Alpine blocks
-and moraines have been traced far down into the plains
-of Lombardy, northwards into the valley of the Rhine,
-and in France as far south in the valley of the Rhone as
-Valence. The admirable essay and map brought by
-MM. Falsan and Chantre, before the meeting of the
-French Association for the Advancement of Science at
-Lyons, in 1873, show that there were two periods of
-glaciation in the valley of the Rhone, the one being due
-to the movement of an ice-sheet irrespective of the lower
-hills, the other being merely the work of the glaciers
-localized in the valleys. These in all probability correspond
-in point of time with the like stages of the complicated
-glacial phenomena in Britain. At this time the
-glaciers of the Pyrenees, now so small, extended at
-least from thirty to forty miles from their present position<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_404">404</a></span>
-down into the plains, leaving behind most astounding
-evidences of their presence in the valley of the
-Garonne and elsewhere. On the Spanish frontier, for
-example, one of the precipitous sides of the valley, near
-the Pont du Roy, is so smoothed and polished that it is
-bare of vegetation except in the deep grooves, which offer
-a precarious support to the roots of ferns and of dwarf
-beeches. The hills of Dauphiny also and Auvergne were
-crowned with glaciers, and those of the latter have
-been shown by MM. Falsan and Chantre to have been
-conterminous with those of the Alps.</p>
-
-<p>The interglacial period of marine depression in Britain
-is represented in Switzerland by the lignite beds of
-Dürnten, Utznach, and Pfaffikon, the last of which rests
-upon and is covered by the boulder drift. The fossil
-remains from Dürnten, identified by Dr. Falconer and
-Prof. Rütimeyer, prove that two southern animals, <i class="taxonomy">Elephas
-antiquus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i>, inhabited the
-district in the interval between the retreat of one set of
-glaciers and the advance of another. They probably
-migrated from the plains of Lombardy, where they
-abounded in the pleistocene age.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_181"><i>Europe invaded by Pleistocene Mammals before the Glacial Period.</i></h3>
-
-<p>What is the precise relation of the pleistocene mammals
-to these two periods of cold? Did they invade
-northern and central Europe during the first or the
-second, before or after, the marine submergence indicated
-by the “middle drift?” We might expect, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">à priori</i>,
-that as the temperature became lowered, the northern
-mammalia would gradually invade the region occupied<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_405">405</a></span>
-before by the pleiocene forms, and that the reindeer,
-the mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros would gradually
-supplant the southern <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros Etruscus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Elephas
-meridionalis</i>. Traces of such an occupation would
-necessarily be very rare, since they would be exposed
-to the grinding action both of the advancing glacial
-sheet, and subsequently to that of the waves on the
-littoral zone during the depression and re-elevation
-of the land. At the time also that the greater part
-of Great Britain was buried under an ice-sheet, it could
-not have been occupied by animals, although they may
-have been, and most probably were, living in the districts
-farther to the south, which were not covered by ice. The
-labours, however, of Dr. Bryce, Prof. Archibald Geikie,
-and others prove that one at least of the characteristic
-pleistocene mammalia&mdash;the mammoth&mdash;lived in Scotland
-along with the reindeer before the deposit of the
-lower boulder-clay; while Mr. Jamieson has pointed
-out that it could not have occupied that area at the
-same time as the ice, and therefore must be referred to
-a still earlier date.<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">266</a> The teeth and bones discovered in
-the ancient land surface at Selsea, under the boulder drift,
-also very probably indicate that the mammoth lived in
-Sussex before the glacial submergence, although they
-were never admitted by Dr. Falconer to be of the same
-age as the remains of <i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i> from the same
-preglacial horizon. The animal also occurs in the preglacial
-forest-bed of Norfolk and Suffolk. On a careful
-examination of the whole evidence, I am compelled to
-believe, with Mr. Godwin-Austen and Prof. Phillips,
-that the <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">à priori</i> belief that the pleistocene mammalia
-occupied Great Britain before the period of the ice-sheet<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_406">406</a></span>
-and submergence is fully borne out by the few incontestable
-proofs that have been brought forward of the
-remains being found in preglacial deposits. And the
-scanty evidence on the point is just what might be
-expected from the rare accidents under which the bones
-in superficial deposits could have withstood the grinding
-of the ice-sheet, and the subsequent erosive action
-of the waves on the coast-line. It may therefore be
-concluded, that the pleistocene mammalia arrived in
-Europe before the temperature had reached its minimum
-in the glacial period. On the other hand, the occurrence
-of mammaliferous river strata, either in hollows of the
-boulder-clay as at Hoxne, or in valleys excavated after
-its deposition as at Bedford, prove that the characteristic
-animals occupied Britain after the retreat of the ice-sheet,
-and after the re-emergence of the land from
-beneath the glacial sea.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_182"><i>Mammalia lived in Britain during the Second Ice or Glacial Period.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The distribution of the animals in the river deposits
-gives us a clue to the physical geography during
-the second ice period. In an essay read before the
-Geological Society in 1869, and in a second printed in
-the “Popular Science Review” in 1872, I showed that
-there was a singular irregularity in the contents of the
-river strata, and that while the fossil mammalia
-were abundant throughout the area (marked with dots
-in the map, <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>), there were certain districts in
-which they had not been met with. One of these barren
-areas comprises (plain in the map, <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>), nearly the
-whole of Wales. A second includes a large portion of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_407">407</a></span>
-Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and
-the whole of Scotland (if the preglacial mammals in the
-low district between the Frith of Forth and Frith of
-Clyde in the map be omitted), and a third is represented
-by nearly the whole of Ireland. These areas are remarkable
-for the absence of the mammalia from the
-river deposits. They are also characterised by the freshness
-of the ice marks which they present. Nearly every
-valley has its own system of grooves and its own set
-of moraines; and the mounds of clay and marl left
-behind by the local glacier, as it slowly retreated to
-higher levels till it finally disappeared, are to be
-observed in great abundance. If we bring these facts
-into relation, the barrenness of the areas may be reasonably
-explained by the presence of glaciers, <em>while</em> the
-pleistocene mammals were living in the south and east
-(see map, <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>). A barrier of some kind may
-reasonably be inferred to have prevented their range
-over those districts, and its nature is indicated by the
-ice marks. It is very probable that these glaciers had
-not passed away before the close of the pleistocene age:
-for in that case the characteristic animals would be discovered
-in the river gravels, which are later than the
-deposits of local glaciers in those districts.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_183"><i>The Glacial Period does not separate one Life-era from another.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The lowering of the temperature which culminated in
-the glacial period has left palpable traces behind in the
-changes which it caused in the European fauna. As the
-pleiocene climate became colder, the animals unfitted to
-endure the cold, such as the deer of the Indian types of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_408">408</a></span>
-Axis and Rusa, either migrated to the south or became
-extinct, while their feeding-grounds were invaded by
-the dwellers in the temperate zone, the stag, roe, bison,
-and other animals. These in their turn were pushed
-forward by the arctic group of animals, the musk-sheep,
-lemming, reindeer, and others, the progress being
-in the main steadily to the south while the cold was
-increasing, and the retreat being steadily to the north
-while it was decreasing. It will follow from this, that
-the same district in central or north-western Europe
-would be traversed by these migratory bodies of animals,
-both in their southern advance in preglacial and glacial
-times and their northern retreat in postglacial times,
-and that, therefore, their fossil remains cannot afford a
-means of fixing the preglacial, glacial, or postglacial,
-age of the deposit in which they are found, where it is
-not marked by traces of glaciation. Sir Charles Lyell’s
-view, that the glacial period cannot be taken as a landmark
-in the classification of the European pleistocene
-deposits, is fully borne out by the facts, and still less
-can it be taken as a hard and fast line between one fauna
-and another. It cannot be considered a life-era like
-the eocene, meiocene, pleiocene, or prehistoric divisions
-of the tertiary period.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_184"><i>Bone-caves inhabited before and after Ice Period.</i></h3>
-
-<p>If we allow that the lowering of the temperature was
-the principal cause of the presence of temperate and
-arctic animals, in a region before inhabited by species
-fitted to live in a comparatively warm climate, it will
-follow that bone-caves cannot be said to be either pre- or
-postglacial, by an appeal to their fossil mammalia. If<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_409">409</a></span>
-they were open before the minimum of temperature was
-reached, they would afford shelter to the animals then
-in the neighbourhood, and they would continue to be
-occupied in the south during the vast period of time
-represented by the enormous physical changes in the
-region north of the line of the Thames, during the
-development of the ice-sheet, the submergence and the
-re-elevation of nearly the whole of Britain and Ireland.
-As, however, the cold increased, the percentage of arctic
-animals would also increase, and the more temperate
-species be weeded out. For these reasons it has seemed
-to me, that the machairodus of Kent’s Hole, and the
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i> of Oreston, represent an early
-stage of the pleistocene period, before the arctic mammalia
-were present in full force in the caves. It is very
-probable that vast herds of reindeer lived in the south
-of France, while northern Britain lay buried under the
-ice-sheet, as well as during the two succeeding physical
-changes.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_185"><i>Relation of Palæolithic Man to Glacial Period.</i></h3>
-
-<p>What then is the relation of the palæolithic hunter
-of reindeer in France and Britain to the glacial period?
-Is he pre- or postglacial? The only evidence on the
-point is that offered by the associated mammalia which
-occupied France, Germany, and Britain before and after
-the point of minimum temperature was reached in these
-latitudes. Man may have inhabited the caves not
-merely of France, but of Devonshire and Somerset, at
-any time during that long period. The position of the
-palæolithic refuse-heap discovered by Prof. Fraas at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_410">410</a></span>
-Schussenreid, resting on a moraine of the extinct glacier
-of the Rhine, proves that the palæolithic Eskimos lived
-in Suabia after the retreat of the glacier when the temperature
-became warmer, towards the close of the
-pleistocene age or in the later glacial stage. The same
-conclusion has been arrived at by Mr. Prestwich as to
-the sojourn of palæolithic man (of the river-bed type)
-in Bedfordshire and Suffolk, the gravels in which the
-implements are found being of a later age than the
-boulder-clay of those districts. We have therefore
-proof that man lived in Germany and Britain after the
-maximum glacial cold had passed away, and we may
-also infer with a high degree of probability that he
-migrated into Europe along with the pleistocene mammalia
-in the preglacial age.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_186"><i>Test of age of contents of caves in Glaciated Districts.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The probable date of the introduction of the contents
-into ossiferous caves in glaciated areas may be ascertained
-by an examination of the river deposits. If the
-animals found in the caves inhabited the surrounding
-country after the melting of the ice, their remains will
-occur in the postglacial gravels. If they are not found,
-it may be inferred that they had retreated from the district,
-before the latter were deposited. It is obvious
-that they could not have lived in any district while it
-was covered with ice or by the sea. It may therefore
-be concluded that their remains in the caves were most
-probably introduced before the glacial conditions had
-set in. Preglacial deposits in a cavern would be protected
-from the grinding of the ice-sheet, the action of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_411">411</a></span>
-the waves in the depression, and re-elevation of the
-land, and the subsequent glacial erosion which would
-inevitably destroy nearly all the fluviatile ossiferous
-strata. By this test the pleistocene strata in the Victoria
-Cave, near Settle, may be considered preglacial, as
-well as the hyæna-den at Kirkdale, which has always
-been referred by Prof. Phillips to that age. If this
-be allowed, the small fragment of human bone found
-by the Settle Cave Exploration Committee in the
-former cave in 1872 establishes the fact that man lived
-in Yorkshire before the glacial period. The man to
-whom it belonged was probably devoured by the hyænas
-which dragged into their den the woolly rhinoceros,
-reindeer, and other creatures whose gnawed bones were
-strewn on the floors.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_412">412</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">CONCLUSION.</span></h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote class="inhead">
-
-<p>Classification of Pleistocene Strata by means of the Mammalia.&mdash;The
-late, middle, and early Pleistocene Divisions.&mdash;The Pleiocene
-Mammalia.&mdash;Summary of characteristic Pleiocene and Pleistocene
-Species.&mdash;Antiquity of Man in Europe.&mdash;Man lived in India in
-Pleistocene Age.&mdash;Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related
-to those of Europe?&mdash;Palæolithic Man lived in Palestine.&mdash;Conclusion.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p class="in0">The animals inhabiting the caves have been enumerated
-in the last three chapters, and we have discussed the
-inferences drawn from their distribution as to the pleistocene
-climate and geography of Europe. It remains for
-us now, in conclusion, to define the pleistocene, and to
-see in what relation it stands to the pleiocene period.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_187"><i>Classification of Pleistocene Strata by means of the Mammalia.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The pleistocene period was one of very long duration,
-and embraced changes of great magnitude in the geography
-of Europe, as we have seen in the <a href="#CHAPTER_IX">ninth</a> and
-<a href="#CHAPTER_X">tenth</a> chapters. The climate, which in the preceding
-pleiocene age had been temperate in northern and middle
-Europe, at the beginning of the pleistocene gradually
-passed into the extreme arctic severity of the glacial<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_413">413</a></span>
-period. This change caused a corresponding change
-of the forms of animal life; the pleiocene species, whose
-constitutions were adjusted to temperate or hot climates,
-yielding place to those which were better adapted to the
-new conditions. And since there is reason for the belief
-that it was not continuous in one direction, but that
-there were pauses or even reversions towards the old
-temperate state, it follows that the two groups of animals
-would at times overlap, and their remains be intermingled
-with each other. The frontiers also of each of the geographical
-provinces must naturally have varied with the
-season; and the competition for the same feeding-grounds
-between the invading and retreating forms must have
-been long, fluctuating, and severe. The passage, therefore,
-from the pleiocene to the pleistocene fauna might
-be expected to have been extremely gradual in each
-area. The lines of definition between the two are to a
-great extent arbitrary, instead of being marked with
-sufficient strength to constitute a barrier between the
-tertiary and post-tertiary groups of life of Lyell, or
-between the tertiary and quaternary of French geologists.
-The principle of classification which I have proposed<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">267</a> is
-that offered by the gradual lowering of the temperature,
-which has left its mark in the advent of animals before
-unknown in Europe; and according to it I have divided
-the pleistocene deposits into three groups.</p>
-
-<p>1. Those in which the pleistocene immigrants had
-begun to disturb the pleiocene mammalia, but had not
-yet supplanted the more southern animals. No arctic
-mammalia had as yet arrived. To this group belongs
-the forest-bed of Norfolk and Suffolk, and the deposit
-at St. Prest, near Chartres.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_414">414</a></span>
-2. That in which the characteristic pleiocene deer had
-disappeared. The even-toed ruminants are principally
-represented by the stag, the Irish elk, the roe, bison, and
-urus. <i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus</i>
-had retreated to the south. To this group belong the
-brick-earths of the lower valley of the Thames, the river-deposit
-at Clacton, the cave of Baume in the Jura, and
-a river-deposit in Auvergne.</p>
-
-<p>3. The third division is that in which the true arctic
-mammalia were among the chief inhabitants of the
-region; and to it belong most of the ossiferous caves
-and river-deposits in middle and northern Europe.</p>
-
-<p>These three do not correspond with the preglacial,
-glacial, and postglacial divisions of the pleistocene strata,
-in central and north Britain; since there is reason to
-believe that all the animals which occupied Britain after
-the maximum cold had passed away, had arrived here
-in their southern advance before that maximum cold had
-been reached; or, in other words, were both pre- and
-postglacial.</p>
-
-<p>This classification does not apply to pleistocene river-strata
-south of the Alps and Pyrenees, into which the
-arctic mammalia never penetrated.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_188"><i>The Late Pleistocene Division.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The late pleistocene division corresponds in part with
-the reindeer period of M. Lartet; but it comprehends
-also his other three periods; for the spotted hyæna, the
-lion, the cave-bear, the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros,
-the bison, the reindeer, and the urus are so associated
-together in the caves and river deposits of Great Britain
-and the continent that they do not afford a means of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_415">415</a></span>
-classification. The arctic division of the mammalia, defined
-in the preceding chapter, was then in full possession
-of the area north of the Alps and Pyrenees, and the
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i> had
-disappeared. With three exceptions, to be noticed presently,
-all the ossiferous caverns of France, Germany,
-and Britain, belong to this division of the pleistocene.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_189"><i>The Middle Pleistocene Division.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The middle division of the pleistocene mammalia may
-now be examined, or that from which the characteristic
-pleiocene deer had vanished, and were replaced by the
-invading forms from the temperate zones of northern
-Asia. It is represented in Britain by the mammalia
-obtained from the lower brick-earths of the Thames
-valley, at Crayford, Erith, Ilford, and Gray’s Thurrock,
-by those from the deposit at Clacton, and most probably
-by those of the older deposit in Kent’s Hole, and by the
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i> of Oreston.<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">268</a> They consist <span class="locked">of&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p id="list_415" class="in0 in4">
-Man, <i class="taxonomy">Homo</i>.<br />
-Lion, <i class="taxonomy">Felis leo spelæa</i>.<br />
-Wild Cat, <i class="taxonomy">F. catus</i>.<br />
-Spotted Hyæna, <i class="taxonomy">Hyæna crocuta var. spelæa</i>.<br />
-Grizzly Bear, <i class="taxonomy">Ursus ferox</i>.<br />
-Brown Bear, <i class="taxonomy">U. arctos</i>.<br />
-Wolf, <i class="taxonomy">Canis lupus</i>.<br />
-Fox, <i class="taxonomy">C. vulpes</i>.<br />
-Otter, <i class="taxonomy">Lutra vulgaris</i>.<br />
-Urus, <i class="taxonomy">Bos primigenius</i>.<br />
-Bison, <i class="taxonomy">Bison priscus</i>.<br />
-Irish Elk, <i class="taxonomy">Cervus megaceros</i>.<br />
-Stag, <i class="taxonomy">C. elaphus</i>.<br />
-Brown’s Fallow Deer, <i class="taxonomy">C. Browni</i>.<br />
-Roedeer, <i class="taxonomy">C. capreolus</i>.<br />
-Musk Sheep, <i class="taxonomy">Ovibos moschatus</i>.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus.</i><br />
-Mammoth, <i class="taxonomy">E. primigenius</i>.<br />
-Horse, <i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>.<br />
-Woolly Rhinoceros, <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">R. hemitœchus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">R. megarhinus.</i><br />
-Wild-boar, <i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>.<br />
-Hippopotamus, <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus amphibius</i>.<br />
-Beaver, <i class="taxonomy">Castor fiber</i>.<br />
-Water-Rat, <i class="taxonomy">Arvicola amphibia</i>.
-</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_416">416</a></span>
-The discovery of a flint-flake in the undisturbed lower
-brick-earths of Crayford, by the Rev. O. Fisher, in the
-presence of the writer, in April 1872, proves that man
-was living while these fluviatile strata were being deposited.</p>
-
-<p>If these mammalia be compared with those of the
-forest-bed or the pleiocene age on the one hand, and with
-the late pleistocene on the other, it will be seen that they
-are linked to the former by <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i>, and to
-the latter by the musk sheep. The presence of the latter,
-the most arctic of the herbivores, in such strange company
-is most abnormal, and suggests the idea that the remains
-belong to two distinct eras. The skull, however, which
-I found at Crayford in 1867, and presented to the
-Museum of the Geological Survey, rested in intimate
-association with the bones of other species, is in the
-same mineral state, and bears no marks of being a “derived
-fossil.” It is the only trace of the animal as yet
-obtained from the lower brick-earths.</p>
-
-<p>The absence of the reindeer, so numerous in the valley
-of the Thames, while the late pleistocene strata were
-being accumulated by the river, and the abundance of
-remains of the stag, seem to me to point backwards
-rather than forwards in time, and to imply that the
-lower brick-earths are not of late pleistocene age; just
-as the absence of the characteristic early pleistocene
-species shows that they are not of that age. The
-evidence seems to be sufficient to establish a stage
-intermediate between the two. Nevertheless, it is
-sufficiently conflicting to cause Dr. Falconer to come
-to the conclusion that these strata are of pleiocene date,
-and Mr. Prestwich to believe that they belong to a late
-stage in the pleistocene.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_417">417</a></span>
-During the middle pleistocene, in the Thames valley,
-and at Clacton, the woolly rhinoceros, elephant, and
-mammoth competed for the same feeding-grounds with
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">R. megarhinus</i>, hippopotamus,
-and <i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i>. Although all the characteristic
-pleiocene deer had retreated, the reindeer had not yet invaded
-that area: it was occupied by the stag, roe, the
-Irish elk, and Brown’s fallow deer. The whole assemblage
-of animals, the musk sheep being excepted, implies that
-the climate was less severe at this time, than when the
-reindeer spread over the same area in the late pleistocene
-age, and was far more numerous than the stag. It
-may, indeed, be objected that the classificatory value of
-the musk sheep is quite as great as that of <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros
-megarhinus</i>; but in the case of the lower brick-earths,
-the evidence of the latter as to climate agrees with that
-of the whole assemblage of animals, while that of the
-former is altogether discordant.</p>
-
-<p>There are no caves either in Britain or on the continent
-which can be referred with certainty to this middle
-division. The machairodus, however, of Kent’s Hole,
-and of the cavern of Baume in the Jura (see <a href="#Page_337">p. 337</a>), and
-the megarhine species of rhinoceros from the fissures of
-Oreston, probably inhabited those regions, while the temperate
-group of animals held possession of the valley of
-the Thames, and of that now sunk beneath the North Sea.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_190"><i>The Early Pleistocene Mammalia.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The fossil mammalia must now be examined, which
-inhabited Great Britain during the early pleistocene
-period, and before the maximum severity of glacial cold
-had as yet been reached. The fossil bones from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_418">418</a></span>
-forest-bed, which underlies the boulder-clay on the shores
-of Norfolk and Suffolk, have for many years attracted
-the attention of naturalists and geologists. The magnificent
-collections of the Rev. John Gunn, and the late
-Rev. S.&nbsp;W. King, gave Dr. Falconer the means of proving
-that the fauna of the ancient submerged forest differed
-from that of any geological period which we have hitherto
-discussed: and the careful diagnosis of all the fossils
-from this horizon which I have been able to meet with,
-shows that it was of a very peculiar character, being
-closely allied to the pleiocene of the south of France and
-of Italy, and yet possessing species which are undoubtedly
-pleistocene. The following list is necessarily very imperfect,
-since the fragmentary nature of the fossils renders
-a specific identification very hazardous; and it only
-includes those which I have been able to identify with
-any degree of certainty.</p>
-
-<p id="list_418" class="in0 in4">
-<i class="taxonomy">Sorex moschatus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">S. vulgaris.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Talpa Europæa.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Trogontherium Cuvieri.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Castor fiber.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Ursus spelæus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">U. arvernensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Canis lupus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. vulpes.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Machairodus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Cervus megaceros.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. capreolus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. elaphus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Cervus Polignacus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. carnutorum.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. verticornis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. Sedgwickii.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Bos primigenius.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus major.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">R. megarhinus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">E. primigenius.</i>
-</p>
-
-<p>From the examination of this list, the peculiar mixture
-of pleiocene and pleistocene species is evident. The
-<i class="taxonomy">Ursus arvernensis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Cervus Polignacus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus
-major</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">R. megarhinus</i>, the horse,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_419">419</a></span>
-<i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus</i> were living in the
-pleiocene age in France and Italy, and probably in Norfolk.
-The cave-bear, the wolf, fox, mole, beaver, Irish elk, roe,
-stag, urus, wild-boar, and the mammoth have not as
-yet been discovered in the continental pleiocenes, as
-judged by the standards offered by the Val d’Arno and
-Southern France. They are more or less abundant in the
-late pleistocene age. This singular association seems to
-me to imply that the fauna of the forest-bed is intermediate
-between the two, and, from the fact that only three
-out of the whole series, viz. <i class="taxonomy">Ursus arvernensis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros
-etruscus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">Cervus Polignacus</i>, are peculiar to
-the continental pleiocene, that it is more closely allied
-to the pleistocene than to the pleiocene.</p>
-
-<p>It is also very probable that this early pleistocene age
-was of considerable duration; for in it we find at least
-two forms (and the number will probably be very largely
-increased) which are unknown in continental Europe,
-although pleiocene and pleistocene strata have been
-diligently examined in France and Germany. The very
-presence of the <i class="taxonomy">Cervus Sedgwickii</i> and <i class="taxonomy">C. verticornis</i>
-implies that the lapse of time was sufficiently great to
-allow of the evolution of forms of animal life hitherto
-unknown, and which disappeared before the middle and
-late pleistocene stages. The <i class="taxonomy">Trogontherium</i> also, as well
-as the <i class="taxonomy">Cervus carnutorum</i>, both of which occur in the
-forest-bed and in the gravel-beds of St. Prest, near
-Chartres, and which are peculiar to this horizon, point
-to the same conclusion.</p>
-
-<p>The deer of the forest-bed, in this list, do not represent
-approximately the number of species: there are at
-least five, and perhaps six, represented by a series of
-antlers, which I do not venture to quote, because I have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_420">420</a></span>
-not been able to compare them with those of the pleiocenes
-of the Val d’Arno, of Marseilles, or of Auvergne.</p>
-
-<p>Dr. Falconer pointed out that one of the peculiar
-characters of the fauna of the forest-bed is the presence
-of the mammoth; and the evidence on which he considered
-the animal to be of preglacial age in Europe has
-been fully verified by the molars from Bacton, which are
-now in the Manchester Museum. They are associated
-with <i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i> and <i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus</i>, and are
-incrusted with precisely the same matrix as the teeth
-and bones of those species.</p>
-
-<p>No caves have been discovered containing this peculiar
-assemblage of fossil animals.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_191"><i>The Pleiocene Mammalia.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The relation of the pleistocene to the pleiocene fauna
-is a question of very great difficulty, because the
-latter has not yet been satisfactorily defined, although
-Prof. Gervais and Dr. Falconer have given the more
-important species from Auvergne, Montpellier, and the
-Val d’Arno. The following list is taken from Prof.
-Gervais’s great work “Zoologie et Paléontologie Françaises,”
-p. 349, the term pseudo-pleiocene merely implying
-that the fauna differs from that of the marine
-deposit of Montpellier, which he takes as his standard.</p>
-
-<h4 id="list_420"><i>Pseudo-pleiocene of Issoire.</i></h4>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-<i class="taxonomy">Hystrix refossa.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Castor issiodorensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Arctomys antiqua.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Arvicola robustus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Cervus pardinensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. arvernensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. causanus.</i><br />
-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_421">421</a></span><i class="taxonomy">Sus arvernensis.<br />
-Lepus Lacosti.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Tapirus arvernensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros elatus?</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Bos elatus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Cervus polycladus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. ardens.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. cladocerus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. issiodorensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. Perrieri.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. etueriarum.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Ursus arvernensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Canis borbonidus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Felis pardinensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">F. arvernensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">F. brevirostris.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">F. issiodorensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Machairodus cultridens.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna arvernensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">H. Perrieri.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Lutra Bravardi.</i>
-</p>
-
-<p>To these animals Dr. Falconer<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">269</a> adds <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus
-major</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i>,
-and he identifies <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros elatus</i> with his new species
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus</i>. Prof. Gaudry agrees with me in
-the belief that <i class="taxonomy">Hyæna Perrieri</i> is identical with <i class="taxonomy">H.
-striata</i> or the striped species.</p>
-
-<p>Prof. Gervais also identifies the <i class="taxonomy">Equus robustus</i> of M.
-Pomel, from the same locality, with the common Horse,
-<i class="taxonomy">Equus fossilis</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The fauna of Montpellier is certainly very different
-from that of Issoire; but since it is neither meiocene nor
-pleistocene, it must belong to one of the intermediate
-stages of the pleiocene. It includes</p>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus monspessulanus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Macacus priscus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Chalicomys sigmodus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Lagomys loxodus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Mastodon brevirostris.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Tapirus minor.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Antilope Cordieri.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">A. hastata.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Cervus Cuvieri.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. australis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Sus provincialis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Hyænodon insignis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna &mdash;&mdash;?</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Machairodus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Felis Christolii.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Lutra affinis.</i>
-</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_422">422</a></span>
-The <i class="taxonomy">Mastodon brevirostris</i> of this list is considered by
-Dr. Falconer to be identical with <i class="taxonomy">M. arvernensis</i> of MM.
-Croiset and Jobert.</p>
-
-<p>The fauna of the Val d’Arno differs from that of
-Montpellier and of Auvergne, and yet is considered by
-Dr. Falconer to be eminently typical of the European
-pleiocene.<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">270</a> The animals identified by him in the
-museums of Italy are as <span class="locked">follow:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p id="list_422" class="in0 in4">
-<i class="taxonomy">Felis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Machairodus cultridens.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">M. Borsoni.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">R. megarhinus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">R. hemitœchus.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus major.</i>
-</p>
-
-<p>All these animals, with the exception of <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros
-hemitœchus</i>, have been discovered in the pseudo-pleiocene
-of Issoire, while the megarhine rhinoceros and
-<i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis</i> are the only two which have been
-obtained from the marine sands of Montpellier. The
-pleiocene animals, therefore, inhabiting Northern Italy
-are more closely allied to those of Auvergne than to
-those of Montpellier.</p>
-
-<p>If these three localities be taken as typical of the
-pleiocene strata, we shall find that several of the species
-range as far north as Britain, and occur in deposits which
-from the evidence of the mollusca, have been assigned to
-that age. <i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i>,
-and <i class="taxonomy">Ursus arvernensis</i>, have been obtained from the old
-land-surface which underlies the sand and shingle of the
-Norfolk Crag, in company with many forms of deer and
-antelopes which have not yet been identified, while the
-<i class="taxonomy">Hipparion</i> is found in the marine crags of Suffolk.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_423">423</a></span>
-The animals which especially characterize the pleiocene
-strata of Europe are <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus cultridens</i>,
-<i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis</i> and <i class="taxonomy">M. Borsoni</i>, besides the
-genus <i class="taxonomy">Tapir</i>.</p>
-
-<p>If this fauna be compared with that of the preglacial
-forest-bed, it will be seen that the difference between
-them is very great. The pleiocene mastodon, tapir, the
-majority of the deer, and the antelopes are replaced
-by forms such as the roe and the red-deer, unknown up
-to that time. Nevertheless many of the pleiocene animals
-were able to hold their ground against the pleistocene
-invaders, although, subsequently, as I have already
-shown, they disappeared one by one, being ultimately
-beaten in the struggle for life by the new comers. The
-progress of this struggle has been used in the preceding
-pages as a means of classification. This fauna has not
-been discovered in any cave.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_192"><i>Summary of Characteristic Pleistocene and Pleiocene Species.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The following are the salient points of the pleistocene
-age offered by the study of the land mammalia in the
-area north of the Alps and Pyrenees.</p>
-
-<h4 id="list_423"><span class="smcap">The Pleistocene Period.</span></h4>
-
-<h5>A.&mdash;<i>The latest stage.</i></h5>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-Palæolithic Man.<br />
-Woolly Rhinoceros, abundant.<br />
-Mammoth, abundant.<br />
-Reindeer, abundant.<br />
-Stag, comparatively rare.<br />
-Northern forms of life in full possession of area north of Alps and Pyrenees.
-</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_424">424</a></span></p>
-
-<h5>B.&mdash;<i>The middle stage.</i></h5>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-Palæolithic Man.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens.</i><br />
-Stag, abundant.<br />
-Northern forms of life present, but not in force.<br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i>, still living.<br />
-Woolly Rhinoceros, present.
-</p>
-
-<h5>C.&mdash;<i>The early stage.</i></h5>
-
-<p>The following are animals peculiar to this <span class="locked">stage:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-<i class="taxonomy">Trogontherium Cuvieri.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Cerus verticornis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Cervus Sedgwickii.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">C. carnutorum.</i>
-</p>
-
-<p>The following make their appearance:&mdash;The beaver,
-musk-shrew, cave-bear, roe, stag, Irish elk, urus, and
-bison, wild-boar, horse, (2), mammoth, wolf, and fox.</p>
-
-<p>The pleiocene <i class="taxonomy">Ursus arvernensis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Cervus Polignacus</i>,
-<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i> still
-living.</p>
-
-<h4 id="list_424"><span class="smcap">The Pleiocene.</span></h4>
-
-<p class="in0 in4">
-<i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">M. Borsoni.</i><br />
-<i class="taxonomy">Hipparion gracile.</i><br />
-No living species of European Deer.
-</p>
-
-<p>The three subdivisions of the pleistocene do not apply
-to the region south of the Alps and Pyrenees, because the
-northern group of animals did not pass into Spain and
-Italy. In these two countries we find southern and
-pleiocene animals living throughout the pleistocene age,
-which in France and Britain lived only in the two earlier
-stages.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_193"><i>Antiquity of Man in Europe.</i></h3>
-
-<p>No remains have been discovered up to the present
-time in any part of Europe which can be referred with
-certainty to a higher antiquity than the pleistocene age.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_425">425</a></span>
-The palæolithic people or peoples arrived in Europe along
-with the peculiar fauna of that age, and after dwelling
-here for a length of time, which is to be measured by the
-vast physical and climatal changes, described in the last
-three chapters, finally disappeared, leaving behind as
-their representatives the Eskimos tribes of arctic America.
-There is no evidence that they were inferior in
-intellectual capacity to many of the lower races of the
-present time, or more closely linked to the lower animals.
-The traces which they have left behind tell us nothing
-as to the truth or falsehood of the doctrine of evolution,
-for if it be maintained on the one hand, that the first
-appearance of man as a man, and not as a man-like
-brute, is inconsistent with that doctrine, it may be
-answered that the lapse of time between his appearance
-in the pleistocene age and the present day, is too small
-to have produced appreciable physical or intellectual
-change. Also, it must not be forgotten, that we have
-merely investigated the antiquity of the sojourn of man
-in Europe, and not the general question of his first
-appearance on the earth, with which it is very generally
-confounded. Dr. Falconer well remarked that the
-<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">origines</i> of mankind are to be sought, not in Europe,
-but in the tropical regions, probably of Asia. To these
-we have no clue in the present stage of the inquiry.
-The higher apes are represented in the European meiocene
-and pleiocene strata, by extinct forms uniting in
-some cases the characters of different living species, but
-they do not show any tendency to assume human characters.
-It must indeed be allowed, that the study of
-fossil remains throws as little light as the documents of
-history on the relation of man to the lower animals.
-The historian commences his labours with the high civilization<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_426">426</a></span>
-of Assyria and Egypt, and can merely guess at
-the steps by which it was achieved; the palæontologist
-meets with the traces of man in the pleistocene strata,
-and he too can merely guess at the antecedent steps by
-which man arrived even at that culture which is implied
-by the implements. The latter has proved that the
-antiquity of man is greater than the former had supposed.
-Neither has contributed anything towards the
-solution of the problem of his origin.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_194"><i>Man lived in India in Pleistocene Age.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The researches of the Geological Surveyors has shown
-that in ancient times man, in the same stage of civilization
-as the palæolithic man of Europe, lived in
-Southern India and in the valley of the Narbadá. In
-1868<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">271</a> Mr. Bruce Foote described the flint implements
-which were discovered over a large area in the districts
-of Madras, either in the red clayey deposit known as
-Laterite, or in such positions as implied that they had
-been washed out of it. They all belong to the same
-rude types as those of the pleistocene strata of North-western
-Europe. A small fragment of bone was the
-only fossil which had up to that time been discovered in
-the Laterite, and this I was able to identify in 1869 as
-a portion of a human tibia of the abnormal platycnemic
-variety, which has been described in the <a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> chapter of
-this work, from the European caves and tombs. The
-Lateritic deposits themselves are strictly analogous
-to our river-strata and brick-earths in their constitution,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_427">427</a></span>
-and in their resting at various levels above the
-sea, and were, as Mr. Foote remarks, formed under
-conditions different to those which are now going on in
-that district. They prove that the period of the sojourn
-of palæolithic man in Southern India is divided from the
-present day by considerable geographical changes, such
-as the elevation of land, and the erosion and breaking
-up of accumulations which were once continuous. We
-have seen that somewhat similar changes have happened
-in Europe, in the interval which separates the palæolithic
-period from our own time.</p>
-
-<p>The discovery of a rudely chipped implement of
-quartzite, of the pointed oval shape common in the
-gravels of Britain and France, published by Mr. Medlicott
-in 1873, in the “Records of the Geological Survey
-of India,” proves further that man was a member of the
-remarkable fauna which inhabited the valley of the
-Narbadá in ancient times. It was dug out of reddish
-unstratified clay by Mr. Hacket at a depth of three feet
-from the upper surface, which was covered by twenty
-feet of ossiferous gravel, on the left bank of the Narbadá
-near the valley of Bhutra. The clay belongs to
-the same fluviatile series as that from which the
-mammalia were obtained and named by Dr. Falconer
-in 1828. Both clay and gravel are shown to be of
-fluviatile origin, by the presence of fresh-water mussels
-of the varieties still living in the adjacent river.</p>
-
-<p>The fossil bones belong to extinct and living animals.
-Among the former are two kinds of elephant (<i class="taxonomy">E. namadicus</i>)
-and (<i class="taxonomy">E. stegodon insignis</i>), one of which is closely
-allied to the European <i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus</i>, two species of hippopotamus,
-one (<i class="taxonomy">H. palæindicus</i>) with four incisors in front
-of the jaws like the African, and a second with six incisors<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_428">428</a></span>
-belonging to the extinct division of hexaprotodon, a
-large ox (<i class="taxonomy">Bos namadicus</i>), a deer and a bear. The
-living forms are represented by the buffalo (<i class="taxonomy">Bubalus
-namadicus</i>), which is identical with the wild arnee from
-which the Indian domestic buffaloes have descended,
-and the gavial, or long-snouted Gangetic crocodile. This
-imperfect list, borrowed from Dr. Falconer,<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">272</a> shows that
-there is the same mixture of extinct with living forms
-in the valley of the Ganges, while the clays and gravels
-were being accumulated, as we have observed in the
-pleistocene deposits of Europe, and the fauna may therefore
-be referred to the pleistocene age, and probably, as
-Mr. Medlicott proposes, to the late division of that
-age. The exact correspondence of the quartzite implements
-with those which are so abundant in the European
-river-strata of the same age, adds additional weight to
-this conclusion.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_195"><i>Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related to those of Europe?</i></h3>
-
-<p>It is not a little remarkable that Dr. Falconer, writing
-in 1865 of the peculiar fauna of the Narbadá, should
-have held the view that man was living in India at that
-time, and that the memory of the hippopotamus was
-handed down in Aryan traditions, under the striking
-name of the water elephant. “After reflecting,” he
-writes, “on the question during many years in its
-palæontological and ethnological bearings, my leaning is
-to the view that <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus namadicus</i> was extinct
-in India long before the Aryan invasion, but that it was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_429">429</a></span>
-familiar to the earlier indigenous races.” (ii. p. 644.)
-This inference is proved to be literally true by the
-discovery of the palæolithic implements in the ossiferous
-strata of the Narbadá, which must have required long
-ages for their accumulation and subsequent erosion.</p>
-
-<p>We may, therefore, conclude that palæolithic man
-inhabited both Europe and India in the pleistocene age.
-And possibly the identity of the implements, in these
-two remote regions, may be accounted for in the same
-manner as the identity of Aryan root-words, by the view
-that their fabricators may have come from the same
-centre of dispersal, by the same routes as those which
-were subsequently used by the pre-Aryan, and Aryan,
-invaders of Europe and India. But whether this be
-accepted or not, it cannot be denied that the man who
-inhabited both these regions was in the same rude
-stage of human progress, and played his part in the
-same life-era.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_196"><i>Palæolithic Man lived in Palestine.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The discovery, by the Abbé Richard,<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">273</a> of a palæolithic
-flint implement, of the ordinary river-bed type, on the
-surface of a stratum of gravel between Mount Tabor and
-the lake of Tiberias, lends great weight to the view that
-the Aborigines of India and Europe, whose implements
-are found in the deposits of rivers, migrated from the
-same centre, since it bridges over the great interval of
-space by which they were isolated. It is very probable,
-that future discoveries may reveal the presence of a
-tolerably uniform priscan population, in the pleistocene<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_430">430</a></span>
-age, throughout this vast area: which as yet has only
-been explored by archæologists in a few isolated points,
-with the important results recorded in the preceding
-pages.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_197"><i>Conclusion.</i></h3>
-
-<p>It now remains for us to sum up the results of the
-exploration of European caves, of which an imperfect
-outline has been given in this work. Their formation,
-and filling up, have an important bearing on the physical
-geography of the districts in which they occur, and
-reveal the great changes which are going on, in the
-calcareous rocks, at the present time. The study of the
-remains which they contain has led to the recognition of
-the fact, that the climate and geography of Europe, in
-ancient times, were altogether different from those of
-the present day.</p>
-
-<p>It has also made large additions to the history of the
-sojourn of man in Europe. We find a hunting and
-fishing race of cave-dwellers, in the remote pleistocene
-age, in possession of France, Belgium, Germany, and
-Britain, probably of the same stock as the Eskimos, living
-and forming part of a fauna, in which northern and
-southern, living and extinct, species are strangely mingled
-with those now living in Europe. In the neolithic age
-caves were inhabited, and used for tombs, by men of the
-Iberian or Basque race, which is still represented by the
-small, dark-haired, peoples of western Europe. They
-were rarely used in the bronze age. When we arrive
-within the borders of history in Britain, we find them
-offering shelter to the Brit-Welsh flying from their
-enemies after the ruin of the Roman empire, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_431">431</a></span>
-throwing great light on the fragmentary records of those
-obscure times. In treating of these questions, it has
-been necessary to discuss problems of deep and varied
-interest to the ethnologist, physicist, and historian, some
-of which have been partially solved, while others await
-the light of the higher knowledge which will be the
-fruit of a wider experience.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_432">432</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_433">433</a></span></p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a class="hidev" id="Page_434">434</a><a  id="Page_435">435</a></span></p>
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="APPENDICES"></a>APPENDICES.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<h2><a id="APPENDIX_I"></a>APPENDIX I.&mdash;P. 30.<br />
-
-<span class="subhead">ON THE INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF CAVE-HUNTING.</span></h2>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p class="center">Instruments used in Cave-hunting.&mdash;The Search after Bone-caves.&mdash;The
-three modes of Cave-digging.&mdash;Stalagmitic Floors to be broken up.&mdash;Preservation
-of Fossil Bones.</p></blockquote>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_198"><i>Instruments used in Cave-hunting.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The instruments which Mr. James Parker, Mr. Ayshford Sanford
-and myself have found most valuable in cave-hunting, apart
-from the tools of the workman, are as <span class="locked">follow:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p>1. A hammer with an ash handle about twenty inches long,
-inserted into a square head of best steel, ending in a chisel edge
-in the same plane as the handle, weighing almost eight ounces,
-and seven inches in length.</p>
-
-<p>2. A steel chisel ten inches long.</p>
-
-<p>3. A prismatic compass.</p>
-
-<p>4. A thermometer for taking the temperatures of the air and
-water.</p>
-
-<p>5. An aneroid.</p>
-
-<p>6. A steel measuring tape.</p>
-
-<p>7. Abney’s patent level which is used for laying down datum-line
-for plan, as well as for taking the dips and angles.</p>
-
-<p>In making a plan we have found it useful to mark the datum-line
-by a stout string or wire and to measure from it as the work
-proceeds, indicating on the sides and floor of the cave the points
-of measurement, with paint or wooden pegs.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_436">436</a></span>
-8. A stout rope not less than twenty feet long with a horse’s
-girth at the end is necessary for the exploration of vertical fissures,
-so that the explorer may be let down without any great danger.
-No large unknown caves should be explored without a rope, or
-by a party less than three in number. In exploring the caves
-of Burrington Combe we used a rope sixty feet long. The descent
-into Helln Pot, described in the <a href="#CHAPTER_II">second</a> chapter, <a href="#Page_41">p. 41</a>, was
-effected in the following manner. A strong platform of timber
-was made over the open fissure, and from it a square
-“cage” or “basket” of the ordinary kind used in mining was
-let down for the first drop of 198 feet. It was prevented from
-twisting round by two guide ropes. For the rest of the falls we
-had two ladders eight feet long, and a rope, without which we
-should have been unable to reach the bottom.</p>
-
-<div id="if_i_436" class="figcenter" style="width: 338px;">
-  <img src="images/i_436.jpg" width="338" height="126" alt="" /></div>
-
-<p>9. In the exploration of water-caves, in which there are sometimes
-sheets of water of considerable size and depth, a raft may
-be used, such as that devised by Mr. James Parker for the
-navigation of the great cave of Wookey Hole. It consisted of a
-platform supported on barrels and built as follows: A frame of
-stout poles was made; two, <i>a a</i>, being eight feet long, with four
-others, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, lashed firmly across, each four feet in length. The space
-<i>d</i> was converted into a platform by nailing boards across, and
-this was buoyed up by a beer-barrel at each end in the interspace
-<i>e</i>. The barrels were attached to the raft by two loops of rope <i>g</i>,
-passing over from <i>b</i> to <i>c</i>, and thus kept in place, although they
-freely twisted and turned in actual use. The ropes had an advantage
-over iron hoops for the attachment of the barrels, because
-when they were tightened the platform was raised above the
-water, when they were loosened it was lowered, and thus the
-raft could be adjusted to the weight to be carried, to the depth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_437">437</a></span>
-of the water, and the distance of the water-line from the roof.
-A raft of this kind will bear three persons, and is sufficiently
-light to be carried over the shallows. With it Mr. Parker made
-his way for a considerable distance in the Wookey Hole cavern,
-and subsequently I penetrated as far as the water-line would
-allow me to get. A long pole is also necessary for punting.
-Mr. Parker found by experience that a raft made of boards
-nailed on the top of two beer-barrels was too unstable to be of
-any use. In making his way across subterranean pools the cave-hunter
-ought to be prepared for accidents, for the depth is very
-uncertain, and the water sufficiently cold to cause cramp. For
-the exploration of ordinary water-caves a raft is unnecessary,
-but no attempt should be made without a rope. In Yorkshire
-and Derbyshire there is an unlimited field for adventure in the
-subterranean water-courses.</p>
-
-<p>10. The most convenient lights for use in caves are the common
-composite candles. Paraffin candles are open to the objection
-that they gutter, lanthorns do not give a sufficiently diffused
-light, and the smoke of paraffin torches, or flambeaux dipped in
-turpentine or tar is intolerable. Magnesium wire reveals the
-beauties of the higher roofs.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_199"><i>The Search after Ossiferous Caves.</i></h3>
-
-<p>Many of the ossiferous caves, and especially those of the
-neolithic and pleistocene ages, have their entrances masked by
-débris which has been accumulated from the surface above during
-the long lapse of ages. In their discovery I have found rabbits,
-foxes, and badgers of the greatest service, since these animals
-generally make their burrows in such places. And where their
-earths are met with at the base of a vertical wall of rock, I have
-very generally found a cave. They were my sole guides to the
-discovery of the five sepulchral caves at Perthi Chwareu, described
-in the <a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> chapter, in a district in which up to that time caves
-were not known to exist.</p>
-
-<p>The dwellers in caves very generally chose for their habitations
-the sunny side of the ravines and valleys, and the spots<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_438">438</a></span>
-which commanded a wide view, and, therefore, their remains
-are to be looked for in those places, rather than on the cold
-and sunless sides, or where an enemy might approach without
-observation.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_200"><i>The Scientific Methods of Cave-digging.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The exploration of an ossiferous cavern with sufficient accuracy
-to be of scientific value, may be carried out in all tunnel
-caves, or those extending horizontally into the rock, by one of
-the three following methods which may be adapted to the
-local <span class="locked">conditions:&mdash;</span></p>
-
-<p>The first step to take in all cases is to make a plan of the entrance,
-and to cut a passage down to the rock at the entrance, so
-as to obtain a clear idea of the sequence of the strata. In the
-hyæna-den at Wookey Hole, we first of all cut a passage through
-the cave-earth which extended from the roof to the floor, and then
-removed the earth on either side in blocks, until ultimately the
-chamber and passages described in the <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">eighth</a> chapter were
-cleared of their contents. Our work was measured every evening,
-and each bone and object found was labelled with the date
-which was recorded on the ground plan. Vertical sections were
-also taken from time to time. This mode, supplemented by
-constant supervision of the workmen, was sufficiently accurate
-to satisfy the demands of scientific research.</p>
-
-<p>The Victoria Cave, where the demarcation between the strata
-was very distinct, was explored, while the work was under my
-direction up to September 1873, in a somewhat similar fashion.
-It was, however, impossible on account of the great depth of the
-deposits to cut a passage down to the rock at the entrance. We
-therefore examined the superficial strata throughout the cave,
-merely gauging the thickness of those below by sinking three
-shafts. Where a cave is sufficiently high to allow of the work
-being carried on, it is better to clear out one stratum before
-another is disturbed.</p>
-
-<p>The most elaborate and perfect method of cave exploration is
-that which has been used by the committee in Kent’s Hole,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_439">439</a></span>
-under the superintendence of Mr. Pengelly, who writes as
-follows:<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">274</a>&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>“The following is the method of exploration which has been
-observed from the commencement, and which it is believed
-affords a simple and correct method of determining the exact
-position of every object which has been found.</p>
-
-<p>“1. The black soil accessible between the masses of limestone
-on the surface was carefully examined and removed.</p>
-
-<p>“2. The limestone blocks occupying the surface of the deposits
-were blasted and otherwise broken up, and taken out of
-the cavern.</p>
-
-<p>“3. A line termed the ‘datum-line,’ is stretched horizontally
-from a fixed point at the entrance to another at the back of the
-chamber.</p>
-
-<p>“4. Lines, one foot apart, are drawn at right angles to the
-datum-line, and therefore parallel to one another, across the
-chamber so as to divide the surface of the deposit into belts
-termed ‘parallels.’</p>
-
-<p>“5. In each parallel the black mould which the limestone
-masses had covered is first examined and removed, and then the
-stalagmite breccia, so as to lay bare the surface of the cave-earth.</p>
-
-<p>“6. Horizontal lines, a foot apart, are then drawn from side
-to side across the vertical face of the section so as to divide the
-parallel into four layers or ‘levels,’ each a foot deep.</p>
-
-<p>“Finally each level is divided into lengths called ‘yards,’ each
-three feet long, and measured right and left from the datum-line
-as an axis of abscissæ.</p>
-
-<p>“In fine, the cave-earth is excavated in vertical slices or parallels
-four feet high, one foot thick, and as long as the chamber is
-broad, where this breadth does not exceed thirty feet. Each
-parallel is taken out in levels one foot high, and in each level in
-horizontal prisms three feet long and a foot square in the section,
-so that each contains three cubic feet of material.</p>
-
-<p>“This material, after being carefully examined <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in situ</i> by candlelight,
-is taken to the door and re-examined by daylight, after
-which it is at once removed without the cavern. A box is appropriated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_440">440</a></span>
-to each yard exclusively, and in it are placed all the
-objects of interest which the prism yields. The boxes, each
-having a label containing the data necessary for defining the
-situation of its contents, are daily sent to the honorary secretary
-of the committee, by whom the specimens are at once cleaned
-and packed in fresh boxes. The labels are numbered and packed
-with the specimens to which they respectively belong, and a
-record of the day’s work is entered in a diary.</p>
-
-<p>“The same method is followed in the examination of the black
-mould, and also of the stalagmitic breccia, with the single exception
-that in these cases the parallels are not divided into levels
-and yards.”</p>
-
-<p>A careful record of the work, and minute sections should be
-taken daily on the spot.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_201"><i>The Stalagmitic Floor to be broken up.</i></h3>
-
-<p>In all cases the crystalline flooring of stalagmite and stalagmitic
-breccias which often occur, should be broken up, or, if
-necessary, blasted with gunpowder. The former very frequently
-conceals the pleistocene remains, and the latter, which is in
-Kent’s Hole many feet thick, often contains the traces of man
-and wild animals. Sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish
-the breccia from the rocky floor.</p>
-
-<p>Where the ossiferous deposit fills a vertical fissure it must be
-worked on the same plan as in ochre-mining, by sinking a shaft.
-To dig into it from below (where this is possible) is very dangerous,
-because of the large imbedded stones which fall sometimes
-without any warning.</p>
-
-<h3 id="hdr_202"><i>The Preservation of Fossil Remains.</i></h3>
-
-<p>The fossil bones and teeth, which have very generally lost
-their gelatine and have a tendency to crumble and split to pieces
-in drying, should be gradually dried, and from time to time
-saturated with a weak hot solution of gelatine or glue. Silicate
-of soda, sometimes called “liquid glass,” or melted paraffin (not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_441">441</a></span>
-the oil), may also be used for the same purpose. If the bones
-are extremely soft, they may be rescued from destruction by
-letting them dry in the matrix, saturating them and the matrix
-with a solution of gelatine, and then clearing off the latter. In
-this manner I preserved the skull of the musk sheep which is
-now in the Museum of the Geological Survey in Jermyn Street,
-London.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_442">442</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2><a id="APPENDIX_II"></a>APPENDIX II.&mdash;P. 40.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<blockquote>
-
-<p id="hdr_203" class="center"><i>Observations on the Rate at which Stalagmite is being accumulated
-in the Ingleborough Cave.</i> Proceed. Lit. and Phil. Soc.
-Manch. April 1873.</p></blockquote>
-
-<p>The only attempt to measure with accuracy the rate of the
-accumulation of stalagmite in caverns, in this country, is that
-made by Mr. James Farrer in the Ingleborough Cave, in the
-years 1839 and 1845, and published by Prof. Phillips in the
-“Rivers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of Yorkshire” (second
-edition, 1855, pp. 34&ndash;35). The stalagmite of which the measurements
-were taken is that termed, from its shape, the Jockey
-Cap. It rises from a crystalline pavement to a height of about
-two and a half feet, and is the result of a deposit of carbonate
-of lime, brought down by a line of drops that fall into a basin
-at its top, and flow over the general surface. On March 13th,
-1873, in company with Mr. John Birkbeck and Mr. Walker, I
-was enabled by the kindness of Mr. Farrer to take a set of
-measurements, to be recorded for use in after years.</p>
-
-<p>For the sake of insuring accuracy in future observations, three
-holes were bored at the base of the stalagmite, and three gauges
-of brass wire, gilt, inserted; gauge No. 1 in the following table
-being that on the S.S.E., No. 2 on N.N.E., No. 3 on the West side.
-The curvilinear dimensions were taken with fine iron wire, or
-with a steel measure; and the circumferential around the base
-along a line marked by the three gauges. The measurements 2,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_443">443</a></span>
-3, and 4 of the table were taken on the 15th of March, by Mr.
-Walker, and their accuracy may be tested by the fact that they
-coincide exactly with No. 1, which I took two days before.</p>
-
-<p>The lengths of wire, properly labelled, are deposited in the
-Manchester Museum, the Owens College, for future observers.</p>
-
-<p>In the following table I have given my own measurements
-and compared them with those taken by Mr. Farrer.</p>
-
-<h4 id="list_443"><a href="#if_p_443">TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS.</a></h4>
-
-<table id="table443" class="listobjects" summary="Table of Measurements">
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc" rowspan="2"> </th>
-    <th class="tdc" rowspan="2">13th Mar. 1873.<br />Inches.</th>
-    <th class="tdc" rowspan="2">1839.<br />Inches.</th>
-    <th class="tdc" rowspan="2">30 Oct. 1845.<br />Inches.</th>
-    <th class="tdc nobb" colspan="2">Increase<br />since</th>
-    <th class="tdc" rowspan="2">Rate of Increase<br />per annum.<br />Inches.</th></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <th class="tdc notb">1839.</th>
-    <th class="tdc notb">1845.</th></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 1  Basal circumference at Gauges</td>
-    <td class="tdc">128    </td>
-    <td class="tdc">118  </td>
-    <td class="tdc">120   </td>
-    <td class="tdc">10  </td>
-    <td class="tdc">8  </td>
-    <td class="tdl small">·2941-·2857</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 2  Gauge No. 1 to Gauge No. 2</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 52·625</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 3  <span class="toc443pad1">”</span> 2 <span class="toc443pad2">”</span> 3</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 35·0  </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 4  <span class="toc443pad1">”</span> 3 <span class="toc443pad2">”</span> 1</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 40·375</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 5  Gauge No. 1 to hole in centre of basin at apex</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 30    </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 6  <span class="toc443pad1">”</span> 2 <span class="toc443pad2">”</span> <span class="toc443pad2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 29·5  </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 7  <span class="toc443pad1">”</span> 3 <span class="toc443pad2">”</span> <span class="toc443pad2">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 31·4  </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 8  Height from Gauge No. 1</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 20·9  </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 9  <span class="toc443pad1">”</span>  <span class="toc443pad3">”</span>2 min</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 20·4  </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">10  Maximum</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 29·7  </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">11  Tape measurement on slope<br /><span class="in2">Gauge No. 1 to edge of apex</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 26·7  </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">12  <span class="toc443pad4">”</span> No. 2 <span class="toc443pad5">”</span> <span class="toc443pad5">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 26·6  </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 21·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 5·6</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">13  <span class="toc443pad4">”</span> <span class="toc443pad6">”</span> maximum <span class="toc443pad7">”</span></td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 36·0  </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 32·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 35·0 </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 4·0</td>
-    <td class="tdc">1·0 </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">14  Roof to apex of Jockey Cap</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 87    </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 95·25</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc">8·25</td>
-    <td class="tdl small">·2946</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">15  Roof to tip of stalactite</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 10   </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-  <tr class="ftr">
-    <td class="tdl">16  Stalactite to apex of Jockey Cap</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> 85·25</td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td>
-    <td class="tdc"> </td></tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>Unfortunately I have been unable to identify the exact spots
-where the stalagmite was measured by Mr. Farrer, so that the
-only measurement which affords any trustworthy data for estimating
-the rate of increase is number 14. With regard to this,
-the only possible ground of error is the erosion of the general
-surface of the solid limestone, of which the roof is composed, by
-carbonic acid, since the year 1845, and this is so small as to be
-practically inappreciable. We have, therefore, evidence that
-the Jockey’s Cap is growing at the rate of ·2946 of an inch per
-annum, and that if the present rate of growth be continued it
-will finally arrive at the roof in about 295 years. But even this
-comparatively short lapse of time will probably be diminished by
-the growth of a pendent stalactite above, that is now being
-formed in place of that which measured ten inches in 1845, and
-has since been accidentally destroyed. It is very possible that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_444">444</a></span>
-the Jockey Cap may be the result not of the continuous but of
-the intermittent drip of water containing a variable quantity of
-carbonate of lime, and that, therefore, the present rate of growth
-is not a measure of its past or future condition. Its possible
-age in 1845 was estimated by Prof. Phillips at 259 years, on
-the supposition that the grain of carbonate of lime in each
-pint was deposited. If, however, it grew at its present rate it
-may be not more than 100 years old. All the stalagmites and
-stalactites in the Ingleborough Cave may not date further
-back than the time of Edward III. if the Jockey Cap be taken
-as a measure of the rate of deposition.</p>
-
-<hr />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_447">447</a></span></p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<div class="index">
-<h2><a id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2>
-
-<ul class="index">
-
-<li class="ifrst">A.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Abbeville, flint implements of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aborigines (palæolithic) of India, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Acid-worn joint, Doveholes, Derbyshire, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Adams, Dr. Leith, explores bone-caves of Malta, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">finds tooth of pigmy hippopotamus in Candia, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Adriatic Sea, the, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Africa, mainland of, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">moraines in, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">physical geography of, in pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">species of European mammalia found in, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">African animals in the Iberian peninsula, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">elephant, the, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Age of cavern deposits, test of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Albert Cave, the, Settle, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alessi, Canon, cited, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Algeria, fossil mammalia in, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Alps, the, animals living to the North of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">glaciers of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Altai mountains, the, Irish elk in, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">panther in, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">America, animals in, <a href="#Page_396">396&ndash;399</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Amiens, flint implements in the gravels of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Anatolia, the glaciers of, <a href="#Page_383">383&ndash;385</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Anca, Baron, on caves of northern Sicily, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Andalusia, prehistoric antiquities in, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Animals in Brit-Welsh caves, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">classificatory value of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">domestic, derived from Asia, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">evidence of, as to climate, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">extinct species of, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">historic, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">living under the care of man, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">migration of, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">northern group of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">pleistocene, living to the north of the Alps, <a href="#Page_359">359&ndash;361</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">unknown in Britain in the prehistoric age, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">prehistoric, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">probable cause of association of species, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">southern group of, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">temperate group of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Antelope saiga</i>, the, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Antelopes, spread of, into Europe, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Antiquity of Man in Europe, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aquitaine, implements in the caves of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">palæolithic hunters in, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the people of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ardennes, rock denuded from the, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arenaceous rocks, caves in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arnould, M., on the cave of Sclaigneaux, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arrows used by palæolithic hunters, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Art of the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Arthur’s cave, King, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ashmolean Museum, harpoons in the, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Asia, domestic animals of Europe derived from, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the lion in, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ass, the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Atlantic Ocean, the, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">shore, the, at one hundred fathom line, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Atlas mountains, glaciers of the, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aurignac, the cave of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">bones found in, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">discovery of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">interment in, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">skeletons of man above palæolithic stratum of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Austen, Mr. Godwin- (<i>see</i> <a href="#Godwin-Austen">Godwin-Austen</a>).</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Auvergne, palæolithic men in, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Avison, cave of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Axe, the river, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Aymard, M., cited, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">B.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Badger, the (<i>see</i> <i class="taxonomy"><a href="#Meles_taxus">Meles taxus</a></i>).</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Banwell, cave at, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Basques, the, eastern derivation of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">elements of, in British and French populations, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Britain and Ireland in the neolithic age, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the Dolicho-cephali cognate with, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the oldest neolithic population, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Baumann’s Hole, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Baume, the cave of, animals found in, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bayle, M., on animals from Mansourah, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bear, the, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Germany, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in the care of Kühloch, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_448">448</a></span></li>
-<li class="isub1">the cave, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the grizzly, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Beard, Mr., of Banwell, cited, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">explorations of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Beaumont, Mr. John, describes Wookey Hole, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on fungoid structures, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Beaver, the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Behrens, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Belgium, brachy-cephalic skulls found in, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">caves in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">dolicho-cephalic skulls in, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bell, Professor, on the ass, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bertrand, M. Eugène, cited, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Billaudel, M., cited, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Birkbeck, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">descends into Helln Pot, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bishofferode, cave at, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bison, the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blackmore, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Black-Rock Cave, the, near Tenby, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blake, Mr. Carter, cited, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Blyth, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boar, the wild, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bone-beds, the, in Wookey Hole Hyæna-den, <a href="#Page_305">305&ndash;307</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bone-caves, before and after the ice-period, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">exploration of, in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Southern Europe, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the three classes of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bone harpoon, found in Victoria Cave, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bones gnawed by hyænas, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bonney, Rev. T.&nbsp;G., cited, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Bos namadicus</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bosco’s Den, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Boulder clays, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brachy-cephali, the Belgian, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">British, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">French, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">represented by Celts, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bradley, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brandt, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the Irish Elk, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brenan, Mr., discoveries of, in Ireland, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bristol Channel, the, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Britain, cave exploration in, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">during the second ice age, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">historic caves in, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">historic period in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">inhabitants of, in the neolithic age, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in the pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">mammalia in, during the second ice age, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">population of in time of Cæsar, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">raids of Picts and Scots in, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">range of dolicho-cephali in, and Ireland, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Roman dominion in, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">two periods of glaciation in, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">wild animals in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">British brachy-cephali, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brit-Welsh caves, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brixham, caves at, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">implements and animals in, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">history of deposits in, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Broca, M., cited, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on Basque crania, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the Caverne de l’Homme Mort, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">derivation of the Basques from Africa, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on platycnemic <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">sepulchral cave of Orrouy, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brome, Captain, researches of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bronze age in Britain, caves of the, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">armlet from Thor’s cave, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">articles from Heathery Burn, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brooches found in the Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brown, Mr. Edwin, on Thor’s cave, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Browne, the Rev. G.&nbsp;F., explorations of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the temperature of caves, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bruniquel, cave of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">interments of doubtful age in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Bryce, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Brysgill, cave of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Bubalus namadicus</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buckland, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on Gailenreuth cave, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Kirkdale, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Kühloch, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Paviland, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Buffalo in Italy, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Busk, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on fossil bones in the Iberian peninsula, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">human bones from Perthi-Chwareu caves, <a href="#Page_166">166&ndash;179</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">human remains from Cefn tumulus, <a href="#Page_180">180&ndash;186</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">human skull from caves of Césaroda, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">skulls found in Spain, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the Berbers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the fauna of Mentone, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">researches of, in caves of Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_204">204&ndash;208</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">C.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Calcareous rocks, caves in, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Caldy, cave of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">cave-pearls in, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">fungoid stalagmites in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">island of, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Campbell, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy"><a id="Canis_familiaris"></a>Canis familiaris</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">lupus</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">vulpes</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Capellini, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the Grotta dei Colombi, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy"><a id="Capra_hircus"></a>Capra hircus</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carbonate of lime, circulation of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Thames water, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">removed by streams, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cartaillac, M., cited, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Carte, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cat, Caffir, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>; domestic, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cat-Hole cave, in Gower, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cave-pearls, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Caves, biological division of, <a href="#Page_6">6&ndash;9</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">classification of palæolithic, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">conclusions as to prehistoric, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">containing remains of doubtful age, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">contents of historic, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">deposits in valleys and in, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">exploration of European, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">filling up of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">formation of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">historic, in Britain, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in the region of Craven, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">legends and superstitions of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">not generally found in line of faults, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_449">449</a></span></li>
-<li class="isub1">of bronze age in Britain, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of neolithic age, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">physical division of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">physical history of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">relation of, to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">results of the exploration of European, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">temperature of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">test of age of deposits in, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">used as places of refuge, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">various ages of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Albert, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">of Andalusia, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Aquitaine, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Aurignac, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Avison, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Banwell, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Baumann’s Hole, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Baume, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Belgium, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Bishofferode, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Black Rock, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Bosco’s Den, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Britain, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Brit-Welsh, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Brixham, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Bruniquel, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Brysgill, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Caldy, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Canary Isles, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cat-Hole, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cavillon, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cefn, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Césareda, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Chauvaux, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Colombi, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Crawley Rocks, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Cro-Magnon, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Denbighshire, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Derbyshire, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Devonshire, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dowkerbottom, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Dream, the, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Engis, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Fingal, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">France, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Franconia, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gailenreuth, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gatekirk, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gendron, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Genista, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Goatchurch, <a href="#Page_31">31&ndash;34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Gower, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Heathery Burn, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Hutton, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Ingleborough, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Ireland, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kelko, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kent’s-Hole, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">King Arthur, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">King’s Scar, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kirkdale, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kirkhead, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Kühloch, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Laugerie Basse, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">L’Homme Mort, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Llandebie, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Llanamynech, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Lombrive, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Longberry Bank, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Long Churn, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Lunel-viel, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Maccagnone, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Maghlak, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Malta, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Moustier, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Naulette, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Neanderthal, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">North Wales, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Oban, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Orrouy, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Paviland, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Peak, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Pembrokeshire, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Périgord, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Perthi-Chwareu, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Plas Heaton, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Poole, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Provence and Mentone, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Reggio, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Rians, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Rhosdigre, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">San Ciro, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sclaigneaux, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Sicily, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">South Wales, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Thor’s, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Uphill, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Victoria, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Weathercote, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Whitcombe, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Woman’s, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Wookey, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub2">Yorkshire, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Caverne de l’Homme Mort, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cavillon, cave of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">palæolithic skeletons in, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">strata in, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cedars of Lebanon, the, Dr. Hooker on, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cefn, caves at, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">chambered tomb near, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">discovery of bones at, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Professor Busk on human remains from tumulus at, <a href="#Page_180">180&ndash;184</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on skull from, <a href="#Page_184">184&ndash;167</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Celts, brachy-cephali represented by, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus alcis</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">capreolus</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">carnutorum</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">elaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">Polignacus</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">Sedgwickii</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">verticornis</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Césareda, caves of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">evidence of cannibalism in, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chautre, M., cited, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chapel-en-le-Dale, valley of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chauvaux, cave of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chester, sack of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chierici, l’Abbé, on remains from the cave of Reggio, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Chillingham ox, the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Christol, M. de, cited, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Christy, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the caves of Périgord, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Cirques” in calcareous rocks, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Classification of pleistocene strata, <a href="#Page_412">412&ndash;414</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Classificatory value of historic animals, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Close, Rev. H.&nbsp;M., cited, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Climate, evidence of animals as to, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">pleistocene, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Coast line of North-Western Europe in pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cochrane, Sir James, cited, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Coins in the Victoria cave, Settle, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Corsica, absence of cliffs in, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crania from Genista cave, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cranial terms, definition of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Craven, caves near, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crawley Rocks, the cavern of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Crayford, discovery of a flint-flake at, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cro-Magnon, cave of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ornaments found in, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">position of human skeletons in, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">section of deposits in, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the human <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">traces of occupation in, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Cuvier, Baron, cited, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">D.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dalebeck, the, course of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dana, Professor, on caverns, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Darbishire, Mr. R.&nbsp;D., reference to, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dauphiny, the hills of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Delgado, Senhor J.&nbsp;L., on researches in the caves of Césareda, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">De Luc, M., cited, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Denbighshire, sepulchral caves in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Denny, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Derbyshire, caves of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Desnoyers, M., cited, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the analogy between caverns and mineral veins, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">relation of caves to ravines, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Devonshire, caves of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dio Chrysostom Rhetor on the lion, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dog, the (<i>see</i> <i class="taxonomy"><a href="#Canis_familiaris">Canis familiaris</a></i>).</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dolicho-cephali, British, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">their range in Britain and Ireland, <a href="#Page_194">194&ndash;197</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">cognate with the Basque, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_204">204&ndash;207</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dormouse of Malta, the, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_450">450</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dowkerbottom cave, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dream-cave, near Wirksworth, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dubrueil, M., cited, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dupont, M., cited, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">discoveries of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">investigations of, in Dinant-sur-Meuse, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the Trou de Naulette, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Durdham Down, fissures of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Dürnten, the lignite bed of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">E.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eagle, the, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">“Ebur fossile,” <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Egerton, Sir Philip, cited, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Elephant, the African, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">found near Madrid, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Sicily, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">melitensis</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">meridionalis</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">namadicus</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">primigenius</i> (<i>see</i> <i class="taxonomy"><a href="#Mammoth">Mammoth</a></i>);</li>
-<li class="isub1">(<i class="taxonomy">stegodon</i>) <i class="taxonomy">insignis</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Elk, the, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Elmet, conquest of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Enamels in the north of England, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">mentioned by Philostratus, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Engis, cave of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">English invasion, the, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Enniskillen, Lord, cited, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Equus fossilis</i> of pleiocene age, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Eskimos, art of the, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">implements of the, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Europe, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">probably the representatives of cave-dwellers, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">relation of cave-dwellers to, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Esper, cited, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Europe, Antiquity of man in, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">climatal changes on the continent of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">pleistocene mammalia pre-glacial in, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">species of mammalia in Africa, and, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Southern, bone-caves of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">fauna in caves of, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Evans, Mr. John, cited, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on coins, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the iron, bronze, and stone ages, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the palæolithic cave-dwellers, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Evidence of soundings in Southern Europe, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">F.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fairy Chamber, the, Caldy, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Falconer, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on bones from San Ciro, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on mammals in the Iberian peninsula, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the fauna of the forest bed, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the hippopotamus, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus namadicus</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">researches of, in caves of Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_204">204&ndash;207</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fallow deer, the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Britain, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in France, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Spain and Africa, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Falsan, M., cited, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Farrer, Mr., explorations of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on coins, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on remains from Dowkerbottom cave, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">stalagmite, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fauna, cave, identical with river-bed, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">changes in the, of Great Britain, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Montpellier, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Southern Europe, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the pleiocene, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the pleistocene, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the prehistoric, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Felis caffer</i>, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Iberian peninsula, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Somerset, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fellowes, Sir Charles, cited, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fibulæ, enamelled, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fingal’s cave, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fischer, Dr. Gothelf, on the panther, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fisher, Rev. O., discovers a flint-flake at Crayford, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fisherton, valley-gravels at, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fissures, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Durdham Down, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Mentone, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Windmill Hill, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Flint flakes and scrapers in caves of Périgord, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in caves of Mentone, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Perthi-Chwareu, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Wookey Hole, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Florus on the Aquitani, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Foote, Mr. Bruce, cited, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on flint implements from Madras, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fossil mammalia from the German Ocean, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Foville, M., cited, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fowl, the domestic, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fox, the Arctic, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fraas, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">France, Basque peoples in, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">caves in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">skulls from tumuli in, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the dolicho-cephali and brachy-cephali in, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Franconia, caves of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Franks, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on drawings of palæolithic hunters, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on enamelling, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on “late Celtic” art, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Freeman, Mr. E.&nbsp;A., on the dominion of West Wales in the days of Ecgberht, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the Norman Conquest, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Freshford, pleistocene deposits at, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Fuhlrott, Dr., skull found by, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">G.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gailenreuth, cave of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">filled by a stream, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Garonne, valley of the, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Garrigou, M., cited, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gatekirk cavern, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gaudin, M. Charles, cited, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gaudry, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on fossil remains at Pickermi, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gaul and Spain, the peoples of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gautier, M., cited, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Geikie, Mr. James, cited, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Geikie, Professor A., cited, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gendron, cave of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Genista, caves, the, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">articles in, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">human remains in, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Geography, pleistocene, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_451">451</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">German Ocean, fossil mammalia in, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">German race, the ancient, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Germany, bears in, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">cave-exploration in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gervais, M., cited, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">list of pleiocene mammalia by, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on <i class="taxonomy">Equus robustus</i>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on mammalia from Algeria, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gesner, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gibraltar, the neolithic caves of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the Straits of, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gildas on the character of the English conquest, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Glacial period, the, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the relation of palæolithic man to, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Glaciation in Britain, two periods of, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Glaciers of Alps, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Anatolia, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Lebanon, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Mediterranean area caused partly by elevation, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Pyrenees, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Glutton, the, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">jaw of, from Plas Heaton cave, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Goat, the (<i>see</i> <i class="taxonomy"><a href="#Capra_hircus">Capra hircus</a></i>).</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Goatchurch cave, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">legend of the dog at, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Goldfuss cited, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><a id="Godwin-Austen"></a>Godwin-Austen, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the fresh-water mussel, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">researches of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gosse, M., cited, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gower, caves of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Great Britain, cave-exploration in, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">historic period in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Green, Rev. J.&nbsp;R., on the conquest of Britain, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Greenwell, Rev. Canon, discoveries of, in tumuli, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grey clays in Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Grotto di Maccagnone, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">dei Colombi inhabited by cannibals, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">thigh-bone of child from, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Guanches of the Canary Isles, the, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Gunn, Rev. John, cited, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">H.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harkness, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hamy, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the cave-bear, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><a id="Hare"></a>Hare, the, at Perthi-Chwareu, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Suabia, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">mentioned, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">used for food in neolithic times, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Harpoons used by palæolithic hunters, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heathery Burn, cave of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">bronze articles in, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heaton, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Heer, Professor, on vegetables used in Swiss lake dwellings, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Helln Pot, descent into, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">exploration of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hipparion found in Suffolk, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="anatomy">gracile</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hippopotamus, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">amphibius</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">liberiensis</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">major</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">namadicus</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">palæindicus</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">Pentlandi</i> (pigmy), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Historic animals, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">period, definition of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">period, difference between, and prehistoric, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">History, the evidence of, as to the peoples of Gaul and Spain, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hooker, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the cedars of Lebanon, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Horse, the, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Horseflesh, the use of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Howel Dha, the laws of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hughes, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hull, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hunting grounds of palæolithic tribes, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hutton, cave of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Huxley, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on brachy-cephalic skulls, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on dolicho-cephalic skulls, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the classification of crania, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the skull from Engis cave, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the skull from Neanderthal cave, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hyæna, the, animals at Wookey Hole introduced by, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">bones gnawed by, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">gnawed jaw of, from Wookey, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">man coeval with, in Somerset, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">Perrieri</i>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the, pleistocene occupation of, in Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">spelæa</i> (spotted), <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">striped, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Hyæna-den, characters of a, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Kirkdale, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">I.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Iberian peoples, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">peninsula, the mammals in, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Iberic dolicho-cephali, the, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ice period in Britain, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Implements used by palæolithic hunters, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">India, man in, in pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ingleborough cave, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ireland, caves in, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">dolicho-cephalic skulls in, <a href="#Page_194">194&ndash;197</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Irish-Celtic art, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Irish Elk, the, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Iron age, the, cave of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Issoire, pseudo-pleiocene mammalia of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Italy, animals in the museums of, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">J.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jackson, Mr. Joseph, discovers the Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jamieson, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jeanjean, M., cited, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jewellery in Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Jones, Professor Rupert, cited, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">K.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_452">452</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kelko cave, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kent’s Hole cavern, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">age of <i class="taxonomy">machairodus</i> of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">deposits in, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the breccia in, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">King, Rev. S.&nbsp;W., researches of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">King’s Scar, cave in, carinate human femur in, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kirkdale cave, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kirkhead cave, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Kühloch cave, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">L.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Laing, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">skulls obtained by, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lagneaux, M., cited, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lances used by palæolithic hunters, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Laugerie Basse, cave at, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lartet, Professor E., cited, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">explorations of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on fossil remains found near Madrid, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the cave of Aurignac, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the cave of Périgord, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on palæolithic caves, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lartet, Professor Louis, on the cave of Cro-Magnon, <a href="#Page_250">250&ndash;252</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lastic, Vicomte de, cited, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lebanon, the glaciers of, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ledbury Hill, skull found near, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Leibnitz, cited, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lemming, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy"><a id="Lepus_cuniculus"></a>Lepus cuniculus</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">timidus</i> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Hare">Hare</a>).</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ligurian tribes, the, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Limestone, caverns in, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">composition of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">erosion of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lion, the, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">extinct in Europe, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">range of, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Littorina littorea</i> found in Cro-Magnon cave, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Llanamynech, caves at, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Llandebie, cave of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lloyd, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lombrive, cave of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Longberry Bank, cave of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Long Churn cavern, the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lortet, M., cited, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Luard, Captain, discovers fossil mammals at Windsor, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lubbock, Sir John, cited, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the stone age, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lunel-viel, cave of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lunier, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lyell, Sir Charles, cited, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the cave of Aurignac, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the glacial period, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Lynx, the, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">M.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Maccagnone, Grotto di, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Machairodus cultridens</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">latidens</i>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">a pleiocene species, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">at Kent’s Hole, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in the cave at Baume, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">probable age of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mackay, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Madras, flint implements found near, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Madrid, fossil animals near, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Maghlak cave, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Malham Cove, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Malta, bone-caves of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mammalia, classification of pleistocene strata by means of, <a href="#Page_412">412&ndash;415</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">early pleistocene, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">evidence of, as to climate, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Algeria, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Britain during the second ice-age, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in the Iberian peninsula, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the pleiocene, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><a id="Mammoth"></a>Mammoth, the, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">figure of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Man, antiquity of, in Europe, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">coeval with hyænas in Somerset, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in India in pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Palestine, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Manchester Museum, mammoth from Bacton in the, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Mangousta Widdringtoni</i>, the, in Spain and Africa, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marcel de Serres, cited, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marmot, the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the pouched, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Marion, M., cited, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Martinez, Don Manuel Gongaray, on the prehistoric antiquities of Andalusia, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis</i>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422&ndash;424</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">Borsoni</i>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">brevirostris</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Maw, Mr. George, on coast of Mediterranean, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on glaciers of the Atlas, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on level in the Sahara, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">McEnery, Rev. J., discovers the <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i> in Kent’s Hole cavern, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">manuscripts of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">McPherson, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mediterranean area in meiocene age, changes of level in, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mediterranean, the, physical condition of, in pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the shores of, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Medlicott, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy"><a id="Meles_taxus"></a>Meles taxus</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mendip Hills, the, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the caves of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the district of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mentone, bone-caves of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Metcalfe, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">descends into Helln Pot, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mineral condition of deposits in caves, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moggridge, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the exploration of Mentone, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Montpellier, the fauna of, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moraines in Anatolia, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Morris, Mr. J.&nbsp;P., explores Kirkhead cave, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Mortillet, M. de, on palæolithic caves, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on pottery in the palæolithic age, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Moustier, cave of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Murcièlagos, Cueva de los, description of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Musk sheep, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_453">453</a></span></li>
-<li class="isub1">at Crayford, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">range of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Myoxus Melitensis</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">N.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Naulette, Trou de, remains found in the, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Neanderthal cave, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">human skull found in, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Neolithic age, interments of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Neolithic caves of France, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Spain, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Wales, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Neolithic races, range of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Nilsson, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on dwarfs, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on origin of chambered tombs, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">North Wales, the caves of, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">O.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oban, remains in a cave at, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oreston cave, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i> of, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Orrouy, the sepulchral cave of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Owen, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the cave of Bruniquel, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Oxford Museum, the, human skull from cave of Llandebie in, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">molar of pigmy hippopotamus in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">P.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Palæolithic art, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">caves, classification of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">hunters, instruments used by, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">hunters, not cannibals, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">implements, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">man in Europe, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">man, relation of, to glacial period, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">man in India, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">man in Palestine, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">man of the river-gravels, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">tribes, hunting grounds of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Palestine, palæolithic man in, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Palgrave, Mr. Gifford, on glaciers of Anatolia, <a href="#Page_383">383&ndash;385</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Panther, the, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Parker, Mr. James, cited, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Paviland cave, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Peak, cavern of the, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pembrokeshire, caves in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pengelly, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on Brixham cave, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on Cavillon cave, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on Devonshire caves, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pennington, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Périgord, caves of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">articles found in the, <a href="#Page_337">337&ndash;339</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Perthes, M. Boucher de, on flint implements, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Perthi-Chwareu, pottery and implements from, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Professor Busk on human bones from, <a href="#Page_167">167&ndash;179</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">refuse heap at, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">remains of animals at, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153&ndash;155</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">remains of man at, <a href="#Page_153">153&ndash;155</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">sepulchral caves at, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Phahlbauten, the Swiss, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Phillips, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on formation of caves, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on stalagmite, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the Ingleborough cave, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the origin of caves, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Physiography of Great Britain in late pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Mediterranean in pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Picts and Scots, raids of, in Britain, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pickermi, fossil remains at, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Plas Heaton, the tunnel-cave of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Platycnemic leg-bones, <a href="#Page_173">173&ndash;176</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Platycnemism, Professor Busk on, <a href="#Page_177">177&ndash;179</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pleiocene and pleistocene characteristic animals, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">species in Europe, mixture of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pleiocene mammalia, the, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">period, the, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">species, <i class="taxonomy">machairodus</i> a, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pleistocene age, the, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">animals living in, <a href="#Page_359">359&ndash;361</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">physiography of Mediterranean in, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">remains of animals before the, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">climate and geography, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">coast-line of North-Western Europe, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">divisions, early, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">divisions, late, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">divisions, middle, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">relation of, to prehistoric period, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">strata, classification of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Po, the river, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Poole’s cavern, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pot-holes and “cirques” in calcareous rocks, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Porcupine, in Spain and Africa, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">found in Belgium, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prehistoric period, the, archæological classification of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">conditions of life in, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">difference between the historic and, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">relation of pleistocene to, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prestwich, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on Brixham cave, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on carbonate of lime in Thames water, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the discoveries in the valley of the Somme, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the denudation of the Mendips and Ardennes, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on palæolithic man, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Provence, bone-caves of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pruner-Bey, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Prunières, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Purpura lapillus</i> in cave of Cro-Magnon, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Pyrenees, the, animals living to the North of the Alps and, <a href="#Page_359">359&ndash;361</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">glaciers of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Q.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Quatrefages, M. de, cited, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">R.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_454">454</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rabbit, the (<i>see</i> <i class="taxonomy"><a href="#Lepus_cuniculus">lepus cuniculus</a></i>).</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ramsay, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rat, the common, migrations of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rattonneau, island of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ravines, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Reggio, cave of, in Modena, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Reindeer, the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">absence of, in middle pleistocene division, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">engraving of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in the cave of Lombrive, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in the caves of Périgord, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in the Trou du Frontal, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">&mdash;period of M. Lartet, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">range of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rhætic age, fossils of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">hemitœchus</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">megarhinus</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416&ndash;418</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">tichorhinus</i> (woolly), <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rhosdigre cave, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">contents of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">greenstone celt from, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rians, cave of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Richard, the Abbé, cited, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rivière, M., explorations of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roedeer, the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rolleston, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">discovery of pigmy hippopotamus by, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Roman dominion in Britain, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rosenmüller, cited, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Rütimeyer, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">S.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sahara, the, changes of level in, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Samian ware in the Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in the Dowkerbottom cave, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">San Ciro, cave of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Schaaffhausen, M., cited, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the skull from Neanderthal, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Schmerling, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">researches of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sclaigneaux, cave of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">platycnemic tibia from, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sanford, Mr., Ayshford, cited, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Second ice or glacial period, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Selsea, remains found at, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Serres, M. de, cited, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Serval, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Sicily, bone-caves of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the Iberians in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">species from, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Skulls, measurements of brachy-cephalic and dolicho-cephalic, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">from Perthi-Chwareu, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of doubtful antiquity, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">table of dolicho-cephalic, found in Britain and Ireland, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Smith, Mr. Roach, on Roman coins, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Smith, Rev. G.&nbsp;N., on Tenby bone-caves, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Solutré, horse’s skeleton from, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Somerset, hyænas in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">mammalia in the caves of, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Soreil, M., on the cave of Chauvaux, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Soundings, evidence of, in Southern Europe, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">South Wales, caves of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">mammalia in, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Southern Europe, bone-caves of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Spain, articles found in a copper-mine in, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">historical evidence as to the peoples of Gaul and, <a href="#Page_220">220&ndash;222</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Spratt, Admiral, explorations of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Spring, Dr., discoveries of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on the cave of Chauvaux, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stag, the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stalagmite, rate of the accumulation of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Stanley, Rev. E., cited, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Sus Indica</i>, the, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Sus palustris</i>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Switzerland, caves of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Symonds, Rev. W.&nbsp;S., explores King Arthur’s cave, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">T.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tapir, the <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Temperature of caves, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tenby, cave of Caldy near, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the Black Rock near, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thames water, carbonate of lime in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thomas, Rev. D.&nbsp;R., on chambered tomb at Cefn, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thor’s cave, near Ashbourne, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">occupied by Brit-Welsh, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Thurnam, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on classification of crania, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on craniology of Britain in neolithic age, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on dolicho-cephalic skulls, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on skulls from cave of Orrouy, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tiddeman, Mr., on the Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Troglodytes, name of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Trogontherium cuvieri</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tropical and cold climates, animals common to, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Trou du Frontal, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">crania in, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tunbridge Wells, rocks at, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Turner, Professor, on remains in a cave at Oban, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Turritella communis</i> in cave of Cro-Magnon, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tuto, islands of, caves in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Tyddyn Bleiddyn, cairn of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">U.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Ultz, burial-places of, in Westphalia, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Unio pictorum</i> dredged from bottom of English Channel, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Uphill, cave of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>; skull from, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Urus, the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus arctos</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus arvernensis</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus spelæus</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">V.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_455">455</a></span></li>
-
-<li class="indx">Val d’Arno, fauna of the, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Valleys, change in physical conditions of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">deposits in caves and, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in limestone districts, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">strata of sand and gravel in, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Victoria cave, the, bones of animals in, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">Brit-Welsh stratum in, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">bronze articles in, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">coins in, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">date of neolithic occupation in, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">discovery of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">exploration of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">grey clays in, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">human bone from oldest ossiferous stratum in, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">implements and ornaments in, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">miscellaneous articles in, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">period of Brit-Welsh occupation in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">pleistocene occupation by hyænas in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">pre-glacial age of pleistocene stratum in, <a href="#Page_121">121&ndash;123</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vivian, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Virchow, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">on dolicho-cephalic skulls, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Vogt, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">W.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Water, action of, in caves, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Water caves of Derbyshire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Somersetshire, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">of Yorkshire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Weathercote, caves at, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Whidbey, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Whitcombe’s Hole, a cave of the Iron Age, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Willett, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Williams, Rev. D., explorations of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Williams, Rev John, on caverns in island of Tuto, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Williamson, Rev. J., cited, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wilson, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Winterbourne Stoke, the barrow of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Winwood, Rev. H.&nbsp;H., cited, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">discovers remains of animals at Freshford, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">explores the cave at Longberry Bank, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wolf, the, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Britain, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">in Spain, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">last, in Scotland, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Woman’s cave, the, near Alhama, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wood, Colonel, cited, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Wookey Hole, hyæna den of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">ashes and implements found at, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">bone-beds at, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">flint implements found at, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">hyæna den of, inhabited by man, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">legend of the dog at, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li>
-<li class="isub1">the water cave of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">X.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Xenophon on the panther, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
-
-<li class="ifrst">Y.</li>
-
-<li class="indx">Yorkshire, caves in, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-
-</ul>
-</div></div>
-
-<p class="p2 center smaller">THE END.</p>
-
-<p class="p2 center small">LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS.</p>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<div class="footnotes">
-<h2 class="nobreak p1"><a id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES</h2>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> The Natural History of the Hartz Forest (Hercynia Curiosa),
-translated from the German of H. Behrens, M.D., by John Andree,
-1670, p. 41.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Florus, lib. iii. c. x. Delphin. 4to. 1714, p. 112.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> Since this was written, Sir C. Lyell has withdrawn his term
-“Post-pleiocene” in favour of Pleistocene. (“Antiquity of Man,”
-4th edition, 1873.)</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> Hist. Anim. vol. i. Folio, 1603. Article “Monoceras.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> Described by Professor Owen, Quart. Geol. Journ. p. 417.
-See Hanbury on “Chinese Materia Medica,” 1862, 8vo. p. 40. Some
-of the dragons’ teeth were found in caves by Mr. Swinhoe.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> Hercynia Curiosa.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> See Cuvier, Oss. Foss. vol. iv. pp. 290 et seq.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> The references are to be found in Cuvier, top. cit. and in Buckland,
-“Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” 4to. 1822. Most of them I have verified.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> Phil. Trans. 1817, p. 176.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> Pengelly, “Literature of Kent’s Cavern,” Devonshire Association.
-1868&ndash;9. “Kent’s Hole,” Lecture, delivered in Hulme Town
-Hall, 1872.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> Comptes Rendus, 1847, pp. 649&ndash;50, et 1864, p. 230.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> Prestwich, Phil. Trans. 1860. Proceed. Royal Soc. 1859.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> Quart. Geol. Journ. Jan. 1861.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> Falconer, Palæont. Mem. vol. ii. p. 498.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1865&ndash;72.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> The authorities for this paragraph are Cuvier (Oss. Foss.), Desnoyers
-(Article “Grottes,” Dictionnaire Univ. d’Histoire Naturelle),
-Marcel de Serres (Cavernes à Oss. Foss. du Département de l’Aude,
-1839), Gervais (Paléontologie Française, 1859, and Nouvelles Recherches
-sur les Animaux Vertébrés, Vivants et Fossiles, 1868&ndash;9&ndash;70).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> An. des Sc.: Nat. Zool. iv. sér. t. xv.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> Recherches sur les Oss. Foss. découverts dans les Cavernes de la
-Province de Liège, 4to. atlas folio.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> Bull. de l’Académie Royale de Belgique, 1 sér. t. xx. p. 427, 1853;
-2 sér. t. xviii. p. 479, 1864; xxii. p. 187, 1866.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs de
-Dinant sur Meuse. Bruxelles, 1871. 2nd edit., 1872.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> Ice-caves, 8vo. 1865, Longmans.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> D’Orbigny, Dictionnaire Universel d’Histoire Naturelle, Article
-“Grottes.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> Quart. Geol. Journ. xxvii. 312.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> When the English conquered Somerset from the Brit-Welsh, they
-translated the Celtic Ogo into Hole, whence the cave and village of
-Wookey Hole were named, just as they translated a neighbouring
-hill, called Pen, into Knowle, the generic Celtic term in each case
-being used to specify a particular object. There are many other
-instances of the like use of a Celtic name by the English conquerors
-of the Celts. In the Limestone plateau of Llanamynech,
-near Oswestry, there is a cave called “The Ogo.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> Phil. Trans. 1680, p. 1.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> The cave is accessible, and can be examined without any climbing.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> Both of these caves are kept in excellent order, and the latter is
-lighted with gas.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> The cave is admirably preserved by the care of the owner, J.
-Farrer, Esq., and may be visited without any difficulty.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> Rivers, Mountains, and Sea-coast of Yorkshire, 8vo. 1854, p. 34.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> On the Ordnance Maps it is wrongly printed Alum Pot.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> Op. cit. Article Grottes.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs de
-Dinant sur Meuse, Bruxelles, 1871.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> The bare pavements above Malham Cove are worthy of a careful
-examination.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> I have used the term incretionary as implying an accumulation of
-mineral matter from the circumference of a cavity towards its centre,
-as in the case of an agate. Concretionary action, with which it is
-generally confused, ought to be defined as the deposition of successive
-layers of matter round a nucleus or centre. The one action operates from
-the circumference to the centre, the other from the centre to the circumference.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> Corals and Coral Islands, 1872, p. 361.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> Prestwich, Ann. Address Geol. Soc. 1872, p. 84.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> Phil. Trans. April 7th, 1680, p. 731.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> “Ice-Caves in France and Switzerland.” Longmans, 1865, p. 296.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> Leges Walliæ.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> Bell, “British Quadrupeds,” 8vo. p. 386.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> The authorities for the preceding paragraphs will be found in
-Chapter II. of my Preliminary Treatise on the “Relation of the
-Pleistocene Mammalia to those now living in Europe” (Palæont.
-Soc. 1874).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> Benedict. ad Mensas Ekkehardi Monachi Sangallensis, l. 129.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> Buffon, Quadrupeds, l. v. p. 52; l. x. p. 67. Sir G.&nbsp;C. Lewis,
-“Notes and Queries,” 2nd series, l. ix. pp. 4, 5.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> See Rolleston, Journ. Anat. and Phys., 1868, pp. 51&ndash;2. Lenz,
-“Zoologie der Alten.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> <a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> Roach Smith, “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, p. 72, 1844.
-It is noticed by Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Historic Society of Lancashire
-and Cheshire, May 11, 1865; and by Mr. Denny, Trans. Geol.
-and Polytechnic Soc. of West Riding, 1859.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, pp. 69, 70.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> The Victoria Cave has engaged the attention of the following
-writers:&mdash;Farrer, Proceed. Soc. Antiquaries, vol. iv.;&mdash;Roach Smith
-and Jackson, “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, 1844;&mdash;Denny,
-Proceed. Geol. and Polytechnic Society of the West Riding of Yorkshire,
-1859;&mdash;Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Historic Society of Cheshire,
-May 11, 1865;&mdash;Boyd Dawkins, “Nature,” April 21, 1870; British
-Assoc. Reports, 1870; Macmillan’s Magazine, Sept. 1871; Journ. Anthrop.
-Institute, 1871;&mdash;Tiddeman, “Nature,” 1872;&mdash;Boyd Dawkins
-and Tiddeman, British Assoc. Reports, 1872;&mdash;Tiddeman, Geol. Mag.,
-Jan. 1873;&mdash;Boyd Dawkins, Proceed. Manch. Philosophical Soc.,
-Feb. 1873;&mdash;Brockbank, Proceed. Manch. Philosophical Soc., March
-1873.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> See Palæont. Society, 1874&mdash;Boyd Dawkins’ Preliminary Treatise,
-Chapter II.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> R.&nbsp;D. Darbishire, Proceed. Manchester Numismatic Society,
-Part II. 1865: “On some Autonomous Coins of Ancient Spain.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> Vetusta Monumenta, vol. vi.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> I have to thank the Rev. J.&nbsp;R. Green for allowing me to quote
-this passage from his work, which is now in the press.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> Antiquités Suisses, Second Supplement; Lausanne, 1867, p. 15,
-Pl. xii. figs. 3, 4.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> La Seine Inférieure, 4to., 1867, p. 203.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> See Kemble, “Horæ Ferales,” 4to.; Description of Plates by A.
-W. Franks, p. 64.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> <span xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">ταῦτα φασι τὰ χρώματα τοὺς ἐν Ὠκεανῷ βαρβάρους ἐγχεῖν τῷ χάλκῳ
-διαπύρῳ, τὰ δὲ συνίστασθαι καὶ λιθοῦσθαι, καὶ σώζειν ἃ ἐγράφη</span> (Icon.
-lib. i. c. 28). The art was evidently unknown in Rome at this time.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> Notice des Émaux du Musée du Louvre, 1857, pp. 25, 26.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Hist. Soc. Lancashire and Cheshire, 1866.
-Limestone Caves of Craven.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> Proc. Geol. and Polytechnic Soc. of West Riding of Yorkshire,
-1859, p. 45 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> Denny and Farrer, op. cit. 1864&ndash;5, 414 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i>; Farrer, Proc.
-Soc. Antiq. vol. iv.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> The authorities for this paragraph are Gildas, Nennius, and others,
-printed in “Monumenta Historica Britannica,” folio, Rolls Publication.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> “Repellunt nos Barbari ad mare, repellit nos mare ad Barbaros;
-inter hæc oriuntur duo genera funerum; aut jugulamur aut mergimur.”
-<span class="smcap">Gildas</span>, xvii.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> “Britones de ipsis montibus, speluncis ac saltibus dumis consertis
-continue rebellabant.” <span class="smcap">Gildas</span>, xvii. Bæda, <cite>Hist. Eccles.</cite> lib. i. cxiv.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 449. “From Anglia, which has
-ever since remained waste between the Jutes and Saxons, came the
-men of East Anglia, Middle Anglia, Mercia, and all North-humbria.”
-The MS. A, from which this was taken, ends in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 975. The passage
-was taken from Bæda who lived in the 8th century.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> See E.&nbsp;A. Freeman, “Norman Conquest,” vol. i.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> “Confovebatur ... de mari usque ad mare ignis orientalis
-sacrilegorum manu exaggeratus, et finitimas quasque civitates populans,
-qui non quievit accensus donec cunctam pene exurens insulæ
-superficiem, rubra occidentalem trucique oceanum linguâ delamberet.”&mdash;xxiv.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> On the date of the conquest of Lancashire see “Manchester Phil.
-and Lit. Soc. Proc.” 1873, p. 25. In working out this somewhat
-difficult question, I am indebted to the Rev. J.&nbsp;R. Green for most
-valuable aid.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> Gildas, Nennius, the Annales Cambriæ, Bæda, and the Anglo-Saxon
-Chronicle are the authorities for these statements.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> The section of the Victoria Cave published by Mr. Tiddeman in
-the Geological Magazine expresses the relation of the clay with
-boulders to the cave-earth with greater clearness than I could observe
-on the ground. The laminated clay is not yet proved to occupy
-such a large area in the cave, or to be so regularly deposited, or so
-clearly defined. It occurs at <em>various</em> levels in the mass of the grey
-clay in the section (to be seen on May 21, 1873), above and below the
-cave-earth.&mdash;“The Older Deposits in the Victoria Cave,” Geol.
-Mag. x. p. 11.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> See Essays by the writer in “Pop. Sci. Rev.” Oct. 1871: “On the
-relation of the Pleistocene Mammalia to the Glacial period.” “On the
-Classification of the Pleistocene Strata of Europe by means of the
-Mammalia;” Quart. Geol. Journ. June 1872.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, 6<sup>e</sup> Sér.
-tome v. 1849, Pl. xiii. Fig. 1.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> See my “Pleistocene Mammals of Yorkshire,” Geol. and Polytechnic
-Soc. of West Riding of Yorks. Leeds, Aug. 6th, 1866.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> See Brit. Ass. Reports, Bradford, 1873.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> Mem. Anthrop. Soc. vol. ii. p. 358.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> Sussex Archæol. Coll., 1863.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> Trans. Midland Sci. Ass., Sess. 1864&ndash;5, pp. 1&ndash;6, 19, 29, Plates
-1&ndash;15, “Report on the Exploration of Thor’s Cave,” by E. Brown, Esq.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> See E.&nbsp;A. Freeman, “Norman Conquest,” vol. i. p. 43.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> Preliminary Treatise on the Relation of the Pleistocene Mammalia
-to those now living in Europe. Palæont. Soc. 1874, chap. ii.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> “Equos etiam plerique in vobis comedunt, quod nullus Christianorum
-in orientalibus facit.” Haddan and Stubbs, “Councils and Ecclesiastical
-Documents relating to Great Britain and Ireland,” vol. ii. p. 459.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> Laing, “Norway,” p. 316. Mr. Laing justly argues that the habit
-of eating horseflesh in Norway, where pasturage is scant, must have
-been acquired in the luxuriant grassy steppes of Central Asia by the
-ancestors of the Scandinavians.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> Benedict. ad Mensas Ekkehardi Monachi Sangallensis, Pertz. Mon.
-Germ., vol. vi. p. 117.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> “Pleistocene Mammalia.” Palæont. Soc. 1866. Introd. Internat.
-Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, Paris, and Norwich volumes.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> These questions are treated in detail in my Preliminary Treatise,
-“Brit. Pleist. Mammalia.” Palæont. Soc. 1874.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> “Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,” p. 2.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> Somerset Archæol. and Nat. Hist. Soc. 1864. “On the Caverns of
-Burrington Combe.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> Elliott, “Geologist,” 1862, p. 34, ditto p. 167. Huxley, ditto,
-p. 205. Carter Blake, ditto, p. 312. Mackie, “Proceed. Soc. Antiq.”
-2nd Series, vol. ii. p. 177.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> This woodcut, as well as <a href="#Fig_33">Figs. 33</a> and <a href="#Fig_35">35</a>, have been kindly lent
-by the Council of the Society of Antiquaries.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> Commissao Geologica de Portugal. Estudos Geoligicos. Da
-Existencia do homen no nosso solo em Tempos mui remotos provada
-pelo estudos des cavernas. Primeiro opusculo. Noticea ácerca das
-Grutas da Césareda. Por J.&nbsp;F.&nbsp;N. Delgado com a versao em Francez
-por M. Dalhunty.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> Ethnol. Journ. N.S. 7, p. 43.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> For definition of these terms, see p. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, Norwich
-Volume, p. 84.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> International Congress, Paris Volume, p. 159.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 363.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> Burial in the contracted posture, which is so characteristic of the
-neolithic age, was probably due, as is suggested by my friend Mr. John
-Evans, F.R.S., to the habit of sleeping in that posture and not at full
-length on a bed. The body was not laid out after death, but may
-have been folded together, as in the case of the ancient Peruvian mummies.
-No regularity, however, in the contracted posture could be
-observed in the many tumuli and caves which I have explored, although
-very generally the corpse had been interred on its side.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> Edinburgh New Phil. Soc. (1833), No. 27, p. 40.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> For the definition of the term, see <a href="#Page_190">p. 190</a>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, vol. ii. New Series,
-No. 1, April 1870, p. 45, pl. vii. fig. 3.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> Nilsson’s “Stone Age,” translated by Sir J. Lubbock.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> These are merely samples of the large number of human skulls and bones
-which were discovered.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> Amongst the Keiss crania described by Prof. Huxley, this most closely
-resembles his No. 5; but it is of the same type as No. 3 and No. 7, and not very
-far from that of the Towyn-y-capel cranium, through which the transition to
-the Mewslade form (“Nat. Hist. Rev.” vol. i. p. 174, pl. v.) is very easy.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> The forms most closely resembling this skull amongst those from Keiss are
-Nos. 3 and 7.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> Déformation du crâne resultant de la méthode la plus générale de couvrir la
-tête des enfans. Paris, 1834.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> Essai sur les déformations artificielles du crâne, par L.&nbsp;A. Gosse, de Genève.
-Paris, 1855.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> Recherches sur quelques déformations du crâne observées dans le Département
-des Deux-Sêvres (“Ann. Médico-psychologique”). Paris, 1852.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> This index is obtained by dividing the least circumference by the length of
-the bone.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> “Mémoires sur les ossemens des Eyzies.” Paris, 1868. “On the Human
-Skulls and Bones found in the Cave of Cro-magnon,” Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,
-p. 97.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> But these are by no means extreme instances of the Gibraltar <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> As regards the absolute dimensions of the skulls, it would seem that the
-Welsh crania stand high in the scale&mdash;quite as high as any of the existing races
-of mankind. I have made the comparison in a rough way in the following
-manner:&mdash;
-</p>
-<p>
-If the numbers representing the <em>length</em>, <em>breadth</em>, and <em>height</em> of the skull are
-added together, a number is obtained which will, of course, in some measure,
-indicate the gross dimensions of the skull. From the rather numerous data
-furnished by my own Tables of Measurements I obtained the results stated in
-the subjoined list, in which the gross mean dimensions of various sets of crania
-are contrasted.
-</p>
-
-<table id="list_179" summary="sum of skull dimensions">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 1. Scandinavian priscan skulls of the neolithic epoch</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18·88</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 2. Esquimaux and Greenlanders</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18·81</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 3. Perthi-Chwareu skulls</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18·65</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 4. Modern European</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18·58</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 5. Various ancient and priscan skulls</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18·55</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 6. Burmese</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18·55</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 7. Caffres and Zooloos (extratropical negroes)</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18·45</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 8. Derbyshire tumuli</td>
-    <td class="tdr">18·42</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl"> 9. Tasmanian</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17·95</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">10. Hottentot</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17·80</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">11. Negroes (intertropical)</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17·67</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">12. Australian</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17·58</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">13. Bushmen</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17·48</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">14. Veddahs</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17·09</td></tr>
-  <tr>
-    <td class="tdl">15. Andamanese</td>
-    <td class="tdr">17·00</td></tr>
-</table>
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="fnanchor">112</a> “Notes on the Human Remains from Keiss,” p. 85.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">Loc. cit.</i> p. 114.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> Vol. i. p. 174, pl. v.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> The stature is obtained, according to Prof. Humphry’s method,
-from the length of the femur, which is 27·5 of stature taken as 100.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> <span xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">Ορθος</span> straight, <span xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">γναθος</span> jaw, with profile vertical, as opposed to <span xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">προγναθος</span>,
-with projecting jaws, or “snouty.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> “Anthropological Memoirs,” vols. i. and iii.; Huxley and Laing,
-“Prehistoric Remains in Caithness.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> “Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester,” vol. v. p. 213.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="fnanchor">119</a> “Anthrop. Mem.” vol. i. p. 144.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="fnanchor">120</a> Brit. Assoc. Report, 1871, p. 160, “On Human and Animal Bones
-and Flints, from a Cave at Oban, Argyleshire,” by Prof. Turner.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness,” p. 119 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="fnanchor">122</a> “Prehistoric Annals of Scotland.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="fnanchor">123</a> The evidence of cannibalism in the contents of the tumuli seems
-to me to be doubtful.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 182.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="fnanchor">125</a> Bull. Soc. Anthrop. iv.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="fnanchor">126</a> Anthrop. Mem. i. 490.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="fnanchor">127</a> Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, 1869.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, 1869.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="fnanchor">129</a> Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez, “Antiguedades Prehistoricas de
-Andalucia.” Madrid, 1868. 8vo.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> “The Woman’s Cave,” 4to. Parts I. and II. 1870&ndash;1. Cadiz,
-Federico Joly y Velasco.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="fnanchor">131</a> Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> Ethnological Journ. N.S. vii. p. 107.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="fnanchor">133</a> Broca, “Bull. Soc. Anthrop.” s.s. t. i. p. 470; t. ii. p. 10&ndash;30;
-s.s. t. iii. p. 43&ndash;101. The cephalic index in the preceding Table differs
-slightly from that given by M. Broca. Thurnam, “Anthrop. Mem.”
-iii. p. 64 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="fnanchor">134</a> These skulls are preserved in the Museum of the Anthropological
-Society at Paris, where by the kindness of Dr. Broca I was allowed
-to study them in the autumn of 1873. Some were marked with the
-“tête annulaire.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="fnanchor">135</a> Laing and Huxley, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="fnanchor">136</a> Spring, “Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belgique,” 1 sér. l. xx. p. 427; 2 sér.
-l. xviii. p. 479; l. xxii. p. 187.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="fnanchor">137</a> Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les Âges de la Pierre dans les
-environs de Dinant sur Meuse,” 2d edit. p. 222.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="fnanchor">138</a> Soreil, “Sur Nouvelle Exploration de la Caverne de Chauvau,”
-Congrès Intern. Anthropologie et d’Archéologie Prehistoriques,
-p. 381 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i> Bruxelles, 1872.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="fnanchor">139</a> International Congress, Bruxelles, 1872, p. 370.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="fnanchor">140</a> Cæsar, i. 50.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="fnanchor">141</a> “Bull. Soc. Anthrop de Paris,” 2 sér. t. 111., p. 118.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="fnanchor">142</a> “Diodorus Siculus,” iv. 6; v. 39. Steur, “Ethnographie des Peuples
-de l’Europe,” p. 31 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i>; Donaldson, “Varronianw.” p. 70 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i>
-Dion. Hal. i 22. See also Niebuhr and Mommsen. The documentary
-evidence is so uncertain as to the affinities of the Ligurians
-that scarcely any two writers agree. “Quot homines tot sententiæ.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="fnanchor">143</a> Thucydides, vi. 2.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="fnanchor">144</a> Tacitus, “Agricola,” xi.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="fnanchor">145</a> Cæsar, i. 12.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="fnanchor">146</a> Prof. Huxley brings them into relation with the ancient Egyptians,
-the “Melanochroi” of India, and the Australians, “Critiques and
-Addresses,” p. 134; Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, p. 92
-<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="fnanchor">147</a> See Prof. Huxley’s “Critiques and Addresses,” p. 167.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="fnanchor">148</a> For a masterly account of the varying stature in Britain and Ireland,
-see Dr. Beddoe’s Essay, “Anthrop. Soc. Mem.” iii. p. 384&ndash;573.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="fnanchor">149</a> <span xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">“τοὺς μὲν Ἀκυϊτανοὺς τελέως ἐξηλλαγμένους οὐ τῇ γλώττῃ μόνον
-ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῖς σώμασιν, ἐμφερεῖς Ἰβήρεσι μᾶλλον ἢ Γαλάταις· τοὺς δὲ
-λοιποὺς Γαλατικοὺς μὲν τὴν ὄψιν, ὁμογλώττους δ’ οὐ πάντας, ἀλλ’ ἐνίους
-μικρὸν παραλλαττόντας ταῖς γλώτταις.”</span>&mdash;Lib. iv. c. 1, §1.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="fnanchor">150</a> The correspondence of my map, <a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a>, with that of M. Broca,
-is one of those undesigned coincidences which are so valuable in
-arriving at truth, for his most admirable essay on the Ethnology of
-France did not come into my hands until my own map was engraved.
-M. Broca takes a different point of view to that advanced in these
-pages, holding that the Celts were dark and the Belgic were blue-eyed
-tall Kymri or Cimbri. The Celts known to history were undoubtedly
-a tall fair race.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="fnanchor">151</a> In treating this difficult subject, I have purposely omitted to use
-the uncertain light of philology. We may expect to derive as much
-knowledge as to the relations between Tyrrhenian, Ligurian, Basque,
-and other obscure non-Aryan peoples from the study of languages, as
-we have already obtained of the Aryans by the same means. It is
-very probable that, like the Sanscrit, the Basque roots will be found
-widely spread both in Asia, Asia Minor, Europe, and N. Africa.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> “Anthrop. Mem.” Vols. i. and iii. (Crania Britannica.)</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="fnanchor">153</a> See Huxley’s “Critiques and Addresses,” p. 167 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="fnanchor">154</a> “Rutilæ Caledoniam habitantium comæ, magni artus Germanicam
-originem asseverant.” Agricola, c. xi.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="fnanchor">155</a> “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” p. 82 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="fnanchor">156</a> Schmerling, “Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles découverts
-dans les Cavernes de la province de Liége.” 4to. 1833&ndash;4, p. 29 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="fnanchor">157</a> Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les âges de la Pierre, dans les environs
-de Dinant-sur-Meuse,” p. ix. The implements are palæolithic (see
-p. 22), but there is no evidence that they are of the same antiquity as
-the human remains. They may be, and probably are, much older.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="fnanchor">158</a> “Man’s Place in Nature,” chap. iii. Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man,”
-1st edition, p. 63.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="fnanchor">159</a> Dupont, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> p. 56.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="fnanchor">160</a> Prehistoric Congress, Brussels, 1872, p. 549 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="fnanchor">161</a> Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="fnanchor">162</a> Intern. Congress, Brussels Volume, p. 549.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="fnanchor">163</a> Dupont, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> p. 140.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="fnanchor">164</a> Buckland, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” p. 135. These specimens are in
-the Oxford Museum, and are identified by Lord Enniskillen as having
-been derived from Gailenreuth.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="fnanchor">165</a> Schaaffhausen, translated by Busk, “Nat. Hist. Review,” April
-1861. Huxley, “Man’s Place in Nature,” iii. p. 156&ndash;171. Lyell’s
-“Antiquity of Man,” 1st edition, p. 75.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="fnanchor">166</a> Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness,” p. 115.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="fnanchor">167</a> Compare Lyell, 1st edition, p. 182 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i>, with 4th edition, p. 122
-<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="fnanchor">168</a> Phil. Trans. 159, p. 517.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="fnanchor">169</a> Vogt, “Lectures on Man,” pp. 329&ndash;380. Thurnam, “Anthrop.
-Mem.” i. 501.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> It has been dug out in its natural position, and is now to be seen
-in the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, where I studied it in the summer
-of 1873.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="fnanchor">171</a> Pengelly, “The Cave Man of Mentone,” Trans. Devon Ass. 1873.
-Moggridge, Brit. Ass. Edinburgh, 1873.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="fnanchor">172</a> Prehistoric Congress, Bologna Volume, p. 391, 1873.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="fnanchor">173</a> See on this point a valuable essay by Mr. Hyde Clark, “Palestine
-Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement,” N.S. April 1871, p. 97
-<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="fnanchor">174</a> The authorities for these facts will be found in my “Preliminary
-Treatise,” Palæont. Soc. 1874. The prehistoric age of the forest is
-to be fixed by the presence of the goat and <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, both of
-which were unknown in Europe in the pleistocene age.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="fnanchor">175</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xx. p. 188 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="fnanchor">176</a> See Prestwich, “Phil. Trans.” 1860, p. 277, and 1864, p. 247,
-and “Quart. Geol. Journ.” <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i> 1859&ndash;70.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="fnanchor">177</a> “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ.” 4to. 1824, p. 133.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="fnanchor">178</a> I am indebted to Lord Enniskillen, who explored Gailenreuth
-along with Sir Philip Egerton, for several corrections in Buckland’s
-section.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="fnanchor">179</a> Op. cit. p. 137.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="fnanchor">180</a> Op. cit. p. 1. <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="fnanchor">181</a> Op. cit. p. 38.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="fnanchor">182</a> Buckland, op. cit. p. 61.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="fnanchor">183</a> “Edinburgh New Phil. Soc.” No. 27, p. 40. Falconer, “Palæont.
-Mem.” ii. p. 541. I have examined nearly all the contents of these
-caves.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="fnanchor">184</a> Anthrop. Institute Meeting, 9 Dec. 1873.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="fnanchor">185</a> Buckland, op. cit. 80.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="fnanchor">186</a> Op. cit. p. 80.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="fnanchor">187</a> Falconer “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 498.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="fnanchor">188</a> “On the Tenby Bone Caves,” by a Pembrokeshire Rector. London:
-Kent and Co.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="fnanchor">189</a> See “Brit. Assoc. Rep.” 1871. “Geol. Mag.” viii. 433.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="fnanchor">190</a> Buckland, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> p. 60.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="fnanchor">191</a> Buckland, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> Rutter, “Delineations of Somerset,” p. 100.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="fnanchor">192</a> See Buckland, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> Rutter, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="fnanchor">193</a> See “Catalogue of Mammalia, in Taunton Museum,” by W.&nbsp;A.
-Sanford, Esq. Som. Archæol. Soc.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="fnanchor">194</a> Rutter gives a very good section of this cave (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> p. 78).</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="fnanchor">195</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1862: On a Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole.
-Also “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1863.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="fnanchor">196</a> An incident connected with our work illustrates remarkably the
-attachment which a dog will suddenly show towards a stranger. In
-our lodging at Wells there was a beautiful Scotch deerhound, named
-“Luna,” whose master was away at the time. Luna persisted in
-being with us day and night. In the morning she walked with
-us to the cave, and lay watching at the entrance till we came out, for
-she was afraid to venture into the darkness. In the evening she
-returned home with us. She continued to do this the whole time of
-that year’s excavations. It was only natural to suppose that when we
-left she would, like other dogs, pick up new friends. But she did
-nothing of the kind. When we inquired the next year upon our return,
-we were told that poor Luna refused food the day we left, and
-gradually pined away and died.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="fnanchor">197</a> Possibly it may have belonged to <i class="taxonomy">Elephas</i>, but its more compact
-texture seems to me to indicate rhinoceros.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="fnanchor">198</a> Bone needles were found in Kent’s Hole and in many foreign
-caves of this age.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="fnanchor">199</a> These woodblocks were used in my essay on Hyænas in the
-“Natural History Review,” and have been lent by the kindness of
-Messrs. Williams and Norgate.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="fnanchor">200</a> Pengelly, “Literature of the Oreston Caverns,” Trans. Dev. Ass.
-1872. Buckland, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="fnanchor">201</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxvi. 457, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="fnanchor">202</a> “The Literature of the Caverns near Yealmpton, South Devon,”
-by W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.S.A. Trans. Devon Ass., 1870.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="fnanchor">203</a> Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 486, 591.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="fnanchor">204</a> Proceed. Royal Soc. xx. p. 514. “Report on the Exploration of
-Brixham Cave,” by W. Pengelly, F.R.S., G. Bush, F.R.S., John Evans,
-F.R.S., and Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S. This report was delayed by
-the death of Dr. Falconer.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="fnanchor">205</a> “Ancient Stone Implements,” p. 46&ndash;8.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="fnanchor">206</a> “Proceed. Royal Soc.” 1872, vol. xxii. p. 523&ndash;4.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="fnanchor">207</a> “Trans. Devon Ass.” On the Introduction of Cavern Accumulations.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="fnanchor">208</a> “Trans. Devon Ass.” 1870.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="fnanchor">209</a> Pengelly, “Literature of Kent’s Hole:” Trans. Ass. Devon.
-1868 9&ndash;70. Godwin Austen, “Proceed. Geol. Soc.” iii. 286&ndash;7. “Trans.
-Geol. Soc.” vi. p. 433, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i> Vivian, “Brit. Ass. Rep.” 1847, p. 73.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="fnanchor">210</a> The committee consisted of Sir C. Lyell, Prof. Phillips, Sir John
-Lubbock, Mr. John Evans, Mr. Edward Vivian, Mr. William Pengelly,
-to which subsequently Mr. George Busk, Mr. Boyd Dawkins, and
-Mr. Ayshford Sanford were added.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="fnanchor">211</a> For <a href="#Fig_96">Figs. 96 to 100</a> I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Evans.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="fnanchor">212</a> See Evans’ “Ancient Stone Implements,” Fig. 388. It is unnecessary
-to describe the implements.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="fnanchor">213</a> For an account of Machairodus, see “Brit. Pleistocene Mammalia,”
-Palæont. Soc., <i class="taxonomy">Felidæ</i>, cxxii. p. 184.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="fnanchor">214</a> Gervais, “Zool. et Paléont. Françaises,” 1859, p. 251. “Animaux
-Vertébrés, Vivants et Fossiles,” 1867&ndash;9, p. 78, pl. xviii. Lartet, Prehistoric
-Congress, Paris Volume, 1868, p. 269.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="fnanchor">215</a> These figures have been kindly lent by the Palæontographical
-Society.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="fnanchor">216</a> “Journ. Royal Dublin Soc.” ii. p. 344.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="fnanchor">217</a> “Journ. Geol. Soc. Dublin,” x. p. 147. “Journ. Royal Dublin
-Soc.” ii. p. 352.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="fnanchor">218</a> Scott, “Geol. Soc. Dublin,” Feb. 10, 1864.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="fnanchor">219</a> An account of the numerous caves of France will be found in the
-works of M. de Serres, “Revue Archéologique” and in the “Matériaux
-pour l’Histoire de l’Homme.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="fnanchor">220</a> Boyd Dawkins, “Brit. Pleist. Mam. Palæont. Soc.” 1872, p. 189.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="fnanchor">221</a> Gervais, “Animaux Vertébrés,” p. 78, pl. xviii.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="fnanchor">222</a> Lartet, International Congress, Paris Volume, p. 269.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="fnanchor">223</a> “Cavernes du Périgord,” “Revue Archéologique,” 8vo. 1864.
-“Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,” 4to. 1865&ndash;74. This magnificent history of the
-researches, in the prosecution of which Mr. Christy lost his life, was
-published at his expense under the editorship of Prof. Rupert Jones,
-F.R.S., to whom I am indebted for the liberty to use the letterpress
-and engravings quoted in this book.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="fnanchor">224</a> The same bones of the ox and horse are now imported into
-Britain from South America for the manufacture of buttons.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="fnanchor">225</a> Boyd Dawkins, “Range of the Mammoth,” Pop. Sc. Rev. July,
-1868.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="fnanchor">226</a> “Recherches sur les oss. foss. découverts dans les Cavernes de
-Liége.” 4to.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="fnanchor">227</a> Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs
-de Dinant-sur-Meuse.” 2nd edit. p. 187.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="fnanchor">228</a> Dupont, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> “Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belgique,” xxii. p. 20.
-Hamy, “Paléontologie Humaine,” p. 231.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="fnanchor">229</a> The discovery will shortly be published by Prof. Heine, of Zurich.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="fnanchor">230</a> “Matériaux pour l’Histoire de l’Homme,” May 1869, p. 272.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="fnanchor">231</a> “Ancient Stone Implements.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="fnanchor">232</a> “Ann. des Sc. Nat.” 4th sér. t. 15, p. 231.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="fnanchor">233</a> Hamy, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> Lubbock, “Prehistoric Man.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="fnanchor">234</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” June 5, 1872.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="fnanchor">235</a> Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 432. “Mém.
-Anthrop. Soc. de Paris,” 2nd sér. t. 6, p. 170.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="fnanchor">236</a> “Eskimos in the South of Gaul.” Saturday Review, December
-8th, 1866. Edinburgh Review, “Prehistoric Times.” October 1870.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="fnanchor">237</a> The authorities for the foreign lists of animals will be found in the
-“Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1872, p. 424. The British animals have been
-determined principally by myself and Dr. Falconer.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="fnanchor">238</a> “Classification of the Pleistocene Strata,” Quart. Geol. Journ.
-Nov. 1872, p. 410.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="fnanchor">239</a> Godwin Austen, “Quart. Geol. Journ.” vol. i. p. 69. De la Bêche,
-“Theoretical Researches,” p. 190. Lyell, “Antiquity of Man,” 4th
-edit. p. 328.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="fnanchor">240</a> The accumulation of the remains of reindeer in the limited area of
-the excavation was enormous.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="fnanchor">241</a> “Les Oss. Foss. de Pikermi,” 4to.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="fnanchor">242</a> Some parts of the rest of this chapter have been published in the
-“Popular Science Review,” March 1873.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="fnanchor">243</a> “Palæontographical Memoirs,” vol. ii. p. 554. Busk, Prehistoric
-Congress, Norwich volume, 1869.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="fnanchor">244</a> “Comptes Rendus,” xlvi. 1858.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="fnanchor">245</a> Prehistoric Congress, Paris volume, p. 96.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="fnanchor">246</a> “Brit. Ass. Reports,” Edinburgh, 1871.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="fnanchor">247</a> “Brit. Assoc. Rep.” 1871.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="fnanchor">248</a> <cite>Découverte d’une Squelette Humaine de l’époque Paléolithique dans
-les Cavernes de Baoussé-Roussé, dites Grottes de Menton</cite>, 1873; also Prehistoric
-Congress, Brussels volume. M. Rivière adds the Wapiti, or
-large variety, and the <i class="taxonomy">Cervus Corsicanus</i>, or small variety of the stag,
-the chamois, and the woolly rhinoceros (the two last of which may be
-perhaps identical with the ibex and <i class="taxonomy">R. hemitœchus</i>, determined by
-Prof. Busk, as neither is mentioned by M. Rivière), and the <i class="taxonomy">Capra
-primigenia</i> of Gervais, a large goat commonly found in neolithic
-caves.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="fnanchor">249</a> The depth at which the skeleton was found is a matter of dispute,
-the estimates varying from seven feet (Pengelly) to (6·55 m.) 21·49 feet
-(Rivière). Pengelly, <cite>Cave man of Mentone</cite>, “Trans. Devon Ass.” 1873,
-pp. 10 and 13.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="fnanchor">250</a> “Palæont. Mem.” ii. p. 543.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="fnanchor">251</a> It is of the same species as the bear from Grays Thurrock.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="fnanchor">252</a> Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. p. 552. Spratt, “Quart.
-Geol. Journ.” xxiii. p. 293.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="fnanchor">253</a> “Bull. Soc. Géol. Fr.” 2<sup>e</sup> sér. t. xi. p. 340.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="fnanchor">254</a> Gervais, “Animaux Vertébrés Vivants et Fossiles,” 4to. p. 88.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="fnanchor">255</a> Hooker, “Nat. Hist. Review,” II. p. 12, 1861.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="fnanchor">256</a> <cite>Nature</cite>, vol. v. p. 444; vol. vi. 536.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="fnanchor">257</a> “A Journey to Morocco, and the Ascent of the Great Atlas,” 8vo.
-Slater, Troubridge, Salop.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="fnanchor">258</a> “Geological Notes on a Journey from Algiers to Morocco.” Geol.
-Soc. Feb. 25, 1874.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="fnanchor">259</a> See “British Pleistocene Mammalia,” Palæont. Soc. <i class="taxonomy">Felis spelæa</i>,
-c. xviii.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="fnanchor">260</a> “<i class="taxonomy">Ovibos moschatus</i>,” Palæont. Soc. 1872, p. 27, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="fnanchor">261</a> This is treated at greater length in my “Essay on Classification,”
-Quart. Geol. Journ. Nov. 1872, and in the “Introduction to British
-Pleistocene Mammalia,” Palæont. Soc.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="fnanchor">262</a> Mr. James Geikie’s view (“The Great Ice-Age,” 8vo. 1874)
-that the mixture of the northern and southern forms is due to the
-destruction of ossiferous strata by streams, which subsequently deposited
-remains of widely different ages together, is rendered untenable
-by the fact that they are generally preserved in the same mineral state.
-It would have been impossible for this to have taken place without
-leaving decided traces behind in the rolled and water-worn condition
-of the older series, such as may be seen in the case of the eocene and
-meiocene fossils in the Red Crag of Suffolk.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="fnanchor">263</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxii. 391.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="fnanchor">264</a> See Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="fnanchor">265</a> I have to acknowledge the kind assistance of Professors Hull
-and Harkness, Mr. Kinahan, and the Rev. H.&nbsp;M. Close, in correlating
-the Irish with the English glacial deposits. The reader will find the
-glacial period most ably treated in Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man.”</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="fnanchor">266</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxi. 161.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="fnanchor">267</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1872, p. 410.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="fnanchor">268</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xx. p. 457.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="fnanchor">269</a> “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. p. 49.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="fnanchor">270</a> “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. pp. 189, 190.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="fnanchor">271</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxiv. p. 484. “International Congress,”
-Norwich volume. See also “Evans’ Ancient Stone Implements,”
-p. 570.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="fnanchor">272</a> “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 642, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et passim</i>.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="fnanchor">273</a> This implement was exhibited before the Meeting of the British
-Association at Edinburgh, in 1871.</p></div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="fnanchor">274</a> Brit. Ass. Reports, 1865, p. 18.</p></div>
-</div></div>
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<div class="transnote">
-<h2 class="nobreak p1"><a id="Transcribers_Notes"></a>Transcriber’s Notes</h2>
-
-<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a predominant
-preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</p>
-
-<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced
-quotation marks retained.</p>
-
-<p>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.</p>
-
-<p>The corrections listed in “Additions and Corrections” at the
-beginning of the book have been made to the main text of this
-eBook. The additions have not been added. The errors listed
-for pages 196 and 201 were not found in the text, and both
-the opening and closing inverted commas (quotation marks)
-have been removed on page 386.</p>
-
-<p>Unlike the printed book, all illustrations in this eBook
-appear between paragraphs, so the page references in the
-List of Illustrations do not necessarily match their actual
-positions. However, links, in versions of this eBook that support
-them, do lead directly to the corresponding illustrations.</p>
-
-<p>The Index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.</p>
-
-<p>Text has many references to “Lartet” and just a few to “Lortet”. They
-seem to refer to the same person, but both are listed in the Index,
-so both spellings have been retained.</p>
-
-<p>Text refers to “Rev. J. MacEnery”, “Rev. J. McEnery” and “McEnery”. These
-all refer to the same person, but the correct spelling is uncertain, so
-both variations have been retained.</p>
-
-<p>Some of the fractional numbers (e.g., 1/1, 1/2) in illustration captions
-were unclear and may have been incorrectly transcribed.</p>
-
-<p>In some tables, a special space character was used to align decimals. Display
-software that does not support that character may show a question mark in its place.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_2">2</a>: “dwellings of evil spirits” was misprinted as “swellings”.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_147">147</a>: Footnote 95 (originally 2) was not referenced in the text.
-Transcriber has arbitrarily placed a reference to it.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_199">199</a>: “Valcleuse” currently is spelled “Valcluse”.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_310">310</a>: The reference to “Figs. 92, 93” was misprinted
-as “Figs. 92, 33” and has been corrected here.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_339">339</a>: Identifications of the three illustrations were added
-by Transcriber.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_381">381</a>: The top of the map was close to the physical book’s binding and
-was distorted during scanning. The Transcriber attempted to remedy this
-distortion.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_436">436</a>: The letters in the diagram were printed in italics. For readability,
-the Plain Text version of this eBook omits the underscores that indicate italics.
-The HTML and mobile versions use an image of the diagram.</p>
-
-<p>Page <a href="#Page_449">449</a> (Index): “Caves, used as places of refuge” gave no page reference.
-The Table of Contents refers to page 102, and the Transcriber added that to the index entry.</p>
-
-<p>These are images of wide tables whose text versions in the body of this eBook
-may not display properly or in their entirety on some devices:</p>
-
-<div id="if_p_166" class="figcenter" style="width: 561px;"><img src="images/p_166.jpg" width="561" height="600" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_166">166</a></div></div>
-<div id="if_p_171" class="figcenter" style="width: 767px;"><img src="images/p_171.jpg" width="767" height="438" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_171">171</a></div></div>
-<div id="if_p_173" class="figcenter" style="width: 534px;"><img src="images/p_173.jpg" width="534" height="358" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_173">173</a></div></div>
-<div id="if_p_174" class="figcenter" style="width: 528px;"><img src="images/p_174.jpg" width="528" height="425" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_174">174</a></div></div>
-<div id="if_p_197" class="figcenter" style="width: 584px;"><img src="images/p_197.jpg" width="584" height="338" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_197">197</a></div></div>
-<div id="if_p_199" class="figcenter" style="width: 467px;"><img src="images/p_199.jpg" width="467" height="726" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_199">199</a></div></div>
-<div id="if_p_360" class="figcenter" style="width: 609px;"><img src="images/p_360.jpg" width="609" height="981" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_360">360</a></div></div>
-<div id="if_p_361" class="figcenter" style="width: 613px;"><img src="images/p_361.jpg" width="613" height="979" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_361">361</a></div></div>
-<div id="if_p_443" class="figcenter" style="width: 595px;"><img src="images/p_443.jpg" width="595" height="356" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_443">443</a></div></div>
-
-</div></div>
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-<pre>
-
-
-
-
-
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