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- margin-bottom: .1em; - visibility: hidden; - color: white; - width: .01em; - display: none; - } - - ul {margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 0;} - li {list-style-type: none; padding-left: 1em; text-indent: -1.5em;} - - blockquote {margin: 1.5em 3% 1.5em 3%;} - - .poem-container {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%;} - .poem {display: block;} - .poem .stanza {page-break-inside: avoid;} - - .transnote { - page-break-inside: avoid; - margin-left: 2%; - margin-right: 2%; - margin-top: 1em; - margin-bottom: 1em; - padding: .5em; - } - .covernote {visibility: visible; display: block; text-align: center;} -} - </style> - </head> - -<body> - - -<pre> - -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cave Hunting, by William Boyd Dawkins - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Cave Hunting - Researches on the evidence of caves respecting the early - inhabitants of Europe - -Author: William Boyd Dawkins - -Release Date: June 28, 2016 [EBook #52424] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAVE HUNTING *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Sharon Joiner, Charlie Howard, -and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images -made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - - - - - -</pre> - - -<div class="transnote"> -<p class="center larger">Transcriber’s Notes</p> -<p class="covernote">Text on the cover was added by Transcriber and placed in the Public Domain.</p> -<p>Images of tables that may be too wide for some display devices have been included in the -<a href="#Transcribers_Notes">Transcriber’s Notes</a> at the end of this eBook, and the text of those tables contains -links to the corresponding images.</p> -</div> - -<h1>CAVE HUNTING.</h1> - -<hr /> -<div id="i_frontis" class="figcenter" style="width: 105px;"> - <img src="images/i_000.jpg" width="105" height="101" alt="" /></div> -<hr /> - -<div id="if_i_001" class="figcenter" style="width: 362px;"> - <img src="images/i_001.jpg" width="362" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="p0 b0"><i>Fig. 1.</i> <span class="in2"><i>Fig. 2.</i></span> <span class="in2"><i>Fig. 3.</i></span></p> - <p class="p0 b0"><i>Fig. 4.</i> <span class="in2"><i>Fig. 5.</i></span> <span class="in2"><i>Fig. 6.</i></span></p> - <p class="p0 b0"><i>Fig. 7.</i> <span class="in4"><i>Fig. 8.</i></span></p> - - <p class="right small">C. F. Kell Lath. London F.C.</p> - <p class="p1">ENAMELS FROM THE VICTORIA CAVE. <a href="#Page_98">p98.</a></p> - <p class="small">London; Macmillan & C<sup>o</sup>. 1874.</p></div></div> - -<hr /> - -<p class="newpage p4 center xxlarge wspace"> -CAVE HUNTING,</p> - -<p class="p2 center vspace wspace"><span class="smaller">RESEARCHES ON</span><br /> -<span class="large">THE EVIDENCE OF CAVES</span><br /> -<span class="small">RESPECTING THE</span><br /> -<span class="large">EARLY INHABITANTS OF EUROPE</span></p> - -<p class="p2 center large wspace"><span class="xsmall">BY</span><br /> -W. BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A.,<br /> -<span class="xsmall"><i>Curator of the Museum and Lecturer in Geology in The Owens College, Manchester</i>.</span></p> - -<p class="p2 center smaller"><i>ILLUSTRATED BY COLOURED PLATE AND WOODCUTS.</i></p> - -<p class="p2 center wspace"><span class="bold">London:</span><br /> -<span class="gesperrt larger">MACMILLAN AND CO.</span><br /> -1874.</p> - -<p class="p1 center smaller">[<i>The Right of Translation and Reproduction is reserved.</i>]</p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="newpage p4 center small vspace"> -LONDON:<br /> -R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,<br /> -BREAD STREET HILL. -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p class="newpage p4 center vspace"> -TO<br /> - -<span class="large">THE BARONESS BURDETT COUTTS,</span><br /> -<br /> -THE FOUNDER OF THE SCHOLARSHIPS<br /> -FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCE<br /> -IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD,<br /> -<span class="large gesperrt">This Work is Dedicated,</span><br /> -AS A SLIGHT ACKNOWLEDGMENT FROM HER FIRST SCHOLAR. -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii">vii</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> -</div> - -<p>The exploration of caves is rapidly becoming an important -field of inquiry, and their contributions to -our knowledge of the early history of the sojourn of -men in Europe are daily increasing in value and in -number. Since the year 1823, when Dr. Buckland -published his famous work, the “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” -no attempt has been made to correlate, and bring into -the compass of one work, the crude mass of facts which -have been recorded in nearly every country in Europe. -In this volume I have attempted to bring the history -of cave-exploration down to the knowledge of to-day, -and to put its main conclusions before my readers in -one connected and continuous narrative. Since Dr. -Buckland wrote, the momentous discovery of human -relics along with the extinct animals in caves and -river deposits has revolutionised the current ideas as -to the antiquity and condition of man; and works -of art of a high order, showing a familiarity with -nature and an aptitude for the delineation of the forms -of animals by no means despicable, have been discovered -in the caves of Britain, France, Belgium, and -Switzerland, that were the dwellings of the primeval -European hunters of reindeer and mammoths. The -discoveries in Kent’s Hole and in the caves of Belgium -led to those in the caves of Brixham and Wookey Hole,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_viii">viii</a></span> -and finally to those of Auvergne and the south of -France, as well as of Germany and Switzerland.</p> - -<p>Archæology, also, by the use of strictly inductive -methods, has grown from a mere antiquarian speculation -into a science; and its students have proved the truth of -the three divisions of human progress familiar to the -Greek and Roman philosopher, and expressed in the -pages of Hesiod and Lucretius—the Ages of Stone, -Bronze and Iron. The subdivision of the first of these -into the older, or palæolithic, and newer, or neolithic, -by Sir John Lubbock, is the only refinement which has -been made in this classification. Sir Charles Lyell has -discussed the various problems offered by the general -consideration of the first of these divisions in “The -Antiquity of Man;” while Sir John Lubbock, in -“Prehistoric Man,” has followed Dr. Keller and others -in working out the past history of mankind by a comparison -of the habitations, tombs, implements and -weapons found in Europe, with those of modern savages. -This work is intended to be to a considerable extent -supplementary to theirs,—to treat of the formation of -caves, and of the light thrown by their contents on the -sojourn of man in Europe, on the wild animals, and on -the changes in climate and geography.</p> - -<p>In treating of the caves of the historic period, I have -given considerable prominence to the exploration of the -Victoria Cave, near Settle, which has led to the discovery -that many caverns were inhabited in this country -during the fifth and sixth centuries, and that they contain -works of art of a high order. In the difficult task of -bringing them into relation with British history and art, -I have to acknowledge the kind assistance of Mr. E. A. -Freeman, the Rev. J. R. Green, and Mr. A. W. Franks.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ix">ix</a></span> -In the neolithic division of the prehistoric period, I -have published at length my recent discoveries in the -sepulchral caves of Denbighshire, and am allowed by my -friend, Professor Busk, to reprint his description of the -human bones. To his suggestive essay on the Gibraltar -caves, as well as to the works of the late Dr. Thurnam, -and of Professors Broca and Huxley, I am indebted for -the clue to the identification of the neolithic dwellers in -caves with the ancient Iberians or Modern Basques. -That portion of the evidence which relates to France I -have verified by a personal examination of the human -remains from caves and tombs in the Museums of -Bordeaux, Toulouse, Lyons and Paris.</p> - -<p>The results of the exploration of the Hyæna-den -of Wookey Hole have been given in greater detail in -the portion of the work devoted to the palæolithic age -than they would have been, had they been before fully -recorded. And in this division of the subject I have -largely made use of the “Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,” which -embodies the discoveries in Auvergne of my late friends -Professor E. Lartet and Mr. Christy. To the editors of -that work I am indebted for permission to use some of -the plates and letterpress.</p> - -<p>The history of the pleistocene mammalia, in which -palæolithic man forms the central figure, has been my -especial study for many years. And the evidence which -is offered by the animals as to the geography and climate -of Europe, which I have published from time to time -in the works of the Palæontographical Society, the -<cite>Geological Journal</cite>, and in the <cite>Popular Science</cite>, <cite>British -Quarterly</cite>, and <cite>Edinburgh Reviews</cite>, is collected together -in this work, and brought into relation with the inquiry -into the extension of ice over Europe in the glacial<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_x">x</a></span> -period, and into the soundings of the European seas. -In approaching these and the like problems, I have done -my best to arrive at the truth by visiting as far as -possible the foreign localities and collections, and by -correspondence with the discoverers of new facts.</p> - -<p>In addition to those names which I have already -mentioned, I have to express my thanks to the Councils -of the Society of Antiquaries, the Geological Society, and -of the Anthropological Institute and to Mr. John Evans, -for the use of woodcuts; to Mr. Rooke Pennington for -looking over some of the proof sheets; and to Professors -Gaudry, Rütimeyer, Lortet, Nilsson, and Steenstrüp, and -the Rev. Canon Greenwell for aid of various kinds. -But especially do I feel grateful to my old friend and -master, the late lamented Professor Phillips, for frequent -help and prudent counsel.</p> - -<p>In laying this book before my readers I would merely -further remark, that it is a faint outline of a new and -vast field of research, in which I have attempted to give -prominence to the more important points, rather than a -finished and detailed history of cave-exploration.</p> - -<p class="sigright">W. B. D.</p> - -<p class="in0 smaller"> -<span class="smcap">The Owens College, Manchester</span>,<br /> -<span class="in4"><i>20th July, 1874</i>.</span> -</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xi">xi</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> -</div> - -<table id="toc" summary="toc"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER I.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">INTRODUCTION.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr class="small"> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Legends and Superstitions connected with Caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_1">1–5</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Physical Division of the Subject</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_2">5, 6</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Biological Division</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_3">6</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Men and Animals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_4">6</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Ethnological, Archæological, and Geographical Bearings</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_5">7–9</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Three Classes of Bone-Caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_6">10, 11</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">History of Cave-Exploration in Europe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_7">11</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc1pad1"> ” </span><span class="toc1pad2"> ” </span> Germany</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_8">11, 12</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc1pad1"> ” </span><span class="toc1pad2"> ” </span> Great Britain</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_9">13–18</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc1pad1"> ” </span><span class="toc1pad2"> ” </span> France</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_10">18–20</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc1pad1"> ” </span><span class="toc1pad2"> ” </span> Belgium</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_11">20, 21</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc1pad1"> ” </span><span class="toc1pad2"> ” </span> Southern Europe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_12">21, 22</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER II.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">PHYSICAL HISTORY OF CAVES.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves formed by the Sea and by Volcanic Action</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_13">23</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves in Arenaceous Rocks</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_14">24</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves in Calcareous Rocks of various ages</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_15">25–27</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Their Relation to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_16">27, 28</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Water-Cave of Wookey Hole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_17">29–31</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Goatchurch Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_18">31–34</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Water-Caves of Derbyshire</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_19">34</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Water-Caves of Yorkshire—Ingleborough</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_20">35–39</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Rate of Deposit of Stalagmite</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_21">39–41</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Descent into Helln Pot</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_22">41–47</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves and Pots round Weathercote</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_23">47–50</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Formation of Caves, Pot-holes, and Ravines</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_24">50–57</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caverns not generally formed in line of Faults</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_25">57</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Various Ages of Caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_26">58–61</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Filling up of Caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_27">61</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cave of Caldy</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_28">62–68</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xii">xii</a></span></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Black-Rock Cave, Tenby</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_29">68</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Carbonate of Lime dissolved by Atmospheric Water</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_30">69–70</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Circulation of Carbonate of Lime</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_31">71</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Temperature of Caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_32">71–72</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Conclusion</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_33">73</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER III.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">HISTORIC CAVES IN BRITAIN.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Definition of Historic Period</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_34">74</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Wild Animals in Britain during the Historic Period</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_35">75–77</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Animals living under the care of Man</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_36">77</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Classificatory Value of Historic Animals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_37">78–81</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Victoria Cave, Settle, Yorkshire—History of Discovery</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_38">81–85</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh Stratum</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_39">86–88</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Bones of the Animals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_40">88–90</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Miscellaneous Articles</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_41">90–92</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Coins</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_42">93</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Jewellery, and its relation to Irish Art</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_43">94–101</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Similar remains in other Caves in Yorkshire</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_44">101</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves used as places of Refuge</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_45">102</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The evidence of History as to Date</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_46">103–111</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Britain under the Romans</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_47">103–105</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The inroads of the Picts and Scots</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_48">105</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The English Conquest</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_49">107</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Neolithic Stratum</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_50">111–115</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Approximate Date of the Neolithic Occupation</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_51">115</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Grey Clays</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_52">116–118</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Pleistocene Occupation by Hyænas</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_53">118–121</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Probable Pre-glacial Age of the Pleistocene Stratum</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_54">121–125</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Kirkhead Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_55">125</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Poole’s Cavern, Buxton</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_56">126</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Thor’s Cave, near Ashbourne</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_57">127–129</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Historic Value of Brit-Welsh group of Caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_58">129</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Principal Animals and Articles in Brit-Welsh Caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_59">130–132</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Use of Horse-flesh</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_60">132</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cave of Longberry Bank, Pembrokeshire</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_61">133</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER IV.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">CAVES USED IN THE AGES OF IRON AND BRONZE.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_62">134–136</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Prehistoric Fauna</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_63">136–138</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Archæological Classification</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_64">138–140</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves of the Iron Age</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_65">140</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_66">141–145</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiii">xiii</a></span></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Caves of the Césareda in Portugal probably occupied by Cannibals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_67">145–147</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cave of Reggio in Modena</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_68">148</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER V.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">CAVES OF THE NEOLITHIC AGE.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Neolithic Caves in Great Britain—Perthi-Chwareu</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_69">149–156</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Rhosdigre</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_70">156–158</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Neolithic Caves in the neighbourhood of Cefn, St. Asaph</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_71">159–161</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Chambered Tomb near Cefn</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_72">161–164</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Correlation of Chambered Tomb with the Caves of Perthi-Chwareu and Cefn</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_73">164</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Contents of Caves and Tombs, tabulated</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_74">165–166</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Description of Human Remains by Professor Busk</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_75">166–187</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">General conclusions as to Human Remains</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_76">197–188</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER VI.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">THE RANGE OF NEOLITHIC DOLICHO-CEPHALI AND BRACHY-CEPHALI.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cranial Terminology</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_77">189–190</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_78">191–194</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Range of the Dolicho-cephali in Britain and Ireland</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_79">194–197</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Range of the Brachy-cephali</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_80">197</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Their Range in France</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_81">198</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caverne de l’homme Mort</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_82">198–202</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Sepulchral Cave of Orrouy</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_83">202</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Skulls from French Tumuli</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_84">203</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Dolicho-cephali of Iberian Peninsula—Gibraltar</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_85">204–208</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Spain—Cueva de los Murcièlagos</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_86">208–210</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Woman’s Cave near Alhama</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_87">210</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Guanches of the Canary Isles</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_88">211</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Iberic Dolicho-cephali of the same race as those of Britain</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_89">212</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Dolicho-cephali cognate with the Basque</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_90">213–215</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Sepulchral Cave of Chauvaux</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_91">215–218</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cave of Sclaigneaux</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_92">218–220</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Evidence of History as to the Peoples of Gaul and Spain</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_93">220–223</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Basque Population the oldest</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_94">223</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Population of Britain</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_95">224</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Basque Characters in British and French Populations present</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_96">225–227</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Whence come the Basques?</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_97">227</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Celtic and Belgic Brachy-cephali</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_98">228–230</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Ancient German Race</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_99">230</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">General conclusions</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_100">231</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER VII.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xiv">xiv</a></span></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">CAVES CONTAINING HUMAN REMAINS OF DOUBTFUL AGE.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Paviland Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_101">232–234</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cave of Engis</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_102">234, 235</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Trou du Frontal</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_103">236–239</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cave of Gendron</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_104">239</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Gailenreuth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_105">240</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Neanderthal</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_106">240–241</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Aurignac</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_107">242–247</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Bruniquel</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_108">247, 248</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Cro-Magnon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_109">249–256</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Lombrive</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_110">256</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc2pad1">” </span> Cavillon, near Mentone</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_111">257</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Grotta dei Colombi, Palmaria, inhabited by Cannibals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_112">258–261</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">General conclusions as to Prehistoric Caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_113">261–263</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER VIII.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">THE PLEISTOCENE CAVES OF GERMANY AND GREAT BRITAIN.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Relation of Pleistocene to Prehistoric Period</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_114">264</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Magnitude of Interval</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_115">265</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Animals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_116">265, 266</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Physical Changes—Excavation and filling up of Valleys</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_117">267–272</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Fisherton, near Salisbury</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_118">267</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Freshford, near Bath</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_119">269</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Comparison of Deposits in Valleys with those in Caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_120">272</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Difference of Mineral Condition</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_121">273</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Pleistocene Caves of Germany—Gailenreuth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_122">273–276</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Kühloch</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_123">276–278</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Pleistocene Caves of Great Britain</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_124">278</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc3pad1">” </span> <span class="toc3pad2">” </span> Yorkshire—Kirkdale</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_125">279–284</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc3pad1">” </span> <span class="toc3pad2">” </span> Derbyshire—Dream Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_126">284, 285</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc3pad1">” </span> <span class="toc3pad2">” </span> North Wales, near St. Asaph</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_127">286, 287</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves of South Wales in Glamorgan and Carmarthen</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_128">288</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc4pad1">” </span> Pembrokeshire</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_129">289</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc4pad1">” </span> Monmouth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_130">290</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc4pad1">” </span> Gloucestershire and Somersetshire</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_131">291</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc4pad1">” </span> the Mendip Hills—Hutton</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_132">292</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Banwell</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_133">293</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Uphill</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_134">294</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Hyæna Den, Wookey Hole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_135">295–314</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The district of the Mendip higher in Pleistocene Age than now</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_136">314</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The condition of Bones gnawed by Hyænas</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_137">314–317</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Caves of Devonshire—Oreston</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_138">317, 318</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves at Brixham</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_139">319–324</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xv">xv</a></span></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Kent’s Hole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_140">324–330</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Probable Age of the Machairodus in Kent’s Hole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_141">330–335</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves of Ireland—Shandon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_142">335</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER IX.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">THE INHABITANTS OF THE CAVES OF NORTH-WESTERN EUROPE, AND THE EVIDENCE OF THE FAUNA AS TO THE ATLANTIC COAST-LINE.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Caves of France</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_143">336</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cave of Baume</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_144">337</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves of Périgord</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_145">337–347</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc4pad1">” </span> Belgium</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_146">347, 348</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Trou de Naulette</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_147">349</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves of Switzerland</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_148">350</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cave-dwellers and Palæolithic Men of the River-gravels</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_149">351</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Classification of Palæolithic Caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_150">351–353</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Relation of Cave-dwellers to Eskimos</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_151">353–359</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Pleistocene Animals living north of the Alps and Pyrenees</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_152">359</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Relation of Cave to River-bed Fauna</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_153">362</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Atlantic Coast-line</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_154">362–366</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Distribution of Palæolithic Implements</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_155">366, 367</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER X.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">THE FAUNA OF THE CAVES OF SOUTHERN EUROPE, AND THE EVIDENCE AS TO THE MEDITERRANEAN COAST-LINE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Changes of Level in Mediterranean Area in Meiocene and Pleiocene Ages</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_156">369</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Bone-caves of Southern Europe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_157">370</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Caves of Gibraltar</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_158">371, 372</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Bone-caves of Provence and Mentone</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_159">373–375</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc5pad1">” </span> Sicily</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_160">375–377</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc5pad1">” </span> Malta</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_161">377</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Range of Pigmy Hippopotamus</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_162">378</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Fossil Mammalia in Algeria</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_163">379</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Living Species common to Europe and Africa</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_164">379</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Evidence of Soundings</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_165">380–382</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Glaciers of Lebanon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_166">382</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Glaciers of Anatolia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_167">383–386</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc6pad1">” </span> of the Atlas Mountains</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_168">386</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc6pad1">” </span> probably produced by elevation above the Sea</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_169">387–389</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mediterranean Coast-line comparatively modern</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_170">389</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Changes of Level in the Sahara</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_171">390</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER XI.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvi">xvi</a></span></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">THE EUROPEAN CLIMATE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Evidence of the Mammalia as to Climate</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_172">392</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Southern Group of Animals</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_173">393–395</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Northern Group</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_174">395–397</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Probable cause of Association of Northern and Southern Groups</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_175">397, 398</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Temperate Group</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_176">399</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Species common to Cold and Tropical Climates</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_177">400</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Extinct Species</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_178">400</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Two Periods of Glaciation in Britain</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_179">401–403</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Three Climatal Changes on the Continent</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_180">403</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Europe invaded by Pleistocene Animals before the Glacial Period</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_181">404–406</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mammalia lived in Europe during the second Glacial Period</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_182">406</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Glacial Period does not separate one Life-era from another</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_183">407</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Bone-caves inhabited before and after the Glacial Period</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_184">408</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Relation of Palæolithic Man to Glacial Period</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_185">409</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Age of Contents of Caves in Glacial Districts</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_186">410</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">CHAPTER XII.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">CONCLUSION.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Classification of Pleistocene Strata by the Mammalia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_187">412–414</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Late Pleistocene Division</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_188">414</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Middle Pleistocene Division</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_189">415–417</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Early Pleistocene Mammalia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_190">417–420</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Pleiocene Mammalia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_191">420–423</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Summary of Characteristic Pleistocene and Pleiocene Species</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_192">423, 424</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Antiquity of Man in Europe</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_193">424–426</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Man lived in India in the Pleistocene Age</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_194">426–428</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related to those of Europe?</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_195">428</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Palæolithic Man in Palestine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_196">429</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Conclusion</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_197">430</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">APPENDIX I.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chapsub" colspan="3">ON THE INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF CAVE-HUNTING.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Instruments used in Cave-hunting</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_198">435</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Search after Bone-caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_199">437</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Three modes of Cave-digging</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_200">438</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Stalagmitic floors to be broken up</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_201">440</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Preservation of Fossil Remains</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_202">440</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc chap" colspan="3">APPENDIX II.</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Observations on the Accumulation of Stalagmite in the Ingleborough Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#hdr_203">442</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xvii">xvii</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> -</div> - -<table id="loi" summary="List of Illustrations"> - <tr class="small"> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">FIG.</td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs2">Coloured Enamels from Victoria Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#i_frontis"><i>Front.</i></a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">1 Diagram of Wookey Hole, Cave and Ravine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_1">30</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">2 Diagram of Helln Pot and the Long Churn Cavern</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_2">41</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">3 Diagram of Helln Pot</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_3">42</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">4 Diagram of Helln Pot, showing Waterfall at the bottom</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_4">45</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">5 Waterfall in Pot-hole, at Weathercote</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_5">48</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">6 Diagram of Subterranean Course of Dalebeck</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_6">49</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">7 Diagram of an acid-worn joint, Doveholes, Derbyshire</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_7">52</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">8 Diagram of the Source of the Aire at Malham</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_8">55</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs2" colspan="2">9 A View in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_9">63</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">10 Stalagmites in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_10">63</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">11 The Fairy Chamber, Caldy</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_11">64</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">12 Pools in Fairy Chamber</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_12">65</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">13 Pool in Fairy Chamber</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_13">65</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">14 Edge of Pool in Fairy Chamber</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_14">65</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">15 Cone with Straw-column</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_15">65</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">16 Basin containing Cave-pearls</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_16">67</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">17 Fungoid Structures, magnified</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_17">67</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">18 Fungoid Structure, Black-rock Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_18">68</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">19 View of King’s Scar, Settle, showing the Entrances of the Victoria and Albert Caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_19">82</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">20 Longitudinal Section of Victoria Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_20">86</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">21 Vertical Section at the Entrance to the Victoria Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_21">87</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">22 Spoon-brooch</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_22">91</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">23 Ornamented Bone Fastener</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_23">92</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">24 Two Bone Links</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_24">92</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">25 Bronze Brooch</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_25">95</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">26 Bone Harpoon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_26">112</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">27 Bone Bead</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_27">113</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">28 Stone Adze of doubtful origin</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_28">114</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">29 Section below Grey Clay, at Entrance to Victoria Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_29">117</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">30 Skull of Woolly Rhinoceros, showing the part which is not eaten by Hyænas</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_30">119</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">31 Bronze Bracelet from Thor’s Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_31">129</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">32 Bronze Knife, Heathery Burn</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_32">142</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">33 Bronze Armlet, Heathery Burn</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_33">143</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xviii">xviii</a></span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">34 Bronze Spear-head, Heathery Burn</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_34">143</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">35 Bronze Mould for casting a socketed Celt</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_35">143</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">36 Section of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_36">152</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">37 Plan of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_37">154</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">38 Greenstone Celt, Rhosdigre Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_38">157</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">39 Plan of Chambered Tomb at Cefn</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_39">162</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">40, 41, 42 Skull from Sepulchral Cave at Perthi-Chwareu</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_40">168</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">43, 44, 45 Skull from Sepulchral Cave at Perthi-Chwareu</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_43">169</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">46 Section of Femur</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_46">172</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">47, 48, 49, 50, 51 Section of Tibiæ</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_47">176</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">52, 53, 54 Platyenemic Tibiæ</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_52">177</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">55, 56, 57, 58 Human Femora</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_55">182</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">59, 60, 61 Skull from Cave at Cefn, St. Asaph</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_59">185</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">62, 63, 64 Skull from Genista Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_62">207</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">65, 66 Skull from Cave of Sclaigneaux</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_65">219</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">67 Platyenemic Tibia from Sclaigneaux</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_67">219</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">68 Map of the Distribution of Iberic, Celtic, and Belgic Peoples at dawn of History</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_68">221</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">69 Section of the Trou du Frontal</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_69">237</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">70 Diagram of the Cave of Aurignac</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_70">245</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">71 Section across the valley of the Vezère and rock of Cro-Magnon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_71">249</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">72 Detailed Section of the Cave of Cro-Magnon</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_72">251</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">73 Thigh-bone of Child from Grotta dei Colombi</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_73">260</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">74 Section of Valley-gravels at Fisherton</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_74">268</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">75 Section of Valley-gravels at Freshford, Bath</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_75">270</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">76 Section of Gailenreuth Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_76">274</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">77 Plan of Kirkdale Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_77">279</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">78 Sections of Kirkdale Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_78">280</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">79 Molar of Hippopotamus</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_79">281</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">80 Leg-bones gnawed by Hyænas</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_80">282</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">81 The Dream-cave, Wirksworth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_81">285</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">82 Left Lower Jaw of Glutton, Plas Heaton Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_82">287</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">83 Plan of Hyæna Den, Wookey Hole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_83">297</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">84, 85, 86, 87 Four Views of Flint Implements from Wookey Hole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_84">299</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">88 Section showing Contents of Hyæna Den</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_88">304</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">89 Transverse section of ditto</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_89">305</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">90 Longitudinal section</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_90">306</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">91 Longitudinal section</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_91">311</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">92 Gnawed Jaw of Hyæna from Wookey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_92">313</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">93 Upper and Lower Jaws of Hyæna Whelp, Wookey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_93">315</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">94 Thigh-bone of Woolly Rhinoceros gnawed by Hyænas, Wookey</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_94">316</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">95 Diagram of deposits in Brixham Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_95">320</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">96 Lanceolate Implement from Kent’s Hole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_96">326</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">97 Oval Implements from Kent’s Hole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_97">326</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">98 Harpoon from Kent’s Hole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_98">327</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl fs1" colspan="2">99 Harpoon-head from Kent’s Hole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_99">327</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">100 Hammer-stone</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_100">328</a><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xix">xix</a></span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">101, 102 Upper Canine of Machairodus, Kent’s Hole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_101">331</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">103, 104, 105 Incisors of Machairodus, Kent’s Hole</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_103">333</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">106 Flint-flake, Les Eyzies</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_106">339</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">107 Flint Scraper, Les Eyzies</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_107">339</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">108 Flint Javelin-head, Laugerie Haute</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_108">339</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">109 Flint Arrow-head, Laugerie Haute</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_109">340</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">110 Bone needle, La Madelaine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_110">340</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">111, 112 Harpoons of Antler, La Madelaine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_111">342</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">113, 114 Arrow-heads, Gorge d’Enfer</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_113">342</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">115 Bone Awl, Gorge d’Enfer</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_115">342</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">116 Carved Handle of Reindeer Antler</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_116">343</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">117 Two sides of Reindeer Antler, La Madelaine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_117">344</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">118 Horses engraved on Antler, La Madelaine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_118">344</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">119 Group of Reindeer, Dordogne</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_119">345</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">120 Mammoth engraved on Ivory, La Madelaine</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_120">346</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">121 Carved Implement of Reindeer Antler, Goyet</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_121">348</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">122 Eskimos Spear-head, bone</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_122">353</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">123 Eskimos Arrow-straightener of Walrus-tooth</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_123">354</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">124 Eskimos Plane, or Scraper</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_124">355</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">125 Eskimos Hunting Scene</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_125">357</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">126 Map of the Physiography of Great Britain in Late Pleistocene Age</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_126">363</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">127 Molar of <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus Pentlandi</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_127">377</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">128 Molar of <i class="taxonomy">Elephas Melitensis</i></td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_128">378</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl" colspan="2">129 Map of the Physiography of the Mediterranean in the Pleistocene Age</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#Fig_129">381</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xxi">xxi</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="LISTS_OF_SPECIES_AND_TABLES_OF_MEASUREMENTS"></a>LISTS OF SPECIES AND TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. </h2> -</div> - -<table id="lists" summary="toc of lists and tables"> - <tr class="small"> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdr">PAGE</td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">List of Animals extinct during the Historic Age</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_78">78</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Animals introduced during the Historic Age</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_79">79</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Coins found in the Victoria Cave</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_93">93</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Principal Animals and Objects found in Brit-Welsh Strata in Caves</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_131">131</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Animals found in the Refuse-heap, Perthi-Chwareu</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_150">150</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Contents in Neolithic Caves and Cairn, North Wales</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_166">166</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Dimensions of Perthi-Chwareu Skulls</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_171">171</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Dimensions of Perthi Chwareu Tibiæ</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_173">173</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Proportions of ordinary Tibiæ</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_174">174</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Comparative Measurements of Skulls</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_179">179</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Table of Long Skulls from Britain and Ireland</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_197">197</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl toc7hang"><span class="toc7pad2">” </span> Measurements of British Brachy-cephali, and Gaulish and Belgic Brachy-cephali and Dolicho-cephali</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_199">199</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Measurements of various Skulls</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_213">213</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Measurements of Skulls of doubtful antiquity</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_236">236</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">List of Late Pleistocene Animals unknown in Britain in the Prehistoric Age</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_266">266</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Remains found in Wookey Hyæna Den</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_310">310</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Late Pleistocene Fauna north of Alps and Pyrenees</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_360">360, 361</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">List of Animals from the Caves of Gibraltar</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_372">372</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Fauna from the Caves of Mentone</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_373">373</a></td> - <td> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad3">” </span> Bone-caves of Sicily</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_376">376</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">List of Animals from the Middle Pleistocene</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_415">415</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span><span class="toc7pad4">” </span> <span class="toc7pad4">” </span>Early Pleistocene</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_418">418</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Pleistocene Mammalia</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_420">420, 422</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> Characteristic Animals of the Pleistocene Period</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_423">423</a></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc7pad1">” </span> <span class="toc7pad5">” </span> <span class="toc7pad5">” </span> <span class="toc7pad5">” </span> Pleiocene Period</td> - <td class="tdr"><a href="#list_424">424</a></td></tr> -</table> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a class="hidev" id="Page_xxii">xxii</a><a id="Page_xxiii">xxiii</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="ADDITIONS_AND_CORRECTIONS"></a>ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.</h2> -</div> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, line 7, <em>for</em> “Cythæron” <em>read</em> “Cithæron.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, line 4, <em>for</em> “that” <em>read</em> “who.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, line 5, <em>for</em> “Seine” <em>read</em> “Somme.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, lines 29, 30, <em>for</em> “non-ossiferous” <em>read</em> “no ossiferous.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Fig_19">fig. 19</a>, <cite>for</cite> “<span class="smcap smaller">A</span>, <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, Albert, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>, Victoria” <em>read</em> “<span class="smcap smaller">A</span>, <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, Victoria, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>, -Albert.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Fig_25">fig. 25</a>.—This design is to be seen in the chalice discovered in 1868, -in a rath at Ardagh, Limerick, and described by the Earl of Dunraven (Trans. -Royal Irish Acad. xxiv. Antiquities). The chalice is made of gold, silver, bronze, -brass, copper, and lead, and from the identity of its inscription and ornament -with those of Irish MSS. of ascertained age, may be referred to a date ranging -from the 5th to the 9th centuries. It is also adorned with squares of blue and -red enamel of the same kind as that of the brooches from the Victoria Cave, -figured in the coloured plate. The same design is also presented by the “bronze -head-ring” found in 1747 at Stitchel, in Roxburgh, (Wilson “Prehistoric Annals -of Scotland,” ii. 146) as well as by one of the silver articles known as “The -Norrie Law Relics,” found in a tumulus on the shore of the Bay of Largo, -Firth of Forth. Of the coins found at the same place, the latest, belonging to -Tiberius Constantine (d. 682), fixes the date as not earlier than the 7th century. -Some of the sculptured stones of Scotland, such as the Dunnichen stone, are -ornamented also in the same style, and, according to Professor Wilson, belong -to “the transition period from the 4th to the 8th centuries, when pagan and -Christian rites were obscurely mingled,” (ii. 259). In Scotland, therefore, as well -as Ireland, this style of ornamentation is of the same age, corresponding in the -main with that of Brit-Welsh articles in the Victoria Cave, proved by the associated -coins to be later than the 4th century.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, line 4.—These teeth are considered by Dr. Leith Adams to belong to -<i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i>, which has been discovered in other places in Yorkshire. They -may possibly belong to that animal; but they may, with equal justice, be identified -with the wide-plated variety of the teeth of the Mammoth. The great -variation in the width of the component plates of the fossil teeth of Mammoth -observable in the large series from Crayford and the caves of the Mendip Hills, -and in those in the magnificent Museum of Lyons, causes me to hesitate in -considering them to belong to the rarer species.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_xxiv">xxiv</a></span> -Page <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, line 2.—This has been verified while these sheets were passing -through the press by the discovery of Brit-Welsh articles in a cave in Kirkcudbrightshire -by Messrs. A. R. Hunt and A. J. Corrie, among which are bone -fasteners similar in outline to that from the Victoria Cave (<a href="#Fig_23">Fig. 23</a>).</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.—In using this classification of crania, I have purposely attached -higher value to the two extremes of skull form, or the long and the broad, than -to the intermediate oval forms, which cannot be viewed as distinctive of race, -because they may be the results either of the intermarriage of a long-headed -with a short-headed people, or of variation from the type of one or other of them.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, heading, <em>for</em> “Dolicho-cepha” <em>read</em> “Dolicho-cephali.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, heading, <em>dele</em> “A”.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, note 2.—The “tête annulaire,” or annular depression, is also visible -on some of the broad as well as the long skulls from a “Merovingian” cemetery -at Chelles in the same collection. The association in this cemetery of the two -skull-forms is probably due to the Merovingians being the masters, and the Celts -the servants, and the conquerors and the vanquished being buried in the same -spot.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, line 24, <em>for</em> “Volscæ” <em>read</em> “Volcæ.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, line 25, <em>for</em> “east” <em>read</em> “west.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, line 3, <em>dele</em> “that.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, line 3, <em>for</em> “set foot” <em>read</em> “settled.” The statement in the text is -too strong. The conquest of Gaul by the Huns under Attila was averted by his -defeat in the famous battle of Chalons.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, line 21, <em>for</em> “are” <em>read</em> “is.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.—Since this was written a new ossiferous deposit has been found in a -fissure at Lothorsdale, near Skipton, from which the remains of the <i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i> -and <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus amphibius</i> have been obtained.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.—The ossiferous fissure at Windy Knoll, near Castleton, recently -explored by Messrs. Tym, Pennington, Plant, Walker and others, has added -several animals to the pleistocene fauna of that district—the bison, roe, reindeer, -bear, wolf, fox, and hyæna, the first of these species being remarkably abundant, -and of all ages. The remains were probably introduced by a stream from a higher -level.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, note 2, line 2, <em>for</em> “the Revue” and “les Matériaux” <em>read</em> “in the -Revue” and “in the Matériaux.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, note 5, <em>for</em> “Aquitainicæ” <em>read</em> “Aquitanicæ.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, line 6, <em>for</em> “mind” <em>read</em> “minds.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, line 15, <em>for</em> “Port” <em>read</em> “Fort.”</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.—Mr. Ayshford Sanford adds the <i class="taxonomy">Felis Caffer</i> to the list from Bleadon, -and the <i class="taxonomy">Gulo borealis</i> to that of the animals from Kent’s Hole.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, line 10, <em>dele</em> inverted commas.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_386">386</a>, line 17, <em>for</em> “or from 1,000 to 2,000 feet lower than the glacial -covering” <em>read</em> “thus differing by a line of from 1,000 to 2,000 feet from the -glacial covering” (Palgrave).</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1">1</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CAVE-HUNTING"></a><span class="larger">CAVE-HUNTING.</span></h2> -</div> - -<hr /> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">INTRODUCTION.</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote class="inhead"> - -<p>Legends and Superstitions connected with Caves.—The Physical -Division of the Subject.—The Biological.—The Inhabitants of -Caves.—Men and Animals.—Ethnological, Archæological, and -Geographical Bearings.—The three Classes of Bone-Caves: Historic, -Prehistoric, Pleistocene.—History of Cave Exploration in Europe: -Germany, Great Britain, France, Belgium, Southern Europe.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="in0" id="hdr_1">Caves have excited the awe and wonder of mankind in -all ages, and have figured largely in many legends and -superstitions. In the Roman Mythology, they were the -abode of the Sibyls, and of the nymphs, and in Greece -they were the places where Pan, Bacchus, Pluto, and -the Moon were worshipped, and where the oracles were -delivered, as at Delphi, Corinth, and Mount Cithæron; -in Persia they were connected with the obscure worship -of Mithras. Their names, in many cases, are survivals -of the superstitious ideas of antiquity. In France and -Germany they are frequently termed “Fairy, Dragons’, -or Devils’ Caves,” and, according to M. Desnoyers, they -are mentioned in the invocation of certain canonized<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2">2</a></span> -anchorites, who dwelt in them after having dispossessed -and destroyed the dragons and serpents, the pagan superstition -appearing in a Christian dress.</p> - -<p>In the Middle Ages they were looked upon as the -dwellings of evil spirits, into the unfathomable abysses -of which the intruder was lured to his own destruction. -Long after the fairies and little men had forsaken the -forests and glens of Northern Germany, they dwelt in -their palaces deep in the hearts of the mountains,—in -“the dwarf holes,” as they were called—whence -they came, from time to time, into the upper air. -Near Elbingrode, for example, in the Hartz, the legend -was current in the middle of the last century, that -when a wedding-dinner was being prepared the near -relations of the bride and bridegroom went to the -caves, and asked the dwarfs for copper and brass kettles, -pewter dishes and plates, and other kitchen utensils.<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> -“Then they retired a little, and when they came back, -found everything they desired set ready for them at the -mouth of the cave. When the wedding was over they -returned what they had borrowed, and in token -of gratitude, offered some meat to their benefactors.” -Allusions, such as this, to dwarfs, according to Professor -Nilsson, point back to the remote time when a small -primeval race, inhabiting Northern Germany, was driven -by invaders to take refuge in caverns,—a view that -derives support from the fact that in Scandinavia the -tall Northmen were accustomed to consider the smaller -Lapps and Finns as dwarfs, and to invest them with -magic power, just as in Palestine the smaller invading<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3">3</a></span> -peoples considered their tall enemies giants. The cave -of Bauman’s hole, also in the Hartz district, was said, in -the middle of the last century, to have been haunted -by divers apparitions, and to contain a treasure guarded -by black mastiffs; and in Burrington Combe, in Somersetshire, -some twenty years ago, a cave was dug out by -a working man, under the impression that it contained -gold. The hills of Granada are still believed, by the -Moorish children, to contain the great Boabdil and his -sleeping host, who will awake when an adventurous -mortal invades their repose, and will issue forth to -restore the glory of the Moorish kings.</p> - -<p>It is, indeed, no wonder that legends and poetical -fancies such as these should cluster round caves, for -the gloom of their recesses, and the shrill drip of the -water from the roof, or the roar of the subterranean -water-falls echoing through the passages, and the white -bosses of stalagmite looming like statues through the -darkness, offer ample materials for the use of a vivid imagination. -The fact that often their length was unknown, -naturally led to the inference that they were passages -into another world. And this is equally true of the -story of Boabdil, of that of the Purgatory of St. Patrick, -in the north of Ireland, and of the course of the river -Styx, which sinks into the rocks and flows through a -series of caverns that are the dark entrance-halls of -Hades. The same idea is evident in the remarkable -story, related by Ælian (Lib. xvi. 16). “Among the -Indians of Areia there is an abyss sacred to Pluto, and -beneath it vast galleries, and hidden passages and -depths, that have never been fathomed. How these -are formed the Indians tell not, nor shall I attempt to -relate. The Indians drive thither (every year) more<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4">4</a></span> -than 3,000 different animals—sheep, goats, oxen, and -horses—and each acting either from dread of the dreadful -abyss, or to avert an evil omen in proportion to his -means, seeks his own and his family’s safety by causing -the animals to tumble in; and these, neither bound with -chains nor driven, of their own accord finish their -journey as if led on by some charm; and after they -have come to the mouth of the abyss they willingly -leap down, and are never more seen by mortal eyes. -The lowing, however, of the cattle, the bleating of the -sheep and of the goats, and the whinnying of the horses -are heard above ground, and if anyone listen at the -mouth, he will hear sounds of this kind lasting for a -long time. Nor do they ever cease, because beasts are -driven thither every day. But whether the sound is -made by those recently driven in, or by some of those -driven in some time before, I do not express an opinion.” -The Roman Catholic Church took advantage of this -feeling of superstitious awe, as late as the Middle Ages. -At the time of the Reformation it was believed that a cave -at Bishofferode would prove the death of some person in -the course of the year, unless a public yearly atonement -were made. Accordingly a priest came, on a certain -day, to the chapel on the hill opposite, whence he passed -in solemn procession to the cave, “and let down into it -a crucifix, which he pulled up again, and took this -occasion to remind them of hell, and to avoid the -punishment due to their sins.”</p> - -<p>The beauty of the interiors of some of the caves -could not fail to give rise to more graceful fancies -than these. The fantastic shapes of the dripstone, -with which they are adorned, now resembling Gothic -pillars supporting a crystalline arcade, or jutting out<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5">5</a></span> -in little spires and minarets, and very generally covering -the floor with a marble-like pavement, and in some -cases lining the pools of water with a fretwork of -crystals that shine like the facets of a diamond, were -fitting ornaments for the houses of unearthly beings, -such as fairies.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_2"><i>The Physical Division of the Subject.</i></h3> - -<p>It is by no means my intention in this work to give a -history of legends such as these, but to take my readers -with me into some of the more important and more -beautiful caves in this country. The exploration of the -chambers and passages of which they are composed, -the fording of the subterranean streams by which they -are frequently traversed, or the descent into deep chasms -which open in their floors, have the peculiar charm -of mountaineering, not without a certain pleasurable -amount of risk. But to physicist and geologist they -offer far more than this. They give an insight into -the wonderful chemistry by which changes are being -wrought, at the present time, in the solid rock. Nor -are the conclusions to which we are led by the investigation -of these chemical changes merely confined to -the interior of caves. They enable us to understand -how some of the most beautiful scenery in Europe has -been formed, and to realize the mode by which all -precipices and gorges have been carved out of the -calcareous rock. In the next chapter we shall see why -it is that the combination of hill and valley, ravine -and precipice, present the same general features in all -limestone districts—why, for instance, the ravines of -Palestine are the same as those of Greece, and both are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6">6</a></span> -identical with those in Yorkshire. The origin and the -history of caves will be examined, as well as their relation -to the general physical geography of the calcareous -strata. All these subjects are comprehended in the first -or the physical division of cave-hunting.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_3"><i>The Biological Division.</i></h3> - -<p>We must now proceed to the definition of the scope -and object of the second, or Biological, division of the -subject.</p> - -<p id="hdr_4">Caves have been used by man, and the domestic -animals living under his protection, from the earliest -times recorded by history down to the present day. -Those penetrating the rugged precipices of Palestine, we -read in the Old Testament, served both for habitation -and for burial, and, from the notices which are scattered -through the early Greek writers, we may conclude that -those of Greece were used for dwelling-places. The -story of the Cyclops proves that they were also used as -folds for goats. The name of Troglodytes, given to many -peoples of the most remote antiquity, implies that there -was a time in the history of mankind when Pliny’s -statement “specus erat pro domibus” was strictly -true (“Hist. Nat.” I. v. c. 56). The caves of Africa -have been places of retreat from the remotest antiquity -down to the French conquest of Algeria, and in 1845 -several hundred Arabs were suffocated in those of -Dahra by the smoke of a fire kindled at the entrance -by Marshal (then Colonel) Pelissier. Dr. Livingstone -alludes in his recent letters to the vast caves of Central -Africa, which offer refuge to whole tribes with their -cattle and household stuff. In France, according to M.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7">7</a></span> -Desnoyers, there are at the present time whole villages, -including the church, to be found in the rock, which -are merely caves modified, extended, and altered by -the hand of man. The caves of the Dordogne were -inhabited in the middle ages. Floras writes that -the Aquitani, “callidum genus in speluncas se recipiebant, -Cæsar jussit includi,”<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> and the same caves afforded -shelter to the inhabitants of the same region in the wars -of King Pepin against the last Duke of Aquitaine. In -this country a small cave in Cheddar Pass was occupied -till within the last few years. The caves in the northern -counties are stated by Gildas to have offered a refuge to -the Brit-Welsh inhabitants of Britain during the raids -of the Picts and Scots; and in the year 1745 those of -Yorkshire were turned to the same purpose during the -invasion of the Pretender. We might reasonably expect -to find in caves turned to these uses objects left behind, -which would tell us something of the manners and -customs of their possessors, and light up the catalogue -of battles and intrigues of which history generally consists. -The results obtained from the Brit-Welsh group -of caves, treated in the <a href="#CHAPTER_III">third</a> chapter, show that this -hitherto neglected branch of the inquiry is not without -value to the historian.</p> - -<p id="hdr_5">Caves containing remains of this kind may be conveniently -termed historic, because they may be brought -into relation with history. It must, however, be carefully -remarked that the term does not relate to history -<em>in general</em>, but to that <em>in particular</em> of each country -which happens to be under investigation. The misapprehension -of this has caused great confusion, and many -mistakes in archæological classification and reasoning.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8">8</a></span> -Again, our experience of the habits of rude and uncivilized -peoples would naturally lead us to look to caves, -as the places in which we should be likely to meet with -the remains of the men who lived in Europe before the -dawn of history. Such remains we do find that, placed -side by side with others from the tombs and dwellings, -enable us to discover some, at least, of the races who -lived in Europe in long-forgotten times, and to ascertain -roughly the sequence of events in the remote past, far -away from the historical border. It may, indeed, seem -a hopeless quest to recover what has been buried in -oblivion so long, and it is successful merely through the -careful comparison of the human skeletons in the caves -and tombs of Britain, France, and Spain, with those of -existing races, and of the implements and weapons with -those which are now used among savage tribes. By this -means we shall see that there are good grounds for extending -the range of the Iberian people over a considerable -area in Europe, and for the belief that the Eskimos -once lived as far south as Auvergne. In discussing both -these problems it will be impossible to shut our eyes to -the continuity that exists between geology, archæology, -biology, and history—sciences which at first sight appear -isolated from each other.</p> - -<p>The bones of the domestic animals in the caves will -necessarily lead to the further examination of the appearance -and disappearance of breeds under the care of man. -And this complicated question has an important bearing -not merely on the ethnology, but also on the history, of -some of the European peoples. It must be admitted, -however, that this branch of the subject is, as yet, known -merely in outline, and we can only hope to ascertain a -few facts which may form a basis for future investigation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9">9</a></span> -From another point of view the contents of caves are -peculiarly valuable. They have been used as places of -shelter, not merely by man, but by wild animals, from -the time they first became accessible to the present -day. In the same way, therefore, as now they contain, -in their superficial layers, the bones of sheep, oxen, -and horses, foxes, rabbits, and badgers, so in their deeper -strata lie buried the remains of the animals which were -living in Europe long before the historic times. In -other words, they enable us to make out the groups -of animals inhabiting the neighbouring districts, and -which in many cases have either forsaken their original -abodes or have become extinct. And since those -which are extinct, or which have migrated, could not -have lived where their remains are found under the present -conditions of life, an inquiry into their history leads -us into the general question of the ancient European -climate and geography. It is obvious, for example, that -the spotted hyæna, which formerly inhabited the caves -of Sicily, could not have crossed over to that island after -it was separated from Africa and Italy; and it would be -impossible for the musk-sheep, the most arctic of the -herbivora, to live as far south as Auvergne under the -present climatal conditions. The presence, therefore, of -these animals in these districts is proof in the one case -of a geographical, and in the other of a climatal, change.</p> - -<p>The discussion of all these questions is comprehended -under the second, or biological, division of cave-hunting, -which may be defined as an inquiry into the remains of -man and animals found in the caves, and into the conditions -under which they lived in Europe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10">10</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_6"><i>The three Classes of Bone-caves.</i></h3> - -<p>In the biological branch of the subject the caves -will be treated first which are comprehended within -the limits of history; then we shall pass on to the -investigation of Prehistoric caves, or those which have -been inhabited in the interval that separates history -from the remote geological era, which is characterized -by the existence of the extinct mammalia in Europe. -And, lastly, those will be examined which have furnished -the remains of the extinct animals, and which -are termed by the geologists Pleistocene, from the -fact that a larger percentage of existing species were -then living than in the preceding Pleio-, Meio-, and -Eocene periods. The equivalent terms “Quaternary,” -used by many French geologists, and the “Post-pleiocene -division of the Post-tertiary Formation,” used by -Sir Charles Lyell, are not adopted in this work, because -they imply a break in the continuity of life, which does -not exist. “Pleistocene” was invented and subsequently -discarded by Sir C. Lyell,<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> and is at present -used by many eminent writers, such as Forbes, Phillips, -Gervais, and others. The ossiferous caves will therefore -be divided into the Historic, Prehistoric, and Pleistocene -groups. And it will be more convenient to work backwards -in time from the basis offered by history, than to -begin with the Pleistocene, or oldest division, and bring -the narrative down to the present day.</p> - -<p>This classification, founded in part on the principle<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11">11</a></span> -of change in the animal world, and partly on the basis -offered by history, coincides, only in part, with that -of the archæologists based on the remains of man’s -handiwork. The Pleistocene age is the equivalent of -the Palæolithic, or that of rude unpolished stone; the -Prehistoric represents the ages of polished stone, bronze, -and iron in part, or those stages in human progress when -the use of these materials became general for the purposes -of every-day life; while the Historic covers merely -the later portion of that of iron.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_7"><i>History of Cave-Exploration in Europe.</i></h3> - -<p id="hdr_8"><i>Germany.</i>—The rest of this chapter must be devoted to -an outline of the history of cave-exploration during the last -two centuries. The dread of the supernatural, which preserved -the European caves from disturbance, was destroyed -in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by the search -after “ebur fossile,” or unicorn’s horn, which ranked high -in the materia medica of those days as a specific for -many diseases, and which was obtained, in great abundance, -in the caverns of the Hartz, and in those of -Hungary and Franconia. As the true nature of the drug -gradually revealed itself, the German caves became -famous for the remains of the lions, hyænas, fossil -elephants, and other strange animals, which had been -used for medicine. We owe the first philosophical discussion -on the point to Dr. Gesner,<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> who, although he -maintained that the fossil unicorn consisted, in some -cases, of elephant’s teeth and tusks, and in others of -its fossil bones, did not altogether give up the idea of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12">12</a></span> -its medicinal value. It is a singular fact, that fossil -remains of a similar kind are, at the present time, used -by the Chinese for the same purpose, and sold in their -druggists’ shops.<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> The cave which was most famous at -the end of the seventeenth century was that of Bauman’s -Hole, in the Hartz, in the district of Blankenbourg. It -is noticed in the Philosophical Transactions for the year -1662, and was subsequently described by Dr. Behrens,<a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> -Leibnitz, De Luc, and Cuvier, along with others in the -neighbourhood. Those of Hungary come next in point -of discovery, the first notice of them being due to Patterson -Hayne in 1672. They penetrate the southern -slopes of the Carpathian ranges, and are known by the -name of dragons’ caves, because the bones which they -contain had been considered from time immemorial to -belong to those animals by the country people. These -remains were identified by Baron Cuvier as belonging to -the cave-bear.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a></p> - -<p>It was not, however, until the close of the eighteenth -century that the exploring of caves was carried on systematically, -or their contents examined with any scientific -precision. The caves of Franconia, in the neighbourhood -of Muggendorf, were described by Esper in 1774, by -Rosenmuller in 1804, and six years later by Dr. Goldfuss. -The most important was that of Gailenreuth, both from -the vast quantity of remains which it was proved to -contain, and the investigations to which it led. The -bones of the hyæna, lion, wolf, fox, glutton, and red<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13">13</a></span> -deer were identified by Baron Cuvier; while some of the -skulls which Dr. Goldfuss obtained have been recently -proved, by Professor Busk, to belong to the grizzly bear. -They were associated with the bones of the reindeer, -horse and bison. Rosenmuller was of opinion that the -cave had been inhabited by bears for a long series of -generations; and he thus realized that these remains -proved that the animals found in the cave had once -lived in that district, and had not been swept from -the tropics by the deluge. The interest in these discoveries -was at its height in the year 1816, when Dr. -Buckland visited the cave, and acquired that knowledge -of cave-exploring which he was subsequently to use -with such good effect in this country.<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> From this -time down to the present day, no new fact of importance -has been added to our knowledge of caves -by explorations in Germany.</p> - -<p id="hdr_9"><i>Great Britain.</i>—The first bone-cave systematically -explored in this country was that discovered by Mr. -Whidbey,<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> in the Devonian limestone at Oreston, near -Plymouth, in 1816; and the remains obtained from it -were identified by Sir Everard Home as implying the -existence of the rhinoceros in that region. This discovery -followed close upon the researches in Gailenreuth, -and was due in some degree to the request which Sir -Joseph Banks made, that Mr. Whidbey, in quarrying the -stone for the Plymouth breakwater, should examine the -contents of any caverns that he might happen to meet -with. It preceded Dr. Buckland’s exploration of Kirkdale -by about four years.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14">14</a></span> -In the summer of 1821 a cave was discovered, in a -limestone quarry at Kirkdale, in Yorkshire, which was -found to contain bones and teeth of animals. On hearing -of the discovery, Dr. Buckland posted at once from South -Wales to the spot, and published the result of the explorations -in the Philosophical Transactions for the next -year. He brought forward evidence that the cave had -been inhabited by hyænas, and that the broken and -gnawed bones of the rhinoceros, mammoth, stag, bison, -and horse belonged to animals which had been dragged -in for food. He also established the fact that all these -animals had lived in Yorkshire in ancient times, and that -it was impossible for the carcases of the hyæna, rhinoceros, -and mammoth to have been floated from those -regions where they are now living into the position where -he found their bones. He subsequently followed up the -subject by investigating bone-caves in Derbyshire, South -Wales, and Somerset, as well as in Germany, and published -his great work, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” in 1822, -which laid the foundations of the new science of cave-hunting -in this country. The exploration of Kirkdale -followed closely upon that of Gailenreuth, and was merely -the application of those principles of research which had -been discovered in Germany to caves in a new district.</p> - -<p>From this time forward bone-caves were discovered in -Great Britain in increasing numbers, and explored by -many independent observers. The famous cavern of Kent’s -Hole, near Torquay, furnished the Rev. J. McEnery, -between 1825 and the year 1841, in which he died, -with the first flint implements ever discovered in a -cave along with the bones of extinct animals. He recognized -the fact that they may be proof of the existence -of man during the time that those animals were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15">15</a></span> -alive; but the scientific world was not then sufficiently -educated to accept the antiquity of the human race on -the evidence brought forward, and Dr. Buckland himself -was so influenced by the opinions of his times, that he -refused even to entertain the idea. Although the -discovery was verified by the independent researches of -Mr. Godwin Austin in 1840, and by the Torquay -Natural History Society in 1846, the force of prejudice -was so strong, that the matter was not thought even -worthy of investigation. Mr. McEnery’s manuscripts -were lost until the year 1859, when an abstract of them -was published by Mr. Vivian, and subsequently they -were printed in full by Mr. Pengelly, the able superintendent -of the exploration which has been carried on -by a committee of the British Association since 1865, by -whom several thousand flint implements have been obtained, -under the conditions pointed out by the Rev. J. -McEnery and Mr. Godwin Austen.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a></p> - -<p>While the important question of the antiquity of man -was being passed by as of no account, other caves were -being examined in this country. Those of Banwell, -Burrington, Sandford Hill, Bleadon, and Hutton, in the -mountain limestone of the Mendip hills, were being -worked by the Rev. J. Williams and Mr. Beard, and -furnished the magnificent collection of mammalian bones -now in the museum at Taunton. In North Wales, also, Mr. -Lloyd discovered a similar suite of bones in the limestone -caves in the neighbourhood of St. Asaph at Cefn, -and in South Wales numerous remains were obtained by -many explorers in those of Pembrokeshire and Gower.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16">16</a></span> -The result of these discoveries was the proof that -certain extinct animals, such as the woolly rhinoceros -and the mammoth, had lived in this country in ancient -times, along with two other groups of species which are -at present known only to live in hot and cold climates—the -spotted hyæna and hippopotamus of Africa, with the -reindeer and the marmot of the colder regions of the -earth.</p> - -<p>The discovery in 1858, and the exploration, of the now -famous cave of Brixham, by the Royal and Geological -Societies, marked the dawn of a new era in cave-hunting. -Under the careful supervision of Mr. Pengelly, flint -implements were discovered underneath stalagmite, -and in association with the remains of the hyæna and -woolly rhinoceros and mammoth, in undisturbed red -loam, under conditions that prove man to have been -living in Devonshire at the same time as those animals. -This singularly opportune discovery destroyed for ever -the doubts that had overhung the question of the -antiquity of man, and of his co-existence in Europe -in company with the animals whose remains occur both -in the caverns and river-deposits.</p> - -<p>In 1847 M. Boucher de Perthes described certain -rude flint implements that he obtained from the fluviatile -gravels of Abbeville (“Antiquités Celtiques,” -vol. i.), along with the bones of extinct animals; and his -discovery was treated with the same scepticism in France -as that of the Rev. J. McEnery in England, although it -was verified by flint implements being discovered, under -exactly the same conditions, in the gravels of Amiens, -some forty miles away, by Dr. Rigollot.<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> In the autumn -of 1858, Dr. Falconer, who had been superintending the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17">17</a></span> -work in the Brixham cave, visited the collection made by -M. de Perthes, while on his way to examine the caves of -Sicily, and recognizing man’s handiwork in the implements, -he asked his friend Mr. Prestwich to explore the -Valley of the Somme. This he accordingly did, and in -company with Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., dug out with his -own hands an implement from the undisturbed strata,<a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> -and thus finally settled the disputed question. It is -undoubtedly true, that scientific opinion was tending -towards the acceptance of the evidence in favour of man -having lived in Europe in the Pleistocene age; but the -researches in Brixham cave established the fact on the -highest possible authority, and confirmed the long-neglected -discoveries in the valley of the Somme. By -the end of 1859 it was fully accepted by the scientific -world, and caused the exploration of caves to be carried -on with increased vigour.</p> - -<p>In December 1859,<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> I began the exploration of the -hyæna-den of Wookey Hole, near Wells, Somerset, in -company with the Rev. J. Williamson, and obtained -flint instruments along with the remains of the mammoth, -hyæna, woolly rhinoceros, and other animals, under -conditions that proved the contemporaneity of man with -the extinct mammalia. And from that time down to -the present date I have carried on researches in caves -in various parts of Great Britain. In the district of -Gower also, many ossiferous caverns were investigated, -in 1858–9–60–1 by Colonel Wood and Dr. Falconer, and -in one of them flint implements were obtained along with -the bones of the extinct mammalia.<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> Kent’s Hole, begun<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18">18</a></span> -in 1865 by the British Association, and still being worked, -furnishes annually a vast number of bones and teeth of -hyænas, rhinoceroses, cave-bears, and horses, and other -animals, along with flint and bone implements.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a></p> - -<p>In 1869 I had the good fortune to discover, and -subsequently to explore, a group of sepulchral caves in -Denbighshire, which had been used by an Iberian or -Basque race in the Neolithic age (Chapter V.); and -in the following year the Settle Cave Committee began -their work in Yorkshire under my advice. And this -has led to the important conclusion, that a group of -caves, extending over a wide area in the centre and -north of England, was occupied by the Brit-Welsh in the -obscure interval which elapsed between the departure of -the Roman legions and the English conquest.</p> - -<p id="hdr_10"><i>France.</i>—The researches of Buckland into the caves -of Great Britain, and of Goldfuss and others into those -of Germany, and more especially the publication of -the “Ossemens Fossiles,” by Cuvier, gave an impetus -to cave-exploration in France which yielded the same -results as in our own country. The mammalia obtained -from the cave of Fouvent (Haut Saone) in 1800 were -described in the “Ossemens,” as well as those from -Gondenans. In the Gironde, the Cave of Avison was -explored by M. Billaudel in 1826–27. In the south, -Marcel de Serres, aided by MM. Dubrueil and Jeanjean, -examined the important Cave of Lunel-viel in 1824, -and published their results in a work that holds the -same position in France as the “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ” -in England. The caverns of Pondres, Souvignargues, and -of Bize were explored, the two first by M. Christol -in 1829, the last by M. Tournal in 1833, and those of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19">19</a></span> -Villefranche (Pyrénées-orient), Mialet (Gard), and -Nabrigas (Lozère) were described by De Serres in -1839, who subsequently added those of Carcas-sonne -to the list in 1842. In this year MM. Prevost and -J. Desnoyers explored the caves of Montmorency in -the neighbourhood of Paris, and described the remains -discovered in those of Bicêtre. The Cave of Pontil -(Hérault) described by M. de Serres in 1847, was -proved in 1864, by Professor Gervais, to contain -two distinct strata, the neolithic lying over the palæolithic, -as in Kent’s Hole.<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a></p> - -<p>In 1860,<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> the famous Cave of Aurignac was proved, by -the investigations of Professor Lartet, to have been inhabited -by man in the life-time of the extinct mammalia. -Three years later the caves of Périgord were explored -by that gentleman, along with Mr. Christy, and yielded -results which mark a new era in the history of man in -the remote past. From the remarkable collection of implements -and weapons, the habits and mode of life of the -occupants can be ascertained with tolerable certainty, -and from their comparison with the like articles now in -use among savage tribes, it may be reasonably inferred -that they were closely related in blood to the Eskimos. -This most important question will be investigated in its -proper place, in the chapter relating to the palæolithic -caves of France. Professor Lartet, M. Louis Lartet, Sir -Charles Lyell, and other eminent observers believe further, -that the interments that have been discovered in Aurignac<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20">20</a></span> -and in Cro Magnon,<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> in Périgord, are to be assigned -to the same relative age as the occupation of the caves -by man. From the fact, however, that the skeletons -in both these cases were <em>above</em> the strata accumulated by -the palæolithic cave-dwellers, it may be concluded that -they were deposited after those strata were formed, in -other words, that they are of a later age.</p> - -<p>From 1863 down to the present time very many caves -have been explored in France without any further addition -to our knowledge, excepting the verification of the -facts, afforded by the caves of Brixham and of Périgord, -as to the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia, -and his probable identity in race with the Eskimos.</p> - -<p id="hdr_11"><i>Belgium.</i>—The caves of Belgium<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> have afforded evidence -of precisely the same nature as those of England -and France. Dr. Schmerling, of Liège, published the -results of his researches, begun in 1829, into the bone-caves -on the banks of the Meuse and its tributaries, in -1833–4, and proved that the mammoth, rhinoceros, cave-bear, -and hyæna formerly lived in that district. He also -arrived at the conclusion that man was living at that -remote time, from the discovery of flint-flakes and human -bones along with the remains of those animals in the -caves of Engis and Engihoul. In 1853,<a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> Professor Spring -discovered a quantity of burned, broken, and cut bones -belonging to women and children, in the Cave of -Chauvaux, which he considered to imply that it had been -inhabited by a family of cannibals. Axes of polished<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21">21</a></span> -stone were also met with, that indicated the relative age -to be neolithic.</p> - -<p>To pass over the human skeleton found in the Neanderthal -Cave in 1857 by Dr. Fuhlroth, which is of -doubtful antiquity, the next discoveries of importance -are those made by M. Dupont in the years 1864–70, in -the province of Namur, that established the fact that the -same race of men who inhabited Auvergne in the palæolithic -age had also lived in Belgium. M. Dupont considers -that the interments in the Trou de Frontal<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> belong -also to the palæolithic age, and that therefore man at -that remote time was possessed of religious ideas. Before, -however, this view can be accepted, it will be necessary -to show the exact relation of the bones of the reindeer, -chamois, mammoth, and other animals found outside the -slab of stone, at the mouth of the sepulchral chamber, to -the human remains within. In this case, as in Aurignac -and Cro Magnon, the evidence seems to me insufficient -to establish so important a conclusion.</p> - -<p id="hdr_12"><i>Southern Europe.</i>—In southern Europe the bone-caves -of Sicily, worked in 1829 for the sake of the animal -remains to be used in sugar refining, were scientifically -examined by Dr. Falconer in 1859; those of Malta by -Captain Spratt in the same year; and those of Gibraltar by -Captain Broome in the years 1862–8. They established -the existence of the serval and the African elephant, and -other characteristic African species, in Europe, and offer -as we shall see in this work, important testimony as to -the geography of the Mediterranean area in the Pleistocene -age.</p> - -<p>In this outline of the history of cave-exploration it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22">22</a></span> -will be seen, that the additions to our knowledge of the -past have been neither few nor insignificant, nor in one -line of inquiry. And if the attention which is now being -directed to the subject be due to the general development -of scientific thought, it is equally true, that the results -have reacted on scientific thought in general, and have -especially benefited the sciences of geology, archæology, -and history. A rich field of investigation lies before the -cave-hunter, in Greece, Palestine, Lycia, Persia, and the -limestone plateaux of central Asia; and since these -discoveries have been so valuable in central and north-western -Europe, what may we not recover from the -grasp of oblivion, of the infancy and early culture of -mankind in the very birth-place and “pathway of the -nations”?</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23">23</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">PHYSICAL HISTORY OF CAVES.</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote class="inhead"> - -<p>Caves formed by the Sea and by Volcanic Action.—Caves in Arenaceous -Rocks.—Caves in Calcareous Rocks of various ages.—Their -Relation to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines.—The -Water-cave of Wookey Hole.—The Goatchurch Cave.—The -Water-caves of Derbyshire.—Of Yorkshire.—The Ingleborough -Cave.—The Rate of Deposit of Stalagmite.—The Descent into -Helln Pot.—The Caves and Pots round Weathercote.—The Formation -of Caves, Pot-holes, and Ravines.—Caverns not generally -formed in line of Faults.—Of various Ages.—Their Filling-up.—The -Cave of Caldy.—The Blackrock Cave.—Great quantity of Carbonate -of Lime dissolved by Atmospheric Water.—The Circulation -of Carbonate of Lime.—The Temperature of Caves.—Conclusion.</p></blockquote> - -<h3 id="hdr_13"><i>Caves formed by the Sea and by Volcanic Action.</i></h3> - -<p class="in0">In this chapter we shall treat of the origin of caves and -of their place in physical geography. The most obvious -agent in hollowing out caves is the sea. The set of the -current, the tremendous force of the breakers, and the -grinding of the shingle, inevitably discover the weak -places in the cliff, and leave caves as the results of their -work, modified in each case by the local conditions of -the rock. Caves formed in this manner have certain -characters which are easily recognized. Their floors<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24">24</a></span> -are very rarely much out of the horizontal, their outlook -is over the sea, and they very seldom penetrate -far into the cliff. A general parallelism is also to be -observed in a group in the same district, and their -entrances are all in the same horizontal plane, or in -a succession of horizontal and parallel planes. In some -cases they are elevated above the present reach of -the waves, and mark the line at which the sea formerly -stood. From their generally inaccessible position sea-caves -have very rarely been occupied by man, and the -history of their formation is so obvious that it requires -no further notice. Among them the famous Fingal’s -Cave, off the north coast of Ireland, and that of Staffa, -on the opposite shore of Scotland, hollowed out of -columnar basalt, are perhaps the most remarkable in -Europe.</p> - -<p>In volcanic regions also there are caves formed by -the passage of lava to the surface of the ground, or by -the imprisoned steam and gases in the lava while it was -in a molten state: but these are of comparatively little -importance so far as relates to the general question of -caves, from the very small areas which are occupied by -active volcanoes in Europe. They have been observed in -Vesuvius, Etna, Iceland, and Teneriffe.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_14"><i>Caves in Arenaceous Rocks.</i></h3> - -<p>Caves also occur sometimes in sandstones, in which -case they are the result of the erosion of the lines of the -joints by the passage of subaërial water, and if the joints -happen to traverse a stratum less compacted than the -rest, the weak point is discovered, and a hollow is formed -extending laterally from the original fissure. The massive<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25">25</a></span> -millstone grit of Derbyshire and Yorkshire present many -examples of this, as for instance in Kinderscout in the -former county. The rocks at Tunbridge Wells also show -to what extent the joints in the Wealden sandstones may -become open fissures, more or less connected with caves, -on a small scale, by the mere mechanical action of water. -M. Desnoyers gives instances of the same kind in the -Tertiary sandstones of the Paris basin, which have furnished -remains of rhinoceros, reindeer, hyæna, and bear. -Caverns, however, in the sandstone are rarely of great -extent, and may be passed over as being of small importance -in comparison with those in the calcareous -rocks.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_15"><i>Caves in Calcareous Rocks of various ages.</i></h3> - -<p>It has long been known that wherever the calcareous -strata are sufficiently hard and compact to support a -roof, caves are to be found in greater or less abundance. -Those of Devonshire occur in the Devonian limestone; -those of Somerset, Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, -and Northumberland, as well as of Belgium and -Westphalia, in that of the carboniferous age. In France -also, those of Maine and Anjou, and most of those of the -Pyrenees and in the department of Aude, are hollowed -in carboniferous limestone, as well as the greater part of -those in North America, in Virginia, and Kentucky. -The cave of Kirkdale in Yorkshire, and most of those in -Franconia and in Bavaria penetrate Jurassic limestones, -which have received the name of Hohlenkalkstein from -the abundance of caverns which they contain. They are -developed on a large scale in the Swiss and French Jura, -and in some cases afford passage to powerful streams,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26">26</a></span> -and in others are more or less filled with ice, thus -constituting the singular “glacières” that have been so -ably explored by the Rev. G. F. Browne.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a></p> - -<p>The compact Neocomian and Cretaceous limestones -contain most of the caverns of Périgord, Quercy, and -Angoumois, and some of those in Provence and Languedoc, -those of Northern Italy, Sicily, Greece, Dalmatia, -Carniola, and Turkey in Europe, of Asia Minor and -Palestine.</p> - -<p>The tertiary limestones, writes M. Desnoyers,<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> offer -sometimes, but very rarely, caves that have become -celebrated for the bones which they contain, such as -those of Lunel-Viel, near Montpelier, those of Pondres -and Souvignargues, near Sommières (Gard), and of Saint -Macaire (Gironde). The same may also be said of the -calcaire grossier of the basin of Paris.</p> - -<p>Certain rocks composed of gypsum also contain caverns -of the same sort as those in the limestones. In Thuringia, -for example, near Eisleben, they occur in the saliferous -and gypseous strata of the zechstein, and are connected -with large gulfs and cirques on the surface, which are -sometimes filled with water. In the neighbourhood of -Paris, and especially at Montmorency, they contain -numerous bones of the extinct mammalia. M. Desnoyers -points out their identity, in all essentials, with those -in calcareous strata, and infers that they have been -produced in the same way. Some of them may -have been formed by the removal of the salt, which -is very frequently interbedded with the gypsum, by -the passage of water. In Cheshire the pumping of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27">27</a></span> -brine from the saliferous and gypseous strata produces -subterranean hollows, which sometimes fall in and -eventually cause depressions on the surface, such as -those which are now destroying the town of Northwich, -and causing the neighbouring tidal estuary to extend -over what was formerly meadow land. This explanation, -however, will not apply to those in the neighbourhood -of Paris, because there is no trace of their ever having -contained salt.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_16"><i>The Relation of Caves to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines.</i></h3> - -<p>The caverns hollowed in calcareous rocks present -features by which they are distinguished from any others. -They open, for the most part, on the abrupt sides of -valleys and ravines at various levels, being arranged -round the main axis of erosion just as branches are -arranged round the trunk of a tree—as, for example, in -Cheddar Pass. The transition in some cases from the valley -to the ravine, and from the ravine to the cave, is so -gradual, that it is impossible to deny that all three are -due to the same cause. The caves themselves ramify in -the same irregular fashion as the valleys, and are to be -viewed merely as the capillaries in the general valley -system, through which the rainfall passes to join the -main channels. Very frequently, however, the drainage -has found an outlet at a lower level, and its ancient -passage is left dry; but in all cases unmistakeable proof -of the erosive action of water is to be seen in the sand, -gravel, and clay which compose the floor, as well as in -the worn surfaces of the sides and the bottom.</p> - -<p>In all districts in which caves occur are funnel-shaped<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28">28</a></span> -cavities of various sizes, known as “pot-holes” or -“swallow-holes” in Britain, as “betoires,” “chaldrons du -diable,” “marmites de géants,” in France, and as “kata-vothra” -in Greece, in which the rainfall is collected before -it finally disappears in the subterranean passages. They -are to be seen in all stages; sometimes being mere shallow -funnels, that only contain water after excessive rain, and -at others as profound vertical shafts, into which the -water is continually falling, as in Helln Pot, in Yorkshire. -The cirques, also, described by M. Desnoyers, belong to -the same class of cavities, although all those which are -mentioned by the Rev. T. G. Bonney,<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> at the head of -valleys, and in some cases hollowed in shale and igneous -rocks, are most probably to be referred to the vertical, -chisel-like action of streams flowing under physical -conditions, that resemble those under which the cañons -of the Colorado, or of the Zambesi, are being excavated, -and in which frost, ice, and snow have played -a very subordinate part.</p> - -<p>The intimate relation between pot-holes, caves, ravines, -and valleys will be discussed in the rest of this chapter, -and illustrated by English examples; and then we shall -proceed to show that the chemical action of the carbonic -acid in the rain-water, and the mechanical friction of the -sand and gravel, set in motion by the water, by which -Professor Phillips explains the origin of caves, will -equally explain the pot-holes and ravines by which they -are invariably accompanied.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29">29</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_17"><i>The Water-Cave of Wookey Hole, near Wells, Somerset.</i></h3> - -<p>Caves may be divided into two classes: those which -are now mere passages for water, in which the history of -their formation may be studied, and those which are dry, -and capable of affording shelter to man and the lower -animals. Among the water-caves, that of Wookey Hole<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> -is to be noticed first, since its very name implies that it -was known to the Celtic inhabitants of the south of -England, and since it was among the first, if not the first, -of those examined with any care in this country, Mr. -John Beaumont<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> having brought it before the notice of -the Royal Society in the year 1680.</p> - -<p>The hamlet of Wookey Hole nestles in a valley, -through which flows the river Axe, and the valley passes -insensibly, at its upper end, into a ravine, which is closed -abruptly by a wall of rock (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>), about two hundred -feet high, covered with long streamers and festoons of -ivy, and affording scanty hold, on its ledges and in its -fissures, to ferns, brambles, and ash saplings. At its base -the river Axe issues, in full current, out of the cave, the -lower entrance of which it completely blocks up, since -the water has been kept back by a weir, for the use of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30">30</a></span> -paper-mill a little distance away. A narrow path through -the wood, on the north side of the ravine, leads to the -only entrance now open.<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> Thence a narrow passage leads -downward into the rock, until, suddenly, you find yourself -in a large chamber, at the water level. Then you pass -over a ridge, covered with a delicate fretwork of dripstone, -with each tiny hollow full of water, and ornamented with -brilliant lime crystals. One shapeless mass of dripstone -is known in local tradition as the Witch of Wookey, -turned into stone by the prayers of a Glastonbury monk. -Beyond this the chamber expands considerably, being -some seventy or eighty feet high, and adorned with -beautiful stalactites, far out of the reach of visitors. The -water, which bars further entrance, forms a deep pool, -which Mr. James Parker managed to cross on a raft (see -<a href="#APPENDIX_I">Appendix I</a>.) into another chamber, which was apparently -easy of access before the construction of the weir. -It was in this further chamber that Dr. Buckland found -human remains and pottery.</p> - -<div id="Fig_1" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_030.jpg" width="600" height="189" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>—Diagram of Wookey Hole Cave and Ravine.</div></div> - -<p>The cave has been proved to extend as far as the -village of Priddy, about two miles off, on the Mendip hills, -by the fact observed by Mr. Beaumont, that the water -used in washing the lead ore at that spot, in his time, -found its way into the river Axe, and poisoned cattle in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31">31</a></span> -the valley of Wookey. And this observation has been -verified during the last few years by throwing in colour -and chopped straw. The stream at Priddy sinks into a -swallow-hole (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>), and has its subterranean course -determined by the southerly dip of the rock, by which -the joints running north and south afford a more free -passage to the water than those running east and west. -The cave is merely a subterranean extension of the ravine -in the same line, as far as the swallow-hole, and all -three have been hollowed, as we shall see presently, by -the action of the stream and of carbonic acid in the -water.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_18"><i>The Goatchurch Cave.</i></h3> - -<p>The largest cavern in the Mendip hills is that locally -known as the Goatchurch, which opens on the eastern -side of the lower of the two ravines that branch from the -magnificent defile of Burrington Combe, about two miles -from the village of Wrington, at the height of about -120 feet from the bottom of the ravine. After creeping -along a narrow, muddy passage, with a steep descent to -the west, at an angle of about 30°, you suddenly pass -into a stalactitic chamber of considerable height and -size. From it two small vertical shafts lead into the -lower set of chambers and passages; the first being -blocked up, and the second being close to a large barrel-shaped -stalagmite, to which Mr. Ayshford Sanford, Mr. -James Parker, and myself fastened our ropes when we -explored the cave in 1864. The latter affords access -into a passage, beautifully arched, and passing horizontally -east and west, and just large enough to admit a man -walking upright. At the further end numerous open<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32">32</a></span> -fissures, caused by the erosion of the joints in the limestone, -cross it at right angles, and pass into several ill-defined -chambers, partially stalactitic, but for the most -part filled with loose, bare, cubical masses of limestone. -Two of the transverse fissures lead into a large chamber, -at a lower level. At its lower end, on crawling along -a narrow passage, we came into a second chamber, -also of considerable height and depth, at the bottom of -which the noise of flowing water can be heard through -two vertical holes, just large enough to admit of access. -On sliding down one of these we found ourselves in a -third chamber, which was traversed by a subterranean -stream, doubtless in part the same which disappears -in the ravine, at a point eighty feet above by -aneroid measurement. The temperature of the water, -as compared with that of the stream outside (49° : 59°), -renders it very probable that, between the point of disappearance -in the ravine and reappearance in the cave, -it is joined by a stream of considerable subterranean -length, since the water could not have lost ten degrees -in the short interval which it had to traverse, were it -supplied only from the stream in the ravine. From -the point of its disappearance in the cave, the water -passes downwards to join the main current flowing -underneath Burrington Combe, that gushes forth in great -volume at Rickford. The lowest portion of the cave -was eighteen or twenty feet below the stream, and 220 -feet below the entrance of the cavern.</p> - -<p>On examining the floors of the chambers and passages, -we discovered that they were composed of the same kind -of sediment as that which is now being deposited by the -water in Wookey Hole, and there could be no doubt but -that they had been originally traversed by water. For<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33">33</a></span> -this to have taken place it is necessary to suppose that, -while the Goatchurch was a water cave, the ravine on -which it opens was not deeper than the entrance—in other -words, that in the interval between the formation and -excavation of the chambers and passages, to the present -time, the ravine has been excavated in the limestone to -a depth of a hundred and twenty feet, and the water -which originally passed through the entrance has found -its way, by a new series of passages, to the point where -it appears at the bottom of the cave.</p> - -<p>We obtained evidence that the horizontal passage, -immediately below the first vertical descent, had been -inhabited at a very remote period. At the spot where -Mr. Beard, of Banwell, obtained a fine tusk of mammoth, -we found a molar of bear, and a fragment of -flint, which were imbedded in red earth, and were underneath -a crust of stalagmite of about two inches in thickness. -It would follow from this, that the date of the -formation of this part of the cave was before the time -when the traces of elephants, bears, and of man were -introduced.</p> - -<p>The cave is the resort of numerous badgers. On hiding -ourselves in one of the transverse fissures, and -throwing our light across the horizontal passage, these -animals ran to and fro across the lighted field with extraordinary -swiftness, and had it not been for the white -streaks on the sides of their heads, which flashed back -the light, they would not have been observed. Though -they are rarely caught, they must be abundant in the -district.</p> - -<p>Like all the other large caverns in the district, it has its -legends. The dwellers in the neighbourhood, who have -never cared to explore its recesses, relate that a certain<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34">34</a></span> -dog put in here found its way out, after many days, at -Wookey Hole, having lost all its hair in scrambling -through the narrow passages. At Cheddar the same -legend is appropriated to the Cheddar cave. At Wookey -the dog is said to have travelled back to Cheddar. Some -eighteen years ago, while exploring the limestone caves -at Llanamynech, on the English border of Montgomeryshire, -I met with a similar story. A man playing the -bagpipes is said to have entered one of the caves, well -provisioned with Welsh mutton, and after he had been -in for some time his bagpipes were heard two miles from -the entrance, underneath the small town of Llanamynech. -He never returned to tell his tale. The few bones found -in the cave are supposed to be those which he had picked -on the way. This is doubtless another form of the story -of the dog; both owe their origin to the vague impression, -which most people have, of the great extent of -caverns, and both versions are equally current in France -and Germany.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_19"><i>The Water-caves of Derbyshire.</i></h3> - -<p>The celebrated cavern of the Peak, at Castleton in -Derbyshire, presents the same essential character as that -of Wookey Hole. It runs into the hill-side at the end -of the ravine, and is traversed by a powerful stream of -water, which has been met with in driving an horizontal -adit in lead-mining at a considerable distance from the -entrance, and finally traced to a distant swallow-hole. -At a little distance from Buxton a smaller cave, known -as Poole’s Cavern, is in part traversed by water, which -has found an outlet at a lower level, and allowed of -the present entrance being used by the Brit-Welsh<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35">35</a></span> -(Romano-Celtic) inhabitants of the district as a habitation -in the fifth and sixth centuries.<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> There are, besides -these, very many others, some known, others unknown, -that debouch on the sides of the dales in Derbyshire -and Staffordshire, and are all well worthy of examination, -since they illustrate not merely the history of -the formation of caves, but also have been proved to -contain works of art, pottery and flint implements, -and the remains of animals, such as the mammoth and -rhinoceros.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_20"><i>The Water-caves of Yorkshire.</i></h3> - -<p>The caves in the mountain limestone of Yorkshire -rival in size those of Carniola, or those of Greece, and -they are to be seen in all stages of formation. In their -gloomy recesses all the higher qualities of a mountaineer -may be exercised, and there is sufficient danger to give a -keen zest to their exploration. The mountain streams -sometimes plunge into a yawning chasm, locally known -as a pot, and at others emerge from the dark portals of a -cave in full current. There is, perhaps, no place in the -world where the subterranean circulation of water may -be studied with better advantage.</p> - -<p>Ingleborough forms a centre from which the rainfall -on every side finds its way into the dales, through a -system of caves more or less complicated, which during -the last forty years have been thoroughly explored by -Mr. Farrer, Mr. Birkbeck, and Mr. Metcalfe. On the -south it collects in a ravine, and then leaps into a deep -bottle-shaped hole called “Gaping Gill,” into which Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36">36</a></span> -Birkbeck unsuccessfully attempted to descend, the sharp -edges of the rock cutting the rope, and very nearly -causing a serious accident. In depth it is about three -hundred feet. The stream thence finds its way through -a series of chambers and passages until it reappears in the -famous Ingleborough cave, that was explored by Mr. -Farrer in the year 1837, and proved to pass into the -rock between seven and eight hundred yards.</p> - -<p>The present entrance of the Ingleborough cave<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> is dry, -except after heavy rains, when the current reverts to its -old passage. The following admirable account of the -interior is given by Professor Phillips:—<a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a></p> - -<p>“From Mr. Farrer’s plan and description, as given in -the ‘Proceedings of the Geological Society,’ June 14, -1848, and from information obligingly communicated to -me, a clear notion of the history of this most instructive -spar grotto may be formed. For about eighty yards -from the entrance the cave has been known immemorially. -At this point Josiah Harrison, a gardener in -Mr. Farrer’s service, broke through a stalagmitical barrier -which the water had formed, and obtained access to a -series of expanded cavities and contracted passages, -stretching first to the N., then to the N.W.; afterwards -to the N. and N.E., and finally to the E., till after two -years spent in the interesting toil of discovery, at a -distance of 702 yards from the mouth, the explorers -rested from their labours in a large and lofty irregular -grotto, in which they heard the sound of water falling -in a still more advanced subterranean recess. It has -been ascertained, at no inconsiderable personal risk, that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37">37</a></span> -this water falls into a deep pool or linn at a lower level, -beyond which further progress appears to be impracticable. -In fact Mr. Farrer explored this dark lake by -swimming—a candle in his cap and a rope round his -body.</p> - -<p>“In this long and winding gallery, fashioned by -nature in the marble heart of the mountain, floor, roof, -and sides are everywhere intersected by fissures which -were formed in the consolidation of the stone. To these -fissures and the water which has passed down them, we -owe the formation of the cave and its rich furniture of -stalactites. The direction of the most marked fissures -is almost invariably N.W. and S.E., and when certain -of these (which in my geological work I have called -master fissures) occur, the roof of the cave is usually -more elevated, the sides spread out right and left, and -often ribs and pendants of brilliant stalactite, placed at -regular distances, convert the rude fissure into a beautiful -aisle of primæval architecture. Below most of the -smaller fissures hang multitudes of delicate translucent -tubules, each giving passage to drops of water. Splitting -the rock above, these fissures admit, or formerly admitted, -dropping water: continued through the floor, the larger -rifts permit, or formerly permitted, water to enter or -flow out of the cave. By this passage of water, continued -for ages on ages, the original fissure was in the -first instance enlarged, through the corrosive action of -streams of acidulated water; by the withdrawal of the -streams to other fissures, a different process was called -into operation. The fissure was bathed by drops instead -of streams of water, and these drops, exposed to air -currents and evaporation, yielded up the free carbonic -acid to the air and the salt of lime to the rock. Every<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38">38</a></span> -line of drip became the axis of a stalactitical pipe from -the roof; every surface bathed by thin films of liquid -became a sheet of sparry deposit. The floor grew up -under the droppings into fantastic heaps of stalagmite, -which, sometimes reaching the pipes, united roof and -floor by pillars of exquisite beauty.”</p> - -<p>At the time of its exploration, the water stood at a -considerably higher level inside than at the present time, -and formed deep pools. The barrier of dripstone has been -cut through, and the water level lowered, and a passage -made for a considerable distance. Inside, the old water -line, which separated the subaërial from the subaqueous -dripstone, is very distinct, the former being deposited in -thick bosses, crumpled curtains, drops, straws, pyramids, -and other fantastic drip-structures, while the latter is -honeycombed, and composed of rounded, grape-like -masses. Between them an ice-like coating of stalagmite -forms a dividing line, now supported in mid air, but -that formerly shot across the surface of the pools that -have been drained, or rested on the mud and stones -which had been brought down by the stream in ancient -times. In some places it still rests on the surface of the -pools.</p> - -<p>A stalactitic curtain on the right-hand side presents a -very singular appearance, its surface being covered with -an abundant crop of tiny club-like bodies about one-tenth -of an inch in length, and consisting each of a shining -drop of water, enclosing a minute fungus. These may -possibly explain in some degree the peculiar fungoid-appearance -of certain small bosses of dripstone which -I have met with in the caves of Pembrokeshire: for an -accumulation of carbonate of lime on such a nucleus -would produce the forms which they assume (see <a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39">39</a></span> -There are also magnificent groups of dripstone, and -each joint in the rock is adorned with lines, and pipes, -and fringes of calc spar, or widened out into roof-shaped -hollows, and traversed by deep, vertical grooves, caused -by the passage of water laden with carbonic acid. The -general surface of the roof, where the rock is bare, has -had its fossils etched out by the acidulated water. In -one place you may stand under a branching coral, with -its sides and base distinctly marked, and in another fossil -shells stand out almost in their original beauty.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_21"><i>Rate of the Accumulation of Stalagmite.</i></h3> - -<p>The rate at which the calcareous matter is being -deposited at the present time is very easy to be -estimated, for that accumulated since the passage was -cleared out is white, and contrasts with the dirty, grey-red -colour of the older kind. In one case a thickness of -0·24 had been formed in thirty-five years, by the water -flowing down the side of the passage excavated by Mr. -Farrer, while in another, in about the same time, 0·05 -inch had been formed. This would give an annual -accumulation of 0·0068 in the one case, and in the other -about one-fifth of that amount. This rate does not -agree with the rate of increase noted by Mr. Farrer and -Professor Phillips in the case of a large stalagmite called -the Jockey Cap, on which a line of drops is continually -falling from one point in the roof. Its circumference -in 1839 measured 118 inches, in 1845, 120 inches, -and in 1873, I found it to be 128 inches. The annual -rate of increase from 1845 to 1873 is ·2941 inch, -and that from 1839 to 1845 is ·2857. I found, -however, that the most remarkable increase was that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40">40</a></span> -in height. In 1845 its apex was 95·25 inches from -the roof, in 1873, 87 inches, which would imply an -annual deposit of not less than ·2946. (See <a href="#APPENDIX_II">Appendix II</a>.) -At this rate it will arrive at the roof in about 295 years. -But even this comparatively short lapse of time will -probably be diminished by the growth of a pendant -stalactite above, that is now being formed in place of -that which measured 10 inches in 1845, and has since -been accidentally destroyed.</p> - -<p>It is very possible that the Jockey Cap may be the -result, not of the continuous, but of the intermittent -drip of water containing carbonate of lime, and that -therefore the present rate of growth is not a measure of -its past or future condition. Its age in 1845 was estimated -by Professor Phillips at 259 years, on the supposition -that all or nearly all of the carbonate of lime in -each pint was deposited. If, however, it grew at its -present rate, it may be not more than 100 years old; -and if it be taken as a measure of the rate generally, -all the stalagmites and stalactites in the cave may not -date further back than the time of Edward III.</p> - -<p>It is evident, from this instance of rapid accumulation, -that the value of a layer of stalagmite in measuring -the antiquity of deposits below it, is comparatively -little. The layers, for instance, in Kent’s Hole, which -are generally believed to have demanded a considerable -lapse of time, may possibly have been formed at the rate -of a quarter of an inch per annum, and the human bones -which lie buried under the stalagmite in the cave of -Bruniquel, are not for that reason to be taken to be of -vast antiquity. It may be fairly concluded, that the -thickness of layers of stalagmite cannot be used as an -argument in support of the remote age of the strata<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41">41</a></span> -below. At the rate of a quarter of an inch per annum, -twenty feet of stalagmite might be formed in 1,000 -years.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_22"><i>The Descent into Helln Pot.</i></h3> - -<p>The subterranean passages grouped round Helln Pot, -a tremendous chasm near Selside, on the east of Simon’s -Fell in Ribblesdale, illustrate in a remarkable degree -the mode in which the water is at present wearing away -the rock. Those which -have been explored constitute -the Long Churn -Cavern, which is comparatively -easy of access -through a hole known as -Diccan Pot (<a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>, <i>a</i>). -On descending into it, the -visitor finds himself in -the bed of a stream that -now roars in a waterfall, -now gurgles over the -large fallen blocks from -the roof, and that here -and there has worn for -itself deep pools by the mechanical friction of the sand -and pebbles brought down by the current. If it be -followed down after passing over a waterfall, the light of -day is seen streaming upwards beneath the feet from the -point where the water leaps into the great chasm of -Helln Pot (<a href="#Fig_2">Figs. 2</a>, <i>b</i>. 3, <i>a</i>). Above the entrance there -is a complicated network of passages, some dry, and -some containing streams which have not yet been -fully explored.</p> - -<div id="Fig_2" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/i_041.jpg" width="251" height="321" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Diagram of Helln Pot and the Long Churn Cavern.</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42">42</a></span> -The two actions by which caves are hewn out of the -calcareous rock are seen here in operation side by side. -Below the level of the stream the rock is seen to be -smoothed and polished by the mechanical action of the -materials swept down by the current. Above the water-level -the sides of the cave are honeycombed and eaten -into the most fantastic and complex shapes, the resultant -surface (see <a href="#Fig_7">Fig. 7</a>) bearing small points and keen -knife-edges of stone, that stand out in relief and mark -the less soluble portions of the rock. This is due to the -chemical effect of the carbonic acid in the water percolating -through the strata.</p> - -<div id="Fig_3" class="figcenter" style="width: 403px;"> - <img src="images/i_042.jpg" width="403" height="422" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Diagram of Helln Pot.</div></div> - -<p>The Helln Pot, into which the stream flowing through -the Long Churn Cave falls, is a fissure (<a href="#Fig_2">Figs. 2</a>, <a href="#Fig_3">3</a>, <a href="#Fig_4">4</a>)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43">43</a></span> -a hundred feet long by thirty feet wide, that engulfs the -waters of a little stream on the surface, which are dissipated -in spray long before they reach the bottom. From -the top you look down on a series of ledges, green with -ferns and mosses, and, about a hundred feet from the -surface, an enormous fragment of rock forms a natural -bridge across the chasm from one ledge to another. A little -above this is the debouchement of the stream flowing -through the Long Churn Cave (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>, <i>a</i>), through which -Mr. Birkbeck and Mr. Metcalfe made the first perilous -descent in 1847. The party, consisting of ten persons, -ventured into this awful chasm with no other apparatus -than ropes, planks, a turn-tree, and a fire-escape belt. -On emerging from the Long Churn Cave they stood on -a ledge of rock about twelve feet wide, and which gave -them free access to the “bridge” (<a href="#Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>, <i>b</i>). This was -a rock ten feet long, which rested obliquely on the ledges. -Having crossed over this, they crept behind the waterfall -which descended from the top, and fixed their pulley, -five being let down while the rest of the party remained -behind to hoist them up again. In this way they reached -the bottom of the pot, which before had never been trod -by the foot of man. Thence they followed the stream -downwards as far as the first great waterfall, down which -Mr. Metcalfe was venturesome enough to let himself -with a rope, and to push onwards until daylight failed. -He was within a very little of arriving at the end of -the cave into which the stream flows, but was obliged -to turn back to the daylight without having accomplished -his purpose. The whole party eventually, after -considerable danger and trouble, returned safely from -this most bold adventure.</p> - -<p>A second descent was made in 1848 from the surface,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44">44</a></span> -and a third in the spring of 1870, in both of which -Mr. Birkbeck took the lead. The apparatus employed -consisted of a windlass (<a href="#Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>), supported on two -baulks of timber, and a bucket, covered with a shield, -sufficiently large to hold two people, and two guiding -ropes to prevent the revolution of the bucket in mid -air. There was also a party of navvies to look after -the mechanical contrivances, and two ladders about -eight feet long to provide for contingencies at the -bottom. Thirteen of us went down, including three -ladies. As we descended, the fissure gradually narrowed, -until at the bottom it was not more than ten feet wide. -The actual vertical descent was a hundred and ninety-eight -feet. After running the gauntlet of the waterfall -we landed in the bed of the stream, which hurried -downwards over large boulders of limestone and lost -itself in the darkness of a large cave, about seventy -feet high. We traced it downwards, through pools and -rapids to the first waterfall, of about twenty feet. This -obstacle prevented most of the party going further, for -the ladders were too short to reach to the bottom. By -lashing them together, however, and letting them down, -we were able to reach the first round with the aid of -a rope, and to cross over the deep pool at the bottom. -Thence we went on downwards through smaller waterfalls -and rapids, until we arrived at a descent into a -chamber, where the roar of water was deafening. Down -to this point the daylight glimmered feebly, but here our -torches made but little impression on the darkness. One -of the party volunteered to go down with a rope, and -was suddenly immersed in a deep pool; the rest, -profiting by his misadventure, managed to cling on to -small points of rock, and eventually to reach the floor<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45">45</a></span> -of the chamber. We stood at last on the lowest -accessible point of the cave, about 300 feet from the -surface. It was indeed one of the most remarkable -sights that could possibly be imagined. Besides the -waterfall down which we came, a powerful stream poured -out of a cave too high up for the torches to penetrate -the darkness, and fell into a deep pool in the middle of -the floor, causing such a powerful current of air that all -our torches were blown out except one. The two streams -eventually united and disappeared in a small black -circling pool, which completely barred further ingress.</p> - -<div id="Fig_4" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/i_045.jpg" width="332" height="433" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—Diagram of Helln Pot, showing Waterfall at the Bottom.</div></div> - -<p>The floor of the pot and the cave was strewn with -masses of limestone rounded by the action of the -streams; and the water-channels were smoothed and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46">46</a></span> -grooved and polished, in a most extraordinary way, by -the silt and stones carried along by the current. Some -of the layers of limestone were jet black, and others -were of a light fawn-colour, and as the strata were -nearly horizontal, the alternation of colours gave a -peculiarly striking effect to the walls. Beneath each -waterfall was a pool more or less deep, and here and -there in the bed of the stream were holes, drilled in the -rock by stones whirled round by the force of the water. -High up, out of the present reach of the water, were old -channels, which had evidently been watercourses before -the pot and cave had been cut down to their present -level. In the sides of the pot there are two vertical -grooves reaching very nearly from the top to the bottom, -which are unmistakeably the work of ancient waterfalls. -There was no stalactite, but everywhere the water was -wearing away the rock and enlarging the cave. We -found our way back without any difficulty, a small -passage on the right-hand side enabling us to avoid the -very unpleasant task of scrambling up two of the waterfalls. -We arrived finally at the top, after about five -hours’ work in the cave, wet to the skin.</p> - -<p>We had very little trouble in making this descent, -because of the completeness of Mr. Birkbeck’s preparations; -but we could fully realize what a dangerous feat -the first explorers performed when they ventured into -an unknown chasm, comparatively unprepared. The -very name “Helln Pot,” = Ællan Pot, or Mouth of Hell, -testifies to the awe with which the Angles looked down -into its recesses.<a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a></p> - -<p>Such is the interior of one of those great natural -laboratories in which water is wearing away the solid<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47">47</a></span> -rock, either hollowing it into caves or cutting it into -ravines. At the bottom of Helln Pot it was impossible -not to realize, that the enormous chasm had been -formed by the same action as that by which it was -being deepened before our eyes. It was merely a -portion of the vast cave into which it led, which -had been deprived of its roof, and opened out to -the light of heaven. The bridge was but a fragment -of the roof which happened to fall upon the two ledges. -The rounded masses of rock at the bottom are fragments -that have fallen probably within comparatively modern -times. The absence of stalactites and of stalagmites -proves that the destructive action is rapidly going on.</p> - -<p>The water-course at the bottom contained pebbles and -boulders of limestone, and gritstone rounded by friction -against one another and the rocky floor. The gritstone -has probably been derived from the wreck of the boulder -clay on the surface above the Helln Pot, and ultimately -torn from the millstone grit of the higher hills in the -district.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_23"><i>Caves and Pots at Weathercote.</i></h3> - -<div id="Fig_5" class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;"> - <img src="images/i_048.jpg" width="381" height="391" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Waterfall in Pot-hole at Weathercote.</div></div> - -<p>On the north side of Ingleborough the series of -caves and pots round the little Church of Chapel-en-le-Dale -are especially worthy of attention. The chasm at -Weathercote opens suddenly in the hill-side, and is -perfectly accessible to visitors. You come suddenly -upon a cleft a hundred feet deep, with its ledges covered -with mosses, ferns, and brambles; at one end a -body of water rushes from a cave, and under a great -bridge of rock, and falls seventy-five feet, a mass of -snow-white foam filling the bottom with spray (<a href="#Fig_5">Fig. 5</a>). -The large masses of rock piled in wild confusion at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48">48</a></span> -bottom, the dark shadows of the overhanging ledges, -and the thick covering of green moss, to which the -spray clings in tiny glittering drops, form a picture -which cannot easily be forgotten. In the sunshine an -almost circular rainbow is to be seen from the bottom. -The stream passes from the bottom into a cave, and -thence downwards to two large pots (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>), about two -hundred yards away. In flood-time the channel has -been known to become blocked up, and Weathercote has -been filled to the brim. Usually after heavy rains the current -is said to flow so violently into the first of the pot-holes, -that it throws up stones at least thirty or forty feet -from the bottom, with a peculiar rattling noise. From -this strange phenomenon it is known as Jingle Pot, while -the lower of the two is termed Hurtle Pot, because in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49">49</a></span> -flood-time the water whirls so fast round, that it is -“hurtled” out at the top. The water flowing through -Weathercote is derived from the -little stream of Ellerbeck, which -disappears in the limestone hills -about a mile to the north, and runs -at right angles to Dalebeck, or the -stream flowing down to Ingleton, -which it has been proved to join -at a spot below Jingle Pot, by -Mr. Metcalfe, who made his way -down into it from the chasm of -Weathercote.</p> - -<div id="Fig_6" class="figcenter" style="width: 914px;"> - <img src="images/i_049.jpg" width="914" height="224" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Diagram of Subterranean Course of Dalebeck.</div></div> - -<p>The course of Dalebeck, as you -pass up the valley of Chapel-en-le-Dale, -affords a striking instance of -the dependence of scenery upon -the nature of the rock. In its lower -portion it has cut out for itself a -deep ravine in the hard Silurian -strata, in which you come upon -the waterfalls, deep pools, and trees, -that look as if they had been transported -bodily from the district of -Cader Idris, and inserted into the -limestone scenery of the dales. -The Silurian rocks are very much -contorted, and on their waterworn -edges lie the nearly horizontal limestone -strata, in which the upper -part of the valley has been scooped. -As we rise the ravine opens into -a valley (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>), along which the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50">50</a></span> -beck flows, until suddenly it is lost in a fissure, at a place -called Godsbridge. Its subterranean course is marked, -first of all, by a small depression known as Sandpot, and -still higher by Hurtle Pot. It ultimately reappears at -the surface, above Weathercote, and after passing through -a picturesque cavern, known as the Gatekirk, its fountainhead -is reached. The subterranean portions of its course -are in the same right line as the open valley, and the -pot-holes have been formed in the same manner as -Helln Pot, by the passage of water at a time when the -drainage found its way down the valley at a higher -level than at present, very much as it does now in times -of extraordinary floods.</p> - -<p>Water-caves such as these are by no means uncommon -in Yorkshire. In the dales there is scarcely a mass of -limestone without its subterranean water system, as well -as channels deserted by water, which are now dry caves -situated at higher levels. These are always arranged on -the line of the natural drainage, and generally open on -the sides of the valleys and precipices. If you look -northward from the flat crown of Ingleborough, you can -see the ravines which radiate from it on the surface of -the shale below, abruptly ending in pot-holes when they -reach the limestone. In each case the streams reappear, -issuing out of the caves at the points in Chapel-en-le-Dale, -where the horizontal beds of limestone rest on the -upturned edges of the impermeable Silurian rocks.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_24"><i>The Formation of Caves and their Relation to Pot-holes -and Ravines.</i></h3> - -<p>The general conditions under which caves occur in -limestone rocks, and the phenomena which they present,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51">51</a></span> -may be gathered from the above examples. Universally -the pot-holes, ravines, and caverns are so associated -together, that there can be but little doubt that they are -due to the operation of the same causes.</p> - -<p>It requires but a cursory glance to see at once that -running water was the main agent. The limestone is so -traversed by joints and lines of shrinkage, that the -water rapidly sinks down into its mass, and collects in -small streams, which owe their direction to the dip of -the strata and the position of the fissures. These -channels are being continually deepened and widened -by the mere mechanical action of the passage of stones -and silt. But this is not the only way in which the -rock is gradually eroded. The limestone is composed in -great part of pure carbonate of lime, which is insoluble -in water. It is, however, readily dissolved in any liquid -containing carbonic acid, which is an essential part of -our atmosphere, is invariably present in the rain-water, -and is given off by all organic bodies. By this invisible -agent the hard crystalline rock is always being -attacked in some form or another. The very snails that -take refuge in its crannies leave an enduring mark of their -presence in a surface fretted with their acid exhalations, -which sometimes pass current among geologists for the -borings of pholades, and are the innocent cause of much -speculation as to the depression of the mountain-tops -beneath the sea in comparatively modern times. The -carbonic acid taken up by the rain is derived, in the -main, from the decomposing vegetable matter which -generally forms the surface soil on the limestone.</p> - -<div id="Fig_7" class="figleft up1" style="width: 90px;"> - <img src="images/i_052.jpg" width="90" height="226" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>—Diagram of an acid-worn joint, Doveholes, Derbyshire.</div></div> - -<p>The view from the ancient camp on the top of Ingleborough -offers a striking example of the effect of rain-water -in eroding the surface of the limestone. As you<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52">52</a></span> -look down over the dark crags of millstone grit, great, -grey, pavement-like masses of limestone strike the eye, -standing above the heather, perfectly bare, and in the -distance resembling clearings, and in rainy weather -sheets of snow. On approaching them the surface of -erosion becomes more and more apparent, and the shapes -due to the mere accident of varying hardness in the rock, -or the varying quantity of water passing over it, present -a most astonishing variety. There are, however, general -principles underlying the confusion. The lines of joints -in the strata being lines of weakness, searched out by -the acid-laden water, have been widened into chasms, -sometimes of considerable depth; and as they cross -at right angles, the whole surface is formed of rectangular -masses, each insulated from its fellow, and some of -them detached from the strata beneath so as to form -rocking-stones. The mode in which the acid -has attacked one of these joints in the limestone -of Doveholes in Derbyshire is represented -in <a href="#Fig_7">Figure 7</a>, the surface being honeycombed -and worn into sharp points, solely by -chemical action. The minute fossil-shells also, -and fragments of crinoid standing out in bold -relief, lead to the same conclusion—that the -denuding agent is chemical and not mechanical. -Each of the upper surfaces of the blocks -is traversed by small depressions, which are -valley systems in miniature, in which the tiny -valleys converge into a main trunk leading -into the nearest chasm. There are also tiny caves and -hollows, that are sometimes mistaken for borings made by -pholas. In the chasms the vegetation is most luxuriant, -and the dark green fronds of harts-tongue, the delicate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53">53</a></span> -Lady-fern, and the graceful <i class="taxonomy">Asplenium nigrum</i>, grow -with a rare luxuriance.</p> - -<p>In these pavements every feature of limestone scenery -is represented on a minute scale. There are the valley -systems on the surface, determined by the direction of -the drainage; the long chasms represent the open valleys -and ravines, and the caves and hollows, for the most -part, run in the line of the joints.</p> - -<p>The carbonic acid has left precisely the same kind of -proof of its work within the caves as we find above-ground; -and it would necessarily follow, that to it, as -well as to the mechanical power of the waters flowing -through them, their formation and enlargement -must be due, as Professor Phillips has pointed out in -his “Rivers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of Yorkshire,” -pp. 30–1.</p> - -<p>From the preceding pages it will be seen that caves -in calcareous rocks are merely passages hollowed out -by water, which has sought out the lines of weakness, -or the joints formed by the shrinkage of the strata -during their consolidation. The work of the carbonic -acid is proved, not merely by the acid-worn surfaces of -the interior of the caves, but also by the large quantity -of carbonate of lime which is carried away by the water -in solution. That, on the other hand, of the mechanical -friction of the stones and sand against the sides and -bottom of the water-courses, is sufficiently demonstrated -by their grooved, scratched, and polished surfaces, and -by the sand, silt, and gravel carried along by the -currents. The generally received hypothesis, that they -have been the result of a subterranean convulsion, is -disproved by the floor and roof being formed, in very -nearly every case, of solid rock; for it would be unreasonable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54">54</a></span> -to hold that any subterranean force could act -from below, in such a manner as to hollow out the -complicated and branching passages, at different levels, -without affecting the whole mass of the rock. Nor is -there cause for holding the view put forth by M. Desnoyers<a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> -or M. Dupont,<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> that they are the result of the -passage of hydrothermal waters. The causes at present -at work, operating through long periods of time, offer a -reasonable explanation of their existence in every limestone -district; and those which are no longer watercourses -can generally be proved to have been formerly traversed -by running water, by the silt, sand, and rounded pebbles -which they contain. In their case, either the drainage -of the district has been changed by the upheaval or -depression of the rock, or the streams have searched out -for themselves a passage at a lower level.</p> - -<p>But if caves have been thus excavated, it is obvious -that ravines and valleys in limestone districts are due -to the operation of the same causes. If, for instance, -we refer to <a href="#Fig_1">Figures 1</a> and <a href="#Fig_6">6</a>, we shall see that the open -valley passes insensibly into a ravine, and that into a -cave. The ravine is merely a cave which has lost its -roof, and the valley is merely the result of the weathering -of the sides of the ravine. There can be no manner -of doubt but that, in both these cases, the ravine is -gradually encroaching on the cave, and the valley on -the ravine; and if the strata be exposed to atmospheric -agencies long enough, the valley of the Axe will extend -as far as Priddy (<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>), and that of Dalebeck to the -watershed above the Gatekirk cave (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55">55</a></span> -In the same manner the lofty precipice of Malham -Cove, near Settle, in Yorkshire (<a href="#Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>), is slowly falling -away and uncovering the subterranean course of the -Aire. Eventually the ravine thus formed will extend as -far as Malham Tarn, and the Aire flow exposed to the -light of day from its source to the sea.<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a></p> - -<div id="Fig_8" class="figcenter" style="width: 472px;"> - <img src="images/i_055.jpg" width="472" height="196" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—Diagram of Source of the Aire at Malham.</div></div> - -<p>This view is applicable to many if not to all ravines -and valleys in calcareous rocks, such as the Pass at -Cheddar, or the gorge of the Avon at Clifton, and those -of Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Wales. And since the -agents by which the work is done are universal, and -calcareous rock for the most part of the same chemical -composition, the results are the same, and the calcareous -scenery everywhere of the same type. In the lapse of -past time, so enormous as to be incapable of being grasped -by the human intellect, these agents are fully capable -of producing the deepest ravines, the widest valleys, -and the largest caves.</p> - -<p>This view of the relation of caves to ravines was so -strongly held by M. Desnoyers, that he terms the latter -“cavernes à ciel ouvert.” I arrived independently at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56">56</a></span> -the same conclusion after the study of the scenery of -limestone for many years.</p> - -<p>In many cases, however, in northern latitudes and in -high altitudes, the ravine or valley so formed has been -subsequently widened and deepened by glacial action. -That, for instance, of Chapel-en-le-Dale bears unmistakeable -evidence of the former flow of a glacier, in the -<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">roches moutonnées</i> and travelled blocks that it contains. -To this is due the flowing contour and even slope of its -lower portion.</p> - -<p>The pot-holes and “cirques” in calcareous rocks with -no outlet at the surface, may also be accounted for by the -operation of the same causes as those which have produced -caves. Each represents the weak point towards -which the rainfall has converged, caused very generally -by the intersection of the joints. This has gradually -been widened out, because the upper portions of the rock -would be the first to seize the atoms of carbonic acid, -and thus be dissolved more quickly than the lower -portions. Hence the funnel shape which they generally -assume, and which can be studied equally in the -compact limestone or in the soft upper chalk. They -are to be seen on a small scale also in all limestone -“pavements.” Sometimes, however, the first chance -which the upper portions of the funnels have of being -eroded by the acidulated water, is more than counter-balanced -by the increased quantity converging at the -bottom, and the funnel ends in a vertical shaft. If the -area in the rock thus excavated be sufficiently large to -allow of the development of a current of water, the -mechanical action of the fragments swept along its course -will have an important share in the work, as we have -seen to be the case in Helln Pot.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57">57</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_25"><i>Caves not generally found in Line of Faults.</i></h3> - -<p>In some few cases the lines of weakness which have -been worn into caves, pot-holes, ravines, and valleys, -may have been produced, as M. Desnoyers believes, -by subterranean movements of elevation and depression; -but in all those which I have investigated the faults -do not determine the direction of the caverns. The -mountain limestone of Castleton, in Derbyshire, offers -an example of caves intersecting faults without any definite -relation being traceable between them. The ramifications -of the Peak cavern traverse the Speedwell Mine -nearly at right angles, and the water flowing through -it has been traced, Mr. Pennington informs me, to a -swallow-hole near Chapel-en-le-Frith, running across two, -if not three faults, which are laid down in the geological -map. As a general rule caverns are as little affected -by disturbance of the rock as ravines and valleys which -have been formed in the main irrespective of the lines -of fault.</p> - -<p>M. Desnoyers points out the close analogy between -caverns and mineral veins, and infers that both are due -to the same causes. This, undoubtedly, exists in that -class of veins which are known to miners as “pipe” -and “flat veins;” and there is clear proof, in the -majority of cases, that the cavities in which the minerals -occur have been formed by the action of running water, -and have subsequently been more or less filled with -their mineral contents; and these have been deposited -on the sides of the cavity by the same “incretionary<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a>”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58">58</a></span> -action, as that by which dripstone is now being formed -in the present caves from the solution of carbonate of lime. -Such veins present every conceivable form of irregularity, -and frequently contain silt, sand, and gravel, -which have been left behind by their streams, and their -history is identical with that of the caverns.</p> - -<p>It is not so, however, with the second class of veins, the -“rake,” “right running,” and “cross courses,” as the -miners term them, or those which occupy lines of fault. -The fissures which contain the ore are proved very frequently, -by their scratched and grooved sides, and polished -surfaces or slicken-sides, to have been the result of subterranean -movements by which the rock has been broken -by mechanical force. They have been subsequently -modified, in various ways, by the passage of water, and -filled with minerals, in the same manner as the preceding -class. With this exception they present no analogy -to the caverns, with which they contrast strongly in their -rectilinear direction, as well as in their purely mechanical -origin.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_26"><i>The various Ages of Caves.</i></h3> - -<p>It is very probable that caves were formed in calcareous -rocks from the time that they were raised to the -level of the sea, since they abound in the Coral Islands. -“Caverns,” writes Prof. Dana,<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> “are still more remarkable -on the Island of Atiu, on which the coral-reef<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59">59</a></span> -stands at about the same height above the sea as on -Oahu. The Rev. John Williams states—that there are -seven or eight of large extent on the Island of Tuto; -one he entered by a descent of twenty feet, and wandered -a mile in one only of its branches, without finding an -end to ‘its interminable windings.’ He says—‘Innumerable -openings presented themselves on all sides as -we passed along, many of which appeared to be equal -in height, beauty, and extent to the one we were following. -The roof, a stratum of coral-rock fifteen feet thick, -was supported by massy and superb stalactitic columns, -besides being thickly hung with stalactites from an inch -to many feet in length. Some of these pendants were just -ready to unite themselves to the floor, or to a stalagmitic -column rising from it. Many chambers were passed -through whose fret-work ceilings and columns of stalactites -sparkled brilliantly, amid the darkness, with the -reflected light of our torches. The effect was produced -not so much by single objects, or groups of them, as by -the amplitude, the depth, and the complications of this -subterranean world.’”</p> - -<p>Calcareous rocks might, therefore, be expected to contain -fissures and caves of various ages. In the Mendip -Hills they have been proved by Mr. Charles Moore to -contain fossils of Rhætic age, the characteristic dog-fishes, -<i class="taxonomy">Acrodus minimus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">Hybodus reticulatus</i>, the elegant -sculptured Ganoid fish, <i class="taxonomy">Gryrolepis tenuistriatus</i>, and the -tiny marsupials, Microlestes and its allies. This singular -association of terrestrial with marine creatures is due to -the fact, that while that area was being slowly depressed -beneath the Rhætic and Liassic seas, the remains were -mingled together on the coast-line, and washed into the -crevices and holes in the rock.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60">60</a></span> -The older caves and fissures have very generally been -blocked up by accumulations of calc-spar or other minerals, -and they are arranged on a plan altogether independent -of the existing systems of drainage.</p> - -<p>It is a singular fact that no fissures or caves should, -with the above exception, contain the remains of animals -of a date before the Pleistocene age. There can be but -little doubt that they were used as places of shelter in all -ages, and they must have entombed the remains of the -animals that fell into them, or were swept into them by -the streams. Caves there must have been long before, and -the Eocene Palæotheres, and Anoplotheres met their death -in the open pit-falls, just as the sheep and cattle do at -the present time. The Hyænodon of the Meiocene had, -probably, the same cave-haunting tastes as his descendant, -the living Hyæna, and the marsupials of the Mesozoic -age might be expected to be preserved in caves, like the -fossil marsupials of Australia. The chances of preservation -of the remains when once cemented into a fine -breccia, or sealed down with a crystalline covering of -stalagmite, are very nearly the same as those under -which the Pleistocene animals have been handed down -to us. The only reasonable explanation of the non-discovery -of such remains seems to be, that the ancient -suites of caves and fissures containing them, and for the -most part near the then surface of the rock, have been -completely swept away by denudation, while the present -caverns were either then not excavated or inaccessible.</p> - -<p>Such an hypothesis will explain the fact that the -no ossiferous caverns are older than the Pleistocene age, -not merely in Europe, but in North and South America, -Australia, and New Zealand. The effect of denudation -in rendering the geological record imperfect, may be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61">61</a></span> -gathered from the estimate, which Mr. Prestwich has -formed, of the amount of rock removed from the crests -of the Mendips and the Ardennes, which is in the one -case a thickness “of two miles and more,” and in the -other as much as “three or four miles.”<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> Under these -conditions we could not expect to find a series of bone -caves reaching far back into the remote geological past, -since the caves and their contents would inevitably be -destroyed.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_27"><i>The Filling up of Caves.</i></h3> - -<p>We must now consider the condition under which -caves become filled up with various deposits. If the -velocity of the stream in a water-cave be lessened, the -silt, sand, or pebbles it was hurrying along will be -dropped, and may ultimately block up the entire watercourse. -In bringing this to pass, however, the carbonate -of lime in the water plays a most important part. If -the excess of carbonic acid by which it is held in solution -be lost by evaporation, it immediately reassumes its -crystalline form, and shoots over the surface of the pool -like plates of ice, or is deposited in loose botryoidal -masses at their sides and on their bottoms; and, since -the atmospheric water very generally percolates through -the crannies in the rock, the sides and roof of the channel, -above the level of the water, are adorned with a -stony drapery of every conceivable shape. The rate at -which this accumulation takes place depends upon the -free access of air necessary for evaporation, and is -therefore variable,—as in the case of the Ingleborough -cave. In all the caves which I have examined<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62">62</a></span> -there is a free current of air. If a water-channel becomes -blocked up by either or both these causes, the joints and -fissures in the rock offer an outlet to the drainage, more -or less free, at a lower level, as in the Ingleborough -cave, Poole’s cave, near Buxton, and many others. -Sometimes, however, owing to the increased rain-fall, -or to the obstruction of the lower channels, the water -re-excavates the old passages, as we shall see to have -been the case with the famous caverns of Kent’s Hole -and Brixham. In the summer of 1872, a sudden rain-fall -not merely opened out for itself a new passage into a -swallow-hole close to Gaping Gill, on the flanks of Ingleborough, -but forced its way out through the old entrance -of the Ingleborough cave, breaking up the calcareous -breccia, and removing the large stones in its course. A -cave obviously may become dry, either by the drainage -passing along a lower level, or by the elevation of the -district by subterranean energy. After it has been forsaken -by the stream, the particles brought down by the -atmospheric water percolating through the joints, tend -to fill it up on the surface, and these may be either of -clay, loam, or sand.</p> - -<p>These actions may be studied in this country in the -well-known caves of Ingleborough, Buxton, Cheddar, -Wookey Hole, and a great many others in Derbyshire, -Yorkshire, Staffordshire, Durham, Cumberland, -and Wales.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_28"><i>The Cave of Caldy.</i></h3> - -<div id="Fig_9" class="figcenter" style="width: 365px;"> - <img src="images/i_063.jpg" width="365" height="161" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—A View in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy.</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_10" class="figcenter" style="width: 377px;"> - <img src="images/i_063b.jpg" width="377" height="244" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Stalagmites in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy.</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_11" class="figcenter" style="width: 348px;"> - <img src="images/i_064.jpg" width="348" height="430" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—The Fairy Chamber, Caldy.</div></div> - -<p>Among the most beautiful stalactite caverns in this -country is that on the island of Caldy, immediately -opposite to Tenby in Pembrokeshire, discovered some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63">63</a></span> -years ago in the limestone cliff, and explored by Mr. -Ayshford Sanford and the Rev. H. H. Winwood, in -1866, and subsequently by the writer in 1871 and -1872. On creeping through a narrow entrance with an -outlook to the sea on a precipitous side of a quarry, a -passage leads to a chamber of considerable horizontal -extent, the bottom being covered with silt, on which -stand pedestals of dripstone from an inch to two feet -in length, each rising from a thin calcareous crust -which does not altogether conceal the silt below. From -it a low entrance leads into a fairy-like chamber, the -floor consisting of a rich red, crystalline pavement, perfectly -horizontal, and studded here and there with round<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64">64</a></span> -bosses (<a href="#Fig_9">Figs. 9</a>, <a href="#Fig_10">10</a>, <a href="#Fig_11">11</a>), either red or snow-white. From -the roof hang stalactites offering the same beautiful contrast -of colours, forming a delicate canopy of tassels, or -passing downwards to the floor and constituting slender -shafts about three feet long, and about the diameter of -straws. Each of these is hollow, translucent, and more -or less traversed by water, and in some places each stood -next its fellow, almost as close as the straws in a cornfield. -Sometimes the shaft stands on a cone (<a href="#Fig_11">Fig. 11</a>) -of dripstone, more or less raised above the floor. Small -pools of water occupy hollows in the pavement, each -lined with glittering crystals of calcite (<a href="#Fig_12">Fig. 12</a>), which -are slowly shooting over the surface, and converting -some of the open hollows into bottle-shaped cavities<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65">65</a></span> -(<a href="#Fig_13">Fig. 13</a>). Their sides and bottoms are covered with a -crystalline growth of singular beauty, of which an idea -may be formed by <a href="#Fig_14">woodcut 14</a>, which represents the -edge. Where the -drip happened to -fall into a shallow -pool, it gradually -built up for itself a cone, on the lower portion of which -the varying water-level is marked by horizontal rings of -crystals (<a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a>), and the normal waterline -by the upper horizontal plate. Sometimes -these were united to the roof by -a slender straw-shaft. In <a href="#Fig_11">Figure 11</a> the -original shaft has been broken away, and -as the direction of the drip has slightly -shifted, a new one gradually descended, until finally it -became cemented to the side of the cone.</p> - -<div id="Fig_12" class="figright up1" style="width: 326px;"> - <img src="images/i_065.jpg" width="326" height="58" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Pools in Fairy Chamber.</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_13" class="figright" style="width: 131px;"> - <img src="images/i_065b.jpg" width="131" height="97" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Pool in Fairy Chamber.</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_14" class="figleft" style="width: 269px;"> - <img src="images/i_065c.jpg" width="269" height="240" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Edge of Pool in Fairy Chamber.</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_15" class="figright" style="width: 179px;"> - <img src="images/i_065d.jpg" width="179" height="216" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Cone with Straw-column.</div></div> - -<p>The history of these structures is very evident. The -straw-like stalactites were formed by the evaporation -of the carbonic acid from the surface of each drop of -water, as it accumulated in one spot, and the consequent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66">66</a></span> -deposit of carbonate of lime around its circumference. -It could not be formed in the centre, because of the -continual movement of the successive drops in falling. -By a circumferential growth of this kind a small crystal -tube, of the diameter of a drop, is slowly developed, -which continues to lengthen until the result is one of the -straw-columns, with a hole in the centre for the passage -of the water, which cannot readily part with its carbonic -acid till it arrives at the end of the tube. Sometimes -the hole has been subsequently blocked up by calc-spar, -or the general surface been covered over with successive -layers, until it becomes a mass of considerable diameter. -If the drop fell into a deep pool, the straw-column was -continued down to the water-line; if in shallow water, -or on the floor, a pedestal was built up, as is represented -in the preceding figures. The crystallization going on in -the pools is greater at the surface than below, because of -the greater evaporation, and consequently the stalagmitic -film is gradually extending over it on every side from -the edges (<a href="#Fig_12">Figs. 12</a>, <a href="#Fig_13">13</a>).</p> - -<p>As I broke my way into some of the unexplored -recesses, through the thickly planted straw-shafts, and -scene after scene of fairy beauty, unsullied by man, -opened upon my eyes, the ringing of the fragments on -the crystalline floor that accompanied almost every -movement made me feel an intruder, and sorry for -the destruction.</p> - -<p>In some places, where the drip was continuous, and -the calcareous basin which it had built up for itself -shallow, small spherical bodies of calcite were so beautifully -polished by friction in the agitated water, that they -deserve the name of cave-pearls from their lustre. In -<a href="#Fig_16">Fig. 16</a> I have represented a tiny basin with its pearly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67">67</a></span> -contents. Where the drip had ceased to be continuous -each of these formed a nucleus for the deposit of calcite -crystals, by which they were united to the bottom of -the basin.</p> - -<div id="Fig_16" class="figleft" style="width: 252px;"> - <img src="images/i_067.jpg" width="252" height="113" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Basin containing Cave-pearls.</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_17" class="figright" style="width: 237px;"> - <img src="images/i_067b.jpg" width="237" height="179" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>—Fungoid Structures, magnified.</div></div> - -<p>In the principal chamber in the cave, which is very -nearly free from drip, the upper surfaces of the stones -and stalagmites on the floor are covered with a peculiar -fungoid-like deposit of calcite, consisting of rounded -bosses, attached to the general -surface by a pedicle -(see <a href="#Fig_17">Figs. 17</a>, <a href="#Fig_18">18</a>) sometimes -not much thicker -than a hair. They stood -close together at various -levels, following the inequalities of the surface of -attachment, and being on an average about 0·2 inch -long. Several microscopical sections (<a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>) showed -that each was formed originally -on a slight elevation -of the general surface, which -would cause a greater evaporation -of water than the -surrounding portions, and -therefore be covered with a -greater deposit of calcite. -This process would go on -until the height was reached -to which the water slowly passing over the general -surface would no longer rise. Hence the remarkable -uniformity of the height of the bosses. The evaporation -is greater at the point furthest removed from -the general surface, and therefore the apex is larger -than the base (see <a href="#Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>). In <a href="#Fig_18">Figure 18</a> they stand<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68">68</a></span> -as thickly together as trees in a virgin forest, and -are developed in greatest vigour where the small eminences -cause a greater evaporation than the small depressions, -and are stoutest and strongest at the free edges. -Some of the pedicles, as in the figure, present traces of -erosion, the outer layers having been eaten away by acid-laden -water.</p> - -<p>Some of these singular little bosses may have been -moulded on minute fungi, such as those in the cave of -Ingleborough, but their presence is not revealed by the -microscope.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_29"><i>The Black-rock Cave, near Tenby.</i></h3> - -<div id="Fig_18" class="figleft" style="width: 253px;"> - <img src="images/i_068.jpg" width="253" height="152" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Fungoid Structure, Black-rock Cave.</div></div> - -<p>I met with this remarkable kind of calcareous deposition -in a second cave in the neighbourhood of Tenby. -When examining the Black-rock quarries in 1871, the -workmen pointed out a small opening which they believed -to be the entrance of a cave, but which was too -small for them to enter. By knocking off, however, a -few sharp angles, I got into a small chamber about five -feet high, with sides, roof, and bottom covered with -massive dripstone. A few -loose stones rested on the -bottom. The whole surface, -even including the -stones upon the floor, one of -which is figured (<a href="#Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>), -was so completely covered -with these peculiar fungoid -bodies, that it was impossible -to move without destroying hundreds of them. -All were about the same height, 0·2 inches, snow-white,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69">69</a></span> -or of a rich reddish brown, and conformed to the unequal -surface on which they stood. It is quite impossible to -describe the effect of a whole chamber bristling with -these peculiar structures. The only author by whom -they are mentioned, Mr. John Beaumont—who described -the caves of Mendip in 1680, considered them to be -veritable plants of stone.<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> The beautiful forms assumed -by the dripstone in the caves of Caldy and Black-rock -are by no means uncommon, but I have never met with -them anywhere else in such perfection. They may be -studied in all stalactitic caverns.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_30"><i>Great Quantity of Carbonate of Lime dissolved by -Atmospheric Water.</i></h3> - -<p>A small portion only of the carbonate of lime is deposited -as tufa or dripstone in the neighbourhood of the -rock from which it has been derived, as compared with -that carried by the streams into the rivers, and the -rivers into the sea. An idea of this quantity may be -formed from the calculation of the solid matter conveyed -down by the Thames, given by Mr. Prestwich in -his Presidential Address to the Geological Society in -1871, p. lxvii.</p> - -<p>“Taking the mean daily discharge of the Thames at -Kingston at 1,250,000,000 gallons, and the salts in solution -at nineteen grains per gallon, the mean quantity of -dissolved mineral matter there carried down by the -Thames every twenty-four hours is equal to 3,364,286 -lbs., or 150 tons, which is equal to 548,230 tons in the -year. Of this daily quantity about two-thirds, or say<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70">70</a></span> -1,000 tons, consist of carbonate of lime and 238 tons of -sulphate of lime, while limited proportions of carbonate -of magnesia, chlorides of sodium and potassium, sulphates -of soda and potash, silica and traces of iron, -alumina, and phosphates, constitute the rest. If we -refer a small portion of the carbonates and the sulphates -and chlorides chiefly to the impermeable argillaceous -formations washed by the rain-water, we shall still have -at least ten grains per gallon of carbonate of lime, due -to the chalk, upper greensand, oolitic strata, and marlstone, -the superficial area of which, in the Thames basin -above Kingston, is estimated by Mr. Harrison at 2,072 -square miles. Therefore the quantity of carbonate of -lime carried away from this area by the Thames is equal -to 797 tons daily, or 290,905 tons annually, which gives -140 tons removed yearly from each square mile; or, extending -the calculation to a century, we have a total -removal of 29,090,500 tons, or of 14,000 tons from -each square mile of surface. Taking a ton of chalk, as -a mean, as equal to fifteen cubic feet, this is equal to -the removal of 210,000 cubic feet per century for each -square mile, or of 9/100 of an inch from the whole surface -in the course of a century, so that in the course of -13,200 years a quantity equal to a thickness of about -one foot would be removed from our chalk and oolitic -districts.”</p> - -<p>This destructive action, operating through long periods -of time, destroys not merely the general surface of the -limestone, but, where it is localized by the convergence -of water, is capable of excavating the deepest gorges -and the longest caves. The quantity of material carried -away in solution is a measure of the power of carbonic -acid in the general work of denudation.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71">71</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_31"><i>The Circulation of Carbonate of Lime.</i></h3> - -<p>The circulation of carbonate of lime in nature presents -us with a never-ending cycle of change. It is -conveyed into the sea to be built up into the tissues -of the animal and vegetable inhabitants. It appears in -the gorgeous corallines, nullipores, calcareous sea-weeds, -sea-shells, and in the armour of crustaceans. In the tissues -of the coral-zoophytes it assumes the form of stony -groves, of which each tree is a colony of animals, and in -the wave-defying reef it reverts to its original state of -limestone. Or, again, it is seized upon by tiny masses of -structureless protoplasm, and fashioned into chambers of -endless variety and of infinite beauty, and accumulated -at the bottom of the deeper seas, forming a deposit analogous -to our chalk. In the revolution of ages the bottom -of the sea becomes dry land, the calcareous <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">débris</i> of -animal and vegetable life is more or less compacted -together by pressure and by the infiltration of acid-laden -rain-water, and appears as limestone of various -hardness and constitution. Then the destruction begins -again, and caves, pot-holes, and ravines are again carved -out of the solid rock.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_32"><i>The Temperature of Caves.</i></h3> - -<p>The air in caves is generally of the same temperature -as the mean annual temperature of the district in which -they occur, and therefore cold in summer and warm in -winter. This would be a sufficient reason why they -should be chosen by uncivilized peoples as habitations.</p> - -<p>The very remarkable glacières, or caves containing ice -instead of water, in the Jura, Pyrenees, in Teneriffe, Iceland,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72">72</a></span> -and other districts of high altitude and low temperature, -in which the temperature even in summer does not -rise much above freezing-point, may be explained by the -theory advanced independently by De Luc and the Rev. -G. F. Browne. “The heavy cold air of winter,” writes -the latter, “sinks down into the glacières, and the -lighter, warm air of summer cannot on ordinary principles -dislodge it, so that heat is very slowly spread in -the caves; and even when some amount of heat does -reach the ice, the latter melts but slowly, since a kilogramme -of ice absorbs 79° C. of heat in melting; and -thus when ice is once formed, it becomes a material -guarantee for the permanence of cold in the cave. For -this explanation to hold good it is necessary that the -level at which the ice is found should be below the level -of the entrance to the cave; otherwise the mere weight of -the cold air would cause it to leave its prison as soon as -the spring warmth arrived.” It is also necessary that the -cave should be protected from direct radiation and from -the action of wind. These conditions are satisfied by all -the glacières explored by Mr. Browne.<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> The apparent -anomaly that one only out of a group of caves exposed -to the same temperatures should be a glacière, may be -explained by the fact that these conditions are found in -combination but rarely, and if one were absent there -would be no accumulation of perpetual ice. It is very -probable that the store of cold laid up in these caves, -as in an ice-house, has been ultimately derived from -the great refrigeration of climate in Europe in the -Glacial Period.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73">73</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_33"><i>Conclusion.</i></h3> - -<p>In this chapter we have examined the physical history -of caves, their formation, and their relation to pot-holes, -cirques, and ravines; and we have seen that they are -not the result of subterranean disturbance, but of the -mechanical action of rain-water and the chemical action -of carbonic acid, both operating from above. We have -seen that cave-hunting is not merely an adventurous -amusement, but also a quest that brings us into a great -laboratory, so to speak, in which we can see the natural -agents at work that have carved out the valleys and -gorges, and shaped the hills wherever the calcareous -rocks are to be found.</p> - -<p>The rest of this treatise will be devoted to the -evidence which they offer as to the former inhabitants, -both men and animals, of Europe.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74">74</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">HISTORIC CAVES IN BRITAIN.</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote class="inhead"> - -<p>Definition of Historic Period.—Wild Animals in Britain during the -Historic Period.—Animals living under the care of Man.—Classificatory -value of Historic Animals.—The Victoria Cave, Settle, -Yorkshire.—History of Discovery.—The Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh -Stratum.—The Bones of the Animals.—Miscellaneous -Articles.—The Coins.—The Jewelry, and its Relation to Irish -Art.—Similar Remains in other Caves in Yorkshire.—These Caves -used as Places of Refuge.—The evidence of History as to Date.—Britain -under the Romans.—The Inroads of the Picts and Scots.—The -English Conquest.—The Neolithic Stratum.—The approximate -Date of the Neolithic Occupation.—The Grey Clays.—The -Pleistocene Occupation by the Hyænas.—The probable Preglacial -Age of the Pleistocene Stratum.—The Kirkhead Cave.—Poole’s -Cave, near Buxton.—Thor’s Cave, near Ashbourne.—Historic value -of Brit-Welsh Group of Caves.—Principal Animals and Articles.—The -use of Horse-flesh.—The Cave of Long-berry Bank.</p></blockquote> - -<h3 id="hdr_34"><i>Definition of Historic Period.</i></h3> - -<p class="in0">In the preceding chapter the origin of caves has been -discussed, as well as their relation to the physical geography -of the districts in which they are found. We -must now pass on to the biological division of the subject, -which relates to the animals that they contain and -the inferences that may be drawn from their occurrence.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75">75</a></span> -The caves will be divided into historic, prehistoric, and -pleistocene, according to the principles laid down in the -<a href="#CHAPTER_I">first</a> chapter.</p> - -<p>It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to define -with precision the point where legend ends and history -begins; but the line may be drawn with convenience at -the first beginning of a connected and continuous narrative, -rather than at the first isolated notice of a country. -If we accept this definition, the historic period in Great -Britain cannot be extended further back than the temporary -invasion of Julius Cæsar, <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> 55, even if so far, -since of the interval that elapsed between that event and -the subjugation under Claudius, in the year <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 43, we -know scarcely anything. Of the events which happened -in this country before Cæsar’s invasion there is no documentary -evidence, although, by the modern method of -scientific research, we are able to extend the narrative -away from the borders of history far back into the archæological -and geological past.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_35"><i>Wild Animals in Britain during the Historic Period.</i></h3> - -<p>During the historic period great changes have taken -place in the animals inhabiting Great Britain. The wild -animals have been diminished in number, and their -area of occupation has been narrowed by the increase -of population and the improvement in weapons of destruction. -The brown bear, inhabiting Britain during -the time of the Roman occupation, was extirpated probably -before the tenth century. The current belief that -it was destroyed in Scotland by the founder of the -Gordon family in 1057 is unsupported by any documentary -evidence which I have been able to discover;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76">76</a></span> -the crest of the Gordons, which is supposed to have been -derived from the last of those animals slain in the island, -consisting of three boars’, not <em>bears’</em>, heads. The last -wolf is said to have been destroyed in Scotland in 1680, -while in Ireland the animal lingered thirty years later to -be a terror to the defenceless beggars. It was deemed -worthy of a special decree for its destruction in the reign -of Edward I. The wild boar was extinct before the -reign of Charles I., while the beaver, which was hunted -for its fur on the banks of the Teivi in Cardiganshire -during the time of the first Crusade, became extinct -shortly afterwards. The stag was so abundant in the -south of England as recently as the reign of Queen -Anne, that she saw a herd of no less than five hundred -between London and Portsmouth. At present the animal -lives only in a half-wild condition, in the forest of Exmoor -and the Highlands of Scotland; while the roedeer -is now only found wild in Scotland, although it formerly -ranged throughout the length and breadth of the -country.</p> - -<p>The reindeer is proved to have been living in Caithness -as late as the year 1159, by a passage in the -Orkneyinga Saga.</p> - -<p>The common rat, <i class="taxonomy">Mus decumanus</i>, is the only wild or -semi-wild animal that has migrated into this country -during the historic period contrary to the will of man. -In 1727 it (<i class="taxonomy">Pallas, Glires</i>) had begun to invade -Southern Russia from the regions of Persia and the -Caspian Sea. Thence it swiftly spread over Asia Minor, -and while it was advancing to the west overland, it -was carried by ships to nearly all the ports in the -world. It arrived in Britain certainly before the year -1730, and has since nearly exterminated the black<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77">77</a></span> -indigenous species. It is the only wild animal which -is known to have invaded Europe since the pleistocene -age, with the exception, perhaps, of the true elk.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_36"><i>Animals living under the care of Man.</i></h3> - -<p>The fallow-deer, indigenous in the countries bordering -on the Mediterranean, was probably introduced by the -Romans, since its remains occur in refuse-heaps of -Roman age, such as that of London Wall, and of Colchester, -while it has not been met with in older deposits. -To them, also, we probably owe the introduction of the -pheasant, which was sufficiently abundant in the neighbourhood -of London in the time of Harold to be -mentioned as one of the articles of food eaten on feast-days -by the households of the Canons at Waltham Abbey -in 1059. The domestic fowl has left the first traces of -its presence in this country in the Roman refuse-heaps, -although it was known to the Belgæ, according to the -testimony of Cæsar, before the first Roman invasion.</p> - -<p>The earliest mention of the domestic cat in this -country is to be found in the laws of Howel Dha,<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> that -were probably codified at the end of the tenth or in the -eleventh century, although many of the enactments may -be of a much earlier date. The king’s cat is assessed at -eightpence, or twice as much as that belonging to any -subject. The ass<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> was certainly known in Britain in the -days of Æthelred (<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 866–871), when, according to Professor -Bell, its price was fixed at the large sum of twelve -shillings. The larger breed of cattle represented by the -Chillingham ox, and descended from the great Urus,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78">78</a></span> -first appears in this country about the time of the English -invasion. It gradually spread over those districts -conquered by the English, until the small aboriginal -dark-coloured, short-horn <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, which was -the only domestic breed in the prehistoric and Roman -times, is now only to be met with in the hill country of -Wales and of Scotland, in which the Brit-Welsh or -Romano-Celtic inhabitants still survive.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_37"><i>Classificatory value of Historic Animals.</i></h3> - -<p>The principal changes in the fauna of Great Britain -during the historic age are the extinction of the bear, -wolf, beaver, reindeer, and wild boar, and the introduction -of the domestic fowl, the pheasant, fallow-deer, ass, -the domestic cat, the larger breed of oxen, and the common -rat; and as this took place at different times, it is -obvious that these animals enable us to ascertain the -approximate date of the deposit in which their remains -happen to occur. And for this purpose the following -table<a id="FNanchor_42" href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> may be <span class="locked">consulted:—</span></p> - -<div id="list_78"><div id="list_79"> -<table id="exin" summary="animals extinct and introduced"> - <tr class="hdr"> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Animals Extinct.</span></td></tr> - <tr class="smaller"> - <td> </td> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Brown bear</td> - <td class="tdc">circa</td> - <td class="tdc">500–1000</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Reindeer</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdc">1200</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Beaver</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdc">11–1200</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Wolf</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdc">1680</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Wild boar</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdc">1620</td></tr> - <tr class="hdr"> - <td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span class="smcap">Animals Introduced.</span><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79">79</a></span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Domestic fowl</td> - <td class="tdc">before</td> - <td class="tdc">55 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Fallow-deer</td> - <td class="tdc">circa</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Pheasant</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Domestic ox of Urus type</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdc">449 <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Ass</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdc">800–850</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cat</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdc">800–1000</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Common rat</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdc">1727–30</td></tr> -</table></div></div> - -<p>Some or other of these animals are met with in the -peat-bogs and alluvia, and in caves, but far more abundantly -in the refuse-heaps left behind by man, by whom -they have here been used either for service or for food.</p> - -<p>The disappearance of certain wild species, from the -areas in which they lived on the continent, in historic -times, has not been ascertained so accurately as in this -country, and many animals, which have become extinct -in our restricted and highly-cultivated island, are still -to be found in the continental forests, morasses, and -mountains. The brown bear is still to be met with in -the Pyrenees, the Vosges, and in the wilder and more -inaccessible portions of northern, middle, and southern -Europe. The wolf still survives in France, and during -the late German war preyed upon the slain after some of -the battles. It, as well as the wild boar, ranges throughout -the uncultivated regions of the continent. The beaver -still lives in the waters of the Rhone, as well as in the -rivers of Lithuania and of Scandinavia, and the reindeer, -now restricted to the regions north of a line passing -east and west through the Baltic, extended further south, -in sufficient numbers to be remarked by Cæsar, among the -more noteworthy animals living in the great Hercynian -forest, which overshadowed northern Germany in his -days. This forest also afforded shelter to the true elk<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80">80</a></span> -and the bison, both of which still live in Lithuania, as -well as to the Urus, which was hunted by Charles the -Great, near Aachen, and probably became extinct in the -fifteenth or sixteenth century. The lion inhabited the -mountains of southern Thrace in the days of Herodotus -and of Aristotle, and became extinct in Europe between -330 <span class="smcap smaller">B.C.</span> and the days of Dio Chrysostom Rhetor -(<span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 100), who expressly says that there were no lions -in Greece in his time. The panther also inhabited the -same district when Xenophon wrote his “Treatise on -Hunting.”</p> - -<p>The fallow-deer was believed by the late Professor -Edouard Lartet to have been introduced into France by -the Romans. On a visit, however, to Paris in September -1873, Professor Gervais called my attention to an -antler of the animal in the Jardin des Plantes, said to -have been found in a refuse-heap along with axes of -polished stone. It must therefore have lived in France -in the Neolithic age, if it were obtained from an undisturbed -deposit. It gradually spread into Germany and -Switzerland, until in the eleventh century it was sufficiently -abundant to be mentioned among the articles of -food in a metrical grace of the monks of St. Gall.</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Imbellem damam faciat benedictio summam.”<a id="FNanchor_43" href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a><br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>The domestic fowl is to be recognized on Gallic coins -before the Roman invasion, and therefore was probably -known at the very dawn of Gallic history. The larger -breed of oxen, descended from the Urus type, has been -known in France, Germany, Lombardy, Scandinavia, -and Switzerland, in the remote division of the prehistoric<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81">81</a></span> -age known as the Neolithic.<a id="FNanchor_44" href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> The buffalo, on -the other hand, of the Roman Campagna, was introduced -into Italy, according to Paulus Diaconus, in the year -596, and the domestic cat,<a id="FNanchor_45" href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> known to the Greeks from -their intercourse with Egypt, became familiar to the -eyes of the inhabitants of Rome and Constantinople -as early as the fourth century after Christ.</p> - -<p>It is evident from the survival of the wolf, the bear, -beaver, reindeer, and the wild boar on the continent at -the present time, that the chronological table which I -have constructed for Britain is inapplicable to Europe in -general. In the present state of our knowledge of the -varying ranges of the animals, it seems impossible to -form any similar scheme.</p> - -<p>The historic caves are characterized by the presence -of some of these animals, as well as of coins and pottery, -and other articles by which the date of their occupation -may be ascertained.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_38"><i>The Victoria Cave, Settle, Yorkshire.</i></h3> - -<p>The most important historic cave in this country is -that discovered by Mr. Joseph Jackson, near Settle, in -Yorkshire, on the coronation day of Queen Victoria, in -1838, and which has therefore been called the Victoria -Cave. It runs horizontally into the precipitous side of -a lonely ravine known as King’s Scar (<a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>), at a -height of about 1,450 feet above the sea, according to -Mr. Tiddeman, and it consists of three large ill-defined -chambers filled with débris nearly up to the roof.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82">82</a></span></p> - -<div id="Fig_19" class="figcenter" style="width: 465px;"> - <img src="images/i_082.jpg" width="465" height="543" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—View of King’s Scar, Settle, showing the entrances of the Victoria and - Albert Caves (from a photograph). <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>, <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, Victoria; <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>, Albert.</div></div> - -<p>The entrances face to the south-west, and open at -the bottom of an overhanging cliff at the point where -a scree, or accumulation of fragments from the cliff -above, gradually slopes down to the bottom of the -valley, about one hundred feet below. When Mr. -Jackson made his discovery, he passed inwards through -a small entrance,<a id="FNanchor_46" href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> and was rewarded by finding in the -earth on the floor a number of Roman coins, together<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83">83</a></span> -with ornaments and implements of bronze, and some -brooches of singular taste and beauty, with implements -of bone, and large quantities of broken bones -and fragments of pottery. The collection was very miscellaneous; -for besides iron spear-heads, nails, daggers, -spoon-brooches of bone, spindle-whorls, beads of amber -and of glass, there were bronze brooches, finger-rings, -armlets, bracelets, buckles, and studs. All were lying -pêle-mêle together, side by side with the broken bones -of the animals, and the whole set of remains, with the -exception of some of the brooches, was of the kind -which is usually met with in the neighbourhood of -Roman camps, cities, and villas which have been sacked.</p> - -<p>The fragments of Samian ware and Roman pottery -scattered through the mass, as well as coins of Trajan -and Constantine, proved further, that the cave had been -inhabited after the Roman invasion, and not earlier than -the middle of the third century; and the rude imitations -of Roman coins were, according to Mr. Roach Smith,<a id="FNanchor_47" href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> -probably in circulation for some centuries after the -departure of the Romans from Britain.—“And although -some of these remains are indicative of sepulture, yet -from the evidence furnished there appears no positive -proof of their having formed part of funereal deposits. -A more satisfactory conclusion seems to arise in considering -that these caves (<i>i.e.</i> the group) may have been -used as places of refuge by the Romanized Britons -during the troublous times at and after the close of the -fourth century.” This conclusion we shall see fully borne<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84">84</a></span> -out by the evidence subsequently obtained. Mr. Jackson -gives the following account of the <span class="locked">discovery:—</span></p> - -<p>“The entrance was nearly filled up with rubbish, and -overgrown with nettles. After removing these obstructions, -I was obliged to lie down at full length to get in. -The first appearance that struck me on entering was -the large quantity of clay and earth, which seemed as if -washed in from without, and presented to the view -round pieces like balls of different sizes. Of this clay -there must be several hundred waggon loads, but -abounding more in the first than in the branch caves. -In some parts a stalagmitic crust has formed, mixed with -bones, broken pots, &c. It was on this crust I found -the principal part of the coins, the other articles being -mostly imbedded in the clay. In the other caves very -little has been found. When we get through the clay, -which is very stiff and deep, we generally find the rock -covered with bones, all broken and presenting the -appearance of having been gnawed. The entrance into -the inner cave has been walled up at the sides. In the -inside were several large stones lying near the hole, any -one of which would have completely blocked it up by -merely turning the stone over. I pulled the wall down, -and the aperture was now about a yard wide, and two -feet high. On digging up the clay at about nine or ten -inches deep, I found the original floor; it was hard and -gravelly, and strewed with bones, broken pots, and other -objects. The roof of the cave was beautifully hung -with stalactites in various fantastic forms and as white -as snow.”<a id="FNanchor_48" href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a></p> - -<p>The interest in these discoveries led Mr. Denny, Mr. -Farrer, and other gentlemen to examine the superficial<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85">85</a></span> -stratum from time to time, until, in 1870, Sir James -Kay-Shuttleworth, Mr. Walter Morrison, Mr. Birkbeck, -and other gentlemen in the neighbourhood formed a -committee for the investigation of the contents of the -cave, which had been placed at their disposal by the -courtesy of the owner, the late Mr. Stackhouse. They -were aided by the assistance of Sir C. Lyell, Sir. J. -Lubbock, and Mr. Darwin, Professor Phillips, Mr. -Franks, and others, and by a grant obtained from the -British Association, and have carried on the work since -that time with comparatively little interruption. Mr. -Jackson, the original discoverer, superintended the -workmen; while I identified the works of art and the -mammalian remains that were discovered, and drew up -for the committee the reports brought before the British -Association in 1870, 1871, and 1872, and before the -Anthropological Institute in 1871. Mr. Tiddeman also -contributed a report on the physical history of the cave, -which is printed in the British Association Report for -1872, and subsequently in the Geological Magazine, -January 1873.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86">86</a></span><a id="FNanchor_49" href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_39"><i>The Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh Stratum.</i></h3> - -<div id="Fig_20" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_086.jpg" width="600" height="349" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Longitudinal Section of Victoria Cave.</div></div> - -<p>The committee resolved not to begin at the entrance -which Mr. Jackson discovered in 1838 (<a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a> <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>), but -to make a new passage, at a point where daylight could -be seen through the chinks of the broken débris, which -there prevented access. Ground was broken on a small -plateau in front of this (<a href="#Fig_19">Figs. 19</a> <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, <a href="#Fig_20">20</a>), which, from the -sunny aspect and commanding view, would naturally be -chosen by the dwellers in the cave as their more usual -place for eating and lounging, and in which we might -therefore expect to find the remains of whatever they -had dropped or lost. The gloomy recesses of a cave, -indeed, even if lit up by large fires or by torches, are -not fitted for any other purpose than for sleeping or -concealment; and if we add in this case the damp cold -clay under foot and the constant drip of the water overhead, -it was only reasonable to infer that most of their -life was spent out of doors, and that the cave was used -merely as a place of retirement for shelter. As the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87">87</a></span> -trench progressed we dug first of all through a thickness -of two feet (<a href="#Fig_20">Figs. 20</a>, <a href="#Fig_21">21</a>) of angular blocks of limestone, -that had fallen from the cliff above, and that rested on -a black layer (No. 4) containing the kind of remains -which we had expected. The layer was composed of -fragments of bone and charcoal, surrounding the burnt -stones which had formed the ancient hearths, and contained -large quantities of the broken bones of animals -which had been used for food, and coins and articles of -luxury, as well as those instruments which were more -naturally suited for the half-savage life of dwellers in -caves. As we opened out the new mouth, the angular -fragments disappeared and the black layer rose to the -surface, composing the floor, and lying in some places -beneath enormous blocks of limestone which had fallen -from the roof since its accumulation, and being continuous -with the layer in which Mr. Jackson first made -his discoveries.</p> - -<div id="Fig_21" class="figcenter" style="width: 511px;"> - <img src="images/i_087.jpg" width="511" height="274" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Vertical Section at the Entrance to the Victoria Cave.</div></div> - -<p>It was evident that this stratum had been formed -during the sojourn of man in the cave, and we shall<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88">88</a></span> -find, in the examination of the remains which it furnished, -proof that it is connected with the obscure history of -Britain during the fifth and sixth centuries. We will -take each group of objects in its proper class, beginning -with what at first sight seems the least promising, the -broken bones of the animals that supplied the inhabitants -with food.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_40"><i>The Bones of the Animals.</i></h3> - -<p>The bones of the Celtic short-horn (<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>) -were very abundant, and proved that a variety of ox, -indistinguishable from the small dark mountain cattle of -Wales and Scotland, was the chief food of the inhabitants. -A variety of the goat with simple recurved -horns, which is commonly met with in the Yorkshire -tumuli explored by Canon Greenwell, and in the deposits -round Roman villas in Great Britain, furnished the -mutton; while the pork was supplied by a domestic -breed of pigs with small canines; and since the bones -of the last animal belong for the most part to young -individuals, it is clear that the young porker was -preferred to the older animal. The bill of fare was -occasionally varied by the use of horse-flesh, which -formed a common article of food in this country down -to the ninth century. To this list must be added the -venison of the roedeer and stag, but the remains of these -two animals were singularly rare. Two spurs of the -domestic fowl, and a few bones of wild duck and grouse, -complete the list of animals which can with certainty -be affirmed to have been eaten by the dwellers in -the cave. The numerous unbroken bones, some very -gigantic, of the badger, and those of the fox, wildcat, -hare, and water-vole, commonly called water-rat,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89">89</a></span> -have probably been introduced subsequently, from -those animals having used the cave as a place of shelter. -There were also bones of the dog, which from their -unbroken condition proved that the animal had not -been used for food, as it certainly was used by the -men who lived in the caves of Denbighshire in the -Neolithic age. The whole group of remains implies -that the dwellers in the Victoria Cave lived upon -their flocks and herds, rather than by the chase. -And since the domestic fowl was not known in -Britain until about the time of the Roman invasion, the -presence of its remains fixes the date of the occupation -as not earlier than that time. On the other hand, since -the small Celtic short-horn (<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>) was the only -domestic ox in use known in Roman Britain, and since -it disappeared from those portions of the country which -were conquered by the English, along with its Celtic -possessors, the date is fixed in the other direction as being -not much later than the Northumbrian conquest of that -portion of Yorkshire. I shall return to this part of -the subject presently; here I will only remark, that -the present distribution of the lineal descendants of the -Celtic short-horn, the small, dark-coloured Scotch and -Welsh cattle, corresponds with those regions on which -the Celtic population fell back before the English. And -its survival in Wales, and until comparatively recently in -Cornwall, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, may be -accounted for by the fact, that in those districts the -Celtic populations of Roman Britain were not displaced -by the English invaders.<a id="FNanchor_50" href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a></p> - -<p>The larger breed of cattle known in its purity as the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90">90</a></span> -white ox of Chillingham, from which all our purely -English breeds have been derived, was imported originally -by the English, and spread over the whole country -which they occupied, until at last the smaller and more -ancient oxen survived only in a few isolated areas in the -north and west of Britain. This displacement of the -Celtic short-horn by the English oxen of the Urus type -corroborates, in a striking degree, the truth of Mr. -Freeman’s view of the ruthless destruction of everything -Roman and Celtic at the hands of the English. It is -clear, therefore, that from the examination of the bones -we may infer that the cave was occupied before the -Celtic short-horn was supplanted in this district by -the larger domestic breed of oxen, and after the introduction -of the domestic fowl, that is to say, in the -interval which elapsed between the Roman and English -invasions.</p> - -<p>We must now treat of the remains of man’s handiwork -in the cave.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_41"><i>Miscellaneous Articles.</i></h3> - -<div id="Fig_22" class="figright up2" style="width: 107px;"> - <img src="images/i_091.jpg" width="107" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>—Spoon-brooch (natural size).</div></div> - -<p>The ornaments and implements of bone consist of -carefully smoothed pins, and points intended to be fitted -to a handle, knife-handles made of bone and antler; -three spindle-whorls made of the perforated head of a -femur; a stud; a perfect spoon-shaped fibula (<a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>), -which corresponds with one of those in the Museum of -the Royal Irish Academy, as well as several fragments, -and which when in use was passed through holes in -the clothes, in such a manner that the two ends alone -were visible. These are ornamented, and the shaft -and the whole back is more or less polished by wear. -Eight articles bear a close resemblance to the handles -of gimlets (<a href="#Fig_23">Figs. 23</a>, <a href="#Fig_24">24</a>), and most probably have been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91">91</a></span> -used as studs, or links, for fastening together clothing. -The fact, indeed, that some have the -central hole worn by the friction of a -thong or string of some kind, coupled -with the worn state of some of their -surfaces, renders this guess very likely -to be true. In <a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>, <i>a</i>, the ornament -in right lines, which once covered the -surface as in <a href="#Fig_24">Fig. 24</a>, <i>b</i>, is very nearly -obliterated by friction against some -soft body such as clothing. A reference -to the figures will give a better -idea of their shape and ornamentation -than a mere description. Two perforated -discs may have been used as -studs. There are also many nondescript -articles, consisting of sockets -made of antler of stag, and bone rods -carefully rounded, together with cut -bones of uncertain use. For the identification -of the ivory boss of a sword-hilt -I am indebted to the kindness of -Mr. Franks.</p> - -<p>Besides the ornaments in bone and -antler, there were seven glass beads, -five transparent and two of a bluish -tint, and one of jet turned in a lathe; -as well as a fragment of a jet bracelet. -Among the articles of daily use were -many rounded pebbles, with marks of -fire upon them, which had probably -been heated for the purpose of boiling -water. Pot-boilers, as they are called, -of this kind are used by many savage<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92">92</a></span> -peoples at the present day, and if we wished to heat -water in a vessel that would not stand the fire, we -should be obliged to employ a similar method. Other -stones formed parts of ancient hearths, and two or three -grooved slabs of sandstone had evidently been used -for rounding and sharpening bone pins. The fragments -of pottery were very abundant, and were all of the type -usually found round Roman villas. One fragment of -Samian ware was ornamented with the representation of -a hunt.</p> - -<div id="Fig_23" class="figcenter" style="width: 447px;"> - <img src="images/i_092.jpg" width="447" height="216" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—Ornamented Bone-fastener (natural size).</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_24" class="figcenter" style="width: 339px;"> - <img src="images/i_092b.jpg" width="339" height="171" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Two Bone-links; <i>a</i> worn, <i>b</i> unworn (natural size).</div></div> - -<p>This group of articles throws but little light on the -date of the occupation of the cave. The Samian ware, -and the ivory boss of a Roman sword, merely imply that -it was either Roman or post-Roman.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93">93</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_42"><i>The Coins.</i></h3> - -<p>If we turn now to the coins, we shall find the date to -lie within narrower limits than those fixed by the -animals. They consist <span class="locked">of:—</span></p> - -<p id="list_93" class="in0 in2"> -Two silver of Trajan, d. 117.<br /> -Four bronze of Tetricus I., 267–274.<br /> -One bronze of Tetricus II., 267–274.<br /> -One bronze of Gallienus, d. 268.<br /> -One bronze of Constantine II., d. 343.<br /> -One bronze of Constans, d. 353.<br /> -Three barbarous imitations in bronze of coins of Tetricus, circa 400–500 <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> -</p> - -<p>In a group of coins such as this the latest only give a -clue to the date, since the earlier may have remained in -circulation long after they were struck. In India, for -example, those of Alexander the Great have not yet -disappeared from the country, and in Spain, in the shops -of Malaga, Moorish, Roman, and even Phœnician coins -were current in 1863, as well as all those which have been -struck since.<a id="FNanchor_51" href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> We may therefore disregard the earliest -coins, and fix our attention more particularly on those of -the Constantine family, and the bronze minimi mentioned -last in the list. The presence of the coin of -Constans implies that the cave was occupied either -during or after 337 <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span>, when he ascended the throne; -while the date of the minimi has not been ascertained -with accuracy. “They abound upon all Roman sites, -such as Verulam and Richborough. In size they come -nearest to those struck under Arcadius and his successors, -and I think that you will not be far wrong in -assigning them to the first half of the fifth century.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94">94</a></span> -The latest of the genuine Roman coins found in this -country are those of Arcadius and Honorius; at least, -the finding of any of later date is quite exceptional. -What the currency was between that time and the commencement -of the Saxon coinage it is hard to say. It -seems probable, however, that gold and silver had nearly -disappeared, and that the needs of a small local commerce -were supplied by the Roman copper coins of which -abundance remained in the country, and by small pieces -struck after their model, not improbably by private -speculators.” This opinion, which Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., -has been kind enough to write me, coincides with that -of Mr. Newton, as well as that of Mr. Roach Smith; -and we may therefore assume, with tolerable certainty, -that the cave was inhabited during the first half of the -fifth century or afterwards, at a time when the withdrawal -of the Roman Legions had left the colony of -Britain, whose youth and vigour had been consumed in -the fierce struggle of the rivals for the throne of the -West, a prey to the barbarian invaders.</p> - -<p>It is of course conceivable that some of these coins -may have been dropped at one time, and some at another, -but nevertheless it seems very probable that the whole -accumulation belongs to the same relative age. But -whether this be accepted or not, it is certain the cave -was inhabited during the time that the minimi were in -circulation,—that is to say, during the first half of the -fifth century, or from that time forwards.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_43"><i>The Jewellery, and its Relation to Irish Art.</i></h3> - -<p>This conclusion as to the date, derived from the coins, -is confirmed in a remarkable degree by the examination -of the articles of luxury. Besides two bronze brooches<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95">95</a></span> -of the Roman pattern, known by archæologists as harp-shaped -(<a href="#i_frontis">Coloured Plate</a>, fig. 5), was one of the split-ring -type, with a moveable pin, which is generally assigned to -the later period of the Roman occupation of this country. -One type of brooch was composed of two circular plates -of bronze, soldered together, the front being very thin -and bearing flamboyant and spiral patterns in relief (<a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>), of admirable design and execution. The original -of the figure was discovered by Mr. Jackson, and is -more perfect than any of those which we obtained in -our excavations. It is altogether -unlike any Roman brooch properly -so called, both in its composite -make and style of ornament. A -similar brooch has been discovered -at Brough Castle, in Westmoreland, -and was figured in the -Proceedings of the Antiquarian -Society (vol. iv. 129), by Sir -James Musgrave, and a second is -preserved in the Museum of the -Royal Irish Academy (492). The style corresponds -with that of a medallion on a Runic casket of silver-bronze, -figured by Prof. Stevens, and stated to have -been obtained from Northumbrian Britain, as well -as that of a brooch in the Museum at Mainz, assigned -by the same authority to the third or fourth century. -It is also to be met with in the illuminations of one -of the Anglo-Saxon Gospels at Stockholm, as well as -in those of the Gospels of S. Columban, preserved -in the library of Trinity College, Dublin, and in the -“Book of Kells” (8–900).<a id="FNanchor_52" href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> In all these cases it cannot be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96">96</a></span> -affirmed to be Roman, and it is not presented by ornaments -of either purely English or Teutonic origin. It -is most closely allied to that work which is termed -by Mr. Franks “late Celtic.” From its localization in -Britain and Ireland, it seems to be probable that it is of -Celtic derivation; and if this view be accepted, there is -nothing at all extraordinary in its being recognized in -the illuminated Irish Gospels. Ireland, in the sixth and -seventh centuries, was the great centre of art, civilization, -and literature; and it is only reasonable to suppose -that there would be intercourse between the Irish Christians -and those of the west of Britain during the time -that the Romano-Celts, or Brit-Welsh, were being slowly -pushed to the westward by the heathen English invader. -Proof of such an intercourse we find in the brief notice -in the “Annales Cambriæ,” in which Gildas, the Brit-Welsh -historian, is stated to have sailed over to Ireland -in the year <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 565. It is by no means improbable -that about this time there was a Brit-Welsh migration -into Ireland, as well as into Brittany.</p> - -<div id="Fig_25" class="figright" style="width: 190px;"> - <img src="images/i_095.jpg" width="190" height="189" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—Bronze Brooch (natural size).</div></div> - -<p>Nor is it at all strange that the same style of ornament -should occur in some few cases in North Germany.</p> - -<p>“The conquest of Britain,” writes the Rev. J. R. -Green (“History of the English People,” p. 16<a id="FNanchor_53" href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a>), “had -thrust a wedge of heathendom into the heart of the -Western Church. On the one side lay Italy and Gaul, -whose Churches owned obedience to the see of Rome, on -the other the free Celtic Church of Ireland. But the -condition of the two portions of Western Christendom -was very different. While the vigour of Latin Christianity -was exhausted in a bare struggle for life, Ireland<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97">97</a></span> -as yet unscourged by invaders had drawn from its -conversion an energy such as it has never known since. -Christianity had been received there with a burst of -popular enthusiasm. Letters and arts sprang up rapidly -in its train; the science and Biblical knowledge which -had fled from the continent took refuge in famous -schools which made Durrow and Armagh the universities -of the West. The new life soon beat too strongly -to brook confinement within insular bounds. Patrick, -the first missionary of Ireland, had not been half a -century dead, when Celtic Christianity flung itself with -a fiery zeal into battle with the mass of heathenism -which had rolled in upon the Christian world. Irish -missionaries laboured among the Picts of the Highlands, -among the Frisians of the northern seas; Columban -founded monasteries in Burgundy and the Apennines; -the canton of St. Gall still commemorates in its name -the missionary before whom the spirits of flood and fell -fled wailing over the waters of the Lake of Constance. -For a time it seemed as if the course of the world’s history -was to be changed, as if the older race that Roman -and Teuton had swept before them had turned to the -moral conquest of its conquerors, as if Celtic and not -Latin Christianity was to mould the destinies of the -Churches of the West.”</p> - -<p>It is impossible that Irish-Celtic art should not -have made itself felt wherever the Irish missionaries -penetrated, and especially in the gorgeous illuminated -Gospels, which it was the pride of S. Columban and -his school to have made, and which now excite our -wonder and admiration. The early Christian art in -Ireland grew out of the late Celtic, and was, to a -great extent, free from the influence of Rome, which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98">98</a></span> -is stamped on the Brit-Welsh art of the same age -in this country. The style, therefore, of these circular -brooches, from its correspondence with that of the Irish -illuminated gospels, affords reasonable grounds for the -belief that the Victoria Cave was inhabited in the sixth -century, or possibly later, but before the English invaders -had swept the Brit-Welsh away from the district.</p> - -<p>Two other brooches were also discovered in the -black layer, which are even of greater interest than those -which have just been described. The one represents a -dragon (<a href="#i_frontis">colored Plate</a>, fig. 3), with its eye made of red -enamel; the other (<a href="#i_frontis">colored Plate</a>, fig. 7) shaped, like the -letter S, has its front composed of an elaborate cloissonnée -pattern in red, blue, and yellow enamels, and -is of the same design as two brooches in the British -Museum, discovered, one near Whittington Hill, in Gloucestershire, -and the other near Malton, in Yorkshire. -All three were, undoubtedly, turned out of the same -artistic school, and they may have been made by one -workman. The enamel, in all these examples, seems -to have been inserted into hollows in the bronze, and -then to have been heated so as to form a close union -with them, and in some cases where it has been broken, -as in <a href="#i_frontis">colored Plate</a>, fig. 7, small fragments still remain -to attest the completeness of the fusion with the bronze. -The style of workmanship is neither Roman nor Teutonic. -An enamelled fibula with spirals in relief, found -at Reichenbach<a id="FNanchor_54" href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> (Soleure) in a post-Roman sepulchre, -and figured by Bonstettin, is of a similar design, and -it may be traced also in two brooches obtained by -the Abbé Cochet, from the Merovingian Cemetery of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99">99</a></span> -Envermeu,<a id="FNanchor_55" href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> although they are of more massive and -square construction than those of Yorkshire.</p> - -<p>One harp-shaped brooch (<a href="#i_frontis">colored Plate</a>, fig. 1) is -ornamented with diamonds of blue enamel, separated -by small triangles of red, and shows in its Roman design -and Celtic ornamentation the union between Celtic and -Roman art. A similar specimen from Brough Castle, -Westmoreland, is preserved in the British Museum, and -may have been turned out of the same workshop. We -also met with an enamelled disk (<a href="#i_frontis">colored Plate</a>, fig. 6), -and a finger-ring (<a href="#i_frontis">fig. 4</a>) of bronze-gilt, ornamented with -blue enamel.</p> - -<p>Several enamelled fibulæ in the British Museum, obtained -by Sir James Musgrave, at Kirby Thore, Westmoreland, -belong to the same style of art as those of the -Victoria cave, and were associated with the same class of -remains. Shields,<a id="FNanchor_56" href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> scabbards, horse trappings, and other -articles have also been discovered in this county, decorated -in the same fashion with coloured enamels, and especially -a bronze vase from the late Roman tumuli, called the -Bartlow Hills. They all belong to the class termed “late -Celtic” by Mr. Franks, and are considered by him to be -of British manufacture.</p> - -<p>This view is supported by the only reference to the -art of enamelling which is furnished by the classical -writers. Philostratus, a Greek sophist, who left Athens -in the beginning of the third century to join the Court -of Julia Domna, the wife of the Emperor Severus, -writes:—“It is said that the barbarians living in or by -the ocean, pour these colors (those of the horse trappings)<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100">100</a></span> -on heated bronze, that these adhere, grow as hard -as stone, and preserve the designs that are made in -them.”<a id="FNanchor_57" href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> Mr. Franks’ opinion that this passage relates -to Britain, seems to be more probable than that of the -eminent French archæologist, M. de Laborde, who holds -that it relates to Gaul and especially to “Belgica.”<a id="FNanchor_58" href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a></p> - -<p>When we consider the variety of enamelled objects -which have been discovered in the north of England, it -seems to be by no means improbable that the principal -centre of the art enamelling was here rather than in the -south; and this conclusion is considerably strengthened -by the fact that under the Romans political power -centered in the district between the Humber and the -Tyne, and that York, and not London, was the capital of -Britain and the seat of the Roman Prefect. It is worthy -of remark, that since the Emperor Severus built the wall -which bears his name, marched in person against the -Caledonians, and died at York, the account of the -enamels may have been brought to the court of the -Empress Julia from this very region, and thus come to -be recorded by Philostratus.</p> - -<p>Two harp-shaped fibulæ, obtained by Mr. Jackson -from the Victoria cave, and ornamented with enamel, -are coated with silver, and in one of them two small -blocks of that metal still remain firmly imbedded in the -bronze. It is very probable that most of the ornaments -were plated either with silver or gold, traces of which, -in some cases, still remain.</p> - -<p>Among the miscellaneous objects in metal are a bronze<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101">101</a></span> -wire brooch (<a href="#i_frontis">colored Plate</a>, fig. 8), two bracelets, composed -of twisted bronze-gilt wire; and one fragment in solid -bronze, ornamented with right lines; one plain bronze -finger-ring; two small buckles, respectively of bronze -and of iron, and a small bronze flattened pin (<a href="#i_frontis">colored -Plate</a>, fig. 2), ending in two points to which, at first, we -were unable to assign a use. When, however, the two -points were compared with the circles on the ornaments -of bone (<a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>), there was but little doubt that this -curious object was employed as a pair of fixed compasses. -There were also iron articles which were too -much corroded to admit of a guess at their probable use, -besides a Roman key, knife-blades, and a spear-head -discovered by Mr. Jackson.</p> - -<p>The number of ornaments found in the Victoria Cave -from time to time by various explorers is very considerable. -They are scattered in the private collections -of Messrs. Jackson and Eckroyd Smith, and in the -Museums of Giggleswick Grammar-school, and of Leeds, -and the British Museum.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_44"><i>Similar remains in other Caves in Yorkshire.</i></h3> - -<p>The Victoria cave is by no means the only one in the -district that has furnished works of art and the remains -of animals. The Albert cave (<a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>, <i>c</i>.) close by is, as -yet, only explored sufficiently to prove that it contains -the same kind of objects; and from that of Kelko, overlooking -Giggleswick, they have been obtained by Mr. -Jackson;<a id="FNanchor_59" href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> as well as from that of Dowker-bottom between -Arncliffe and Kilnsay, by Mr. James Farrer and Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102">102</a></span> -Denny.<a id="FNanchor_60" href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> From the last, seven spoon-shaped brooches -of bone, and two spindle-whorls of Samian ware of -the bottom of a vase, are preserved in the British -Museum, as well as a bronze needle, and brooches -both harp-shaped and discoid, and fragments of pottery. -Three coins in bronze, according to Mr. Farrer,<a id="FNanchor_61" href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> -prove that the date of the accumulation is late or post-Roman, -one being of Claudius Gothicus, whose reign -ended <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 270, and two belonging to the Tetrici, <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> -267–273, since they would remain in circulation for -some time after they were struck. A bronze pin, in -the possession of Mr. Jackson, from Dowker-bottom, is -remarkable for the head being plated with silver.</p> - -<p>The fragment of flattened antler from this cave, referred -by Mr. Denny to the elk, most probably belongs to the -crown of an old antler of the stag, and the remains of -the “Canis primævus” of that author cannot be distinguished -from those of a large dog. The bones of the -wolf, and an enormous stag in the Museum of the -Philosophical Society at Leeds, are probably much older -than the Brit-Welsh stratum.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_45"><i>These Caves used as Places of Refuge.</i></h3> - -<p>The presence of these works of art, in association with -the remains of the domestic animals used for food, is -only to be satisfactorily accounted for in the way proposed -by Mr. Dixon. Men accustomed to luxury and -refinement were compelled, by the pressure of some great -calamity, to flee for refuge, and to lead a half-savage life -in these inclement caves, with whatever they could<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103">103</a></span> -transport thither of their property. They were also -accompanied by their families, for the number of personal -ornaments and the spindle-whorls imply the -presence of the female sex. We may also infer that -they were cut off from the civilization to which they -had been accustomed, since they were compelled to -extemporize spindle-whorls out of the pieces of the -vessels that they brought with them, instead of using -those which had been manufactured for the purpose.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_46"><i>The evidence of History as to the Date.</i></h3> - -<p>We have already seen from the examination of the -coins, that the Victoria cave was occupied during or after -the first half of the fifth century, and from the works of -art that it may have been, and probably was, occupied at -a later time. To fix the latest possible limit to the occupation -of the group of caves to which it belongs, we -must appeal to contemporary history.</p> - -<p id="hdr_47">During the first four centuries of Roman dominion in -Britain, the spread of the manners and arts of the great -mistress of the world followed close upon her success in -arms; and the policy of one of the greatest of her generals, -Agricola, bore fruit in the adoption of her civilization by -the British provincials. The population clustered round -the Roman stations, and cities sprang up, such as Chester, -Bath, York, and Lincoln, between which a ready communication -was maintained by the roads that still remain -as monuments of engineering skill, and which, in many -cases, have been used uninterruptedly from that time to -the present day. Agriculture was carried on to such an -extent, that Britain became one of the principal corn-producing -regions of the Roman Empire; and a commerce -with foreign countries was carried on from the ports on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104">104</a></span> -banks of the Thames and the Severn (Gildas, i.). The -mineral sources were also fully explored; tin was sought -in the mines of Cornwall, lead in those of Derbyshire -and Somersetshire, and iron in the forest of Dean, Sussex, -and Northumberland. Nor was this material prosperity -unaccompanied by the signs of luxury and culture. -Numerous villas were dotted throughout the province, -resembling in size and plan the quadrangle of a mediæval -college at Oxford or Cambridge, and even in ruins -astonishing us by their magnitude and the beauty of -their tessellated pavements. York was the capital of -the province and the centre of government, and consequently -Yorkshire must have been, if anything, more -completely penetrated with the Roman arts and civilization -than any other part of Britain. The relation of the -Roman conquerors to the conquered Celtic inhabitants was -somewhat analogous to that which now exists between -the English and the subject nations in India. Latin was -the language spoken by the higher classes in the cities, of -the army, and probably of the courts of law; while in -the country the Celtic tongue held its ground, and still -survives in the language of Wales. Christianity was -probably professed in this country about the time of -Constantine, and became the dominant religion by the -middle of the fifth century, if not before.</p> - -<p>Underneath all the outward signs of prosperity during -the Roman rule in Britain, there were causes at work -which ensured the ruin of the province. The policy of -centralization, and the very perfection of the machinery -for government on autocratic principles, which brought -about the destruction of the Roman Empire, as in our -own days they have nearly ruined France, bore fruit in -Britain in the helpless apathy of the provincials when<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105">105</a></span> -the machinery was broken up. It is therefore no wonder -that when the Roman garrison was finally withdrawn -from this country, in the year 409, the provincials -were left an easy prey to their enemies. Nor need we -wonder that they set up isolated centres of government, -which we may term communes, in the year 410, in -which each city stood out for itself, instead of combining -together for the common weal. From this time forward -the inhabitants of the Roman province of Britain, severed -from the Roman Empire, became a prey to the many -tyrants who sprang up, and the anarchy followed so -pathetically described by Gildas. It was at this time -that the coinage became debased, and Roman coins -afforded the patterns for the small bronze minimi of the -Settle cave,<a id="FNanchor_62" href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> which are so abundant among the ruins -of Roman cities in this country, such as St. Alban’s.</p> - -<p id="hdr_48">The invaders of Britain must now be considered. The -Picts and Scots had secured a rude liberty under the -protection of their mountains and morasses, rather than -by their success in arms against the Roman legions, and -their raids into the Roman province had been curbed by -the walls and lines of forts, extending, the one from the -Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, the other from the -Solway Firth to the Tyne. In spite of these, however, -from time to time, in the fourth century, they carried -desolation into Northumberland and Yorkshire, even if -they did not penetrate farther into the south. And on -the withdrawal of the Roman legions, at the beginning of -the fifth century, their raids were organized on a much -larger scale. In the pages of Gildas we have a melancholy -picture of their results. In the letter written to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106">106</a></span> -Ætius, the Roman commander in Gaul, in 446, the -Britains are described as sheep, and the Picts and Scots -as wolves. “The barbarians drive us back to the sea; -the sea drives us back again to perish at the hands of -the barbarians,” are the words put into the mouth of the -embassy.<a id="FNanchor_63" href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> One plea for aid, which they advanced, is -especially interesting, because it shows incidentally that -the Roman civilization did not disappear with the withdrawal -of the legions—the plea that unless they were -succoured the name of Rome would be dishonoured. -Nerved by despair, the British in the following year take -up arms, and, according to Gildas, leave their houses and -lands, and taking shelter in mountains and forests, and -in caves,<a id="FNanchor_64" href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> succeed in driving back their Pictish and -Scottish enemies.</p> - -<p>It is very significant that <em>caves</em> should be mentioned -in this account; for the region of Craven is one of the -very few in the country in which they are sufficiently -abundant to allow of their being used as places of -shelter on a scale sufficiently large to be recorded in -history; and when we consider that one of the natural -highways from Scotland into central England lies -through that district, it seems to me extremely probable -that the group of caves of which Victoria is one -is that referred to. On this point it is worthy of record, -that in the year 1745, when the younger Pretender was -at Shap, and it was doubtful whether he would take the -route through Ribblesdale or by way of Preston, the eldest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107">107</a></span> -son of one of the landowners near Settle, was hidden, -along with the family plate, in a Cave close to the -Victoria, in the belief that the Highlanders were in the -habit of eating children as well as of laying hands on -the precious metals. The historical notice tallies exactly -with the geographical position, and is not inconsistent -with the evidence offered by the coins and other remains. -The date, therefore, of the occupation may probably be -assigned as about the middle of the fifth century.</p> - -<p id="hdr_49">This, however, is not the latest date that can be -assigned. In the year 449, the three ships which -contained Hengist and his warriors, landed at Ebbsfleet, -in Thanet, and the first English colony was founded -among a people who were known to the strangers as -“Brit-Welsh.”<a id="FNanchor_65" href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> From that time a steady immigration -of Angle, Jute, Saxon, and Frisian set in towards the -eastern coast of Britain, as far north as the Firth of -Forth, until, in the first half of the sixth century, the -whole of the eastern part of our island was taken possession -of by various tribes,<a id="FNanchor_66" href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> whose names, for the most -part, still survive in the names of our counties. The -principal rivers also afforded them a free passage into -the heart of the country, and the kingdom of Mercia gradually -expanded until it embraced, not only the basin -of the Trent, but reached as far as the line of the Severn. -The river Humber afforded a base of operations for the -Anglian freebooters, who founded the kingdom of Deira -or modern Yorkshire; while the camp of Bamborough<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108">108</a></span> -was the centre from which Ida, who landed with fifty -ships in the year 547, conquered Bernicia, or the region -extending from the river Tees to Edinburgh. The tide -of English colonization rolled steadily westward, until, at -the close of the sixth century, the hilly and impassable -districts culminating in the Pennine Chain, and extending -southwards from Cumberland and Westmoreland, -through Yorkshire and Derbyshire, formed the barrier -between the Brit-Welsh kingdoms of Elmet and Strathclyde -on the east, and the English on the west. To the -south of this the Brit-Welsh dominion was bounded by -the river Severn, and included Chester and the whole of -the basin of the Dee; while Somerset, Devon, and -Cornwall, and the district round Bradford and Malmesbury -formed the kingdom of West Wales.<a id="FNanchor_67" href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a></p> - -<p>The long war by which the borders of England were -gradually pushed to the west, at the expense of the -Brit-Welsh, was one of the most fearful of which we -have any record. The English invaders came over, with -their wives and children and household stuff, in such -force that the country which they left behind was left -desolate for several centuries. Worshippers of Thor and -Odin, and living a free life, equally divided between -farming, hunting, and war, they were mortal foes to -Christianity and to Roman civilization. They destroyed -the Brit-Welsh cities with fire and sword; and the ashes -of the Roman villas, which are to be found in nearly -every part of the Roman province of Britain, testify to -the keenness of their hate to everything which was at -once Christian, Roman, and Celtic. Gildas forcibly describes -the destruction which they wrought among his -countrymen, by the metaphor that “the flame kindled<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109">109</a></span> -in the east, raged over nearly all the land, until it flared -red over the western ocean.”<a id="FNanchor_68" href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> In the conquered districts -the Brit-Welsh were either exterminated or enslaved, -and their civilization was wholly replaced by the rude -culture of the English.</p> - -<p>It follows, from the nature of this conquest, that any -group of remains, such as those in the caves under consideration, -must be assigned to the time before the -English had possession of the district, and we must therefore -see what historical proof is to be found on the point.</p> - -<p>At the close of the sixth century the Brit-Welsh -kingdom of Elmet (in the basin of the river Aire)—a -name which still survives in Barwick-in-Elmet, a little -village about seven miles to the north-east of Leeds—extended -over the country round Leeds and Bradford, -passing westwards towards, if not into, Lancashire, and -northwards probably so as to embrace Ribblesdale, and -forming a barrier to the westward advance of the English -possessors of eastern Yorkshire. Its downfall will -give us the latest possible limit which we are seeking for -the Brit-Welsh occupation of the Victoria Cave. The -two kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia had united to form -the powerful state of Northumbria, at the beginning of -the seventh century, under Æthelfrith, who carried on the -war against the Brit-Welsh with greater vigour than his -predecessors. In 607<a id="FNanchor_69" href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> he marched along the line of the -Trent, through Staffordshire, avoiding thereby the difficult -and easily-defended hilly country of Derbyshire and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110">110</a></span> -East Lancashire, to the battle near Chester, famous for -the destruction of the power of Strathclyde, and the -death of the monks of Bangor, who fought against him -with their prayers. By this decisive blow, the English -first set foot on the coast of the Irish Channel, and -Strathclyde and Elmet, on the one hand, were cut -asunder from Wales. On the other Chester was so -thoroughly destroyed that it remained in ruins for -nearly three centuries, to be rebuilt by Æthelflæd, “the -Lady of the Mercians,” in 907, and the plains of Lancashire -lay open to the invader.<a id="FNanchor_70" href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> This western advance -of the Northumbrians was completed by the conquest of -Elmet, in 616, by Eadwine, and the whole district from -Edinburgh, as far south as the Humber, and as far west -as Chester, became subject to his rule.<a id="FNanchor_71" href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> The latest possible -date, therefore, that can be assigned for the occupation -of these caves by the Brit-Welsh is determined by -that event. It cannot be later than the first quarter of -the seventh century, or the time when what remained of -Roman art and civilization in that district was swept -away by the ancestors of the present dalesmen. The -relics in the caves must have been accumulated in the -two centuries which elapsed between the recall of the -legions in the days of Honorius and the English conquest. -They are traces of the anarchy which existed in those -times, and they tell a tale of woe, wrought on the Brit-Welsh, -by Pict, Scot, or Englishman, as eloquently as -the lament of Gildas, or the mournful verses of Talliesin.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111">111</a></span> -They complete the picture of the desolation of those -times revealed by the ashes of the villas and cities -which were burned by the invaders.</p> - -<p>We have now examined the evidence as to date offered -by the contents of these caves, and we have seen that it -agrees with the contemporary history. It may therefore -be concluded that it lies in the fifth and sixth -centuries, possibly the first quarter of the seventh.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_50"><i>The Neolithic Stratum.</i></h3> - -<div id="Fig_26" class="figleft up1" style="width: 120px;"> - <img src="images/i_112.jpg" width="120" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—Bone Harpoon (natural size).</div></div> - -<p>This occupation of the Victoria Cave by the Brit-Welsh -is a mere episode in its history. It was inhabited -by man in the neolithic age, at a time so remote that -the interval between it and the historical period can -only be measured by the rude method by which geologists -estimate the relative age of the rocks. At the -entrance the dark Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh stratum -(<a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>, No. 4; <a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>, No. 4) lay buried, as we have -seen, under an accumulation of angular fragments of stone -which had fallen from the cliff. It rested on a similar accumulation -(<a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>, No. 3; <a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>, No. 3) which was no -less than six feet thick, and at the bottom of this, at the -point where it was based on a stiff grey clay, a bone harpoon -(<a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26</a>) was discovered, as well as charcoal; a bone -bead (<a href="#Fig_27">Fig. 27</a>), three rude flint flakes, and the broken -bones of the brown bear, stag, horse, and Celtic shorthorn -(<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>). The harpoon is a little more -than three inches long, with the head armed with two -barbs on each side, and the base presenting a mode of -securing attachment to the handle which has not before -been discovered in Britain. Instead of a mere projection -to catch the ligatures by which it was bound to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112">112</a></span> -shaft, there is a well-cut barb on either side, pointing in -a contrary direction to those which form the head. -Ample use for such an instrument would be found in -Malham tarn, some three miles off, and -very probably also in that which formerly -existed close by at Attermire, but which -has been choked up by peat, and is now -turned into grass-land by drainage. The -remains of the brown bear consist of -numerous hollow bones and teeth, and -the shaft of a femur with its articular -ends broken off, has been polished by -friction against some soft substance, so -that its surface has a lustre like that of -glass.</p> - -<div id="Fig_27" class="figright" style="width: 129px;"> - <img src="images/i_113.jpg" width="129" height="101" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span> Bone-bead (natural size.)</div></div> - -<p>The question naturally arises, who were -the ancient inhabitants of the cave whose -rude implements occur in this lower stratum? -From the few remains which we -discovered, they were hunters and fishermen, -and the possessors of domestic oxen, -and possibly horses, and in a much lower -state of civilization than the Brit-Welsh -inhabitants who succeeded them in the -cave after a long interval. There is no -proof that they used a coinage, or that -they were acquainted with metal. The -conclusion that they were neolithic is -based on the following evidence:—In -1871 the Exploration Committee examined -a small cave about 200 yards off, in King’s -Scar, and obtained the broken bones of the stag, Celtic -short-horn (<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>), goat, and horse, a whetstone,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113">113</a></span> -and a rudely chipped scraper, to which, subsequently, -Mr. John Birkbeck, jun., made the important -addition of part of a human thigh-bone. This set of -remains, the human thigh-bone excepted, agrees with -those in the lower stratum in the Victoria Cave, not -merely in the absence of metal, but also in affording -signs of a comparatively rude civilization; and we might -reasonably expect that the two caves so close to each -other, would have been occupied by the same people at -approximately the same time. If this be allowed, the -thigh-bone may be assigned to one of these earlier inhabitants, -the place of habitation being, as is frequently -the case, subsequently used for purposes -of burial. The thigh-bone itself is characterized -by the great development of -the muscular ridge known to anatomists -as the <i class="taxonomy">linea aspera</i>, implying the peculiar -flatness of shin which is termed -by Professor Busk platycnemism. This -peculiar form has been met with in the neolithic tumuli -of Yorkshire, explored by the Rev. Canon Greenwell, as -well as in the human remains which I have discovered -in the neolithic caves and chambered tombs of Denbighshire; -and since it has not been observed in any human -skeletons in this country which are not of that age, it -may be fairly taken to prove that a neolithic people -formerly lived in Ribblesdale. And further, since the -traces of rude culture met with in these two caves are -the same as those which characterize neolithic burial and -dwelling places throughout Europe, they may be assigned -to that remote age. Similar human remains were obtained -by Mr. Farrer from the Dowker-bottom Cave, and imply -that that cave also was used as a neolithic burial-place.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114">114</a></span> -The identification of this race with the Basque -or Iberian stock, from which are descended the small, -dark peoples of Derbyshire, Wales, and certain parts of -Ireland, must be referred to the chapters on the Neolithic -Caves.</p> - -<div id="Fig_28" class="figcenter" style="width: 416px;"> - <img src="images/i_114.jpg" width="416" height="256" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—Stone Adze: <i>a</i>, side view; <i>b</i>, edge (natural size).</div></div> - -<p>The reputed discovery of an adze (<a href="#Fig_28">Fig. 28</a>), of a -variety of greenstone which Mr. Wyndham identifies -with melaphyr, many years ago in the Victoria Cave, -may offer additional evidence as to its having been -occupied by a neolithic tribe. It was presented to the -Museum of the Philosophical Society at Leeds by Mr. -Jackson, and figured by Mr. Denny among the remains -from the Caves of Craven, and presents characters -that have not, to my knowledge, been met with in -any other neolithic implement found in Great Britain: -one end being roughly chipped for insertion into a -socket, while the other is carefully ground into a -chisel edge. In these respects, as Mr. O’Callaghan and -Mr. Denny have observed, it bears a striking resemblance -to the stone adzes used by the South Sea Islanders, -and especially in Tahiti;—a resemblance so strong that,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115">115</a></span> -unless it had been traced from the hands of the discoverer -into the Museum at Leeds, it would be considered -by many archæologists as an implement actually -obtained from the South Seas. It may have been derived -from the lower stratum, which furnished the equally -peculiar harpoon, <a href="#Fig_26">Fig. 26</a>.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_51"><i>The Approximate Date of the Neolithic Occupation.</i></h3> - -<p>From the position in which these remains occurred, -it is obvious that a neolithic tribe occupied the cave -before the accumulation of the angular fragments, six -feet in thickness (<a href="#Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>, No. 3; <a href="#Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>, No. 3), just -as the date of the Brit-Welsh occupation is fixed as -being after this, and before the accumulation of the -two feet of débris above (No. 5). And in this we have a -means of roughly estimating the interval of time between -them. It is clear that the accumulation of two feet of -angular fragments, torn away by the action of the -weather from the cliff, has been formed in about 1,200 -years, <i>i.e.</i> between the Brit-Welsh occupation and the -present time. If it be admitted that equal quantities -of the cliff have been weathered away in equal times, it -will follow that the thickness of six feet between the -Brit-Welsh stratum and that under examination was -formed during a time thrice as long, or 3,600 years; and -that consequently the date of the earlier occupation of -the cave by man is fixed as being about 4,800, or 5,000 -years ago. It is perfectly true, that in ancient times -the frosts may have been more intense than they are -now, and therefore that the rate of weathering may have -been faster. To the objection that possibly a large mass -of cliff may have tumbled down at one time, and subsequently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116">116</a></span> -been disintegrated, it may be answered, that at the -point at the entrance where the section was taken there -was no evidence of any such fall; the angular blocks, -both above and below the Brit-Welsh stratum, being as -nearly as possible of the same size, and not lying with -their faces parallel to each other, as would have been the -case had they been disintegrated fallen blocks. Nevertheless -this attempt to fix a date cannot lay claim to -scientific precision, and in that respect is neither better, -nor worse, than any other similar attempt founded on -the rate at which a valley is being excavated, or alluvium -being deposited, or on the retrocession of a waterfall, -such, for example, as Niagara. It is merely valuable as -enabling us to form some sort of idea of the high -antiquity of the neolithic men who left these remains -behind in the cave.</p> - -<p>As the trench (see <a href="#Fig_20">Figs. 20</a>, <a href="#Fig_21">21</a>) begun on the outside -passed into the entrance of the cave, the accumulation -of stones above the neolithic stratum disappeared, and -the latter became intermingled with the Brit-Welsh layer -above, so that it would have been impossible to distinguish -the one from the other had not the talus marked -the interval in the plateau outside. The talus also -above the Brit-Welsh stratum ceased at the entrance, -although here and there large blocks of stone, fallen -from time to time from the roof, rested on its upper -surface.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_52"><i>The Grey Clays.</i></h3> - -<p>Immediately below the neolithic stratum, a deposit of -stiff grey clay of unknown depth occupies both the -entrance and the inside of the cave (<a href="#Fig_20">Figs. 20</a>, <a href="#Fig_21">21</a>), containing -fragments of limestone and large angular blocks<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117">117</a></span> -which had fallen from the roof. A shaft sunk to a depth -of twenty-five feet near the entrance failed to arrive at -the bottom, but presented the following section in -descending order: stiff grey clay with layer of stalagmite -six feet thick; a finely laminated calcareous clay twelve -feet thick; and below, a similar bed of clay to that on the -surface. In a second shaft sunk to the depth of twelve -feet farther within the cave, the base of the grey clay -was not reached.<a id="FNanchor_72" href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a></p> - -<div id="Fig_29" class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;"> - <img src="images/i_117.jpg" width="400" height="360" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—Section below Grey Clay at entrance.</div></div> - -<p>A third shaft, at the entrance, however, penetrated the -clay, No. 1 of <a href="#Fig_20">Figs. 20</a>, <a href="#Fig_21">21</a>, <a href="#Fig_29">29</a>, at a depth of about five -feet, and revealed the existence below of a reddish-grey -loamy cave-earth (<a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>), containing bones and -teeth of the same animals as those from the caverns<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118">118</a></span> -of Kent’s Hole, Wookey Hole, and others, which belonged -to a group that invaded Europe before the glacial period, -and that inhabited the region north of the Alps and the -Pyrenees in pre- and post-glacial times.<a id="FNanchor_73" href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a></p> - -<p>We subsequently discovered the cave-earth to be from -three to four feet thick, and that it rested on an accumulation -(<a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>) of large blocks of limestone, the interstices -between which were filled with clay, sometimes laminated -and at others homogeneous, as well as with coarse sand. -Below this we broke into an empty passage, one side -of which was formed by the solid rock, and the other of -blocks of stone imbedded in the clay.</p> - -<p>As we opened out a horizontal passage towards the -cave-earth, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>, from the outside, the talus (<a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>) of -angular débris was cut through first, which gradually -became more and more clayey in its lower portions: at -one point, <span class="smcap smaller">D</span>, there were several glaciated blocks, some -imbedded in clay and others perfectly free. It rested -obliquely on the edges of the cave-earth, and passed -gradually at the entrance into the clay occupying the -interior of the cave.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_53"><i>The Pleistocene Occupation by Hyænas.</i></h3> - -<p>The remains of the spelæan variety of the spotted -hyæna were very abundant in the cave-earth, consisting -of fragments of skulls, jaws, and bones, and especially -of coprolites, which formed irregular floors, accumulated -during successive occupations of the cave by -that animal. All the bones were gnawed and scored by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119">119</a></span> -teeth, the lower jaws were without the angle and coronoid -process (see <a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a>), and the hollow bones which contain -marrow were broken, while those which were solid and -marrowless were for the most part perfect: and this held -good, not merely of the remains of the hyæna, but of those -of all the animals which constituted their prey. The bones, -for example, of the woolly rhinoceros are represented -merely by the hard distal portion of the shaft of the -humerus, and of the solid bones of the ulna and radius, -while the only portions of skull are the solid pedestal -offered by the nasal bones on which the front horn was -supported, and a few smaller fragments. The pedestal -in question is depicted by the dark shaded portion of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120">120</a></span> -<a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>, the outline of the skull and lower jaw being -taken from one of Professor Brandt’s plates of the -Woolly Rhinoceros found in Siberia.<a id="FNanchor_74" href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> The teeth which -imply the presence of the mammoth (milk molars 3 and -4) were those of a young individual, as is very generally -the case in caves which have been occupied by hyænas. -The young would naturally be more exposed to the attack -of those cowardly beasts of prey than the adult, armed -with its long curved tusks, and defended, not merely by its -thick skin, but also by the covering of wool and long hair -which is peculiar to the species. Besides these animals, -the reindeer, red-deer, bison, horse, the brown, grizzly, and -great cave bears, were preyed upon by the hyænas and -dragged into the cave. All these species were discovered -within an area of a few square yards of cave-earth, -which passes into the interior of the cave under -the grey clay. They belong to that well-defined group -known as pleistocene, quaternary, or post-pleiocene, which -was proved to have inhabited Yorkshire<a id="FNanchor_75" href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> in ancient times -from Dr. Buckland’s discoveries in Kirkdale, and Mr. -Denny’s examination of the river-deposit at Leeds, in -which the remains of the hippopotamus were obtained.</p> - -<div id="Fig_30" class="figcenter" style="width: 439px;"> - <img src="images/i_119.jpg" width="439" height="452" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>—Skull of Woolly Rhinoceros, showing the part which is not eaten by the hyænas.</div></div> - -<p>The last and most important addition to this fauna -is that of man, a fragment of fibula in the same -mineral condition as the rest of the pleistocene bones, -having been identified by Professor Busk with an -unusually massive recent human fibula. Although the -fragment is very small, its comparison with the abnormal -specimen in Professor Busk’s possession removes all doubt<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121">121</a></span> -from my mind, as to its having belonged to a man, who -was contemporary with the cave-hyæna and the other -pleistocene animals found in the cave.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_54"><i>The probable Pre-glacial Age of the Pleistocene Stratum.</i></h3> - -<p>Is this occupation of the Victoria Cave by the pleistocene -mammalia pre-glacial or post-glacial?—before, or -after, the great lowering of the temperature in northern -Europe? This difficult question can only be answered -by an appeal to the physical history of the clay and -cave-loam, and to the evidence as to glacial action in -the district, and to the distribution of the mammalia -in Great Britain during the pleistocene period. Glaciers -have left their marks in nearly every part of Lancashire -and Yorkshire, and especially in the neighbourhood of -the Victoria Cave. The hill-sides around are studded -with large ice-borne Silurian rocks; boulder-clay occupies -nearly every hollow on the elevated plateaux; and -moraines are to be observed in nearly every valley. -At the entrance of the cave itself, ice-scratched Silurian -grit-stones are imbedded in the clay, which abuts directly -on the cave-loam, and passes insensibly into the clay, -with angular blocks of limestone within the cave. They -may possibly be the constituents of a lateral moraine <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in -situ</i>, as Mr. Tiddeman suggests, or they may merely -be derived from the waste of boulder-clay which has -dropped from a higher level.</p> - -<p>The latter view seems to me to be most likely to be -true, because some of the boulders have been deprived -of the clay in which they were imbedded, and are piled -on each other with empty space between them, the clay<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122">122</a></span> -being carried down to a lower level and re-deposited. -Their position, however, on the edges of the cave-earth -implies, in any case, that they had been dropped after -its accumulation.</p> - -<p>There is another point to be considered in the physical -evidence. The deposits above the cave-earth, -occupying the interior and entrance of the cave, have -been introduced by the rains, either through the -entrance, or through the crevices which penetrate the -roof, and consist of a finer detritus washed out of the -boulder-clay on the surface at a higher level. The cave-earth, -however, although it has been introduced in the -same way, cannot be accounted for on the supposition -that it was derived from the boulder-clay, with which -it contrasts in the fact that it is a loam, of a reddish -grey colour, containing a large percentage of carbonate -and phosphate of lime.</p> - -<p>Similar deposits, characterized by their red colour, are -to be found in nearly all the caves of the south of England, -in France, and southern Europe, not complicated, -as here, by the glacial phenomena of the district. Had -the layer been formed in the Victoria Cave, from the -destruction of the boulder-clay, it would have been -identical in composition with the deposits above.</p> - -<p>The laminated portions of the grey clay are considered -by Mr. Tiddeman to have been formed by the flow of -water through the entrance, derived from the daily -melting of the glacier which occupied the valley in -ancient times, and he compares it with a similar lamination -in the boulder-clay at Ingleton, which has -been described by Mr. Binney in the neighbourhood of -Clifton, near Manchester, under the expressive name of -“book-leaves.” Since, however, similar accumulations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123">123</a></span> -are being formed at the present time at the bottom of -pools in many caves, as, for example, in that of Ingleborough, -they cannot be taken to imply a glacial origin. -They are not found merely in one spot in the Victoria -Cave, but are scattered, more or less, through the general -mass of the clay, and occur abundantly even below the -cave-earth, having been deposited in the interstices -between the large blocks of limestone. In these positions -they are of uncertain age, and there is no reason why -some of the hollows which we discovered below the -cave-earth (<a href="#Fig_29">Fig. 29</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>) should not be filled with them at -the present time by the heavy rains. They dip at all -angles, and are conformable to the surfaces on which -they have been dropped.</p> - -<p>The most important argument in favour of the -pre-glacial age of the mammaliferous cave-earth is -afforded by the range of the animals in Great Britain -during the time that certain areas were occupied by -glaciers. In a paper read before the Geological Society -in 1869, I showed that those areas in Great Britain in -which the marks of glaciers were the freshest and most -abundant coincided with those which were barren of -the remains of the pleistocene mammalia, and I therefore -inferred that this was due to the fact, that the -areas in question were covered by ice at the time that -pleistocene animals were so numerous in the caves, and -river-deposits of southern and eastern England, and on -the continent. In a map published in 1871, Cumberland, -Westmoreland, Lancashire, and the greater portion -of Yorkshire are represented as being one of these -barren areas, in which no pleistocene mammalia have -been observed. It is obvious that the hyænas, bears, -mammoths, and other creatures found in the pleistocene<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124">124</a></span> -stratum, could not have occupied the district when it -was covered by ice; and had they lived soon after the -retreat of the ice-sheet, their remains would occur in the -river-gravels, from which they are absent throughout a -large area to the north of a line drawn between Chester -and York, whilst they occur abundantly in the glacial -river deposits south of that line. On the other hand, -they belong to a fauna, that overran Europe, and must -have occupied this very region before the glacial period, -since their remains have been found in pre-glacial strata -to the north in Scotland, to the south at Selsea, and -to the east in Norfolk and Suffolk. It may, therefore, -reasonably be concluded that they occupied the cave in -pre-glacial times, and that the stratum in which their -remains lie buried, was protected from the grinding of -the ice-sheet, which destroyed nearly all the surface -accumulations in the river-valleys, by the walls and -roof of rock, which has since, to a great extent, been -weathered away.<a id="FNanchor_76" href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> This view is also held by Mr. -Tiddeman.</p> - -<p>The exploration of the Victoria Cave, which has -hitherto yielded such interesting evidence of three distinct -occupations—first by hyænas, then by neolithic -men, and lastly by the Brit-Welsh, is by no means -complete. The cave itself is of unknown depth and -extent, and the mere removal of so much earth and -clay as it is at present known to contain will be a -labour of years. The results of the exploration, up -to the present time, are of almost equal value to the -archæologist, to the historian, and the geologist, and -prove how close is the bond of union between three -branches of human thought which at first sight appear<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125">125</a></span> -remote from each other. The discussion of the problems -connected with the neolithic and pleistocene -strata must be referred to the <a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> and following -chapters.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_55"><i>The Kirkhead Cave.</i></h3> - -<p>Other caves in this country, besides the group under -consideration in Yorkshire, have been occupied by the -Brit-Welsh. That known as the Kirkhead Cave, on -the eastern shore of the Promontory of Cartmell, on the -northern shore of Morecambe Bay, explored by Mr. -J. P. Morris,<a id="FNanchor_77" href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> and a Committee of the Anthropological -Society in 1864–5, contained remains of the same type -as those of the Brit-Welsh stratum in the Victoria Cave. -In the débris which formed the floor and extended to an -unknown depth below, a coin of Domitian, “a trefoil-shaped -Roman fibula,” a pin, ornamented with green -enamel, and a bronze ring were discovered in association -with broken remains of domestic animals—<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, -pig and goat, dog and horse, as well as stag, -roe, wild goose, and many human bones. A bronze celt -and a spear-head were also found, at a depth respectively -of five and six feet, and a flint flake at a -depth of seven feet; and fragments of pottery, a bead -of amber, cut bones, the perforated head of the femur, -and other articles. From this group of remains it may -be inferred that the cave was occupied by the Brit-Welsh, -and before them by the users of bronze, and -possibly by a neolithic people, and that it had at some -time or another been used as a place of burial. Just -inside the entrance, which overlooked the sea at a -height of 45 feet, a semi-circular breastwork of large<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126">126</a></span> -stones rendered the cave habitable, and capable of easy -defence.</p> - -<p>Mr. Morris’s view that the discovery of a bronze celt, -flint flakes, and coins in this cave proves that all three -were in use at the same time, and by the same people, is -not borne out by the published account of the excavation. -There is no proof that the deposit had not been disturbed, -or that the articles were not dropped at different -times. And in support of this conclusion, it may be -advanced, that there is no case on record of the discovery -of bronze celts or swords along with any Roman coins -under conditions which would prove that they were in -use at the same time. Had such been the case the -ruins of the many Roman villas and cities, destroyed by -the English, would have furnished some examples. At -Silchester, even such a rare article as a Roman eagle has -been met with. There is every reason to believe with -Sir John Lubbock, Mr. Evans, and other eminent -archæologists, that the use of bronze for weapons had -been superseded by that of iron before the dawn of -history in this country. It is otherwise with the flint -flakes; since my discovery of several inside a Roman -coffin at Hardham, near Pulborough, in Sussex, in a -cemetery that belongs to the later portion of the Roman -dominion in Britain, proves that they were used for -some purpose at that time.<a id="FNanchor_78" href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_56"><i>Poole’s Cave, near Buxton.</i></h3> - -<p>In the collection of articles obtained from Poole’s Cave, -in Buxton, in Derbyshire, I identified, in 1871, in -company with Mr. Pennington, bronze Roman coins, -minimi, Samian and other ware, and large quantities of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127">127</a></span> -broken bones of the same animals as those from the -Victoria Cave. A bronze harp-shaped fibula of the type -of <a href="#i_frontis">Fig. 5</a> of the coloured Plate is inlaid with silver, and -is so perfect that it might still be used.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_57"><i>Thor’s Cave, near Ashbourne.</i></h3> - -<p>A cave also, in Staffordshire, four miles from Ilam, -explored by the Midland Scientific Association in 1864,<a id="FNanchor_79" href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> -under the supervision of Mr. Carrington, has furnished -articles of the same kind as those of Yorkshire. It is -known as Thor’s cave, and penetrates the lofty cliff of -limestone, on the south side of the river Manifold, at a -height of about 254 feet from the bottom of the valley, -and about 900 feet above the sea, running horizontally -inwards, and being divided inside by a row of buttressed -columns into two noble gothic aisles. Its bottom was -occupied by clay, in which, near the entrance, there were -thick layers of charcoal at depths of two, three, and -four feet below the surface, mingled with broken bones -and pottery, that indicated the spots where fires had -been kindled. The articles discovered were as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>“<i>Bronze.</i>—Armlet, two fibulæ of harp pattern (see -<a href="#i_frontis">coloured Plate</a>, Fig. 5), two plain breast-pins and rings, -a curious wheel-shaped instrument.</p> - -<p>“<i>Iron.</i>—Large triangular fork, arrow-heads, lance-heads, -several knives and a chopper, of singular shapes, -reaping hook (?), adze, pins, two girdle hooks (?), &c.</p> - -<p>“<i>Bone.</i>—Seven snags of deer’s horns, variously cut and -perforated, several others not perforated, curious bone -comb ornamented with circles, flat bone perforated with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128">128</a></span> -four holes, two leg-bones carved at the ends, pin, a large -quantity of bones of animals that had been consumed for -food.</p> - -<p>“<i>Stone.</i>—Greenstone pounder, fragments of querns, -perforated disk, &c.</p> - -<p>“<i>Pottery.</i>—A large collection of fragments of various -periods, among the rest several pieces of true Samian -ware.”</p> - -<p>Mr. Edwin Brown, from whose report this list is taken, -concludes that Thor’s cave was occupied during “the -late Celtic and Romano-Celtic periods.” The harp-fibulæ -are of a pattern identical with several of those discovered -in the Victoria Cave, and the holes at their upper ends -were probably intended for the reception of enamel. -The bronze instrument, consisting of a disk cut out into -a flamboyant pattern like that of the round brooch from -the Victoria Cave (<a href="#Fig_25">Fig. 25</a>), and joined to a central stem -ornamented with waved lines, was intended for suspension; -possibly, as Mr. Carrington suggests, it may have -been used for spinning. It is a remarkably fine example -of Brit-Welsh or late Celtic art. The bone comb is of the -same type as those from the Brit-Welsh caves of Yorkshire. -It is evident, from Mr. Brown’s account, that there -were distinct layers of occupation; but, unfortunately, -the articles found in each were not separated from the -rest. One armlet (<a href="#Fig_31">Fig. 31</a>), composed of a thin plate -of bronze, and ornamented with a dotted-line pattern, -is of the peculiar type which is characteristic of the -bronze age.</p> - -<p>The cave had also been used as a place of sepulture, -for near “the pulpit rock,” and at a depth of five feet -from the surface, a skeleton rested in the sitting posture -which is so characteristic of neolithic interments in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129">129</a></span> -Europe. It had also been entered by man even before -any of these accumulations. “In the south recess, -behind and below any traces of man’s occupation, the -diggers came upon a kind of flooring of tabular masses -of breccia stretching almost across the cave, and on one -side attached firmly to the wall,” beneath which rested, -in the undisturbed clay, a deer’s horn, rudely sawn across -and perforated by two holes.</p> - -<div id="Fig_31" class="figcenter" style="width: 310px;"> - <img src="images/i_129.jpg" width="310" height="151" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>—Bronze Bracelet from Thor’s Cave.</div></div> - -<p>Thor’s Cave, therefore, like the Victoria, has been -occupied by man in the Brit-Welsh stage of the historic -period, as well as in the bronze, and possibly in the -neolithic ages.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_58"><i>Historic Value of Brit-Welsh Group of Caves.</i></h3> - -<p>The discovery that caves were used as habitations by -men accustomed to the elegance of civilized life, not -merely in Yorkshire, but in districts so far removed from -each other as Staffordshire and the extreme north of -Lancashire, during the fifth and sixth centuries, implies -the pressure of a far-reaching calamity by which they -were driven from their homes. It completes and rounds -off the story of the social condition of the country during -these troubled times, which is revealed in the sacked<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130">130</a></span> -and burned Brit-Welsh cities and villas, as well as in the -scanty records of the English invasion.</p> - -<p>Subsequent investigation will probably show that -caves were occupied at this time in every part of the -country which was conquered by the English. In the -upper stratum of Kent’s Hole, for example, near Torquay, -similar articles, with the exception of the enamels, -have been discovered. There, however, the occupation -may have been considerably later than in the caves of -Yorkshire, because the Roman civilization was not supplanted -in Devonshire by the English until the beginning -of the ninth century. The river Tamar then marked the -frontier between the English, and the Brit-Welsh of the -promontory of Cornwall, which represented the dominion -of West Wales in the days of Ecgberht.<a id="FNanchor_80" href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a></p> - -<p>In the numerous caves of Wales, on the other hand, -which I have explored, there is no trace of inhabitants -of the fifth and sixth centuries, a circumstance that is -easily accounted for by the fact that Wales was not -invaded at that time by the English. There would -therefore be no reason for the civilized Brit-Welsh to -fly to caves for refuge.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_59"><i>Principal Animals and Articles in Brit-Welsh Caves.</i></h3> - -<p>The following are the more important animals and -articles found in the group of caves under consideration. -The species are identical with those which I have tabulated -from refuse-heaps of Roman age.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131">131</a></span><a id="FNanchor_81" href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a></p> - -<h4 id="list_131"><i>List of Principal Animals and Objects found in Brit-Welsh Strata in Caves.</i></h4> - -<table class="listobjects" summary="brit-welsh strata"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Animals.</span></th> - <th class="tdc">Victoria</th> - <th class="tdc">Kelko</th> - <th class="tdc">Dowker<br />Bottom.</th> - <th class="tdc">Kirk-<br />head.</th> - <th class="tdc">Poole’s<br />Cavern.</th> - <th class="tdc">Thor’s<br />Cave.</th></tr> - <tr class="hdr"> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Domestic.</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis familiaris</i>—Dog</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">?</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>—Pig</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">?</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>—Horse</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">?</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>—Celtic Short-horn</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">?</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Capra hircus</i>—Goat</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">?</td></tr> - <tr class="hdr"> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Wild.</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis vulpes</i>—Fox</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">?</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Meles taxus</i>—Badger</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus elaphus</i>—Stag</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">?</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus capreolus</i>—Roe</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">?</td></tr> - <tr class="topspace"> - <td class="tdl">Roman coins or imitations</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Enamelled ornaments in bronze</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Bronze ornaments inlaid with silver</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Iron articles</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Samian ware</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Black ware</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Bone-spoon fibulæ (<a href="#Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>)</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl">Bone combs</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">...</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>All the less important animals and articles are omitted -from this list. It will be observed that the brown bear, -the wolf, and the fallow-deer are absent. The brown -bear was probably at this time very rare in Britain, -since its remains have been met with in but two out of -the many Roman refuse-heaps in the country, at London -and Colchester. The well-known lines of Martial, however, -imply that it was imported from Britain to Rome at -this <span class="locked">time—</span></p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="iq">“Nuda Caledonio sic pectora præbuit urso,<br /></span> -<span class="i0">Haud falsa pendens in cruce Laureolus.”<br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<p>It probably became extinct about the ninth or tenth -century. The wolf obviously would not be likely to be -used for food, although it probably was abundant in the -district. The fallow-deer also had not penetrated into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132">132</a></span> -the hilly districts, although it had become naturalized in -this country by the Romans, so as to have been frequently -used as an article of food before the English invasion. -I have seen its characteristic antlers in refuse-heaps, -both in London and Colchester, which have furnished -Roman coins and pottery.</p> - -<p>The beaver was probably very rare in the fifth and -sixth centuries, and has been met with in no cave-deposit, -either historic or prehistoric, in this country. -It was, however, known to the Anglian conquerors -of Yorkshire (Northumbria), who called Beverley (lea, -leag-) after its name.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_60"><i>The Use of Horseflesh.</i></h3> - -<p>The broken bones of the horse, in all the caves above -mentioned, leave no room to doubt that horseflesh was a -common article of food at that time. It was so, indeed, -throughout Roman Britain, and after the English invasion -was used as late as the Council of Celchyth,<a id="FNanchor_82" href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> in the -year 787. It was forbidden by the Church because it was -eaten by the Scandinavian peoples in honour of Odin. -In Norway,<a id="FNanchor_83" href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> Hacon, the foster-son of Æthelstan, was compelled -to eat it by the bonders, in 956, and the revolt of -the bonders which ended in the bloody battle of Stikklestadt, -in which Olaf met his death, in 1030, was caused -by his cruelties to the eaters of horseflesh. As Christianity -prevailed over the worship of Thor and Odin, it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133">133</a></span> -was banished from the table. The present prejudice -against its use is a remarkable instance of the change in -taste, which has been brought about by an ecclesiastical -rule aimed against a long-forgotten faith. The rule was -not, however, always obeyed, for the Monks of St. Gall, -in the eleventh century, not only ate horseflesh, but -returned thanks for it, in a metrical grace, written by -Ekkehard the Younger (died 1036):—</p> - -<div class="poem-container"> -<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> -<span class="i0">“Sit feralis equi caro dulcis sub cruce Christi.”<a id="FNanchor_84" href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a><br /></span> -</div></div> -</div> - -<h3 id="hdr_61"><i>The Cave of Longberry Bank.</i></h3> - -<p>The cave of Longberry Bank, near Penally, in Pembrokeshire, -may also be classed with those which were -inhabited in historic times, since it contained red fine-grained -pottery of a kind commonly found in the ruins -of Roman villas. It was explored by the Rev. H. H. -Winwood, in 1866, in whose collection are the remains of -the <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, goat, badger, dog, as well as shells of -oyster, large limpets and mussel from the neighbouring -shore. Some of the bones are burned. Several human -vertebræ and a metacarpal were probably the traces of an -interment of unknown date; and the two flint flakes are -of uncertain age.</p> - -<p>The results obtained by the exploration of the -caves described in this chapter are to be taken merely -as the first-fruits of a new line of inquiry, which is -likely to throw light on many points relating to art, -history, and the range of the animals, and not as being -perfect or final. On the continent, no historic caves of -importance have as yet been explored.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_134">134</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">CAVES USED IN THE AGES OF IRON AND OF BRONZE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote class="inhead"> - -<p>The Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time.—The Prehistoric -Fauna.—The Archæological Classification.—Caves of the -Iron Age.—Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain.—The Caves of -Césareda in Portugal probably occupied by Cannibals.—The Cave -of Reggio in Apulia.</p></blockquote> - -<h3 id="hdr_62"><i>The Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time.</i></h3> - -<p class="in0">It will be necessary before we examine the group of -caves used by man in prehistoric times, to point out the -important difference in the measurement of time within -and beyond the borders of history. When we speak, -for example, of the date of the Norman Conquest, we -imply that we can ascertain by historical records, not -merely that it succeeded the invasion of Britain by the -English or Danes, and happened before our own time, -but that the interval which separates it from those events -can be accurately measured by the unit of years. If, however, -we attempt to ascertain the date of any event which -happened outside the historical limit, we shall find that -it is a question solely of relation. When we speak, for -example, of the neolithic age, we merely mean a certain -stage of human progress which succeeded the palæolithic,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135">135</a></span> -and preceded the bronze age, but we have no -proof of the length of the interval dividing it from the -one or the other. The historic “when?” implies “how -long ago?” the prehistoric “when?” merely implies a -definition before and after certain events, without any -idea of the measurement of the intervals.</p> - -<p>An attempt to ascertain the absolute date of prehistoric -events must of necessity fail, since it is based -on the improbable assumption that the physical agents -have acted uniformly, and that therefore the results may -be used as a natural chronometer. The present rate of -the accumulation of <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">débris</i>, as at the Victoria Cave of -the preceding chapter, or of that of silt in the deltas -of rivers, such as the Nile, or the Tinière, may convey -a rough idea of the high antiquity of prehistoric deposits; -but a slight change either of the climate, or of the -rainfall, would invalidate the conclusion. When the -greater part of Europe lay buried under forest, when -Palestine supported a large population, and when glaciers -crowned some of the higher mountains of Africa, such -as the Atlas, the European and Egyptian climates -were probably moister than at the present time, and -the rainfall and the floods greater, and consequently the -accumulation of sediment quicker than the observed rate -under the present conditions. And in the same way all -estimates of the lapse of past time, based upon the -excavation of a river valley, or the retrocession of a -waterfall, such as Niagara, lie open to the same kind of -objection. It is not at all reasonable to suppose that -the complex conditions which regulate the present rate -of erosion, have been the same during the time the work -has been done, and it therefore follows that the work -done is a measure of the power employed, and not of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136">136</a></span> -the length of time during which it has been in operation. -We must, therefore, give up the idea of measuring the -past beyond the memory of man, as represented in -historical documents, by the historic unit of years. We -can merely trace a definite sequence of events, separated -one from another by uncertain intervals. And for that -series of events which extends from the borders of -history back to the remote age where the geologist, -descending the stream of time, meets the archæologist, -I have adopted the term prehistoric.<a id="FNanchor_85" href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_63"><i>The Prehistoric Fauna.</i></h3> - -<p>The prehistoric period is characterized by the arrival -of the domestic animals in Europe, under the care of -man. The dog, swine, horse, horned-sheep, goat, <i class="taxonomy">Bos -longifrons</i>, and the larger ox descended from an ancestor, -according to Professor Rütimeyer, of the type of the -great Urus, make their appearance together, in association -with the remains of man, in the neolithic stage of -civilization.<a id="FNanchor_86" href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> Subsequently they spread over the whole -of our continent, for the most part under the care of -man. The <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, however, and possibly also -the Urus, reverted to feral conditions, just as the horses -and oxen, in the Americas and Australia, have done at -the present time, and their remains are therefore frequently -found in association with animals undoubtedly -wild. The domestic horse, the variety of hog descended -from the wild boar, and the domestic cattle derived from -the Urus, may possibly have passed under the yoke of man,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137">137</a></span> -in Europe, since their wild stocks were to be found in -that area, both in the prehistoric and pleistocene times. -This, however, cannot be affirmed of the swine descended -from the southern variety of <i class="taxonomy">Sus Indica</i>, or of the Celtic -shorthorn, of the sheep, or goat, since their wild ancestors -were not indigenous in Europe. These animals must -have been domesticated in some area outside Europe; -and since central Asia is the region where the wild stocks -still exist, from which all the domestic animals are -descended, it is reasonable to suppose that they were -domesticated in that region, and thence introduced, by a -race of shepherds and herdsmen, into our quarter of -the world.</p> - -<p>This conclusion is considerably strengthened by the -evidence which Professor Heer has advanced, as to the -vegetables used by the dwellers on piles in the Swiss -lakes, among which some, such as the two kinds of -millet, the six-rowed barley (hordeum hexastichon), the -Egyptian wheat (triticum turgidum), and a weed (Silene -cretica), accidentally brought along with them, are -distinctively of southern derivation.</p> - -<p>The most important wild animals living in this -country during the prehistoric period are the urus, the -gigantic skulls of which occur in the peat bogs of -England and Scotland, the Irish elk, the moose (<i class="taxonomy">Cervus -alces</i>), and the reindeer. The two last are far more -abundant in the north than in the south of Britain; their -remains have been discovered in the neighbourhood of -London, those of both animals at Walthamstow, and -those of the latter at Crossness in Kent, on the banks -of the Thames. The remains of the bison have not been -recorded from any prehistoric deposit in this country.</p> - -<p>The Irish elk is the only animal which has become<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138">138</a></span> -extinct; while the moose, or true elk, is the only wild -species which has not been proved to have been living -in the preceding age. The stag was very abundant.</p> - -<p>The prehistoric fauna is distinguished from that of the -pleistocene not merely by the appearance of the animals -above mentioned, which were hitherto unknown, but by -the absence of many species which were living during -the latter period. The cave bear, woolly rhinoceros, and -mammoth, for example, became extinct, the musk-sheep -and lemming were banished from a temperate latitude to -take refuge in the regions of the north, while the spotted -hyæna, the hippopotamus, and Felis caffer, retired to the -warm regions of Africa, where they are still living.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_64"><i>The Archæological Classification.</i></h3> - -<p>The prehistoric period has been classified by the -archæologists according to the stages of human progress -which it presents. At the frontier of history, in each -country, we find that the dwellers were acquainted with -the use of iron, and had found it to be the most convenient -material for the manufacture of cutting weapons -and implements. Before this the voice of tradition -points out that bronze was the only material used for -these purposes, and stone before bronze. These three -stages of human culture, or the ages of iron, bronze, and -stone, have been fully verified by investigations which -have been made in various parts of Europe, into the -prehistoric habitations and burial-places of man.</p> - -<p>This classification by no means implies an exact -chronology, or that any one of these ages, with the -exception perhaps of the first, covered the whole of -Europe at the same point of time, but that the order in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139">139</a></span> -which they followed each other is the same in each -country which has been explored. There is good reason -for the belief, that at the time the Egyptian and Assyrian -empires were in the height of their glory, Northern -Europe was inhabited by rude polished-stone-using races. -And it is a well-ascertained fact, that while the inhabitants -of Britain and Scandinavia were in their bronze age, the -Etruscans and Phœnicians were in their full power in -the south. It is obvious again, that, even in the same -country, the poorer classes must have been long content -to use the ruder and more common materials for their -daily needs, while the richer and more powerful used the -rarer and more costly. These three ages must therefore -necessarily overlap. “Like the three principal colours -of the rainbow,” writes Mr. Evans,<a id="FNanchor_87" href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> “these three stages -of civilization overlap, intermingle, and shade off the one -into the other; and yet their succession, as far as Western -Europe is concerned, appears to be equally well defined -with that of the prismatic colours, though the proportions -of the spectrum may vary in different countries.” They -cannot reasonably be viewed as hard and fast lines of -division, mapping off successive quantities of time.</p> - -<p>The age of stone is subdivided by Sir John Lubbock -into the neolithic periods, or that in which polished stone -was the only material used for cutting, and the palæolithic, -in which mankind had not learnt to grind and -polish his implements. The latter belongs to the pleistocene, -or quaternary period, since the palæolithic implements -are found in association with the remains of the -animals characteristic of that age.</p> - -<p>The prehistoric caves, therefore, may be divided into -three classes if the archæological method of analysis be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140">140</a></span> -employed: 1, into those containing evidence of the use -of iron; 2, those containing proof of the knowledge of -bronze; 3, and lastly, those in which traces of polished -stone weapons have been discovered unassociated with -metals. By the animal remains which they contain -they may be distinguished from those of the pleistocene -age, both by the absence, as well as the presence of -certain species which have been enumerated.</p> - -<p>From the archæological point of view, two out of the -four ages are still represented. Stone is, at the present -time, the only material used in the more remote regions -of Australia, although it is fast being replaced by iron, -which has superseded bronze, and is spreading rapidly -over the whole earth. The group of historic caves -described in the preceding chapter may be said to belong -to the iron age, that is to say, to that later portion of it -in which the events are recorded in history.</p> - -<p>The traces of the occupation of caves by man in the -iron and bronze ages are so extremely scarce, that it is -certain that they were but rarely used as habitations. -Man had sufficiently advanced in civilization in those -times to construct artificial dwellings and tombs for -himself, instead of using the natural shelters which -were so very generally occupied in Europe by his -ruder neolithic predecessors.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_65"><i>Cave of the Iron Age.</i></h3> - -<p>In the course of the systematic exploration of caves -in the Mendip Hills, carried on by Messrs. Ayshford -Sanford, Parker, and myself, a cave was examined in -Burrington Combe, near Wrington, in Somerset, which -may be referred to the iron age, and which we named -Whitcombe’s Hole. It opened upon the side of that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141">141</a></span> -magnificent combe, at a height of about 135 feet from -the bottom and fifteen from the top, and ran horizontally -inwards, the floor being formed of an accumulation of -earth mingled with charcoal, and containing numerous -broken bones and teeth. The latter belonged to the wolf, -fox, badger, rabbit, hare, stag, goat, and Celtic shorthorn. -In the lower portion were the fragments of a rude, unornamented -urn of a coarse black ware, with the rim -turned at right angles, along with a bent piece of -iron, which bears a strong resemblance to those found -strengthening the corners of wooden coffins in the Gallo-Roman -graves on the banks of the Somme. The -fractures of the bones, with one exception, were caused -by the hand of man, and not by the teeth of the carnivora. -The position renders the cave eminently fitted for -concealment, for while commanding an extensive view -down the Combe, it is invisible both from above and -below, and opening on the face of an almost vertical -cliff, it is easily defended. If the urn be sepulchral, the -interment must be of a later date than the occupation, -because it is made in the <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">débris</i> which resulted from the -latter.<a id="FNanchor_88" href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_66"><i>Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain.</i></h3> - -<p>The cave of Heathery Burn,<a id="FNanchor_89" href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> near Stanhope, in Weardale, -co. Durham, is the only one in this country that -has furnished a large series of articles of the bronze -age. It is described by Mr. Elliott as running into the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142">142</a></span> -precipitous side of a ravine, at a height of about 10 to -12 feet above the level of the Stanhope Burn, and as -being partially traversed by water. Since its discovery in -1861, it has been altogether destroyed by the removal -of the stone to be used as a flux in smelting the ore of -the Weardale Iron Company, and an admirable section -of its contents was therefore visible from time to time. -A stratum of sand at the bottom, two feet nine inches -thick, deposited by the stream, and containing angular -masses of limestone that had dropped from the roof, was -covered by a sheet of stalagmite three inches in thickness. -On this rested a mass of bones and implements imbedded -in silt or sand, and sealed over by a thickness of stalagmite -of from two to eight inches.</p> - -<div id="Fig_32" class="figcenter" style="width: 371px;"> - <img src="images/i_142.jpg" width="371" height="80" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>—Bronze Knife, Heathery Burn (natural size).</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_33" class="figleft" style="width: 201px;"> - <img src="images/i_143.jpg" width="201" height="201" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>—Bronze Armlet, Heathery Burn.</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_34" class="figright up2" style="width: 120px;"> - <img src="images/i_143b.jpg" width="120" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>—Bronze Spearhead, Heathery Burn (½ size).</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_35" class="figleft" style="width: 196px;"> - <img src="images/i_143c.jpg" width="196" height="336" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>—Bronze Mould for casting a socketed celt.</div></div> - -<p>On removing the upper of these two stalagmitic floors -a perfect human skull was discovered, along with broken -bones of animals, charcoal, limpet shells, bone pins, an -instrument of bone like a paper-knife, coarse pottery -with fragments of chert imbedded in its mass, a portion -of a jet armlet, as well as several boars’ tusks. The same -stratum at another place furnished a singular bronze -knife with a socket for the handle (<a href="#Fig_32">Fig. 32</a>),<a id="FNanchor_90" href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> bronze pins, -celts, an armlet of twisted wire (<a href="#Fig_33">Fig. 33</a>), along with -shells of limpet, mussel, and oyster, and charcoal, and at -a third, on the other side of the watercourse, a bronze<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143">143</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_144">144</a></span> -spear-head. Subsequently, many articles were added to -the above list, seven pins, three rings, two split-rings, -a “razor,” disk, three socketed celts, one chisel, two -gouges, and four spear-heads of bronze, and a fine -bracelet, and two ornaments of the horse-shoe, or split-ring -type, made of thin plates of gold. One of the -spear-heads, in the collection of the Rev. Canon Greenwell, -is represented in <a href="#Fig_34">Fig. 34</a>. There were also waste -pieces of bronze, and the half of a bronze mould for -casting celts, <a href="#Fig_35">Fig. 35</a>, in which one of the associated -celts had actually been cast, since it is of the same pattern. -These articles were probably concealed in the cavern by -workers in bronze, who were prevented, by some unforeseen -accident, from obtaining them again. The charcoal -and the broken bones of the <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, badger, and -dog, imply that the cave had been used as a habitation; -and possibly the two human skulls, which have been -described by Professor Huxley and Mr. Carter Blake, may -have belonged to the possessors of the hoard of bronze -and gold. Both were discovered in the same stratum -and below the floor of stalagmite.</p> - -<p>The more perfect of the two skulls is considered by -Professor Huxley to belong to the same long-headed -race of men as that found at Muskham, in the valley of -the Trent,—to a form which he terms the River-bed type, -and that cannot be separated from those obtained from -the long tumuli of the South of England, and considered -by Dr. Thurnam to belong to a Neolithic Basque, -or Iberian population.</p> - -<p>Articles distinctly of the bronze age have been already -noticed as having been met with in the caves of Kirkhead, -in Cartmell, and in Thor’s Cave, in Staffordshire. -From the latter the bracelet of thin bronze, <a href="#Fig_31">Fig. 31</a>, was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145">145</a></span> -obtained by Mr. Carrington, of Wetton. The rarity of -bronze implements in caves in Britain and the Continent -is probably, to a large extent, due to the value of the -material, and to the fact that it could be re-melted. If -a bronze article happened to be broken, the pieces -would naturally be kept for future use, and not thrown -away, as in the case of a fractured stone implement. -The former, therefore, are rare, the latter comparatively -abundant.</p> - -<p>The cave called the Cat-Hole, in Gower (Glamorgan), -explored by Colonel Wood in 1864, contained several -human skeletons, flint flakes, fragments of red pottery -marked with a string, cut bones, a stone muller, and -a bronze socketed celt. The last is of the same pattern -as some of those in the collection of the Rev. Canon -Greenwell, from Heathery Burn, and has been cast in -a mould similar in size and ornamentation to that -figured in <a href="#Fig_35">woodcut 35</a>.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_67"><i>The Caves of Césareda probably occupied by Cannibals.</i></h3> - -<p>The contents of three caves<a id="FNanchor_91" href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> in the Iberian peninsula, -referable to the dawn of the bronze age, render it very -probable that the use of human flesh was not unknown -in those times.</p> - -<p>In 1867 Senhor J. L. Delgado described his researches -in the caverns of Césareda, in the valley of the Tagus, -in the Casa da Maura, Lapa Furada, and Cova da Maura.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146">146</a></span> -The first of these contained two distinct strata. The -lower, consisting of sand mixed with fragments of rock, -rested on the stalagmite, and contained fragments of -charcoal, one implement of bone, and many of flint, a -scraper, a flake, and an arrow-head. The broken bones -and teeth belonged to the following animals:—The lynx, -fox, brown-bear, dog and wolf, a species of deer, the -water-vole, and the rabbit. None of the remains of the -carnivora had been subjected to the action of fire, or -had been used for food. A human skull with lower jaw -was dug out of the deepest part, but, since the matrix -had been disturbed, it had probably been interred after -the accumulation of the deposit.</p> - -<p>It is recognized by Professor Busk<a id="FNanchor_92" href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> as belonging to -the same long type as the skulls of the caves of Gibraltar -and the Basque graveyard, measuring in length -6·7 inches, in breadth 5·3, in height 5·5, and therefore -possessing cephalic and latitudinal indices of ·785 and -·820.<a id="FNanchor_93" href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></p> - -<p>The upper stratum, a sandy loam, contained a large -quantity of stones, and numerous articles fabricated by -man: polished-stone axes, flakes, and other instruments -of flint, bone, and antler, fragments of coarse black -pottery, with bits of calcareous spar imbedded in its -substance, and two plates of schist ornamented with a -rude design, which may have been used as amulets. -Fragments of charcoal were scattered throughout the -matrix, and adhered to some of the pottery and to the -burnt pebbles. The most abundant remains were those -of man. They were to be counted by thousands, and -were so fragmentary and scattered that it was impossible<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147">147</a></span> -to put together one perfect skeleton. The teeth, belonging -for the most part to children or fully-grown adults, -were particularly abundant. The long bones had lost, -very generally, their articular ends, had been fractured -longitudinally, and some of them had been cut and -scraped. It is therefore probable that this accumulation -was formed by a tribe of cannibals: the evidence that -human flesh formed their principal food being precisely -of the same nature as that by which the flint-folk of the -Périgord are proved to have subsisted on the flesh of -the reindeer. Professor Busk,<a id="FNanchor_94" href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> however, is inclined to -believe the facts in support of cannibalism insufficient. -The associated animals consisted of the bat, dormouse, -rabbit, horse, a small ox, allied to <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, sheep -or goat, wild cat, wolf, fox, and dog. The contents -of the other two caves were precisely of the same -nature, and had been accumulated under the same -conditions.</p> - -<p>A bronze arrow-head, discovered in the upper stratum, -and the ornamentation of the stone amulet, consisting of -alternate triangles and zigzag ladders, as remarked by -Mr. John Evans, indicate that the upper deposit belongs -to the age of bronze, and probably to an early stage, -when stone was being superseded by bronze, since many -stone celts were found in the same spot.</p> - -<p>The ancient burial-places of Ultz, in Westphalia, -furnish a second case of the practice of cannibalism, -according to M. Schaaffhausen of Bonn<a id="FNanchor_95" href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a>. They are -probably of the age of bronze.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148">148</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_68"><i>The Cave of Reggio, in Modena.</i></h3> - -<p>The human remains in a cave in the province of -Reggio,<a id="FNanchor_96" href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> on the northern flank of the Apennines, brought -before the Prehistoric Congress at Bologna by M. l’Abbé -Chierici, and considered by him to be proofs of cannibalism, -are probably merely the result of interment in a -refuse-heap that had previously been accumulated. They -were associated with bronze pins, rivets, polished-stone -axes, and various implements of bone, fragments of -pottery and of charcoal, bones of pig, sheep, and dog, -and belong therefore to the period of transition from the -neolithic to the bronze age.</p> - -<p>The caves have contributed but very little to our -knowledge of the bronze-folk in any part of Europe. -Examples, such as those given above, are scattered through -France and Spain, but they are not sufficiently important -to require notice. We could not expect that men, in -the high state of civilization implied by the beautiful -jewellery and ornaments which are distinctive of the -bronze-folk, would have chosen the wild, half-savage life -which is involved in cave-habitation.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149">149</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">CAVES OF THE NEOLITHIC AGE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote class="inhead"> - -<p>Neolithic Caves in Great Britain.—The Refuse-heap at Perthi-Chwareu.—The -Sepulchral Caves.—The Neolithic Caves in the -neighbourhood of Cefn, St. Asaph.—The Chambered Tomb near -Cefn.—Interments in Tomb and Caves of the same age.—Contents -of Tomb and Caves.—Description of Human Remains -by Professor Busk—From Cave No. 1 at Perthi-Chwareu—from -Cairn at Cefn—from Cave at Cefn.—General Conclusions as to -Human Remains.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="in0">It is evident, from the scanty remains found in caves, -that they were not the normal habitations of men in the -Bronze or Iron stages of culture. We shall, however, -find that they were used by the neolithic peoples, both -for shelter and for burial, in nearly every portion of -Europe which has been explored.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_69"><i>Neolithic Caves in Great Britain.—Perthi-Chwareu.</i></h3> - -<p>The most remarkable examples of caves, turned to -both these uses, in Britain, are offered by the group -clustering round a refuse-heap at Perthi-Chwareu, a -farm high up in the Welsh hills, about ten miles to the -east of Corwen, and a mile to the west of the little -village of Llandegla, in Denbighshire.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150">150</a></span></p> - -<h3><i>The Refuse-heap.</i></h3> - -<p>The first intimation of any prehistoric remains in that -locality was afforded by a small box of bones forwarded -to me by Mr. Darwin, in 1869; and this I was able to -follow up, through the kind assistance of Mrs. Lloyd, -the owner of the property on which they were found, -from time to time, during 1869–70–71–2. The mountain -limestone, which there forms hill and valley, consists -of thick masses of hard rock, separated by soft beds of -shale, and contains large quantities of <em>producti</em>, crinoids -and corals. The strata dip to the south, at an angle -of about 1 in 25, and form two parallel ridges, with -abrupt faces to the north, and separated from each -other by a narrow valley, passing east and west along -the strike. The remains sent by Mr. Darwin were -obtained from a space between two strata near the top -of the northern ridge, whence the intervening softer -material had been carried away by water. Its maximum -height was 6 inches, and its width 20 feet or more; -and it extended in a direction parallel to the bed of -the rocks. The bones, which had evidently been washed -in by the rain, and not carried in by any carnivora, -belong to the following <span class="locked">species:—</span></p> - -<p id="list_150" class="in0 in4"> -<i class="taxonomy">Canis familiaris</i>—The Dog.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Canis vulpes</i>—The Fox.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Meles taxus</i>—The Badger.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>—The Pig.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Cervus capreolus</i>—The Roe-deer.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Cervus elaphus</i>—The Red-deer.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Capra hircus</i>—The Goat.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>—The Celtic Short-horn.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>—The Horse.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Arvicola amphibius</i>—The Water-rat.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Lepus timidus</i>—The Hare.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Lepus cuniculus</i>—The Rabbit.<br /> -The Eagle. -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151">151</a></span> -Nearly all the bones were broken, and belonged to -young animals. Those of the Celtic short-horn, of the -sheep or goat, and of the young pig, were very abundant; -while those of the roe and stag, hare and horse, were -comparatively rare. The remains of the domestic dog -were rather abundant, and the percentage of young -puppies implies also that they, like the other animals, -had been used for food. Possibly the hare may also -have been eaten, but its remains were scarce, and belonged -to adults. Some of the bones had been gnawed -by dogs. The only reasonable cause that can be assigned -for the accumulation of the remains of these animals is, -that the locality was inhabited by men of pastoral habits, -but yet to a certain extent dependent on the chase, and -that the relics of their food were thrown out to form a refuse-heap. -The latter had altogether disappeared from -the surface of the ground, from the action of the rain and -other atmospheric causes, while those portions of it which -chanced to be washed into the narrow interspace between -the strata were preserved, to mark the spot which it -once occupied.</p> - -<p>There was nothing in the deposit that fixes the date -of its accumulation. It may have been of the stone, -bronze, or iron age; but from the presence of the goat, -short-horned ox, and dog, it certainly does not date so far -back as the epoch of the reindeer, mammoth, rhinoceros, -and cave-hyæna. The presence of the Celtic short-horn -throws no light upon the antiquity, because for centuries -after it had ceased to be the domestic breed in England -it remained in Wales, and still lives in the small black -Welsh cattle, that are lineal descendants of those -which furnished beef to the Roman provincials in -Britain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152">152</a></span></p> - -<h3><i>The Sepulchral Caves.</i></h3> - -<div id="Fig_36" class="figcenter" style="width: 551px;"> - <img src="images/i_152.jpg" width="551" height="356" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>—Section of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu. Scale 12 feet to 1 inch.</div></div> - -<p>While the refuse-heap was being explored, I chose a -small depression (<a href="#Fig_36">Fig. 36</a> <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>) in the precipitous side of the -southern ridge, that formed a kind of rock shelter overlooking -the valley, and that seemed to be a likely place -for the abode of man, or of wild animals. On setting -the men to work, in a few minutes we began to discover -the remains of dog, marten-cat, fox, badger, goat, Celtic -short-horn, roe-deer and stag, horse, and large birds. -Mixed with these, as we proceeded, we began to find -human bones, between and underneath large masses of -rock, that were completely covered up with red silt and -sand. As these were cleared away, we gradually realized -that we were on the threshold of a sepulchral cave. In -the small space then excavated, human remains, belonging -to no fewer than five individuals, were found. Subsequently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153">153</a></span> -the work was carried on by Mrs. Lloyd, under -the careful supervision of her agent Mr. Reid. The rock-shelter -narrowed into a “tunnel cave,” that penetrated -the rocks in a line parallel to the bedding, and, roughly -speaking, at right angles to the valley, having a width -varying from 3 feet 4 inches to 5 feet 6 inches, and a -height from 3 feet 4 inches to 4 feet 6 inches.</p> - -<p>The entrance was completely blocked up with red -earth and loose stones, the latter, apparently, having -been placed there by design (<a href="#Fig_36">Figs. 36</a>, <a href="#Fig_37">37</a>). The inside -of the cave was filled with red earth and sand to within -about a foot of the roof. The remains were found, for -the most part, on or near the top; but in some cases -they were deep down. One human skull, for example, -was found six inches only above the rocky floor. The -human bones were associated with those of the animals -of which a list has been given, and occurred in little -confused heaps. One human femur was in a perpendicular -position. The account of the continuation of -the digging is given almost in the words of Mrs. Lloyd. -On the second day, after an hour’s work, a human skull -was found near the roof of the cave, resting on a femur; -then eleven feet explored brought to light a large -quantity of human bones, including nine femurs. The -third and fourth days were devoted to clearing out the -cave (<a href="#Fig_36">Fig. 36</a>–<a href="#Fig_37">7</a> <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>) up to this point, and to excavating -about four feet further in, or fifteen from the entrance. -During the work two teeth of a horse were found, resting -on the floor near the entrance, and nine more about ten -feet within the cave; also a boar’s tusk of remarkable -size, and close by a mussel and cockle-shell, and valve of -<i class="taxonomy">Mya truncata</i>, along with a quantity of human and -other bones; including five skulls, more or less perfect,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154">154</a></span> -and many fragments. All these skulls were found -between the tenth and fifteenth feet from the entrance. -During the fifth and sixth days, the work was superintended -by Mr. Reid, who entirely cleared the cave for -about thirteen feet further: the first eight feet yielded a -small quantity of human and other bones, including the -perfect skull of a marten-cat and the incisor of a wild -boar. The only implement found in the cave, a broken -flint flake, occurred here, and a nearly perfect human -skull, lying face downwards, with the pelvis adhering to -one side. The last five feet furnished only two bones, -both of the short-horned ox. The end of the cave was -composed of unproductive grey clay. (<a href="#Fig_36">Figs. 36</a>–<a href="#Fig_37">7</a> <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>.)</p> - -<div id="Fig_37" class="figcenter" style="width: 360px;"> - <img src="images/i_154.jpg" width="360" height="476" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>—Plan of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu.</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155">155</a></span> -Small fragments of charcoal occurred throughout the -cave, and a great many rounded pebbles from the boulder -clay of the neighbourhood.</p> - -<p>The human remains belong for the most part to very -young or adolescent individuals, from the small infant -to youths of twenty-one. Some, however, belong to -men in the prime of life. All the teeth that had been -used were ground perfectly flat. The skulls belong to -that type which Professor Huxley terms the “river-bed -skull.” Some of the tibiæ present the peculiar flattening -parallel to the median line, which Professor Busk denotes -by the term platycnemic, and some of the femora were -traversed by a largely developed and prominent <i class="taxonomy">linea -aspera</i>; but these peculiarities were not seen on all the -femora and tibiæ, and cannot therefore be considered -characteristic of race, but most probably of sex. They -were not presented by any of the younger bones.</p> - -<p>All the human remains had undoubtedly been buried -in the cave, since the bones were in the main perfect, -or only broken by the large stones which had subsequently -fallen from the roof. From the juxtaposition -of one skull to a pelvis, and the vertical position of one -of the femora, as well as the fact that the bones lay in -confused heaps, it is clear that the corpses had been -buried in the contracted posture, as is usually the case -in neolithic interments. And since the area was insufficient -for the accommodation of so many bodies at one -time, it is certain that the cave had been used as a -cemetery at different times. The stones blocking up the -entrance were probably placed as a barrier against the -inroads of wild beasts.</p> - -<p>These remains are the first in this country which -present the peculiar character of platycnemism, noticed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156">156</a></span> -by Professor Busk and Dr. Falconer in human remains -in the caves of Gibraltar, and by Dr. Broca in some of -those from the dolmens of France, and subsequently in the -celebrated skeletons found in the cave of Cro-magnon. I -have also observed the same peculiar flattening of the -tibia in the only fragment of human bone obtained by -Mr. Foote, in the Lateritic deposits of the eastern coast -of Southern India, along with the stone implements -figured in the Norwich Volume of the International Congress -of Prehistoric Archæology (1868, p. 224).</p> - -<p>The remains of the animals associated with the human -bones belong to the same species as those mentioned -above from the débris of a refuse-heap, and are in a -similar broken and split condition. They may have -been deposited at the same time as the human skeletons, -but, from the fact that some of them are gnawed by -dogs, it is most probable that they were accumulated -while the cave was used as a dwelling. If the bodies -were placed on an old floor of occupation, and afterwards -disturbed by rabbits and badgers, the remains -would be mingled together as they were found to be -mingled. The contents had evidently been disturbed by -the burrowing of all these animals.</p> - -<p id="hdr_70">Subsequently we discovered and explored no less than -four other sepulchral caves, within a few hundred yards -of the refuse-heap, in which the corpses had been buried -in the same crouching posture. From one on the farm -of Rhosdigre we obtained a perfect celt of polished -greenstone which had never been used (<a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38</a>), -together with several flint flakes, and numerous fragments -of pottery, rude, black inside, hand-made, and -containing in their substance small fragments of limestone.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157">157</a></span> -Similar potsherds are preserved in the Oxford Museum, -from the superficial deposits of the caves of Gailenreuth -and Kuhlock, and I have observed them also among the -remains from Kent’s Hole. The celt was most probably, -from its unworn condition, buried with the dead, -and it stamps the neolithic age of the interments of the -whole group.</p> - -<div id="Fig_38" class="figcenter" style="width: 324px;"> - <img src="images/i_157.jpg" width="324" height="528" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>—Greenstone Celt, Rhosdigre Cave. (Nat. size.)</div></div> - -<p>Among the broken bones from this cave were the teeth -of the brown bear, and the lower jaw of a wolf; and -the fractured bones of the dog implied that that animal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158">158</a></span> -ministered to the appetite, as well as obeyed the commands, -of the neolithic inhabitants. I have met with -similar evidence of the use of dog’s flesh for food among -the broken bones which Canon Greenwell obtained from -the neolithic tumuli of the Yorkshire Wolds. On the -other hand, the marks of the teeth of dogs, or wolves, -on some of the human femora, implied that those -animals made their way into this cave and feasted on -the corpses.</p> - -<p>The neolithic age of these interments is proved, not -merely by the presence of the stone axe, or of the flint -flakes, but by the burial in a contracted posture,<a id="FNanchor_97" href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> and the -fact that the skulls are identical with those obtained -from chambered tombs in the south of England proved -to be neolithic by Dr. Thurnam.</p> - -<p>The number of skeletons of all ages, and of both sexes, -buried in these caves was very considerable; and they -had been placed on the old floor of occupation at successive -times. In that of Rhosdigre the accumulation of -charcoal, broken bones, and fragments of pottery below -some of the human skeletons, proved that it had been -used for a habitation before it was used for a burial-place. -It is very probable that originally the head of a -family, or a clan, or a tribe, was buried in his own cave-dwelling, -and that it was afterwards used as a cemetery -for his blood relations and followers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159">159</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_71"><i>The Neolithic Caves in the neighbourhood of Cefn, near -St. Asaph.</i></h3> - -<p>The same class of remains, referable to the neolithic -age, have been met with in the caves in the limestone -cliffs of the beautiful valleys of the Clwyd and the -Elwy, near St. Asaph. In the collection of fossil bones -in the possession of Mrs. Williams Wynn, discovered in -1833, in a cave at Cefn, by Mr. Edward Lloyd,<a id="FNanchor_98" href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> is a -human skull and lower jaw, along with platycnemic -limb-bones. They were found mingled with the bones -of goat, pig, fox, and badger, and cut antlers of the -red-deer, inside the lower entrance of the cave, in which -the extinct pleistocene animals were found in the valley -of the Elwy. Four flint flakes also were discovered -along with them.</p> - -<p>The skull in its general features strongly resembles -those found in the group of caves at Perthi-Chwareu, -and presents a cephalic index<a id="FNanchor_99" href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> of ·770, which comes -within the limits of the extreme forms from that locality. -Professor Busk, however, as will be seen in his account -of this skull, because of its low altitudinal index—·702, -as compared with ·710 of the lowest Perthi-Chwareu -skull—is inclined to view it as of a different type. The -conditions, on the other hand, under which it was found -appear to me to be circumstantial evidence that the -interment is of the same relative age as that of Perthi-Chwareu. -Both were in caves: in both the remains of -the same domestic and wild animals were found in the -same fragmentary condition. Flint flakes also occurred -in both; and what is more important, the platycnemic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160">160</a></span> -limb-bones in both imply a somewhat similar mode of -life in the people to whom they belonged. This body of -evidence, in favour of the interments having been made -by the same race of men who lived some time in Denbighshire, -seems to me of greater weight than that to the -contrary afforded by the difference of ·008 in the altitudinal -indices of the skulls. After a comparison of the -carefully prepared measurements of the crania published -in the “Crania Britannica” with those published elsewhere, -I cannot resist the conviction, that if similar -modes of life and of burial in Britain imply an identity -of race, cranial variation within the limits of that race is -by no means very small. Absolute purity of blood in an -island so near the Continent as Britain cannot be looked -for; and unity of type resulting from isolation from other -races, such as that presented by the Australians, is not -likely to be met with. It is therefore very probable that -some of the variations may be accounted for by the blending -of different ethnical elements in one race. I am consequently -inclined to view the interments in these two -caves as having been made by the same people, in spite of -the small cranial difference manifested by the Cefn skull.</p> - -<p>The cave in Brysgill, a small ravine leading into the -valley of the Elwy, explored by Mr. Mainwaring and -Mrs. Williams Wynn in 1871, furnished evidence of the -occupation of man, probably of the neolithic age. From -a dark layer composed of loam, black with fragments of -charcoal, a flint arrow-head, a core, a flake, and broken -bones of the horse, <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, goat, and dog, were -obtained, as well as a few human bones which had not -been broken by design.</p> - -<p>The excavations carried on in the small tunnel-cave -of Plas-Heaton, by Mr. Heaton and Professor Hughes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161">161</a></span> -have shown that it was inhabited at two different ages. -In the upper or prehistoric stratum were broken bones of -the dog, badger, goat, <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, and stag; while -in the lower, or pleistocene, were the remains of the -hyæna, reindeer, cave-bear, and the lower jaw of the -glutton.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_72"><i>The Chambered Tomb near Cefn, St. Asaph.</i></h3> - -<p>While the caves at Perthi-Chwareu were being explored, -the accidental discovery of human remains in the -cairn of Tyddyn Bleiddyn, near Cefn, St. Asaph, in 1869, -led to a systematic examination of its contents by Mrs. -Williams Wynn, under the superintendence of the Rev. -D. R. Thomas, myself, and the Rev. H. H. Winwood, -which has resulted in the proof, that the people who -buried their dead in caves used stone-chambered tombs -for the same purpose.</p> - -<p>The cairn of loose fragments of limestone had been -removed for road-mending before the cap-stones of the -stone chamber were exposed, and these were broken -before any scientific observation was made. The Rev. -D. R. Thomas, however, rescued many of the human -remains from destruction, and began the exploration -which defined the extent of the chamber <span class="smcap smaller">A</span> (<a href="#Fig_39">Fig. 39</a>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_39" class="figleft up1" style="width: 194px;"> - <img src="images/i_162.jpg" width="194" height="425" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>—Plain of Chambered Tomb at Cefn.</div></div> - -<p>Subsequently it was resumed in my presence, and the -chamber <span class="smcap smaller">A</span> (<a href="#Fig_39">Fig. 39</a>) fully cleared out. At the point <i>c</i> -it was partially shut off from the passage <span class="smcap smaller">B</span> by a slab -of stone 18 inches high. The passage led from the -chamber in a northern direction, and was 6 feet long -by 2 wide. The chamber gradually narrowed towards -the passage, being 5 feet wide at its broad end, and 9 -feet long. In the passage, as well as in the chamber,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162">162</a></span> -there were human bones belonging to individuals who -had been buried in a crouching posture. Unfortunately, -as the remains have been scattered, it is impossible to -ascertain the exact number of the burials. I have, -however, restored one skull and examined seven frontal -bones, and other remains, which indicate that there were -at least twelve persons, varying in age from infancy to -full prime, buried in this tomb. In -addition to these, there is a large -box of bones in the possession of -the Rev. D. R. Thomas, as well -as other remains in other hands. -But although the exact number of -bodies interred cannot be made -out, there is full proof that there -were too many to have been deposited -at one time in so small a -cubic area; and therefore they -must have been deposited at different -times, as in the caves at -Perthi-Chwareu. There were no -remains of either wild or domestic -animals; and the only foreign -object was a small slightly chipped -flint pebble. From the remarkable -conformation of the nasal bones of -some of the skulls, it would seem likely that the burial-place -belonged to one family; but, for a reason (see -Notes on Human Remains, <a href="#Page_183">p. 183</a>) stated by Professor -Busk, this is by no means a certain inference.</p> - -<p>The plan of the chamber and passage corresponds -with that of the long barrow of West Kennet, figured -in the “Crania Britannica,” and with that of the cromlech<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163">163</a></span> -of Le Creux des Fées, Guernsey, described by -Lieutenant Oliver.<a id="FNanchor_100" href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> In the former of these the corpses -were buried in a contracted posture, along with flint -scrapers and fragments of rude pottery. In the latter -the original contents have disappeared. To speak in -general terms, the chamber and passage belong to the -class of tombs which Dr. Thurnam names “Long Barrows,” -and Professor Nilsson “Ganggräben,” and which -are found in Scandinavia and France, as well as in -Britain. And it is worthy of note that the partial -insulation of the chamber <span class="smcap smaller">A</span> (<a href="#Fig_39">Fig. 39</a>) from the passage <span class="smcap smaller">B</span> -by a slab (<i>c</i>), which does not reach up to the height -of the walls, is to be seen in similar tombs both in -Guernsey and in Brittany.</p> - -<p>A second and larger chamber, composed of cave slabs -of limestone, was discovered in the same cairn in 1871 -by the Rev. D. R. Thomas, and completely excavated by -him along with myself and the Rev. H. H. Winwood. -It was of a rudely triangular form, 10 feet long by 6 -wide, traversed by a partition of slabs, and provided -with a narrow passage 10 feet long by 2 feet 6 in -width, opening to the north, and fenced off completely -from the chamber by a slab, as in the preceding case. -Both the chamber and the passage were full of human -remains of all ages, buried in a contracted posture; -the number of interments being far too great to have -allowed the bodies to have been deposited at one time. -From the former I identified the broken jaw of a roebuck -and remains of goat, a broken flint, and round -pebbles of quartz, while in the latter there were the teeth -and bones of the dog and the pig.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164">164</a></span> -Some of the tibiæ from both the chambers were -platycnemic, but that character was only to be recognized -in the older bones. The skulls, from the second -of the two chambers, agree so exactly with those from -the caves, that it is not necessary to add to the table -of measurements which Professor Busk has drawn up -(<a href="#list_171">p. 171</a>).</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_73"><i>Correlation of Chambered Tomb with Interments in the -Caves of Perthi-Chwareu and Cefn.</i></h3> - -<p>Nor are we without evidence that the builders of -this cairn belonged to the same race as those who buried -their dead in the caves of Perthi-Chwareu and of Cefn. -The crania and the limb-bones are identical, and in both -the tombs and caves the dead were buried in a contracted -posture.</p> - -<p>Why then, it may be asked, were the remains of -animals so rare in the one and so abundant in the -other? In my opinion this difference may be explained -by the hypothesis, invented by Professor Nilsson, of the -origin of chambered tombs.<a id="FNanchor_101" href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> The idea of the “gallery -graves,” according to that high authority, was derived -from the subterranean house in which the deceased -lived, and in which he was buried after his death, after -the fashion of the Eskimos at the present day. The plan -of the houses, like that of the ancient Lycian dwellings -described by Sir Charles Fellowes, was preserved in the -tombs, and probably for many ages after houses were no -longer made in that fashion; since the principle of conservatism -and the force of custom are more deeply<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165">165</a></span> -rooted in religious and solemn ceremonial than in the -changes of every-day life.</p> - -<p>The rarity of the remains of the animals may be -explained by the fact of these tombs never having been -used as dwellings, while their abundance in the caves -may be accounted for by the latter having been inhabited -by man, and thus the idea of the dead resting in his -own house would be the cause of burial both in caves -and chambered tombs. It is not at all strange that the -same race should have used both for sepulture, when we -consider that a “gallery grave” is an artificial cave, and -that natural caves are few in number.</p> - -<p>This ancient race is proved by the remains to have -been pastoral, rather than dependent on the chase, their -principal food being the domestic goat, the short-horn -(<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>), the horse, and hog. They are also -proved to have been neolithic, not merely by the discovery -of a polished stone axe in one of the caves, but -also by the shape of the “gallery graves,” which Professor -Nilsson and Dr. Thurnam agree in referring to -that stage of culture.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_74"><i>Table of Contents of Caves and Chambered Tomb.</i></h3> - -<p>The contents of the caves and the stone chambers -may be gathered from the Table which we give on -the next page.</p> - -<p>The broken bones of the hare prove that there was no -prejudice against its flesh, as was the case among the -neolithic dwellers in the Swiss Pfahlbauten. We shall -see in the next chapter that the animal was also eaten -by the dwellers in the neolithic caves both of France -and Belgium.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166">166</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="list_166"><a href="#if_p_166"><i>List of Objects in Neolithic Caves and Cairn in North Wales.</i></a></h4> - -<table class="listobjects" summary="objects in neolithic caves in North Wales"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Animals.</span></th> - <th class="tdc">Refuse-<br />heap,<br />Perthi-<br />Chwareu.</th> - <th class="tdc">Cave No.1.</th> - <th class="tdc">Cave No. 2.</th> - <th class="tdc">Cave<br />Rhosdigre<br />No. 1</th> - <th class="tdc">Cave<br />Rhosdigre<br />No. 2.</th> - <th class="tdc">Cave<br />Rhosdigre<br />No. 3.</th> - <th class="tdc">The Cefn<br />Cave.</th> - <th class="tdc">Cairn of<br />Tyddyn<br />Bleiddyn,<br />near Cefn.</th></tr> - <tr class="hdr"> - <td class="tdc small">DOMESTIC.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis familiaris</i>—Dog</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>—Pig</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>—Horse</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>—Celtic Short-horn</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Capra hircus</i>—Goat</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td></tr> - <tr class="hdr"> - <td class="tdc small">WILD.</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis lupus</i>—Wolf</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis vulpes</i>—Fox</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Meles taxus</i>—Badger</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus arctos</i>—Bear</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>—Wild Boar</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus elaphus</i>—Stag</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus capreolus</i>—Roe</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus cuniculus</i>—Rabbit</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus timidus</i>—Hare</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr class="topspace"> - <td class="tdl">Polished Celts</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Flint Flakes or Chips</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Pottery</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Human Skeletons</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl">Platycnemic bones</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td> - <td class="tdc">X</td></tr> -</table> - -<h3 id="hdr_75"><i>Description of the Human Remains by Professor Busk.</i></h3> - -<p>For the following account of the human remains, reprinted -from the “Journal of the Ethnological Society,” -January 1871, I am indebted to the kindness of my -friend Professor Busk, to whom examples of all the -forms were <span class="locked">forwarded:—</span></p> - -<blockquote> - -<h4><i>Notes on the Human Remains.</i> By Professor <span class="smcap">Busk</span>, F.R.S.</h4> - -<h5>§ 1. <span class="smcap">Introduction.</span></h5> - -<p>The remains discovered in the sepulchral cave at Perthi-Chwareu, -according to a list furnished by Mr. Boyd Dawkins, are as under; but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167">167</a></span> -I believe this catalogue does not include all that were found in the -locality.<a id="FNanchor_102" href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a></p> - -<p>1. Eleven more or less perfect skulls, some, however, represented -by mere fragments.</p> - -<p>2. Twelve mandibles.</p> - -<p>3. Seven arm-bones or <i class="anatomy">humeri</i>—four right and three left.</p> - -<p>4. Six <i class="anatomy">ulnæ</i>.</p> - -<p>5. Twenty-two thigh-bones, including five pairs, five odd ones of -the right side, and seven of the left; and amongst them are three of -very young children.</p> - -<p>6. Seventeen <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> or leg-bones, nine of the right and eight of the -left side, and apparently none of them in pairs; so that there must -probably have been a good many more.</p> - -<p>7. Eight <i class="anatomy">astragali</i>.</p> - -<p>8. Nine <i class="anatomy">calcanea</i>, or heel-bones.</p> - -<p>The number of individuals, therefore, whose relics were deposited -in this cavern could not have been less than sixteen, and may have -been many more. They appear to have been of all ages and of -both sexes.</p> - -<p>Of the other bones of the skeleton, of which there must have been -abundance, I have received no information.</p> - -<p>In the Cefn Cave there were <span class="locked">discovered:—</span></p> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -1. One mandible.<br /> -2. One <i class="anatomy">humerus</i>.<br /> -3. Two <i class="anatomy">ulnæ</i>.<br /> -4. A pair of thigh-bones.<br /> -5. A pair of leg-bones. -</p> - -<p class="in0">and in the <span class="locked">tumulus:—</span></p> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -1. Portions of seven skulls.<br /> -2. Two right <i class="anatomy">humeri</i>.<br /> -3. A pair of <i class="anatomy">ulnæ</i>.<br /> -4. A right <i class="anatomy">femur</i>. -</p> - -<p>From St. Asaph the only bone that has come under my observation -is a single <i class="anatomy">calvaria</i>.</p> - -<h5>§ 2. <span class="smcap">Description of the Bones from the Cavern at -Perthi-Chwareu.</span></h5> - -<p>(a.) <i>General Condition.</i>—In general condition, as regards colour and -texture, these bones present some, but no very striking, differences;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168">168</a></span> -on the whole they are much alike, though it might be supposed that -some have lain longer in the ground than the others. One or -two among them (but these are apparently the younger bones) are -fragile; the majority, however, are as firm as common churchyard -bones, and some have quite the natural degree of hardness. They are -of a lightish-yellow colour, do not adhere to the tongue, and afford -scarcely any earthy smell when breathed upon or moistened: only -one among them presents any staining from oxide of manganese; and -this exists in diffuse blotches, and is not at all of the dendritic form. -Many are partially covered with a very thin film of crystalline -carbonate of lime.</p> - -<div id="Fig_40" class="figcenter" style="width: 527px;"> - <img src="images/i_168.jpg" width="527" height="362" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 40, 41, 42.</span>—Skull from Sepulchral Cave at Perthi-Chwareu.</div></div> - -<p>(b.) <i>The Skulls.</i>—Of these only three of the more perfect have come -under my observation. These alone will form the subject of what I -have to remark on this portion of the skeleton. But in the subjoined -Table I. (p. 171) I have given, together with the dimensions of these -three, those of five others which have been furnished to me by -Mr. Dawkins.</p> - -<p>In the specimen No. 1 (Figs 40, 41, 42) the entire facial part is -wanting, together with the whole of the base and a great part of one -side of the <i class="anatomy">calvaria</i>. The skull is of an oval form, symmetrical, with -a rather prominent occiput. The region of the vertex is slightly and -evenly arched; and the forehead, though not high, is vertical, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169">169</a></span> -slightly compressed on the sides. The sutures are all open and finely -serrated. The frontal sinuses are distinct though small. The supra-orbital -ridge is thin, but rather prominent towards the external angular -process. The mastoid processes are very large, and the digastric -<i class="anatomy">fossa</i> remarkably deep. The occipital spine is very prominent, as are -the lateral ridges. The temporal ridges, also, and, in short, all the -muscular impressions, are very strongly marked.</p> - -<p>The skull is evidently that of a powerful, muscular man, in the -prime of life, and apparently of robust, but not coarse build.<a id="FNanchor_103" href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a></p> - -<div id="Fig_43" class="figcenter" style="width: 524px;"> - <img src="images/i_169.jpg" width="524" height="466" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 43, 44, 45.</span>—Skull from Sepulchral Cave at Perthi-Chwareu.</div></div> - -<p>Skull No. 2 (<a href="#Fig_43">Figs. 43, 44, 45</a>) is that of an adult male, presenting -as nearly as possible the same dimensions, form, and other characters -as that above described, except that the bone is somewhat thicker and -heavier. The muscular ridges and impressions are even more strongly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170">170</a></span> -developed than in the former, and especially the temporal ridges -immediately above the external angular processes. The left <i class="anatomy">maxilla</i> -remains loosely attached, containing the two bicuspid teeth, which are -of small size, and worn quite flat, and to such an extent as to render -it probable that the man was somewhat advanced in years, although -none of the sutures are closed. The face is strictly orthognathous, and -the skull dolichocephalic and aphanozygous.<a id="FNanchor_104" href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a></p> - -<p>Skull No. 3 is the entire <i class="anatomy">calvaria</i> of a very young individual. The -two milk-molars remain on either side; and behind them the first -true molar is fully out, but not in the least worn. The incisors and -canines have fallen out. The former, from the size of the <i class="anatomy">alveoli</i>, -were of the permanent set, but not the latter. The age of the -individual, therefore, may be estimated as about seven or eight.</p> - -<p>The only point worthy of notice in this <i class="anatomy">calvaria</i> is the existence of -a well-marked depression across the middle of the occipital bone, -which appears exactly as if it had been caused by the constriction of -a bandage. The depression barely extends beyond the lambdoidal -suture into the parietals. It requires, perhaps, some imagination to -perceive the slight traces of a corresponding depression in the forepart -of the skull; but I think a faint depression may be there perceived -on careful inspection. The effect of the occipital constriction, -if it be such, reminds one of some of the deformed French skulls -described by M. Foville<a id="FNanchor_105" href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> and by M. Gosse.<a id="FNanchor_106" href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> In all other respects the -skull is well formed and symmetrical. It is strictly orthognathous, -and of a broad oval shape.</p> - -<p>If deformed artificially, it would come under the head of “tête -annulaire” of M. Gosse; and Dr. Foville shows that this kind of -deformation arises from the popular custom of applying a kind of -bandage round the head of the new-born infant, which, passing over -the anterior fontanelle, descends obliquely, and is crossed behind the -occiput and brought back and tied in front. This band, or “serre-tête,” -he states, is worn during the first year, and for a longer period -by female children than by males. Dr. Lunier gives pretty nearly the -same account, adding, however, further particulars.<a id="FNanchor_107" href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> It may be -remarked, also, that the Berbers, who formed great part of the Moorish<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171">171</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_172">172</a></span> -forces that invaded Europe in the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries, -used to elongate the skull posteriorly and flatten the forehead.</p> - -<h6 id="list_171"><a href="#if_p_171"><span class="smcap">Table I.</span>—<i>Dimensions of Perthi-Chwareu Skulls.</i></a></h6> - -<table class="listobjects" border="1" summary="skull dimensions"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc">No.</th> - <th class="tdc">Length.</th> - <th class="tdc">Breadth.</th> - <th class="tdc">Height.</th> - <th class="tdc">Least frontal breadth.</th> - <th class="tdc">Greatest frontal breadth.</th> - <th class="tdc">Parietal breadth.</th> - <th class="tdc">Occipital breadth.</th> - <th class="tdc">Zygomatic breadth.</th> - <th class="tdc">Frontal radius.</th> - <th class="tdc">Vertical radius.</th> - <th class="tdc">Parietal radius.</th> - <th class="tdc">Occipital radius.</th> - <th class="tdc">Maxillary radius.</th> - <th class="tdc">Fronto-nasal radius.</th> - <th class="tdc">Circum-<br />ference.</th> - <th class="tdc">Longi-<br />tudinal arc.</th> - <th class="tdc">(<i>a</i>) Frontal.</th> - <th class="tdc">(<i>b</i>) Parietal.</th> - <th class="tdc">(<i>c</i>) Occipital.</th> - <th class="tdc">Frontal transverse arc.</th> - <th class="tdc">Vertical transverse arc.</th> - <th class="tdc">Parietal transverse arc.</th> - <th class="tdc">Occipital transverse arc.</th> - <th class="tdc">Latitudinal or cephalic index.</th> - <th class="tdc">Altitudinal index.</th></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">1.</td> - <td class="tdc">7·5</td> - <td class="tdc">5·7</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">4·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">4·6</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">21·2</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">12·0</td> - <td class="tdc">13·0</td> - <td class="tdc">14·0</td> - <td class="tdc">12·0</td> - <td class="tdc">·760</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">2.</td> - <td class="tdc">7·6</td> - <td class="tdc">5·7</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">4·0</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">4·8</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">4·4</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">3·7</td> - <td class="tdc">21·6</td> - <td class="tdc">15·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·8</td> - <td class="tdc">13·0</td> - <td class="tdc">13·5</td> - <td class="tdc">13·8</td> - <td class="tdc">12·4</td> - <td class="tdc">·750</td> - <td class="tdc">·710</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">3.</td> - <td class="tdc">6·5</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">3·4</td> - <td class="tdc">4·5</td> - <td class="tdc">5·1</td> - <td class="tdc">4·1</td> - <td class="tdc">3·9</td> - <td class="tdc">4·2</td> - <td class="tdc">4·5</td> - <td class="tdc">4·7</td> - <td class="tdc">4·1</td> - <td class="tdc">3·2</td> - <td class="tdc">3·0</td> - <td class="tdc">19·0</td> - <td class="tdc">14·7</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·3</td> - <td class="tdc">4·5</td> - <td class="tdc">11·6</td> - <td class="tdc"> 12·45</td> - <td class="tdc">13·4</td> - <td class="tdc">11·2</td> - <td class="tdc">·800</td> - <td class="tdc">·846</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">4.</td> - <td class="tdc">7·4</td> - <td class="tdc">5·8</td> - <td class="tdc">5·8</td> - <td class="tdc">3·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·8</td> - <td class="tdc">4·4</td> - <td class="tdc">4·7</td> - <td class="tdc">4·4</td> - <td class="tdc">4·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·7</td> - <td class="tdc">4·3</td> - <td class="tdc">3·9</td> - <td class="tdc">3·6</td> - <td class="tdc">23·5</td> - <td class="tdc">16·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">6·?</td> - <td class="tdc">11·0</td> - <td class="tdc">13·0</td> - <td class="tdc">14·0</td> - <td class="tdc">12·0</td> - <td class="tdc">·797</td> - <td class="tdc">·797</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">5.</td> - <td class="tdc">6·7</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">3·5</td> - <td class="tdc">4·4</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">4·1</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">4·0</td> - <td class="tdc">4·3</td> - <td class="tdc">4·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·0</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">18·5</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">4·4</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">11·0</td> - <td class="tdc">12·5</td> - <td class="tdc">13·4</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·746</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">6.</td> - <td class="tdc">6·8</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">3·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·3</td> - <td class="tdc">5·3</td> - <td class="tdc">4·0</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">4·3</td> - <td class="tdc">4·5</td> - <td class="tdc">4·8</td> - <td class="tdc">4·2</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">19·8</td> - <td class="tdc">14·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·8</td> - <td class="tdc">5·3</td> - <td class="tdc">4·5</td> - <td class="tdc">14·0</td> - <td class="tdc">12·0</td> - <td class="tdc">13·0</td> - <td class="tdc">11·0</td> - <td class="tdc">·794</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">7.</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">5·3</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">4·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·0</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">8.</td> - <td class="tdc">7·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">3·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·4</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">4·1</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">4·1</td> - <td class="tdc">4·3</td> - <td class="tdc">4·5</td> - <td class="tdc">4·1</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">3·4</td> - <td class="tdc">19·5</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">4·5</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">4·8</td> - <td class="tdc">11·0</td> - <td class="tdc">11·5</td> - <td class="tdc">13·0</td> - <td class="tdc">12·0</td> - <td class="tdc">·743</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl smaller">Mean<a href="#Footnote_A" class="fnanchor">A</a></td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·07</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">3·8</td> - <td class="tdc"> 4·64</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">4·3</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">4·3</td> - <td class="tdc">4·5</td> - <td class="tdc">4·7</td> - <td class="tdc">4·2</td> - <td class="tdc">3·5</td> - <td class="tdc"> 3·42</td> - <td class="tdc">20·0</td> - <td class="tdc">15·3</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">12·0</td> - <td class="tdc">12·5</td> - <td class="tdc">13·5</td> - <td class="tdc">11·8</td> - <td class="tdc"> ·765<a id="FNanchor_A" href="#Footnote_A" class="fnanchor">A</a></td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl smaller">Cefn Cave</td> - <td class="tdc">7·4</td> - <td class="tdc">5·7</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">3·8</td> - <td class="tdc">4·7</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">4·8</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">4·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·7</td> - <td class="tdc">4·0</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">3·8</td> - <td class="tdc">21.0</td> - <td class="tdc">15·1</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">4·6</td> - <td class="tdc">12·2</td> - <td class="tdc">12·8</td> - <td class="tdc">13·8</td> - <td class="tdc">12·0</td> - <td class="tdc">·770</td> - <td class="tdc">·702</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl smaller">Cefn Tumulus</td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·38</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5·65</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">3·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·5</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5·55</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">4·5</td> - <td class="tdc">4·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">4·5</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">3·6</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">12·4</td> - <td class="tdc">12·4</td> - <td class="tdc">12·8</td> - <td class="tdc">10·9</td> - <td class="tdc">·765</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl smaller">Ditto</td> - <td class="tdc">7·2</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">5·7</td> - <td class="tdc">3·6</td> - <td class="tdc"> 4·35</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc"> 4·35</td> - <td class="tdc">4·6</td> - <td class="tdc"> 4·45</td> - <td class="tdc">4·8</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">4·3</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">3·7</td> - <td class="tdc">20·1</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">12·0</td> - <td class="tdc">13·1</td> - <td class="tdc"> 13·25</td> - <td class="tdc">11·5</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·5</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">5·9</td> - <td class="tdc">4·0</td> - <td class="tdc">4·6</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5·35</td> - <td class="tdc"> 4·35</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5·05</td> - <td class="tdc"> 4·35</td> - <td class="tdc">4·2</td> - <td class="tdc">4·2</td> - <td class="tdc">20·9</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·6</td> - <td class="tdc">12·8</td> - <td class="tdc"> 13·25</td> - <td class="tdc"> 13·25</td> - <td class="tdc">10·5</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl smaller">Genista Cave,<br />Gibraltar</td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·95</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">5·7</td> - <td class="tdc">3·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc"> 4·45</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">4·7</td> - <td class="tdc">4·8</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc"> 4·25</td> - <td class="tdc">4·1</td> - <td class="tdc"> 3·75</td> - <td class="tdc">20·6</td> - <td class="tdc">14·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">4·8</td> - <td class="tdc">4·0</td> - <td class="tdc">12·5</td> - <td class="tdc">13·2</td> - <td class="tdc">13·3</td> - <td class="tdc">11·4</td> - <td class="tdc">·748</td> - <td class="tdc">·714</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl smaller">Ditto</td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·35</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">6·1</td> - <td class="tdc">3·8</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">4·5</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc"> 4·75</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·1</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">4·0</td> - <td class="tdc"> 3·65</td> - <td class="tdc">20·8</td> - <td class="tdc">15·3</td> - <td class="tdc">4·8</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">4·9</td> - <td class="tdc">12·3</td> - <td class="tdc">13·2</td> - <td class="tdc">13·3</td> - <td class="tdc">11·6</td> - <td class="tdc">·761</td> - <td class="tdc">·889</td></tr> -</table> -<div class="footnote b1"> - -<p class="center b1"><a id="Footnote_A" href="#FNanchor_A" class="fnanchor">A</a> In taking this mean, the cephalic index of the young skull, No. 3, is omitted; if included, the mean would be ·785.</p></div> - -<div id="Fig_46" class="figleft up1" style="width: 154px;"> - <img src="images/i_172.jpg" width="154" height="179" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span></div></div> - -<p>(c.) <i>Thigh-bones.</i>—I have had an opportunity of examining only a -single perfect specimen of the thigh-bones. This is an entire bone, -18·2 inches long, with a least circumference of 3·5. Its perimetral -index<a id="FNanchor_108" href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> consequently is ·192, which is about the normal standard. The -<i class="anatomy">linea aspera</i>, at the middle of the bone more especially, is very -prominent, so that the bone may be termed, in some degree, carinated -(<a href="#Fig_46">Fig. 46</a>). The shaft is straight; and the chief peculiarities, besides -the prominent <i class="anatomy">linea aspera</i>, which it presents, are (1) an unusual -compression in the antero-posterior direction in the upper part, for the -extent of about three inches below the <i class="anatomy">trochanter minor</i>. At about -two inches below that process, or at a point corresponding with the -lower part of the insertion of the <i class="anatomy">pectineus</i> muscle, the shaft measures -·9 × 1·45, whilst in three other ordinary <i class="anatomy">femora</i> -with which I have compared it, the bone at -the corresponding part measures ·9 × 1·20, -·9 × 1·10, ·9 × 1·15, showing that the Perthi-Chwareu -<i class="anatomy">femur</i> is unusually expanded laterally -in the upper part of the shaft. The consequence -is to give the bone at that part a peculiar -aspect, which is especially seen in an acute -internal angle, and one rather less acute externally, -instead of the usually rounded internal -and external borders. (2) The distal extremity -appears to be rather disproportionately -large as compared with a recent well-formed bone of the same -length, the condyles measuring 2·5 × 3·3 instead of 2·4 × 3·05; and -the lower part of the shaft is also somewhat expanded. But the -chief peculiarity, as above remarked, is the compression of the shaft -in the upper part. Besides the <i class="anatomy">linea aspera</i>, all the muscular impressions -are strongly marked, and especially those for the insertion of -the <i class="anatomy">gluteus maximus</i> and the <i class="anatomy">trochanter minor</i>. The neck is long and -very oblique, and the head, upon which only a small portion of the -articular surface is left, must have had a diameter of about 1·9.</p> - -<p>Mr. Boyd Dawkins has furnished me with the principal dimensions -of several other <i class="anatomy">femora</i>, varying in length from 16 to 18 inches, and -affording an average length of about 17, corresponding to a mean -height of the individuals of about 5 ft. 4 in. to 5 ft. 5 in., the tallest being<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173">173</a></span> -perhaps 5 ft. 6 in., and the shortest about 5 ft. 2 in., no doubt a woman. -The mean perimetral index of the eight <i class="anatomy">femora</i> is ·186, which shows, in -comparison with the usual thickness of well-formed male thigh-bones -of the present day, a certain degree of slenderness. That this is not -altogether owing to the circumstance that the bones include those of -perhaps more than one female is proved by the fact that in no -instance does the perimetral index exceed ·192, and in one thigh-bone, -18″·2 long, it is not more, if the circumference is correctly given, than -·178, the normal perimetral index for the adult male <i class="anatomy">femur</i> in this -country being taken as about ·194.</p> - -<p>(d.) <i class="anatomy">Tibiæ.</i>—Of the leg-bones brought under my notice, five are -entire and five more or less defective. The principal dimensions and -proportions of these bones, so far as they could be taken, are given in -the subjoined Table.</p> - -<h6 id="list_173"><a href="#if_p_173"><span class="smcap">Table II.</span>—<i>Dimensions, &c., of Perthi-Chwareu Tibiæ.</i></a></h6> - -<table class="listobjects" summary="perri-chwareu dimensions"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc">No.</th> - <th class="tdc">Length.</th> - <th class="tdc">Transverse<br />diameter,<br />proximal<br />end.</th> - <th class="tdc">Least<br />circum-<br />ference.</th> - <th class="tdc">Antero-<br />posterior<br />diameter and<br />transverse<br />diameter<br />of shaft.</th> - <th class="tdc">Perimetral<br />index.</th> - <th class="tdc">Latitudinal<br />index.</th></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">1.</td> - <td class="tdc">14·9</td> - <td class="tdc">2·8</td> - <td class="tdc">3·2</td> - <td class="tdc">140 × 80</td> - <td class="tdc">·214</td> - <td class="tdc">·571</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">2.</td> - <td class="tdc">13·7</td> - <td class="tdc">2·7</td> - <td class="tdc">2·9</td> - <td class="tdc">120 - 75</td> - <td class="tdc">·211</td> - <td class="tdc">·625</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">3.</td> - <td class="tdc">13·2</td> - <td class="tdc">3·0</td> - <td class="tdc">3·0</td> - <td class="tdc">135 × 80</td> - <td class="tdc">·227</td> - <td class="tdc">·592</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">4.</td> - <td class="tdc">12·9</td> - <td class="tdc">2·5</td> - <td class="tdc">2·5</td> - <td class="tdc">125 × 70</td> - <td class="tdc">·193</td> - <td class="tdc">·541</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">5.</td> - <td class="tdc">12·9</td> - <td class="tdc">2·5</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2·75</td> - <td class="tdc">100 × 70</td> - <td class="tdc">·211</td> - <td class="tdc">·700</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">6.</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">135 × 90</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·666</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">7.</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">140 × 90</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·642</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">8.</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">130 - 70</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·538</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">9.</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">135 × 85</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·629</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr totline"> - <td class="tdc">Mean.</td> - <td class="tdc">13·5</td> - <td class="tdc">2·7</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2·86</td> - <td class="tdc">129 × 79</td> - <td class="tdc">·211</td> - <td class="tdc">·611</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>In this Table the <em>length</em> means the extreme length of the bone as -measured from the summit of the spinous process to the point of the -internal malleolus; and the numbers in the fifth column represent the -antero-posterior and the transverse diameter of the shaft at the point -where the popliteal line terminates at the inner border of the bone, -which is usually about an inch and a half below the nutritive -foramen. The <em>latitudinal</em> index represents the relation that the -transverse diameter bears to the antero posterior, and it is employed -to indicate, with some degree of precision, the actual amount of -compression or flattening of the shaft as compared with the normal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174">174</a></span> -form, which may, so far as my observations show, be taken for the -ordinary English <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> as from ·700 or ·800, or in the mean at ·730, -as will be seen in the subjoined Table, which contains the proportions -of thirteen leg-bones taken indiscriminately from a drawer in the -College of Surgeons.</p> - -<h6 id="list_174"><a href="#if_p_174"><span class="smcap">Table III.</span>—<i>Proportions, &c., of ordinary Tibiæ.</i></a></h6> - -<table class="listobjects" summary="tibia proportions"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc">No.</th> - <th class="tdc">Length.</th> - <th class="tdc">Transverse<br />diameter,<br />proximal<br />end.</th> - <th class="tdc">Least<br />circum-<br />ference.</th> - <th class="tdc">Antero-<br />posterior<br />diameter and<br />transverse<br />diameter<br />of shaft.</th> - <th class="tdc">Perimetral<br />index.</th> - <th class="tdc">Latitudinal<br />index.</th></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">1.</td> - <td class="tdc">16·7</td> - <td class="tdc"> 3·15</td> - <td class="tdc">3·4</td> - <td class="tdc">130 × 100</td> - <td class="tdc">·202</td> - <td class="tdc">·769</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">2.</td> - <td class="tdc">16·4</td> - <td class="tdc">3·2</td> - <td class="tdc">3·5</td> - <td class="tdc">150 × 115</td> - <td class="tdc">·213</td> - <td class="tdc">·766</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">3.</td> - <td class="tdc">15·8</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2·95</td> - <td class="tdc">3·0</td> - <td class="tdc">120 × 90</td> - <td class="tdc">·189</td> - <td class="tdc">·750</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">4.</td> - <td class="tdc">15·5</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2·95</td> - <td class="tdc">2·9</td> - <td class="tdc">140 × 90</td> - <td class="tdc">·122</td> - <td class="tdc">·642</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">5.</td> - <td class="tdc">15·3</td> - <td class="tdc">2·9</td> - <td class="tdc">2·8</td> - <td class="tdc">130 × 90</td> - <td class="tdc">·150</td> - <td class="tdc">·692</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">6.</td> - <td class="tdc">15·2</td> - <td class="tdc">3·0</td> - <td class="tdc">3·2</td> - <td class="tdc">140 × 90</td> - <td class="tdc">·213</td> - <td class="tdc">·642</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">7.</td> - <td class="tdc">15·0</td> - <td class="tdc">2·8</td> - <td class="tdc">2·8</td> - <td class="tdc">140 × 90</td> - <td class="tdc">·187</td> - <td class="tdc">·642</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">8.</td> - <td class="tdc">15·0</td> - <td class="tdc">2·6</td> - <td class="tdc">2·8</td> - <td class="tdc">120 × 85</td> - <td class="tdc">·187</td> - <td class="tdc">·709</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">9.</td> - <td class="tdc">15·0</td> - <td class="tdc">2·6</td> - <td class="tdc">2·8</td> - <td class="tdc">120 × 90</td> - <td class="tdc">·187</td> - <td class="tdc">·782</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">10.</td> - <td class="tdc">15·5</td> - <td class="tdc">3·0</td> - <td class="tdc">2·9</td> - <td class="tdc">120 × 95</td> - <td class="tdc">·193</td> - <td class="tdc">·791</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">11.</td> - <td class="tdc">13·5</td> - <td class="tdc">2·8</td> - <td class="tdc">2·9</td> - <td class="tdc">120 × 90</td> - <td class="tdc">·214</td> - <td class="tdc">·750</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">12.</td> - <td class="tdc">13·4</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2·75</td> - <td class="tdc">2·7</td> - <td class="tdc">120 × 85</td> - <td class="tdc">·201</td> - <td class="tdc">·708</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc">13.</td> - <td class="tdc">12·8</td> - <td class="tdc">2·5</td> - <td class="tdc">2·4</td> - <td class="tdc">100 × 85</td> - <td class="tdc">·187</td> - <td class="tdc">·850</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr totline"> - <td class="tdc">Mean.</td> - <td class="tdc">15·1</td> - <td class="tdc"> 2·88</td> - <td class="tdc">2·9</td> - <td class="tdc">126 × 91</td> - <td class="tdc">·188</td> - <td class="tdc">·730</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Comparison of the mean proportions given in the two Tables -<span class="locked">shows:—</span></p> - -<p>(1) That the Perthi-Chwareu leg-bones are, on the whole, shorter, -and absolutely smaller in all dimensions but one, viz. in the antero-posterior -diameter of the shaft, which, notwithstanding the smaller -size generally of the bones, is rather greater (that is to say, in the -proportion of 129 to 126) than in the ordinary run of English <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>.</p> - -<p>(2) That their perimetral index is greater, showing that, in proportion -to their length, the Welsh bones are somewhat thicker, or in -the proportion of 211 to 188.</p> - -<p>(3) But the most marked difference is seen in the latitudinal index, -which in the Perthi-Chwareu bones is ·611, and in those of the -ordinary type ·730, varying in the former case from ·538 to ·700, and -in the latter from ·642 to ·850; but the last is probably an exceptional -case. In accordance with this, we find that the mean transverse<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175">175</a></span> -diameter of the shaft at the point above indicated is greatly under -the usual mark, viz. as 79 to 91.</p> - -<p>It is clear, therefore, that the Perthi-Chwareu <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> are more compressed -or flattened than the usual run of modern European <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>; in -other words, they belong to the platycnemic type.</p> - -<p>As this is, I believe, the first instance in which the occurrence of -<i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> of this peculiar conformation has been observed in this country, -the circumstance is of some interest, especially with relation to the -occurrence of priscan bones of the same type elsewhere.</p> - -<p>This peculiar conformation of the <i class="anatomy">tibia</i>, to which we gave the name -of “platycnemic,” was, I believe, first noticed by Dr. Falconer and -myself, in 1863, in the human remains procured by Captain Brome -from the Genista Cave, on Windmill Hill, Gibraltar, of which -an account will be found in the Transactions of the International -Congress of Prehistoric Archæology for the year 1868 (p. 161); and -about the same time, or in May 1864, M. Broca<a id="FNanchor_109" href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> independently -observed the same condition in <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> procured from the dolmen of -Chamant (Oise), and afterwards in bones from the dolmen of -Maintenon (Eure-et-Loire). Similar bones have since been noticed in -other localities on the Continent, as, for instance, in the diluvium of -Montmartre, by M. Eugène Bertrand. But that the peculiarity in -question is not common in all the varieties of priscan man belonging -to the reindeer period is shown by the fact that it has not been -observed in any of the <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> exhumed by M. Dupont in the Belgian -caves.</p> - -<p>M. Broca’s almost exhaustive remarks upon the anatomical, physiological, -and pathological relations of this form of <i class="anatomy">tibia</i> leave but little -to be said under those heads. I would, however, venture to add a few -words as to its ethnological significance. But before doing so I would -remark that there appear to be two forms of platycnemism, apparently -indicative of some difference in the cause or nature of this aberration -from the more usual shape of the bone. To save many words, I -subjoin outlines of several well-marked instances of platycnemic bones, -all drawn of the natural size and in the same position, the letter (<i>a</i>) -in each corresponding to the interosseous ridge, and (<i>b</i>) to the <i class="anatomy">crista</i> -or shin.</p> - -<p>The line <i>b c</i>, drawn through the <i class="anatomy">crista</i> and the middle of the -posterior surface of the bone, is bisected by another (<i>a d</i>), drawn at -right angles to it, at the level of the interosseous ridge.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176">176</a></span> -In <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47</a>, which represents what may be regarded as a normal -<i class="anatomy">tibia</i>, the length of that portion of the antero-posterior line which is -behind the transverse line is to that of the anterior as 274 to 1,000, -whilst in <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 48</a>, taken from M. Broca’s outline of the Cro-magnon -<i class="anatomy">tibia</i>, which would seem to represent the extremest degree of platycnemism -as yet observed, the proportion in question is as 623 to 1,000.</p> - -<div id="Fig_47" class="figcenter" style="width: 419px;"> - <img src="images/i_176.jpg" width="419" height="243" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 47, 48.</span></div></div> - -<div id="Fig_49" class="figcenter" style="width: 505px;"> - <img src="images/i_176b.jpg" width="505" height="267" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 49, 50, 51.</span></div></div> - -<p>Figs. 49, 50, 51, are taken from as many of the Gibraltar <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>,<a id="FNanchor_110" href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> in -which the proportion varies from 600 to 523, whilst it will be observed -that in <a href="#Fig_52">Figs. 52, 53, 54</a>, taken from the most platycnemic of the Perthi-Chwareu -<i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>, the proportion in one only differs in any considerable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177">177</a></span> -degree from the extreme normal proportion shown in <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 47</a>; and in -this it is as 512 to 1,000, whilst in <a href="#Fig_52">Fig. 53</a>, which is nevertheless -undoubtedly platycnemic, the proportion is exactly the same as in the -most triangular form of bone.</p> - -<p>It would seem, therefore, that platycnemism may arise from an -unusual antero-posterior expansion of the bone, either in front or -behind the level of the interosseous ridge. What this difference may -indicate, or of what importance it may be in the consideration of -questions relating to platycnemism, I am not prepared to discuss; but -as in all probability it is connected with a difference in the cause of -the deformation (if it be deformation), I have thought that the -observation should be recorded, and would merely, in addition, remark -that, so far as I have noticed, the occasional and not infrequent -platycnemism observed in the shin-bones of negroes is what may be -termed anterior.</p> - -<div id="Fig_52" class="figcenter" style="width: 494px;"> - <img src="images/i_177.jpg" width="494" height="255" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 52, 53, 54.</span></div></div> - -<p>With respect to the ethnological value of the platycnemic <i class="anatomy">tibia</i>, I conceive -we are as yet very much in the dark. That it is a race-character -would seem to me in the highest degree improbable, seeing that it -would be difficult to find any other points of resemblance between the -Cro-magnon platycnemic men and those whose remains were met with -in the Gibraltar caves, although the platycnemism is of the same -kind in each; and still less could the former gigantic race be identified -with the occupants of the Perthi-Chwareu sepulchre, from whom they -differ not only in stature, but even more remarkably in cranial -conformation.</p> - -<p>If, then, platycnemism cannot be regarded as of any value as a -race-character, it can <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">a fortiori</i> be still less looked upon as indicative<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178">178</a></span> -of simian tendencies, a notion that M. Broca seems somewhat inclined -to favour. It is quite true that the <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> of the gorilla and of the -chimpanzee are, to a certain extent, platycnemic; but it is by no -means so much so as the human platycnemic bone. The <i class="anatomy">tibia</i> of a -male gorilla in the College of Surgeons has a latitudinal index of ·681, -and that of a female of ·650, whilst that of the chimpanzee is ·611, -or exactly the mean of the Perthi-Chwareu bones. It is needless to -insist upon the other marked distinctions between the simian and the -human <i class="anatomy">tibia</i>; but as regards platycnemism it will be obvious, if we -are disposed to trace it to any genetic descent, that the descendant -has, in this respect, at one time far out-simianized the Simiæ.</p> - -<p>But this comparison with the anthropoid apes may, perhaps, afford -ground for a suggestion respecting some possible connection between -this peculiar form of the <i class="anatomy">tibia</i> and the habits of the people amongst -whom it has been observed. One great distinction between the -human and the simian foot consists in their respective adaptations to -totally distinct functions. In the one case it is simply an organ of -support and progression; in the other, for the most part, of prehension. -This necessarily involves a considerable difference in the proportions, -&c., of the muscles by which the greater mobility and adaptability of -the foot, and more particularly of the digits, are ensured. Would it -not, then, be admissible to inquire how far, at any rate, posterior -platycnemism may be connected with the greater freedom of motion -and general adaptability of the toes enjoyed by those peoples whose -feet have not been subjected to the confinement of shoes or other -coverings, and who at the same time have been compelled to lead an -active existence in a rude and rugged or mountainous and wooded -country, where the exigencies of the chase would demand the utmost -agility in climbing and otherwise?</p> - -<p>Some common cause of this kind would seem to be not improbable; -and it would not, perhaps, be difficult to ascertain whether it is a -<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">vera causa</i> or not. But, with respect to this, observations are at -present wanting.</p> - -<p>From the foregoing data we may <span class="locked">conclude:—</span></p> - -<p>(1) That the Perthi-Chwareu bones belonged to a race characterized -by the proportionally rather large dimensions of the cranium, whose -form presents nothing very remarkable, and is pretty nearly conformable -to several of those found by Mr. Laing in the ancient -shell-mounds in Shetland.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179">179</a></span><a id="FNanchor_111" href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a></p> - -<p>(2) That this form is distinctly different from that of the Mewslade -skull, in which the vertical region is somewhat flattened, as is the -case also with several Anglesey crania, which, however, appear to -pass, by gradual transition, into the Keiss and Perthi-Chwareu shape, -through such a form as that of the Towyn-y-capel skull figured by -Professor Huxley;<a id="FNanchor_112" href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a> and the whole of them consequently may be -regarded as belonging to the so-called “River-bed skulls” of that -author, excepting the Borris cranium, which appears to belong to a -different type altogether.</p> - -<p>(3) That the people whose remains were found in this locality were -of low stature (the mean height, deduced from the lengths of the -long bones, being little more than 5 feet), the tallest being 5 ft. 6 in., -and the shortest adult not more than 4 ft. 10 in., the intermediate -ones being 5 ft. 1 in. and 5 ft. 2 in.</p> - -<p>(4) That the proportions of the long bones are rather thick, and -the muscular impressions in all are very strongly marked.</p> - -<p>(5) That the <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> are, for the most part, of a much more compressed -form than those of the modern English, but that this platycnemism -does not appear to be exactly of the same kind as that which -is exhibited in the Gibraltar bones and in those from Cro-magnon (as -figured by M. Broca), the difference consisting in the fact that in the -two latter instances the bone is expanded backwards behind the -transverse plane at the interosseous ridge as much as it is in front of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180">180</a></span> -that plane, whilst in the Welsh <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> it is the anterior portion of the -shaft only which is expanded; or, in other words, the platycnemism -in them is due simply to an absolute compression of the shaft.</p> - -<h5>§ 3. <span class="smcap">Human Remains from the Cefn Tumulus.</span></h5> - -<p>These remains, as submitted to my inspection, consist <span class="locked">of:—</span></p> - -<p>(1) Portions of three frontal bones, two of which are nearly complete, -and one constituted of little more than the superciliary region.</p> - -<p>(2) Two parietals and a left temporal, probably belonging to the -same skull as the more mutilated frontal.</p> - -<p>(3) Portions of four thigh-bones, two left and two right, one of -the latter wanting the proximal, the other both extremities.</p> - -<p>We have thus the remains of three individuals from this interment.</p> - -<p>I. <i>The Frontal Bones.</i>—No. 1. The least transverse diameter, -immediately behind the external angular processes, is 3″·6, and its -greatest (at the coronal suture) about 4″·3. Longitudinal arc, 4″·1. -The profile outline of the forehead is slightly receding; the frontal -sinuses moderately developed; and the supraorbital border thin and -acute, whilst the glabellar eminence is large and prominent. The -bone is a good deal compressed on the sides, so as to have almost the -appearance of having formed part of a cymbecephalic skull. The -bone itself is thin, and probably without any <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">diploë</i>.</p> - -<p>No. 2 presents exactly the same characters, except that the longitudinal -arc is greater, being 5″·3. The postorbital or least transverse -diameter is 3″·4, and the coronal or greatest 4″·4. The frontal -sinuses are well developed; the supraorbital ridge rather prominent, -but thin and sharp; the external angular process prominent and -thick. Glabellar eminence large and prominent. The nasals remain -<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in situ</i>, and project almost, if not quite, horizontally forwards, with a -rapid curve at first, and then straight out. The general contour of -the bone is exactly like that of No. 1, in which also, although the -nasals are wanting, the position of the surface by which they were -attached shows that they must in all probability have resembled those -of No. 2. The <i class="anatomy">crista galli</i> of the ethmoid, which is left <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in situ</i>, is -remarkably thick and high.</p> - -<p>No. 3 is a portion of a larger and wider bone, the postorbital -diameter being at least 4″·0. The frontal sinuses are very large, but -distinctly defined, as the remainder of the supraorbital border is not -thickened. Owing perhaps to the greater prominence of the sinuses, -the glabella does not appear so protuberant as in the other instances.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181">181</a></span> -The nasal bones remain and project forwards in the same curious -fashion as in No. 2. The frontal crest on the inner surface is -remarkably developed, being at least half an inch high, though it is -separated by a wide notch from the equally strongly developed <i class="anatomy">crista -galli</i> of the ethmoid.</p> - -<p>No. 4, when the three bones of which it is composed are put -together, consists of the greater part of the parietal region of the -skull, to which, as before said, the last-described frontal may have -belonged. The left parietal is quite perfect; and a considerable -portion of the right also remains, together with the entire left -temporal; so that a very sufficient estimate of the proportions of the -parietal region of the skull can be obtained.</p> - -<p>As well as can be estimated, the parietal longitudinal arc, or length -of the sagittal suture, is 5″·2. The vertical transverse arc, or that -drawn from one auditory foramen to the other, over the point of -junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures, is 12″·2, the parietal -13″, and the occipital 12″·2. In the temporal bone, the external -auditory foramen is large, the mastoid process of moderate size, but -the digastric fossa is wide and deep. The channels for the middle -meningeal artery and its branches are large and deep; and very deep -depressions on the sides of the sagittal suture show that the <i class="anatomy">glandulæ -Pacchioni</i> must have been greatly developed. The bone is very thin, -and with scarcely a trace of <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">diploë</i> where its structure is visible. -None of the sutures, however, which are strongly serrated, are in the -slightest degree closed, although, as I should imagine, the skull must -have been that of a man beyond the middle period of life.</p> - -<p>II. <i>The Thigh-bones.</i>—Two of these bones, which, though much -alike, differ sufficiently to show that they did not belong to the same -individual, are decidedly carinate.</p> - -<p>No. 1 wants the upper and lower ends. The least circumference of -the shaft, which is at a point about 3½ inches below the <i class="anatomy">trochanter -minor</i>, is 3″·2. That process, as well as all the other muscular impressions, -is strongly developed; and that for the insertion of the <i class="anatomy">gluteus -maximus</i> is peculiar in presenting the form of a deep elongated pit -instead of a roughened elevation as usual. The antero-posterior and -transverse diameters of the shaft, about 1½ inches below the <i class="anatomy">trochanter -minor</i>, are ·85 × 1·4; and the shaft at this part, like that of the above-described -from Perthi-Chwareu, presents a rather acute or narrow -external and internal border instead of the usual more rounded form. -Lower down, the shaft becomes strongly carinate; and, owing to the -flattened form of the anterior surface, its transverse section affords a -subtriangular figure (<a href="#Fig_55">fig. 55</a>). The walls, or cortical substance, are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182">182</a></span> -rather thicker than usual, and the substance of the bone is dense -and hard.</p> - -<div id="Fig_55" class="figleft" style="width: 142px;"> - <img src="images/i_182.jpg" width="142" height="130" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span></div></div> - -<div id="Fig_56" class="figright" style="width: 147px;"> - <img src="images/i_182b.jpg" width="147" height="155" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span></div></div> - -<p>No. 2 is very similar in character to the foregoing, but is not quite -so much compressed in the upper part, measuring ·8 × 1·2. Nevertheless -the inner border is very acute, and the outer more so than in -the common form of <i class="anatomy">femur</i>. The shaft lower down is not so strongly -carinate as it is in the former instance, but is still so in some degree -(<a href="#Fig_56">Fig. 56</a>); and the walls (or cortical substance) are still thicker in -proportion.</p> - -<div id="Fig_57" class="figleft" style="width: 145px;"> - <img src="images/i_182c.jpg" width="145" height="130" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span></div></div> - -<div id="Fig_58" class="figright" style="width: 146px;"> - <img src="images/i_182d.jpg" width="146" height="165" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span></div></div> - -<p>No. 3. A third specimen consists of the lower half, or rather more, -of the right <i class="anatomy">femur</i>. The least circumference is 3″·2. The bone exhibits -no special external characters, and is in no degree carinated. -The shaft, at about the middle of its length, is somewhat angular in -front; and the pit for the origin of the <i class="anatomy">popliteus</i> muscle is deeper and -perhaps larger than in most bones of the same size. The texture of -the cortical substance is quite eburneous; and it is extremely thick, -so that the medullary canal is reduced to a calibre of little more than -0″·25 in its longest diameter. The shaft, however, is straight, and -exhibits no other sign whatever of having been affected with <i class="anatomy">rachitis</i>. -It is, however, a curious circumstance that many of the Gibraltar -thigh-bones, most of which are carinate, present the same thickening -of the cortical substance (<a href="#Fig_57">Fig. 57</a>).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183">183</a></span> -No. 4. A fourth specimen is constituted of merely a portion of the -shaft, about 12 inches long, and without either extremity. Its least -diameter is 3″·3, and its antero-posterior and transverse diameters, at -the same point as in the other bones, 1 × 1·25, or pretty nearly in -the usual proportions. Nevertheless the bone, throughout its whole -remaining extent, is less rounded on the inner side of the shaft than -is usual. The <i class="anatomy">trochanter minor</i> is of gigantic size; and the shaft of -the bone, about and below the middle, exhibits a subtriangular aspect -(<a href="#Fig_58">Fig. 58</a>), though scarcely to be called carinate. The cortical substance -is of the normal thickness.</p> - -<p>III. <i class="anatomy">Tibiæ.</i>—No. 1 consists of the greater portion of the left tibia, -wanting only the lower extremity. The proximal end measures 2·9 -× 1·9; and the diameters of the shaft, about the middle, are 1·2 × -·75, giving a latitudinal index of ·620. The shin is remarkably sharp -and prominent, and rather curved over to the outer side; and the -apparent compression or tendency to platycnemism may in some -measure be referred more to the production in front of the anterior -part of the bone than to actual narrowing of the posterior side of the -triangle, which is nevertheless rather more rounded than in most -cases. The axis of the shaft is quite straight; and the bone has not -the least rickety appearance.</p> - -<p>No. 2 is also a portion of the left tibia. Both extremities are -wanting, and the bone offers nothing worthy of remark. Its least -circumference is 2″·65; and the shaft, at the middle, measures 1″·1 -× ·65; so that the latitudinal index is about ·640, showing a slight -degree of compression. The entire length of the bone may be estimated -as rather more than 13 inches, corresponding to a height of -about 5 ft. 4 in. or 5 ft. 5 in., so that the subject may be supposed to -have been a female.</p> - -<p>These remains represent at least four individuals—one probably -somewhat aged, another of strong and robust make, and one, in -all probability, a woman—in fact, a family group. No correct idea -can be formed of the cranial conformation of these persons. In -general shape it would seem to correspond with that of the Perthi-Chwareu -skulls; but two of them at any rate are of smaller size, if -we may judge from the least frontal diameter. The forehead also is -perhaps a little more reclined. The most striking feature in two of -the specimens, and which appears also to have existed in a third, is -the extraordinary projection forwards of the nasal bones. In the -present case this may probably be regarded as a family peculiarity; -but with reference to it, it should be remembered that M. Broca<a id="FNanchor_113" href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> has<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184">184</a></span> -described a very similar condition in the skull of the “Old man” of -Cro-magnon, in whom, he says, “the ridge of the nose, slightly -depressed at its base, rises again almost immediately, and advances -boldly forward, making a rapid curve, with the concavity directed -rather forward and especially upward, so that the lower ends of the -<i class="anatomy">ossa nasi</i> are placed 18 mm. (·7 inch) in front of a line dropped -vertically from the fronto-nasal suture.”</p> - -<p>The condition of the bones from the Cefn tumulus differs very -considerably from that of the remains from Perthi-Chwareu. They -all have an appearance of much greater antiquity. With the exception -of the very dense <i class="anatomy">femur</i>, they adhere to the tongue; and they are all -deeply stained with manganous oxide, by which the substance even -of the hardest portions is stained to a depth of more than one-eighth -of an inch. That this discoloration, which for the most part does -not assume the dendritic appearance, is due to manganese and not to -any vegetable stain, is quite certain.</p> - -<p>The form of the skull, so far as it can be ascertained from such -imperfect remains, and the rather platycnemic shape of the <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>, may -perhaps justify our supposing that the Cefn bones belong to a -cognate race to those whose remains were deposited at Perthi-Chwareu, -or to one which had lived under similar conditions. But the cranial -data are hardly sufficient to allow of any satisfactory inference being -drawn from them: and as regards the <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>, it has already been -pointed out that platycnemism cannot, in the present state of our -knowledge, be regarded as an important ethnological character amongst -priscan peoples, though it may undoubtedly be considered a character -betokening remote antiquity.</p> - -<h5>§ 4. <span class="smcap">Skull from the Cefn Cave, near St. Asaph.</span></h5> - -<p>The only specimen of human remains from this locality is a nearly -entire <i class="anatomy">calvaria</i>, wanting the whole of the face below the superciliary -border.</p> - -<p>In the middle of the left parietal bone is a small irregular opening, -with short radiating lines of fracture proceeding from it; but this -appears to have been recently caused, and from the inside.</p> - -<p>The bone generally is of a brown colour, and, as regards firmness, -in a natural condition; and it does not adhere to the tongue. Judging -from its aspect alone, it would not appear to be of any very great -antiquity; but as it has lain in a dry soil, and sheltered from rain or -moisture, this appearance may be deceptive.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185">185</a></span> -Its dimensions are given in <a href="#list_171">Table I</a>. (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">supra</i>), from which it will be -seen that the cephalic or latitudinal index is ·770, and the altitudinal -·702. It belongs, therefore, to the category of subbrachy-cephalic -skulls of Thurnam and Professor Huxley.</p> - -<div id="Fig_59" class="figcenter" style="width: 523px;"> - <img src="images/i_185.jpg" width="523" height="364" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 59, 60, 61.</span>—Skull from Cave at Cefn, St. Asaph.</div></div> - -<p>In the side view (<i class="anatomy">norma lateralis</i>—Plate 7, <a href="#Fig_59">Fig. 59</a>), it so closely -resembles, except in one respect, that described and figured by Professor -Huxley (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">loc. cit.</i> p. 125, <a href="#Fig_59">Figs. 60, 61</a>) from the bed of the Nore, at Borris, -in Ireland, that we can scarcely refuse to recognize a common character -between them, which, since in the present case it cannot be looked upon -as denoting a mere family relationship, may reasonably be regarded as -indicative of some affinity of race. The chief difference observable -in this view of the two skulls is the greater development of the frontal -sinuses in the Borris <i class="anatomy">calvaria</i>. The occipital view (<i class="anatomy">norma occipitalis</i>, -Fig. 8 is also very similar, except that in the Borris skull the greatest -width appears to be in the temporal, and in the other the parietal -region. In the Borris skull, also, there is a shallow groove in the -course of the sagittal suture, which does not exist in that from -St. Asaph.</p> - -<p>The Borris skull is said to be of the extraordinary length of 8 -inches; and this may account for the much lower cephalic index of -the skull, whose absolute width in reality somewhat exceeds the Cefn<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186">186</a></span> -specimen (5″·9 and 5″·7), whilst the altitudinal as compared with the -latitudinal is but very little greater than it would be were the skulls -reduced to the same breadth. They may both, therefore, be regarded -as “low,” or, as this class of skull might be termed, in the euphonious -language of craniologists, “tapinocephalic.” One great peculiarity -of the Cefn <i class="anatomy">cranium</i> (which exists also, but apparently not to quite -so great a degree, in the other) is the absolute horizontality of the -plane of the subinial portion of the occipital bone. And it is to -this flattening that the comparative lowness may perhaps be chiefly -attributed.</p> - -<p>The sutures, where visible, appear to be open. The mastoid -processes and all other muscular impressions are strongly marked.</p> - -<p>A third skull of very similar character, except that it is not so much -depressed, has come under my observation. It was discovered in a -submarine or, rather, subterranean peat-bed or ancient forest, 30 feet -below the sea-level, at Sennen, near the Land’s End, in Cornwall; -and a brief notice and outline figure of it will be found in the -“Natural History Review” for 1861.<a id="FNanchor_114" href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> The Sennen skull has the -same elongated form; but it is higher than either the Cefn, St. -Asaph, or Borris crania, having an altitudinal index of ·730.</p> - -<p>On the whole, these three skulls (<i>i.e.</i> those from Borris, Sennen, -and St. Asaph) would appear to have a common character, and to be of -a different type from either the Perthi-Chwareu or the Mewslade form.</p> - -<p>As a rule it may, I think, be stated that in all brachy-cephalic skulls -the breadth exceeds the height, whilst the reverse is the case in the -dolicho-cephalic. Individual exceptions are of course not unfrequently -met with, more especially among very mixed races, such as the modern -English; but I am myself acquainted with only two dolicho-cephalic -<em>races</em>, properly so termed, in which the rule does not hold good. These -are the Tasmanian (not Australian) and the Bushman.</p> - -<p>Any exceptions, therefore, to either rule among ancient and, consequently, -less mixed races are worthy of being noted.</p> - -<p>As regards modern brachy-cephalic skulls the law holds almost -universally, the only marked exception, except in an individual here -and there, being in two Karén skulls, in which, although both -decidedly brachy-cephalic, the respective indices stand as ·848 to ·924, -and as ·790 to ·842.</p> - -<p>Among priscan brachy-cephalic skulls the most remarkable and -important exceptions I have met with occur among the neolithic crania -in the Copenhagen Museum, more than half of which are brachy-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187">187</a></span>cephalic, -and most of the others nearly so, the mean cephalic index of 21 -skulls being ·790, whilst the mean altitudinal is as high as ·810. In -fact, out of 12 skulls whose indices vary from ·795 to ·838, no fewer -than 10 have the latitudinal index less than the altitudinal.</p> - -<p>The exceptions to the rule as applied to dolicho-cephalic skulls also -appear to be far more common among the ancient than among the -modern, excepting the two races I have above referred to.</p> - -<p>In a long list of ancient and priscan skulls, I find the following -having the tapino-cephalic <span class="locked">character:—</span></p> - -<table class="listobjects" summary="tapino-cephalic skull dimensions"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc">L. Ind.</th> - <th class="tdc">Alt. Ind.</th></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">1. From the Thames alluvium at Old Ford</td> - <td class="tdr">·792</td> - <td class="tdr">·753</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">2. From the same deposit at East Ham</td> - <td class="tdr">·774</td> - <td class="tdr">·690</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">3. From the same deposit at Battersea</td> - <td class="tdr">·763</td> - <td class="tdr">·745</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">4. From the same deposit at London Bridge</td> - <td class="tdr">·762</td> - <td class="tdr">·611</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">5. From tumulus at Stanshope</td> - <td class="tdr">·763</td> - <td class="tdr">·684</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">6. A Guanche skull</td> - <td class="tdr">·775</td> - <td class="tdr">·737</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">7. A Guanche skull</td> - <td class="tdr">·763</td> - <td class="tdr">·684</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl">8. Cefn, St. Asaph’s</td> - <td class="tdr">·770</td> - <td class="tdr">·702</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="in0">The number is but small, it must be confessed, and perhaps hardly -sufficient to do more than prove the rule; but still I think it will be -found worth inquiry whether a departure from the rule in question -was more frequent among the unmixed or little-mixed races of ancient -times than it is amongst similarly unmixed races of the present day; -and whether consequently its infraction in a considerable number -of instances may or may not be indicative of a lower type, as which -we are accustomed to regard the Tasmanian and Bushman races.</p></blockquote> - -<h3 id="hdr_76"><i>General Conclusions as to Human Remains.</i></h3> - -<p>The human remains in the caves of Perthi-Chwareu -and Cefn, and in the cairn near the latter place, imply -that the men to which they belonged were a short race, -the tallest being about 5 feet 6 inches, and the shortest 4 -feet 10 inches.<a id="FNanchor_115" href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> Their skulls are orthognathic,<a id="FNanchor_116" href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> or not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188">188</a></span> -presenting a lower jaw advancing beyond the vertical line -dropped from the forehead; in shape ortho-cephalic, or -subbrachy-cephalous, and of fair average capacity. The -face was oval and the cheek-bones were not prominent. -Some of the individuals were characterised by the -peculiar flattening of shin (platycnemism), which probably -stood in relation to the free action of the foot -that was not impeded by the use of a rigid sole or -sandal. This character, however, is neither peculiar to -race, nor to be viewed as a tendency towards the simian -type of leg. These conclusions, which Professor Busk -has arrived at from the examination of the remains -which were submitted to him, have been fully borne out -by the numerous skeletons which have been subsequently -discovered, both in the sepulchral caves at Rhosdigre -and in a second chamber in the cairn of Tyddyn Bleiddyn -near Cefn.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189">189</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE RANGE OF NEOLITHIC DOLICHO-CEPHALI AND BRACHY-CEPHALI.</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote class="inhead"> - -<p>Relation of Human Remains to those found in Tumuli in Britain.—The -Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali.—Their Range in Britain -and Ireland—in France.—The Caverne de l’Homme Mort.—The -Sepulchral Cave of Orrouy.—The Tumuli.—In Belgium.—The -Sepulchral Caves of Chauvaux and Sclaigneaux.—The Dolicho-cephali -of the Iberian Peninsula—Gibraltar—Spain.—Cueva de -los Murcièlagos.—The Woman’s Cave near Alhama in Granada.—The -Guanches of the Canary Isles.—Iberic Dolicho-cephali of the -same race as those of Britain, France, and Belgium—Cognate or -Identical with the Basque Race.—Evidence of History as to -the Peoples of Gaul and Spain.—The Basque Populations the -Oldest.—The Population of Britain.—Basque characters in Present -Population of Britain and France.—Whence came the Basques?—The -Celtic and Belgic Brachy-cephali.—The Ancient German -Race.—General Conclusions.</p></blockquote> - -<h3 id="hdr_77"><i>The Relation of the Human Remains to those found in -British Tumuli.</i></h3> - -<p class="in0">Before we examine the relation of this ancient neolithic -race of men to those who have left their remains -in tumuli and caves in other regions, it is necessary to -define the cranial terminology, as adopted by Professors -Busk, Huxley, Dr. Thurnam, and other high authorities.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190">190</a></span> -The term “cephalic index” indicates “the ratio of the -extreme transverse to the extreme longitudinal diameter -of the skull, the latter measurement being taken as -unity” (Huxley).</p> - -<p>The most convenient classification of crania is that -adopted by Dr. Thurnam and Professor Huxley,<a id="FNanchor_117" href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> and -based on the cephalic index.</p> - -<table summary="cephalic index"> - <tr> - <td class="tdr rpad top">I.</td> - <td class="tdl">Dolicho-cephali, or long skulls with cephalic index at or below</td> - <td class="tdr w2">·73</td></tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl">Subdolicho-cephali <span class="in4">”</span> <span class="in4">”</span></td> - <td class="tdr">from ·70 to ·73</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr rpad top">II.</td> - <td class="tdl">Ortho-cephali, or oval skulls</td> - <td class="tdr">”<span class="in1"> ·74 to ·79</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td> </td> - <td class="tdl">Subbrachy-cephali</td> - <td class="tdr">”<span class="in1"> ·77 to ·79</span></td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr rpad top">III.</td> - <td class="tdl">Brachy-cephali or broad skulls</td> - <td class="tdr">at or above ·80</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>It has been objected that skull form is of no value -in determining race, because it varies so much at the -present time among the same peoples, presenting the -extremes of dolicho- and brachy-cephalism as well as -every kind of asymmetry. This, however, is due to our -very abnormal conditions of life, and to the mixture of -different races brought about by the needs of commerce, -as in Manchester and Vienna, as is pointed out by -Mr. Bradley.<a id="FNanchor_118" href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a></p> - -<p>In prehistoric times, neither of these causes of variation -made themselves seriously felt. There was little, if any, -peaceful movement of races, but war was the normal -condition, and society was not sufficiently advanced to -remove man from the influence of his natural environment. -The objection may therefore be dismissed as not -applicable to the skulls in question.</p> - -<p>The extent to which abnormal conditions of life are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191">191</a></span> -capable of modifying the shape of skulls may be gathered -from the comparison of the skull of an Irish hog with -that of its ancestor the wild-boar, or even that of a -hyæna kept in confinement with that of a wild animal -of the same species. (See Osteol. Series, Brit. Mus.)</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_78"><i>The British Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali.</i></h3> - -<p>The materials for working out the craniology of -Europe, in prehistoric times, do not justify any sweeping -conclusion as to the distribution of the various races, -but those which Dr. Thurnam (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i>) has collected -in Britain offer a firm basis for such an inquiry. In -the numerous long barrows and chambered “gallery -graves” of our island, which from the invariable absence -of bronze, and the frequent presence of polished stone -implements, may be referred to the neolithic age, the -crania belong, with scarcely an exception, to the first -two of these divisions. In the round barrows, on the -other hand, in which bronze articles are found, they -belong mainly to the third division, although some are -ortho-cephalous. Sometimes, as in the case of Tilshead, -the crania in the primary interment, over which the -long barrow was raised, are long, while those in the -secondary, which have been made after the heaping up -of the barrow, are broad.</p> - -<p>On evidence of this kind Dr. Thurnam concludes, that -Britain was inhabited in the neolithic age by a long-headed -people, and that towards its close it was invaded -by a bronze-using race, who were dominant during the -bronze age. This important conclusion has been verified -by nearly every discovery which has been made in this -country since its publication. The long skulls graduate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192">192</a></span> -into the broad, the oval skulls being the intermediate -forms; and this would naturally result from the intermingling -of the blood of the two races. There may, -however, have been a tendency towards ortho-cephalism -in the dolicho-cephali, without any admixture of foreign -blood, since absolute unity of form could not be expected.</p> - -<p>The skull of the primary interment in the barrow of -Winterbourne Stoke is taken by Dr. Thurnam as typical -of the dolicho-cephalic class. “The greatest length is -7·3 inches (the glabello-inial diameter 7·1 inches); the -greatest breadth is 5·5 inches, being in the proportion of -75 to the length taken as 100. The forehead is narrow -and receding, and moderately high in the coronal region, -behind which is a trace of transverse depression. The -parietal tubers are somewhat full, and add materially -to the breadth of this otherwise narrow skull. The -posterior borders of the parietals are prolonged backwards, -to join a complex chain of Wormian bones in the -line of the lambdoid suture. The superior scale of the -occiput is full, rounded, and prominent; the inion more -pronounced than usual in this class of dolicho-cephalic -skulls. The superciliaries are well marked, the orbits -rather small and long; the nasals prominent, the -facial bones short and small; the molars flat and almost -vertical; the alveolars short, but rather projecting. The -mandible is comparatively small, but angular; the chin -square, narrow, and prominent.”<a id="FNanchor_119" href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a></p> - -<p>Dolicho-cephalic skulls in general (and in part ortho-cephalic) -are possessed, according to Dr. Thurnam, of -the following characters (Vol. iii. p. 69):—“The supraciliary -ridges are less strongly marked than in the brachy-cephalic. -There is none of the prognathism, exaggerated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193">193</a></span> -malar breadth or great width of the nasal openings, which -give such an air of savageness and ferocity to the New -Caledonians and Caroline Islanders; but the very reverse -of all these. They are indeed more orthognathic even -than many Europeans, and the facial characters generally -are mild, and without exaggerated development in any -one direction.” Their faces are oval. The upper jaw is -small, and the sockets of the incisors and canine almost -vertical. The supra-occipital region is full and rounded, -and there is a post-coronal annular depression on the -skull, termed by Dr. Gosse “tête annulaire.” The -length is mainly due to the development of the occiput, -a condition that is termed by M. Broca “dolicho-cephalie -occipitale,” as distinguished from the “dolicho-cephalie -frontale” of other races. The teeth are worn flat. The -bones associated with the skulls of this character show -that the stature of the race was short, 5 feet 5 inches -being the average height.</p> - -<p>In the brachy-cephalic, or broad skulls, on the other -hand, the supraciliary ridges are more strongly marked -than in the preceding group; the cheek-bones are high -and broad, the sockets for the front teeth are oblique, -and the mouth projects beyond the vertical dropped from -the forehead, presenting the character of prognathism. -The face, instead of being oval, is angular or lozenge-shaped. -On the back of the head the occipital tuberosity, -or probole, is the most prominent feature, and -there is also generally an occipital flattening, which may -have been caused by the use of an unyielding cradle-board -in infancy. The entire maxillary apparatus is so -largely developed, that the term “macrognathic,” introduced -by Professor Huxley, is particularly applicable -to them. The “type mongoloide” of Dr. Pruner-Bey<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194">194</a></span> -is closely allied to, if not identical with, this form -of skull.</p> - -<p>The stature of the British brachy-cephali is much -greater than that of the dolicho-cephali, the average for -the adult male being 5 feet 8·4 inches, according to Dr. -Thurnam.</p> - -<p>The human remains from the caves and chambered-tombs -of Denbighshire belong to the first of these divisions, -in the possession of every one of the characters -assigned to it by Dr. Thurnam, although the crania -belong to the ortho-cephalous portion of the series, that -is, tending towards broad-headedness. It may therefore -be inferred that they belong to the same race as the -neolithic raisers of the long-barrows, a race which we -shall presently see to be identical with the ancient -Iberians and modern Basques.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_79"><i>The Range of the Dolicho-cephali in Britain and -Ireland.</i></h3> - -<p>The same class of human remains has been obtained -from caves in other districts in Great Britain. In the -Oxford Museum a human skull, from the cave of Llandebie, -possesses cephalic index of ·72; while a second, -from the cave of Uphill in Somersetshire, explored by -Mr. James Parker in 1863, measures ·723. (See <a href="#Page_197">p. 197</a>.) -The latter was associated with rude pottery, charcoal, -and the remains of the following animals: the wild-cat, -dog, fox, badger, pig, stag, <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, goat, and -water-rat. Most of the remains belong to young individuals, -and some have been gnawed by dogs, wolves, -or foxes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195">195</a></span> -In Yorkshire a human femur presenting an enormous -development of the linea aspera, which implies the -possession of the platycnemic character, has been met -with in a cave in King’s Scar, near Settle (see <a href="#Page_113">p. 113</a>), -and fragments of a long skull are preserved in the -Museum at Leeds from that of Dowkerbottom.</p> - -<p>Professor Turner has described<a id="FNanchor_120" href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a> the remains found in -a cave in the Old Red sandstone on the shore of the bay -of Oban in 1869 by Mr. Mackay. There were two -human skeletons, along with the broken and burnt bones -of the roe and stag, limpet-shells, flint nodules, and flint -flakes. One of the leg-bones is platycnemic, and the -fragments of skull may probably be referred to the -dolicho-cephalic type.</p> - -<p>The same type of skull has also been obtained by -the Rev. Canon Greenwell, from the neolithic tumuli of -Yorkshire, along with the same group of animals as in -the caves at Perthi-Chwareu, the <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, goat, -horse, dog, and stag; and Professor Rolleston, F.R.S., -informs me that some of the associated human leg-bones -are platycnemic. It is also recognized by Professor -Huxley as identical with his river-bed type of skulls -from alluvial deposits near Muskham in the valley of -the Trent, Ledbury Hall in the valley of the Dove, and -in Ireland from the bed of the Nore in Queen’s County, -and from that of the river Blackwater. To it also -Professor Huxley refers<a id="FNanchor_121" href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> five or six out of the seven -skulls obtained by Mr. Laing from the stone cists in the -burial mound at Keiss in Caithness, and associated with -rude weapons and implements of bone and stone. They<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196">196</a></span> -probably belonged to the inhabitants of the neighbouring -burgh, or circular stone dwelling, in and around -which were the broken bones of the following animal -remains: the <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, goat, stag, hog, horse, dog, -fox, grampus or small whale, dolphin or some other -small cetacean, great auk (<i class="taxonomy">Alca impennis</i>, now extinct -in Europe), lesser auk, cormorant, shag, solan goose, cod, -lobster, and shell-fish. A lower jaw also of a child, -broken after the same manner as other refuse bones, -is considered by Professor Owen and Mr. Laing to prove -that human flesh was sometimes used for food. The -reindeer was living in the district at this time, since -its remains have been identified by Dr. Campbell from -the Harbour mound, one of the many refuse-heaps in -the neighbourhood.</p> - -<p>The same kind of skull is also described by Professor -Wilson under the name of “boat-shaped” or “kumbe-cephalic,” -from the ancient stone chambers and tumuli -of Scotland.<a id="FNanchor_122" href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a></p> - -<p>In the Table on the next page, showing the relative -size and shape of the more important long skulls of -Britain and Ireland, it will be seen that the extreme -long-headedness of those from the long barrows is -not possessed by those either of the caves and tombs of -Denbighshire or of the river-bed type of Huxley, represented -by the skulls from Muskham, Ledbury, Blackwater -(Ireland), and Keiss.</p> - -<p>The greater breadth of the skulls from the caves and -tombs of Denbighshire, as compared with those of the -typical long skulls from the long barrows, may possibly -be due to a mixture with the broad-headed race. In -that case, however, none of the tallness, or prognathism,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197">197</a></span> -of the latter has been handed down. It is most probably -a mere variation within the limits of one race, -and is unaccompanied by the fusion of dolicho-cephalic -with brachy-cephalic characters, such as M. Broca and -Dr. Thurnam have observed in the skulls from tombs -and caves in France.</p> - -<div id="list_197"> -<p class="p1 b0 center small"><a href="#if_p_197">(Image of Table)</a></p> -<table id="table197" class="listobjects" summary="skull measurements"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Skulls.</span></th> - <th class="tdc">Length.</th> - <th class="tdc">Breadth.</th> - <th class="tdc">Height.</th> - <th class="tdc">Circum-<br />ference.</th> - <th class="tdc">Latitud.<br />or Ceph.<br />Index.</th> - <th class="tdc">Alt.<br />Index.</th></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean of 48 males, Brit., Thurnam, long barrows</td> - <td class="tdl">7·7</td> - <td class="tdl">5·5</td> - <td class="tdl">5·62</td> - <td class="tdc">21·3</td> - <td class="tdc">·715</td> - <td class="tdc">·730</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mn of 19 females, Brit., Thurnam long barrows</td> - <td class="tdl">7·45</td> - <td class="tdl">5·3</td> - <td class="tdl">5·3</td> - <td class="tdc">20·6</td> - <td class="tdc">·710</td> - <td class="tdc">·730</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mn of 10 skulls, Perthi-Chwareu Cave</td> - <td class="tdl">7·07</td> - <td class="tdl">5·5</td> - <td class="tdl">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">20·0</td> - <td class="tdc">·765</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Skull from Llandebie Cave</td> - <td class="tdl">7·3</td> - <td class="tdl">5·3</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·720</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="tbl197pad2">” </span>Uphill</td> - <td class="tdl">7·36</td> - <td class="tdl">5·43</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·723</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean of 6 skulls from Keiss. (Huxley)</td> - <td class="tdl">7·22</td> - <td class="tdl">5·45</td> - <td class="tdl">5·19</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·755</td> - <td class="tdc">·716</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Skull from Muskham (Huxley)</td> - <td class="tdl">7·0</td> - <td class="tdl">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·770</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="tbl197pad2">” </span>Ledbury Hall (Huxley)</td> - <td class="tdl">7·15</td> - <td class="tdl">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·770</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl"><span class="tbl197pad2">” </span>Blackwater, Ireland (Huxley)</td> - <td class="tdl">7·2</td> - <td class="tdl">5·65</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·780</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<p>From the examples given in the preceding pages it -is evident that, in ancient times, long-headed men -of small stature inhabited the whole of Britain and Ireland, -burying their dead in caves, but more generally in -chambered tombs. They were farmers and shepherds, -and in this country in the neolithic stage of culture. -In the solitary case offered by the Harbour mound at -Keiss they were cannibals.<a id="FNanchor_123" href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_80"><i>The Range of the Brachy-cephali.</i></h3> - -<p>No human remains of the brachy-cephalic, or broad -type, as defined by Dr. Thurnam have been obtained<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198">198</a></span> -from the caves in Britain. The evidence, however, is -decisive that, in the Bronze age, a tall, round-headed, -rugged-featured race occupied all those parts of Britain -and Ireland that were worth conquering, and drove -away to the west or absorbed the smaller neolithic -inhabitants. And the identity of their skull-form, in -the series of interments in the round and bowl-shaped -barrows, extending from the Bronze age down to the -date of the Roman occupation of Britain, shows that, -both in the North and the South, this large-sized -coarse-featured people was in possession at the time of -the Roman conquest.</p> - -<p>The size and shape of the typical broad crania may -be gathered from the first two columns of the following -Table, which is an abstract of those published by Dr. -Thurnam in “Crania Britannica,” and the “Memoirs of -the Anthropological Society.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199">199</a></span></p> - -<h4 id="list_199"><a href="#if_p_199"><i>Measurements of British Brachy-cephali, and Gaulish and Belgic -Brachy-cephali and Dolicho-cephali.</i></a></h4> - -<table id="table199" class="listobjects" summary="brachy-cephali measurements"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc"><span class="smcap">Skull.</span></th> - <th class="tdc">Date.<a id="FNanchor_B" href="#Footnote_B" class="fnanchor">B</a></th> - <th class="tdc">Length.</th> - <th class="tdc">Breadth.</th> - <th class="tdc">Height.</th> - <th class="tdc">Circum-<br />ference.</th> - <th class="tdc">Latitudinal<br />or Cephalic<br />index.</th> - <th class="tdc">Altitudi-<br />nal index.</th></tr> - <tr class="hdr smaller"> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">TYPICAL BROAD SKULLS.—BRITAIN.</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean of 56 males, Brit. Round Barrows</td> - <td class="tdc">N.B.I.</td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·28</td> - <td class="tdc">5·9 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">21·1</td> - <td class="tdc">·81</td> - <td class="tdc">·77</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl">Mean of 14 females, Brit. Round Barrows</td> - <td class="tdc">N.B.I.</td> - <td class="tdc">6·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·3</td> - <td class="tdc">20· </td> - <td class="tdc">·81</td> - <td class="tdc">·77</td></tr> - <tr class="hdr smaller"> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap">LONG AND SHORT SKULLS.—FRANCE.</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Tumulus, Noyelles-sur-mer-Somme</td> - <td class="tdc">N.</td> - <td class="tdc">6·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">20·3</td> - <td class="tdc">·81</td> - <td class="tdc">·79</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">“Grotto,” Nogent les Vièrges, Oise</td> - <td class="tdc">N.</td> - <td class="tdc">7·2</td> - <td class="tdc">5·8p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">21· </td> - <td class="tdc">·80</td> - <td class="tdc">·76</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·3</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">20·1</td> - <td class="tdc">·71</td> - <td class="tdc">·71</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·1</td> - <td class="tdc">5·7p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2</td> - <td class="tdc">20·8</td> - <td class="tdc">·80</td> - <td class="tdc">·73</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">6·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·9p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">20·9</td> - <td class="tdc">·85</td> - <td class="tdc">·79</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·3</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">20·6</td> - <td class="tdc">·74</td> - <td class="tdc">·75</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·4</td> - <td class="tdc">5·2p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">20·8</td> - <td class="tdc">·70</td> - <td class="tdc">·75</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Dolmen Du Val, Senlis, Oise</td> - <td class="tdc">N.</td> - <td class="tdc">6·6</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">19·7</td> - <td class="tdc">·84</td> - <td class="tdc">·81</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·1</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">20·2</td> - <td class="tdc">·77</td> - <td class="tdc">·78</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·2</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·8</td> - <td class="tdc">20·8</td> - <td class="tdc">·76</td> - <td class="tdc">·80</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·2</td> - <td class="tdc">5·8 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·80</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” Chamant ” <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc">N.</td> - <td class="tdc">7·4</td> - <td class="tdc">5·3 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·71</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·1</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·78</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·4</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·74</td> - <td class="tdc">·72</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cave, Orrouy, Oise</td> - <td class="tdc">N.B.(?)</td> - <td class="tdc">7·4</td> - <td class="tdc">5·8 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·3</td> - <td class="tdc">21·2</td> - <td class="tdc">·78</td> - <td class="tdc">·72</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·1</td> - <td class="tdc">5·8p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·3</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·77</td> - <td class="tdc">·74</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·2</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·7</td> - <td class="tdc">20·1</td> - <td class="tdc">·75</td> - <td class="tdc">·81</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·1</td> - <td class="tdc">5·9p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">20·7</td> - <td class="tdc">·83</td> - <td class="tdc">·78</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">6·7</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">19·2</td> - <td class="tdc">·82</td> - <td class="tdc">·80</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">6·6</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">19·9</td> - <td class="tdc">·85</td> - <td class="tdc">·83</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·2</td> - <td class="tdc">5·9 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">20·9</td> - <td class="tdc">·81</td> - <td class="tdc">·75</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">6·8</td> - <td class="tdc">5·75</td> - <td class="tdc">5·1</td> - <td class="tdc">20·4</td> - <td class="tdc">·84</td> - <td class="tdc">·75</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc">N.</td> - <td class="tdc">7·4</td> - <td class="tdc">5·8 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·7</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·78</td> - <td class="tdc">·77</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·2</td> - <td class="tdc">5·9 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">20·8</td> - <td class="tdc">·81</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Lombrive, Ariège</td> - <td class="tdc">N.</td> - <td class="tdc">6·7</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">19·2</td> - <td class="tdc">·82</td> - <td class="tdc">·82</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Dolmen, Meudon, Seine et Oise</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7· </td> - <td class="tdc"> 5·95p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·9</td> - <td class="tdc">20·7</td> - <td class="tdc">·85</td> - <td class="tdc">·84</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·2</td> - <td class="tdc">5·7 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">20·8</td> - <td class="tdc">·79</td> - <td class="tdc">·76</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Lozerres</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·3</td> - <td class="tdc">5·8p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·7</td> - <td class="tdc">21· </td> - <td class="tdc">·79</td> - <td class="tdc">·78</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Tomb, Maintenon; Eure et Loire</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·25</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">20·3</td> - <td class="tdc">·75</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·7</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">20·8</td> - <td class="tdc">·71</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Tumulus, Bougon, Deux Sèvres</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">6·7</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4p</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">20· </td> - <td class="tdc">·80</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Dolmen, Meloisy, Côte d’Or</td> - <td class="tdc">N.</td> - <td class="tdc">7·3</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">20·9</td> - <td class="tdc">·75</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Avignon(?), Vaucleuse</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">6·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·8 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">20·7</td> - <td class="tdc">·84</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·8</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5p</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">21·8</td> - <td class="tdc">·70</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Genthod, Geneva</td> - <td class="tdc">I.</td> - <td class="tdc">7·4</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">21·1</td> - <td class="tdc">·75</td> - <td class="tdc">·74</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">6·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6p</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">20·5</td> - <td class="tdc">·81</td> - <td class="tdc">·78</td></tr> - - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">7·1</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">20·5</td> - <td class="tdc">·78</td> - <td class="tdc">·77</td></tr> - <tr class="topspace"> - <td class="tdl">Judge’s Cave, Gibraltar (Busk)</td> - <td class="tdc">(?)</td> - <td class="tdc">6·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">19·5</td> - <td class="tdc"> ·792</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Chauvaux Cave (Virchow)</td> - <td class="tdc">N</td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·35</td> - <td class="tdc">5·3 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·3</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">71·8 </td> - <td class="tdc">1·8</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Sclaigneaux Cave. Skull 1. (Arnould)</td> - <td class="tdc">N</td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·35</td> - <td class="tdc">6·5 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">81·1 </td> - <td class="tdc">73·7 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="t199in">”</span> <span class="in2">2.</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·25</td> - <td class="tdc">6·25</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5·25</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">81·6 </td> - <td class="tdc">70·6 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="t199in">”</span> <span class="in2">3.</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">6·9</td> - <td class="tdc">5·75</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl"> ” <span class="in2">”</span> <span class="t199in">”</span> <span class="in2">4.</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 6·95</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> -</table> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="p0 b1 center"><a id="Footnote_B" href="#FNanchor_B" class="fnanchor">B</a> N, Neolithic; B, Bronze; I, Iron.</p></div> - -<h3 id="hdr_81"><i>The Range of the Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali -in France in the Neolithic Age.—The Caverne de -l’Homme Mort.</i></h3> - -<p>The researches of M. Broca and Dr. Thurnam into -the caves and tombs of France prove that the small -dolicho-cephali and the tall brachy-cephali lived in that -country in the neolithic age. We are indebted to the -former for a most important account of the Caverne de -l’Homme Mort, which reproduces all the essential points -which we have observed in the sepulchral caves of -Denbighshire.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200">200</a></span></p> - -<p id="hdr_82">The Caverne de l’Homme Mort<a id="FNanchor_124" href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> is situated in a lonely -ravine that penetrates the wild limestone plateau, in -the south-west of the department of Lozère, near the -hamlet of Vialle, in the commune of St. Pierre des -Tripiés. It was discovered by the peasants, and its -contents were partially disturbed by their search after -hidden treasure before it was explored by Dr. Prunières. -In front of the cave was a platform, composed of earth -mingled with fragments of charcoal, forming a layer -about forty centimetres thick, in which were the stones -of seven hearths, flint-flakes and scrapers, lance-heads, -broken bones of the hare, fallow-deer, roe, pig (or wild-boar). -All the flints were worked, and one lance-head -had been chipped out of the stump of a celt and presented -portions of the polished surface, thus fixing the -neolithic age of the accumulation. Coarse pottery was -also met with.</p> - -<p>The bones of the hare were very abundant, and -proved that there was no prejudice against the use of -its flesh. In the caves of Perthi-Chwareu we have also -seen that this was the case.</p> - -<p>The refuse-heaps ceased abruptly at the entrance of -the cave, at a point where the traces of a wall, composed -of large stones, was visible. Immediately behind this -were human bones, in a thick layer of dry sand, scattered -about in the wildest confusion, which was probably -the result of successive interments, as well as of subsequent -disturbance by burrowing animals and treasure-seekers. -Two bone-points and a flint arrow-head were -the only implements discovered within the sepulchral -chamber.</p> - -<p>Two small human bones, bearing undoubted marks of -having been burnt, were discovered in the refuse-heap; -but they do not, as M. Broca justly observes, imply the -practice of cannibalism, since they may have fallen out<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201">201</a></span> -of the burial-place, and subsequently have come into -contact with the fire on one of the hearths.</p> - -<p>It is impossible to estimate the number of interments -in this cave. Exclusive of the many skulls which have -been destroyed or lost, M. Prunières obtained nineteen -very nearly perfect, which are described by M. Broca -as seven male, six female, three of uncertain sex, and -three children. They are remarkable for the softness -of their contours, the delicacy of their features, and the -orthognathism of their faces. The forehead is wide and -high, and the vertex and the occipital region of the -skull well rounded. The cephalic index varies between -·680 and ·78, the mean of the whole series being ·732.</p> - -<p>M. Broca remarks, that these crania contrast strongly -with those of the present broad-headed inhabitants of -the district, and that they differ from those found in -the dolmens by M. Prunières in their greater length, -in the smallness of their features, and the weakness of -their muscular impressions. The study of the bones of -the skeleton confirms these differences. The men who -buried their dead in the Caverne de l’Homme Mort -were smaller than the dolmen builders, their bones were -more slender, and they were altogether a less muscular -race. They are considered by M. Broca to represent the -neolithic aborigines; and if his description and measurements -be compared with those of the dolicho-cephali -of Britain, given by Dr. Thurnam (p. 191 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i>), it will -be seen that they are identical with the latter, which is -the oldest race yet known to have occupied Great Britain -since the close of the pleistocene period.</p> - -<p>At a little distance from the sepulchral cave, and in -the same ravine, M. Broca explored a large cavern, which -had been occupied, probably by the same people, since<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202">202</a></span> -the same kind of instruments were discovered as in the -refuse-heap. So that we have here, side by side, the -abode and the sepulchre of the same ancient tribe.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_83"><i>The Sepulchral Cave of Orrouy.</i></h3> - -<p>The sepulchral cave of Orrouy (Oise) described by M. -Broca, in which the remains of about fifty individuals -were interred, furnished both types of skull, united, -according to Dr. Thurnam and M. Broca,<a id="FNanchor_125" href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a> by a series of -intermediate forms, that prove a fusion of blood between -the broad- and the long-headed peoples. On referring -to the preceding Table (p. 199) it will be seen that the -cephalic index varies from ·75 to ·88. Eight out of the -series of twenty-one skulls united the characteristic -dolicho-cephalous fore-head with the brachy-cephalous -middle and hind-head. “We have here,” writes Dr. -Thurnam, “a veritable hybrid form of cranium, resulting -from the mixture or crossing, under certain circumstances -unknown to us, of a dolicho-cephalous with -a brachy-cephalous race.”</p> - -<p>“... In the Orrouy skulls of hybrid form, two -encephalic growth-tendencies appear to me distinguishable; -one, the longitudinal or fronto-occipital; the other -a transverse, or bi-parietal and temporal one. Now the -remarkable supramastoid depressions, visible in the hindhead -of these skulls, seem to be well explained by the -idea of an intersection or crossing of these two tendencies -in the brain-growth; corresponding, as they -must have done, to the angles formed by the posterior -surfaces of the middle, the lower surfaces of the posterior<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203">203</a></span> -and temporal lobes of the cerebrum, and the upper surface -of the cerebellum.”<a id="FNanchor_126" href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a></p> - -<p>In eight out of thirty-four humeri the fossa of the -olecranon is perforated.</p> - -<p>The human remains occurred in the same confusion -as at Perthi-Chwareu, and were associated with fragments -of coarse pottery, flint flakes, and bones of ruminants. -The occurrence of polished stone celts indicates -the neolithic age of the interment.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_84"><i>Skulls from French Tumuli.</i></h3> - -<p>Both long and broad skulls also occur in the chambered -tombs of France, although the latter by far predominate. -Those from the Long Barrow at Chamant -are dolicho-cephalic and ortho-cephalic, with cephalic -index ranging from ·71 to ·78 (Broca), and other similar -cases are quoted by Dr. Thurnam from Noyelles-sur-Mer, -Fontenay, and other tumuli. In the large sepulchral -chamber at Meudon, that contained 200 skeletons, the -majority of the skulls were brachy-cephalic, although -twenty of them were of the ortho-cephalic type. This -mixture may be accounted for, most probably, by the -two races, which are clearly defined from each other in -Britain, being intermingled in France.</p> - -<p>Dr. Thurnam, summing up the whole evidence as -regards the distribution of races in the tombs of Gaul, -concludes that the two races came into contact in Gaul -at an earlier period in the neolithic age than in Britain. -And this must necessarily have been the case from the -geographical position of our island, which could only be -invaded, in those times, by the races in possession of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204">204</a></span> -contiguous mainland of France and Belgium. Both -these regions must have been conquered before an invasion -could have taken place.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_85"><i>The Dolicho-cephali of the Iberian Peninsula, Gibraltar.</i></h3> - -<p>The researches carried on from 1863 to 1868, by -Captain Brome, aided by Dr. Falconer and Professor -Busk,<a id="FNanchor_127" href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a> into the caves of Gibraltar, have resulted in the -proof that, in the neolithic age, that barren rock was -inhabited by a race of men identical with that which is -found in the long barrows and caves of Great Britain.</p> - -<p>The enlargement of the military prison on the top of -Windmill Hill revealed the existence of a deep fissure, -containing dark earth, mingled with charcoal and broken -bones, which led into a series of chambers. The upper -of these is described by Captain Brome as being completely -choked up to the roof with earth, charcoal, and -decomposed bones of mammals, birds, and fishes, flint -flakes, and pottery. Below were two floors of stalagmite, -filled with loose stones and earth, through which -a shaft penetrated into a fissure at a lower level, leading -into a lower chamber that had a free communication -with the surface, since the current of air was so strong -as to extinguish the lamps. In this also human remains -and works of art were met with. The passages were -very complicated, and in some of them a red breccia -contained the remains of the pleistocene mammals, the -spotted hyæna, the <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i>, and others. -This series of passages and chambers is described by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205">205</a></span> -Captain Brome and Professor Busk as “Genista Cave -No. 1.”</p> - -<p>A second, or “Genista, No. 2,” was discovered by -Captain Brome opening on the surface near the West -Cliff, with its floor covered with stalagmite, under which -was the same class of remains as that above mentioned. -Subsequently a third and fourth, “Genista, 3 and 4,” -were explored with the same results, of which the latter, -opening on the face of a vertical cliff 40 feet below the -summit, from its difficulty of access must have been -used as a place of refuge rather than of habitation or -burial. With this exception, the whole group of Genista -Caves contained human bones, resting in the greatest -confusion, and proving that since the bodies had been -interred the contents had been disturbed, either by the -burrowing of animals or by the action of water, pools of -which were present in some of the chambers. Evidence -of the former presence of water was to be seen in the -sheets of stalagmite on most of the floors. The same -confusion would result, as is suggested by Professor -Busk, by interments at successive times. The intimate -association of the fractured bones of the animals, and the -charcoal, broken pottery, and other traces of occupation, -with the human bones, may be accounted for in the same -manner as the similar mixture of remains in the caves -of Denbighshire. If the caves had been inhabited at -one time, and subsequently set apart for burials, the -human bones would become intermingled with the -accumulation of refuse on the floors by the causes above -mentioned.</p> - -<p>The bones of the animals associated with the human -remains belong, according to Professor Busk, to the -domestic ox of various sizes, goat, ibex, hog, arvicola,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206">206</a></span> -hare, rabbit, badger, dog, and a species of phocæna, fish, -birds, and marine and land molluscs. The pottery is for -the most part hand-made, coarse and imperfectly burnt; -and the vessels in some cases had singular perforated -spouts, similar to those still in use by the Kabyles of -Algeria, and some of the Berber tribes. Some of it, -however, is of a fine red ware turned in the lathe, and -probably introduced at a later period, even, as remarked -by Mr. Franks, after the Roman occupation of Spain, to -which he refers a bronze fish-hook, the only metallic -article found in the group of caves. The implements of -bone consist of a needle, and rounded pins and spikes. -One cannon-bone of a small ox bears marks of sharp -cuts with an edge of metal, inflicted probably, as -Professor Busk suggests, “in an attempt to hamstring -the animal, as is sometimes done at the present day in -the Spanish bull-ring.” It may possibly be more modern -than the stone implements found in the same cave.</p> - -<p>The associated stone articles are celts of polished -greenstone, similar to that found in the neolithic cave -at Perthi-Chwareu (<a href="#Fig_38">Fig. 38</a>), flakes, a greenstone chisel, -querns and rubbing-stones, a whetstone perforated for suspension, -and a fragment of an armlet made of alabaster. -A small lump of coarse plumbago may have been used -for personal ornament.</p> - -<p>The human remains examined by Professor Busk -belonged to a large number of individuals of all ages, -and are for the most part in a fragmentary condition. -Some of the thigh-bones are carinate, and remarkable -for the enormous development of the <i class="anatomy">linea aspera</i> -and the thickness of their walls (<a href="#Fig_57">Fig. 57</a>), the medullary -cavity being reduced to a small size, as in -those figured from the tumulus at Cefn. Some of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207">207</a></span> -tibiæ are platycnemic, presenting the peculiar lateral -flattening which first attracted the attention of Dr. -Falconer and Professor Busk (<a href="#Fig_49">Figs. 49, 50, and 51</a>), but -which M. Broca has since determined in the tumuli -and caves of France, and I have discovered in those of -Denbighshire (p. 177).</p> - -<div id="Fig_62" class="figcenter" style="width: 526px;"> - <img src="images/i_207.jpg" width="526" height="456" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 62, 63, 64.</span>—Cranium from Genista Cave (Busk).</div></div> - -<p>The only two crania sufficiently perfect to allow of a -comparison being made, from Genista Cave No. 3, are -perfectly symmetrical, and belong to a high type -(<a href="#Fig_62">Figs. 62, 63, and 64</a>). “They are dolicho-cephalic, quite -orthognathous, and wholly aphanozygous. In one the -frontal sinuses are considerably more developed than -they are in the other, but in neither is there any thickening<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208">208</a></span> -of the supra-orbital border” (Busk). The teeth are -worn flat. They both belonged to men in the prime of -life. A third skull, from Genista Cave No. 1, belongs -to the same type. The measurements of the two most -perfect skulls are given in the same table as those from -North Wales (p. 171).</p> - -<p>Gibraltar has also been occupied in ancient times by -broad-headed men, similar, in M. Broca’s opinion, to those -interred in the cave of Orrouy. In 1864 human bones, -together with a skull (for measurements see <a href="#Page_199">p. 199</a>), -were dug out of the Judge’s Cave by Sir James Cochrane. -The tibiæ are platycnemic, and the skull is described -by Professor Busk as being “perfectly symmetrical, -brachy-cephalic, slightly prognathous, but with vertical -teeth, aphanozygous. The forehead is well arched, and -the supra-orbital border slightly elevated, the orbits -being square, and the nasal opening elongated and pyriform.” -The cephalic index is ·792. The age of these -skeletons is uncertain.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_86"><i>Spain.—Cueva de los Murcièlagos.</i></h3> - -<p>Professor Busk<a id="FNanchor_128" href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> calls attention to the fact, that a long -skull similar to that from Gibraltar has been found in -Spain, in an ancient copper-mine of the Asturias, together -with hammers made of antler, and that it bears -“the closest possible resemblance” to the Basque skulls, -described by M. Broca, from Guipuscoa on the Spanish -and St. Jean de Luz on the French side of the Pyrenees. -He points out, also, the resemblance which exists between -the crania figured by Don Gongora y Martinez, from the -caverns and dolmens of Andalusia and those under<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209">209</a></span> -consideration; finally arriving at the conclusion that -“a pretty uniform priscan race at one time pervaded -the peninsula from one end to the other, and that this -race is at the present day represented by, at any rate, -a part of the population now inhabiting the Basque -provinces.”</p> - -<p>In the work of Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez<a id="FNanchor_129" href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a> -referred to, there is a most interesting account of the -prehistoric antiquities of Andalusia. Several interments -are described in the Cueva de los Murcièlagos, a cave -running into the limestone rock, out of which the grand -scenery of the southern part of the Sierra Nevada has -been, to a great extent, carved. In one spot, a group of -three skeletons was met with, one of which was adorned -with a plain coronet of gold, and clad in a tunic made -of esparto-grass, finely plaited, so as to form a pattern -which resembles some of the designs on gold ornaments -from Etruscan tombs. At a spot further within, a -second group of twelve skeletons lay in a semicircle, -around one considered by Don Manuel to have belonged -to a woman, covered with a tunic of skin, and wearing -a necklace of esparto-grass, a marine shell pierced for -suspension, the carved tusk of a wild boar, and earrings -of black stone. There were other articles of plaited -esparto-grass, such as baskets and sandals; flint flakes, -pieces of a white marble armlet, polished axes of the -type of <a href="#Fig_38">fig. 38</a>, bone awls, and a wooden spoon, together -with pottery of the same type as that from Gibraltar, -fragments of charcoal, and bones of animals.</p> - -<p>Although, in this cave, there were no traces of metal, -except gold, in a second, in the same neighbourhood,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210">210</a></span> -similar interments were met with in association with -copper (bronze) implements, and with pottery of the -same kind.</p> - -<p>These interments in caves are of the same order -as those from Gibraltar; and since the skulls agree -with those from the latter, there can be little doubt -but that, in the neolithic age, the long-headed small -race under discussion had possession of the southern -provinces.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_87"><i>The Woman’s Cave, near Alhama.</i></h3> - -<p>This conclusion derives additional support from the -discoveries subsequently made by Mr. McPherson<a id="FNanchor_130" href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> -in the Woman’s Cave, near Alhama, in Grenada, of -implements of bone, flint, and greenstone of the neolithic -age, mingled with charcoal, pottery, and human -skeletons of the same type as those from Gibraltar. -The human skull, figured by Mr. McPherson, is dolicho-cephalic, -and the thigh-bone is remarkable for the extreme -development of the <i class="anatomy">linea aspera</i>, which assumes -the form of a stout ridge sweeping from one extremity -of the shaft to the other.</p> - -<p>This long-headed race, burying their dead in caves, -also erected dolmens in Andalusia. In the dolmen -of De los Eriales<a id="FNanchor_131" href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a> human remains were discovered along -with bronze (copper?) lance-heads, and pottery of the -same sort as that of the caves. It is, therefore, evident -that the practice of burial in caves, and of erecting -dolmens, was carried on by the same people in Britain, -in France, and in Spain.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211">211</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_88"><i>The Guanches of the Canary Isles.</i></h3> - -<p>The Guanches,<a id="FNanchor_132" href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> the ancient inhabitants of the Canary -Isles, are considered by Berthollet, Glas, and other high -authorities, to be allied to the Berbers of North Africa in -language. At the time of their discovery and conquest -by the Spaniards, they are described by Miss Haigh as -being unacquainted with the use of any metal, and as -fashioning their weapons out of a black, hard stone. -The Guanches of Teneriffe lived principally in caves, preferring -for their winter residence those near the coast, and -“in the summer those in the higher parts in the interior -of the island, whence they could enjoy the fresh air of -the hills.” Some of these caves have been excavated by -the hand of man, and are divided into square chambers, -containing rock-hewn benches, “and deep niches made -to contain vessels of milk or water.” They had also -stone houses, thatched with straw or fern. They also -buried their dead in sepulchral caves, belonging each to -a family or clan, entrances to which are carefully concealed, -and are now discovered only by accident. In them -the dead were placed either upright, or lying side by side -on wooden scaffolds, after having been prepared with -salt and butter and thoroughly dried and wrapped in -the tanned skins of sheep or goat. In some cases the -prepared body was placed in the sitting posture.</p> - -<p>They were possessed of a settled government by -“Menceys,” or chiefs subordinate to one head, and -were divided into “nobles and common people, and -had a code of punishment for the robber, murderer, -and adulterer.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212">212</a></span> -Their food consisted of sheep and goats, roasted -barley ground between two stones, and the fruit of the -arbutus, date-palm and fig, as well as fish and rabbits. -Their fences were made of reed, their ropes and nets -of rushes, and their baskets, mats, and bags, of palm-leaves. -They manufactured vessels out of clay or hard -wood, needles of fishbones, beads of clay, and they -especially excelled in the art of tanning. The civilization -of this very interesting people may fairly be -taken to be a fragment of that of North Africa and -of Europe in the neolithic age, protected by insulation -from the influences by which it was swept away from -the countries bordering on the shores of the Mediterranean, -just as the old Norse customs and legends are -preserved by the present inhabitants of Iceland in -greater purity than in Norway.</p> - -<p>The Berbers are viewed by Professor Busk as of the -same non-Aryan stock as the Basque, and the civilization -of the Guanches may therefore be taken to represent -that of the Iberic peoples of Spain, among whom -caves were used in like manner for habitation and -burial.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_89"><i>Iberic Dolicho-cephali of the same Race as those of Britain.</i></h3> - -<p>If this group of Iberic skulls be compared with those -from the caves and tumuli of Great Britain (see Table, -<a href="#list_197">p. 197</a> and that below) it will be seen, that what Professor -Busk observes of the ancient population of Spain -is equally true of that of our country in the neolithic age. -And the identity of form is especially remarkable in -the crania from the sepulchral caves at Perthi-Chwareu,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213">213</a></span> -the difference between them being so small as to be of -little <span class="locked">account:—</span></p> - -<table id="list_213" class="listobjects" summary="Iberic Dolicho-cephali"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc">Length.</th> - <th class="tdc">Brdth.</th> - <th class="tdc">Height.</th> - <th class="tdc">Circum-<br />ference.</th> - <th class="tdc">Ceph.<br />index.</th></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean of 10 skulls from Perthi-Chwareu</td> - <td class="tdc">7·07</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">20·0</td> - <td class="tdc">·765</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean of 2 skulls from Genista Cave, No. 3 (Busk)</td> - <td class="tdc">7·35</td> - <td class="tdc"> 5·55</td> - <td class="tdc">5·9</td> - <td class="tdc">20·7</td> - <td class="tdc">·755</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean of 40 male Basque skulls from Guipuscoa (Thurnam)</td> - <td class="tdc">7·2 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·5</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·760</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean of 20 female, ditto</td> - <td class="tdc">6·9 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·3</td> - <td class="tdc">5·0</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·760</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mean of 19 skulls,chiefly male</td> - <td class="tdc">7·4 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">5·4</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·760</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl">Mean of 57 female ditto, St. Jean de Luz</td> - <td class="tdc">7·02</td> - <td class="tdc">5·6</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">·799</td></tr> -</table> - -<h3 id="hdr_90"><i>The Dolicho-cephali cognate with the Basque.</i></h3> - -<p>Nor can the truth of Professor Busk’s conclusion, that -the group of skulls in question belong to a people akin -in blood to the modern Basques, be disputed. We are -indebted to M. Broca<a id="FNanchor_133" href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">133</a> for the elaborate description of -seventy-eight Basque crania from a village cemetery in -Guipuscoa, and of fifty-eight from an ossuary at St. Jean -de Luz, in which they had been collected in the reign of -Francis I., 1532. In both these groups the long and oval -types predominated, the broad type being represented by -6·4 (Thurnam) per cent. in the one, and 37·36 per cent. -(Broca) in the other; a difference that is doubtless caused -by the greater mixture of blood in the south-west of -France than in the north-west of Spain, shut off from -the broad-headed Gallic tribes by the Pyrenees.<a id="FNanchor_134" href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">134</a> Six<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214">214</a></span> -skulls, obtained by Professor Virchow from Bilbao, agree -in all particulars with those from Guipuscoa. M. Broca -has further shown, that this group of Spanish skulls -offers all the characters of the black-haired, swarthy, -oval-faced, Basque population of the surrounding region, -and it therefore follows, that they may be taken -as standards of comparison, as typical of the ancient -Basque crania, modified, it may be, to some extent, by -the infusion of other blood. Their agreement, therefore, -with the skulls from Gibraltar implies that the latter are -also Basque. And since they agree also with those from -the cave of Perthi-Chwareu, as may be seen in the preceding -Table, the men who buried their dead in the -caves of North Wales in the neolithic age, are proved -to belong to the same stock.</p> - -<p>The same long-headed, small race also inhabited -France, side by side with the broad-headed Gallic -tribes; and since to it belong the skeletons in the -Cave de l’Homme Mort, which M. Broca refers to the -neolithic aborigines, it may reasonably be concluded -that in Gaul, as in Britain, it was the older of the two -races. The two have also been met with in the caves of -Belgium. If we allow that an aboriginal Basque population -spread over the whole of Britain, France, and -Belgium, and that it was subsequently dispossessed by -broad-headed invaders, the two extremes of skull-form -and of stature, and of the gradations between them, may -be satisfactorily explained. And this view coincides -with the well-ascertained facts of history.</p> - -<p>Dr. Thurnam was the first to recognize that the long -skulls, out of the long barrows of Britain and Ireland, -were of the Basque or Iberian type, and Professor -Huxley holds that the river-bed skulls belong to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215">215</a></span> -same race.<a id="FNanchor_135" href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">135</a> (Compare Table <a href="#list_197">p. 197</a> with the preceding.) -We have therefore proof, that an Iberian or Basque population -spread over the whole of Britain and Ireland in -the neolithic age, inhabiting caves, and burying their -dead in caves and chambered tombs, just as in the -Iberian Peninsula also in the neolithic age.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_91"><i>Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali in Neolithic Caves -of Belgium.—Chauvaux.</i></h3> - -<p>Both these forms of skull have been met with in Belgium, -the one in the famous cave of Chauvaux, the -other in that of Sclaigneaux.</p> - -<p>The first of these is a rock-shelter passing into a small -cave, at the base of the limestone cliff on the Meuse, -opposite the little village of Rivière, between Dinant -and Namur. It was known to contain human remains -in 1837–8, and was partially explored in 1842 -by Dr. Spring, who published his account of the discoveries -in 1853, and subsequently in 1864 and 1866. -Below a thin layer of loam was a floor of stalagmite, -concealing a vast number of broken human bones mixed -pêle-mêle with those of wild and domestic animals, -and associated with charcoal and coarse pottery. Two -polished stone celts indicated the neolithic age of the -accumulation; one of them resting close to a skull -which had been fractured by a blow from a blunt -instrument, such as it may have inflicted. The human -bones belonged to infants and young adults.</p> - -<p>From the fractured and burnt bones of the animals it -is clear that they had been accumulated in the cave<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216">216</a></span> -daring the time that it was inhabited by man. Dr. -Spring<a id="FNanchor_136" href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">136</a> inferred that the broken human bones proved -that human beings, as well as the animals, formed the -food of the cave-dwellers, and further, since all the human -remains belong to young individuals, that the cannibalism -was not accidental, or caused by famine, but the -result of a deliberate selection.</p> - -<p>The facts which induced Dr. Spring to come to this -conclusion are interpreted by M. Dupont<a id="FNanchor_137" href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">137</a> in a different -manner. He holds, that the proportion of young -individuals is not greater in Chauvaux than that which -he has observed in other sepulchral caves in Belgium, -and that there is nothing which forbids the supposition -that this also was used as a place of interment. The -human bones may have been broken by the foxes and -badgers, which are so abundant in the district, and -have been mixed, by their continual burrowing, with -the remains of the animals in the old refuse-heap -accumulated on the floor during the habitation of man. -Such a mixture of remains we have already observed in -the caves of North Wales and Gibraltar. The recent -researches of M. Soreil<a id="FNanchor_138" href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">138</a> leave no room for doubting -the truth of M. Dupont’s interpretation. Two perfect -human skeletons were discovered along with flint -flakes, pottery, a barbed arrow-head, and many scattered -human bones not broken by design, while the long -bones of the associated animals bore unmistakeable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217">217</a></span> -traces of having been split for the sake of the marrow. -On one long bone, for example, of the ox, there were -cuts made by a flint implement, as well as the mark of -the blow by which it had been split longitudinally; and -another ox-bone, and the canine of a boar, bore marks of -burning. The bones of the animals were very abundant, -and belonged to the following species: beaver, hamster, -and other small rodents, hare, badger, fox, boar, stag, -roe, ox, and goat. In this case, as in the caves of -Perthi-Chwareu, and of l’Homme Mort, the inhabitants -had used the hare for food, as well as the other -animals, and did not share the prejudice against the -use of its flesh for food, which Cæsar remarks of the -inhabitants of Britain (Comm. 1, xii.).</p> - -<p>The cave must, therefore, be viewed as a place of -sepulture for a neolithic people, whose implements -abound in the neighbourhood, and not as having been -inhabited by a race of cannibals.</p> - -<p>The bodies had been interred in the crouching posture, -with their thighs bent, their heads resting on their arms, -and their faces turned towards the valley. They rested -side by side in two small holes, which had been dug in -the deposit containing the bones of the animals, and the -skeletons were cemented to the rock by stalagmite, and -surrounded by large stones. They belonged to individuals -far past the prime of life.</p> - -<p>Both skulls were dolicho-cephalic, and the most -perfect of them is described by Professor Virchow as -presenting a parietal flattening, which is probably -analogous to the “tête annulaire,” so commonly -present in the long skulls of the neolithic age. It -possesses a cephalic index of ·72 (·718 Virchow). The -sutures in both the skulls were very nearly obliterated.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218">218</a></span> -The measurements are given in the Table in -page 199.</p> - -<p>The crania, in all these characters, are to be classified -with the long skulls from the caves and chambered -tombs of France, Britain, and Spain. They belong to -people in the same stage of culture, and practising the -same mode of burial in a crouching posture. Chauvaux -is the furthest cave to the east on the continent of -Europe, in which traces of this long-headed race have -been observed.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_92"><i>The Cave of Sclaigneaux.</i></h3> - -<p>The cave of Sclaigneaux,<a id="FNanchor_139" href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">139</a> explored by M. Arnould, -near the hamlet of that name, fourteen miles from -Namur, has been proved to contain human bones, -lying mixed with those of the animals in the refuse-heap -on the floor, as in the cave of Chauvaux. The -animals belonged to existing <span class="locked">species:—</span></p> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -Hedgehog.<br /> -Badger.<br /> -Beech-marten.<br /> -Weazel.<br /> -Fox.<br /> -Dog.<br /> -Wild Cat.<br /> -Hare.<br /> -Rabbit.<br /> -Ox.<br /> -Goat.<br /> -Stag.<br /> -Boar.<br /> -Horse.<br /> -Rodents. -</p> - -<p>Bones of birds, frogs, and fishes were also met with. -Intermingled with these were human skeletons, disposed -in a rude sort of order, and belonging to bodies which -had been interred at different times. From the lower -jaws M. Arnould calculates that the number of bodies -interred was not less than sixty-two, of which twelve -belonged to aged individuals, twenty-one to those in the -prime of life, sixteen to young adults, and thirteen -to children.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219">219</a></span></p> - -<div id="Fig_65" class="figcenter" style="width: 494px;"> - <img src="images/i_219.jpg" width="494" height="243" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 65, 66.</span>—Skull from Cave of Sclaigneaux. (Arnould.)</div></div> - -<p>The crania (<a href="#Fig_65">Figs. 65, 66</a>) are brachy-cephalic (see -Table, <a href="#list_199">p. 199</a>), and are possessed, according to M. -Arnould, of the following characters. The apex of the -cranial vault is flattened, probably artificially, and the -parietal bosses are largely developed, to which is due -the great width of the skull. The surciliary ridges are -strongly marked, and the malar bones are prominent. -In all these particulars they agree with -the broad skulls, as defined by Dr. Thurnam, -discovered in the round tumuli -of Britain and the sepulchral caves of -France.</p> - -<div id="Fig_67" class="figright up1" style="width: 134px;"> - <img src="images/i_219b.jpg" width="134" height="179" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>—Platycnemic tibia, from Sclaigneaux.</div></div> - -<p>Some of the leg-bones presented the -antero-posterior flattening, or platycnemism, -observed in the skeletons from -the caves of Gibraltar, and in France -and Great Britain (<a href="#Fig_67">Fig. 67</a>). It is due, -as in those from North Wales, to the -anterior expansion of the bone, and not to the posterior, -as is the case with those from the cave of Cro-Magnon.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220">220</a></span> -A beautifully chipped arrow-head, with barbs and -central tongue for insertion into the shaft, of the same -type as one from Chauvaux, implies that these remains -belong to the neolithic age. Implements of bone, and -a shell perforated for suspension, were also found.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_93"><i>The Evidence of History as to the Peoples of Gaul and Spain.</i></h3> - -<p>The extension of this non-Aryan race through France, -Spain, and Britain, in ancient times, based solely on the -evidence of the human remains, is confirmed by an -appeal to the ethnology of Europe within the historic -period. In the Iberian peninsula the Basque populations -of the west are defined from the Celtic of the east by the -Celtiberi inhabiting the modern Castille (see Map, <a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a>). In Gaul the province of Aquitania extended as -far north, in Cæsar’s time,<a id="FNanchor_140" href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">140</a> as the river Garonne, constituting -the modern Gascony, to which was added, in -the days of Augustus, the district between that river -and the Loire; a change of frontier that was probably -due to the predominance of Basque blood in a mixed -race in that area similar to the Celtiberi of Castille. -The Aquitani were surrounded on every side, except the -south, by the Celtæ, extending as far north as the Seine, -as far to the east as Switzerland and the plains of Lombardy, -and southwards, through the valley of the Rhone -and the region of the Volcæ, over the Eastern Pyrenees -into Spain. The district round the Phocæan colony of -Marseilles was inhabited by Ligurian tribes, who held -the region between the river Po and the Gulf of Genoa, -as far as the western boundary of Etruria, and who probably<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221">221</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_222">222</a></span> -extended to the west along the coast of Southern -Gaul as far as the Pyrenees.<a id="FNanchor_141" href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">141</a> They were distinguished -from the Celtæ, not merely by their manners and customs, -but by their small stature and dark hair and eyes, -and are stated by Pliny and Strabo to have inhabited -Spain. They have also left marks of their presence in -Central Gaul in the name of the Loire (Ligur), and possibly -in Britain in the obscure name of the Lloegrians. -They invaded Sicily<a id="FNanchor_142" href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">142</a> as the Sikelians, and <em>if</em> the latter -be identified with the Sikanians considered by Thucydides<a id="FNanchor_143" href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">143</a> -and other writers to be of Iberian stock, it will -follow that they are a cognate race. Their stature and -swarthy complexion, as well as the ancient geographical -position conterminous with the Iberic population of Gaul -and Spain, confirm this conclusion. The non-Aryan and -probably Basque population of Gaul was therefore cut -into two portions by a broad band of Celts, which crosses -the Eastern Pyrenees, and marks the route by which the -Iberian peninsula was invaded.</p> - -<div id="Fig_68" class="figcenter" style="width: 535px;"> - <img src="images/i_221.jpg" width="535" height="930" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>—Distribution of Basque, Celtic, and Belgic Peoples, at dawn of History.</div></div> - -<p>The ancient population of Sardinia is stated by Pausanias -to be of Libyan extraction, and to bear a strong -resemblance to the Iberians in physique and in habits -of life, while that of Corsica is described by Seneca as -Ligurian and Iberian. The ancient Libyans are represented -at the present day by the Berber and Kabyle -tribes which are, if not identical with, at all events -cognate with the Basques. We may therefore infer that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223">223</a></span> -these two islands were formerly occupied by this non-Aryan -race, as well as the adjacent continents of Northern -Africa and Southern Europe.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_94"><i>The Basque Population the Oldest.</i></h3> - -<p>The relative antiquity of these two races in Europe -may be arrived at by this distribution. The Basques, -Sikani or Ligurian, are the oldest inhabitants, in their -respective districts, known to the historian; while the -Celts appear as invaders, pressing southwards and westwards -on the populations already in possession, flooding -over the Alps and under Brennus sacking Rome, and -by their union with the vanquished in Spain constituting -the Celtiberi. We may therefore be tolerably certain -that the Basques held France and Spain before the invasion -of the Celts, and that the non-Aryan peoples -were cut asunder, and certain parts of them left—Ligurians, -Sikani, and in part Sardinians and Corsicans—as -ethnological islands, marking, so to speak, an ancient -Basque non-Aryan continent which had been submerged -by the Celtic populations advancing steadily -westwards.</p> - -<p>At the time of the Roman conquest of Gaul, the -Belgæ were pressing on the Celts, just as the latter -pressed the Basques, the Seine and the Marne forming -their southern boundary, and in their turn being pushed -to the west by the advance of the Germans in the Rhine -provinces. Thus we have the oldest population, or -Basque, invaded by the Celts, the Celts by the Belgæ, -and these again by the Germans; their relative positions -stamping their relative antiquity in Europe.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224">224</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_95"><i>The Population of Britain.</i></h3> - -<p>The Celtic and Belgic invasion of Gaul repeated itself, -as might be expected, in Britain. Just as the Celts -pushed back the Iberian population of Gaul as far south -as Aquitania, and swept round it into Spain, so they -crossed over the Channel and overran the greater portion -of Britain, until the Silures, identified by Tacitus<a id="FNanchor_144" href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">144</a> with -the Iberians, were left only in those fastnesses that -formed subsequently a bulwark for the Brit-Welsh against -the English invaders. And just as the Belgæ pressed -on the rear of the Celts as far as the Seine, so they -followed them into Britain, and took possession of the -“Pars Maritima,”<a id="FNanchor_145" href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">145</a> or southern counties. The unsettled -condition of the country at the time of Cæsar’s invasion -was, probably, due to the struggle then going -on between Celts and Belgæ.</p> - -<p>The evidence offered by history as to the distribution -of these races confirms that which has been arrived -at by the examination of the caves and tumuli. In -the one case the Basque peoples are merely known -in a fragmentary condition in Britain, Gaul, and Sicily, -while in the other those fragments are joined together -in such a way as to show that, in the neolithic -age, they extended uninterrupedly through Western -Europe, from the Pillars of Hercules in the south to -Scotland in the north, before they were dispossessed by -their broad-headed enemies. It is impossible to define -with precision their ethnological relation to the non-Aryan -inhabitants of Italy and the coasts of the Mediterranean, -such as the Etruscans and Tyrrhenians. I<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225">225</a></span> -am, however, inclined to hold that they are all branches -of the same race of “Melanochroi,” differing far less -from each other than the Celtic from the Scandinavian -branch of the Aryan family.<a id="FNanchor_146" href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">146</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_96"><i>Basque Element in present British and French Populations.</i></h3> - -<p>This non-Aryan blood is still to be traced in the -dark-haired, black-eyed, small, oval-featured peoples in -our own country in the region of the Silures, where the -hills have afforded shelter to the Basque populations -from the invaders.<a id="FNanchor_147" href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">147</a> The small swarthy Welshman of -Denbighshire is in every respect, except dress and -language, identical with the Basque inhabitant of the -Western Pyrenees, at Bagnères de Bigorre.</p> - -<p>The small dark-haired people of Ireland,<a id="FNanchor_148" href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">148</a> and especially -those to the west of the Shannon, according to -Dr. Thurnam and Professor Huxley, are also of Iberian -derivation, and singularly enough there is a legendary -connection between that island and Spain. The human -remains from the chambered tombs as well as the riverbeds -prove that the non-Aryan population spread over the -whole of Ireland as well as the whole of Britain. The -main mass of the Irish population is undoubtedly Celtic, -crossed with Danish, Norse, and English blood.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226">226</a></span> -The Basque element in the population of France -is at the present time centered in the old province of -Aquitaine, in which the jet-black hair and eyes, and -swarthy complexion, strike the eye of the traveller, now -as in the days of Strabo,<a id="FNanchor_149" href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">149</a> and form a vivid contrast -with the brown hair and grey eyes of the inhabitants of -Celtica and Belgica (see Map, <a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a>). If <a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a> -be compared with the map published by Dr. Broca -(“Mémoires d’Anthropologie,” t. i. p. 330), which shows -at a glance the average complexion prevailing in each -department, and the relative number of exemptions per -1,000 conscripts, on account of their not coming up to -the standard of height (1·56 metre = 5 feet 1½ inches), -it will be seen that the only swarthy people outside -the boundary of Aquitaine constitute five ethnological -islands. Of these Brittany is by far the largest, probably -because its fastnesses afforded a shelter to the Basques, -who were being driven to the south-west. The department -of the Meuse, in the north, and those of Tarn -and Arriège, in the south, are also sundered from -the main body, while those of the Upper and Lower -Alps present us with the descendants of the ancient -Ligurian tribes.</p> - -<p>The people with dark-brown hair, considered by Dr. -Broca to be the result of the intermingling of a dark -with a fair race, are scattered about through Aquitaine, -and occur only in two departments in northern Celtica. -The fair people, on the other hand, are massed in northern -Celtica and Belgica. The relation of complexion to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227">227</a></span> -stature may be gathered from the following table of -exemptions per 1,000 for each <span class="locked">department:—</span></p> - -<table id="table227" summary="complexion-stature"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Départements noirs</td> - <td class="tdc">98·5</td> - <td class="tdc">to</td> - <td class="tdc">189 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc227pad1">”</span> gris-foncés</td> - <td class="tdc">64· </td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdc"> 97 </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc227pad1">”</span> gris-clairs</td> - <td class="tdc">48·8</td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdc"> 63·8</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc227pad1">”</span> blancs-clairs</td> - <td class="tdc">23· </td> - <td class="tdc">”</td> - <td class="tdc"> 48·5</td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="in0">From this table it is evident that the swarthy people are -the smallest and the fair the tallest, the intermediate -shades being the result of fusion between the two -extremes.</p> - -<p>The distribution therefore of the small swarthy Basque, -and tall fair Celtic and Belgic races in France at the -present time, corresponds essentially with that which we -might have expected from the evidence both of history -and of the neolithic caves and tombs.<a id="FNanchor_150" href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">150</a></p> - -<p>When we consider the many invasions of France, and -the oscillations to and fro of peoples, the persistence of -the Basque population is very remarkable. It is not a -little strange that the type should be so slightly altered -by intermarriage with the conquering races.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_97"><i>Whence came the Basques?</i></h3> - -<p>From what region did the Basques invade Europe? -M. Broca, from their identity with the Kabyles and -Berbers, holds that they entered Europe from northern<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228">228</a></span> -Africa, spreading over Spain, and passing over the -Pyrenees into southern France. It seems, however, to -me, from their range as far north as Scotland, -and at least as far to the east as Belgium, that they -travelled by the same route that the Celtic, Belgic, and -Germanic tribes travelled long ages afterwards, coming -from the east and pushing their way to the west: and -that while one section chose this route, another -mastered northern Africa, following the same westward -direction as the Saracens. On this hypothesis this great -pre-Aryan migration would start from the central -plateau of Asia, from which all the successive invaders -of Europe have swarmed off.</p> - -<p>This view of the eastern derivation of the Basque -peoples is confirmed by the examination of the breeds -of domestic animals which they possessed. The <i class="taxonomy">Bos -longifrons</i>, the sheep, and the goat are derived from -wild stocks that are now to be found only in central -Asia; and the dog and breed of swine with small canines -were also probably imported after they had become the -servants of man in the east.<a id="FNanchor_151" href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">151</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_98"><i>The Celtic and Belgic Brachy-cephali.</i></h3> - -<p>The occurrence of broad-skulls in the tumuli in this -country, and in caves and tumuli in France, proves that -the Basque peoples were invaded during the neolithic<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229">229</a></span> -age. And since Dr. Thurnam has shown that they -are identical in form with Celtic and Belgic skulls,<a id="FNanchor_152" href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> it -follows that one or the other of these, probably the Celtic -or the older, was in possession of portions of Britain, -Ireland, and Gaul at that remote time. It is of course -conceivable that non-Celtic races, physically allied to -the Celts or Belgæ, are represented by the human remains -in question; but in that case they have left no -mark behind by which they can be identified. And the -supposition is rendered improbable to the last degree by -the fact, that the older or conquered race—the Basque—still -survives, in the area under consideration, the invasions -and vicissitudes which it has undergone. <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">A fortiori</i>, -would their conquerors have had a still greater -chance of survival, in the fastnesses which are offered -by these countries. It is therefore reasonable to presume -that the broad-headed peoples in the neolithic caves and -tombs are represented by the Celts, and possibly, though -not probably, in part by the Belgæ, rather than by -the equally broad-headed Wends, Sclavonians, and Fins, -which are not known by the historian to have settled -in Gaul or in Britain. The successive invasions -of Europe have been invariably from the east to the -west, so far as we have any certain knowledge; and it is -most improbable that Wends, Fins, or Sclaves should -have occupied these countries and subsequently have -retreated eastwards against the current of the Celtic, -Belgic, and Germanic invasions.</p> - -<p>The Celtæ may, therefore, be inferred to have occupied -Gaul and Britain in the ages of polished stone, bronze, -and of iron, their encroachment on the non-Aryan peoples -being regulated by their strength, and the amount of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230">230</a></span> -pressure on their rear. The Belgæ probably were not -known in Gaul until the later portion of the iron age, -and were of small importance as compared with the -Celts, whose arms were felt alike in Greece, Italy, Spain, -and Asia Minor.</p> - -<p>The Celts were a tall, fair-haired, blue-eyed race -(Xanthochroi), contrasting strongly with the Basque -“Melanochroi”, and in those particulars agreeing with -the Germans.<a id="FNanchor_153" href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">153</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_99"><i>The Ancient German Race.</i></h3> - -<p>The Germans, in the days of Cæsar, were advancing -on the Belgæ in the Rhine provinces, and on the -Helvetii in Switzerland, and are recognized by Tacitus,<a id="FNanchor_154" href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">154</a> -in Britain as the red-haired, tall inhabitants of Caledonia. -Subsequently they spread over the west and south of -Europe, as Goths, Franks, Scandinavians, English and -Normans; in this country sweeping the Brit-Welsh into -the hilly fastnesses of Wales, making settlements on -many points of the coasts of Ireland, and leaving behind -them, to this day, a considerable infusion of German -blood in the Celtic and Basque populations. They were, -unlike the present inhabitants of North Prussia and -southern and middle Germany, a dolicho-cephalic people, -their length of head being due, according to Gratiolet, -to a frontal instead of an occipital development, which -causes the long-headedness of the Basques. The Anglo-Saxon -skull is defined by Dr. Thurnam as prognathous, -with large facial bones, and with a cephalic index<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231">231</a></span> -averaging ·75. And these characters are equally to -be found in the Gothic, Frankish, and Scandinavian -crania.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_100"><i>General Conclusions.</i></h3> - -<p>In this outline of the ethnology of Gaul and Britain, -it will be seen that two out of the three ethnical elements -(if the Belgic be classed with the Celtic), of which the -present population is composed, can be recognized in the -neolithic users of caves and builders of chambered tombs. -A non-Aryan race either identical or cognate with the -Basque is the earliest traceable in these areas in the -neolithic age, and it probably arrived in Europe by the -same route as the Celtic and Germanic, passing westwards -from the plains of central Asia.</p> - -<p>There is no evidence of Spain having been peopled -from northern Africa, the identity of the Berber and -Kabyle with the Basque being due to their being -descended from the same non-Aryan stock in possession -of southern and western Europe, and northern Africa. -They are to be looked upon as cousins rather than -as connected by descent in a right line.</p> - -<p>The Basque race was probably in possession of Europe -for a long series of ages, before hordes either identical -or cognate with the Celts gradually crept westward over -Germany into Gaul, Spain, and Britain, driving away, -or absorbing, the inhabitants of the regions which they -conquered.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232">232</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">CAVES CONTAINING HUMAN REMAINS OF DOUBTFUL AGE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote class="inhead"> - -<p>The Caves of Paviland.—Engis.—Trou du Frontal.—Gendron.—Neanderthal.—Gailenreuth.—Aurignac.—Bruniquel.—Cro-Magnon.— -Lombrive.—Cavillon, near Mentone.—Grotta dei Colombi in Island -of Palmaria, inhabited by Cannibals.—General Conclusions.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="in0">There are many prehistoric caves in Britain and on the -Continent which do not contain remains sufficiently -characteristic to fix the date of their use, either for -occupation or burial, unless the term neolithic be understood -to cover the wide interval between the palæolithic -stage of the pleistocene on the one hand, and the bronze -age on the other.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_101"><i>The Paviland Cave.</i></h3> - -<p>The Cave of Goat’s Hole<a id="FNanchor_155" href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">155</a> at Paviland, in Glamorganshire, -explored by Dr. Buckland in 1823, offers an instance -of an interment having been made in a pre-existent -deposit of the pleistocene age. It consists of a chamber -facing to the sea, in a cliff of limestone 100 feet high, -at a level of from 30 to 40 feet above the high-water -mark. Its floor was composed of red loam, containing -the remains of the woolly-rhinoceros, hyæna, cave-bear,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233">233</a></span> -and mammoth. Close to a skull with tusks of the -last animal a human skeleton (equalling in size the -largest male skeleton in the Oxford Museum) was discovered; -and in the soil, “which had apparently been -disturbed by ancient diggings,” were fragments of charcoal, -a small chipped flint, and the sea-shells of the -neighbouring shore. Certain small ivory ornaments, -found close to the skeleton, are considered by Dr. -Buckland to have been carved out of the tusks of the -mammoth near which they rested; and he justly -remarks that, “as they must have been cut to their -present shape at a time when the ivory was hard, and -not crumbling to pieces, as it is at present at the -slightest touch, we may from this circumstance assume -for them a high antiquity.”</p> - -<p>May we not also infer, from the fact of the manufactured -ivory and the tusks from which it was cut being -in precisely the same state of decomposition, that the -tusks were preserved from decay, during the pleistocene -times, by precisely the same agency as those now found -perfect in the polar regions—namely, the intense cold; -that after the skull of the mammoth had been buried -in the cave, the tusks, thus preserved, were used for the -manufacture of ornaments; and that, at some time subsequent -to the interment of the ornaments with the corpse, -a climatal change has taken place, by which the temperature -in England, France, and Germany has been -raised, and the ivory became decomposed that up to -that time had preserved its gelatine? On this point it is -worthy of remark that fossil tusks have been discovered -in Scotland sufficiently perfect to be used as ivory. -The ornaments may, however, not have been made from -the fossil tusks.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234">234</a></span> -The presence of the bones of sheep underneath the -remains of mammoth, bear, and other animals, coupled -with the state of the cave earth, which had been disturbed -before Dr. Buckland’s examination of the cave, -would prove that the interment is not of pleistocene date. -No traces of sheep or goat have as yet been afforded by -any pleistocene deposit in Britain, France, or Germany.</p> - -<p>Dr. Buckland’s conclusion, that the interment is relatively -more modern than the accumulation with remains -of the extinct mammalia, must be accepted as the true -interpretation of the facts. The intimate association -of the two sets of remains, of widely diverse ages, in -this cave show that extreme care is necessary in cave -exploration.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_102"><i>The Cave of Engis.</i></h3> - -<p>Human remains have been obtained from some of the -caves of Belgium under circumstances which are generally -considered to indicate that they are of the same antiquity -as the skeletons of the animals with which they are associated. -The possibility, however, of the contents of caves -of different ages being mixed by the action of water, or -by the burrowing of animals, or by subsequent interments, -renders such an association of little value, unless -the evidence be very decided. The famous human skull -discovered by Dr. Schmerling<a id="FNanchor_156" href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">156</a> in the cave of Engis, -near Liége, in 1833, is a case in point. It was obtained -from a mass of breccia, along with bones and teeth of -mammoth, rhinoceros, horse, hyæna, and bear; and subsequently<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235">235</a></span> -M. Dupont<a id="FNanchor_157" href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">157</a> found in the same spot a human -ulna, other human bones, worked flints, and a small -fragment of coarse earthenware. The discovery of this -last is an argument in favour of the human remains being -of a later date than the extinct mammalia, since pottery -has not yet been proved to have been known to the -palæolithic races who co-existed with them, while it is -very abundant in neolithic burial-places and tombs. -The fact of all the objects being cemented together by -calcareous infiltration is no test of relative age, which -cannot be ascertained without distinct stratification, -such as that in the caves of Wookey and Kent’s Hole.</p> - -<p>It seems therefore to me, that the conditions of the -discovery are too doubtful to admit of the conclusion of -Sir Charles Lyell and other eminent writers, that the -human remains are of palæolithic age.</p> - -<p>The skull is described by Professor Huxley<a id="FNanchor_158" href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">158</a> as being -of average size, its contour agreeing equally well with -some Australian and European skulls; it presents no -marks of degradation, “and is in fact a fair average -human skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher, -or might have contained the thoughtless brains of -a savage.” Its measurements fall within the limits of -the long-skulls described in the preceding chapter, and -it certainly belongs to the same class.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236">236</a></span> -The following Table will show the variation in size -and form of the skulls mentioned in this chapter:</p> - -<h4><i>Measurements of Skulls of doubtful antiquity.</i></h4> - -<div id="list_236"> -<table id="table236" class="listobjects" summary="doubtful antiquity"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc"> </th> - <th class="tdc">Length.</th> - <th class="tdc">Breadth.</th> - <th class="tdc">Height.</th> - <th class="tdc">Circum-<br />ference.</th> - <th class="tdc">Cephalic<br />index.</th> - <th class="tdc">Altitudinal<br />index.</th></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Engis (Huxley)</td> - <td class="tdc"> 7·7 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·4 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">20·5 </td> - <td class="tdc">·700</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Trou du Fronta (Pruner-Bey)</td> - <td class="tdc"> 6·9 </td> - <td class="tdc">5·6 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">21·55</td> - <td class="tdc">·811</td> - <td class="tdc">·704</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Gailenreuth (Dawkins)</td> - <td class="tdc"> 6·82</td> - <td class="tdc">5·5 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">21·55</td> - <td class="tdc">·813</td> - <td class="tdc">·813</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Neanderthal (Schaaffhausen)</td> - <td class="tdc">12·0</td> - <td class="tdc">5·75</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">23· </td> - <td class="tdc">·720</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cro-Magnon, No. 1 (Broca)</td> - <td class="tdc">7·95</td> - <td class="tdc">5·86</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">22·36</td> - <td class="tdc">·730</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc236pad1">”</span> <span class="toc236pad2">”</span> 2 <span class="toc236pad3">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc">7·52</td> - <td class="tdc">5·39</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">21·26</td> - <td class="tdc">·71 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl"><span class="toc236pad1">”</span> <span class="toc236pad2">”</span> 3 <span class="toc236pad3">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc">7·94</td> - <td class="tdc">5·94</td> - <td class="tdc">—</td> - <td class="tdc">22·24</td> - <td class="tdc">·74 </td> - <td class="tdc">—</td></tr> -</table></div> - -<h3 id="hdr_103"><i>Trou du Frontal.</i></h3> - -<p>The human skeletons in the Trou du Frontal, situated -in a picturesque limestone cliff on the banks of the -Lesse, near Furfooz, are considered by M. Dupont to -be of the same age as the contents of the caves close -by the Trou des Nutons and Trou Rosette, which have -been inhabited by palæolithic savages. The following -is the section (<a href="#Fig_69">Fig. 69</a>) which he gives of the deposits. -Close to the river Lesse is the alluvium (No. 1), below -which is a clay (No. 2), with angular blocks passing -upwards under the rock shelter, and filling the cave. -Under this is a stratum of loam (No. 3), resting on -gravel (No. 4). Sixteen human skeletons were discovered -in the sepulchral cavity (<span class="smcap smaller">S</span>), at the mouth of -which was a large slab of rock (<span class="smcap smaller">D</span>), by which it was -originally blocked up. A singular urn, with a round -bottom and with the handles perforated for suspension, -was found at the entrance, together with flint flakes, -ornaments in fluorine, and eocene shells perforated for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237">237</a></span> -suspension. Outside, at the points <span class="smcap smaller">H H</span>, was an accumulation -of broken bones, belonging to the lemming, -tailless hare (Lagomys), beaver, wild cat, boar, horse, -stag, urus, chamois, goat, and other animals, birds and -fishes. From the occurrence of fragments belonging to -two reindeer, it is considered by M. Dupont to belong -to the reindeer age. The old hearth was close by, at -<span class="smcap smaller">F</span> (<a href="#Fig_69">Fig. 69</a>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_69" class="figcenter" style="width: 533px;"> - <img src="images/i_237.jpg" width="533" height="331" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>—Section of the Trou du Frontal. (Dupont.)</div></div> - -<p>From this section we may infer, that the rock-shelter -was used by man at the points <span class="smcap smaller">H H</span> and <span class="smcap smaller">F</span> before the -formation of the stratum No. 2, which is probably -merely subaerial rain-wash, due to the disintegration of -the adjacent rocks, and that the sepulchral cavity was -a place of burial either before, or while No. 2 was -accumulated. Can we further conclude that there is any -necessary connection between the refuse-heap and the -sepulchre in point of time? M. Dupont holds that the -contents of all the caves in the cliff are palæolithic, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238">238</a></span> -that the sepulchral cavity is therefore of that age.<a id="FNanchor_159" href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">159</a> It -seems to me, however, that the evidence in favour of -this view is not conclusive. The burial place may have -belonged to one people, and the refuse-heaps in the -neighbouring caves and <em>outside</em> the slab in the rock-shelter -of the Trou du Frontal to another. The form of -the urn is remarkably like some of those which have -been obtained from the neolithic pile-dwellings of -Switzerland, and therefore may possibly imply that -the interment is of that age.</p> - -<p>The human remains were mixed <i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">pêle mêle</i> with stones -and yellow clay within the chamber. Two skulls, sufficiently -perfect to allow of measurement, show that their -possessors were broad-headed (brachy-cephalic), and of -the same type as those of Sclaigneaux. They are considered -by the late Dr. Pruner-Bey to belong to the -“type Mongoloide,” and are believed by M. Dupont -to prove that the palæolithic inhabitants of Belgium -were a Mongoloid race. They seem, however, to be -of the same general order as the broad-skulls from the -neolithic caves and tombs of France, and from the round -barrows of Great Britain, as well as those from the -neolithic tombs of Borreby and Moën in Scandinavia. -And they are looked upon by MM. de Quatrefages, -Virchow, and Lagneaux,<a id="FNanchor_160" href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">160</a> as presenting the same type -as that which is to be recognized in the present population -of Belgium, in the neighbourhood, for example, of -Antwerp.</p> - -<p>These affinities may be explained by the view advanced -by Dr. Thurnam, that the broad-heads of the -British, French, and Scandinavian tombs are cognate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239">239</a></span> -with the modern Fin; or by the higher generalisation -of Prof. Huxley, that the Swiss “Dissentis” skull, the -South German, the Sclavonian, and the Finnish, belong -to one great race of fair-haired, broad-headed, Xanthochroi -“who have extended across Europe from Britain -to Sarmatia, and we know not how much further to the -east and south.”<a id="FNanchor_161" href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">161</a></p> - -<p>Besides these broad crania, M. Lagneaux<a id="FNanchor_162" href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">162</a> calls attention -to a fragment, sufficiently perfect to indicate a skull -of the long type (très dolicho-céphale), and that differed -from them in many other particulars. In the Trou du -Frontal, therefore, there is proof that a long and a short-headed -race lived in Belgium side by side, just as a -similar association in the cave of Orrouy establishes the -same conclusion as to the neolithic dwellers in France. -And since skulls of both these types have been discovered -in the neolithic caves of Sclaigneaux and Chauvaux, -the interment in the Trou du Frontal may probably -be referred to that date.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_104"><i>The Cave of Gendron.</i></h3> - -<p>The sepulchral cave of Gendron<a id="FNanchor_163" href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">163</a> on the Lesse, in -which fourteen skeletons were discovered lying at full -length, and in regular order, along with one flake and -some fragments of pottery, is of uncertain age, since -those articles were found at the entrance, and have no -necessary connection with the interments. And if they -were deposited at the same time, M. Dupont’s view that -they stamp the neolithic age is rendered untenable by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240">240</a></span> -the fact that flakes and rude pottery were in use as late -as the date of the Roman conquest of Britain, and are -frequently met with in association with articles of -bronze and of iron. And for the same reasons the -neolithic age of the human bones in the Trou de Sureau -and of the Trou de Pont-à-Lesse is open to considerable -doubt. The contents, however, prove these caves to be -post-pleistocene.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_105"><i>Cave of Gailenreuth.</i></h3> - -<p>The same uncertainty overhangs the age of the interments -in the cave of Gailenreuth, in Franconia, from -which Dr. Buckland<a id="FNanchor_164" href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">164</a> obtained a human skull of the -same broad type as that from Sclaigneaux, along with -fragments of black coarse pottery, one of which is ornamented -with a line of finger-impressions. The skull is -remarkable for the great width of the parietal protuberances, -and the flattening of the upper and posterior -region of the parietal bone. Its measurements are given -in the Table, <a href="#list_236">p. 236</a>, from which it will be seen that it -belongs to the same class of skulls as those from the -neolithic caves and tumuli of France.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_106"><i>Cave of Neanderthal.</i></h3> - -<p>The extraordinary skull found in 1857 in the cave of -Neanderthal,<a id="FNanchor_165" href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">165</a> by Dr. Fuhlrott, with some of the other -bones of the skeleton, was not associated with any other<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241">241</a></span> -animals from which its age could be inferred. “Under -whatever aspect,” writes Professor Huxley, “we view this -cranium, whether we regard its vertical depression, the -enormous thickness of its supraciliary ridges, its sloping -occiput, or its long and straight squamosal suture, we -meet with ape-like characters, stamping it as the most -pithecoid of human crania yet discovered. But Prof. -Schaaffhausen states that the cranium, in its present -condition, holds 1033·24 cubic centimetres of water, or -about 63 cubic inches, and as the entire skull could -hardly have held less than an additional 12 cubic inches, -its capacity may be estimated at about 75 cubic inches, -which is the average capacity given by Morton for -Polynesian and Hottentot skulls.</p> - -<p>So large a mass of brain as this would alone suggest -that the pithecoid tendencies, indicated by this skull, -did not extend deep into the organization, and this -conclusion is borne out by the dimensions of the other -bones of the skeleton, given by Prof. Schaaffhausen, -which show that the absolute height and relative proportions -of the limbs were quite those of a European -of middle stature. The bones are indeed stouter, but -this, and the great development of the muscular ridges -noted by Dr. Schaaffhausen, are characters to be expected -in savages. The Patagonians, exposed without shelter or -protection to a climate possibly not very dissimilar from -that of Europe at the time during which the Neanderthal -man lived, are remarkable for the stoutness of their -limb-bones.</p> - -<p>In no sense, then, can the Neanderthal bones be regarded -as the remains of a human being intermediate -between men and apes; at most they demonstrate the -existence of a man whose skull may be said to revert<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242">242</a></span> -somewhat towards the pithecoid type—just as a carrier, -or a poulter, or a tumbler may sometimes put on the -plumage of its primitive stock, the <i class="taxonomy">Columba livia</i>.”</p> - -<p>This skull, like the preceding, belongs to the dolicho-cephalic -division, reaching the enormous length of -twelve inches, with a parietal breadth of 5·75.</p> - -<p>A long-skull found near Ledbury Hill in Derbyshire, -and belonging to the river-bed type of Prof. Huxley, -comes so close to this one of Neanderthal, that were it -flattened a little and elongated, and possessed of larger -supraciliary ridges, it would be converted into the nearest -likeness which has yet been discovered.<a id="FNanchor_166" href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">166</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_107"><i>The Caves of France.—Aurignac.</i></h3> - -<p>In the cave of Neanderthal, the question of the antiquity -of the human remains is not complicated by the -juxtaposition of extinct pleistocene animals or of palæolithic -implements. Those caves, however, in France -which claim especial attention, Aurignac, Bruniquel, and -Cro-Magnon, are equally famous for their interments, -and the palæolithic implements which they have furnished, -along with the remains of the mammoth, woolly -rhinoceros, and other extinct animals.</p> - -<p>They have both been inhabited by palæolithic man, -and been used some time for burial. Does the period of -habitation coincide with that of the burial? This important -question has been answered almost universally in the -affirmative, and the interments are viewed as evidence -of a belief in the supra-natural among the most ancient -inhabitants of Europe, as well as offering examples of -their physique.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243">243</a></span> -The famous cave of Aurignac, near the town of -that name, in the department of the Haute Garonne, -was explored and described by the late M. Ed. Lartet, -and his conclusions were adopted by Sir Charles -Lyell in the first three editions of the “Antiquity -of Man.” In the fourth edition,<a id="FNanchor_167" href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">167</a> however, the latter -author, after a reconsideration of all the circumstances, -qualifies his acceptance of the palæolithic age of the -interments, and shares the doubts which have been expressed -by Sir John Lubbock and Mr. John Evans. -The evidence is as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>M. Lartet’s account falls naturally into two parts: -first, the story which he was told by the original discoverer -of the cave; and, secondly, that in which the -results of his own discoveries are described. We will -begin with the first. In the year 1852, a labourer, -named Bonnemaison, employed in mending the roads, -put his hand into a rabbit-hole (<a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a>, <i>f</i>), and drew -out a human bone, and having his curiosity excited, -he dug down until, as his story goes, he came to a -great slab of rock. Having removed this, he discovered -on the other side a cavity seven or eight feet in height, -ten in width, and seven in depth, almost full of human -bones, which Dr. Amiel, the Mayor of Aurignac, who -was a surgeon, believed to represent at least seventeen -individuals. All these human remains were collected, -and finally committed to the parish cemetery, where -they rest to the present day, undisturbed by sacrilegious -hands. Fortunately, however, Bonnemaison in digging -his way into the grotto, had met with the remains -of extinct animals, and works of art; and these were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244">244</a></span> -preserved until, in 1860, M. Lartet accidentally heard -of the discovery, and investigated the circumstances on -the spot. He found that Bonnemaison, and the sexton -who had buried the human remains, had taken so little -note of the place where they were interred, that it could -not be identified, and on examining the cave he found -that the interior had been ransacked, and the original -stratification to a great extent disturbed. M. Lartet’s -exploration showed that a stratum containing the remains -of the cave-bear, lion, rhinoceros, hyæna, mammoth, -bison, horse, and other animals, and palæolithic -implements, like those of Périgord, extended from the -plateau (<i>d</i>) outside into (<i>b</i>) the cave. On the outside he -met with ashes, and burnt and split bones, which proved -that it had been used as a feasting-place by the palæolithic -hunters; within he detected no traces of charcoal, and -no traces of the hyænas, which were abundant outside. -Inside he met with a few human bones in the earth -which Bonnemaison had disturbed, which were in the -same mineral condition as those of the extinct animals, -and he, therefore, inferred that they were of the same -age. Such is the summary of the facts which M. Lartet -discovered. He has, of his own personal knowledge, -only proved that Aurignac was occupied by a tribe -of hunters during the palæolithic age, and that it had -been used as a burial-place.</p> - -<div id="Fig_70" class="figcenter" style="width: 509px;"> - <img src="images/i_245.jpg" width="509" height="304" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>—Diagram of the Cave of Aurignac.</div></div> - -<p>Is he further justified in concluding that the period of -palæolithic occupation coincides with that in which the -burial took place? Bonnemaison’s recollections may be -estimated at their proper value by the significant fact, -that, in the short space of eight years intervening -between the discovery and the exploration, he had -forgotten where the skeletons had been buried. And<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245">245</a></span> -even if his account be true in the minutest detail, it -does not afford a shadow of evidence in favour of -the cave having been a place of sepulchre in palæolithic -times, but merely that it had been so used at -some time or another. If we turn to the diagram constructed -by M. Lartet to illustrate his views (“Ann. des -Sc. Nat. Zool.,” 4<sup>e</sup> sér., t. xv., pl. 10), and made for -the most part from Bonnemaison’s recollections; or to -the amended diagram (<a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a>) given by Sir Charles -Lyell (“Antiquity of Man,” 1st ed., Fig. 25), we shall see -that the skeletons are depicted <em>above</em> the stratum (<i>b</i>) containing -the palæolithic implements and pleistocene mammalia; -and therefore, according to the laws of geological -evidence, they must have been buried after the subjacent -deposit was accumulated. The previous disturbance -of the cave-earth does away with the conclusion, -that the few human bones found by M. Lartet are -of the same age as the extinct mammalia in the deposit. -The absence of charcoal inside was quite as likely to be<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246">246</a></span> -due to the fact that a fire kindled inside would fill -the grotto with smoke, while outside the palæolithic -savage could feast in comfort, as to the view that the -ashes are those of funereal feasts in honour of the -dead within, held after the slab had been placed at the -entrance. The absence of the remains of hyænas from -the interior is also negative evidence, disproved by -subsequent examination.</p> - -<p>The researches of the Rev. S. W. King, in 1865, complete -the case against the current view of the palæolithic -character of the interments, since they show that M. -Lartet did not fully explore the cave, and that he consequently -wrote without being in possession of all the -facts. The entrance was blocked up, according to Bonnemaison, -by a slab of stone, which, if the measurements -of the entrance be correct, must have been at least nine -feet long and seven feet high, placed, according to M. -Lartet, to keep the hyænas from the corpses of the dead. -It need hardly be remarked, that the access of these -bone-eating animals to the cave would be altogether incompatible -with the preservation of the human skeletons, -had they been buried at the same time. The enormous -slab was never seen by M. Lartet, and it did not keep -out the hyænas. In the collection made by the Rev. S. -W. King from the interior there are two hyænas’ teeth, -and nearly all the antlers and bones bear the traces of -the gnawing of these animals. The cave, moreover, has -<em>two</em> entrances instead of one, as M. Lartet supposed -when his paper in the “Annales” was published. The -bones of the sheep, or goat, also obtained from the -inside, and preserved in the Christy Museum, afford -strong evidence that the interment is not palæolithic; -and a fragment of pottery, agreeing exactly with that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247">247</a></span> -used in the neolithic age, probably indicates its relative -antiquity. This conclusion has also been arrived at by the -two most recent explorers, MM. Cartaillac and Gautier.</p> - -<p>The skeletons, therefore, in the Aurignac cave cannot -be taken to be of the same age as the stratum on which -they rested; but, so far as there is any evidence, may -probably be referred to the neolithic age, in which the -custom of burial in caves prevailed throughout Europe.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_108"><i>Cavern of Bruniquel.</i></h3> - -<p>The famous cavern of Bruniquel, explored by the -Vicomte de Lastic in 1863–4,<a id="FNanchor_168" href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">168</a> and described by Professor -Owen, is also one of the class which has furnished -human bones, along with the remains of the extinct -mammalia. It penetrates a cliff in the Jurassic limestone, -opposite the little village of Bruniquel (Tarn and -Garonne), about forty feet above the level of the river -Aveyron. The bottom was covered with a sheet of -stalagmite, resting on earth and blocks of stone, for the -most part finely cemented into a breccia, that is black -with the particles of carbon constituting the “limon -noir” of the workmen, four or five feet thick, beneath -which is the “limon rouge,” or red earth without -charcoal, from three to four feet thick. Every part of -the breccia is charged with the broken remains of the -wolf, rhinoceros, horse, reindeer, stag, Irish elk and bison, -and palæolithic implements of flint and bone; some of -the latter having well-executed designs of the heads of -horses and reindeer, which prove that the cave had -been used as a place of habitation by the hunters of -those animals. Imbedded in the breccia at a depth -of from three to five feet human bones were met<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248">248</a></span> -with, and in two recesses several individuals, including -a child, were found, one of which Professor Owen and -the Vicomte de Lastic disinterred with sufficient care -to prove that the body had been buried in the crouching -posture. The only calvarium sufficiently perfect to -allow of a comparison belonged to the dolicho-cephalic -type, and was very fairly developed.</p> - -<p>Professor Owen infers, from the intimate association -of the human bones with the palæolithic implements -and mammalia, that the cave of Bruniquel was used -as a burial-place by the same people who had used -it for habitation, and advances, in support of this, that -the bones of man and of the animals are exactly in the -same state of preservation, having lost the same amount -of gelatine. The evidence, however, does not seem to -be altogether conclusive. If the interment had been -made after the palæolithic inhabitants had forsaken the -cave, the association of the human bones with the -refuse bones in their old refuse-heap must inevitably -have taken place. And if, further, water charged with -carbonate of lime percolated the mass, it would be converted -into a hard breccia, and ultimately covered with -a sheet of stalagmite. This calcification may have taken -place in modern times. A modern bone, as Mr. Evans -has observed in the case of Aurignac, may lose its -gelatine in a comparatively short time, and become -chemically identical with those which have been imbedded -in the same matrix for long ages. The -mineral condition, therefore, is an uncertain test of -relative antiquity.</p> - -<p>For these reasons it seems to be doubtful whether the -interment is of the same age as the occupation. The -skull-shape, and the burial in the crouching posture,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249">249</a></span> -point rather in the direction of the long-headed race, -that buried their dead in caves, in the neolithic age, -in France, Spain, Belgium, and Great Britain.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_109"><i>The Cave of Cro-Magnon.</i></h3> - -<p>The human skeletons in the cave of Cro-Magnon, at -Les Eyzies, a little village on the banks of the Vezère in -Périgord, fall into the same doubtful category as those of -Aurignac. The cave (<a href="#Fig_71">Fig. 71</a>, <i>f</i>), situated at the base of -a low cliff, was completely concealed by a talus of loose -débris, four metres thick, which had fallen from above. -(<a href="#Fig_71">Fig. 71</a>, <i>b</i>.)</p> - -<div id="Fig_71" class="figcenter" style="width: 507px;"> - <img src="images/i_249.jpg" width="507" height="258" alt="" /> - <div class="captionl"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>—Section across the Valley of the Vezère, and through the rock of Cro-Magnon.</p> - -<p>Level of the Vezère at low water, 58·25 metres above the sea.</p> - -<p>Height of cave above the Vezère, 15 metres; above the sea-level, 73·25 -metres.</p> - -<p>Distance from the cave to the river, 177 metres.</p> - -<table id="list249" class="wide" summary="identifiers"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>a</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Railroad.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>b</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Talus.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>c</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Great block of stone.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>d</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Ledge of rock.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">P</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Limestone.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">M</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Detritus of the slopes and alluvium of the Valley.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>e</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Rock of Cro-Magnon.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>f</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Cave.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>g</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Château and Village of Les Eyzies, in the Valley of the Beaune.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>h</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Gatekeeper’s house.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>i</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Railway bridge over the Vezère.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>j</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Caves of Le Cingle.</td></tr> -</table> -</div></div> - -<p>It forms one of a group of caves at various heights -above the Vezère, which are very well represented in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250">250</a></span> -the preceding figure, which I am kindly allowed to -borrow from the “Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ” (Fig. 39).</p> - -<p>At the time of its discovery in 1868, in the course of -making an embankment for the railway close by, and -of obtaining material for mending the roads, it was -completely blocked up. On the removal of this (<i>b</i>), -by the contractors MM. Bertoú-Meyroú and Delmarés, -the entrance was exposed, and human remains and -worked flints revealed, which were carefully exhumed -in the presence of MM. Laganne, Galy, and Simon. -At this stage of the exploration M. Louis Lartet -was deputed, by the Minister of Public Instruction, to -superintend the work, and from his report the following -account is taken (Lartet and Christy, “Rel. Aq.,” p. 66) -by the courtesy of the editors.</p> - -<p>“The cave of Cro-Magnon is formed by a projecting -ledge of cretaceous limestone (rich with fossil corals -and polyzoans), having a thickness of 8 metres and a -length of 17 metres (<a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">P</span>). The bed which it -overlies, and the destruction of which has given rise to the -cave, abounds with <i class="taxonomy">Rhynchonella vespertilio</i>, which is a -type fossil, fixing the geological horizon. The débris of -this marly and micaceous limestone had accumulated on -the original floor of the cavern to a great thickness, at -least for 0·70 metres (see <a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>), when the hunters -of the reindeer stopped here for the first time, leaving as -a trace of their short stay a blackish layer (<a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>), -from 0·05 to 0·15 metre thick, containing worked -flints, bits of charcoal, broken or calcined bones, and -in its upper portion the elephant tusk before alluded -to (<a href="#Fig_72">Fig. 72</a>, <i>a</i>).</p> - -<div id="Fig_72" class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;"> - <img src="images/i_251.jpg" width="430" height="429" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>—Detailed Section of the Cave of Cro-Magnon, near Les Eyzies.<br /> - Scale = 1/100 (1 centimetre to 1 metre).</p> - -<table id="list250" class="wide" summary="identifiers"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">A</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Débris of soft limestone.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">B</span></td> - <td class="tdl">First layer of ashes, &c.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">C</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Calcareous débris.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">D</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Second layer of ashes, &c.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">E</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Calcareous débris, reddened by fire under the next layer of ashes, &c.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">F</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Third layer of ashes, &c.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">G</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Red earth, with bones, &c.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">H</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Thickest layer of ashes, bones, &c.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">I</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Yellowish earth, with bones, flints, &c.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">J</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Thin bed of hearth-stuff.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">K</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Calcareous débris.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">L</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Rubbish of the Talus.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">N</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Crack in the projecting ledge of rock.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">P</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Projecting shelf of hard limestone.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">Y</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Place of the pillar made to support the roof.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>a</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Tusk of an elephant.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>b</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Bones of an old man.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>c</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Block of gneiss.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>d</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Human bones.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><i>e</i></td> - <td class="tdl">Slabs of stone fallen from the roof at different times.</td></tr> -</table> -</div></div> - -<p>“This first hearth is covered by a layer (<span class="smcap smaller">C</span>), 0·25 metre -thick, of calcareous débris, detached bit by bit from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251">251</a></span> -roof, during the temporary disuse of the shelter. Then -follows another thin layer of hearth-stuff (<span class="smcap smaller">D</span>), 0·10 -metre thick, also containing pieces of charcoal, bones, -and worked flints. This bed is in its turn overlain by a -layer of fallen limestone rubbish (<span class="smcap smaller">E</span>), 0·50 metre thick. -Lastly, there is over these a series of more important -layers, all of them containing, in different proportions,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252">252</a></span> -charcoal, bones (broken, burnt, and worked), worked -flints (of different types, but chiefly scrapers), flint cores, -and pebbles of quartz, granites, &c. from the bed of the -Vezère, and bearing numerous marks of hammering. -Altogether these layers seem to have reference to a -period during which the cave was inhabited, if not continuously, -at least at intervals so short as not to admit -of intercalations of débris falling from the roof between -the different hearth-layers which correspond with the -successive phases of this (the third) period of habitation. -The first (lowest) of these layers (<span class="smcap smaller">F</span>) is full of charcoal, -and has a thickness of 0·20 metre; it does not touch the -back of the cave, but extends a little further than the -earlier layers. At its line of contact with the calcareous -débris beneath, the latter is strongly reddened with the -action of fire.</p> - -<p>“On the last-mentioned hearth-layer is a bed of -unctuous reddish earth (<span class="smcap smaller">G</span>), 0·30 metre thick, containing -similar objects, though in less quantities. Last in -succession is a carbonaceous bed (<span class="smcap smaller">H</span>), the widest and -thickest of all, having an average thickness of 0·30 -metre; at the edges it is only 0·10 metre thick; but -in the centre, where it cuts into the subjacent deposits, -which were excavated by the inhabitants in making the -principal hearth, it attains a depth of 1·60 metre. This -bed, being by far the richest in pieces of charcoal, in -bones, pebbles of quartz, worked flints, flint cores, and -bone implements, such as points or dart-heads, arrowheads, -&c., may be regarded as indicative of a far more -prolonged habitation than the previous.</p> - -<p>“Above this thick hearth-layer is a bed of yellowish -earth (<span class="smcap smaller">I</span>), rather argillaceous, also containing bones, flints, -and implements of bone, as well as amulets or pendants.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253">253</a></span> -This appears to be limited upwards by a carbonaceous -bed (<span class="smcap smaller">J</span>), very thin, and of little extent, 0·05 metre thick, -which M. Laganne observed before my arrival, but of -which only slight traces remained afterwards.</p> - -<p>“It was on the upper part of this yellow band (<span class="smcap smaller">I</span>), and -at the back of the cave, that the human skeletons and -the accessories of the sepulture were met with; and all -of them were found in the calcareous débris (<span class="smcap smaller">K</span>), except -in a small space in the furthest hollow at the back of -the cave. This last deposit also contains some worked -flints, mixed up with broken bones, and with some uninjured -bones referable to small rodents and to a peculiar -kind of fox.</p> - -<p>“Lastly, above these different layers, and all over the -shelter itself, lay the rubbish of the talus (four to six -metres thick), sufficient in itself, according to what we -have said above about its mode of formation, to carry -back the date of the sepulture to a very distant period -in the prehistoric age.</p> - -<p>“As for the human remains, and the position they -occupied in bed <span class="smcap smaller">I</span>, the following are the results of my -careful inquiries in the matter. At the back of the cave -was found an old man’s skull (<i>b</i>), which alone was on -a level with the surface, in the cavity not filled up in -the back of the cave, and was therefore exposed to the -calcareous drip from the roof, as is shown by its having -a stalagmitic coating on some parts. The other human -bones, referable to four other skeletons, were found -around the first, within a radius of about 1·50 metre. -Among these bones were found, on the left of the old -man, the skeleton of a woman, whose skull presents in -front a deep wound, made by a cutting instrument, but -which did not kill her at once, as the bone has been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254">254</a></span> -partly repaired within; indeed our physicians think that -she survived several weeks. By the side of the woman’s -skeleton was that of an infant which had not arrived at -its full time of fœtal development. The other skeletons -(<a href="#Fig_70">Fig. 70</a>, <i>d</i>) seem to have been those of men.</p> - -<p>“Amidst the human remains lay a multitude of -marine shells (about 300), each pierced with a hole, -and nearly all belonging to the species <i class="taxonomy">Littorina littorea</i> -so common on our Atlantic coasts. Some other species, -such as <i class="taxonomy">Purpura lapillus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Turritella communis</i>, &c., -occur, but in small numbers. These are also perforated, -and, like the others, have been used for necklaces, -bracelets, or other ornamental attire. Not far from the -skeletons, I found a pendant or amulet of ivory, oval, -flat, and pierced with two holes. M. Laganne had -already discovered a smaller specimen; and M. Ch. -Grenier, schoolmaster at Les Eyzies, has kindly given -me another, quite similar, which he had received from -one of his pupils. There were also found near the -skeletons several perforated teeth, a large block of -gneiss, split and presenting a large smoothed surface; -also worked antlers of reindeer, and chipped flints, of -the same types as those found in the hearth-layers -underneath.</p> - -<p>“... The presence, at all levels, of the same kind -of flint scrapers, as finely chipped as those of the Gorge -d’Enfer, and of the same animals as in that classic -station, evidently shows them to be relics of the successive -habitation of the Cro-Magnon shelter by the -same race of nomadic hunters, who at first could use -it merely as a rendezvous, where they came to share the -spoils of the chase taken in the neighbourhood; but -coming again, they made a more permanent occupation,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255">255</a></span> -until their accumulated refuse and the débris gradually -raised the floor of the cave, leaving the inconvenient -height of only 1·20 metre between it and the roof; -and then they abandoned it by degrees, returning once -more at last to conceal their dead there. No longer -accessible, except perhaps to the foxes above noticed, -this shelter, and its strange sepulture, were slowly and -completely hidden from sight by atmospheric degradation -bringing down the earthy covering, which, by its -thickness, alone proves the great antiquity of the burial -in the cave.”</p> - -<p>These conclusions as to the age of the burial do not -seem to me to be supported by the facts of the case. That -the cave was inhabited by a tribe of palæolithic hunters -there can be no doubt, but no evidence has been brought -forward that it was used by them for the burial of their -dead. They “abandoned it by degrees,” but what proof -is there that <em>they</em> “returned once more to conceal their -dead”? The interments are at a higher horizon than the -strata of occupation, and therefore later, and although -palæolithic implements have been found “near” them, -the value of the latter, in indicating the date, is destroyed -by their occurrence throughout the old floors below. -If we suppose that long after the cave had been inhabited -by the hunters of the reindeer, it was chosen by -a family as a burial-place, all the conditions of the discovery -will be satisfied. The pre-existent strata would -be disturbed in the process of burial, and the burrowing -of foxes, and possibly of rabbits, might bring the palæolithic -implements into close association with the human -bones. Taking the whole evidence into account, I should -feel inclined to assign the interment to the neolithic -age, in which cave-burial was so common; but whatever<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256">256</a></span> -view be held, the facts do not warrant the human -skeletons being taken as proving the physique of the -palæolithic hunters of the Dordogne, or as a basis for an -inquiry into the ethnology of the palæolithic races.</p> - -<p>The largest cranium (see Table, <a href="#list_236">p. 236</a>), belonging to -an old man, had the frontal region well developed, is -orthognathic, with upturned nasals, and dolicho-cephalic. -The occipital protuberance, or probole, is small. The -bones of the extremity imply a stature of not less than -five foot eleven inches for the man; the femur is carinate, -and the tibiæ platycnemic (see <a href="#Fig_47">Fig. 48</a>).</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_110"><i>The Cave of Lombrive.</i></h3> - -<p>The human bones, obtained by MM. Garrigou, Filhol, -and Rames, from the cave of Lombrive<a id="FNanchor_169" href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">169</a> in the Department -of Ariège, are, equally with those cited above, of -doubtful antiquity. They were discovered on the superficial -sandy loam, passing in places into a calcareous -breccia, which rests at various levels in the chambers, -passages, and fissures, along with bones of the brown-bear, -urus, small ox, reindeer, stag, horse, and dog. -From the occurrence of the reindeer the deposit is -assigned to the palæolithic age. But since this animal -has been proved to have been eaten in Scotland by the -neolithic men of Caithness, and to have inhabited Britain -in the prehistoric age, it is by no means improbable that -it may also have lived in the region of the Pyrenees in -post-pleistocene times. The presence of the dog and the -small domestic ox (<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons?</i>) fixes the date of -the accumulation as not being earlier than prehistoric;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257">257</a></span> -for both those animals were introduced into Europe by -neolithic peoples.</p> - -<p>The two human skulls, described by Professor Vogt, -from this deposit confirm this conclusion, since they are -of the broad type, and differ in no important character -(Thurnam) from those of the neolithic brachy-cephali of -France and Belgium.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_111"><i>The Cave of Cavillon, near Mentone.</i></h3> - -<p>The cave of Cavillon, explored by M. Rivière, in 1872, -in the neighbourhood of Mentone, a few hundred yards on -the Italian side of the frontier of France, is another case -of the occurrence of human remains in association with -those of the extinct animals. The floor is composed of -dark earth, full of charcoal and fragments of bones, -mingled with blocks of stone which have dropped from -the roof. Below it, at a depth of six and a half metres, -a skeleton was met with, as well as flint-flakes, rude -instruments of bone, and a number of shells perforated -for suspension. The skull was covered with a head-dress -of more than 200 perforated sea-shells. It rested in an -attitude of repose, with the legs and arms bent,<a id="FNanchor_170" href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> as may -be seen in the admirable photo-lithograph given by M. -Rivière in the volume of the “International Congress of -Prehistoric Archæology,” published at Brussels, pl. 6. -The teeth and bones of hyæna, lion, woolly rhinoceros, -mammoth, and other pleistocene animals occurred both -in the soil above and below, and for that reason both the -discoverer and Sir Charles Lyell believe that the interment -dates back to the time when those animals were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258">258</a></span> -living. If, however, neolithic savages, or those of a later -age, had buried the skeleton in the earth containing the -extinct animals, all the circumstances which have been -noticed, either by Mr. Pengelly or Mr. Moggridge,<a id="FNanchor_171" href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">171</a> may -be satisfactorily explained. There are no stalagmites -to divide one stratum from another, and were an interment -made in the cave at the present time, the -discoverer two or three centuries hence might assert, -with equal justice, that it took place in the pleistocene -age, because of the association with the animals characteristic -of that remote period.</p> - -<p>The superficial portions of the cave-earth had certainly -been disturbed, and there is no evidence that the -disturbance did not extend down to the horizon where -the skeleton rested. Nevertheless, Mr. Pengelly concludes -that the interment is of palæolithic age from its -analogy with that of Cro-Magnon and Paviland, which -we have seen to be of equally doubtful antiquity. It -seems to me that this conclusion, which is almost universally -accepted, is not warranted by the facts, and that -it cannot be used in support of any speculation as to the -condition of man in the pleistocene age.</p> - -<p>The skull is described by M. Rivière as long, the -thigh-bones are strongly carinate, and the tibiæ are -platycnemic as in the case of those from Cro-Magnon, -Gibraltar, Sclaigneaux, and North Wales.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_112"><i>Grotta dei Colombi in Island of Palmaria, inhabited -by Cannibals.</i></h3> - -<p>We are indebted to Professor Capellini for an account -of the exploration of the Grotta dei Colombi, a cave in a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259">259</a></span> -vertical cliff in the island of Palmaria,<a id="FNanchor_172" href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">172</a> overlooking to -the south the Gulf of Spezzia. In the red loam, composing -the floor, were numerous flakes and scrapers, a -rounded “striker” of Saussurite, quartz, pebbles, fragments -of pottery, a bone needle, a whistle made of the -first phalange of a goat’s foot, shells perforated for -suspension, <i class="taxonomy">Natica mille-punctata</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Pectunculus glycimeris</i>, -and <i class="taxonomy">Patella cærulea</i>, together with bones of -goat, hog, ox, wolf, wild cat, and broken and cut human -bones belonging to children and young adults.</p> - -<p>Among the remains Professor Capellini draws attention -in particular to the thigh-bones, scorched by fire, one of -which bears incisions on its posterior face made by a flint -implement in cutting away the flesh (Pl. 73, <i>a</i>), and is -also marked by scraping. He considers that they belong -to an ape, closely allied to the <i class="taxonomy">Macacus innuus</i> of Gibraltar -and North Africa, and concludes, therefore, that the -animal was living in Palmaria at the time that the -cave was inhabited. This identification is forbidden -by the spongy texture, the rounded contour, and the -absence of epiphyses that imply that the bone was very -young, and that in the adult it would be far larger than -any thigh-bone of the apes. On comparing his figures -with eight femora belonging to young children, from the -cairn at Cefn, and the caves at Perthi-Chwareu, I find -that they agree in every particular with two, the flattening -of the inferior extremity, considered by Prof. -Calori to be a non-human character, being equally met -with in all, and being relatively greater in the younger -than the older. They offer, therefore, unmistakeable -proof that the inhabitants of the cave were cannibals -(<a href="#Fig_73">Fig. 73</a>). I am informed by my friend, Prof. Busk,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260">260</a></span> -that the bone figured belonged -to a child about eight years -old. The outline <i>b</i> in the -figure represents the contour -of one of the femora from the -cavern at Cefn, described in -the <a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> chapter.</p> - -<div id="Fig_73" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_260.jpg" width="600" height="135" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>—Thigh-bone of child from Grotta dei Colombi (Capellini). <i>a</i>, Cuts; <i>b</i>, Outline of corresponding thigh-bone from cavern at Cefn.</div></div> - -<p>In this cave, as in those -quoted above, there are no -polished stone implements, or -works of art, that establish -that these feasts were carried -on in the cave by neolithic -cannibals, for the rude flint-flakes -and bone articles, taken -by Professor Capellini to fix -its date, are common both to -the palæolithic and the bronze -ages. Nevertheless, since the -inhabitants have left behind -no trace of any metal, and -since their food was wholly -supplied by the existing animals, -they were probably in -the neolithic stage of culture, -if this be taken to -cover the wide interval extending -from the pleistocene -to the age of bronze. They -are proved, by the rudeness -of their implements, to have -been savages of a very low -order.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261">261</a></span> -We may gather from various allusions, and stories -scattered through the classical writers, such for example -as that of the Cyclops, that the caves on the shores -of the Mediterranean were inhabited by cannibals in -ancient times. In the island of Palmaria we meet -with unmistakeable proof that it was no mere idle -tale or poetical dream. But we have no proof that -cannibalism was universally practised at any stage in -the history of man. All the caves of Europe, explored -up to the present time, merely afford some three or four -examples in the neolithic and bronze ages. In the -pleistocene there is no instance which is devoid of -doubt. This atrocious practice is therefore to be viewed -as abnormal, and it probably became ingrafted into the -religious ideas of the nations of antiquity from the -horror by which it was surrounded, ultimately surviving -in the form of human sacrifices to the offended gods.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_113"><i>General Conclusions as to Prehistoric Caves.</i></h3> - -<p>We have seen in the <a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">sixth</a> chapters that -the prehistoric caves which are so unimportant in the -ages of bronze and iron, were used in the neolithic -age throughout western Europe both for habitation -and burial, and that they therefore offer us most -valuable materials for working out the ethnology of -Europe at that remote time. The two races of men, -the remains of which they contain, are represented -by the modern Basque and Berber on the one hand, -and on the other by the Celt, and in Russia and -Germany by the cognate Finn, Sclave, and Wend. -And since all the human remains described in the -present chapter, those of Cro-Magnon and possibly of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262">262</a></span> -the Grotta dei Colombi being exempted, belong to one -of other of these types, they may be referred to the neolithic -age with a high degree of probability. In the -present stage of the inquiry, it is much safer to put -them into a distinct class, apart from those to which we -can assign a relative age with tolerable certainty.</p> - -<p>In the long ages which elapsed between the close -of the pleistocene period and the dawn of history -other races than these may have occupied Europe, -and have passed away without leaving any clue as -to their identity. But in the present state of our -knowledge we are justified only in concluding, that -the oldest population in prehistoric times was non-Aryan, -the traces of which are left behind not merely -in the caves and tombs, but in language,<a id="FNanchor_173" href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">173</a> and in the -small dark-haired inhabitants of western and southern -Europe.</p> - -<p>The prehistoric peoples lived under physical conditions -very different from those of central and -western Europe at the present time; the surface of the -country being covered with rock, forest, and morass, -which afforded shelter to the elk, bison, urus, stag, -megaceros, and wild boar, as well as to innumerable -wolves. They arrived from the east with cereals and -domestic animals, some of which, such as the <i class="taxonomy">Bos -longifrons</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Sus palustris</i>, reverted to their original -wild state. From the very exigencies of their position -they lived partly by hunting, and they gradually pushed -their way westward, carrying with them the rudiments -of that civilization which we ourselves possess.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263">263</a></span> -It is an open question whether they came into contact -with the palæolithic races which preceded them.</p> - -<p>The climate which they enjoyed was sufficiently severe -to allow the reindeer to inhabit the district on which -now stands the city of London, and its severity may also -be inferred from the thickness of the bark of the Scotch -firs, observed by Mr. Godwin-Austen in the submarine -forests of the south of England, and by Mr. James -Geikie in those of Scotland. The area of Great Britain -was greater then, than now, since a plain extended -seawards from the coast-line, nearly everywhere, supporting -a dense forest of Scotch fir, oak, birch, and -alder, the relics of which are to be seen in the beds -of peat, and the stumps of the trees, near low-water -mark on most of our shores. And it may be inferred -that the forest extended a considerable distance from -the present sea margin, from the large size of the -trunks of the trees.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264">264</a></span><a id="FNanchor_174" href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">174</a></p> - -<hr /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE PLEISTOCENE CAVES OF GERMANY AND GREAT BRITAIN.</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote class="inhead"> - -<p>Relation of Pleistocene to Prehistoric Period.—Magnitude of the Interval.—Animals.—Physical -changes.—Excavation and filling up -of Valleys: Fisherton; Freshford.—Comparison of Deposits in -Valleys with those of Caves.—Differences of Mineral Condition.—The -Pleistocene Caves of Germany: Gailenreuth; Kühloch.—Of -Great Britain.—The Caves of Yorkshire: Kirkdale.—Of Derbyshire: -The Dream Cave.—Of North Wales, near St. Asaph.—Of -South Wales, in counties of Glamorgan, Caermarthen, Pembroke.—Of -Monmouth.—Of Gloucestershire.—Of Somersetshire: Uphill, -Banwell, Bleadon, Sandford Hill, Wookey Hole.—The District of -Mendip higher in Pleistocene age than now.—The condition of -bones gnawed by Hyænas.—The Caves of Devonshire: Oreston; -Brixham; Kent’s Hole.—The probable age of the Machairodus of -Kent’s Hole.—Those of Ireland, Shandon.</p></blockquote> - -<h3 id="hdr_114"><i>Relation of Pleistocene to Prehistoric Period.</i></h3> - -<p class="in0">We have seen, in the <a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> and <a href="#CHAPTER_VI">sixth</a> chapters, that the -caves offer valuable information as to the prehistoric -ethnology of Europe, and that they prove the ancient -neolithic population to stand directly related to the -Basque and Celtic elements in the present inhabitants of -Britain, France, and Spain. We shall discover in the -course of this and the following chapters that no such<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265">265</a></span> -continuity can be made out between the palæolithic -man of the pleistocene age and any of the races now -living in our quarter of the world; and we shall see -that he is separated from his neolithic successor by -an interval of time, the length of which cannot be -measured in terms of years. Before the pleistocene -group of caves be examined, it will be necessary to -define the relation that exists between the prehistoric -and the pleistocene periods.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_115"><i>The Animals—Magnitude of Interval.</i></h3> - -<p id="hdr_116">The prehistoric mammalia consist, as we have seen -(p. 136), with the solitary exception of the Irish elk, of -the wild animals at present living in Europe, together -with the domestic species and varieties introduced by -man, probably from central Asia. In the rest of this -work we shall have to deal, not merely with the wild -animals at present inhabiting Europe, but also with -those which have either become extinct, or have migrated -to Asia, America, or Africa. Besides this addition to -the European fauna in the pleistocene age, the total -absence of the domestic animals is a most important -feature. The dog, goat, sheep, Celtic short-horn, and -domestic swine are conspicuous by their absence: the -reputed association of their remains with those of the -pleistocene mammals being due, in all the cases which -I have examined in France and Britain, to a confusion -between distinct strata in the same cave or river-deposit, -which are respectively of pleistocene and prehistoric or -historic ages. Thus in the excavations in the gravel -underneath London, the Celtic short-horn and goat of -the superficial strata are very generally mixed with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266">266</a></span> -reindeer and mammoth of the pleistocene gravels below, -by the collectors, and the names of the domestic animals -have crept into the pleistocene lists. None of the domestic -animals have been recorded from any carefully explored -strata of that age in any part of Europe.</p> - -<p>The following late pleistocene species were unknown -in Britain in the prehistoric <span class="locked">age:—</span></p> - -<p id="list_266" class="in0 in4"> -Glutton.<br /> -Spotted hyæna.<br /> -Panther.<br /> -Lion.<br /> -Lynx.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Felis Caffer.</i><br /> -Musk-sheep.<br /> -Bison.<br /> -Hippopotamus.<br /> -Lemming.<br /> -Pouched marmot.<br /> -Tailless hare.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Lepus diluvianus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Arvicola Gulielmi.</i><br /> -Cave-bear.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">R. tichorhinus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus.</i><br /> -Mammoth. -</p> - -<p>The glutton, lynx, bison, and lemming, still live in -Europe, the spotted hyæna, <i class="taxonomy">Felis Caffer</i>, and hippopotamus -are peculiar to Africa, the lion to Africa and Asia, -and the last seven species are extinct. The <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus -cultridens</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i> probably disappeared -in an early stage of the pleistocene. It may -reasonably be inferred, from the migration and extinction -of so many species between the close of the pleistocene -and beginning of the historic period, that the interval -was of considerable length; for it would be impossible -for such changes to have taken place in a short time.</p> - -<p>The same sharp line of demarcation exists between -the two faunas on the continent. The panther, <i class="taxonomy">Felis -Caffer</i>, lynx, spotted hyæna, musk-sheep, hippopotamus, -and the extinct group disappeared. The African elephant -forsook Spain and Sicily, the striped hyæna the south of -France, before the prehistoric period; while the <i class="taxonomy">Elephas -meridionalis</i> and pigmy hippopotamus of Sicily, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267">267</a></span> -the pigmy elephant and gigantic dormouse of Malta, -became extinct. Speaking in general terms, the wild -fauna of Europe, as we have it now, dates from the -beginning of the prehistoric age, and consists merely of -those animals which were able to survive the changes -by which their pleistocene congeners were banished or -destroyed. The arrival of the domestic animals under -the care of man in the neolithic age, and their extension -over the whole of Europe in a wild or semi-wild state, -coupled with the disappearance of the wild species mentioned -above, constitutes a change in the mammal life -at least as important as any of those which define the -meiocene from the pleiocene, or the pleiocene from the -pleistocene periods.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_117"><i>Physical changes—The excavation and filling up of Valleys.</i></h3> - -<p id="hdr_118">The magnitude of the interval between the two -periods may also be gathered from the great changes -which have taken place in physical geography. In -nearly every valley in Great Britain, certain areas to -be mentioned presently excepted, are strata of sand -and gravel, proved to be of pleistocene age by their -fossil mammals, and by their fluviatile shells to have -been deposited by rivers. They occur at various heights, -forming sometimes terraces, and at others isolated -patches, which were accumulated when the river flowed -at their level, and before the valleys were cut down to -their present depth. Those at Fisherton near Salisbury, -described by Sir Charles Lyell, Mr. Prestwich, Mr. John -Evans,<a id="FNanchor_175" href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">175</a> and others, may be taken as an example.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268">268</a></span></p> - -<div id="Fig_74" class="figcenter" style="width: 477px;"> - <img src="images/i_268.jpg" width="477" height="230" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>—Section of Valley-gravels at Fisherton. (Evans.)</div></div> - -<p>The valley through which the river Wily flows is -excavated in the chalk (<a href="#Fig_74">Fig. 74</a>), and on its northern side -fluviatile deposits occur at two levels, represented in -the accompanying section. One patch of gravel, about -twelve feet thick, <i>a</i>, lies about eighty feet above the -present level of the Wily; while a second, <i>b</i>, consisting -of clayey brickearth or loam, with seams of gravel, and -fluviatile shells, sweeps down from a lower point to the -bottom of the valley, and passes under the river. From -the deposit <i>a</i>, Dr. Blackmore obtained many rudely-chipped -implements, of the same palæolithic type as -those found with the extinct mammalia in the gravel -beds at Amiens and Abbeville in the valley of the -Somme. In the deposit <i>b</i>, fossil mammalia were met -with belonging to the following <span class="locked">animals:—</span></p> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -Spotted hyæna.<br /> -Lion.<br /> -Reindeer.<br /> -Stag.<br /> -Bison.<br /> -Urus.<br /> -Musk-sheep.<br /> -Wild boar.<br /> -Horse.<br /> -Woolly rhinoceros.<br /> -Mammoth.<br /> -Lemming.<br /> -Pouched marmot.<br /> -Hare. -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269">269</a></span> -Dr. Blackmore subsequently discovered a flint implement -along with these animals, of the same type as those -previously met with in the deposit <i>a</i>.</p> - -<p>A horizontal stretch of alluvium, <i>c</i>, deposited by the -floods, occupies the present bottom of the valley. In -this section it is plain that the gravels and brickearth at -<i>a</i> and <i>b</i> were deposited by a river, which formerly flowed -at those levels. In other words, the valley of the Wily was -excavated during the time that the pleistocene strata <i>a</i> -and <i>b</i> were being formed, while palæolithic man and -the extinct animals were living in the neighbourhood. -The position also of <i>b</i> below the present bottom of the -valley proves that the latter then was deeper than it is -now. The prehistoric alluvium, <i>c</i>, represents the last -stage in the history of the valley in which it is beginning -to be filled with the deposits of floods. While it was -being accumulated none of the animals of <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> were -living in the district except the hare, urus, stag, horse, -and wild boar.</p> - -<p id="hdr_119">A somewhat similar section is exposed in the valley of -the Avon at Freshford, near Bath, in a railway cutting, -at a height of about thirty-five feet above the river. A -thick mass of gravel abuts directly against a cleft of inferior -oolite (<a href="#Fig_75">Fig. 75</a>), and gradually dies down to the alluvium. -In it Mr. Charles Moore discovered the remains of the -musk-sheep, and the Rev. H. H. Winwood those of the -mammoth, bison, horse, and reindeer. In this case the -pleistocene strata occupied the side of one of the valleys -which had been deepened since the time of their deposit.</p> - -<div id="Fig_75" class="figcenter" style="width: 717px;"> - <img src="images/i_270.jpg" width="717" height="350" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>—Section of Valley-gravels at Freshford, Bath.<br /> - 4, Red loam, 5ft. 6in.; 3, Oolitic wash, 1ft.; 2, Clay with flints, 4ft. 10in.; 1, Gravel with fossil mammals, 8ft.</div></div> - -<p>The alluvium in the neighbourhood of Bath contains -in its lower portion a layer of peat, with bones of the -Celtic short-horn (<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>), stag, roe, horse, goat, -and pig; and in its upper part are old refuse heaps,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270">270</a></span> -proved to be Roman by the coins and ware, which -are also met with at various points underneath the -surface soil, and sometimes at considerable depths. -It is, therefore, of prehistoric and historic age, and since<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271">271</a></span> -it is found only in the valley bottoms, we may conclude -that the present courses of the rivers along the sides -of which it is found date back from the prehistoric age; -while their ancient courses are marked by the fluviatile -deposits with the extinct mammalia standing at various -levels, the higher being the older. In the section at -Fisherton we have evidence that the river flowed at a -lower level in the pleistocene age than in the prehistoric, -and in that at Freshford that the lower portion of the -valley had been excavated after the pleistocene strata -had been formed. One or other of these physical changes -is to be traced in nearly all river valleys.<a id="FNanchor_176" href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">176</a> We may -conclude that both imply a considerable lapse of time, -because similar changes are now produced with extreme -slowness. In the pleistocene river deposits, which lie -scattered about at various heights on the valley sides, -we seek in vain for neolithic implements, or domestic -animals. In the low-lying alluvia, and accumulations -of peat, we seek equally in vain for traces of palæolithic -man, or of the extinct mammalia, except the -Irish elk.</p> - -<p>We may also gather, from the localization of the prehistoric -alluvia close to the present streams, that the -time represented by its accumulation is insignificant -in comparison with the long lapse of ages implied by -the pleistocene gravels and brickearths, that were deposited -at various heights during the excavation of the -valleys. The general surface of the valleys has undergone -but little change since history began, and the -excavation by the rivers has been so small as to have -escaped accurate measurement. The alluvia represent<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272">272</a></span> -the principal work done since the close of the pleistocene -period.</p> - -<p>The most important testimony that the interval between -the two periods was very long, is offered by the -climatal change, and the severance of Britain from the -continent. The arctic severity of the pleistocene winter -in these latitudes had passed away before the prehistoric -age, and the pleistocene valleys of the North Sea, St. -George’s Channel, the British, and Irish Channels had -been depressed beneath the waves of the sea before any -prehistoric strata yet known had been deposited. The -evidence that these changes actually took place must be -referred to the two following chapters.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_120"><i>Comparison of Deposits in Valleys with those in Caves.</i></h3> - -<p>If these valley deposits be compared with the contents -of some of the bone caves, such, for example, as -those of the Victoria Cave (compare <a href="#Fig_74">Figs. 74</a> and <a href="#Fig_75">75</a> -with <a href="#Fig_20">Figs. 20</a>, <a href="#Fig_21">21</a>, <a href="#Fig_29">29</a>), it will be seen that they present -the same section. The pleistocene gravels and brick-earths -of the one correspond with the lower strata of the -other, and contain the same extinct animals. The prehistoric -alluvium of the one is represented by the layer -containing neolithic bronze or iron implements, as well -as the same animals; while the historic strata are -represented in both by the superficial accumulations. -The only difference indeed between the one and the -other is, that in the former the strata of the three -periods are spread over a wide area, while in the -latter they are super-imposed in vertical order, the -pleistocene below, the prehistoric in the middle, and -the historic on the surface.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273">273</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_121"><i>Difference in Mineral Condition of Deposits in Caves.</i></h3> - -<p>The prehistoric, and the historic strata in caves differ -from the pleistocene in their physical constitution. They -are darker in colour, and more loosely stratified, and -contain bones in a more friable and less mineralized -condition, and are more free from stalagmite.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_122"><i>The Caves of Germany: Gailenreuth.</i></h3> - -<p>The use of fossil bones for medicinal purposes led, as -I have already mentioned in the <a href="#CHAPTER_I">first</a> chapter, to the -exploration of caves, which were first scientifically examined -in Germany towards the close of the eighteenth -century. They abound in all the limestone plateaux, -especially in the region of Franconia, and in that of the -Hartz. Among them the most interesting, perhaps, is -that of Gailenreuth, explored by Esper, Rosenmüller, -Goldfuss, Buckland, Lord Enniskillen, and Sir Philip -Egerton. It penetrates a lofty cliff, that forms a side of -the deep gorge which the river Weissent has cut in the -rock, at a point about three hundred feet above the -water level.</p> - -<p>The entrance, Dr. Buckland<a id="FNanchor_177" href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">177</a> writes, is about seven -feet high and twelve feet broad, and within it a short -passage leads into two chambers (<a href="#Fig_76">Fig. 76</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span> and <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>),<a id="FNanchor_178" href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">178</a> hung -with stalactites, and with the floors covered by a dense -stalagmitic pavement, that has been more or less broken -up by repeated diggings. These floors are perfectly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274">274</a></span> -horizontal, the level of that of <span class="smcap smaller">B</span> being considerably -below that of <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>. They rest on an accumulation of -reddish grey loam, containing pebbles, and angular -limestone blocks, and vast quantities of the bones and -teeth of the animals formerly living in the district. The -depth of this ossiferous deposit has not been ascertained, -but in the further end of the chamber <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, it has been -proved to be more than twenty-five feet thick.</p> - -<div id="Fig_76" class="figcenter" style="width: 537px;"> - <img src="images/i_274.jpg" width="537" height="426" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>—Section of Gailenreuth Cave. (Buckland.)</div></div> - -<p>The remains of the animals lie scattered in the wildest -confusion; sometimes being completely matted together, -but more generally each bone is enveloped in earth. -They belong to the lion, the cave variety of the spotted -hyæna, the cave-bear, grizzly bear, mammoth, Irish elk, -and reindeer, as well as to those species which are still<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275">275</a></span> -to be found in Germany, such as the glutton, brown bear, -wolf, fox, and stag.</p> - -<p>It is very difficult to account for such an accumulation -as this, but it was probably introduced through -the present entrance, and thence into the chamber <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, -passing from the higher to the lower levels. The teeth-marks -on the bones show that some of the animals -had formed the prey of the hyænas, but had they -introduced all the bones there would have been distinct -strata marking the floors of occupation, as in -Wookey Hole (<a href="#Fig_88">Fig. 88</a>). Moreover, no perfect skulls, -such as those of the bears, would have escaped their -powerful teeth. The pebbles in the loam bear testimony -to the passage of a current of water. And if -we suppose that the cave was subject to floods, such -as those in the water-caves described in the <a href="#CHAPTER_II">second</a> -chapter, the scattering of the bones through the loam -may be explained. This, however, could not have -happened had the cave then opened on the face of -a nearly vertical cliff, and the only condition under -which it would have been possible is, that the present -entrance should have been directly connected with a -stream flowing from the surface, that is to say, over the -space now occupied by the gorge of the Weissent. If -this view, advanced by Dr. Buckland, be accepted, the -remoteness of the date of the filling up of the cave may -be measured by the fact, that since that time the gorge -has been cut down by the Weissent to a depth of more -than 300 feet.</p> - -<p>The stream by which the contents of the cave were -introduced had a course probably analogous to that of -Dalebeck (<a href="#Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>) and the remains of the animals were -caught up from the surface, and accumulated in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276">276</a></span> -subterranean chambers which it traversed. Their abundance -offers no obstacle to this view, since wild animals -frequent their drinking places in vast numbers, and fall -a prey to the carnivora which lurk near the streams, -and very many tumble into the natural pitfalls, or swallow-holes, -so universal in limestone districts.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_123"><i>The Cave of Kühloch.</i></h3> - -<p>Very many other caves occur in the neighbourhood, -most of them, such as those of Zahnloch, celebrated for -the abundance of fossil teeth, Mokas, Rabenstein, and -others, of which the cave of Kühloch alone demands -notice.</p> - -<p>The cave of Kühloch is situated opposite to the castle -of Rabenstein, in the gorge of the Esbach, at about thirty -feet from the bottom. Its exterior presents a lofty arch -in a nearly perpendicular cliff, about thirty feet wide and -twenty feet high, and the entrance gradually leads into -two large chambers “both of which terminate in a close -round end, or cul-de-sac, at the distance of about 100 -feet from the entrance. It is intersected by no fissures, -and has no lateral communications connecting it with -any other caverns, except one small hole close to its -mouth, and which opens also to the valley.” The first -thirty feet present a steep slope towards the entrance. -Dr. Buckland describes the contents of the chambers in -the following words:<a id="FNanchor_179" href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">179</a>—</p> - -<p>“It is literally true that in this single cavern (the size -and proportions of which are nearly equal to those of -the interior of a large church) there are hundreds of -cart-loads of black animal dust entirely covering the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277">277</a></span> -whole floor, to a depth which must average at least six -feet, and which, if we multiply this depth by the length -and breadth of the cavern, will be found to exceed 5,000 -cubic feet. The whole of this mass has been again and -again dug over in search of teeth and bones, which it -still contains abundantly, though in broken fragments. -The state of these is very different from that of the -bones we find in any of the other caverns, being of a -black, or, more properly speaking, dark umber colour -throughout, like the bones of mummies, and many of them -readily crumbling under the finger into a soft dark powder -resembling mummy powder, and being of the same -nature with the black earth in which they are embedded. -The quantity of animal matter accumulated on this floor -is the most surprising, and the only thing of the kind -I ever witnessed; and many hundred—I may say thousand—individuals -must have contributed their remains to -make up this appalling mass of the dust of death. It -seems in great part to be derived from comminuted and -pulverized bone; for the fleshy parts of animal bodies -produce by their decomposition so small a quantity of -permanent earthy residuum, that we must seek for the -origin of this mass principally in decayed bones. The -cave is so dry, that the black earth lies in the state of -loose powder, and rises in dust under the feet; it also -retains so large a proportion of its original animal matter -that it is occasionally used by the peasants as an enriching -manure for the adjacent meadows. I have stated -that the total quantity of animal matter that lies within -this cavern cannot be computed at less than 5,000 cubic -feet; now allowing two cubic feet of dust and bones for -each individual animal, we shall have in this single -vault the remains of at least 2,500 bears, a number<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278">278</a></span> -which may have been supplied in the space of 1,000 -years by a mortality at the rate of two and a half per -annum.”</p> - -<p>Dr. Buckland’s explanation, that the cave was inhabited -by bears for long generations, is probably true. The -absence of pebbles and silt show that water had no -share in the introduction of the remains; their preservation -is due to the dryness of the cave, and to its -proximity to the outer atmosphere.</p> - -<p>The famous caves of Sundwig, Schartsfeld, and Bauman’s -Hole, belong to the same class as Gailenreuth, and -offer no differences which need be described.</p> - -<p>These explorations establish the fact that, in the -antediluvian age which we now term pleistocene, the -lion, the cave-bear and grizzly bear, and cave-hyæna -abounded in Germany, and that they sought as their -prey not merely the wild animals now living in that -region, but the reindeer, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, -and Irish elk. All the discoveries in the German caves -from the date of the exploration of Gailenreuth have -merely verified this conclusion without adding any new -fact of importance.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_124"><i>The Caves of Great Britain.</i></h3> - -<p>These discoveries in the German caves led to the -exploration of those in our country. Dr. Buckland -visited Gailenreuth in 1816, and in 1821 applied the -result of his knowledge gained in Germany to the investigation -of the famous cavern of Kirkdale.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279">279</a></span><a id="FNanchor_180" href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">180</a></p> - -<h3><i>The Hyæna-den at Kirkdale.</i></h3> - -<div id="Fig_77" class="figcenter" style="width: 765px;"> - <img src="images/i_279.jpg" width="765" height="529" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>—Plan of Kirkdale Cave. (Taylor.)</div></div> - -<p id="hdr_125">The cave of Kirkdale (<a href="#Fig_77">Figs. 77</a>, <a href="#Fig_78">78</a>) was discovered in -a quarry in the vale of Pickering, about twenty-five -miles to the NN.E. of York, at a point where the dale -of Holmbeck joins Kirkdale. The entrance, eighty feet -above the valley bottom and twenty feet from the surface -of the plateau above, was about three feet high and six -feet wide, and led into a passage from five to ten feet -wide, which ran nearly horizontally into the rock, and -branched off into smaller ramifications. Its general form -and size may be gathered from the examination of the -accompanying woodcuts, which were published by Mr. -Taylor in “Macmillan’s Magazine,” in September 1862. -The roof was for the most part free from stalactite, and -there was no continuous coating of stalagmite on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280">280</a></span> -floor, but merely here and there a few calcareous bosses -termed “cows’ paps” by the workmen.</p> - -<div id="Fig_78" class="figcenter" style="width: 790px;"> - <img src="images/i_280.jpg" width="790" height="458" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>—Sections of Kirkdale Cave. (Taylor.)</div></div> - -<p>A layer of fine red loam covered the bottom, in the -lower portions of which were large numbers of gnawed -and broken bones, and teeth, for the most part of the -same species as those formed in the German caves. In -some places they were lying in little confused heaps, -and in others, where the loam was thin, were exposed -to the calcareous drip and cemented into a mass, their -upper portions projecting through the stalagmite “like -the legs of pigeons through pie-crust,” and their irregular -distribution resembling that of the fragments scattered -on the floor of a dog-kennel.</p> - -<p>The remains of the animals were incredibly abundant, -when the small space in which they were packed was -taken into consideration. Those of the hyæna are estimated -by Dr. Buckland as belonging to between two or -three hundred individuals of all ages. The lion and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281">281</a></span> -cave-bear, the wild boar, the hippopotamus (<a href="#Fig_79">Fig. 79</a>) an -extinct kind of elephant (<i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus</i>), and the rhinoceros -named by Dr. Falconer <i class="taxonomy">R. hemitœchus</i>, the reindeer, -and Irish elk are also represented, but the species -of most common occurrence are the bison and the horse. -With a few exceptions all the bones with marrow were -broken, and scarred by teeth, while the solid and marrowless -were more or less perfect.</p> - -<div id="Fig_79" class="figright" style="width: 237px;"> - <img src="images/i_281.jpg" width="237" height="202" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>—Molar of Hippopotamus. (Buckland.)</div></div> - -<p>Dr. Buckland’s method of solving the problem of the -introduction of remains of so many and different animals -into so small a space, -is a model of scientific analysis. -He argues from the -abundance of the remains of -the hyæna, and from the -correspondence of their teeth -with the marks on the bones, -and from the quantity of -their coprolites, that the cave -was inhabited by many generations -of those animals, and -that the gnawed fragments were relics of their prey. The -hyænas of the present day inhabit caves strewn with the -bones of their prey, which are crushed by their powerful -jaws into the same form as those of Kirkdale. He further -demonstrated the truth of his conclusion by the crucial -experiment of subjecting the leg-bone of an ox to a -spotted hyæna from the Cape of Good Hope, in Wombwell’s -Menagerie. “I was able,” he writes,<a id="FNanchor_181" href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">181</a> “to observe -the animal’s mode of proceeding in the destruction of -bones: the shin-bone of an ox being presented to this -hyæna, he began to bite off with his molar teeth large<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282">282</a></span> -fragments from its upper extremity, and swallowed -them whole as fast as they were broken off. On his -reaching the medullary cavity, the bone split into -angular fragments, many of which he caught up greedily -and swallowed entire: he went on cracking it till he had -extracted all the marrow, licking out the lowest portion -of it with his tongue: this done, he left untouched the -lower condyle, which contains no marrow, and is very -hard. The state and form of this residuary fragment -are precisely like those of similar bones at Kirkdale; -the marks of teeth on it are very few, as the bone usually -gave off a splinter before the large conical teeth had -forced a hole through it; these few, however, entirely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283">283</a></span> -resemble the impressions we find on the bones at Kirkdale; -the small splinters also in form and size, and -manner of fracture, are not distinguishable from the -fossil ones. I preserve all the fragments and the gnawed -portions of this bone, for the sake of comparison by the -side of those I have from the antediluvian den in Yorkshire: -there is absolutely no difference between them, -except in point of age. The animal left untouched the -solid bones of the tarsus and carpus, and such parts of -the cylindrical bones as we find untouched at Kirkdale, -and devoured only the parts analogous to those which are -there deficient. The keeper, pursuing this experiment -to its final result, presented me the next morning with -a large quantity of <i class="anatomy">album græcum</i>, disposed in balls, -that agree entirely in size, shape, and substance with -those that were found in the den at Kirkdale. The -power of his jaws far exceeded any animal force of the -kind I ever saw exerted, and reminded me of nothing -so much as of a miner’s crushing mill, or the scissors -with which they cut off bars of iron and copper in the -metal foundries.”</p> - -<div id="Fig_80" class="figcenter" style="width: 325px;"> - <img src="images/i_282.jpg" width="325" height="448" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>—Leg-bones gnawed by Hyænas—1, of Ox in Menagerie; 2, of Bison in Kirkdale. (Buckland.)</div></div> - -<p>The exact correspondence of one of the fragments of -the tibia of an ox, gnawed by the Cape hyæna, with the -corresponding bone of the bison from Kirkdale, may be -gathered from a comparison of the two figured in -<a href="#Fig_80">Fig. 80</a>, in which the teeth-marks <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and <i>c</i>, are very -distinct. The same kind of identity runs through the -whole series of bones gnawed by the living and fossil -hyænas.</p> - -<p>Dr. Buckland’s conclusion, that the Kirkdale cave was -the den of the spotted hyænas (<i class="taxonomy">H. crouta</i>) that preyed -upon the animals of Yorkshire in ancient times, and -that it was undisturbed down to the time of its exploration,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284">284</a></span> -cannot be disputed. The tread of the hyænas in -their passage to and fro had polished some of the bones -and jaws scattered on the floor, and the polished surfaces -were uppermost, the rest of the fragments being rough. -And Prof. Phillips informs me that the leg-bone of a -ruminant was discovered wedged into a small fissure -in the floor, with that portion which was within reach of -the hyæna’s teeth gnawed away, while the rest was -uninjured. The hyæna had lost his bone in the fissure, -and was only able to nibble the end which projected. -In these incidents we have a vivid picture of an hyæna’s -den in Yorkshire during the pleistocene age, with the -contents left in their natural order and not rearranged -by the passage of water.</p> - -<p>The Victoria cave near Settle, in Yorkshire, described -in the <a href="#CHAPTER_III">third</a> chapter, has also been occupied by hyænas.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_126"><i>Caves of Derbyshire: the Dream-cave near Wirksworth.</i></h3> - -<p>The Dream-cave, near Wirksworth,<a id="FNanchor_182" href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">182</a> in Derbyshire, -contrasts with that of Kirkdale in the perfect state of -the bones which it contains. It was discovered in 1822, -in following a vein of lead (<a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>). The miners -suddenly broke into a hollow, <i>c</i>, filled with red earth -and stones, and as they continued their shaft downwards -the sides continually closed upon them until the roof of -a cave was revealed. A nearly perfect skeleton of the -rhinoceros was discovered in the earth, as well as bones -of the horse, reindeer, and urus. After a large quantity -of the earth had been removed, the surface soil, <i>i</i>, at a little -distance began to sink, and ultimately a vertical shaft<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285">285</a></span> -was found to connect the cave with the surface. Into -this the animals had fallen, just as at the present time -sheep and oxen frequently perish in similar natural pitfalls -in the limestone strata.</p> - -<div id="Fig_81" class="figcenter" style="width: 538px;"> - <img src="images/i_285.jpg" width="538" height="432" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span>—The Dream-cave, Wirksworth. (Buckland.)</p> - -<table id="list285" summary="identifiers"> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">A</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Shaft following lead-vein.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">B</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Supposed continuation of lead-vein.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">C</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Cave.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">D</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Swallow-hole.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">E</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Ossiferous loam.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">F</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Antler of deer.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">G</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Rhinoceros.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">H</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Limestone.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc"><span class="smcap smaller">I</span></td> - <td class="tdl">Natural entrance.</td></tr> -</table> -</div></div> - -<p>Other caves and fissures in Derbyshire have yielded -remains of the extinct animals: those of Balleye, near -Wirksworth, and of Doveholes, near Chaple-en-le-Frith, -the mammoth, and a small cave in Hartle Dale, near -Castleton, explored by Mr. Pennington and myself in -1872, the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286">286</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_127"><i>The Caves of North Wales, near St. Asaph.</i></h3> - -<p>The ossiferous caves and fissures at Cefn, near St. -Asaph, in the mountain limestone that forms the south -side of the Vale of Clwyd, were first described in 1833,<a id="FNanchor_183" href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">183</a> -by the Rev. Edward Stanley, afterwards Bishop of Norwich, -who explored that which Mr. E. Lloyd had discovered -about half-way down the vertical cliff, in the -grounds of Cefn Hall. It consists of a narrow passage, -turning on itself, and communicating with the surface of -the cliff by two entrances, which were completely blocked -up with red silt, containing a vast quantity of bones in -very bad preservation. The bottom has not yet been -reached. In one portion I found, in 1872, a deposit of -comminuted bone with scarcely any mixture of loam, -that rose in clouds of dust as it was disturbed. The -animals belonged to the same class as those of Germany, -the cave-bear, spotted hyæna, and reindeer, as well as -the hippopotamus, <i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros -hemitœchus</i> of the Kirkdale cave. Pebbles derived from -the boulder clay, and rounded waterworn fragments of -bone, showed that the contents had been introduced into -this cave by a stream. Some of the remains, which -were marked with teeth, may have been introduced by -the hyænas. The flint-flakes found with the human -skull and cut antlers of stag, already referred to in the -<a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> chapter, were discovered in the lower entrance.</p> - -<p>The same group of animals has been obtained by Mrs. -Williams Wynn, the Rev. D. R. Thomas, and myself out -of a horizontal cave at the head of the defile leading<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287">287</a></span> -down from Cefn to Pont Newydd, in which the remains -are embedded in a stiff clay, consisting of rearranged -boulder clay, and are in the condition of waterworn -pebbles. From it I have identified the brown, grizzly, -and cave-bear. A further examination by the Rev. D. -R. Thomas, and Prof. Hughes, has recently resulted in -the discovery of rude implements of felstone, and a tooth -which has been identified by Prof. Busk as a human -molar of unusual size.<a id="FNanchor_184" href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">184</a></p> - -<div id="Fig_82" class="figcenter" style="width: 442px;"> - <img src="images/i_287.jpg" width="442" height="236" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span>—Left Lower Jaw of Glutton, Plas Heaton Cave.</div></div> - -<p>A third cave in the neighbourhood at Plas Heaton, -explored in 1870 by Mr. Heaton and Prof. Hughes, furnished -the remains of the cave-bear, spotted hyæna, bison, -and reindeer, and a remarkably fine specimen of the lower -jaw of a glutton (<a href="#Fig_82">Fig. 82</a>), which I have described in the -“Geological Journal” (vol. xxvii. p. 406). In a fourth -cave, at Gallfaenan, the bear and reindeer were discovered. -It is evident from the presence of numerous -bones gnawed by hyænas in these caves, that the valleys -of the Clwyd and the Elwy were the favourite haunts -of that animal in the pleistocene age.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288">288</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_128"><i>Caves of South Wales in the counties of Glamorgan -and Caermarthen.</i></h3> - -<p>The earliest cavern explored in South Wales is that -of Crawley Rocks,<a id="FNanchor_185" href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">185</a> Oxwich Bay, about twelve miles from -Swansea. It was discovered in quarrying the mountain -limestone in 1792, and contained the remains of the -elephant, rhinoceros, ox, stag, and hyæna. It was completely -destroyed before Dr. Buckland identified these -animals in the collection of Miss Talbot of Penrice Castle.<a id="FNanchor_186" href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">186</a></p> - -<p>The line of cliffs, bounding the rocky peninsula of -Gower, contains the cave of Paviland, described in the -<a href="#CHAPTER_VII">seventh</a> chapter (<a href="#Page_232">p. 232</a>), as well as the group explored by -Colonel Wood of Start Hall, from the year 1848<a id="FNanchor_187" href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">187</a> to the -present time, Bacon Hole, Minchin Hole, Bosco’s Den, -Devil’s Hole, Crow Hole, Raven’s Cliff, Spritsail Tor, and -Long Hole, which are described by the late Dr. Falconer. -The <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i> was met with in comparative -abundance, and in association with the woolly rhinoceros, -mammoth, and <i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus</i>. In Bosco’s Den there -were no less than 750 shed antlers of reindeer; and in -Long Hole, many flint-flakes were discovered in 1860 -underneath the stalagmite, and in association with the -extinct mammalia, which prove, as Dr. Falconer points -out, that man inhabited that district in the pleistocene -age.</p> - -<p>These caves and fissures were at all levels in the cliff, -and in some the bottoms were covered with a stratum of -marine sand with sea shells, which showed that they -had been washed by the sea before they had been filled -by the ossiferous débris. Most of them had probably<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289">289</a></span> -been filled by streams in the same manner as Gailenreuth -and Wirksworth. They abound on the coast -merely because a clear section has been worn by the -waves. A straight cut through the rocks in any part of -the district would probably show them to occur in equal -abundance inland.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_129"><i>Caves in Pembrokeshire.</i></h3> - -<p>The patches of limestone on the opposite side of Caermarthen -Bay, in the neighbourhood of Tenby, also -contain ossiferous caverns. The Rev. G. N. Smith,<a id="FNanchor_188" href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">188</a> of -Gumfriston, has made a fine collection of bones and -teeth of mammoth and hyæna, from a fissure in the -Blackrock Quarry, close to Tenby, from a fissure in the -cliff on Caldy Island, and from the Coygan cave in an -outlier of limestone, near Pendine, and has discovered -flakes of flint and of a peculiar hornstone in the “tunnel -cave” termed the Hoyle, underneath stalagmite, in a -stratum containing bones of the bear and reindeer. -With the exception of the fissure in the Blackrock -Quarry none of these have been fully explored. On a -visit to Tenby, in 1872, I obtained many flint flakes, and -bones broken by man, from the breccia in the Hoyle; -and from a fissure on Caldy Island, numerous bones and -teeth of young wolves, which represented a whole litter, -and two metatarsals of bison, cemented together into a -compact mass.</p> - -<p>The discovery of mammoth, rhinoceros, horse, Irish -elk, bison, wolf, lion, and bear, on so small an island as -Caldy, indicates that a considerable change has taken<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290">290</a></span> -place in the relation of the land to the sea in that district -since those animals were alive. It would have -been impossible for so many and so large animals to -have obtained food on so small an island. It may -therefore be reasonably concluded that, when they -perished in the fissures, Caldy was not an island, but -a precipitous hill, overlooking the broad valley now -covered by the waters of the Bristol Channel, but then -affording abundant pasture. The same inference may -also be drawn from the vast numbers of animals found -in the Gower caves, which could not have been supported -by the scant herbage of the limestone hills of that district. -We must, therefore, picture to ourselves a fertile -plain occupying the whole of the Bristol Channel, and -supporting herds of reindeer, horses, and bisons, many -elephants and rhinoceroses, and now and then being -traversed by a stray hippopotamus, which would -afford abundant prey to the lions, bears, and hyænas -inhabiting all the accessible caves, as well as to their -great enemy and destroyer man. We shall see in the -<a href="#CHAPTER_IX">ninth</a> chapter that the elevation of the whole district -above its present level is part of the general elevation -of north-western Europe, and no mere small or local -phenomenon.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_130"><i>Cave in Monmouthshire.</i></h3> - -<p>King Arthur’s cave,<a id="FNanchor_189" href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">189</a> on the side of a beautifully -wooded knoll, overlooking the valley of the Wye, near -Whitchurch, in Monmouthshire, explored by the Rev. -W. S. Symonds in 1871, is a hyæna den, like that of -Kirkdale, containing the gnawed remains of the lion,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291">291</a></span> -Irish elk, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and reindeer. -Flint flakes, however, occurred in the undisturbed strata, -which prove that it was also the resort of man. Mr. -Symonds believes that the sand and gravel inside were -deposited by the Wye, at a time when it flowed 300 -feet above its present course, or before the valley was -cut down to that depth. If this conclusion be true, the -date of the occupation must be separated from the present -day by a vast interval, which is only to be measured -by the subsequent erosion of the valley by the slow -operation of the subaerial agents, running water, ice, -snow, and carbonic acid.</p> - -<p>The only remains of the mammoth which I have -examined belong to young individuals, and consist of the -second and third milk-molars, a fact which I have very -generally observed in hyænas’ dens. The older mammoths -would not fall an easy prey to so cowardly an -animal. The cave had also been inhabited by man after -the pleistocene age, for coarse pottery of the neolithic -kind, and flint flakes, were dug out of an upper stratum, -while I was watching the excavation, in company with -the Rev. W. S. Symonds, and the “Wanderers” field club.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_131"><i>Caves of Gloucestershire and Somersetshire.</i></h3> - -<p>The outliers of mountain limestone, on the southern -side of the Bristol Channel, have long been known for -their ossiferous caverns and fissures. From a fissure in -Durdham Down,<a id="FNanchor_190" href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">190</a> near Bristol, Mr. J. S. Miller obtained -fragments of bones, about the year 1820, and among -them Dr. Buckland notices the fossil joint of the hind-leg -of a horse, the astragalus being held in natural position,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292">292</a></span> -between the tibia and the calcaneum, by stalagmite. -Subsequently a large series of animals of the same -species as those of Gower were discovered in it by Mr. -Stutchbury, and are preserved in the Bristol Museum.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_132"><i>Caves of the Mendip Hills.</i></h3> - -<p>The caves of the Mendip Hills were known to contain -bones as early as the middle of the eighteenth century, -when that of Hutton,<a id="FNanchor_191" href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">191</a> near Weston-super-Mare, was discovered -in working the ochre and calamine which fills -some of the fissures. The miners having opened an -ochre pit, south of the little village of Hutton, discovered -a fissure in the limestone full of good ochre, which they -followed to a depth of eight yards, until it led into a -cavern, the floor of which was formed of ochre, with large -quantities of white bones on the surface, and scattered -through its mass. Dr. Calcott describes the bones as -projecting from the sides, roof, and floor of the excavation -in such quantities as to resemble the contents of a -charnel-house. Subsequently it was fully explored by -the Rev. D. Williams, and Mr. Beard, of Banwell.</p> - -<p>We owe the exploration of the neighbouring caves -of Banwell, Sandford Hill, Bleadon, Goat’s Hole, in -Burrington Combe, and Uphill,<a id="FNanchor_192" href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">192</a> to the joint labours of -the two above-mentioned gentlemen, extending over -the period which elapsed between 1821 and 1860. The -vast quantity of remains which they obtained can only -be realized by a visit to the Museum of the Somerset -Archæological and Natural History Society, at Taunton.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293">293</a></span><a id="FNanchor_193" href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">193</a> -They belong to the same species as those already mentioned -from the caves of South Wales. The fauna of the -Mendip is, however, characterized by the great number -of lions, and by a few fragments of the glutton. Of the -former animal, Mr. Ayshford Sanford and myself have -met with sufficient remains to figure nearly every portion -of the skeleton, and the skulls prove that it was -not a tiger, as it is considered to be by some naturalists, -but a true lion, differing in no respect, except in its large -size, from those now living in Asia and Africa.</p> - -<p>All these caverns consist of chambers at various levels -more or less connected with fissures, and, from the perfect -condition of the bones they must have been inaccessible -to the bone-destroying hyæna. Their contents -were introduced, as is suggested by Dr. Buckland, from -the surface by streams falling into swallow-holes (see -<a href="#Fig_81">Fig. 81</a>), which have now, under the changed physical -conditions, ceased to flow.</p> - -<p id="hdr_133">The extraordinary quantity of remains preserved in -one cave may be, to some extent, verified by a visit to -that at Banwell. It consists of two large chambers, -the upper one filled with thousands of bones of bison, -horse, and reindeer, taken out of the red silt which -originally filled it to the roof; the lower one full -of the undisturbed contents, from which the bones -project in the wildest confusion. This accumulation -has been introduced by water, through a vertical fissure -which opened on the surface. It is evident, from -the very nearly perfect skulls of wolf and bear which -were discovered, that the cave was not used as a den -by the hyænas. They are, however, proved to have -been living close by at the time, since their skulls, and -the gnawed antlers of reindeer, have been discovered<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294">294</a></span> -inside. They were probably swept in by the stream -along with the other bones.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_134"><i>The Uphill Cave.</i></h3> - -<p>The Cave of Uphill,<a id="FNanchor_194" href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">194</a> discovered in 1826, by some -workmen, and explored by the Rev. D. Williams, merits -especial notice, from the peculiar conditions under which -the remains of the extinct animals occurred. Like the -other caves of the Mendips, it consists of fissures opening -into chambers. In the upper part of one of these -fissures were the remains of rhinoceros, hyæna, bear, -horse, bison, and wild boar, imbedded in loam which -rested on two large masses of limestone that had fallen -so as to block up the fissure. Below this were no remains -of the extinct animals, and the fissure ultimately -led into a cave opening upon the line of cliffs. This -latter had been inhabited within historic times, since -many bones of sheep, or goat, and pieces of pottery, -were met with, as well as a coin of the Emperor Julian. -In this case, owing to the extraordinary accident of the -fissure being blocked up by a fall of stone, the pleistocene -accumulation is vertically above the historic; and -had the barrier given way, Mr. Williams would undoubtedly -have discovered the remains of the extinct -mammalia, lying in a heap above the comparatively -modern historic stratum. It seems to me very probable -that some such accident may have caused the occurrence -of the pleiocene machairodus in the Kent’s Hole cavern, -in association with the pleistocene mammalia. In the -long lapse of ages between the pleistocene and the present -day, such accidents would be likely to occur in some<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295">295</a></span> -few caverns, and we might expect to find remains of -widely different ages, in certain exceptional cases, lying -side by side, or even the older resting vertically over the -newer. At all events we must conclude, that superposition, -or association, cannot be rigidly enforced as -tests of relative age in all ossiferous caverns.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_135"><i>The Hyæna-den of Wookey Hole.</i></h3> - -<p>The Hyæna-den of Wookey Hole,<a id="FNanchor_195" href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">195</a> near Wells, on the -south side of the Mendips, which I explored with the -Rev. J. Williamson in 1859, and in the following years -with Messrs. Willett, Parker, and Ayshford Sanford, is -worthy of a more detailed notice, because it was among -the first caverns in this country in which works of art -were found under conditions that proved the co-existence -of man with the extinct mammalia.</p> - -<p>The ravine in which it was discovered, in 1852, is one -of the many which pierce the dolomitic conglomerate, -or petrified sea-beach, of the Triassic age, resting at the -foot of the cliffs from which it was torn by the waves, -and overlying the lower slopes of the Mendips (see -<a href="#Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>). Open to the south, it runs almost horizontally -into the mountain-side, until closed abruptly northwards -by a perpendicular wall of rock, 200 feet or more in -height, ivy-covered, and affording a dwelling-place to -innumerable jackdaws. Out of a cave at its base, in -which Dr. Buckland discovered pottery and human teeth, -flows the river Axe, in a canal cut in the rock. In -cutting this passage, that the water might be conveyed -to a large paper-mill close by, the mouth of the hyæna-<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296">296</a></span>den -was intersected in 1852, and from that time up to -December 1859 it was undisturbed save by rabbits and -badgers, and even they did not penetrate far into the -interior, or make deep burrows. Close to the mouth of -the cave the workmen (employed in making this canal) -found more than 300 Roman coins, among which were -those of Allectus and of Commodus. When the Rev. J. -Williamson and myself began our exploration, about -twelve feet of the entrance of the cave had been cut -away, and large quantities of the earth, stones, and animal -remains had been used in the formation of an embankment -for the stream which runs past the present entrance of -the cave.</p> - -<p>According to the testimony of the workmen, the bones -and teeth formed a layer about twelve inches in thickness, -which rested immediately upon the conglomerate-floor, -while they were comparatively scarce in the overlying -mass of stones and red earth. The workmen state -also that at the time of the discovery of the cave the hillside -presented no concavity to mark its presence. So completely -was the cave filled with débris up to the very roof, -that we were compelled to cut our way into it. Of the -stones scattered irregularly through the matrix of red -earth, some were angular, others water-worn; all are -derived from the decomposition of the dolomitic conglomerate -in which the cave is hollowed. Near the -entrance, and at a depth of five feet from the roof, were -three layers of peroxide of manganese, full of bony -splinters, and, passing obliquely up towards the southern -side of the cave and over a ledge of rock that rises -abruptly from the floor: further inwards they became -interblended one with another, and at a distance of -fifteen feet from the entrance were barely visible. In<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297">297</a></span> -and between these the animal remains were found in -the greatest abundance.</p> - -<div id="Fig_83" class="figcenter" style="width: 439px;"> - <img src="images/i_297.jpg" width="439" height="637" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>—Plan of Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole.</p> - - <p>Right lines = sections; dotted areas = bone-beds; shaded areas = ashes and implements.</p></div></div> - -<p>While cutting our way inwards (<a href="#Fig_83">Figs. 83</a> and <a href="#Fig_88">88</a>), we -found an angular piece of flint, which had evidently been -chipped by human agency, and a water-worn fragment -of a belemnite, which probably had been derived from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298">298</a></span> -the neighbouring marlstone rocks. Bones and teeth of -the woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, stag, Irish elk, mammoth, -hyæna, cave-bear, lion, wolf, fox, and horse rewarded -our labours; and frogs’ remains, cemented together by -stalagmite, were abundant at the mouth. The teeth -preponderated greatly over the bones, and the great bulk -were those of the horse. The hyæna-teeth also were -very numerous, and in all stages of growth, from the -young unworn to the old tooth worn down to the very -gums. Those of the mammoth had belonged to a young -animal, and one had not been used at all. The hollow -bones were completely smashed and splintered, and -scored with tooth-marks, while the solid carpal, tarsal, -and sesamoid bones were uninjured, as in the Kirkdale -Cave. The organic remains were in all stages of decay, -some crumbling to dust at the touch, while others were -perfectly preserved and had lost very little of their -gelatine.</p> - -<div id="Fig_84" class="figcenter" style="width: 378px;"> - <img src="images/i_299.jpg" width="378" height="600" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 84, 85, 86, 87.</span>—Four Views of Flint Implements found in the Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole, near Wells.</div></div> - -<p>In 1860 we resumed our excavations; and, in addition -to the above remains, found satisfactory evidence of -the former presence of man in the cave. Our search -was rewarded by one oval implement of white flint, of -rude workmanship (<a href="#Fig_84">Figs. 84, 85, 86, 87</a>), one chert -arrow-head, a roughly-chipped and a round flattened -piece of chert, together with various splinters of flint, -which had apparently been knocked off in the manufacture -of some implement. Two rudely-fashioned bone -arrow-heads were also found, which unfortunately were -subsequently lost by the photographer to whom they -were sent; they resembled in shape an equilateral -triangle with the angles at the base bevelled off. All -were found in and around the same spot, in contact -with some hyæna-teeth, between the dark bands of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299">299</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_300">300</a></span> -manganese, at a depth of four feet from the roof, and -at a distance of twelve feet from the present entrance -(<a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, <i>a</i>).</p> - -<p>That there might be no mistake about the accuracy -of the observations, I examined every shovelful of débris -as it was thrown out by the workman; while the -exact spot where they were excavating was watched by -my colleague. The figured implement was picked out -of the undisturbed matrix by him; the rest were found -by me in the earth thrown out from the same place.</p> - -<p>The lines of peroxide of manganese must have been -accumulated on the old floors of the cave, because they -were associated with numerous splinters and gnawed -animal remains; and there can be no doubt that the latter -were introduced by the hyænas. Those animals have -a peculiar habit, as Dr. Buckland proved by experiment, -of gnawing similar bones in precisely the same way; -and a comparison of the relics of the meals of the hyænas -in the Zoological Gardens with those in the cave, shows -that the latter have passed between the jaws of a like -animal that once inhabited Somersetshire. Coprolites of -the same animal were very abundant, and in some places -formed a greyish-white layer of phosphate of lime. -There were also other equally unmistakeable traces of -the animal in fragments of bone, polished by their -tread, as in the Kirkdale cave. It is, therefore, only -reasonable to suppose that these remains of animals were -brought into the cave from time to time by hyænas, -and left on the floors. That they were not introduced -by water is proved by the preservation of the delicate -processes and points of bone, which would certainly have -been broken <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in transitu</i>. Since, then, the implements, -which, beyond doubt, had been fashioned by man, were<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301">301</a></span> -underneath one of these old floors, it was certain that -man was contemporary in the district with the hyæna -and the animals on which it preyed, and the fact that -they were found only on one spot implies that they -were deposited by the hand of man. To suppose that -a savage would take the trouble to excavate a trench -twenty-four feet long—for twelve feet of the former -mouth of the cave had been cut away—with miserable -implements, and consequently with great labour, and -having excavated it again to fill it up to the very roof, -is little less than absurd. Nor could such an operation -take place in such a deposit, without the stratification of -the layers being destroyed. The absence of pottery and -human bones precludes the idea of the cave ever having -been a place of sepulture, such as Aurignac or Bruniquel. -This discovery, therefore, of itself stamps the contemporaneity -of man with the extinct mammalia, and following -close on the similar discoveries in Brixham cave, to be -mentioned presently, puts the question beyond all doubt.</p> - -<p>In April 1861 we resumed our excavations; and, as -we made our way inwards, found that the cave began to -narrow, and ultimately to bifurcate, one branch extending -vertically upwards, while the other appeared to -extend almost horizontally to the right hand. As we -reached the middle constricted passage, the teeth became -fewer, while the stones were of larger size than any that -we had hitherto discovered. The great majority of the -gnawed antlers of deer were found at this part, also the -posterior half of a cervine skull, the right upper jaw of -wolf, and, what is more remarkable, a stone with one of -its surfaces coated with a deposit apparently of stalagmite: -this, however, was much lighter than stalagmite, -and not so good a conductor of heat; and, on analysis,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302">302</a></span> -I found that it consisted of phosphate of lime, with a -little carbonate, and a very small portion of peroxide of -manganese. Doubtless the surface of the stone, covered -with phosphate of lime, formed part of the ancient floor -of the cave, and hence was coated with <i class="anatomy">album græcum</i>; -while the lower part, being imbedded in the earth on the -floor, was not so coated. This deposit may, perhaps, -explain the absence of round balls of coprolite, which, -assuming that the cave at the time was more damp than -that at Kirkdale, would be trodden down on the floor -by the hyænas, instead of presenting a rounded form. -The stone also itself exhibits tooth-marks underneath -the coating of <i class="anatomy">album græcum</i>, and probably was gnawed -by the hyænas, like the antlers, for amusement. This -discovery proves that violent watery action had but -small share, if any, in filling the cave; for in that case -the soft covering would have been removed from the -stone. Similar evidence is offered by the wonderful -preservation of some of the more delicate fragments of -bone, such as the palatine process of the maxilla of the -wolf.</p> - -<p>The section made in cutting this passage presented -irregular layers of peroxide of manganese, full of bony -splinters, and each more or less covered by a layer of -bones in various stages of decay. These layers were -absent from the upper portion of the passage. There -were masses of prisms of calc-spar scattered confusedly -through the matrix. After excavating the vertical -branch as far as we dared (for the large stones in it -made the task dangerous), we were compelled to leave -off, having penetrated altogether only thirty-four feet -from the entrance. No flint implements rewarded our -search this year. Teeth were far more numerous than<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303">303</a></span> -bones, probably because they are more durable as well -as because of their rejection by the hyænas. One jaw -was bitten in two, and the fragments found about a foot -apart in the undisturbed matrix, just as they had been -dropped from the mouth of the hyæna.</p> - -<p>In the spring of 1862 Mr. Parker, Mr. Willett, and -myself resolved to verify the association of articles of -man’s handiwork along with the extinct mammalia, by -cleaning out the cave, which was courteously placed at -our disposal by the owner, Mr. Hodgekinson.</p> - -<p>Our first task was to clear the contents out of the -portion of the cave nearest the mouth, or the antrum -(<a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>), and as we excavated onwards many traces -of the presence of man were met with. A wide area on -the left-hand side (<i>b</i>), where the roof and floor of the -cave gradually met together, furnished innumerable fragments -of charcoal, and many flint implements associated -with the remains of the horse, rhinoceros, and hyæna. -One fragment of bone in particular, belonging to the -rhinoceros, had been calcined, and its carbonized condition -bore unmistakeable testimony that it had been -burnt while the animal juices were present. There were -many other bones also burnt, which indicated the place -where fires had been kindled, and food cooked. As we -dug our way forward we met with a third area (<i>c</i>), that -furnished flint and chert implements under the same conditions -of deposit as that which tempted us to carry on -our excavations. Its relation to the old floors of hyæna-occupation -is shown by the dark lines over the area <i>c</i> -in <a href="#Fig_88">Fig. 88</a>. At last the large open chamber (<span class="smcap smaller">A</span>) was -cleared; it measured about thirty feet wide by six feet -high, and it extended forty feet inwards. On the left -there was a small upward-turning passage, very nearly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304">304</a></span> -blocked up with a mass of stalagmite; at the farther -end a vertical fissure extended upwards (<span class="smcap smaller">F</span>), to the surface. -This fissure has subsequently been proved to extend -downwards to the right, and will doubtless furnish -large quantities of animal remains to future explorers.</p> - -<div id="Fig_88" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_304.jpg" width="600" height="417" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>—Section through <span class="smcap smaller">A</span> of <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, showing contents of Hyæna-den.<br /> - <i>c</i> = flint implements; thick lines above = old floors.</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_89" class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;"> - <img src="images/i_305.jpg" width="267" height="117" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>—Transverse Section through <span class="smcap smaller">B</span> of <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>.<br /> - 1 = red earth; 2 = bone-bed; 3 = dark earth.</div></div> - -<p>The large chamber now turned abruptly to the left, -and we gradually worked our way into a small horizontal -passage about four feet high. Here there was an -interval of from three to four inches between the roof -and contents, traversed by stalactites, which in some -places formed a smooth undulating drapery with stony -tassels, and in others tiny pillars extending down to the -débris, and, as it were, propping up the roof. These -pedestals (see <a href="#Fig_15">Fig. 15</a>) gradually expanded into round -plates of stalagmite, which sometimes met and formed a -continuous crust. In some places an infiltration of carbonate<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305">305</a></span> -of lime had cemented organic remains, stones, -and earth into a hard mass, which had to be broken up -with gunpowder before it could be removed out of the -cave. The excitement of extracting from these blocks -their treasures was of the very keenest, for we could not -tell what a stroke of the hammer would reveal. Sometimes -an elephant’s tooth suddenly came to light, at -others a hyæna’s jaw, or a rhinoceros’ tooth, or the -antler of a reindeer, or the canine of a bear. The bones -were so numerous that they scarcely attracted attention. -In one fragment of this breccia, now in the Brighton -Museum, are a tusk and carpal of mammoth, the right -ulna of the woolly rhinoceros, and an antler of reindeer. -In a second, two shoulder-blades and two haunch bones -of the woolly rhinoceros, with a coprolite and lower jaw -of cave hyæna. As the men removed the large blocks -they were brought to the mouth of the cave to be -broken up by our smaller instruments. Presently the -passage narrowed to about six feet, and presented the -following section (<a href="#Fig_89">Fig. 89</a>). On the floor of the cave -there was a layer of red earth two feet in thickness, -and, as usual, containing a few organic remains and -many stones (<a href="#Fig_89">Fig. 89</a>, 1). Upon this rested a most -remarkable accumulation of bones, and teeth, matted<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306">306</a></span> -and compacted together, from three to four inches thick, -and extending horizontally from one side of the passage -to the other (<a href="#Fig_89">Fig. 89</a>, 2). Next came a layer of dark -red earth (<a href="#Fig_89">Fig. 89</a>, 3), loose and friable, three to four -inches thick, supporting in its surface a few rounded -stalagmites, and a few stalactitic pillars, that spanned -the interval of from three to four inches between it and -the roof. This bone-bed was about seven feet wide and -fourteen feet long, affording, therefore, a square area of -ninety-eight feet (see dotted area <span class="smcap smaller">B</span> <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, and in <a href="#Fig_90">Fig. 90</a>). The enormous quantity of the remains of animals -present cannot fairly be estimated even by the large -number preserved, because most of the bones were as -soft as wet mortar. The five hundred and fifty specimens -obtained must be looked upon merely as a small -fraction of the whole.</p> - -<div id="Fig_90" class="figcenter" style="width: 536px;"> - <img src="images/i_306.jpg" width="536" height="145" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>—Longitudinal Section through <span class="smcap smaller">B</span> and <span class="smcap smaller">C</span> of <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, showing bone-beds.<br /> - Dotted area = bone-bed.</div></div> - -<p>We presently passed beyond the bone-bed, and found -that the passage bifurcated (<a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span> and <span class="smcap smaller">D</span>), the -smaller branch going straight forwards and gently upwards -(<a href="#Fig_90">Fig. 90</a>), while the larger stretched at right -angles from it and passed gently downwards. In the -former there was a second bone-bed similar in every -respect to that already described, which continued -undiminished in thickness until it rested directly on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307">307</a></span> -the floor. It afforded a square area of about fifteen -feet. The passage was about sixteen inches high and -three feet wide, and gradually narrowed until at a -distance of twelve feet from the bifurcation a stalactite -six inches long reached the floor and formed a vertical -bar, as if to forbid another ingress. When this had -been explored as far as we could crawl, the larger branch -(<a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">D</span>, and <a href="#Fig_91">Fig. 91</a>) engaged our attention, and we -soon discovered a third layer of bones of the same character -as the others, and in the same position, excepting -that in some places it was in immediate contact with -the roof. In width it was six, in length fourteen, and -in square area eighty-four feet. From its further end to -the termination of the passage there was not the slightest -vestige of bones or teeth, and a stiff grey clay rested on -a horizontal layer of sand on the floor. Here the passage -suddenly turned upwards until it became so small -and barren that it was not worth our while to pursue it -farther. It doubtless rises to the surface, like the large -fissure opposite the entrance of the cave shown in <a href="#Fig_88">Fig. 88</a>.<a id="FNanchor_196" href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">196</a></p> - -<p>The exploration was resumed the following year by -Mr. Ayshford Sanford and myself, and yielded vast<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308">308</a></span> -quantities of fossil remains. We cleared out the space -marked 1863 in the plan, and discovered a flint implement -at the point marked <i>d</i>, in <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>. My friend the -late Mr. Wickham Flower has also worked the cave, -more particularly at the right-hand side of the entrance -chamber.</p> - -<p>The ashes and implements were found in positions, -near the mouth of the cave, where man himself may -have placed them (see <a href="#Fig_83">Figs. 83</a>, <a href="#Fig_88">88</a>), with the exception -of the flint implement at <i>d</i>, and an ash of bone imbedded -in the earthy matrix between the canine tooth -and a coprolite of the hyæna, and cemented to a -fragment of dolomitic conglomerate. This was found -far in the cave, either at the entrance of the passage -<span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, or in the middle of the passage <span class="smcap smaller">D</span>. The latter -passage yielded the only rolled flint without traces of -man’s handiwork. The materials out of which the implements -were made were used pretty equally. All -those, like <a href="#Fig_84">Fig. 84</a>, were of flint; all those chipped into -a rounded form and flat-oval in section of chert from -the Upper Greensand; while the flakes consisted of -both used indifferently. Besides these three typical -forms, which were most abundant, is a fourth, in form -roughly pyramidal, with a smooth and flat base, and a -cutting edge all round. Of these we found but two -examples, both consisting of chert. In form they are -exactly similar to several hundreds found in a British -village at Stanlake, in Berkshire, and to those I discovered -in a cemetery of the same age at Yarnton, near -Oxford. They strongly resemble a cast I have of one -found by M. Lartet in the cave of Aurignac. Were it -not for this similarity, I should look upon them as -cores from which flakes had been struck. The rest<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309">309</a></span> -are mere splinters, irregular in form, and probably -made in the manufacture of the various flint and chert -implements. All the flint implements have been altered -in colour and structure, either by heat or, as is -more probable, by some chemical action. Without exception, -the old surfaces present a waxy lustre (by the -absence of which forgeries are easily detected), the colour -is of a uniform milk-white, and the ordinary conchoidal -fracture is replaced by that of porcelain. Some are not -harder than chalk. I have met with weathered and calcined -flints in Sussex in which similar changes are -observable, and in which the difference in the results of -chemical action and heat can hardly be detected. The -chert implements, on the other hand, show no traces of -any such changes, but are similar in colour and structure -to the rocks from which they came—the Upper Greensand -of the Blackdown Hills.</p> - -<p>All the fragments of calcined bone, with the exception -of one already mentioned, were found near the entrance -(see <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>, <i>b</i>), and in a place more suitable for a fire than -any other in the cave. I can identify none of them as -human. The coarse texture, the structure, and the -thickness of one indicate a fragment of a long bone of the -rhinoceros.<a id="FNanchor_197" href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">197</a> All resemble many splinters strewn about -in other parts of the cave, which are not calcined, but -were evidently introduced by the hyænas. The calcination -may therefore be due to the accident of their lying -upon the surface at the time the fire was kindled.</p> - -<p>The remains obtained in 1862–3 from three to four -thousand in number, afford a vivid picture of the animal -life of the time in Somerset. They belong to the following<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310">310</a></span> -animals, the numbers representing the jaws and -teeth only, and the <span class="locked">implements:—</span></p> - -<table id="list_310" summary="numbers of remains"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Man</td> - <td class="tdr">35</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cave-Hyæna</td> - <td class="tdr">467</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cave-Lion</td> - <td class="tdr">15</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Cave-Bear</td> - <td class="tdr">27</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Grizzly Bear</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Brown Bear</td> - <td class="tdr">11</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Wolf</td> - <td class="tdr">7</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Fox</td> - <td class="tdr">8</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Mammoth</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Woolly Rhinoceros</td> - <td class="tdr">233</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i></td> - <td class="tdr">2</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Horse</td> - <td class="tdr">401</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Great Urus</td> - <td class="tdr">16</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Bison</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">The Irish Elk</td> - <td class="tdr">35</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Reindeer</td> - <td class="tdr">30</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Red Deer</td> - <td class="tdr">2</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">Lemming</td> - <td class="tdr">1</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The remains of these animals were so intermingled -that they must have been living together at the same -time. They lie large with small, the more with the less -dense, and are not in the least degree sorted by water. -There is no evidence of the hyæna succeeding to the -cave-bear, or the reindeer to the urus, or that the bears -came here to die, as in some of the German caves, or -that the herbivores fell, or were swept into open fissures, -and left their remains, as in the caves of Hutton and -Plymouth. On the contrary, the numerous jaws and -teeth of hyæna, and the marks of those teeth upon nearly -every one of the specimens, show that they alone introduced -the remains that were found in such abundance. -And they preyed not merely upon horses, uri, -and other herbivores, but upon one another (<a href="#Fig_92">Figs. 92</a>, <a href="#Fig_93">93</a>), and they even overcame the cave-bear and -lion in their full prime. Some of the bones of the -larger animals, and in particular a leg-bone of a -gigantic urus, have been broken short across and not -bitten through—a circumstance which points towards -one of the causes of the vast accumulation of bones in so -small a cave. It is well known that wolves and hyænas<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311">311</a></span> -at the present day are in the habit of hunting in packs, -and of forcing their prey over precipices. The Wookey -ravine is admirably situated for this mode of hunting, -and would not fail to destroy any animal forced into it -from the hill-side. It is therefore very probable that -the hyænas sometimes caught their prey in this manner. -They would not have dared to attack the bears and lions -unless these had been disabled.</p> - -<div id="Fig_91" class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;"> - <img src="images/i_311.jpg" width="385" height="134" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>—Longitudinal Section through <span class="smcap smaller">D</span> of <a href="#Fig_83">Fig. 83</a>.<br /> - Dotted area = bone-bed.</div></div> - -<p>But if all the remains of the animals were introduced -by the hyænas, they certainly in some cases do not -occupy the exact position in which they were left by -those animals. One of the bone layers (<a href="#Fig_91">Fig. 91</a>) -for instance, actually touched the roof. This, indeed, -has been used as an argument in favour of their having -been introduced by water, from some unknown repository. -But if this hypothesis be admitted, we are landed -in the following dilemma: either the introducing current -of water must have passed down the vertical passages, -or upwards through the horizontal mouth of the -cave. In the former case the three bone layers would -not have been found in the narrow passages, but would -have been swept out into the wide chamber, where the -force of the hypothetical current must have abated. In -the latter case the great bulk of the remains would have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312">312</a></span> -been found in the chamber, and not in the smaller passages. -Moreover, the absence of marks of transport by -water, and especially of that sorting action which water -as a conveying agent always manifests, renders the view -of their being so introduced untenable. On the other -hand, the horizontality of the layers of bone, and the -presence of sand and of red earth, imply that water was -an agent in re-arranging the bones and in introducing -some of the contents of the cave. The only solution of -the difficulty that I can hazard is the occurrence of floods -from time to time, during the occupation of the hyænas, -similar to those which now take place in the caverns of the -neighbourhood. A few years ago, the outlet of the Axe -in the great cave was partially blocked up, and the water -rose to a height of upwards of sixteen feet, leaving a -horizontal deposit of red earth of the same nature as that -in the hyæna-den. Now if we suppose that similar floods -were caused by an obstruction in the ravine below the -hyæna-den, it may have been flooded, just as the upper -galleries of the great cave, and the water laden with -sediment might have elevated the layers of matted bone, -and some of the scattered remains on the surface, while -the current was insufficient to disturb the stones, or to -affect to any extent the deposits of former floods. The -buoyancy of the organic remains is not required to be -greater, on this hypothesis, than in that of their having -been introduced by a current through the vertical passages. -Some of the wet bones taken straight from the -cave were sufficiently light to be carried down by the -current of the Axe.</p> - -<p>All these facts taken together enable us to form a clear -idea of the condition of things at the time the hyæna-den -was inhabited. The hyænas were the normal occupants<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313">313</a></span> -of the cave, and thither they brought their prey. -We can realize those animals pursuing elephants and -rhinoceroses along the slopes of the Mendip, till they -scared them into the precipitous ravine, or watching until -the strength of a disabled bear or lion ebbed away sufficiently -to allow of its being overcome by their cowardly -strength. Man appeared from time to time on the scene, -a miserable savage armed with bow and spear, unacquainted -with metals, but defended from the cold by coats -of skin.<a id="FNanchor_198" href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">198</a> Sometimes he took possession of the den and -drove out the hyænas; for it is impossible for both to -have lived in the same cave at the same time. He -kindled his fires at the entrance, to cook his food, and -to keep away the wild animals; then he went away, -and the hyænas came to their old abode. While all -this was taking place there were floods from time to time -until eventually the cave was completely blocked up -with their deposits.</p> - -<div id="Fig_92" class="figcenter" style="width: 424px;"> - <img src="images/i_313.jpg" width="424" height="229" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>—Gnawed jaw of Hyæna, from Hyæna-den at Wookey (1/2).<br /> - Dotted outline = portion eaten.</div></div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314">314</a></span> -The winter cold at the time must have been very -severe to admit of the presence of the reindeer and -lemming.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_136"><i>The district of the Mendip Hills at a higher level than now.</i></h3> - -<p>When we reflect on the vast quantities of the remains -of the animals buried in the caves of so limited an area -as the Mendip Hills, it is evident that there must have -been abundance of food to have enabled them to live -in the district. The great marsh now extending from -Wells to the sea, and cutting off the Mendips from the -fertile region to the south, was probably a rich valley at a -higher level than at present, joining the westward plains -now submerged under the Bristol Channel. An elevation -of from 100 to 300 feet would produce the physical -conditions necessary for the sustenance of the herbivora -found in the caves both in South Wales and Somersetshire.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_137"><i>The characters of a Hyæna-den.</i></h3> - -<div id="Fig_93" class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;"> - <img src="images/i_315.jpg" width="700" height="388" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>—<span class="smcap smaller">A</span> and <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, upper and lower jaws of Hyæna-whelp, Wookey.</div></div> - -<p>The remains of the animals which have been eaten by -the cave-hyæna, may be recognized by the following -characters. All are more or less scored by teeth, and -the only perfect bones are those which are solid, or of -very dense texture. The skulls are represented merely -by the harder portions. That of the woolly rhinoceros, -for example, by the hard pedestal which supports the -anterior horn (see <a href="#Fig_30">Fig. 30</a>). Several of these pedestals -occurred in the Wookey hyæna-den. The lower jaws -also have lost their angle and coronoid process, and are -gnawed to the pattern of the shaded portion of <a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a>, -the less succulent part bearing the teeth being rejected.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315">315</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_316">316</a></span> -This holds good of the jaws of all the animals so persistently, -that out of more than two hundred from -Wookey there was only one exception. The jaw of the -glutton (<a href="#Fig_82">Fig. 82</a>), from Plas -Heaton, is also gnawed to -the same shape, and one of -those of the cave-bear from -the cavern of Lherm, considered -by M. Garrigou to -have been fashioned by the -hand of man into an implement, -seems to me, after a -careful comparison in company -with Dr. Falconer, referable -solely to the gnawing -of the hyæna. In <a href="#Fig_92">Fig. 92</a>, the lower jaw of an -adult hyæna is represented, -and in <a href="#Fig_93">Fig. 93</a> (1) the upper -and lower jaws of a hyæna-whelp. -In the latter the -teeth marks <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are remarkably -distinct.<a id="FNanchor_199" href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">199</a></p> - -<div id="Fig_94" class="figcenter" style="width: 248px;"> - <img src="images/i_316.jpg" width="248" height="511" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>—Left Thigh-bone of Woolly Rhinoceros gnawed by Hyænas; Shaded parts left. (Wookey Hole.)</div></div> - -<p>The marrow-containing -bones are also universally -splintered away, until either -the articular ends alone are left, as in <a href="#Fig_80">Fig. 80</a>, or in -some cases, as in that of the femur of woolly rhinoceros -(<a href="#Fig_94">Fig. 94</a>), the dense central portion bearing the -third trochanter is preserved. This fragment is extremely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_317">317</a></span> -abundant in nearly all the hyæna-caves in -this country. From the invariable habit of the hyæna -leaving the bones of its prey in fragments of this -kind, their dens are characterized by the absence of -perfect long-bones and skulls, and consequently, when -these occur in a cave it is certain proof that it was not -occupied by these animals. In a great many caves, -however, the gnawed fragments are associated with the -perfect bones, as, for example, at Banwell, a circumstance -that may be accounted for by the untouched carcases -and the gnawed fragments being swept in from the -surface by a stream falling into a swallow-hole. In all -hyæna-dens also are large quantities of <i class="anatomy">album græcum</i>, -as well as fragments of bone more or less polished by -the friction of the hyæna’s feet.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_138"><i>The Caves of Devonshire.</i></h3> - -<p>The ossiferous caves on the south coast of Devonshire, -explored during the last fifty years, are by far the most -important in this country, since they were the first which -were scientifically examined, and the first which established -the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia.</p> - -<p>We owe the full details of their history to the labours -of the distinguished cave-hunter Mr. Pengelly, F.R.S.,<a id="FNanchor_200" href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">200</a> -whose writings are freely used in the following account.</p> - -<h3><i>The Oreston Caves.</i></h3> - -<p>The first intimation of the presence of fossil bones in -the district was furnished by Mr. Whidbey, the engineer<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_318">318</a></span> -in charge of the construction of the Plymouth breakwater, -who discovered numerous bones and teeth, imbedded -in clayey loam, in some cavernous fissures at Oreston, -which were brought before the Royal Society by Sir -Everard Home in 1817. Thus Dr. Buckland’s researches -in Kirkdale were anticipated by four years. From time -to time, since that date, several other fissures and -caves close by have furnished remains of rhinoceros, -mammoth, hyæna, lion, and other animals. Among the -bones and teeth originally sent up by Mr. Whidbey are -several which were identified by Prof. Busk,<a id="FNanchor_201" href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">201</a> as belonging -to the <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i>, a species that is -vastly abundant in the pleiocene strata of northern Italy -and is also represented in the early pleistocene forest-bed -of Norfolk and Suffolk, and in the lower brickearths of -the valley of the Thames at Grays and Crayford. This -is the only case on record of the discovery of the animal -in a cavern deposit.</p> - -<p>The cavernous fissures in the neighbourhood of Yealmpton,<a id="FNanchor_202" href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">202</a> -about seven miles east-south-east from Plymouth, -explored by Mr. Bellamy and Colonel Mudge, R.A., F.R.S. -in 1835–6, contained the remains of the hyæna and -rhinoceros, and the other animals more usually associated -with them. They were probably filled, as in the case -of Oreston, mainly by the streams which introduced the -pebbles. They may, however, from time to time have -been inhabited by the hyænas, although the presence of -three skulls of that animal forbids the supposition that -they dragged in all the fossil bones.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_319">319</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_139"><i>The Caves at Brixham.</i></h3> - -<p>The series of fissures accidentally discovered in 1858, -in quarrying the rock which overlooks the little fishing -town of Brixham, known as the Windmill cave, was -selected by the late Dr. Falconer,<a id="FNanchor_203" href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">203</a> as a spot in which -thorough investigation would be likely to decide the then -doubtful question of the co-existence of man with the -extinct mammalia. Kent’s Hole had been disturbed by -repeated diggings, and the results might be viewed with -suspicion. He, therefore, urged the importance of a -systematic examination of this virgin cave with such -effect, that it was undertaken by the Royal and Geological -Societies, and a committee was appointed, comprising, -amongst others, Dr. Falconer, Prof. Ramsay, Mr. -Prestwich, Sir Charles Lyell, Prof. Owen, Mr. Godwin-Austen, -and Mr. Pengelly. To the superintendence of -the last is mainly due the minute care with which the -exploration was conducted. The remains have been -identified by Dr. Falconer and Prof. Busk. The work -was commenced in July 1858, and completed in the -summer of 1859.<a id="FNanchor_204" href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">204</a></p> - -<p>The cave consists of three principal galleries, with -diverging passages, running in the direction of the joints -from north to south, and from east to west, communicating -with the surface at four points. The following is -the general section (<a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>) of the deposits in descending -order.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_320">320</a></span> -(A.) On the floor was a layer of stalagmite, varying -from a few inches to upwards of a foot in thickness, -and containing only twenty-five bones, among which -were the humerus of a bear, and the antler of a reindeer.</p> - -<div id="Fig_95" class="figleft" style="width: 269px;"> - <img src="images/i_320.jpg" width="269" height="464" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>—Diagram of Deposits in Brixham Cave. (Pengelly.)</div></div> - -<p>(B.) Reddish cave-earth with fragments and blocks -of limestone, and of stalagmite, generally averaging from -two to four feet. In it -1,102 bones were discovered -irregularly scattered -through its mass, and -belonging to mammoth, -woolly rhinoceros, lion, -cave, grizzly, and brown -bears, reindeer, and others. -They varied in state of -preservation, and some -were scored and marked -by teeth. Associated with -these, thirty-six rude flint -implements were met with, -of indisputable human -workmanship, and of the -same general order as -those figured by the Rev. -J. MacEnery from Kent’s -Hole. Among them was -one lanceolate implement -with rounded point and unworked butt end, considered -by Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., of the type of those usually -found in the valley gravels.<a id="FNanchor_205" href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">205</a> There was, therefore, the -most conclusive evidence that man inhabited the neighbourhood,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_321">321</a></span> -either before or during the time of the accumulation -of <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, and before those physical changes took -place by which the red silt ceased to be deposited, or -the stalagmite above began to be formed.</p> - -<p>(C.) At the bottom of the cave-earth was a deposit of -gravel, principally of rounded pebbles and devoid of -fossils.</p> - -<p>The early history of the cave, as shown by these deposits, -is given by Mr. Prestwich, in the report presented -to the Royal Society, as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<p>“Looking at all the phenomena of Brixham cave, -the conclusion your reporter has arrived at is, that the -formation of the cave commenced and was carried on -simultaneously with the excavation of the valley; that -the small streams flowing down the upper tributary -branches of the valley entered the western openings of -the cave and, traversing the fissures in the limestone, -escaped by lower openings in the chief valley, just as -the Grotto d’Arcy was formed by an overflow from the -cave taking a short cut through the limestone hills, -round which the river winds. These tributary streams -brought in the shingle bed (<a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>), which fills the -bottom of the fissure. It was only during occasional -droughts, when the streams were dry, that the cave seems -to have been frequented by animals, their remains being -very scarce in that bed, while indications of man are comparatively -numerous. As the excavation of the valley -proceeded, the level of the stream was lowered and became -more restricted to the valley-channel. The cave -consequently became drier, and was more resorted to by -predatory animals, who carried in their prey to devour, -and was less frequented by man. At the same time with -the periodical floods, which there is every reason to believe,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_322">322</a></span> -from other investigations, were so great during the quaternary -period, the cave would long continue to be subject -to inundations, the muddy waters of which deposited -the silt forming the cave-earth, burying progressively the -bones left from season to season by succeeding generations -of beasts of prey. By the repetition at distant -intervals of these inundations, and by the accumulation -during the intervening periods of fresh crops of bones, -the bone-bearing cave-earth, B, was gradually formed. -During this time the occasional visits of man are indicated -by the rare occurrence of a flint implement, lost, -probably, as he groped his way through the dark passages -of the cave. As the valley became deeper, and as -with the change of climate at the close of the (pleistocene) -quaternary period the floods became less, so did -the cave become drier and more resorted to by animals. -At last it seems to have become a place for permanent -resort for bears; their remains in all stages of growth, -including even sucking cubs, were met with in the upper -part of the cave-earth, in greater numbers than were the -bones of any other animals. These animals resorted -especially to the darker and more secluded flint-knife -gallery, where 221 out of 366 of their determinable bones -were found, whereas only twenty-six were met with in -the reindeer gallery.</p> - -<p>“Finally, as the cave became out of the reach of the -flood waters, the drippings from the roof, which up to -this period had, with the single exception before mentioned, -been lost in the accumulating cave-earth, or deposited -in thin calcareous incrustations on the exposed -bones, now commenced that deposit of stalagmite which -sealed up and preserved undisturbed the shingle and -cave-earth deposited under former and different conditions.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_323">323</a></span> -The cave, however, still continued to be the -occasional resort of beasts of prey; for sparse remains of -the reindeer, together with those of the bear and rhinoceros, -were found in the stalagmite floor. After a time -the falling in of the roof at places (and any earthquake -movement may have detached blocks from it), and the -external surface weathering, stopped up some parts of the -cave, and closed its entrances with an accumulation of -débris. From that time it ceased to be accessible, except -to the smaller rodents and burrowing animals, and -so remained unused and untrodden until its recent discovery -and exploration.”<a id="FNanchor_206" href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">206</a></p> - -<p>Mr. Pengelly points out<a id="FNanchor_207" href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">207</a> an episode in the history of -the cave, between the formation and the filling up with -its present contents, which is of considerable importance, -viewed in relation to the deposits in Kent’s Hole. Over -the empty space in <span class="smcap smaller">D</span>, of <a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>, is an ancient stalagmite -floor, <span class="smcap smaller">E</span>, constituting the present ceiling, and shutting off -D from the true roof above, <span class="smcap smaller">E</span>. At the time this was -formed, the cave must have been filled up to that level -with débris, fragments of which are set in the inferior -portion of the calcareous sheet. Subsequently, and before -the present contents, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span> and <span class="smcap smaller">B</span>, were introduced, the -whole of this material has been swept away, probably -by an unusual flood similar to that alluded -to in the <a href="#CHAPTER_II">second</a> chapter in the Clapham cave. The -pieces of stalagmite in the cave-earth are, probably, -some of the relics of the older floor. This filling up, -re-excavating, and re-filling with its present contents, -are phenomena which considerably complicate the problems<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_324">324</a></span> -offered not merely by Brixham cave, but also by -those of Kent’s Hole.</p> - -<p>Two other caverns in the neighbourhood of Brixham, -the “Ash Hole” and “Bench,” have also yielded the -remains of the reindeer, hyæna, and several other -pleistocene species, and are fully described by Mr. -Pengelly, in his essays contributed to the Devonshire -Association.<a id="FNanchor_208" href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">208</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_140"><i>Kent’s Hole.</i></h3> - -<p>The celebrated cave of Kent’s Hole,<a id="FNanchor_209" href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">209</a> known from time -immemorial, was first found to contain fossil bones by -Mr. Northmore, and Sir W. C. Trevelyan in 1824, and -was subsequently explored by the Rev. J. MacEnery -in the five following years, during which he met with -flint implements in association with the extinct animals -in the undisturbed strata, and obtained the teeth of -the sabre-toothed feline, named by Prof. Owen <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus -latidens</i>, which has never before or since been -discovered in any other cavern in Britain. His manuscripts -unfortunately were not used until they passed -into the hands of Mr. Vivian, of Torquay, who published -an abstract in 1859. Subsequently they were published -in full by Mr. Pengelly, in 1869. The discovery of the -flint implements, verified by Mr. Godwin Austen in -1840, and six years later also by a committee of the -Torquay Natural History Society, was received with incredulity -by the scientific world, until the result of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_325">325</a></span> -exploration of the Brixham cave had placed the fact of -the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia -beyond all doubt. In 1864 a committee<a id="FNanchor_210" href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">210</a> was appointed -by the British Association for the carrying on the investigation, -which from that time to the present has been -conducted under the careful supervision of Mr. Pengelly.</p> - -<p>The cave consists of two parallel series of chambers -and galleries, an eastern and a western, which penetrate -the low cliff of Devonian limestone in the direction of -the joints, with a northern and southern entrance, very -nearly at the same level, “about fifty feet apart, from -180 to 190 feet above the level of mean tide, and about -seventy feet above the bottom of the valley immediately -adjacent.” The largest chamber of the eastern series is -sixty-two feet from east to west, and fifty-three from -north to south. The extent of the cave has not yet been -ascertained.</p> - -<p>The contents, examined with the minutest care (on -Mr. Pengelly’s method, see <a href="#APPENDIX_I">Appendix I</a>.), were found to -be arranged in the following order.</p> - -<p>(A.) The surface was composed of dark earth varying -in thickness from a few inches to a foot, on which rested -large blocks of limestone, fallen from the roof. It contained -mediæval remains, Roman pottery, and combs -fashioned out of bone, similar to those discovered in the -Victoria and Dowkerbottom caves in Yorkshire, which -prove that the cave was frequented during the historic -period. A barbed iron spear-head, a bronze spear-head, -other bronze articles, and polished stone celts, establish<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_326">326</a></span> -the fact that it was also used during the iron, bronze, -and neolithic ages. This stratum contained the broken -bones of the short-horn (<i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>), goat, and -horse, large quantities of charcoal, and was to a great -extent a refuse-heap like that in the Victoria cave.</p> - -<div id="Fig_96" class="figleft" style="width: 152px;"> - <img src="images/i_326.jpg" width="152" height="383" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>—Lanceolate Implement from Kent’s Hole (1/1). (Evans.)<a id="FNanchor_211" href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">211</a></div></div> - -<div id="Fig_97" class="figright" style="width: 314px;"> - <img src="images/i_326r.jpg" width="314" height="400" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>—Oval Implement from Kent’s Hole (1/1) (Evans.)</div></div> - -<p>(B.) Below this was a stalagmite floor, varying in -thickness from one to three feet, covering</p> - -<p>(C.) The red earth, with stones, bones of the extinct -animals, and flint implements, associated together -in the greatest confusion, as well as large lumps of -stalagmite and of breccia, which had been torn out of a -pre-existent floor. In the “vestibule,” near one of the -entrances, a black layer beneath the stalagmite, composed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_327">327</a></span> -to a great extent, of charcoal, indicated the -position of the fire-places, and contained a vast number -of rude unpolished palæolithic implements. There were -also local stalagmitic bands. The flint implements were -met with at various depths, and consist of three distinct -types: the lanceolate, <a href="#Fig_96">Fig. 96</a>, the oval, with edge carefully -chipped for cutting, <a href="#Fig_97">Fig. 97</a>, and the flake (see -<a href="#Fig_106">Fig. 106</a>). Besides these a few implements have been -discovered of the same shape as those found in the gravel -beds; in outline and section roughly triangular, and -tapering to a point from a blunt base, which was probably -intended to be held in the hand.<a id="FNanchor_212" href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">212</a> Several articles -of bone and antler were also met with, comprising an -awl, or piercer, a needle with the eye large enough to -admit small packthread, and three harpoon-heads, one of -which is barbed on both sides (<a href="#Fig_98">Fig. 98</a>), the others being -merely barbed on one side (<a href="#Fig_99">Fig. 99</a>). A rounded pebble -of coarse red sandstone, battered into a cheese-like form, -by being used as a hammer (<a href="#Fig_100">Fig. 100</a>), was also found. -All these articles bring the palæolithic inhabitants of -Kent’s Hole into relation with those of the caves and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_328">328</a></span> -rock-shelters of the south of France, to be described in -the next chapter.</p> - -<div id="Fig_98" class="figcenter" style="width: 313px;"> - <img src="images/i_327.jpg" width="313" height="78" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>—Harpoon from Kent’s Hole (1/1). (Evans.)</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_99" class="figcenter" style="width: 576px;"> - <img src="images/i_327b.jpg" width="576" height="65" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>—Harpoon-head from Kent’s Hole (1/1). (Evans.)</div></div> - -<p>(D.) The cave-earth rested on a compact, dark red -breccia composed of angular fragments of limestone and -pebbles of sandstone embedded in a sandy calcareous -paste, identical in constitution with the fragments of the -older breccia discovered in the cave-earth. It has furnished -bones of bears, and four flint implements. The -cave-earth, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>, and the breccia, <span class="smcap smaller">E</span>, seem to stand to one -another in an inverse ratio as regards thickness: where -the former was thin, the latter was sometimes as much -as twelve feet thick. From this relation, as well as from -the imbedded fragments of the latter, it may be concluded -that the former is the more modern, and that in -the interval between their accumulation the latter had -been, to a considerable extent, broken up.</p> - -<div id="Fig_100" class="figcenter" style="width: 245px;"> - <img src="images/i_328.jpg" width="245" height="173" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>—Hammer-stone (1/2). (Evans.)</div></div> - -<p>There is very good reason for the belief, that before -any of the present cave-earth was introduced, Kent’s -Hole had been filled nearly to the roof by an older -cave accumulation, now represented by the undisturbed -breccia and the included fragments. In a portion -of the cave termed the “gallery,” there is a sheet of -stalagmite, extending overhead from wall to wall, and -constituting a ceiling that reaches from wall to wall,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_329">329</a></span> -without further support than that offered by its own -cohesion. Above it, in the limestone rock, there is a -considerable alcove. This branch of the cavern, therefore, -is divided into three stories or flats, that below the -floor occupied with cave-earth, that between the floor -and the ceiling entirely unoccupied, and that above the -ceiling also without a deposit of any kind. For such a -sheet of stalagmite to have been formed it is absolutely -necessary for the cave to have been filled up to its level -with materials of some kind, just as it is necessary for -the formation of a film of ice that it should be crystallized -from the surface of water. We may, therefore, infer -that Kent’s Hole, like Brixham, was originally filled up -to the level of the ceiling (see <a href="#Fig_95">Fig. 95</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">E</span>), then that the -contents were swept out, with the exception of the -breccia, and lastly, that the present cave-earth was -introduced. The occurrence of the remains of bear, and -of flint implements, in this breccia also proves that man -and bears were living in the district, while it was being -accumulated, probably by the action of the floods to -which, from time to time, the cave was subjected. All -the flint implements in the breccia are of the ruder and -larger form which is presented by those from the pleistocene -deposits of the Somme, Seine, and the rivers of the -south and east of England.</p> - -<p>While engaged in the identification of the mammals -in 1869, with Mr. W. A. Sanford, I detected splinters -of bears’ canines, from the cave-earth, remarkable for -their density, crystalline structure, and semi-conchoidal -fracture, which were in the same mineral state as -those from the older breccia. One of these had been -fashioned into a flake after its mineralization, and presented -an edge chipped by use. The tooth from which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_330">330</a></span> -it was struck was, probably, imbedded and mineralized -in the older breccia, then washed out of it, and afterwards -chosen for the manufacture of an implement. It -was already fossil and altered in structure in the palæolithic -age.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_141"><i>The probable Age of the Machairodus of Kent’s Hole.</i></h3> - -<p>The most remarkable animal discovered in the cave, -by the Rev. J. MacEnery, is the <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i>,<a id="FNanchor_213" href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">213</a> -or large lion-like animal, armed with double-edged -canines, in shape like the blade of a sabre, and with two -serrated edges. Five canines and two incisors were dug -out of the cave-earth, <span class="smcap smaller">C</span>, in the Wolf’s Passage, along -with vast quantities of bones and teeth of the mammoth, -rhinoceros, Irish elk, horse, and hyæna. One of the -canines is represented in <a href="#Fig_101">Figs. 101, 102</a>, which are taken -from one of the original plates drawn for Dr. Buckland, -and now in the Museum of the Torquay Natural History -Society. The two incisors, <a href="#Fig_103">Figs. 103, 104, 105</a>, are -also characterised by their serrated edges. A third was -discovered by the exploration committee in the same -spot, in 1872, scarcely to be distinguished from that in -<a href="#Fig_103">Figs. 103, 104</a>, which finally dispelled the scepticism of -some eminent naturalists as to whether any of these -teeth had been obtained in the cave by the Rev. J. MacEnery.</p> - -<div id="Fig_101" class="figcenter" style="width: 326px;"> - <img src="images/i_331.jpg" width="326" height="493" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 101, 102.</span>—Upper Canine of Machairodus, Kent’s Hole (1/1). (MacEnery.)</div></div> - -<p>The <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i> has been found in pleistocene -strata in two localities in France: in a deposit of -diluvium, near Puy, by M. Aymard, and in the cavern -of Baume in the Jura, considered by M. Lartet to be of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_331">331</a></span> -preglacial age.<a id="FNanchor_214" href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">214</a> In the latter it was associated with the -horse, ox, wild-boar, elephant, a non-tichorine species -of rhinoceros, the cave-bear, and the spotted hyæna. In -the autumn of 1873, I met with proof that the animal -also lived in France in the pleiocene period. M. Lortet, -the Director of the Museum of Natural History, at -Lyons, called my attention to a canine, in the Palais des -Beaux Arts, which coincides exactly in all its dimensions -with one of those from Kent’s Hole. It was found at -Chagny (Saône et Loire) near Dijon, along with <i class="taxonomy">Mastodon -arvernensis</i>, the Etruscan or megarhine species of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_332">332</a></span> -rhinoceros, horse, beaver and hyæna, somewhat resembling -that from the Crag (<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna antiqua</i>) of Suffolk -described by Mr. Lankester. The species, therefore, is -pleiocene, and it belongs to a genus which is widely -distributed in the meiocene strata of Europe and North -America, as well as in the pleiocene of Europe.</p> - -<p>To what era in the complicated history of Kent’s Hole -is this animal to be assigned? The more ancient, or the -more modern? The evidence on this point is, to a certain -extent, contradictory. On the one hand it is a pleiocene -species, belonging to a group of animals that inhabited -Europe before the lowering of the temperature caused -the invasion of the arctic mammalia from the north and -the east: it is moreover of a distinctly southern type. -In the teeth marks on the incisors, <a href="#Fig_103">Figs. 103, 104, 105</a>, -as well as on the canines, we have unmistakeable traces -of the presence of the hyæna; and since the spotted -hyæna abounds in the cave, to its teeth the marks in -question may probably be referred. It seems, therefore, -probable that the animal inhabited Devonshire during -an early stage of the pleistocene period, before the arctic -invaders had taken full possession of the valley of -the English Channel, and of the low grounds which -now lie within the 100-fathom line off the Atlantic -shore of Western France. There must necessarily have -been a swinging to and fro of animal life over the -great, fertile low-lying region, which is now submerged -(see Map, <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>); and before the temperature of -France had been sufficiently lowered to exterminate or -drive out the southern forms, it is most natural to -suppose that in warm seasons some of the southern -mammalia would find their way northwards, and especially<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_333">333</a></span> -a formidable carnivore such as the machairodus. -The extreme rarity of its remains forbids the hypothesis -that it was a regular inhabitant of Britain during the -pleistocene age.</p> - -<div id="Fig_103" class="figcenter" style="width: 508px;"> - <img src="images/i_333.jpg" width="508" height="317" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Figs. 103, 104, 105.</span>—Incisors of Machairodus, Kent’s Hole (1/1). (MacEnery.)<a id="FNanchor_215" href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">215</a></div></div> - -<p>On the other hand, the recent discovery of a second -incisor in the uppermost portion of the cave-earth, in -July 1872, in the same condition as the remains usually -found, and associated with the bones and teeth of hyæna, -horse, and bear, is considered by Sir Charles Lyell and -Mr. Pengelly proof of the animal having lived during the -deposition of the later cave-earth, or in the later stage -of the pleistocene. The condition of a bone, however, is -a very fallacious guide to its antiquity, and although the -fragments of the older contents of the cave are in a different -mineral state, it is improbable that the ossiferous -contents of so large a cave should have been mineralized -exactly in the same way. Nor is an appeal to its perfect<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_334">334</a></span> -state conclusive, since several teeth of bear, which I have -examined from the breccia, are equally perfect.</p> - -<p>The view of the high antiquity of machairodus in -Kent’s Hole derives support from the discovery of <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros -megarhinus</i> at Oreston, a species which is very -abundant in the Italian pleiocene strata, and not uncommon -in those of France,—a species with its headquarters -in the south, but ranging as far north as Norfolk -in the early stage of the pleistocene age, represented by -the forest bed of Cromer, and that lived in the valley -of the Thames, while the gravel-beds of Crayford and -Grays Thurrock were being deposited by the ancient -river. The occurrence of either of these animals in a -cave is exceptional, and the presence of both in caves on -the edge of the great plain extending southwards from -the present coastline of Devon, seems to me to imply -that both were open during the early stage of the pleistocene, -while the pleiocene mammalia were retreating -before the southward advance of the mammoth, woolly -rhinoceros, spotted hyæna, reindeer, and their congeners, -at a time anterior to the lowering of the temperature -that culminated in the glacial period. For these reasons -it seems to me probable that the machairodus belongs -to an early rather than a late stage in the history of -Kent’s Hole.</p> - -<p>There is an important point of resemblance between -the mode of the occurrence of the machairodus in Kent’s -Hole, and of the megarhine rhinoceros at Oreston. The -remains of both were met with only <em>in one spot</em>, and -were not scattered through the chambers and passages. -It may have happened that in the physical changes -which those caves have undergone, both were preserved -in a fissure like that described in the Uphill cave<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_335">335</a></span> -(p. 294), and that subsequently they dropped down and -became imbedded in a newer deposit. In fixing the age -of strata in caves it seems to me that the zoological -evidence is of far greater weight than that of mere -position, which may be the result of accidental circumstances.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_142"><i>The Caves of Ireland.</i></h3> - -<p>The caves of Ireland would probably afford as rich a -fauna as those of Britain, had they been explored with -equal care. In one at Shandon, near Dungarvan, Waterford, -remains of the brown bear (<i class="taxonomy">U. arctos</i>) reindeer, -horse, and mammoth were discovered in 1859, by Mr. -Brenan.<a id="FNanchor_216" href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">216</a> The first of these animals became extinct in -Ireland before the historic period, while it survived in -Britain at least as late as the Roman occupation.</p> - -<p>The cave-bear is also recorded by Dr. Carte,<a id="FNanchor_217" href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">217</a> from the -same place, but the thigh bone assigned to it seems to -me to belong to the brown, or common species. The -mammoth, so abundant in Britain, has only been discovered -in two other localities in Ireland, at Whitechurch -near Dungarvan, and at Magherry near Belturbet.<a id="FNanchor_218" href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">218</a></p> - -<p>The range of these animals over Great Britain and -Ireland in the pleistocene age enables us to realize the -ancient physical geography, which will be treated in the -next and following chapters as part of the general question -of the physical condition of north-western Europe -at that time.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_336">336</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.<br /> - -<span class="subhead center">THE INHABITANTS OF THE CAVES OF NORTH-WESTERN -EUROPE, AND THE EVIDENCE OF THE FAUNA AS TO THE -ATLANTIC COASTLINE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote class="inhead"> - -<p>The Caves of France, Baume, of Périgord.—Caves and Rock-shelters -of Belgium, Trou de Naulette.—Caves of Switzerland.—Cave-dwellers -and Palæolithic Men of River-deposits.—Classification of -Palæolithic Caves.—Relation of Cave-dwellers to Eskimos.—Pleistocene -animals living north of Alps and Pyrenees.—Relation of -Cave to River-bed Fauna.—The Atlantic Coastline.—Distribution -of Palæolithic Implements.</p></blockquote> - -<h3 id="hdr_143"><i>The Caves of France.</i></h3> - -<p class="in0">The caves of France have been proved, by the explorations -carried on during the course of the present century, -to contain the same animals, introduced under the same -conditions as those which we have already described. -Some species, however, have been met with which have -not been discovered in this country. In the cave of -Lunel-viel, for example, the common striped hyæna of -Africa (<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna striata</i>) has been found by Marcel de -Serres, to whom belongs the credit of being the first systematic -explorer of caverns in France. In that of Bruniquel, -the ibex, now found only in the higher mountains -in Europe, the chamois and the <i class="taxonomy">Antelope saiga</i>, an animal<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_337">337</a></span> -inhabiting the plains of the region of the Volga and of -southern Siberia, have been identified by Prof. Owen; -while in the collection obtained by Mr. Moggridge from -the caves of Mentone, Prof. Busk has recognized the -marmot. With these exceptions there is no distinction -between the faunas of the bone-caves of this country -and of France.<a id="FNanchor_219" href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">219</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_144"><i>The Cave of Baume.</i></h3> - -<p>The <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i>,<a id="FNanchor_220" href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">220</a> or great sabre-toothed -feline of Kent’s Hole, has been discovered in the cave -of Baume in the Jura, according to M. Gervais,<a id="FNanchor_221" href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">221</a> along -with the horse, ox, wild-boar, elephant, a non-tichorhine -species of rhinoceros, the spotted hyæna, and the -cave-bear, or the same group of animals as that with -which it is found in Kent’s Hole. The cave is considered -by M. Lartet<a id="FNanchor_222" href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">222</a> to be of preglacial age.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_145"><i>The Caves of Périgord.</i></h3> - -<p>The caves and rock-shelters of Périgord, explored by -the late M. Lartet and our countryman, Mr. Christy,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_338">338</a></span><a id="FNanchor_223" href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">223</a> -1863–4, have not only afforded cumulative proof of the -co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia, but have -given us a clue as to the race to which he belonged. -They penetrate the sides of the valleys of the Dordogne -and Vezère at various levels, as may be seen in <a href="#Fig_71">Fig. 71</a>, and are full of the remains left behind by their -ancient inhabitants, which give as vivid a picture of the -human life of the period, as that revealed of Italian -manners in the first century by the buried cities of -Herculaneum and Pompeii. The old floors of human -occupation consist of broken bones of animals killed in -the chase, mingled with rude implements, weapons of -bone, and unpolished stone, and charcoal and burnt -stones which point out the position of the hearths.</p> - -<p>Flakes (<a href="#Fig_106">Fig. 106</a>) without number, rude stone-cutters, -awls, lance-heads, hammers, saws made of flint or of chert, -rest pêle-mêle with bone needles, sculptured reindeer antlers, -engraved stones, arrow-heads, harpoons, and pointed -bones, and with the broken remains of the animals which -had been used as food, the reindeer, bison, horse, the -ibex, the saiga antelope, and the musk sheep. In some -cases the whole is compacted by a calcareous cement into -a hard mass, fragments of which are to be seen in the -principal museums of Europe. This strange accumulation -of débris marks, beyond all doubt, the place where -ancient hunters had feasted, and the broken bones and -implements are merely the refuse cast aside. The reindeer -formed by far the larger portion of the food, and must -have lived in enormous herds at that time in the centre -of France. The severity of the climate at the time may -be inferred by the presence of this animal, as well as by -the accumulation of bones on the spots on which man -had fixed his habitation. Indeed, had not this been the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_339">339</a></span> -case, the decomposition of so much animal matter would -have rendered the place uninhabitable even by the lowest -savage.</p> - -<div id="Fig_107"><div id="Fig_108"> -<div id="Fig_106" class="figcenter" style="width: 528px;"> - <img src="images/i_339.jpg" width="528" height="474" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>—Flint-flake, Les Eyzies (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>—Flint Scraper, Les -Eyzies (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>—Flint Javelin-head, -Laugerie Haute (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</p></div></div></div></div> - -<p>Besides the animals mentioned above, the cave-bear -and lion have been met with in one, and the mammoth -in five localities, and their remains bear marks of cutting -or scraping, which show that they fell a prey to hunters. -The Irish elk, also, and the hyæna occur respectively in -the cave of Laugerie Basse, and of Moustier, but the latter -certainly did not gain access to the refuse-heaps, because -the vertebræ are intact which it is in the habit of eating.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_340">340</a></span> -For the same reason also, M. Lartet infers that the -hunters were not aided in the chase by the dog. -There is no evidence that they were possessed of any -domestic animal. There were no spindle wheels to -indicate a knowledge of spinning, nor potsherds to show -an acquaintance with the potter’s art. In both these -respects they resemble the Fuegians, Eskimos, and Australians, -and contrast strongly with the neolithic races.</p> - -<div id="Fig_109" class="figleft" style="width: 103px;"> - <img src="images/i_340.jpg" width="103" height="339" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>—Flint Arrow-head, Laugerie Haute (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_110" class="figright" style="width: 25px;"> - <img src="images/i_340r.jpg" width="25" height="355" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>—Bone needle, La Madelaine (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div> - -<p>The broken bones show that the reindeer furnished the -more usual food, and next to that the horse, and then -the bison. And from the absence of the vertebræ and -pelvic bones of the two latter animals, M. Lartet concludes -that they were cut up where they were killed, and -the meat stripped from the backbone and the pelvis. -Their food was probably cooked by boiling, the number -of round stones used for heating water and bearing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_341">341</a></span> -marks of fire, like the “pot boilers” of some of the -American Indians, being very considerable.</p> - -<p>Among the stone implements flint flakes were incredibly -numerous, and the number of chips scattered -about as well as the blocks of flint from which they had -been struck, proved that they had been made on the -spot; most of these flakes were notched by use (<a href="#Fig_106">Fig. 106</a>). Instruments with the ends carefully rounded off -(<a href="#Fig_107">Fig. 107</a>) were also abundant, and from their analogy -with similar instruments used by the Eskimos, there -can be but little doubt that they were intended for the -preparation of skins (compare <a href="#Fig_107">Fig. 107</a> with <a href="#Fig_124">Fig. 124</a>). -The ends of some were chipped to a point for insertion -into a handle, while others rounded at both ends were -probably used freely in the hand. In the cave of Moustier -oval implements were met with, resembling those -figured from the caverns of Kent’s Hole and Wookey -(<a href="#Fig_84">Figs. 84</a> and <a href="#Fig_97">97</a>). The spear, javelin, and arrow-heads -of flint presented two modes of attachment to the shaft, -the base of some being squared off with a notch above -for the ligature (as in <a href="#Fig_108">Fig. 108</a>), while in others (<a href="#Fig_109">Fig. 109</a>) it tapered off into a point intended for insertion. -This latter form has been obtained also in Kent’s Hole.</p> - -<p>The bone needles are carefully smoothed, and were -pierced with a neatly-made eye (<a href="#Fig_110">Fig. 110</a>) by means of -pointed flakes which were found along with them, and -the use of which M. Lartet demonstrated by experiment. -They had been sawn out of the compact metacarpals -and tarsals of the reindeer<a id="FNanchor_224" href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">224</a> and the horse, -and subsequently rounded on fragments of sandstone, -the grooves of which fitted them. In this, therefore,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_342">342</a></span> -we have not merely the evidence that the hunters were -in the habit of sewing, but also we have vividly brought -before us the very method by which their needles were -manufactured. They were probably used for sewing -skins together, the tendon of a reindeer forming the -thread, as among the modern Eskimos.</p> - -<div id="Fig_113"><div id="Fig_115"> -<div id="Fig_111" class="figcenter" style="width: 511px;"> - <img src="images/i_342.jpg" width="511" height="539" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Figs. 111, 112.</span>—Harpoons of Antler, La Madelaine. (Lartet and Christy.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Figs. 113, 114.</span>—Arrow-heads, Gorge d’Enfer. (Broca.)</p> - -<p><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>—Bone Awl, Gorge d’Enfer (1/1). (Broca.)</p></div></div></div></div> - -<p>The heads of arrows and lances are made principally -out of reindeer antler, and are barbed, the barbs generally -being grooved, and carved on both sides of the axis<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_343">343</a></span> -(<a href="#Fig_111">Figs. 111, 112, 113</a>); but in some cases, as in <a href="#Fig_111">Fig. 114</a>, -the barbs are only on one side. Many bones and antlers -are variously carved into shapes for which it is impossible -to assign a definite use. <a href="#Fig_111">Fig. 115</a> is a bone awl.</p> - -<div id="Fig_116" class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;"> - <img src="images/i_343.jpg" width="379" height="146" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>—Carved Handle of Reindeer Antler (1/2). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_117" class="figcenter" style="width: 420px;"> - <img src="images/i_344.jpg" width="420" height="223" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>—Two sides of Reindeer Antler, La Madelaine (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_118" class="figcenter" style="width: 437px;"> - <img src="images/i_344b.jpg" width="437" height="125" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>—Horses engraved on Antler, La Madelaine (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div> - -<p>The most remarkable remains left behind by man in -these refuse-heaps are the sculptured reindeer antlers, -and the figures engraved on fragments of schist and on -ivory. A well-defined outline of an ox stands out -boldly from one piece of antler. A second presents us -with a most elegant design: a reindeer is kneeling down -in an easy attitude with its head thrown up in the air, -so that the antlers rest on the shoulders, and the back -of the animal forms an even surface for a handle, which -is too small to be grasped in an ordinary European hand -(<a href="#Fig_116">Fig. 116</a>). In a third a man stands close to a horse’s -head, and hard by is a fish like an eel; and on the other -side of the same cylinder are two heads of bison, drawn -with sufficient clearness to ensure recognition by anyone -who had ever seen that animal (<a href="#Fig_117">Fig. 117</a>). On a fourth the -natural curvature of one of the tines has been taken advantage -of by the artist to engrave the head, and the -characteristic recurved horns of the ibex; and on a -fifth are figures of horses (<a href="#Fig_118">Fig. 118</a>), in which the upright -disheveled mane and shaggy ungroomed tail are represented -with admirable spirit. At first sight it would<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_344">344</a></span> -appear that the artist had drawn the heads out of all -proportion to the bodies. A horse’s skeleton, however, -from the palæolithic “station” at Solutré, lately set up -in the Museum at Lyons, proves that this is not the case, -since, as M. Lortet pointed out to me, it is remarkable -for its massive head, and small body. In <a href="#Fig_119">Fig. 119</a> a -group of reindeer are seen, two on their backs, and -two in the act of walking. The Irish elk, red-deer, -and probably rhinoceros, are also depicted, the figures -upon the hard schist being feebly and uncertainly drawn, -as might be expected from the character of the tools. -The most clever sculptor of modern times would, -probably, not succeed very much better if his graver -was a splinter of flint, and stone and bone were the -materials to be engraved. One peculiarity runs through -the figures of animals. With but two exceptions none<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_345">345</a></span> -of the feet are represented, a circumstance which is -probably due, as Mr. Franks has suggested to me, to the -fact that the hunters merely represented what they saw -of the animal, of which the feet would be concealed by -the herbage.</p> - -<div id="Fig_119" class="figcenter" style="width: 492px;"> - <img src="images/i_345.jpg" width="492" height="295" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>—Group of Reindeer, Dordogne. (Broca.)</div></div> - -<p>The most striking figure that has been discovered -is that of the mammoth,<a id="FNanchor_225" href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">225</a> <a href="#Fig_120">Fig. 120</a>, engraved on a fragment -of its own tusk, the peculiar spiral curvature of -the tusk and the long mane, which are not now to be -found in any living elephant, proving that the original -was familiar to the eye of the artist. The discovery -of whole carcases of the animal in northern Siberia, -preserved from decay in the frozen cliffs and morasses, -has made us acquainted with the existence of the long -hairy mane. Had not it thus been handed down to -our eyes, we should probably have treated this most -accurate drawing as a mere artist’s freak. Its peculiarities -are so faithfully depicted that it is quite impossible<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_346">346</a></span> -for the animal to be confounded with either of the -two living species. These drawings probably employed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_347">347</a></span> -the idle hours of the hunter, and perpetuate the scenes -which he witnessed in the chase. They are full of artistic -feeling, and are evidently drawn from life. The mammoth -is engraved on its own ivory, the reindeer generally -on reindeer antler, and the stag on stag antler.</p> - -<div id="Fig_120" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_346.jpg" width="600" height="274" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>—Mammoth engraved on Ivory, La Madelaine (1/2). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div> - -<p>From all these facts we must picture to our minds, that -these ancient dwellers in the caves of Aquitaine lived by -hunting and fishing, that they were acquainted with -fire, and that they were clad with skins sewn together -with sinews or strips of intestines. That they did not -possess the dog is shown, not merely by the negative -evidence of its not having been discovered, but also by -the fact that the bones which it invariably eats, such -as the vertebræ, are preserved. They did not possess -any domestic animals, and there is no evidence that -they were acquainted with the potter’s art. M. de -Mortillet’s view, that the art of making pottery was -unknown in the palæolithic age, seems to me to be -probably true, the reputed cases of the discovery of -potsherds being always connected with suspicious circumstances, -which render it probable that they were -subsequently introduced.</p> - -<p>Besides the remains of the animals in the refuse-heaps -were fragmentary portions of human skeletons, which, -however, were not scraped or broken so as to imply the -practice of cannibalism.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_146"><i>Caves of Belgium.</i></h3> - -<div id="Fig_121" class="figcenter" style="width: 379px;"> - <img src="images/i_348.jpg" width="379" height="152" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>—Carved Implement of Reindeer Antler, Goyet (1/2). (Dupont.)</div></div> - -<p>The researches of Dr. Schmerling<a id="FNanchor_226" href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">226</a> into the caves of -Belgium, in 1829–30, revealed the fact that the animals<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_348">348</a></span> -so abundant in the caves of Germany, were equally -numerous in those in the neighbourhood of Liége, and -the flint flakes, and the fragments of human bones, which -he found may possibly be of palæolithic age. He also -discovered the remains of the porcupine, a species no -longer living north of the Alps and Pyrenees. The -systematic exploration, however, of the palæolithic caves -in that district was not carried out until, in the year -1864, M. Dupont<a id="FNanchor_227" href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">227</a> began the investigation of those in -the neighbourhood of Dinant-sur-Meuse, on behalf of -the Belgian Government. His results, based upon the -examination of upwards of twenty caves and rock-shelters, -are published in a series of papers read before -the Royal Academy of Belgium and subsequently in a -separate work. Besides the remains of the animals -living in Belgium within the historic period, he met -with the ibex, chamois, and marmot, which are now to -be found only in the mountainous districts of Europe, -the tailless hare, lemming, and arctic fox, of the -northern regions, the <i class="taxonomy">Antelope saiga</i>, grizzly bear, lion, -hyæna, and others. Most of these species occurred in -refuse accumulations, their remains being in the fragmentary -condition of those of the French caves. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_349">349</a></span> -associated implements are of the same type as those of -Périgord, and some of them are ornamented in the same -manner as, for example, that from the cavern of Goyet, -<a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a>, termed a “bâton de commandement,” but -which, from its analogy with similar articles in the -British Museum, is most probably an arrow-straightener. -Those of flint are also of the same kind, and in several -of the caves there was the same association of fragmentary -human remains with the relics of the feasts as -in the French refuse-heaps.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_147"><i>Trou de Naulette.</i></h3> - -<p>The human remains consisting of a lower jaw, ulna -and metatarsal, discovered in the large cavern of Naulette,<a id="FNanchor_228" href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">228</a> -on the left bank of the Lesse, in association with the -broken remains of the rhinoceros, mammoth, reindeer, -chamois, and marmot, are undoubtedly of palæolithic -age, since they rested in an undisturbed stratum. M. -Dupont gives the following section in descending order.</p> - -<table id="table349" summary="strata"> - <tr class="small"> - <td class="tdr"> </td> - <td class="tdl"> </td> - <td class="tdc">METRES.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">1.</td> - <td class="tdl">Sandy grey and yellow clay</td> - <td class="tdc">2·90</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">2.</td> - <td class="tdl">Yellow grey clay with stones and bones of ruminants</td> - <td class="tdc">0·45</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">3.</td> - <td class="tdl">Stalagmite.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">4.</td> - <td class="tdl">Tufa.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">5.</td> - <td class="tdl">Three bands of clay alternating with stalagmite.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">6.</td> - <td class="tdl">Sandy clay with human bones at the depth of four metres.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">7.</td> - <td class="tdl">Stalagmite.</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdr top">8.</td> - <td class="tdl">Cave-earth with bones gnawed by hyænas.</td></tr> -</table> - -<p>The human jaw is remarkable for its prognathism, -which, according to Dr. Hamy, is greater than that which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_350">350</a></span> -has been observed in any living races. The cave had -afforded shelter to the hyænas before it had been used -by man.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_148"><i>The Caves of Switzerland.</i></h3> - -<p>The caves of Switzerland also contain the same class of -rude implements and carvings. Prof. Rupert Jones has -called my attention to a recent discovery of carved reindeer -antlers, and harpoon-heads, similar to those figured -from the Dordogne, in a cave in the Canton of Schaaffhausen,<a id="FNanchor_229" href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">229</a> -along with the bones of hyæna, reindeer, and -mammoth. In that of Veyrier,<a id="FNanchor_230" href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">230</a> carved implements were -found along with the remains of the ox, horse, chamois, -and ibex, some of which, shown to me by Dr. Gosse, at -the meeting of the French Association for the Advancement -of Science, at Lyons in 1873, are of the same form -and size as the arrow-straightener from the cave of Goyet -(<a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a>).</p> - -<p>We may, therefore, infer that the same palæolithic -race of men once ranged over the whole region from the -Pyrenees and Switzerland, as far to the north as Belgium. -And since Prof. Fraas has obtained similar implements -from a refuse-heap at Schussenreid in Würtemberg, they -wandered as far to the east as that district, while the -discoveries in Kent’s Hole and Wookey Hole prove that -they extended as far to the west as Somersetshire and -Devonshire.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_351">351</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_149"><i>Cave-dwellers and Palæolithic Men of the River-gravels.</i></h3> - -<p>These palæolithic cave-dwellers are considered by Mr. -Evans<a id="FNanchor_231" href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">231</a> to belong to the same race as those who have left -their rude flint implements in the river-gravels in the -valleys of the Thames, the Somme, the Seine, and in the -eastern counties, as far to the north as Peterborough. -We must, however, allow that a marked difference is to -be observed between a series of flint implements found -in the caves, as compared with a series found in the river-strata, -although some forms are common to the two; as -for instance some of those found in Brixham and Kent’s -Hole. This difference can scarcely be explained on the -supposition that the small things would be less likely to -be preserved in the fluviatile deposits, because it leaves -the rarity in the caves of the larger fluviatile forms unaccounted -for. It is perhaps safer, in the present state -of our knowledge, to consider the two sets to be distinct -from each other. The direct superposition in Kent’s -Hole of the stratum with the ordinary cave-type of implement, -over that with the ordinary fluviatile type, -may perhaps prove that the latter is the older.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_150"><i>Classification of Palæolithic Caves.</i></h3> - -<p>The palæolithic caves are divided by M. Lartet<a id="FNanchor_232" href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">232</a> into -four groups, according to the species of animals which -they contain; into those of the age of the cave-bear, of -the age of the mammoth and woolly rhinoceros, of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_352">352</a></span> -age of the reindeer, and of the age of bison. Dr. Hamy -follows Sir John Lubbock,<a id="FNanchor_233" href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">233</a> in considering the age of the -cave-bear to be co-extensive with that of the mammoth, -and in the classification of caves he adopts a series of -transitions. M. Dupont divides the caves of Belgium -into those belonging to the age of the mammoth, and to -that of the reindeer.</p> - -<p>It is easy to refer a given cave to the age of the reindeer -or of the mammoth because it contains the remains -of those animals, but the division has been rendered -worthless for chronological purposes, by the fact that -both these animals inhabited the region north of the Alps -and Pyrenees at the same time, and are to be found -together in nearly every bone-cave explored in that area. -The difference between the contents of one palæolithic -cave and another, is probably largely due to the fact that -man could more easily catch some animals than others, -as well as to the preference for one kind of food before -another. And the abundance of the reindeer, which is -supposed to characterise the reindeer period, may reasonably -be accounted for by the fact, that it would be more -easily captured by a savage hunter, than the mammoth, -woolly rhinoceros, cave-bear, lion, or hyæna. The classification -will apply, as I have shown in my essay on the -pleistocene mammalia,<a id="FNanchor_234" href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">234</a> neither to the caves of this -country, of Belgium, nor of France, and my views are -shared by M. de Mortillet,<a id="FNanchor_235" href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">235</a> after a careful and independent -examination of the whole evidence.</p> - -<p>The division of the caves also into ages, according to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_353">353</a></span> -the various types of implements found in them, proposed -by M. de Mortillet, seems to be equally unsatisfactory; -for there is no greater difference in the implements of any -two of the palæolithic caves, than is to be observed between -those of two different tribes of Eskimos, while the -general resemblance is most striking. The principle of -classification by the relative rudeness, assumes that the -progress of man has been gradual, and that the ruder -implements are therefore the older. The difference, however, -may have been due to different tribes, or families, -having co-existed without intercourse with each other, -as is now generally the case with savage communities; -or to the supply of flint, chert, and other materials for -cutting instruments, being greater in one region than in -another.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_151"><i>Relation of Cave-dwellers to Eskimos.</i></h3> - -<div id="Fig_122" class="figcenter" style="width: 527px;"> - <img src="images/i_353.jpg" width="527" height="111" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>—Eskimos Spear-head, bone (1/2).</div></div> - -<div id="Fig_123" class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> - <img src="images/i_354.jpg" width="600" height="151" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>—Eskimos Arrow-straightener of Walrus Tooth (1/1). (Brit. Mus.)</div></div> - -<p>Can these cave-dwellers be identified with any people -now living on the face of the earth? or are they as completely -without representatives as their extinct contemporaries, -the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros? -Absolute certainty we cannot hope to obtain on the -point, but the cumulative evidence enables an answer to -be given which is probably true. Along the American -shore of the great Arctic Ocean, in the region of everlasting -snow, dwell the Eskimos, living by hunting and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_354">354</a></span> -fishing, speaking the same -language, and using the -same implements from the -Straits of Behring on the -west, to Greenland on the -east. Their implements and -weapons, brought home by -the arctic explorers, enable -us to institute a comparison -with those found in -the palæolithic caves. The -harpoons in the Ashmolean -collection at Oxford, -brought over by Captain -Beechey and Lieut. Harding -from West Georgia, as -well as those in the British -Museum, are almost identical -in shape and design -with those from the caves -of Aquitaine and Kent’s -Hole; the only difference -being that some of the -latter have grooved barbs. -The heads of the fowling -and fishing spears, darts, -and arrows, as well as the -form of their bases for insertion -into the shafts, are -also identical (<a href="#Fig_122">Fig. 122</a>), as -may be seen from a comparison -of <a href="#Fig_122">Fig. 122</a> with -<a href="#Fig_99">Figs. 99</a> and <a href="#Fig_113">114</a>. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_355">355</a></span> -curiously carved instrument, <a href="#Fig_123">Fig. 123</a>, which the Eskimos -use for straightening their arrows is variously -ornamented with designs of animals, analogous to those -cut on the reindeer antlers in Aquitaine; and if it be -compared with the so-called “bâton de commandement,” -<a href="#Fig_121">Fig. 121</a>, it will be seen, that the latter also was probably -intended for the same purpose; -the difference in the shape -of the hole in the two figured -specimens being also observable -in the series of Eskimos arrow-straighteners -in the British Museum, -and being largely due to -friction by use. Many of the implements -are the same in form. An -Eskimos stone scraper for preparing -skins, or plane for smoothing wood, -is represented in <a href="#Fig_124">Fig. 124</a>, which -is inserted in a handle of fossil -mammoth ivory, obtained from the -frozen ice-cliffs on the shores of the -Arctic sea. If it be compared with -<a href="#Fig_107">Fig. 107</a> from the caves, it will be -seen to be of the same pattern. It -is indeed not a little singular, that -the handle in which it is imbedded -should have been formed out of the -tusks of the same species of elephant -as that which was depicted by the palæolithic -hunter (see <a href="#Fig_120">Fig. 120</a>), in the south of France.</p> - -<div id="Fig_124" class="figright" style="width: 172px;"> - <img src="images/i_355.jpg" width="172" height="479" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>—Eskimos Plane or Scraper (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)</div></div> - -<p>Some of the Eskimos lance-heads of stone in the -British Museum are of the same type as that figured -from the caves of the Dordogne (<a href="#Fig_108">Fig. 108</a>).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_356">356</a></span> -The most remarkable objects brought home from the -northern regions are the implements of bone and antler -which are ornamented with the figures of animals hunted -by the Eskimos on sea or land. On the side of one bow -in the Ashmolean Museum, used for drilling holes, you -see them harpooning the whale from their skin boats, -and catching birds. On a second they are harpooning -walrus and catching seals; on a third the seals are being -dragged home. The huts in which they live, the tethered -dogs, the boat supported on its platform, and their daily -occupations are faithfully represented. One bow is -ornamented with a large number of porpoises, while -on another is a reindeer hunt in which the animals are -being attacked while they are crossing a ford. On a bone -implement in the British Museum from Fort Clarence, -the reindeer are being shot down by archers (<a href="#Fig_125">Fig. 125</a>). -The arrow straightener, <a href="#Fig_123">Fig. 123</a>, is adorned with a -reindeer hunting scene, in which the animals are seen -browsing and unsuspicious of the approach of the hunters, -who are advancing, clad in reindeer skins and wearing -antlers on their heads.</p> - -<p>A comparison of these various designs with those -from the caves of France and Belgium shows an identity -of plan and workmanship, with this difference only, that -the hunting scenes familiar to the palæolithic cave-dweller -were not the same as those familiar to the -Eskimos on the shores of the Arctic Ocean. Each sculptured -the animals he knew, and the whale, walrus, and -seal were unknown to the inland dwellers in Aquitaine, -just as the mammoth, bison, and wild horse are unknown -to the Eskimos. The reindeer, which they both knew, -is represented in the same way by both. The West -Georgians made their dirks of walrus tooth, and ornamented<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_357">357</a></span> -them with carvings of the backbones of fishes; -the people of Aquitaine used for the same purpose reindeer -antlers, and ornamented them with figures of that -animal (see <a href="#Fig_116">Fig. 116</a>). And it is worthy of remark that -the latter had sufficient artistic feeling to depict the -mammoth on mammoth ivory, the reindeer generally on -reindeer antler, and the stag on its own antler.</p> - -<div id="Fig_125" class="figcenter" style="width: 527px;"> - <img src="images/i_357.jpg" width="527" height="81" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>—Eskimos Hunting-scene (1/1). (Fort Clarence.)</div></div> - -<p>An appeal to the habits of these two peoples, now -separated by so wide an interval of space and time, tends -also to show that they are descended from the same -stock. The method of accumulating large quantities of -the bones of animals around their dwelling-places, and the -habit of splitting the bones for the sake of the marrow, -is the same in both. Their hides were prepared by the -same sort of instruments and in the same manner, and -the needles with which they were sewn together are of -the same pattern. The few remains of man among the -relics of feasts in the caves of Belgium and France, show -the same disregard of sepulture as that implied by the -human skulls lying about along with numerous bones of -walrus, seal, dog, bear, and fox, in an Eskimos camp in -Igloolik, which were carried away by Captain Lyon, -without the slightest objection on the part of the relatives -of the dead.</p> - -<p>All these facts can hardly be mere coincidences, caused -by both peoples leading a savage life under similar circumstances: -they afford reasons for the belief that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_358">358</a></span> -the Eskimos of North America are connected by blood -with the palæolithic cave-dwellers of Europe. To the -objection that savage tribes living under similar conditions -use similar instruments, and that, therefore, the -correspondence of those of the Eskimos with those of the -reindeer folk does not prove that they belong to the -same race, the answer may be made, that there are no -two savage tribes now living which use the same set of -implements, without being connected by blood. The -agreement of one or two of the more common and ruder -instruments may be perhaps of no value in classification, -but if a whole set agree, fitted for various uses, and some -of them rising above the most common wants of savage -life, we must admit that the argument as to race is -of very great value. The implements found in Belgium, -France, or Britain differ scarcely more from those now -used in West Georgia, than the latter do from those now -in use in Greenland or Melville Peninsula. The conclusion, -therefore, seems inevitable, that so far as we have -any evidence of the race to which the dwellers in the -Dordogne belong, that evidence points only in the direction -of the Eskimos.</p> - -<p>This conclusion is to a great extent confirmed by a -consideration of the animals found in the caves. The -reindeer and the musk sheep afford food to the Eskimos -now, just as they afforded it to the palæolithic hunters in -Europe. No naturalist would deny that the pleistocene -musk sheep is of the same species as that of North America, -and although the animal is extinct in Europe and -Asia, its remains, scattered through Germany, Russia in -Europe, and Siberia, show that it formerly ranged in the -whole of that area. The enormous distance, therefore, of -southern France from the northern shores of America,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_359">359</a></span> -cannot be considered as an obstacle to this view, for, to -say the least, palæolithic man would have had the same -chance of retreating to the north-east as the musk sheep. -The mammoth and bison have also been tracked by -their remains in the frozen river gravels and morasses -through Siberia, as far to the north-east as the American -side of the Straits of Behring. Palæolithic man appeared -in Europe with the arctic mammalia, lived in Europe -along with them, and disappeared with them. And -since his implements are of the same kind as those of -the Eskimos, it may reasonably be concluded that he is -represented at the present time by the Eskimos, for it is -most improbable that the convergence of the ethnological, -and zoological evidence should be an accident. -These views,<a id="FNanchor_236" href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">236</a> which I advanced in 1866, have been to -a great extent accepted by Sir John Lubbock in his last -edition of Prehistoric Man.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_152"><i>Pleistocene Animals living to the North of the Alps -and Pyrenees.</i></h3> - -<p>The principal mammalia inhabiting Britain, France, -and Germany during the pleistocene age, and contemporary -with man in Europe, are given in the following -table, which shows that the fauna of the region to -the north of the Alps and Pyrenees was remarkably -uniform. The cave-fauna of Provence, Italy, and Spain, -will be treated of in the next chapter.</p> - -<p class="b2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_360">360</a></span></p> - -<p class="p1 b0 center small"><a href="#if_p_360">(Image of Table)</a></p> -<table id="list_360" class="listobjects species p2 b1" summary="Pleistocene Species, part 1"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc">Species.</th> - <th class="tdc">Gailenreuth Cave</th> - <th class="tdc">Kirkdale</th> - <th class="tdc">Victoria</th> - <th class="tdc">Cefn</th> - <th class="tdc">Plas-<br />newydd</th> - <th class="tdc">Plas Heaton</th> - <th class="tdc">Gallfaenan</th> - <th class="tdc">Paviland</th> - <th class="tdc">Bacon’s Hole</th> - <th class="tdc">Minchin Hole</th> - <th class="tdc">Bosco’s Den</th> - <th class="tdc">Crow Hole</th> - <th class="tdc">Ravenscliff</th> - <th class="tdc">Spritsail Tor</th> - <th class="tdc">Long Hole</th> - <th class="tdc">Blackrock Fissure</th> - <th class="tdc">Caldy Fissure</th> - <th class="tdc">Coygan Cave</th> - <th class="tdc">Hoyle Cave</th> - <th class="tdc">King Arthur’s Cave</th></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Homo palæolithicus</i>—Palæolithic Man</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Spermophilus citillus</i>—Pouched Marmot</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Arctomys marmotta</i>—Common Marmot</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Castor fiber</i>—Beaver</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus timidus</i>—Hare</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus variabilis</i>—Alpine Hare</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus cuniculus</i>—Rabbit</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus diluvianus</i>—Extinct Hare</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lagomys pusillus</i>—Tailless Hare</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mus lemmus</i>—Lemming</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hystrix dorsata</i>—Porcupine</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis leo</i> (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">var. spelæa</i>)—Lion</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis pardus</i>—Leopard</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis Lynx</i>—Lynx</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis caffer</i>—Caffir Cat</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis catus</i>—Wild Cat</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Gulo borealis</i>—Glutton</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hyæna crocuta</i> (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">var. spelæa</i>)—Spotted Hyæna</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hyæna striata</i>—Striped Hyæna</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mustela martes</i>—Marten</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mustela putorius</i>—Polecat</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mustela erminea</i>—Weasel</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lutra vulgaris</i>—Otter</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus arctos</i>—Brown Bear</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">?</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus ferox</i>—Grizzly Bear</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus spelæus</i>—Cave-Bear</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis lupus</i>—Wolf</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis vulpes</i>—Fox</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis lagopus</i>—Arctic Fox</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas primigenius</i>—Mammoth</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas Africanus</i>—African Elephant</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>—Horse</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>—Woolly Rhinoceros</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Bos urus</i>—Urus</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Bos bison</i>—Bison</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ovibos moschatus</i>—Musk Sheep</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Capra ibex</i>—Ibex</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Capella rupicapra</i>—Chamois</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Antilope saiga</i>—Saiga</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>—Wild Boar</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus elaphus</i>—Stag</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus capreolus</i>—Roe</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus megaceros</i>—Irish Elk</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus tarandus</i>-Reindeer</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus amphibius</i> (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">var. major</i>)— Hippopotamus</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> -</table> - -<p class="b2"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_361">361</a></span></p> - -<p class="p1 b0 center small"><a href="#if_p_361">(Image of Table)</a></p> -<table id="list_361" class="listobjects species p2" summary="Pleistocene Species, part 2"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc">Species.</th> - <th class="tdc">Durdham</th> - <th class="tdc">Hutton</th> - <th class="tdc">Banwell</th> - <th class="tdc">Bleadon</th> - <th class="tdc">Uphill</th> - <th class="tdc">Sandford Hill</th> - <th class="tdc">Wookey Hole</th> - <th class="tdc">Brixham</th> - <th class="tdc">Kent’s Hole</th> - <th class="tdc">Moustier</th> - <th class="tdc">La Madelaine</th> - <th class="tdc">Laugerie Haute</th> - <th class="tdc">Laugerie Basse</th> - <th class="tdc">Gorge d’Enfer</th> - <th class="tdc">Cro Magnon</th> - <th class="tdc">Les Eyzies</th> - <th class="tdc">Lunel Viel</th> - <th class="tdc">Belgian Caves</th> - <th class="tdc">River Deposits, Britain</th> - <th class="tdc">River Deposits, France</th></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Homo palæolithicus</i>—Palæolithic Man</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Spermophilus citillus</i>—Pouched Marmot</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Arctomys marmotta</i>—Common Marmot</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Castor fiber</i>—Beaver</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus timidus</i>—Hare</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x?</td> - <td class="tdc">x?</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus variabilis</i>—Alpine Hare</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus cuniculus</i>—Rabbit</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lepus diluvianus</i>—Extinct Hare</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lagomys pusillus</i>-Tailless Hare</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mus lemmus</i>—Lemming</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hystrix dorsata</i>—Porcupine</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis leo</i> (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">var. spelæa</i>)—Lion</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis pardus</i>—Leopard</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis Lynx</i>—Lynx</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis caffer</i>—Caffir Cat</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Felis catus</i>—Wild Cat</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">?</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Gulo borealis</i>—Glutton</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hyæna crocuta</i> (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">var. spelæa</i>)—Spotted Hyæna</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hyæna striata</i>—Striped Hyæna</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mustela martes</i>—Marten</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mustela putorius</i>—Polecat</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Mustela erminea</i>—Weasel</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Lutra vulgaris</i>—Otter</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus arctos</i>—Brown Bear</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus ferox</i>—Grizzly Bear</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus spelæus</i>—Cave-Bear</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">(?)</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis lupus</i>—Wolf</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis vulpes</i>—Fox</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Canis lagopus</i>—Arctic Fox</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas primigenius</i>—Mammoth</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i></td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas Africanus</i>—African Elephant</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>—Horse</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>—Woolly Rhinoceros</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i></td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i></td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Bos urus</i>—Urus</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Bos bison</i>—Bison</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">?</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Ovibos moschatus</i>—Musk Sheep</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Capra ibex</i>—Ibex</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Capella rupicapra</i>—Chamois</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Antilope saiga</i>—Saiga</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>—Wild Boar</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus elaphus</i>—Stag</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus capreolus</i>—Roe</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus megaceros</i>—Irish Elk</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus tarandus</i>—Reindeer</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">+</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">+</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl"><i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus amphibius</i> (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">var. major</i>)—Hippopotamus</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">(?)</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">x</td> - <td class="tdc">x</td></tr> -</table> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_362">362</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_153"><i>Cave Fauna the same as River-bed Fauna.</i></h3> - -<p>If this list<a id="FNanchor_237" href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">237</a> of animals from the caves be compared -with that of the river-deposits of Britain and the continent, -it will be seen that the same fauna is present in -both, and that they are therefore of the same geological -age.<a id="FNanchor_238" href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">238</a> This was the conclusion to which Dr. Falconer -was led by the examination of the caves of Gower, and -it has been confirmed by every subsequent discovery.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_154"><i>The Pleistocene Coast-line of North-Western Europe.</i></h3> - -<p>The identity of the British pleistocene fauna with that -of the continent, leads to the conclusion that in the -pleistocene age Britain was connected with the adjacent -countries by a bridge of land, over which the wild animals -had free means of migration. And this might be brought -about by a comparatively small elevation of the area. -The soundings show that Britain and Ireland constitute -merely the uplands of a plateau now submerged to the -extent of about 100 fathoms, on the side of the Atlantic. -On the east it extends at a depth of from twenty to -fifty fathoms, in the direction of Belgium; and on the -south it is only sunk from twenty to forty fathoms below -the sea-level. Immediately to the westward of this -line the sea deepens so suddenly, that there is scarcely -any difference between the lines of 100 and of 200<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_363">363</a></span> -fathoms, and the depth rapidly increases to 2,000. Were -this plateau elevated above the sea to an extent of 100<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_364">364</a></span> -fathoms, the tract shaded in the map (<a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>) would -unite the British Isles to the continent, and the Thames -and other rivers on the eastern coast would unite with -the Elbe and the Rhine to form a river debouching on -the North Sea, somewhat after the manner which I have -represented by taking the deepest line of soundings. The -Straits of Dover would then be the watershed between -this valley of the German Ocean, as it may be termed, -and that of the English Channel, in which the Seine and -the Somme and other French rivers joined those of the -south coast, and ultimately reached the Atlantic. Evidence -that the latter river flowed in the course assigned -to it in the map is afforded by the discovery of the -fresh-water mussel (<i class="taxonomy">Unio pictorum</i>), recorded by Mr. -Godwin Austen<a id="FNanchor_239" href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">239</a> to have been dredged up by Captain -White from a depth of from 50 to 100 fathoms, not -very far from what I have taken to be its mouth. We -are also indebted to Mr. Godwin Austen for the -discovery near this spot of banks of shingle and littoral -shells, which indicate the position of the ancient -coast-line.</p> - -<div id="Fig_126" class="figcenter" style="width: 627px;"> - <img src="images/i_363.jpg" width="627" height="850" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><p><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span>—Physiography of Great Britain in Late Pleistocene Age.</p> - - <p>Shaded area = land now submerged; dotted area = region occupied by animals;<br /> - plain area = region occupied by glaciers.</p></div></div> - -<p>The view that the 100-fathom line marks the limit of -the pleistocene land surface to the west, is held by Sir -H. de la Bêche, Mr. Godwin Austen, Sir Charles Lyell, -and other eminent geologists, and it is supported by -many facts that can be explained in no other manner. -To pass over the discovery of a fresh-water shell at the -bottom of the English Channel, quoted above, the distribution -of fossil mammalia at the bottom of the German -Ocean (represented in <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a> by the dotted area) is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_365">365</a></span> -analogous to that which we find in the river gravels and -brick-earths on the land. The quantity of teeth and -bones belonging to the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, -horse, reindeer, and spotted hyæna, and other animals, -dredged up by the fishermen in the German Ocean is -almost incredible. Mr. Owles, of Yarmouth, informed -me in 1868 that off that place there is a bank on which -the fishing nets are rarely cast without bringing up -fossil remains. It seems most probable, that these accumulations -have been formed under subaerial conditions near -the drinking places, or below the fords, which were -used for ages by the pleistocene animals. I might quote -as an example of a similar deposit of fossils on the land, -that discovered in 1866 by Captain Luard, R.E., in -digging the foundations of the new cavalry barracks at -Windsor, which consisted mainly of bones and antlers -of reindeer, with a few carnivores, such as the brown -bear and wolf, that usually follow reindeer in their -migrations in Siberia.<a id="FNanchor_240" href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">240</a> Were this submerged it would -be a case precisely similar to that off Yarmouth.</p> - -<p>The ancient forest, exposed at low water under the -cliffs on the Norfolk and Suffolk shores, flourished when -the land stood higher than it does now. Traces of a -similar forest, also at, and below, low-water mark, have -been met with on the shore at Selsea, near Chichester, -in Sussex; and remains of the mammoth have been -dredged up in several places off the coast, as for example -in Torbay and in Holyhead harbour, or found in gravel -beds near low-water mark, as in the Isle of Wight, and -on the north coast of Somerset at St. Audries, near -Watchet, where a skull with gigantic tusks rested in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_366">366</a></span> -gravel. In all these facts we have ample proof that -Britain stood at a higher level in the pleistocene age -than at the present day.</p> - -<p>The vast abundance also of the mammalia in the caves -of South Wales and Somerset, and their presence in the -Island of Caldy, and it may be added in Ireland, can -only be accounted for by the elevation of the present -sea-bottom, so as to allow of their migration over -plains covered with abundant pasture. It seems, therefore, -to me that the accompanying map, <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>, represents -with tolerable accuracy the ancient coast-line of -Britain, and of the adjacent parts of the continent in -the pleistocene age. The fertile valleys of the English -Channel, Bristol Channel, and the German Ocean, would -afford sustenance to a large and varied fauna, and -numerous herbivores, such as the reindeer, bison, and -horse, would supply food to the palæolithic hunters, who -followed them in their annual migrations. And it must -be remarked on this hypothesis, that the valley of the -Garonne would offer a free passage both to the animals -and to the hunters of Auvergne down to the prairie, extending -as far as the 100-fathom line off the French -coast, and that the hunting grounds would reach to -Devonshire and Somerset without any barrier except that -offered by the rivers. It is therefore no wonder that the -implements in the caves of Kent’s Hole, Wookey Hole, -and the South of France, should be of the same type.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_155"><i>Distribution of Palæolithic Implements in this Area.</i></h3> - -<p>This geographical configuration in pleistocene times -may perhaps account for the distribution of the palæolithic -implements in the river gravels. The Seine and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_367">367</a></span> -the Somme debouch into the same valley as the rivers of -the south of England, and the Straits of Dover mark the -position of a low watershed leading into the valley of -the German Ocean, on the sides of which, in the eastern -counties, river-bed implements are so numerous. These -are of the same type in northern France, Sussex, Hampshire, -Kent, and as far north as the Wash; and were -therefore used by the same race of men. The difference -between them and those of the cave-dwellers in the south -and west, may be due to their possessors occupying different -hunting grounds. Each tribe of American Indians -at the present time has its own territory for hunting, -which is jealously guarded against encroachment, and -in which the articles peculiar to the tribe are being -accumulated in the refuse-heaps, while other sets are -being accumulated in other districts. If we suppose that -the palæolithic savages divided up their hunting grounds -in this manner, the difference which exists between the -implements of the river-beds and caves may be readily -explained, as well as their being found for the most part -in different areas.</p> - -<p>The pleistocene climate in the area north of the Alps -and Pyrenees will be treated in the <a href="#CHAPTER_XI">eleventh</a> chapter, -after the examination of the cave-fauna of southern -Europe.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_368">368</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.<br /> - -<span class="subhead center">THE FAUNA OF THE CAVES OF SOUTHERN EUROPE AND THE -EVIDENCE AS TO THE MEDITERRANEAN COAST-LINE IN -THE PLEISTOCENE AGE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote class="inhead"> - -<p>Changes of Level in the Mediterranean area in Meiocene and Pleiocene -Ages.—Bone-caves of Southern Europe.—Of Gibraltar.—Of Provence -and Mentone.—Of Sicily.—Of Malta.—Range of Pigmy -Hippopotamus.—Fossil Mammalia in Algeria.—Living Species common -to Europe and Africa.—Evidence of Soundings.—The Glaciers -of Lebanon.—Of Anatolia.—Of Atlas.—Glaciers probably produced -by elevation above the Sea.—Mediterranean Coast-line comparatively -modern.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="in0">In the preceding chapter we have seen that north-western -Europe was elevated, during the pleistocene age, to an -extent of at least 600 feet above its present level; so -that Ireland was united to Britain, and Britain was -joined to the mainland of Europe, proof of this elevation -being dependent upon the soundings on one hand, -and the distribution of the fossil mammalia on the other. -Such a change must necessarily have affected the whole -physical conditions of the area, since the substitution of -a mass of land for a stretch of sea, and the higher altitude -of the land, would tend to produce climatal extremes of -considerable severity. It is indeed no wonder that -during this time of continental elevation, the hills of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_369">369</a></span> -Wales, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Cumbria, and Scotland -should be crowned with glaciers, or that there should -have been a migration to and fro of animals, comparable -to that which is now going on in Siberia and the -northern portions of North America. The condition of -southern Europe at that time has a most important -bearing on any conclusion which may be drawn as to -the pleistocene climate in France, Germany, or Britain. -For if it be proved that the Mediterranean Sea was then -smaller than it is now, the greater land-surface would -increase both the heat of the summer and the cold of -the winter in central and north-western Europe.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_156"><i>Changes of Level in Mediterranean area in Meiocene -and Pleiocene Ages.</i></h3> - -<p>The geological evidence that the Mediterranean region -has been subjected to oscillations of level during -the tertiary period, is clear and decisive. Prof. Gaudry<a id="FNanchor_241" href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">241</a> -has proved, in his work on the fossil remains found at -Pikermi, that the plains of Marathon, now so restricted, -must have extended in the meiocene age far south into -the Mediterranean, so as to afford pasture to the enormous -troops of hipparions and herds of antelopes, the mastodons -and large edentata, revealed by his enterprise. The -rocky area of Attica, as now constituted, could not have -supported such a large and varied group of animals, nor -could the broken hills and limestone plateaux have been -inhabited by hipparions and antelopes, if their habits at -all resembled those of their descendants living at the -present time. It may, therefore, reasonably be concluded<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_370">370</a></span> -that Greece, in those times, was prolonged southwards, -and united to the islands of the Archipelago by a stretch -of land. If Africa were then as now the head-quarters -of the antelopes, it is very probable that one of the lines -by which they passed over into Europe, and spread over -France and Germany, was in this direction. Nevertheless, -it must be admitted that the changes of level, which -have taken place since the meiocene age in those regions, -are so complicated as to render it almost impossible to -restore the meiocene geography.</p> - -<p>In the succeeding, or the pleiocene age, the presence -of the African hippopotamus in Italy, France, and Germany, -can only be accounted for by a more direct connection -with the African mainland than is offered by a -route through Asia Minor. It would seem, therefore, -that the Mediterranean Sea could not then have formed -the same barrier to the northern migration of the animals -which it does now. In many regions, however, the -present land was then sunk beneath the sea, and marine -strata, of pleiocene age, were accumulated in the Val -d’Arno, Sicily, and southern France.</p> - -<p>The physical geography<a id="FNanchor_242" href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">242</a> of the Mediterranean in the -pleistocene age may be ascertained with considerable -accuracy by the distribution of the animals, coupled with -the evidence of the soundings.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_157"><i>Bone-caves of Southern Europe.</i></h3> - -<p>The mammalia in the bone-caves of southern Europe -differ from those of the region north of the Alps and -Pyrenees in the absence of the arctic species, and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_371">371</a></span> -presence of some which are of a more strictly southern -type. Nevertheless, the influence of the mountains in -lowering the temperature in their neighbourhood is to be -traced in the presence of the remains of certain animals. -Thus, in the caves of Gibraltar we find an ibex, which -cannot be distinguished from those of the Spanish sierras, -and in Mentone and Provence, a marmot, specifically -identical with that of the Alps.</p> - -<p>The bone-caves in the neighbourhood of the Mediterranean -afford most important testimony as to the geographical -changes which have taken place, since the -animals found in them lived in that region. We will -take those of the Iberian peninsula first.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_158"><i>Caves of Gibraltar.</i></h3> - -<p>Ossiferous caverns have long been known to occur in -the fortified rock of Gibraltar,<a id="FNanchor_243" href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">243</a> but were not examined -scientifically until the year 1863, when the researches of -Captain Brome, Prof. Busk, and Dr. Falconer, proved that -pleistocene species were buried in considerable numbers -in its cavities and fissures. Of these the most important -is the great perpendicular fissure in Windmill Hill, called -the Genista cave, which has been traced down to more -than a depth of 200 feet. From the upper portion -were obtained the polished stone implements, human -skulls, and other neolithic remains described in the -<a href="#CHAPTER_VI">sixth</a> chapter, <a href="#Page_204">p. 204</a>, which prove that Gibraltar was -inhabited by the Basques in the neolithic age, while -the remains from the lower revealed the presence of a -singularly mixed group of animals.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_372">372</a></span> -The fossil bones have been referred by Prof. Busk and -Dr. Falconer to the following <span class="locked">species:—</span></p> - -<p id="list_372" class="in0 in4"> -<i class="taxonomy">Lepus cuniculus</i>, rabbit.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Felis leo</i>, lion.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">F. pardus</i>, panther.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">F. caffer.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">F. pardina</i>, lynx.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">F. serval</i>, serval.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Ursus ferox</i>, grizzly bear.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Canis lupus</i>, wolf.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>, horse.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Capra ibex</i>, ibex.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>, wild-boar.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Cervus elaphus</i>, red deer.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. capreolus</i>, roe.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. dama</i>, fallow deer. -</p> - -<p>The spotted hyæna, the serval, and <i class="taxonomy">Felis caffer</i>, are -species now peculiar to Africa, and it is obvious that -they could not have found their way into Gibraltar -under the present physical conditions of the Mediterranean. -Elephants and rhinoceroses could not have lived -on so barren and treeless a rock, unless it had overlooked -a fertile plain, nor would the carnivora have chosen it -for their dens, had it then been cut off from the feeding-grounds -of the herbivores. Their presence, therefore, as -Dr. Falconer justly remarks, implies the existence of -land now sunk beneath the waves, but then extending -southwards to join Africa.</p> - -<p>To the African animals, mentioned above as inhabiting -the Iberian peninsula in the pleistocene age, M. -Lartet has added the African elephant (<i class="taxonomy">E. Africanus</i>) -and the striped hyæna (<i class="taxonomy">II. striata</i>), which have been -found in a stratum of gravel near Madrid along with -flint implements.<a id="FNanchor_244" href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">244</a> None of the purely arctic mammalia, -such as the reindeer, musk sheep, or woolly rhinoceros, -so abundant in France, Germany, and Britain, have been -met with south of the Pyrenees.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_373">373</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_159"><i>Bone-caves of Provence and Mentone.</i></h3> - -<p>The arctic animals are also absent from the numerous -bone-caves and bone breccias of Provence and Mentone. -The pleistocene fauna of Provence consists, according to -M. Marion,<a id="FNanchor_245" href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">245</a> of the spotted hyæna, and lion, <i class="taxonomy">Elephas -antiquus</i> or straight-tusked elephant, <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i>, -wild-boar, urus, stag, horse, and rabbit. The -breccias in the island of Ratonneau have also furnished -the porcupine, brown bear, and tailless hare. Man is -proved to have been living in the district at the time by -the discovery of perforated and cut bones, in the cave of -Rians.</p> - -<p>The fissures and caves of Mentone, explored by Mr. -Moggridge<a id="FNanchor_246" href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">246</a> in 1871, and subsequently by M. Rivière, -contained a fauna composed, according to Prof. Busk, of -the following <span class="locked">species:—</span></p> - -<p id="list_373" class="in0 in4"> -Marmot.<br /> -Field-vole.<br /> -Lion.<br /> -Panther.<br /> -Lynx.<br /> -Wild-cat.<br /> -Spotted hyæna.<br /> -Wolf.<br /> -Fox.<br /> -Brown bear.<br /> -Cave-bear.<br /> -Roe.<br /> -Stag.<br /> -Ibex.<br /> -Urus.<br /> -Horse.<br /> -Wild-boar.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus.</i> -</p> - -<p>Along with these were large quantities of charcoal -and flint flakes, which proved that man had inhabited -the district while the deposits were being formed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_374">374</a></span> -Mr. Moggridge gives the following account of the -results of his exploration:—<a id="FNanchor_247" href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">247</a></p> - -<p>“The caves of the red rocks, half a mile out of Mentone, -are in lofty rocks of jurassic limestone on the shore -of the Mediterranean, and at an average height of 100 -feet above that sea, the rocks themselves attaining an -elevation of 260 feet. They have now been repeatedly -rifled by the learned or the curious; but when the -principal cave (Cavillon) was nearly intact, the author -made a section of it from the modern or highest floor, -down to the solid rock. There were five floors formed -in the earth by long-continued trampling; on each, and -near the centre, were marks of fire, around which broken -bones and flints were abundant, except upon the lowest, -where but few bones occurred, and no flints. The bones -were those of animals still existing. Few implements -were found, but many chips of flint, some cores and -stones used as hammers. Perhaps this cave was used as -a place for manufacturing flints, which must have been -carried from their native bed, distant about one mile.</p> - -<p>“There is nothing to evince the action of water; on -the contrary, the numerous stones that occur are all -angular.... Below these caves a slope of about 180 -feet descends to the edge of the sea. Through the upper -part of this slope, at distances from the cave of from 0 -to ten feet, is a railway cutting 600 feet long, fifty-four -feet deep, and sixty feet above the sea. The mass removed -in making this cutting was composed of angular -stones not waterworn. Loose at the surface, it soon -became a more or less mature breccia, for the most part -so hard that it was blasted with gunpowder.” In this -breccia, and at various depths, some of more than thirty<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_375">375</a></span> -feet, the author has taken out teeth of the bear (<i class="taxonomy">Ursus -spelæus</i>) and of the hyæna (<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna spelæa</i>) while with -and below those teeth he found flints worked by man.</p> - -<p>The subsequent exploration by M. Rivière<a id="FNanchor_248" href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">248</a> has resulted -in no important addition to the fauna: the famous -human skeleton having been, as I have already remarked -in the <a href="#CHAPTER_VII">seventh</a> chapter, interred in the pleistocene strata, -and probably not palæolithic. It may possibly be of the -era of the upper floors described by Mr. Moggridge, in -which all the remains belong to living species.<a id="FNanchor_249" href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">249</a></p> - -<p>This cave-fauna is more closely related to that of -southern Europe than to that north of the Alps and -Pyrenees. The striped hyæna found in the cave of -Lunel-viel, Hérault, by Marcel de Serres, along with -the reindeer and other animals, probably belongs to the -same southern group.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_160"><i>Bone-caves of Sicily.</i></h3> - -<p>Certain members of the African fauna are also proved -to have ranged northwards over Europe in the direction -of Sicily, by the discoveries in the caves of that island. -The Sicilian bone-caves have been worked for the sake<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_376">376</a></span> -of the bones since the year 1829; and of these many -shiploads were sent to Marseilles from San Ciro, belonging, -according to M. de Christol, principally to the -hippopotamus. In 1859,<a id="FNanchor_250" href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">250</a> Dr. Falconer examined the -collections made from this cave, as well as those which -remained <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in situ</i>, and carried on further researches into -a second in the neighbourhood, known as the Grotto di -Maccagnone, and in the following year two others were -discovered and explored in northern Sicily by Baron -Anca. The species were as <span class="locked">follows:—</span></p> - -<p id="list_376" class="in0 in4"> -<i class="taxonomy">Homo</i>, man.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Felis leo</i>, lion.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna crocuta</i>, spotted hyæna.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Ursus ferox</i>,<a id="FNanchor_251" href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">251</a> grizzly bear.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Canis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Cervus</i>, deer.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Bos</i>, ox.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Equus</i>, horse.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>, boar.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Elephas Africanus</i>, African elephant.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus major</i>, hippopotamus.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus Pentlandi.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Lepus.</i> -</p> - -<p>The presence of man was indicated by charcoal and -flint flakes.</p> - -<p>The African elephant was obtained from three caves: -from that of San Teodoro, by Baron Anca; from Grotta -Santa, near Syracuse, by the Canon Alessi; and from a -cave near Palermo, by M. Charles Gaudin. It is obvious -that the presence of this animal, as well as of the spotted -hyæna, in Sicily can only be accounted for on the hypothesis -that a bridge of land formerly existed, by which -they could pass from their head-quarters, that is to say -Africa. On the other hand the presence of the grizzly -bear, and of the <i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i> implies that they<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_377">377</a></span> -passed over into Sicily, from their European headquarters, -before the existence of the Straits of Messina, -since both animals are abundant on the mainland of -Europe. The larger species of hippopotamus, doubtfully -referred by Dr. Falconer to the <i class="taxonomy">H. major</i> (= <i class="taxonomy">H. amphibius</i>), -may have crossed over either from Italy, where -its remains are very abundant in the pleiocene and -pleistocene strata, or from Africa.</p> - -<div id="Fig_127" class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;"> - <img src="images/i_377.jpg" width="289" height="175" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span>—Molar of <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus Pentlandi</i> (1/1). (Sicily.)</div></div> - -<p>A small species of hippopotamus, <i class="taxonomy">H. Pentlandi</i>, <a href="#Fig_127">Fig. 127</a>, occurs in incredible abundance in the Sicilian caves. -It bears the same relation, in point of size, to the fossil -variety of the African hippopotamus, as the living <i class="taxonomy">H. -liberiensis</i> does to the latter.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_161"><i>Bone-caves of Malta.</i></h3> - -<p>The bone-caves of Malta were first scientifically explored -by Admiral Spratt, in 1858, and subsequently by -Dr. Leith Adams, and others. The Maghlak Cave near -the town of Crendi, contained large quantities of the -<i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus Pentlandi</i>, together with the gigantic -dormouse, named <i class="taxonomy">Myoxus Melitensis</i>. A short distance -off a second cavern, explored by Dr. Leith Adams, contained -numerous remains of at least two species of pigmy<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_378">378</a></span> -elephant about the height of a small horse. Its small size -may be gathered from the accompanying woodcut (<a href="#Fig_128">Fig. 128</a>) of the last lower true molar, taken from the lithograph -published in Dr. Falconer’s “Palæontographical -Memoirs,” vol. ii. pl. xii.</p> - -<div id="Fig_128" class="figcenter" style="width: 437px;"> - <img src="images/i_378.jpg" width="437" height="145" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span>—Molar of <i class="taxonomy">Elephas Melitensis</i>, Malta (2/3). (Falconer.)</div></div> - -<h3 id="hdr_162"><i>Range of Pigmy Hippopotamus.</i></h3> - -<p>The pigmy hippopotamus has lived also in other districts -in the Mediterranean region. One of its teeth, -now preserved in the British Museum, was discovered -by Dr. Leith Adams, in Candia. In 1872 I identified -in the Oxford Museum a last lower true molar, which -extends the range of this species to the mainland of -Europe. It was obtained by Dr. Rolleston from a -Greek tomb at Megalopolis, in the Peloponese, and was -probably derived from one of the many caves in the -limestone of that district. For this extinct animal to -have spread from Sicily to Malta, from Malta to Candia, -and from Candia to the Peloponese, or vice versâ, these -three islands must have been united to the Peloponese -and have been the higher grounds of land, now submerged -beneath the waves of the Mediterranean.</p> - -<p>The view therefore, advanced by Dr. Falconer and -Admiral Spratt, that Europe was connected with Africa<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_379">379</a></span> -by a bridge of land, extending northwards from Sicily, -is fully borne out by an examination of the fossil -remains both of that island and of Malta (see <a href="#Fig_129">Fig. 129</a>).<a id="FNanchor_252" href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">252</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_163"><i>Fossil Mammalia in Algeria.</i></h3> - -<p>If the African mainland extended to Europe in the -direction of the Straits of Gibraltar, and of Malta and -Sicily, so as to afford passage for the African mammalia -into Europe, it would equally afford passage for the -southern advance into Africa of some of the European -mammalia. Evidence of this we meet with in a stratum -of clay at Mansourah, near Constantine, in Algeria, -described by M. Bayle in 1854.<a id="FNanchor_253" href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">253</a> The animals which he -obtained, consisting of the ox, antelope, hippopotamus, -and elephant, have been described by Prof. Gervais. -An examination of his figure of a fragment of a molar -tooth leaves no room for doubt, that the <i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i> -was living in north Africa during the pleistocene -age; that is to say an extinct animal, the head-quarters -of which are to be found in Italy, ranged as far south -as northern Africa.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_164"><i>Living Species common to Europe and Africa.</i></h3> - -<p>The former continuity of Africa by way of the Iberian -peninsula and Sicily, may also be inferred by the -distribution of the mammalia at the present time. -Prof. Gervais<a id="FNanchor_254" href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">254</a> observes that most of the insectivora are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_380">380</a></span> -the same in Europe and north Africa. The genette and -ferret (<i class="taxonomy">Fœtorius furo</i>), the <i class="taxonomy">Mangousta Widdringtoni</i> -(Gray), and the fallow deer, are common to Spain -and Africa. The porcupine of Algeria belongs to the -same species as that of Italy and Sicily, and the wild -boar does not present any characters of importance by -which it can be separated from that of Europe. From -the present range, therefore, of the mammalia the same -conclusion may be drawn as to the continuity of Africa -with Europe as is afforded by their distribution in the -pleistocene age.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_165"><i>Evidence of Soundings.</i></h3> - -<p>These conclusions derived from the study of the -mammalia, are corroborated and supplemented by the -evidence of the soundings. As we enter the Straits of -Gibraltar (<a href="#Fig_129">Fig. 129</a>) the Atlantic Ocean shallows, until -between Tangiers and Tarifa it is not more than from -270 to 300 fathoms. Between Tarifa and Ceuta the -sea measures from 300 to 400 fathoms, and thence, in -passing eastwards, suddenly deepens to the extent of -over 1,500 fathoms. An elevation of 400 fathoms -would be quite sufficient to raise a barrier of land -between Morocco and Spain, and to insulate the deep -Mediterranean basin from the Atlantic. The soundings -between Sicily and Tunis are 260 fathoms; between the -former place and Malta, 55 fathoms; between Malta -and the African mainland, 34·4 fathoms. An elevation -of 400 fathoms would suffice therefore to connect Africa -with Sicily, and to insulate the eastern from the western -Mediterranean depths. To the east of Sicily the soundings -reveal a depth of over 2,000 fathoms, and this deep<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_381">381</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_382">382</a></span> -basin extends as far to the east as Cyprus and Asia -Minor. Between Candia and the Peloponese, the sea is -460 fathoms deep. An elevation therefore from 400 to -500 fathoms would allow of the passage of <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus -Pentlandi</i> from Candia to the Peloponese, and -thence by southern Italy into Sicily and Malta. I have -therefore represented in the map what would be the -necessary result of the elevation of the bottom of the -Mediterranean to that extent. Two great barriers of -land would unite Africa with Spain and Italy, and -enable the African mammalia to find their way into -the regions north of the Mediterranean Sea. The -shallowness of the sea at those two points indicates the -existence of the sunken barriers. The African elephant -however did not pass far northwards, since it has only -been met with in Spain and Sicily.</p> - -<div id="Fig_129" class="figcenter" style="width: 852px;"> - <img src="images/i_381.jpg" width="852" height="535" alt="" /> - <div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 129.</span>—Physiography of Mediterranean in Pleistocene Age.</div></div> - -<p>Such a change in level as this would convert the -Adriatic into dry land, and cause the islands of the -Grecian Archipelago to rise high above the surrounding -plains. The 500-fathom line is therefore taken to represent -the probable sea margin of the pleistocene age, -although in centres of volcanic activity, such as Sicily -and the Archipelago, local changes of level, even of -greater magnitude, may have taken place.</p> - -<p>This view of the former elevation of the Mediterranean -area to a height of from two to three thousand feet above -the present level will go far to explain the remarkable -traces of glaciers discovered in Syria, Anatolia, and -Morocco.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_166"><i>The Glaciers of Lebanon.</i></h3> - -<p>Dr. Hooker, in his journey to Syria in 1860, discovered -that the cedars of Lebanon grew principally on one<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_383">383</a></span> -spot, on old moraines which traverse the head of the -Kedisha valley. This valley terminates in broad, shallow, -open basins at a height of about 6,000 feet above -the sea, resembling the corries of the Highlands; and -one of these, in which the cedars grew, was divided -into two distinct flats by a transverse range of ancient -moraines from 80 to 100 feet high and with perfectly -defined boundaries. “The rills from the surrounding -heights collect in the upper flat, and form one stream, -which winds among the moraines on its way down to -the lower flat, whence it is precipitated into the gorge of -the Kedisha. The cedars grow on that portion of the -moraine which immediately borders this stream, and -nowhere else; they form one group about 400 yards -in diameter, with an outstanding tree or two not -far from the rest, and appear as a black speck in the -great area of the corry and its moraines, which contain -no other arborious vegetation, nor any shrubs, but a few -berberry and rose bushes that form no feature in the -landscape.”<a id="FNanchor_255" href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">255</a></p> - -<p>In ancient times, therefore, the glaciers descended to a -height of about 6,000 feet above the sea, and were fed -by the perennial snow-fields of the crest of Lebanon.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_167"><i>The Glaciers of Anatolia.</i></h3> - -<p>The former presence of glaciers at nearly the same -altitude has also been proved by the travels of Mr. -Gifford Palgrave in Anatolia,<a id="FNanchor_256" href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">256</a> especially in the valley -through which the Chorok flows, and in the mountainous -country to the north-east, between Georgia and the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_384">384</a></span> -Black Sea. The river Chorok runs about 120 miles in -a north-easterly direction, and is separated from the -Euxine by a mountain chain reaching a height of 11,000 -feet, thus forming a long strip of land, which is called -Lazistan after its inhabitants, a tribe of Lazes. It then -turns suddenly to the north, where it falls into the sea. -The southern side is determined by mountains of Cretaceous, -Jurassic, and Plutonic rocks, which form the -watershed between the tributaries of the Black Sea and -Persian Gulf. Three large moraines are to be found on -the southern side of the valley, their lower extremity -about 5,000, their upper origin nearly 8,000 feet above -the sea. No moraines are seen where the chain does -not reach an altitude of 7,000 feet, though angular -boulders are not uncommon. The upper mountain -contours are invariably rounded, and smoothed off, and -the sides are scooped too widely for the depressions to -have been caused by water. Low down in the valley -the slopes terminate in rifted precipices.</p> - -<p>That these moraines were posterior to the volcanic -eruptions in the district, is evident from the examination -of a broad stone ridge, near the highest point to the east -of Erzeroum, where at a height of 7,000 feet the Jurassic -limestone was interrupted by a volcanic outbreak of -several miles in extent. Traces of a crater were visible. -Above, the granite peaks rose to a height of 9,000 feet; -below, a wide moraine crossed the road, composed of -volcanic fragments mixed with granite. Consequently, -it must have been formed after the volcano had become -extinct. Similar traces are to be found at Keskeem -Boughaz. Mr. Palgrave concludes “that the ice-cap of -the north-eastern Anatolian watershed, in post-pleiocene -(pleistocene) times, must have reached downwards, on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_385">385</a></span> -the northern side of the range, to 7,000 feet above the -present sea-level, while some of the glaciers issuing from -it descended to about 4,500 of the same measurement.” -Striated and ice-worn boulders, especially of granite, -were very abundant. This region, it must be observed, -is within sight of the lofty granite range of Tortoom, -which is “streaked with perpetual snow.”</p> - -<p>After leaving the Chorok valley and getting on to the -watershed, at a distance of fifty miles to the north-east, Mr. -Palgrave reached the main ridge or backbone of the land. -Here, among the limestone ledges, about 6,400 feet above -the sea, is a colossal moraine, formed of worn granite -blocks, partly overgrown with forest, and descending from -a height of over 8,000 feet. It is divided, by a valley, -from a lofty undulating granite plateau that is scooped -out here and there into deep oval lakes, always full of -blue water. The sides of the plateau are strewn with -boulders of granite, brought from the higher peaks about -five miles off. These boulders occur in greater or less -abundance down to the basin of the Ardahan, near the -sources of the Kur or Cyras, which joins the Araxes -before flowing into the Caspian. The height of this -Ardahan basin is about 6,500 feet; it is, but for a slight -easterly slope, a water level. The bottom consists of -deep alluvial soil mixed with detritus and boulders; the -sides are rounded and smoothed, and bear every mark of -long ice-covering. These plateaux, studded with lakes, -stretch east to Russo-Georgia, till their greatest height is -gained at Kel Dagh, a mountain about 11,000 feet high: -thence they descend to the plains of Georgia and the -Black Sea.</p> - -<p>No glacial marks have been observed on the seaward -side of the range, except at Hamshun in the Lazistan<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_386">386</a></span> -mountains, between the River Riom and Trebizond. -Here, at 6,900 feet, is a granite-strewn plateau, thinly -green with grass, sheltered from the sea by lofty peaks -on the north-west, and backed to the south-east by -tremendous jagged granite cliffs, the highest 12,500 -feet above the sea. The plateau itself is about forty -miles in length, irregular in breadth, its surface rounded -and jotted over with boulders. But just as my track -led near under the base of Verehembek, at an altitude -of 8,300 feet, it crossed a large broad moraine, descending -from the higher slopes, and having its base in a broad -bare valley not far below, which showed that here, at -the highest and widest part of the Lazistan chain, -perpetual ice had once existed in sufficient quantity to -furnish at least one glacier. From this case it seems -that the limited ice-cap of the Hamshun highlands -extended no further down than 8,500 or 9,000 feet, thus -differing by a line of from 1,000 to 2,000 feet from the -glacial covering of the inland range.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_168"><i>The Glaciers of the Atlas Mountains.</i></h3> - -<p>Similar traces of glaciers have been observed in the -Atlas mountains by Mr. George Maw,<a id="FNanchor_257" href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">257</a> in his travels -in Morocco with Dr. Hooker and Mr. Ball in 1871. -“After four hours’ continued ascent,” he writes (p. 19), -“the termination of the glen comes into full view, and -we observe with great interest that it is closed by a -group of moraines, proving the former existence of -glaciers in the Atlas, and confirming my opinion that -the great boulder beds flanking the chain are also of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_387">387</a></span> -glacial origin. Two villages, probably the highest in the -Atlas, are built on the principal moraine; Eitmasan, at -its base, at a height of 6,000 feet, and Arroond, near its -summit, at a height of 6,800 feet; the terminal angle of -the larger moraine having a vertical height of 800 feet. -It is composed of immense blocks of porphyry, lying -at a steep angle of repose, up which it takes us nearly -an hour to climb. The existence of these moraines in -latitude 30½° N. (the latitude of Alexandria) is perhaps -the most interesting fact we noticed during our journey, -for this is the most southerly point at which the evidence -of extinct glaciers has been observed, and tends to confirm -the opinion entertained by many geologists, that -the refrigeration during the glacial period was almost -Universal.”</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_169"><i>Glaciers probably the result of elevation above the Sea.</i></h3> - -<p>The elevation of the African moraines above the sea, -of about 6,000 feet and upwards, is nearly the same as -those of Asia Minor. If the mountains of the Atlas, -Lazistan, and Lebanon shared in the upward movement -of the Mediterranean area, the addition of 3,000 feet to -the height could not fail to leave marks behind of the -low temperature thereby caused. It is very probable, -that during the time the Mediterranean was reduced to -two land-locked seas, these mountains were covered with -snow-fields, and constituted the ice-sheds of glaciers.</p> - -<p>From the range of the mammalia we have inferred the -existence of land barriers, extending across from Africa -to Spain and Italy, and from Candia to Greece, and their -actual existence beneath the sea has been proved by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_388">388</a></span> -soundings, which necessitate an elevation of from 400 -to 500 fathoms to bring them above the sea-level. We -have also seen that the higher mountains, which most -probably participated in this upward movement, bear -traces of a lower temperature in the moraines of the -Atlas and Lazistan. The hypothesis of such an elevation -during the pleistocene age may therefore be taken to be -proved so far as it explains two widely different classes of -facts, the distribution of the mammals and the existence -of glaciers where they are now unknown.</p> - -<p>The physical condition of the Mediterranean area, in -the pleistocene age, may be summed up as follows. The -mainland of Africa extended northwards to join Europe, -in the direction of Gibraltar and Italy. The islands of -Malta and Sicily were hilly plateaux, overlooking an -undulatory plain. Corsica and Sardinia were joined to -Italy, Majorca and Minorca to Spain, Candia to Peloponese, -and Cyprus to Asia Minor. The area now occupied -by the Adriatic Sea constituted the lower valley of the -Po, and the Archipelago was a plain studded with -volcanic cones; and at the same time glaciers crowned the -higher mountains of northern Africa and of Asia Minor.</p> - -<p>The substitution of land for a stretch of sea, in the -Mediterranean, could not fail to cause the summer heat -to be more intense in the region to the north than at -the present time, while the increased elevation would -produce a greater severity of winter cold, as Mr. Godwin -Austen has pointed out in the case of the hills of -Devonshire. When, indeed, we consider that the pleistocene -land surface extended from the snowy heights -of Atlas, as far north as the 100-fathom line off the -coast of Ireland, we might expect to find African animals, -such as the spotted hyæna and <i class="taxonomy">Felis caffer</i>, ranging as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_389">389</a></span> -far north as Yorkshire, for the only barrier to their -migration would be that offered by the severity of -a pleistocene winter.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_170"><i>Mediterranean Coast-line comparatively modern.</i></h3> - -<p>The submergence of the barriers, and the constitution -of the Mediterranean as we find it now, have probably -taken place but a short time ago, from the geological -point of view, though we know that for the last -3,000 years the coast-line has been on the whole -unchanged, except from the silting out of the sea by the -sediment of rivers, such as the Po, and the elevation -and depression of small areas by volcanic energy, as at -Santorin. The physical character of the shores testifies -to the truth of this view.</p> - -<p>“On entering the Straits of Gibraltar,” Mr. Maw -writes, “from the Atlantic, a notable change takes place -in the aspect of the coast. Cape St. Vincent, on the -Atlantic coast, presents a bold line of cliffs to the sea, -and bluff cliffs extend many miles towards the Straits; -but as soon as these are passed, a change of coast-form -takes place, which must be noticeable to every observer. -Cliffs on the sea-board become the exception, and the -general line of the coast is merely a shelving under the -sea of the general hill-and-valley system of the land, the -sea running up all the depressions, and the land elevations -spreading out into the sea with scarcely any abrupt -cliff-line of demarcation. The uneven sea-bottom of the -Straits seems to be a continuation of the contour of the -adjacent land, consisting of rolling alternations of hill -and valley, which must have received its conformation -by subaerial agencies.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_390">390</a></span> -“Corsica, and the adjacent islands of Elba, Capraja, -and Monte Christo, are also remarkable for the absence -of cliffs, and are wanting in those abrupt escarpements -separating land and water which are so abundant on our -own coasts. Their aspect is that of mountain-tops -rising out of the sea, suggesting to the eye the seaward -prolongation of their subaerial contour of sloping hillsides -and river-cut valleys, as though the sea had not -stood sufficiently long at its present level to excavate an -escarpement. The deep intersecting bays that occur along -the coast from Marseilles to the Riviera suggest the -same conclusion, the undulating land surface spreading -down to the water’s edge, and the deep bays running up -the intervening valleys, which must have had an origin -common with that of their landward prolongations.”</p> - -<p>It is impossible to shut our eyes to the full force of -this reasoning. The present aspect of the Mediterranean -is, geologically speaking, a thing of yesterday.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_171"><i>Changes of Level in the Sahara coincident with those -in the Mediterranean.</i></h3> - -<p>But if the Mediterranean area has been depressed to an -amount of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet since the pleistocene -age, we have proof that the region to the south has been -elevated to that extent in comparatively modern times. -Mr. Maw,<a id="FNanchor_258" href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">258</a> in his journey in 1873 to the Northern -Sahara, observed raised beaches at a height of 2,000 feet, -and loam and shingle-beds as high as 2,700 feet. He -therefore concludes that the part of the Sahara which he -explored had been raised at least 3,000 feet above the -sea. These changes of level, the same in amount, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_391">391</a></span> -in opposite directions, were probably compensatory and -simultaneous. Northern Africa may have been cut off -from the central and southern portions of the continent -by the sea extending over the Sahara, during the time -that the Mediterranean was represented by the two inland -salt lakes figured in the accompanying map (<a href="#Fig_129">Fig. 129</a>). And while the region of the Sahara was being -elevated, that of the Mediterranean was probably being -depressed.</p> - -<p>These changes in the relation of sea to land, and the -greater elevation of the mountains in the neighbouring -countries, must have affected not merely the climate of -southern, but also of north-western Europe, and ought -not to be left out of account in any theory relating to -pleistocene climate.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_392">392</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">THE EUROPEAN CLIMATE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE.</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote class="inhead"> - -<p>The evidence of the Mammalia as to Climate.—The Southern Group.—The -Northern Group.—Probable cause of Association of Northern -and Southern Groups.—The Temperate Group.—Species common -to Cold and Tropical Climates.—Extinct Species.—Two Periods -of Glaciation in Britain.—Three Climatal Changes represented on -the Continent.—Europe invaded by Pleistocene Mammals before -the Glacial Period.—Mammals lived in Britain during the -Second Ice or Glacial Stage.—The Glacial Period does not -separate one Life-era from another.—Relation of Palæolithic -Man to Glacial Period.—Age of Contents of Caves in Glaciated -Districts.</p></blockquote> - -<h3 id="hdr_172"><i>The Evidence of the Mammalia as to Climate.</i></h3> - -<p class="in0">In the last three chapters we have seen that the -cave-mammalia throw great light on the pleistocene -geography of Europe, and that there is reason for the -belief that the land surface then extended northwards -and westwards, so as to include Ireland; and southwards -to join Africa, in the direction of Sicily, Malta, and -Gibraltar. We must now pass on to the consideration -of the climate on this great continental area, which -would allow of so large and varied a fauna existing in -our quarter of the world.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_393">393</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_173"><i>The Southern Group of Animals.</i></h3> - -<p>The pleistocene fauna is remarkable for the mixture -of species. It consists of forms now banished to South -Africa, Northern Asia, and America, or to the severe -climate of high mountains, mingled with those which -lived in Europe in the historic age, and those which have -wholly disappeared from the face of the earth. We will -take the living species first.</p> - -<p>The southern group consists of the following <span class="locked">animals:—</span></p> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -Lion.<br /> -Caffir Cat.<br /> -Spotted Hyæna.<br /> -Striped Hyæna.<br /> -Serval.<br /> -Hippopotamus.<br /> -African Elephant.<br /> -Porcupine. -</p> - -<p>At the present day the lion ranges over the whole of -Africa, with the exception of Egypt and the Cape -Colony, whence it has been driven out by the hand of -man. In Asia, the maneless variety inhabits the valley -of the Tigris and Euphrates, and the districts bordering -on the Persian Gulf; and in India, according to Mr. -Blyth, the province of Kattywar in Guzerat. Although -now only found in these hot regions, it is proved, -by the concurrent testimony of Herodotus, Aristotle, -Xenophon, Ælian, and Pausanias, to have inhabited the -mountains of Thrace, and of Asia Minor, and it probably -became extinct in Europe before the end of the first -century after Christ.<a id="FNanchor_259" href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">259</a> We may therefore infer that it -possessed a sufficient elasticity of constitution to endure<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_394">394</a></span> -a considerable degree of cold, although its present distribution -implies that it is better fitted to thrive in a -tropical than in a cold climate. The Caffir cat (<i class="taxonomy">Felis -caffer</i> of Desmarest) is an African species, which has -been discovered by Mr. Ayshford Sanford and myself, -in Somersetshire; it also occurs in the caves of Germany, -France, and Gibraltar. The spotted hyæna now -lives only in South Africa, while the striped species -ranges through Africa and the warmer regions of Asia. -It was extremely rare in Europe in the pleistocene age, -and has not been identified in any deposit further north -than Lunelviel, in southern France. The hippopotamus, -now found only in middle and southern Africa, is proved -by its fossil remains to have formerly dwelt in the region -of the Lower Nile, as well as in Algeria. The serval and -African elephant have been found in the Iberian peninsula, -and the latter in Sicily.</p> - -<p>The evidence afforded by the animals, as to the pleistocene -climate of those portions of Europe which they -inhabited, differs considerably in point of value, but on -the whole indicates that it was temperate, or comparatively -hot; for although the elasticity of constitution -which we know to have been possessed by the lion, was -probably shared by the spotted hyæna, it is very -unlikely that so aquatic an animal as the hippopotamus -could have ranged from southern Europe, as far north as -Yorkshire, under any other than temperate conditions. -It could not have endured a winter sufficiently severe -to cover the rivers with a thick coating of ice, without -having its present habits profoundly modified; and -such an alteration of habits would certainly leave its -mark, in other modifications in the fossil skeleton than -those minute differences which have been observed, when<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_395">395</a></span> -it is compared with that of the living <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus -amphibius</i>. The porcupine of southern Europe has been -found as far north as the caves of Belgium (Schmerling).</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_174"><i>The Northern Group.</i></h3> - -<p>The northern group consists of those animals which -are now only to be met with in the colder regions of the -northern hemisphere, either in low latitudes or at great -altitudes.</p> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -Marmot.<br /> -Pouched Marmot.<br /> -Lemming.<br /> -Alpine Hare.<br /> -Tailless Hare.<br /> -Glutton.<br /> -Arctic Fox.<br /> -Musk-sheep.<br /> -Reindeer.<br /> -Ibex.<br /> -Chamois. -</p> - -<p>To this list the palæolithic man of the caves must be -added, since he is probably related by blood to the -Eskimos, and appeared in Europe simultaneously with -the arctic group of animals.</p> - -<p>The testimony of these animals as to climate is directly -opposed to that of the preceding group, since they -now only flourish in the arctic regions, or in mountainous -districts in which the climate is severe. The -marmot, in the pleistocene age, lived in Belgium, and -descended from the Alpine heights as far as the shores of -the Mediterranean, where it has been met with in the -caverns near Nice. The pouched marmot, <i class="taxonomy">Spermophilus -citillus</i> of the Don and Volga, penetrated as far to the -west as Somersetshire. The Alpine hare, now found -only in the colder climates of northern Europe, Asia, and -America (with the solitary exception of Ireland), ranged -as far down the valley of the Rhine as Schussenreid, in -Suabia. The two carnivores now dwelling in the colder<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_396">396</a></span> -regions of the north, the glutton or wolverine, and the -arctic fox, have been discovered, the one as far south as -France, the other as far as Schussenreid, and both -probably occupied the whole of Germany, and of northern -Russia, in the pleistocene age.</p> - -<p>The musk-sheep,<a id="FNanchor_260" href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">260</a> the most arctic in its habit of all -the herbivores, is, at the present time, restricted to the -high latitudes of North America, where it thrives in the -desolate, treeless, barren grounds, not even being driven -from its haunts by the extreme severity of the winter. -It has been traced, by its fossil remains, from its present -abode, across Behring’s Straits, and through the vast -Siberian steppes, into Russia in Europe, Germany, -Britain, and as far south and west as the barrier offered -by the Pyrenees. Throughout this large area its remains -occur in association with the reindeer, and both these -animals, as I have remarked above, were hunted by the -palæolithic dwellers in the caves of Aquitaine, just as -they are now hunted by the Eskimos on the shores of the -Arctic Ocean.</p> - -<p>If the present habits of these animals be any index -to their mode of life in the pleistocene age, their presence -in the area north of the Alps and Pyrenees implies -that the climate in France, Germany, and Britain was -severe, or analogous to that which they now enjoy on -the tops of lofty mountains, or in the northern Asiatic -steppes, or the high northern latitudes of America. But -this conclusion is diametrically opposed to that which -is based on the evidence of the southern group of animals.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_397">397</a></span><a id="FNanchor_261" href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">261</a> -And the remains of the two groups of animals are so -associated together in the caves, and river-deposits of -Europe, north of the Pyrenees, that it is impossible to -deny the fact that it was the common feeding-ground -of both during the same era.<a id="FNanchor_262" href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">262</a></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_175"><i>Probable Cause of Association of Northern and Southern Groups.</i></h3> - -<p>Must we then infer that in the pleistocene age the -present habits of the musk-sheep, the reindeer, chamois, -or ibex, were so changed as to allow them to flourish -side by side with the hippopotamus, or <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">vice versâ</i>? Was -the climate colder than it is now in Europe, or was it -hotter? How was this singular association of northern -and southern species brought about? The problem may -be solved if we refer to the present distribution of animals -in northern Asia and North America. As the -winter comes on the arctic species gradually retreat -southwards, and occupy the summer feeding-grounds of -the elk, red-deer, and other creatures which are unable -to endure the extreme severity of an arctic winter. In -the spring the latter pass northwards, to enjoy the -summer herbage of that area, which had been the winter-quarters -of the arctic group of animals. Thus there<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_398">398</a></span> -is a continued swinging to and fro, over the same region, -of the arctic and the temperate animals, and their remains -must necessarily become more or less associated in the -river-deposits, as well as in caves, where these last happen -to occur. In northern Asia, and in America, the only -boundary between the northern and temperate zoological -provinces is that constituted by the fluctuating annual -temperature, and there are no great hilly barriers -running east and west, to prevent free migration to the -north or south. If reference be made to the map, <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>, it will be seen that these conditions were amply -satisfied in the pleistocene age. There were no physical -barriers to migration, from the shores of the Mediterranean, -as far north as Ireland. If the winter cold were -severe, the reindeer and musk-sheep might advance as -far south as the Pyrenees, and if the summer heat were -intense there would be nothing to forbid the hippopotamus -and the African carnivores advancing northwards. -It seems to me that this is the only hypothesis which -will satisfy all the facts of the case. The traces of -glaciers and snow-fields where they are no longer found -prove that the winter was severe; while the warmth of -the summer seems to be sufficiently demonstrated by -the presence of African species. Such extremes of temperature -are presented, more or less, by all continents -extending from high to low latitudes. They are modified -in Europe at the present time by the warm current of -the Gulf Stream, by the large area now occupied by the -Mediterranean Sea, and by the submergence of the pleistocene -lowlands on the Atlantic border.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_399">399</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_176"><i>The Temperate Group.</i></h3> - -<p>The third group of pleistocene mammalia consists of -those still living in the temperate zones of Europe, Asia, -and America:</p> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -Beaver.<br /> -Hare.<br /> -Rabbit.<br /> -Wild Cat.<br /> -Martin.<br /> -Stoat.<br /> -Weasel.<br /> -Otter.<br /> -Brown Bear.<br /> -Grizzly Bear.<br /> -Wolf.<br /> -Fox.<br /> -Horse.<br /> -Urus.<br /> -Bison.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Antelope saiga.</i><br /> -Wild Boar.<br /> -Stag.<br /> -Roe. -</p> - -<p>The range of many of these animals has been profoundly -modified since the pleistocene age. The <i class="taxonomy">Antelope -saiga</i> of the Don and Volga lived as far to the -west as Aquitaine. The grizzly bear, instead of being -restricted to its American habitat in the Rocky Mountains, -ranged over the whole of Siberia into Europe, as -far to the south as the Mediterranean, and westwards as -far as Gibraltar.</p> - -<p>The urus<a id="FNanchor_263" href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">263</a> still lives in the larger domestic cattle, and -the bison is represented in Europe by those which are -protected by the forest laws of Lithuania, and in North -America by the vast herds which are rapidly being -exterminated, like the red Indian, by the rifles of the -settlers. The horse was as abundant, and as widely -spread over Europe, as the urus and the bison; according -to Prof. Brandt it now no longer lives in Siberia -in a wild state.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_400">400</a></span></p> - -<h3 id="hdr_177"><i>Species common to Cold and Tropical Climates.</i></h3> - -<p>The panther or leopard, which has been found alike -in Britain, France, and Germany, has at the present -day a most extended range through Africa, from Barbary -to the Cape of Good Hope, and throughout Persia into -Siberia. In this latter country Dr. Gothelf Fischer -describes it as living in the same districts in the Altai -Mountains, and in Soongaria, as the tiger. The fox -and wolf are like instances of carnivores being able to -endure great variations in temperature without being -specifically modified. These three animals, therefore, -tell us nothing as to the pleistocene climate.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_178"><i>Extinct Species.</i></h3> - -<p>The extinct pleistocene species may also be divided -into the same classes as the living, by an appeal to their -geographical distribution. Two out of the three species -of rhinoceros found in the caves (<i class="taxonomy">R. megarhinus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">R. -hemitœchus</i>), and an elephant with slightly curved tusks -(<i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus</i>), had their head-quarters south of the Alps -and Pyrenees, whence they wandered northward as far -as the latitude of Yorkshire. The pigmy elephant and -the dwarf hippopotamus are peculiar to the south, and -the <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i>, or large sabre-toothed felis, -is a survival, from the pleiocene age, of a peculiarly -southern type.</p> - -<p>The woolly rhinoceros, on the other hand, may be -viewed as a northern form, since it is met with in vast -abundance in the arctic regions of Siberia, as well as in -Europe, and has not been found south of the Alps and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_401">401</a></span> -Pyrenees. The cave-bear has not been discovered either -in the extreme north or in the south of Europe, and -may therefore be considered of temperate range; and the -Irish elk, identified by Prof. Brandt, from the caves of -the Altai Mountains, had a similar range in middle -Europe. The mammoth, endowed with an elastic constitution, -was able to endure the severity of an arctic -climate in Siberia and North America, and the temperature -of the latitude of Rome and the Gulf of -Mexico,<a id="FNanchor_264" href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">264</a> and consequently tells us as little of the pleistocene -climate as the panther, fox, or wolf.</p> - -<p>The evidence, therefore, as to climate, offered by the -extinct animals in the caves is of the same nature as -that of the living. There is the same mixture of northern -and southern forms, which can only be accounted for -satisfactorily by seasonal migrations, according to the -summer heat and winter cold, such as those which are -now observed to take place in Siberia and North America.</p> - -<p>Before we consider the relation of the pleistocene -animals buried in the caves and river deposits to the -glacial period, it is necessary to define what is meant by -the term glacial.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_179"><i>Two Periods of Glaciation in Britain.</i></h3> - -<p>At the close of the pleistocene period the climate -gradually became colder, until ultimately it was arctic in -severity in northern Europe. The researches of many -eminent observers prove that an enormous sheet of ice, -like that under which Greenland now lies buried, extended -over North Britain, Wales, and Ireland, leaving<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_402">402</a></span> -its mark in the far-travelled blocks of stone, the moraines, -and the grooves which pass over the surface irrespective -of the minor contours. The land then, most probably, -as Prof. Ramsay and Sir Charles Lyell believe, stood -higher than it does now. To this succeeded a period of -depression, during which the mountains of Wales were -submerged to a height of at least 1,300 feet; and the -waves of the sea washed out of the pre-existing glacial -detritus the shingle and sand, termed the “middle drift,” -which occurs also in Scotland and Ireland.<a id="FNanchor_265" href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">265</a> Then the -land was re-elevated above the waves, and a second -period of glaciers set in, traces of which occur abundantly -in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, in the white areas in -<a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>. They were, however, of far less extent than -those which preceded them, occupying isolated areas -instead of forming one continuous icy covering to the -country. The glacial phenomena may be briefly summed -up as follows: 1. As the pleiocene temperature was -lowered, the glaciers crept down from the tops of the -mountains, until at last they united to form one continuous -ice sheet, moving resistlessly over the smaller -hills and valleys to the lower grounds, and the first -ice or glacial period set in. 2. Then followed the era -of depression beneath the sea. 3. And, lastly, on the -land re-emerging from the sea the second ice or glacial -period began. The climate during the marine depression -must obviously have been milder than that of either of -the glacial periods, because of the moderating effect of -the wide extent of sea.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_403">403</a></span> -The exact relation of the boulder clays with marine -shells, in the centre and south of Britain, to the detritus -left behind by the ice-sheet in the north, has not as yet -been satisfactorily ascertained. It is very probable that -the elevation of land in the north was simultaneous with -a southern depression, which allowed of icebergs depositing -their burdens in the eastern counties, in the valley -of the Thames, and as far south as Selsea, on the coast -of Sussex.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_180"><i>Three Climatal Changes represented on the Continent.</i></h3> - -<p>These changes of climate have also been observed -on the continent of Europe. The Swiss geologists -have shown that the Alpine glaciers extended farther -than they do at the present time, and that they present -two stages of extension, the first of which is of -greater magnitude than the second. The Alpine blocks -and moraines have been traced far down into the plains -of Lombardy, northwards into the valley of the Rhine, -and in France as far south in the valley of the Rhone as -Valence. The admirable essay and map brought by -MM. Falsan and Chantre, before the meeting of the -French Association for the Advancement of Science at -Lyons, in 1873, show that there were two periods of -glaciation in the valley of the Rhone, the one being due -to the movement of an ice-sheet irrespective of the lower -hills, the other being merely the work of the glaciers -localized in the valleys. These in all probability correspond -in point of time with the like stages of the complicated -glacial phenomena in Britain. At this time the -glaciers of the Pyrenees, now so small, extended at -least from thirty to forty miles from their present position<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_404">404</a></span> -down into the plains, leaving behind most astounding -evidences of their presence in the valley of the -Garonne and elsewhere. On the Spanish frontier, for -example, one of the precipitous sides of the valley, near -the Pont du Roy, is so smoothed and polished that it is -bare of vegetation except in the deep grooves, which offer -a precarious support to the roots of ferns and of dwarf -beeches. The hills of Dauphiny also and Auvergne were -crowned with glaciers, and those of the latter have -been shown by MM. Falsan and Chantre to have been -conterminous with those of the Alps.</p> - -<p>The interglacial period of marine depression in Britain -is represented in Switzerland by the lignite beds of -Dürnten, Utznach, and Pfaffikon, the last of which rests -upon and is covered by the boulder drift. The fossil -remains from Dürnten, identified by Dr. Falconer and -Prof. Rütimeyer, prove that two southern animals, <i class="taxonomy">Elephas -antiquus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i>, inhabited the -district in the interval between the retreat of one set of -glaciers and the advance of another. They probably -migrated from the plains of Lombardy, where they -abounded in the pleistocene age.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_181"><i>Europe invaded by Pleistocene Mammals before the Glacial Period.</i></h3> - -<p>What is the precise relation of the pleistocene mammals -to these two periods of cold? Did they invade -northern and central Europe during the first or the -second, before or after, the marine submergence indicated -by the “middle drift?” We might expect, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">à priori</i>, -that as the temperature became lowered, the northern -mammalia would gradually invade the region occupied<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_405">405</a></span> -before by the pleiocene forms, and that the reindeer, -the mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros would gradually -supplant the southern <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros Etruscus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Elephas -meridionalis</i>. Traces of such an occupation would -necessarily be very rare, since they would be exposed -to the grinding action both of the advancing glacial -sheet, and subsequently to that of the waves on the -littoral zone during the depression and re-elevation -of the land. At the time also that the greater part -of Great Britain was buried under an ice-sheet, it could -not have been occupied by animals, although they may -have been, and most probably were, living in the districts -farther to the south, which were not covered by ice. The -labours, however, of Dr. Bryce, Prof. Archibald Geikie, -and others prove that one at least of the characteristic -pleistocene mammalia—the mammoth—lived in Scotland -along with the reindeer before the deposit of the -lower boulder-clay; while Mr. Jamieson has pointed -out that it could not have occupied that area at the -same time as the ice, and therefore must be referred to -a still earlier date.<a id="FNanchor_266" href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">266</a> The teeth and bones discovered in -the ancient land surface at Selsea, under the boulder drift, -also very probably indicate that the mammoth lived in -Sussex before the glacial submergence, although they -were never admitted by Dr. Falconer to be of the same -age as the remains of <i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i> from the same -preglacial horizon. The animal also occurs in the preglacial -forest-bed of Norfolk and Suffolk. On a careful -examination of the whole evidence, I am compelled to -believe, with Mr. Godwin-Austen and Prof. Phillips, -that the <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">à priori</i> belief that the pleistocene mammalia -occupied Great Britain before the period of the ice-sheet<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_406">406</a></span> -and submergence is fully borne out by the few incontestable -proofs that have been brought forward of the -remains being found in preglacial deposits. And the -scanty evidence on the point is just what might be -expected from the rare accidents under which the bones -in superficial deposits could have withstood the grinding -of the ice-sheet, and the subsequent erosive action -of the waves on the coast-line. It may therefore be -concluded, that the pleistocene mammalia arrived in -Europe before the temperature had reached its minimum -in the glacial period. On the other hand, the occurrence -of mammaliferous river strata, either in hollows of the -boulder-clay as at Hoxne, or in valleys excavated after -its deposition as at Bedford, prove that the characteristic -animals occupied Britain after the retreat of the ice-sheet, -and after the re-emergence of the land from -beneath the glacial sea.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_182"><i>Mammalia lived in Britain during the Second Ice or Glacial Period.</i></h3> - -<p>The distribution of the animals in the river deposits -gives us a clue to the physical geography during -the second ice period. In an essay read before the -Geological Society in 1869, and in a second printed in -the “Popular Science Review” in 1872, I showed that -there was a singular irregularity in the contents of the -river strata, and that while the fossil mammalia -were abundant throughout the area (marked with dots -in the map, <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>), there were certain districts in -which they had not been met with. One of these barren -areas comprises (plain in the map, <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>), nearly the -whole of Wales. A second includes a large portion of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_407">407</a></span> -Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and -the whole of Scotland (if the preglacial mammals in the -low district between the Frith of Forth and Frith of -Clyde in the map be omitted), and a third is represented -by nearly the whole of Ireland. These areas are remarkable -for the absence of the mammalia from the -river deposits. They are also characterised by the freshness -of the ice marks which they present. Nearly every -valley has its own system of grooves and its own set -of moraines; and the mounds of clay and marl left -behind by the local glacier, as it slowly retreated to -higher levels till it finally disappeared, are to be -observed in great abundance. If we bring these facts -into relation, the barrenness of the areas may be reasonably -explained by the presence of glaciers, <em>while</em> the -pleistocene mammals were living in the south and east -(see map, <a href="#Fig_126">Fig. 126</a>). A barrier of some kind may -reasonably be inferred to have prevented their range -over those districts, and its nature is indicated by the -ice marks. It is very probable that these glaciers had -not passed away before the close of the pleistocene age: -for in that case the characteristic animals would be discovered -in the river gravels, which are later than the -deposits of local glaciers in those districts.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_183"><i>The Glacial Period does not separate one Life-era from another.</i></h3> - -<p>The lowering of the temperature which culminated in -the glacial period has left palpable traces behind in the -changes which it caused in the European fauna. As the -pleiocene climate became colder, the animals unfitted to -endure the cold, such as the deer of the Indian types of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_408">408</a></span> -Axis and Rusa, either migrated to the south or became -extinct, while their feeding-grounds were invaded by -the dwellers in the temperate zone, the stag, roe, bison, -and other animals. These in their turn were pushed -forward by the arctic group of animals, the musk-sheep, -lemming, reindeer, and others, the progress being -in the main steadily to the south while the cold was -increasing, and the retreat being steadily to the north -while it was decreasing. It will follow from this, that -the same district in central or north-western Europe -would be traversed by these migratory bodies of animals, -both in their southern advance in preglacial and glacial -times and their northern retreat in postglacial times, -and that, therefore, their fossil remains cannot afford a -means of fixing the preglacial, glacial, or postglacial, -age of the deposit in which they are found, where it is -not marked by traces of glaciation. Sir Charles Lyell’s -view, that the glacial period cannot be taken as a landmark -in the classification of the European pleistocene -deposits, is fully borne out by the facts, and still less -can it be taken as a hard and fast line between one fauna -and another. It cannot be considered a life-era like -the eocene, meiocene, pleiocene, or prehistoric divisions -of the tertiary period.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_184"><i>Bone-caves inhabited before and after Ice Period.</i></h3> - -<p>If we allow that the lowering of the temperature was -the principal cause of the presence of temperate and -arctic animals, in a region before inhabited by species -fitted to live in a comparatively warm climate, it will -follow that bone-caves cannot be said to be either pre- or -postglacial, by an appeal to their fossil mammalia. If<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_409">409</a></span> -they were open before the minimum of temperature was -reached, they would afford shelter to the animals then -in the neighbourhood, and they would continue to be -occupied in the south during the vast period of time -represented by the enormous physical changes in the -region north of the line of the Thames, during the -development of the ice-sheet, the submergence and the -re-elevation of nearly the whole of Britain and Ireland. -As, however, the cold increased, the percentage of arctic -animals would also increase, and the more temperate -species be weeded out. For these reasons it has seemed -to me, that the machairodus of Kent’s Hole, and the -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i> of Oreston, represent an early -stage of the pleistocene period, before the arctic mammalia -were present in full force in the caves. It is very -probable that vast herds of reindeer lived in the south -of France, while northern Britain lay buried under the -ice-sheet, as well as during the two succeeding physical -changes.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_185"><i>Relation of Palæolithic Man to Glacial Period.</i></h3> - -<p>What then is the relation of the palæolithic hunter -of reindeer in France and Britain to the glacial period? -Is he pre- or postglacial? The only evidence on the -point is that offered by the associated mammalia which -occupied France, Germany, and Britain before and after -the point of minimum temperature was reached in these -latitudes. Man may have inhabited the caves not -merely of France, but of Devonshire and Somerset, at -any time during that long period. The position of the -palæolithic refuse-heap discovered by Prof. Fraas at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_410">410</a></span> -Schussenreid, resting on a moraine of the extinct glacier -of the Rhine, proves that the palæolithic Eskimos lived -in Suabia after the retreat of the glacier when the temperature -became warmer, towards the close of the -pleistocene age or in the later glacial stage. The same -conclusion has been arrived at by Mr. Prestwich as to -the sojourn of palæolithic man (of the river-bed type) -in Bedfordshire and Suffolk, the gravels in which the -implements are found being of a later age than the -boulder-clay of those districts. We have therefore -proof that man lived in Germany and Britain after the -maximum glacial cold had passed away, and we may -also infer with a high degree of probability that he -migrated into Europe along with the pleistocene mammalia -in the preglacial age.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_186"><i>Test of age of contents of caves in Glaciated Districts.</i></h3> - -<p>The probable date of the introduction of the contents -into ossiferous caves in glaciated areas may be ascertained -by an examination of the river deposits. If the -animals found in the caves inhabited the surrounding -country after the melting of the ice, their remains will -occur in the postglacial gravels. If they are not found, -it may be inferred that they had retreated from the district, -before the latter were deposited. It is obvious -that they could not have lived in any district while it -was covered with ice or by the sea. It may therefore -be concluded that their remains in the caves were most -probably introduced before the glacial conditions had -set in. Preglacial deposits in a cavern would be protected -from the grinding of the ice-sheet, the action of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_411">411</a></span> -the waves in the depression, and re-elevation of the -land, and the subsequent glacial erosion which would -inevitably destroy nearly all the fluviatile ossiferous -strata. By this test the pleistocene strata in the Victoria -Cave, near Settle, may be considered preglacial, as -well as the hyæna-den at Kirkdale, which has always -been referred by Prof. Phillips to that age. If this -be allowed, the small fragment of human bone found -by the Settle Cave Exploration Committee in the -former cave in 1872 establishes the fact that man lived -in Yorkshire before the glacial period. The man to -whom it belonged was probably devoured by the hyænas -which dragged into their den the woolly rhinoceros, -reindeer, and other creatures whose gnawed bones were -strewn on the floors.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_412">412</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">CONCLUSION.</span></h2> -</div> - -<blockquote class="inhead"> - -<p>Classification of Pleistocene Strata by means of the Mammalia.—The -late, middle, and early Pleistocene Divisions.—The Pleiocene -Mammalia.—Summary of characteristic Pleiocene and Pleistocene -Species.—Antiquity of Man in Europe.—Man lived in India in -Pleistocene Age.—Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related -to those of Europe?—Palæolithic Man lived in Palestine.—Conclusion.</p></blockquote> - -<p class="in0">The animals inhabiting the caves have been enumerated -in the last three chapters, and we have discussed the -inferences drawn from their distribution as to the pleistocene -climate and geography of Europe. It remains for -us now, in conclusion, to define the pleistocene, and to -see in what relation it stands to the pleiocene period.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_187"><i>Classification of Pleistocene Strata by means of the Mammalia.</i></h3> - -<p>The pleistocene period was one of very long duration, -and embraced changes of great magnitude in the geography -of Europe, as we have seen in the <a href="#CHAPTER_IX">ninth</a> and -<a href="#CHAPTER_X">tenth</a> chapters. The climate, which in the preceding -pleiocene age had been temperate in northern and middle -Europe, at the beginning of the pleistocene gradually -passed into the extreme arctic severity of the glacial<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_413">413</a></span> -period. This change caused a corresponding change -of the forms of animal life; the pleiocene species, whose -constitutions were adjusted to temperate or hot climates, -yielding place to those which were better adapted to the -new conditions. And since there is reason for the belief -that it was not continuous in one direction, but that -there were pauses or even reversions towards the old -temperate state, it follows that the two groups of animals -would at times overlap, and their remains be intermingled -with each other. The frontiers also of each of the geographical -provinces must naturally have varied with the -season; and the competition for the same feeding-grounds -between the invading and retreating forms must have -been long, fluctuating, and severe. The passage, therefore, -from the pleiocene to the pleistocene fauna might -be expected to have been extremely gradual in each -area. The lines of definition between the two are to a -great extent arbitrary, instead of being marked with -sufficient strength to constitute a barrier between the -tertiary and post-tertiary groups of life of Lyell, or -between the tertiary and quaternary of French geologists. -The principle of classification which I have proposed<a id="FNanchor_267" href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">267</a> is -that offered by the gradual lowering of the temperature, -which has left its mark in the advent of animals before -unknown in Europe; and according to it I have divided -the pleistocene deposits into three groups.</p> - -<p>1. Those in which the pleistocene immigrants had -begun to disturb the pleiocene mammalia, but had not -yet supplanted the more southern animals. No arctic -mammalia had as yet arrived. To this group belongs -the forest-bed of Norfolk and Suffolk, and the deposit -at St. Prest, near Chartres.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_414">414</a></span> -2. That in which the characteristic pleiocene deer had -disappeared. The even-toed ruminants are principally -represented by the stag, the Irish elk, the roe, bison, and -urus. <i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus</i> -had retreated to the south. To this group belong the -brick-earths of the lower valley of the Thames, the river-deposit -at Clacton, the cave of Baume in the Jura, and -a river-deposit in Auvergne.</p> - -<p>3. The third division is that in which the true arctic -mammalia were among the chief inhabitants of the -region; and to it belong most of the ossiferous caves -and river-deposits in middle and northern Europe.</p> - -<p>These three do not correspond with the preglacial, -glacial, and postglacial divisions of the pleistocene strata, -in central and north Britain; since there is reason to -believe that all the animals which occupied Britain after -the maximum cold had passed away, had arrived here -in their southern advance before that maximum cold had -been reached; or, in other words, were both pre- and -postglacial.</p> - -<p>This classification does not apply to pleistocene river-strata -south of the Alps and Pyrenees, into which the -arctic mammalia never penetrated.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_188"><i>The Late Pleistocene Division.</i></h3> - -<p>The late pleistocene division corresponds in part with -the reindeer period of M. Lartet; but it comprehends -also his other three periods; for the spotted hyæna, the -lion, the cave-bear, the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, -the bison, the reindeer, and the urus are so associated -together in the caves and river deposits of Great Britain -and the continent that they do not afford a means of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_415">415</a></span> -classification. The arctic division of the mammalia, defined -in the preceding chapter, was then in full possession -of the area north of the Alps and Pyrenees, and the -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i> and <i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i> had -disappeared. With three exceptions, to be noticed presently, -all the ossiferous caverns of France, Germany, -and Britain, belong to this division of the pleistocene.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_189"><i>The Middle Pleistocene Division.</i></h3> - -<p>The middle division of the pleistocene mammalia may -now be examined, or that from which the characteristic -pleiocene deer had vanished, and were replaced by the -invading forms from the temperate zones of northern -Asia. It is represented in Britain by the mammalia -obtained from the lower brick-earths of the Thames -valley, at Crayford, Erith, Ilford, and Gray’s Thurrock, -by those from the deposit at Clacton, and most probably -by those of the older deposit in Kent’s Hole, and by the -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i> of Oreston.<a id="FNanchor_268" href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">268</a> They consist <span class="locked">of—</span></p> - -<p id="list_415" class="in0 in4"> -Man, <i class="taxonomy">Homo</i>.<br /> -Lion, <i class="taxonomy">Felis leo spelæa</i>.<br /> -Wild Cat, <i class="taxonomy">F. catus</i>.<br /> -Spotted Hyæna, <i class="taxonomy">Hyæna crocuta var. spelæa</i>.<br /> -Grizzly Bear, <i class="taxonomy">Ursus ferox</i>.<br /> -Brown Bear, <i class="taxonomy">U. arctos</i>.<br /> -Wolf, <i class="taxonomy">Canis lupus</i>.<br /> -Fox, <i class="taxonomy">C. vulpes</i>.<br /> -Otter, <i class="taxonomy">Lutra vulgaris</i>.<br /> -Urus, <i class="taxonomy">Bos primigenius</i>.<br /> -Bison, <i class="taxonomy">Bison priscus</i>.<br /> -Irish Elk, <i class="taxonomy">Cervus megaceros</i>.<br /> -Stag, <i class="taxonomy">C. elaphus</i>.<br /> -Brown’s Fallow Deer, <i class="taxonomy">C. Browni</i>.<br /> -Roedeer, <i class="taxonomy">C. capreolus</i>.<br /> -Musk Sheep, <i class="taxonomy">Ovibos moschatus</i>.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus.</i><br /> -Mammoth, <i class="taxonomy">E. primigenius</i>.<br /> -Horse, <i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus</i>.<br /> -Woolly Rhinoceros, <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros tichorhinus</i>.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">R. hemitœchus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">R. megarhinus.</i><br /> -Wild-boar, <i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>.<br /> -Hippopotamus, <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus amphibius</i>.<br /> -Beaver, <i class="taxonomy">Castor fiber</i>.<br /> -Water-Rat, <i class="taxonomy">Arvicola amphibia</i>. -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_416">416</a></span> -The discovery of a flint-flake in the undisturbed lower -brick-earths of Crayford, by the Rev. O. Fisher, in the -presence of the writer, in April 1872, proves that man -was living while these fluviatile strata were being deposited.</p> - -<p>If these mammalia be compared with those of the -forest-bed or the pleiocene age on the one hand, and with -the late pleistocene on the other, it will be seen that they -are linked to the former by <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i>, and to -the latter by the musk sheep. The presence of the latter, -the most arctic of the herbivores, in such strange company -is most abnormal, and suggests the idea that the remains -belong to two distinct eras. The skull, however, which -I found at Crayford in 1867, and presented to the -Museum of the Geological Survey, rested in intimate -association with the bones of other species, is in the -same mineral state, and bears no marks of being a “derived -fossil.” It is the only trace of the animal as yet -obtained from the lower brick-earths.</p> - -<p>The absence of the reindeer, so numerous in the valley -of the Thames, while the late pleistocene strata were -being accumulated by the river, and the abundance of -remains of the stag, seem to me to point backwards -rather than forwards in time, and to imply that the -lower brick-earths are not of late pleistocene age; just -as the absence of the characteristic early pleistocene -species shows that they are not of that age. The -evidence seems to be sufficient to establish a stage -intermediate between the two. Nevertheless, it is -sufficiently conflicting to cause Dr. Falconer to come -to the conclusion that these strata are of pleiocene date, -and Mr. Prestwich to believe that they belong to a late -stage in the pleistocene.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_417">417</a></span> -During the middle pleistocene, in the Thames valley, -and at Clacton, the woolly rhinoceros, elephant, and -mammoth competed for the same feeding-grounds with -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros hemitœchus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">R. megarhinus</i>, hippopotamus, -and <i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i>. Although all the characteristic -pleiocene deer had retreated, the reindeer had not yet invaded -that area: it was occupied by the stag, roe, the -Irish elk, and Brown’s fallow deer. The whole assemblage -of animals, the musk sheep being excepted, implies that -the climate was less severe at this time, than when the -reindeer spread over the same area in the late pleistocene -age, and was far more numerous than the stag. It -may, indeed, be objected that the classificatory value of -the musk sheep is quite as great as that of <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros -megarhinus</i>; but in the case of the lower brick-earths, -the evidence of the latter as to climate agrees with that -of the whole assemblage of animals, while that of the -former is altogether discordant.</p> - -<p>There are no caves either in Britain or on the continent -which can be referred with certainty to this middle -division. The machairodus, however, of Kent’s Hole, -and of the cavern of Baume in the Jura (see <a href="#Page_337">p. 337</a>), and -the megarhine species of rhinoceros from the fissures of -Oreston, probably inhabited those regions, while the temperate -group of animals held possession of the valley of -the Thames, and of that now sunk beneath the North Sea.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_190"><i>The Early Pleistocene Mammalia.</i></h3> - -<p>The fossil mammalia must now be examined, which -inhabited Great Britain during the early pleistocene -period, and before the maximum severity of glacial cold -had as yet been reached. The fossil bones from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_418">418</a></span> -forest-bed, which underlies the boulder-clay on the shores -of Norfolk and Suffolk, have for many years attracted -the attention of naturalists and geologists. The magnificent -collections of the Rev. John Gunn, and the late -Rev. S. W. King, gave Dr. Falconer the means of proving -that the fauna of the ancient submerged forest differed -from that of any geological period which we have hitherto -discussed: and the careful diagnosis of all the fossils -from this horizon which I have been able to meet with, -shows that it was of a very peculiar character, being -closely allied to the pleiocene of the south of France and -of Italy, and yet possessing species which are undoubtedly -pleistocene. The following list is necessarily very imperfect, -since the fragmentary nature of the fossils renders -a specific identification very hazardous; and it only -includes those which I have been able to identify with -any degree of certainty.</p> - -<p id="list_418" class="in0 in4"> -<i class="taxonomy">Sorex moschatus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">S. vulgaris.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Talpa Europæa.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Trogontherium Cuvieri.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Castor fiber.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Ursus spelæus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">U. arvernensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Canis lupus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. vulpes.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Machairodus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Cervus megaceros.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. capreolus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. elaphus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Cervus Polignacus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. carnutorum.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. verticornis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. Sedgwickii.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Bos primigenius.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus major.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Equus caballus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">R. megarhinus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">E. primigenius.</i> -</p> - -<p>From the examination of this list, the peculiar mixture -of pleiocene and pleistocene species is evident. The -<i class="taxonomy">Ursus arvernensis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Cervus Polignacus</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus -major</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">R. megarhinus</i>, the horse,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_419">419</a></span> -<i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus</i> were living in the -pleiocene age in France and Italy, and probably in Norfolk. -The cave-bear, the wolf, fox, mole, beaver, Irish elk, roe, -stag, urus, wild-boar, and the mammoth have not as -yet been discovered in the continental pleiocenes, as -judged by the standards offered by the Val d’Arno and -Southern France. They are more or less abundant in the -late pleistocene age. This singular association seems to -me to imply that the fauna of the forest-bed is intermediate -between the two, and, from the fact that only three -out of the whole series, viz. <i class="taxonomy">Ursus arvernensis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros -etruscus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">Cervus Polignacus</i>, are peculiar to -the continental pleiocene, that it is more closely allied -to the pleistocene than to the pleiocene.</p> - -<p>It is also very probable that this early pleistocene age -was of considerable duration; for in it we find at least -two forms (and the number will probably be very largely -increased) which are unknown in continental Europe, -although pleiocene and pleistocene strata have been -diligently examined in France and Germany. The very -presence of the <i class="taxonomy">Cervus Sedgwickii</i> and <i class="taxonomy">C. verticornis</i> -implies that the lapse of time was sufficiently great to -allow of the evolution of forms of animal life hitherto -unknown, and which disappeared before the middle and -late pleistocene stages. The <i class="taxonomy">Trogontherium</i> also, as well -as the <i class="taxonomy">Cervus carnutorum</i>, both of which occur in the -forest-bed and in the gravel-beds of St. Prest, near -Chartres, and which are peculiar to this horizon, point -to the same conclusion.</p> - -<p>The deer of the forest-bed, in this list, do not represent -approximately the number of species: there are at -least five, and perhaps six, represented by a series of -antlers, which I do not venture to quote, because I have<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_420">420</a></span> -not been able to compare them with those of the pleiocenes -of the Val d’Arno, of Marseilles, or of Auvergne.</p> - -<p>Dr. Falconer pointed out that one of the peculiar -characters of the fauna of the forest-bed is the presence -of the mammoth; and the evidence on which he considered -the animal to be of preglacial age in Europe has -been fully verified by the molars from Bacton, which are -now in the Manchester Museum. They are associated -with <i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i> and <i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus</i>, and are -incrusted with precisely the same matrix as the teeth -and bones of those species.</p> - -<p>No caves have been discovered containing this peculiar -assemblage of fossil animals.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_191"><i>The Pleiocene Mammalia.</i></h3> - -<p>The relation of the pleistocene to the pleiocene fauna -is a question of very great difficulty, because the -latter has not yet been satisfactorily defined, although -Prof. Gervais and Dr. Falconer have given the more -important species from Auvergne, Montpellier, and the -Val d’Arno. The following list is taken from Prof. -Gervais’s great work “Zoologie et Paléontologie Françaises,” -p. 349, the term pseudo-pleiocene merely implying -that the fauna differs from that of the marine -deposit of Montpellier, which he takes as his standard.</p> - -<h4 id="list_420"><i>Pseudo-pleiocene of Issoire.</i></h4> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -<i class="taxonomy">Hystrix refossa.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Castor issiodorensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Arctomys antiqua.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Arvicola robustus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Cervus pardinensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. arvernensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. causanus.</i><br /> -<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_421">421</a></span><i class="taxonomy">Sus arvernensis.<br /> -Lepus Lacosti.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Tapirus arvernensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros elatus?</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Bos elatus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Cervus polycladus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. ardens.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. cladocerus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. issiodorensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. Perrieri.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. etueriarum.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Ursus arvernensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Canis borbonidus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Felis pardinensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">F. arvernensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">F. brevirostris.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">F. issiodorensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Machairodus cultridens.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna arvernensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">H. Perrieri.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Lutra Bravardi.</i> -</p> - -<p>To these animals Dr. Falconer<a id="FNanchor_269" href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">269</a> adds <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus -major</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i>, -and he identifies <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros elatus</i> with his new species -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus</i>. Prof. Gaudry agrees with me in -the belief that <i class="taxonomy">Hyæna Perrieri</i> is identical with <i class="taxonomy">H. -striata</i> or the striped species.</p> - -<p>Prof. Gervais also identifies the <i class="taxonomy">Equus robustus</i> of M. -Pomel, from the same locality, with the common Horse, -<i class="taxonomy">Equus fossilis</i>.</p> - -<p>The fauna of Montpellier is certainly very different -from that of Issoire; but since it is neither meiocene nor -pleistocene, it must belong to one of the intermediate -stages of the pleiocene. It includes</p> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -<i class="taxonomy">Semnopithecus monspessulanus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Macacus priscus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Chalicomys sigmodus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Lagomys loxodus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Mastodon brevirostris.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Tapirus minor.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Antilope Cordieri.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">A. hastata.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Cervus Cuvieri.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. australis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Sus provincialis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Hyænodon insignis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna ——?</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Machairodus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Felis Christolii.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Lutra affinis.</i> -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_422">422</a></span> -The <i class="taxonomy">Mastodon brevirostris</i> of this list is considered by -Dr. Falconer to be identical with <i class="taxonomy">M. arvernensis</i> of MM. -Croiset and Jobert.</p> - -<p>The fauna of the Val d’Arno differs from that of -Montpellier and of Auvergne, and yet is considered by -Dr. Falconer to be eminently typical of the European -pleiocene.<a id="FNanchor_270" href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">270</a> The animals identified by him in the -museums of Italy are as <span class="locked">follow:—</span></p> - -<p id="list_422" class="in0 in4"> -<i class="taxonomy">Felis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Hyæna.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Machairodus cultridens.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">M. Borsoni.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">R. megarhinus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">R. hemitœchus.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus major.</i> -</p> - -<p>All these animals, with the exception of <i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros -hemitœchus</i>, have been discovered in the pseudo-pleiocene -of Issoire, while the megarhine rhinoceros and -<i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis</i> are the only two which have been -obtained from the marine sands of Montpellier. The -pleiocene animals, therefore, inhabiting Northern Italy -are more closely allied to those of Auvergne than to -those of Montpellier.</p> - -<p>If these three localities be taken as typical of the -pleiocene strata, we shall find that several of the species -range as far north as Britain, and occur in deposits which -from the evidence of the mollusca, have been assigned to -that age. <i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i>, -and <i class="taxonomy">Ursus arvernensis</i>, have been obtained from the old -land-surface which underlies the sand and shingle of the -Norfolk Crag, in company with many forms of deer and -antelopes which have not yet been identified, while the -<i class="taxonomy">Hipparion</i> is found in the marine crags of Suffolk.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_423">423</a></span> -The animals which especially characterize the pleiocene -strata of Europe are <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus cultridens</i>, -<i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis</i> and <i class="taxonomy">M. Borsoni</i>, besides the -genus <i class="taxonomy">Tapir</i>.</p> - -<p>If this fauna be compared with that of the preglacial -forest-bed, it will be seen that the difference between -them is very great. The pleiocene mastodon, tapir, the -majority of the deer, and the antelopes are replaced -by forms such as the roe and the red-deer, unknown up -to that time. Nevertheless many of the pleiocene animals -were able to hold their ground against the pleistocene -invaders, although, subsequently, as I have already -shown, they disappeared one by one, being ultimately -beaten in the struggle for life by the new comers. The -progress of this struggle has been used in the preceding -pages as a means of classification. This fauna has not -been discovered in any cave.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_192"><i>Summary of Characteristic Pleistocene and Pleiocene Species.</i></h3> - -<p>The following are the salient points of the pleistocene -age offered by the study of the land mammalia in the -area north of the Alps and Pyrenees.</p> - -<h4 id="list_423"><span class="smcap">The Pleistocene Period.</span></h4> - -<h5>A.—<i>The latest stage.</i></h5> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -Palæolithic Man.<br /> -Woolly Rhinoceros, abundant.<br /> -Mammoth, abundant.<br /> -Reindeer, abundant.<br /> -Stag, comparatively rare.<br /> -Northern forms of life in full possession of area north of Alps and Pyrenees. -</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_424">424</a></span></p> - -<h5>B.—<i>The middle stage.</i></h5> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -Palæolithic Man.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens.</i><br /> -Stag, abundant.<br /> -Northern forms of life present, but not in force.<br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i>, still living.<br /> -Woolly Rhinoceros, present. -</p> - -<h5>C.—<i>The early stage.</i></h5> - -<p>The following are animals peculiar to this <span class="locked">stage:—</span></p> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -<i class="taxonomy">Trogontherium Cuvieri.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Cerus verticornis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Cervus Sedgwickii.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">C. carnutorum.</i> -</p> - -<p>The following make their appearance:—The beaver, -musk-shrew, cave-bear, roe, stag, Irish elk, urus, and -bison, wild-boar, horse, (2), mammoth, wolf, and fox.</p> - -<p>The pleiocene <i class="taxonomy">Ursus arvernensis</i>, <i class="taxonomy">Cervus Polignacus</i>, -<i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus</i>, and <i class="taxonomy">Elephas meridionalis</i> still -living.</p> - -<h4 id="list_424"><span class="smcap">The Pleiocene.</span></h4> - -<p class="in0 in4"> -<i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">M. Borsoni.</i><br /> -<i class="taxonomy">Hipparion gracile.</i><br /> -No living species of European Deer. -</p> - -<p>The three subdivisions of the pleistocene do not apply -to the region south of the Alps and Pyrenees, because the -northern group of animals did not pass into Spain and -Italy. In these two countries we find southern and -pleiocene animals living throughout the pleistocene age, -which in France and Britain lived only in the two earlier -stages.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_193"><i>Antiquity of Man in Europe.</i></h3> - -<p>No remains have been discovered up to the present -time in any part of Europe which can be referred with -certainty to a higher antiquity than the pleistocene age.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_425">425</a></span> -The palæolithic people or peoples arrived in Europe along -with the peculiar fauna of that age, and after dwelling -here for a length of time, which is to be measured by the -vast physical and climatal changes, described in the last -three chapters, finally disappeared, leaving behind as -their representatives the Eskimos tribes of arctic America. -There is no evidence that they were inferior in -intellectual capacity to many of the lower races of the -present time, or more closely linked to the lower animals. -The traces which they have left behind tell us nothing -as to the truth or falsehood of the doctrine of evolution, -for if it be maintained on the one hand, that the first -appearance of man as a man, and not as a man-like -brute, is inconsistent with that doctrine, it may be -answered that the lapse of time between his appearance -in the pleistocene age and the present day, is too small -to have produced appreciable physical or intellectual -change. Also, it must not be forgotten, that we have -merely investigated the antiquity of the sojourn of man -in Europe, and not the general question of his first -appearance on the earth, with which it is very generally -confounded. Dr. Falconer well remarked that the -<i xml:lang="fr" lang="fr">origines</i> of mankind are to be sought, not in Europe, -but in the tropical regions, probably of Asia. To these -we have no clue in the present stage of the inquiry. -The higher apes are represented in the European meiocene -and pleiocene strata, by extinct forms uniting in -some cases the characters of different living species, but -they do not show any tendency to assume human characters. -It must indeed be allowed, that the study of -fossil remains throws as little light as the documents of -history on the relation of man to the lower animals. -The historian commences his labours with the high civilization<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_426">426</a></span> -of Assyria and Egypt, and can merely guess at -the steps by which it was achieved; the palæontologist -meets with the traces of man in the pleistocene strata, -and he too can merely guess at the antecedent steps by -which man arrived even at that culture which is implied -by the implements. The latter has proved that the -antiquity of man is greater than the former had supposed. -Neither has contributed anything towards the -solution of the problem of his origin.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_194"><i>Man lived in India in Pleistocene Age.</i></h3> - -<p>The researches of the Geological Surveyors has shown -that in ancient times man, in the same stage of civilization -as the palæolithic man of Europe, lived in -Southern India and in the valley of the Narbadá. In -1868<a id="FNanchor_271" href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">271</a> Mr. Bruce Foote described the flint implements -which were discovered over a large area in the districts -of Madras, either in the red clayey deposit known as -Laterite, or in such positions as implied that they had -been washed out of it. They all belong to the same -rude types as those of the pleistocene strata of North-western -Europe. A small fragment of bone was the -only fossil which had up to that time been discovered in -the Laterite, and this I was able to identify in 1869 as -a portion of a human tibia of the abnormal platycnemic -variety, which has been described in the <a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> chapter of -this work, from the European caves and tombs. The -Lateritic deposits themselves are strictly analogous -to our river-strata and brick-earths in their constitution,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_427">427</a></span> -and in their resting at various levels above the -sea, and were, as Mr. Foote remarks, formed under -conditions different to those which are now going on in -that district. They prove that the period of the sojourn -of palæolithic man in Southern India is divided from the -present day by considerable geographical changes, such -as the elevation of land, and the erosion and breaking -up of accumulations which were once continuous. We -have seen that somewhat similar changes have happened -in Europe, in the interval which separates the palæolithic -period from our own time.</p> - -<p>The discovery of a rudely chipped implement of -quartzite, of the pointed oval shape common in the -gravels of Britain and France, published by Mr. Medlicott -in 1873, in the “Records of the Geological Survey -of India,” proves further that man was a member of the -remarkable fauna which inhabited the valley of the -Narbadá in ancient times. It was dug out of reddish -unstratified clay by Mr. Hacket at a depth of three feet -from the upper surface, which was covered by twenty -feet of ossiferous gravel, on the left bank of the Narbadá -near the valley of Bhutra. The clay belongs to -the same fluviatile series as that from which the -mammalia were obtained and named by Dr. Falconer -in 1828. Both clay and gravel are shown to be of -fluviatile origin, by the presence of fresh-water mussels -of the varieties still living in the adjacent river.</p> - -<p>The fossil bones belong to extinct and living animals. -Among the former are two kinds of elephant (<i class="taxonomy">E. namadicus</i>) -and (<i class="taxonomy">E. stegodon insignis</i>), one of which is closely -allied to the European <i class="taxonomy">E. antiquus</i>, two species of hippopotamus, -one (<i class="taxonomy">H. palæindicus</i>) with four incisors in front -of the jaws like the African, and a second with six incisors<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_428">428</a></span> -belonging to the extinct division of hexaprotodon, a -large ox (<i class="taxonomy">Bos namadicus</i>), a deer and a bear. The -living forms are represented by the buffalo (<i class="taxonomy">Bubalus -namadicus</i>), which is identical with the wild arnee from -which the Indian domestic buffaloes have descended, -and the gavial, or long-snouted Gangetic crocodile. This -imperfect list, borrowed from Dr. Falconer,<a id="FNanchor_272" href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">272</a> shows that -there is the same mixture of extinct with living forms -in the valley of the Ganges, while the clays and gravels -were being accumulated, as we have observed in the -pleistocene deposits of Europe, and the fauna may therefore -be referred to the pleistocene age, and probably, as -Mr. Medlicott proposes, to the late division of that -age. The exact correspondence of the quartzite implements -with those which are so abundant in the European -river-strata of the same age, adds additional weight to -this conclusion.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_195"><i>Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related to those of Europe?</i></h3> - -<p>It is not a little remarkable that Dr. Falconer, writing -in 1865 of the peculiar fauna of the Narbadá, should -have held the view that man was living in India at that -time, and that the memory of the hippopotamus was -handed down in Aryan traditions, under the striking -name of the water elephant. “After reflecting,” he -writes, “on the question during many years in its -palæontological and ethnological bearings, my leaning is -to the view that <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus namadicus</i> was extinct -in India long before the Aryan invasion, but that it was<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_429">429</a></span> -familiar to the earlier indigenous races.” (ii. p. 644.) -This inference is proved to be literally true by the -discovery of the palæolithic implements in the ossiferous -strata of the Narbadá, which must have required long -ages for their accumulation and subsequent erosion.</p> - -<p>We may, therefore, conclude that palæolithic man -inhabited both Europe and India in the pleistocene age. -And possibly the identity of the implements, in these -two remote regions, may be accounted for in the same -manner as the identity of Aryan root-words, by the view -that their fabricators may have come from the same -centre of dispersal, by the same routes as those which -were subsequently used by the pre-Aryan, and Aryan, -invaders of Europe and India. But whether this be -accepted or not, it cannot be denied that the man who -inhabited both these regions was in the same rude -stage of human progress, and played his part in the -same life-era.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_196"><i>Palæolithic Man lived in Palestine.</i></h3> - -<p>The discovery, by the Abbé Richard,<a id="FNanchor_273" href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">273</a> of a palæolithic -flint implement, of the ordinary river-bed type, on the -surface of a stratum of gravel between Mount Tabor and -the lake of Tiberias, lends great weight to the view that -the Aborigines of India and Europe, whose implements -are found in the deposits of rivers, migrated from the -same centre, since it bridges over the great interval of -space by which they were isolated. It is very probable, -that future discoveries may reveal the presence of a -tolerably uniform priscan population, in the pleistocene<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_430">430</a></span> -age, throughout this vast area: which as yet has only -been explored by archæologists in a few isolated points, -with the important results recorded in the preceding -pages.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_197"><i>Conclusion.</i></h3> - -<p>It now remains for us to sum up the results of the -exploration of European caves, of which an imperfect -outline has been given in this work. Their formation, -and filling up, have an important bearing on the physical -geography of the districts in which they occur, and -reveal the great changes which are going on, in the -calcareous rocks, at the present time. The study of the -remains which they contain has led to the recognition of -the fact, that the climate and geography of Europe, in -ancient times, were altogether different from those of -the present day.</p> - -<p>It has also made large additions to the history of the -sojourn of man in Europe. We find a hunting and -fishing race of cave-dwellers, in the remote pleistocene -age, in possession of France, Belgium, Germany, and -Britain, probably of the same stock as the Eskimos, living -and forming part of a fauna, in which northern and -southern, living and extinct, species are strangely mingled -with those now living in Europe. In the neolithic age -caves were inhabited, and used for tombs, by men of the -Iberian or Basque race, which is still represented by the -small, dark-haired, peoples of western Europe. They -were rarely used in the bronze age. When we arrive -within the borders of history in Britain, we find them -offering shelter to the Brit-Welsh flying from their -enemies after the ruin of the Roman empire, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_431">431</a></span> -throwing great light on the fragmentary records of those -obscure times. In treating of these questions, it has -been necessary to discuss problems of deep and varied -interest to the ethnologist, physicist, and historian, some -of which have been partially solved, while others await -the light of the higher knowledge which will be the -fruit of a wider experience.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_432">432</a><a class="hidev" id="Page_433">433</a></span></p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a class="hidev" id="Page_434">434</a><a id="Page_435">435</a></span></p> -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="APPENDICES"></a>APPENDICES.</h2> -</div> - -<h2><a id="APPENDIX_I"></a>APPENDIX I.—P. 30.<br /> - -<span class="subhead">ON THE INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF CAVE-HUNTING.</span></h2> - -<blockquote> - -<p class="center">Instruments used in Cave-hunting.—The Search after Bone-caves.—The -three modes of Cave-digging.—Stalagmitic Floors to be broken up.—Preservation -of Fossil Bones.</p></blockquote> - -<h3 id="hdr_198"><i>Instruments used in Cave-hunting.</i></h3> - -<p>The instruments which Mr. James Parker, Mr. Ayshford Sanford -and myself have found most valuable in cave-hunting, apart -from the tools of the workman, are as <span class="locked">follow:—</span></p> - -<p>1. A hammer with an ash handle about twenty inches long, -inserted into a square head of best steel, ending in a chisel edge -in the same plane as the handle, weighing almost eight ounces, -and seven inches in length.</p> - -<p>2. A steel chisel ten inches long.</p> - -<p>3. A prismatic compass.</p> - -<p>4. A thermometer for taking the temperatures of the air and -water.</p> - -<p>5. An aneroid.</p> - -<p>6. A steel measuring tape.</p> - -<p>7. Abney’s patent level which is used for laying down datum-line -for plan, as well as for taking the dips and angles.</p> - -<p>In making a plan we have found it useful to mark the datum-line -by a stout string or wire and to measure from it as the work -proceeds, indicating on the sides and floor of the cave the points -of measurement, with paint or wooden pegs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_436">436</a></span> -8. A stout rope not less than twenty feet long with a horse’s -girth at the end is necessary for the exploration of vertical fissures, -so that the explorer may be let down without any great danger. -No large unknown caves should be explored without a rope, or -by a party less than three in number. In exploring the caves -of Burrington Combe we used a rope sixty feet long. The descent -into Helln Pot, described in the <a href="#CHAPTER_II">second</a> chapter, <a href="#Page_41">p. 41</a>, was -effected in the following manner. A strong platform of timber -was made over the open fissure, and from it a square -“cage” or “basket” of the ordinary kind used in mining was -let down for the first drop of 198 feet. It was prevented from -twisting round by two guide ropes. For the rest of the falls we -had two ladders eight feet long, and a rope, without which we -should have been unable to reach the bottom.</p> - -<div id="if_i_436" class="figcenter" style="width: 338px;"> - <img src="images/i_436.jpg" width="338" height="126" alt="" /></div> - -<p>9. In the exploration of water-caves, in which there are sometimes -sheets of water of considerable size and depth, a raft may -be used, such as that devised by Mr. James Parker for the -navigation of the great cave of Wookey Hole. It consisted of a -platform supported on barrels and built as follows: A frame of -stout poles was made; two, <i>a a</i>, being eight feet long, with four -others, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, lashed firmly across, each four feet in length. The space -<i>d</i> was converted into a platform by nailing boards across, and -this was buoyed up by a beer-barrel at each end in the interspace -<i>e</i>. The barrels were attached to the raft by two loops of rope <i>g</i>, -passing over from <i>b</i> to <i>c</i>, and thus kept in place, although they -freely twisted and turned in actual use. The ropes had an advantage -over iron hoops for the attachment of the barrels, because -when they were tightened the platform was raised above the -water, when they were loosened it was lowered, and thus the -raft could be adjusted to the weight to be carried, to the depth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_437">437</a></span> -of the water, and the distance of the water-line from the roof. -A raft of this kind will bear three persons, and is sufficiently -light to be carried over the shallows. With it Mr. Parker made -his way for a considerable distance in the Wookey Hole cavern, -and subsequently I penetrated as far as the water-line would -allow me to get. A long pole is also necessary for punting. -Mr. Parker found by experience that a raft made of boards -nailed on the top of two beer-barrels was too unstable to be of -any use. In making his way across subterranean pools the cave-hunter -ought to be prepared for accidents, for the depth is very -uncertain, and the water sufficiently cold to cause cramp. For -the exploration of ordinary water-caves a raft is unnecessary, -but no attempt should be made without a rope. In Yorkshire -and Derbyshire there is an unlimited field for adventure in the -subterranean water-courses.</p> - -<p>10. The most convenient lights for use in caves are the common -composite candles. Paraffin candles are open to the objection -that they gutter, lanthorns do not give a sufficiently diffused -light, and the smoke of paraffin torches, or flambeaux dipped in -turpentine or tar is intolerable. Magnesium wire reveals the -beauties of the higher roofs.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_199"><i>The Search after Ossiferous Caves.</i></h3> - -<p>Many of the ossiferous caves, and especially those of the -neolithic and pleistocene ages, have their entrances masked by -débris which has been accumulated from the surface above during -the long lapse of ages. In their discovery I have found rabbits, -foxes, and badgers of the greatest service, since these animals -generally make their burrows in such places. And where their -earths are met with at the base of a vertical wall of rock, I have -very generally found a cave. They were my sole guides to the -discovery of the five sepulchral caves at Perthi Chwareu, described -in the <a href="#CHAPTER_V">fifth</a> chapter, in a district in which up to that time caves -were not known to exist.</p> - -<p>The dwellers in caves very generally chose for their habitations -the sunny side of the ravines and valleys, and the spots<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_438">438</a></span> -which commanded a wide view, and, therefore, their remains -are to be looked for in those places, rather than on the cold -and sunless sides, or where an enemy might approach without -observation.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_200"><i>The Scientific Methods of Cave-digging.</i></h3> - -<p>The exploration of an ossiferous cavern with sufficient accuracy -to be of scientific value, may be carried out in all tunnel -caves, or those extending horizontally into the rock, by one of -the three following methods which may be adapted to the -local <span class="locked">conditions:—</span></p> - -<p>The first step to take in all cases is to make a plan of the entrance, -and to cut a passage down to the rock at the entrance, so -as to obtain a clear idea of the sequence of the strata. In the -hyæna-den at Wookey Hole, we first of all cut a passage through -the cave-earth which extended from the roof to the floor, and then -removed the earth on either side in blocks, until ultimately the -chamber and passages described in the <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">eighth</a> chapter were -cleared of their contents. Our work was measured every evening, -and each bone and object found was labelled with the date -which was recorded on the ground plan. Vertical sections were -also taken from time to time. This mode, supplemented by -constant supervision of the workmen, was sufficiently accurate -to satisfy the demands of scientific research.</p> - -<p>The Victoria Cave, where the demarcation between the strata -was very distinct, was explored, while the work was under my -direction up to September 1873, in a somewhat similar fashion. -It was, however, impossible on account of the great depth of the -deposits to cut a passage down to the rock at the entrance. We -therefore examined the superficial strata throughout the cave, -merely gauging the thickness of those below by sinking three -shafts. Where a cave is sufficiently high to allow of the work -being carried on, it is better to clear out one stratum before -another is disturbed.</p> - -<p>The most elaborate and perfect method of cave exploration is -that which has been used by the committee in Kent’s Hole,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_439">439</a></span> -under the superintendence of Mr. Pengelly, who writes as -follows:<a id="FNanchor_274" href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">274</a>—</p> - -<p>“The following is the method of exploration which has been -observed from the commencement, and which it is believed -affords a simple and correct method of determining the exact -position of every object which has been found.</p> - -<p>“1. The black soil accessible between the masses of limestone -on the surface was carefully examined and removed.</p> - -<p>“2. The limestone blocks occupying the surface of the deposits -were blasted and otherwise broken up, and taken out of -the cavern.</p> - -<p>“3. A line termed the ‘datum-line,’ is stretched horizontally -from a fixed point at the entrance to another at the back of the -chamber.</p> - -<p>“4. Lines, one foot apart, are drawn at right angles to the -datum-line, and therefore parallel to one another, across the -chamber so as to divide the surface of the deposit into belts -termed ‘parallels.’</p> - -<p>“5. In each parallel the black mould which the limestone -masses had covered is first examined and removed, and then the -stalagmite breccia, so as to lay bare the surface of the cave-earth.</p> - -<p>“6. Horizontal lines, a foot apart, are then drawn from side -to side across the vertical face of the section so as to divide the -parallel into four layers or ‘levels,’ each a foot deep.</p> - -<p>“Finally each level is divided into lengths called ‘yards,’ each -three feet long, and measured right and left from the datum-line -as an axis of abscissæ.</p> - -<p>“In fine, the cave-earth is excavated in vertical slices or parallels -four feet high, one foot thick, and as long as the chamber is -broad, where this breadth does not exceed thirty feet. Each -parallel is taken out in levels one foot high, and in each level in -horizontal prisms three feet long and a foot square in the section, -so that each contains three cubic feet of material.</p> - -<p>“This material, after being carefully examined <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">in situ</i> by candlelight, -is taken to the door and re-examined by daylight, after -which it is at once removed without the cavern. A box is appropriated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_440">440</a></span> -to each yard exclusively, and in it are placed all the -objects of interest which the prism yields. The boxes, each -having a label containing the data necessary for defining the -situation of its contents, are daily sent to the honorary secretary -of the committee, by whom the specimens are at once cleaned -and packed in fresh boxes. The labels are numbered and packed -with the specimens to which they respectively belong, and a -record of the day’s work is entered in a diary.</p> - -<p>“The same method is followed in the examination of the black -mould, and also of the stalagmitic breccia, with the single exception -that in these cases the parallels are not divided into levels -and yards.”</p> - -<p>A careful record of the work, and minute sections should be -taken daily on the spot.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_201"><i>The Stalagmitic Floor to be broken up.</i></h3> - -<p>In all cases the crystalline flooring of stalagmite and stalagmitic -breccias which often occur, should be broken up, or, if -necessary, blasted with gunpowder. The former very frequently -conceals the pleistocene remains, and the latter, which is in -Kent’s Hole many feet thick, often contains the traces of man -and wild animals. Sometimes it is very difficult to distinguish -the breccia from the rocky floor.</p> - -<p>Where the ossiferous deposit fills a vertical fissure it must be -worked on the same plan as in ochre-mining, by sinking a shaft. -To dig into it from below (where this is possible) is very dangerous, -because of the large imbedded stones which fall sometimes -without any warning.</p> - -<h3 id="hdr_202"><i>The Preservation of Fossil Remains.</i></h3> - -<p>The fossil bones and teeth, which have very generally lost -their gelatine and have a tendency to crumble and split to pieces -in drying, should be gradually dried, and from time to time -saturated with a weak hot solution of gelatine or glue. Silicate -of soda, sometimes called “liquid glass,” or melted paraffin (not<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_441">441</a></span> -the oil), may also be used for the same purpose. If the bones -are extremely soft, they may be rescued from destruction by -letting them dry in the matrix, saturating them and the matrix -with a solution of gelatine, and then clearing off the latter. In -this manner I preserved the skull of the musk sheep which is -now in the Museum of the Geological Survey in Jermyn Street, -London.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_442">442</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2><a id="APPENDIX_II"></a>APPENDIX II.—P. 40.</h2> -</div> - -<blockquote> - -<p id="hdr_203" class="center"><i>Observations on the Rate at which Stalagmite is being accumulated -in the Ingleborough Cave.</i> Proceed. Lit. and Phil. Soc. -Manch. April 1873.</p></blockquote> - -<p>The only attempt to measure with accuracy the rate of the -accumulation of stalagmite in caverns, in this country, is that -made by Mr. James Farrer in the Ingleborough Cave, in the -years 1839 and 1845, and published by Prof. Phillips in the -“Rivers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of Yorkshire” (second -edition, 1855, pp. 34–35). The stalagmite of which the measurements -were taken is that termed, from its shape, the Jockey -Cap. It rises from a crystalline pavement to a height of about -two and a half feet, and is the result of a deposit of carbonate -of lime, brought down by a line of drops that fall into a basin -at its top, and flow over the general surface. On March 13th, -1873, in company with Mr. John Birkbeck and Mr. Walker, I -was enabled by the kindness of Mr. Farrer to take a set of -measurements, to be recorded for use in after years.</p> - -<p>For the sake of insuring accuracy in future observations, three -holes were bored at the base of the stalagmite, and three gauges -of brass wire, gilt, inserted; gauge No. 1 in the following table -being that on the S.S.E., No. 2 on N.N.E., No. 3 on the West side. -The curvilinear dimensions were taken with fine iron wire, or -with a steel measure; and the circumferential around the base -along a line marked by the three gauges. The measurements 2,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_443">443</a></span> -3, and 4 of the table were taken on the 15th of March, by Mr. -Walker, and their accuracy may be tested by the fact that they -coincide exactly with No. 1, which I took two days before.</p> - -<p>The lengths of wire, properly labelled, are deposited in the -Manchester Museum, the Owens College, for future observers.</p> - -<p>In the following table I have given my own measurements -and compared them with those taken by Mr. Farrer.</p> - -<h4 id="list_443"><a href="#if_p_443">TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS.</a></h4> - -<table id="table443" class="listobjects" summary="Table of Measurements"> - <tr> - <th class="tdc" rowspan="2"> </th> - <th class="tdc" rowspan="2">13th Mar. 1873.<br />Inches.</th> - <th class="tdc" rowspan="2">1839.<br />Inches.</th> - <th class="tdc" rowspan="2">30 Oct. 1845.<br />Inches.</th> - <th class="tdc nobb" colspan="2">Increase<br />since</th> - <th class="tdc" rowspan="2">Rate of Increase<br />per annum.<br />Inches.</th></tr> - <tr> - <th class="tdc notb">1839.</th> - <th class="tdc notb">1845.</th></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 1 Basal circumference at Gauges</td> - <td class="tdc">128 </td> - <td class="tdc">118 </td> - <td class="tdc">120 </td> - <td class="tdc">10 </td> - <td class="tdc">8 </td> - <td class="tdl small">·2941-·2857</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 2 Gauge No. 1 to Gauge No. 2</td> - <td class="tdc"> 52·625</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 3 <span class="toc443pad1">”</span> 2 <span class="toc443pad2">”</span> 3</td> - <td class="tdc"> 35·0 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 4 <span class="toc443pad1">”</span> 3 <span class="toc443pad2">”</span> 1</td> - <td class="tdc"> 40·375</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 5 Gauge No. 1 to hole in centre of basin at apex</td> - <td class="tdc"> 30 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 6 <span class="toc443pad1">”</span> 2 <span class="toc443pad2">”</span> <span class="toc443pad2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> 29·5 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 7 <span class="toc443pad1">”</span> 3 <span class="toc443pad2">”</span> <span class="toc443pad2">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> 31·4 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 8 Height from Gauge No. 1</td> - <td class="tdc"> 20·9 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 9 <span class="toc443pad1">”</span> <span class="toc443pad3">”</span>2 min</td> - <td class="tdc"> 20·4 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">10 Maximum</td> - <td class="tdc"> 29·7 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">11 Tape measurement on slope<br /><span class="in2">Gauge No. 1 to edge of apex</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> 26·7 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">12 <span class="toc443pad4">”</span> No. 2 <span class="toc443pad5">”</span> <span class="toc443pad5">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> 26·6 </td> - <td class="tdc"> 21·0</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 5·6</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">13 <span class="toc443pad4">”</span> <span class="toc443pad6">”</span> maximum <span class="toc443pad7">”</span></td> - <td class="tdc"> 36·0 </td> - <td class="tdc"> 32·0</td> - <td class="tdc"> 35·0 </td> - <td class="tdc"> 4·0</td> - <td class="tdc">1·0 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">14 Roof to apex of Jockey Cap</td> - <td class="tdc"> 87 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 95·25</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc">8·25</td> - <td class="tdl small">·2946</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">15 Roof to tip of stalactite</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 10 </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> - <tr class="ftr"> - <td class="tdl">16 Stalactite to apex of Jockey Cap</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> 85·25</td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td> - <td class="tdc"> </td></tr> -</table> - -<p>Unfortunately I have been unable to identify the exact spots -where the stalagmite was measured by Mr. Farrer, so that the -only measurement which affords any trustworthy data for estimating -the rate of increase is number 14. With regard to this, -the only possible ground of error is the erosion of the general -surface of the solid limestone, of which the roof is composed, by -carbonic acid, since the year 1845, and this is so small as to be -practically inappreciable. We have, therefore, evidence that -the Jockey’s Cap is growing at the rate of ·2946 of an inch per -annum, and that if the present rate of growth be continued it -will finally arrive at the roof in about 295 years. But even this -comparatively short lapse of time will probably be diminished by -the growth of a pendent stalactite above, that is now being -formed in place of that which measured ten inches in 1845, and -has since been accidentally destroyed. It is very possible that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_444">444</a></span> -the Jockey Cap may be the result not of the continuous but of -the intermittent drip of water containing a variable quantity of -carbonate of lime, and that, therefore, the present rate of growth -is not a measure of its past or future condition. Its possible -age in 1845 was estimated by Prof. Phillips at 259 years, on -the supposition that the grain of carbonate of lime in each -pint was deposited. If, however, it grew at its present rate it -may be not more than 100 years old. All the stalagmites and -stalactites in the Ingleborough Cave may not date further -back than the time of Edward III. if the Jockey Cap be taken -as a measure of the rate of deposition.</p> - -<hr /> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_447">447</a></span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="index"> -<h2><a id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2> - -<ul class="index"> - -<li class="ifrst">A.</li> - -<li class="indx">Abbeville, flint implements of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aborigines (palæolithic) of India, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Acid-worn joint, Doveholes, Derbyshire, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adams, Dr. Leith, explores bone-caves of Malta, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">finds tooth of pigmy hippopotamus in Candia, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Adriatic Sea, the, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Africa, mainland of, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">moraines in, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">physical geography of, in pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">species of European mammalia found in, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">African animals in the Iberian peninsula, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">elephant, the, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Age of cavern deposits, test of, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Albert Cave, the, Settle, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alessi, Canon, cited, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Algeria, fossil mammalia in, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Alps, the, animals living to the North of, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">glaciers of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Altai mountains, the, Irish elk in, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">panther in, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">America, animals in, <a href="#Page_396">396–399</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Amiens, flint implements in the gravels of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anatolia, the glaciers of, <a href="#Page_383">383–385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Anca, Baron, on caves of northern Sicily, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Andalusia, prehistoric antiquities in, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Animals in Brit-Welsh caves, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">classificatory value of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">domestic, derived from Asia, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">evidence of, as to climate, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">extinct species of, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">historic, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">living under the care of man, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">migration of, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">northern group of, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pleistocene, living to the north of the Alps, <a href="#Page_359">359–361</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">unknown in Britain in the prehistoric age, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">prehistoric, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">probable cause of association of species, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">southern group of, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">temperate group of, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Antelope saiga</i>, the, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antelopes, spread of, into Europe, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Antiquity of Man in Europe, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aquitaine, implements in the caves of, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">palæolithic hunters in, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the people of, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ardennes, rock denuded from the, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arenaceous rocks, caves in, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arnould, M., on the cave of Sclaigneaux, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arrows used by palæolithic hunters, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Art of the Eskimos, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Arthur’s cave, King, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ashmolean Museum, harpoons in the, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Asia, domestic animals of Europe derived from, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the lion in, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ass, the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Atlantic Ocean, the, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">shore, the, at one hundred fathom line, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Atlas mountains, glaciers of the, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aurignac, the cave of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bones found in, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovery of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">interment in, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">skeletons of man above palæolithic stratum of, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Austen, Mr. Godwin- (<i>see</i> <a href="#Godwin-Austen">Godwin-Austen</a>).</li> - -<li class="indx">Auvergne, palæolithic men in, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Avison, cave of, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Axe, the river, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Aymard, M., cited, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">B.</li> - -<li class="indx">Badger, the (<i>see</i> <i class="taxonomy"><a href="#Meles_taxus">Meles taxus</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx">Banwell, cave at, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Basques, the, eastern derivation of, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">elements of, in British and French populations, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Britain and Ireland in the neolithic age, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Dolicho-cephali cognate with, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the oldest neolithic population, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baumann’s Hole, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Baume, the cave of, animals found in, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bayle, M., on animals from Mansourah, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bear, the, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Germany, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the care of Kühloch, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_448">448</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">the cave, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the grizzly, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beard, Mr., of Banwell, cited, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">explorations of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beaumont, Mr. John, describes Wookey Hole, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on fungoid structures, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Beaver, the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Behrens, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Belgium, brachy-cephalic skulls found in, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">caves in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dolicho-cephalic skulls in, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bell, Professor, on the ass, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bertrand, M. Eugène, cited, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Billaudel, M., cited, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Birkbeck, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">descends into Helln Pot, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bishofferode, cave at, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bison, the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blackmore, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Black-Rock Cave, the, near Tenby, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blake, Mr. Carter, cited, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Blyth, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boar, the wild, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bone-beds, the, in Wookey Hole Hyæna-den, <a href="#Page_305">305–307</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bone-caves, before and after the ice-period, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">exploration of, in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Southern Europe, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the three classes of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bone harpoon, found in Victoria Cave, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bones gnawed by hyænas, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bonney, Rev. T. G., cited, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Bos namadicus</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bosco’s Den, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Boulder clays, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brachy-cephali, the Belgian, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">British, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">French, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">represented by Celts, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bradley, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brandt, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the Irish Elk, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brenan, Mr., discoveries of, in Ireland, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bristol Channel, the, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Britain, cave exploration in, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">during the second ice age, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">historic caves in, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">historic period in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">inhabitants of, in the neolithic age, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">mammalia in, during the second ice age, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">population of in time of Cæsar, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">raids of Picts and Scots in, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">range of dolicho-cephali in, and Ireland, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Roman dominion in, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">two periods of glaciation in, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">wild animals in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">British brachy-cephali, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brit-Welsh caves, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brixham, caves at, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">implements and animals in, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">history of deposits in, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Broca, M., cited, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Basque crania, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the Caverne de l’Homme Mort, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">derivation of the Basques from Africa, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on platycnemic <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sepulchral cave of Orrouy, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brome, Captain, researches of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bronze age in Britain, caves of the, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">armlet from Thor’s cave, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">articles from Heathery Burn, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brooches found in the Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brown, Mr. Edwin, on Thor’s cave, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Browne, the Rev. G. F., explorations of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the temperature of caves, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bruniquel, cave of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">interments of doubtful age in, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Bryce, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Brysgill, cave of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Bubalus namadicus</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buckland, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Gailenreuth cave, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Kirkdale, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Kühloch, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Paviland, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Buffalo in Italy, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Busk, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on fossil bones in the Iberian peninsula, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">human bones from Perthi-Chwareu caves, <a href="#Page_166">166–179</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">human remains from Cefn tumulus, <a href="#Page_180">180–186</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">human skull from caves of Césaroda, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">skulls found in Spain, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Berbers, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the fauna of Mentone, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">researches of, in caves of Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_204">204–208</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">C.</li> - -<li class="indx">Calcareous rocks, caves in, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caldy, cave of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cave-pearls in, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fungoid stalagmites in, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">island of, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Campbell, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy"><a id="Canis_familiaris"></a>Canis familiaris</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">lupus</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">vulpes</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Capellini, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the Grotta dei Colombi, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy"><a id="Capra_hircus"></a>Capra hircus</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carbonate of lime, circulation of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Thames water, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">removed by streams, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cartaillac, M., cited, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Carte, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cat, Caffir, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>; domestic, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cat-Hole cave, in Gower, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cave-pearls, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caves, biological division of, <a href="#Page_6">6–9</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">classification of palæolithic, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">conclusions as to prehistoric, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">containing remains of doubtful age, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">contents of historic, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">deposits in valleys and in, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">exploration of European, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">filling up of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">formation of, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">historic, in Britain, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the region of Craven, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">legends and superstitions of, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">not generally found in line of faults, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_449">449</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">of bronze age in Britain, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of neolithic age, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">physical division of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">physical history of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">relation of, to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">results of the exploration of European, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">temperature of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">test of age of deposits in, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">used as places of refuge, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">various ages of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Albert, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">of Andalusia, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Aquitaine, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Aurignac, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Avison, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Banwell, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Baumann’s Hole, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Baume, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Belgium, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Bishofferode, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Black Rock, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Bosco’s Den, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Britain, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Brit-Welsh, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Brixham, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Bruniquel, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Brysgill, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Caldy, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Canary Isles, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Cat-Hole, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Cavillon, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Cefn, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Césareda, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Chauvaux, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Colombi, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Crawley Rocks, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Cro-Magnon, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Denbighshire, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Derbyshire, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Devonshire, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Dowkerbottom, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Dream, the, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Engis, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Fingal, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">France, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Franconia, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Gailenreuth, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Gatekirk, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Gendron, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Genista, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Goatchurch, <a href="#Page_31">31–34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Gower, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Heathery Burn, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Hutton, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Ingleborough, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Ireland, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Kelko, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Kent’s-Hole, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">King Arthur, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">King’s Scar, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Kirkdale, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Kirkhead, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Kühloch, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Laugerie Basse, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">L’Homme Mort, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Llandebie, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Llanamynech, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Lombrive, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Longberry Bank, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Long Churn, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Lunel-viel, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Maccagnone, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Maghlak, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Malta, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Moustier, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Naulette, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Neanderthal, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">North Wales, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Oban, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Orrouy, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Paviland, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Peak, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Pembrokeshire, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Périgord, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Perthi-Chwareu, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Plas Heaton, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Poole, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Provence and Mentone, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Reggio, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Rians, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Rhosdigre, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">San Ciro, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Sclaigneaux, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Sicily, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">South Wales, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Thor’s, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Uphill, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Victoria, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Weathercote, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Whitcombe, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Woman’s, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Wookey, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> -<li class="isub2">Yorkshire, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Caverne de l’Homme Mort, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cavillon, cave of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">palæolithic skeletons in, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">strata in, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cedars of Lebanon, the, Dr. Hooker on, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cefn, caves at, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">chambered tomb near, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovery of bones at, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Professor Busk on human remains from tumulus at, <a href="#Page_180">180–184</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on skull from, <a href="#Page_184">184–167</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Celts, brachy-cephali represented by, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Cervus alcis</i>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">capreolus</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">carnutorum</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">elaphus</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">Polignacus</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">Sedgwickii</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">verticornis</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Césareda, caves of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">evidence of cannibalism in, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chautre, M., cited, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chapel-en-le-Dale, valley of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chauvaux, cave of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chester, sack of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chierici, l’Abbé, on remains from the cave of Reggio, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Chillingham ox, the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Christol, M. de, cited, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Christy, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the caves of Périgord, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Cirques” in calcareous rocks, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Classification of pleistocene strata, <a href="#Page_412">412–414</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Classificatory value of historic animals, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Close, Rev. H. M., cited, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Climate, evidence of animals as to, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pleistocene, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coast line of North-Western Europe in pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cochrane, Sir James, cited, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Coins in the Victoria cave, Settle, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Corsica, absence of cliffs in, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crania from Genista cave, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cranial terms, definition of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Craven, caves near, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crawley Rocks, the cavern of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Crayford, discovery of a flint-flake at, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cro-Magnon, cave of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ornaments found in, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">position of human skeletons in, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">section of deposits in, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the human <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i> of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">traces of occupation in, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Cuvier, Baron, cited, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">D.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dalebeck, the, course of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dana, Professor, on caverns, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Darbishire, Mr. R. D., reference to, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dauphiny, the hills of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Delgado, Senhor J. L., on researches in the caves of Césareda, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">De Luc, M., cited, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Denbighshire, sepulchral caves in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Denny, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Derbyshire, caves of, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Desnoyers, M., cited, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the analogy between caverns and mineral veins, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">relation of caves to ravines, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Devonshire, caves of, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dio Chrysostom Rhetor on the lion, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dog, the (<i>see</i> <i class="taxonomy"><a href="#Canis_familiaris">Canis familiaris</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx">Dolicho-cephali, British, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">their range in Britain and Ireland, <a href="#Page_194">194–197</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cognate with the Basque, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_204">204–207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dormouse of Malta, the, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_450">450</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Dowkerbottom cave, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dream-cave, near Wirksworth, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dubrueil, M., cited, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dupont, M., cited, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discoveries of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">investigations of, in Dinant-sur-Meuse, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the Trou de Naulette, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Durdham Down, fissures of, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Dürnten, the lignite bed of, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">E.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eagle, the, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">“Ebur fossile,” <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Egerton, Sir Philip, cited, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elephant, the African, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">found near Madrid, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Sicily, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Elephas antiquus</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">melitensis</i>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">meridionalis</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">namadicus</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">primigenius</i> (<i>see</i> <i class="taxonomy"><a href="#Mammoth">Mammoth</a></i>);</li> -<li class="isub1">(<i class="taxonomy">stegodon</i>) <i class="taxonomy">insignis</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elk, the, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Elmet, conquest of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Enamels in the north of England, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">mentioned by Philostratus, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Engis, cave of, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">English invasion, the, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Enniskillen, Lord, cited, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Equus fossilis</i> of pleiocene age, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Eskimos, art of the, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">implements of the, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Europe, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">probably the representatives of cave-dwellers, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">relation of cave-dwellers to, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Esper, cited, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Europe, Antiquity of man in, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">climatal changes on the continent of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pleistocene mammalia pre-glacial in, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">species of mammalia in Africa, and, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Southern, bone-caves of, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">fauna in caves of, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Evans, Mr. John, cited, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on coins, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the iron, bronze, and stone ages, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the palæolithic cave-dwellers, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Evidence of soundings in Southern Europe, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">F.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fairy Chamber, the, Caldy, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Falconer, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on bones from San Ciro, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on mammals in the Iberian peninsula, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the fauna of the forest bed, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the hippopotamus, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the <i class="taxonomy">Hippopotamus namadicus</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">researches of, in caves of Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_204">204–207</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fallow deer, the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Britain, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in France, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Spain and Africa, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Falsan, M., cited, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Farrer, Mr., explorations of, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on coins, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on remains from Dowkerbottom cave, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">stalagmite, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fauna, cave, identical with river-bed, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">changes in the, of Great Britain, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Montpellier, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Southern Europe, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the pleiocene, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the pleistocene, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the prehistoric, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Felis caffer</i>, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Iberian peninsula, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Somerset, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fellowes, Sir Charles, cited, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fibulæ, enamelled, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fingal’s cave, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fischer, Dr. Gothelf, on the panther, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fisher, Rev. O., discovers a flint-flake at Crayford, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fisherton, valley-gravels at, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fissures, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Durdham Down, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Mentone, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Windmill Hill, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Flint flakes and scrapers in caves of Périgord, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in caves of Mentone, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Perthi-Chwareu, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Wookey Hole, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Florus on the Aquitani, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foote, Mr. Bruce, cited, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on flint implements from Madras, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fossil mammalia from the German Ocean, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Foville, M., cited, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fowl, the domestic, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fox, the Arctic, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fraas, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">France, Basque peoples in, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">caves in, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">skulls from tumuli in, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the dolicho-cephali and brachy-cephali in, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Franconia, caves of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Franks, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on drawings of palæolithic hunters, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on enamelling, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on “late Celtic” art, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Freeman, Mr. E. A., on the dominion of West Wales in the days of Ecgberht, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the Norman Conquest, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Freshford, pleistocene deposits at, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Fuhlrott, Dr., skull found by, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">G.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gailenreuth, cave of, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">filled by a stream, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garonne, valley of the, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Garrigou, M., cited, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gatekirk cavern, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gaudin, M. Charles, cited, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gaudry, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on fossil remains at Pickermi, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gaul and Spain, the peoples of, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gautier, M., cited, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Geikie, Mr. James, cited, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Geikie, Professor A., cited, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gendron, cave of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Genista, caves, the, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">articles in, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">human remains in, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Geography, pleistocene, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_451">451</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">German Ocean, fossil mammalia in, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">German race, the ancient, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Germany, bears in, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">cave-exploration in, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gervais, M., cited, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">list of pleiocene mammalia by, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on <i class="taxonomy">Equus robustus</i>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on mammalia from Algeria, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gesner, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gibraltar, the neolithic caves of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Straits of, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gildas on the character of the English conquest, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glacial period, the, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the relation of palæolithic man to, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glaciation in Britain, two periods of, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glaciers of Alps, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Anatolia, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Lebanon, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Mediterranean area caused partly by elevation, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Pyrenees, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Glutton, the, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">jaw of, from Plas Heaton cave, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goat, the (<i>see</i> <i class="taxonomy"><a href="#Capra_hircus">Capra hircus</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx">Goatchurch cave, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">legend of the dog at, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Goldfuss cited, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Godwin-Austen"></a>Godwin-Austen, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the fresh-water mussel, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">researches of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gosse, M., cited, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gower, caves of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Great Britain, cave-exploration in, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">historic period in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Green, Rev. J. R., on the conquest of Britain, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Greenwell, Rev. Canon, discoveries of, in tumuli, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grey clays in Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Grotto di Maccagnone, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dei Colombi inhabited by cannibals, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">thigh-bone of child from, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Guanches of the Canary Isles, the, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Gunn, Rev. John, cited, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">H.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harkness, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hamy, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the cave-bear, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Hare"></a>Hare, the, at Perthi-Chwareu, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Suabia, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">mentioned, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">used for food in neolithic times, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Harpoons used by palæolithic hunters, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heathery Burn, cave of, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bronze articles in, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heaton, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Heer, Professor, on vegetables used in Swiss lake dwellings, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Helln Pot, descent into, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">description of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">exploration of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hipparion found in Suffolk, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="anatomy">gracile</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hippopotamus, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">amphibius</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">liberiensis</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">major</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">namadicus</i>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">palæindicus</i>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">Pentlandi</i> (pigmy), <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Historic animals, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">period, definition of, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">period, difference between, and prehistoric, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">History, the evidence of, as to the peoples of Gaul and Spain, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hooker, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the cedars of Lebanon, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horse, the, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Horseflesh, the use of, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Howel Dha, the laws of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hughes, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hull, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hunting grounds of palæolithic tribes, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hutton, cave of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Huxley, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on brachy-cephalic skulls, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on dolicho-cephalic skulls, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the classification of crania, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the skull from Engis cave, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the skull from Neanderthal cave, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hyæna, the, animals at Wookey Hole introduced by, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bones gnawed by, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">gnawed jaw of, from Wookey, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">man coeval with, in Somerset, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">Perrieri</i>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the, pleistocene occupation of, in Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">spelæa</i> (spotted), <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">striped, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Hyæna-den, characters of a, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Kirkdale, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">I.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iberian peoples, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">peninsula, the mammals in, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iberic dolicho-cephali, the, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ice period in Britain, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Implements used by palæolithic hunters, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">India, man in, in pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ingleborough cave, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ireland, caves in, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">dolicho-cephalic skulls in, <a href="#Page_194">194–197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Irish-Celtic art, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Irish Elk, the, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Iron age, the, cave of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Issoire, pseudo-pleiocene mammalia of, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Italy, animals in the museums of, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">J.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jackson, Mr. Joseph, discovers the Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jamieson, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jeanjean, M., cited, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jewellery in Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Jones, Professor Rupert, cited, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">K.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_452">452</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Kelko cave, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kent’s Hole cavern, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">age of <i class="taxonomy">machairodus</i> of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">deposits in, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the breccia in, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">King, Rev. S. W., researches of, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">King’s Scar, cave in, carinate human femur in, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kirkdale cave, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kirkhead cave, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Kühloch cave, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">L.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laing, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">skulls obtained by, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lagneaux, M., cited, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lances used by palæolithic hunters, <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Laugerie Basse, cave at, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lartet, Professor E., cited, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">explorations of, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on fossil remains found near Madrid, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the cave of Aurignac, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the cave of Périgord, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on palæolithic caves, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lartet, Professor Louis, on the cave of Cro-Magnon, <a href="#Page_250">250–252</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lastic, Vicomte de, cited, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lebanon, the glaciers of, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ledbury Hill, skull found near, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Leibnitz, cited, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lemming, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy"><a id="Lepus_cuniculus"></a>Lepus cuniculus</i>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">timidus</i> (<i>see</i> <a href="#Hare">Hare</a>).</li> - -<li class="indx">Ligurian tribes, the, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Limestone, caverns in, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">composition of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">erosion of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lion, the, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">extinct in Europe, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">range of, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Littorina littorea</i> found in Cro-Magnon cave, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Llanamynech, caves at, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Llandebie, cave of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lloyd, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lombrive, cave of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Longberry Bank, cave of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Long Churn cavern, the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lortet, M., cited, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Luard, Captain, discovers fossil mammals at Windsor, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lubbock, Sir John, cited, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the stone age, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lunel-viel, cave of, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lunier, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lyell, Sir Charles, cited, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the cave of Aurignac, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the glacial period, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Lynx, the, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">M.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maccagnone, Grotto di, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Machairodus cultridens</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">latidens</i>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">a pleiocene species, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">at Kent’s Hole, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the cave at Baume, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">probable age of, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mackay, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Madras, flint implements found near, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Madrid, fossil animals near, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maghlak cave, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Malham Cove, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Malta, bone-caves of, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mammalia, classification of pleistocene strata by means of, <a href="#Page_412">412–415</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">early pleistocene, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">evidence of, as to climate, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Algeria, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Britain during the second ice-age, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the Iberian peninsula, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the pleiocene, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><a id="Mammoth"></a>Mammoth, the, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">figure of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Man, antiquity of, in Europe, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">coeval with hyænas in Somerset, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in India in pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Palestine, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Manchester Museum, mammoth from Bacton in the, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Mangousta Widdringtoni</i>, the, in Spain and Africa, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marcel de Serres, cited, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marmot, the, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the pouched, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Marion, M., cited, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Martinez, Don Manuel Gongaray, on the prehistoric antiquities of Andalusia, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Mastodon arvernensis</i>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422–424</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">Borsoni</i>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">brevirostris</i>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Maw, Mr. George, on coast of Mediterranean, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on glaciers of the Atlas, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on level in the Sahara, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">McEnery, Rev. J., discovers the <i class="taxonomy">Machairodus latidens</i> in Kent’s Hole cavern, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">manuscripts of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">McPherson, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mediterranean area in meiocene age, changes of level in, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mediterranean, the, physical condition of, in pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the shores of, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Medlicott, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy"><a id="Meles_taxus"></a>Meles taxus</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mendip Hills, the, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the caves of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the district of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mentone, bone-caves of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Metcalfe, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">descends into Helln Pot, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mineral condition of deposits in caves, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moggridge, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the exploration of Mentone, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Montpellier, the fauna of, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moraines in Anatolia, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Morris, Mr. J. P., explores Kirkhead cave, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Mortillet, M. de, on palæolithic caves, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on pottery in the palæolithic age, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Moustier, cave of, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Murcièlagos, Cueva de los, description of, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Musk sheep, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_453">453</a></span></li> -<li class="isub1">at Crayford, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">range of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Myoxus Melitensis</i>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">N.</li> - -<li class="indx">Naulette, Trou de, remains found in the, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Neanderthal cave, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">human skull found in, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Neolithic age, interments of, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Neolithic caves of France, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Spain, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Wales, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Neolithic races, range of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Nilsson, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on dwarfs, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on origin of chambered tombs, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">North Wales, the caves of, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">O.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oban, remains in a cave at, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oreston cave, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros megarhinus</i> of, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Orrouy, the sepulchral cave of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Owen, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the cave of Bruniquel, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Oxford Museum, the, human skull from cave of Llandebie in, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">molar of pigmy hippopotamus in, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">P.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palæolithic art, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">caves, classification of, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">hunters, instruments used by, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">hunters, not cannibals, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">implements, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">man in Europe, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">man, relation of, to glacial period, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">man in India, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">man in Palestine, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">man of the river-gravels, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">tribes, hunting grounds of, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palestine, palæolithic man in, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Palgrave, Mr. Gifford, on glaciers of Anatolia, <a href="#Page_383">383–385</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Panther, the, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Parker, Mr. James, cited, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Paviland cave, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Peak, cavern of the, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pembrokeshire, caves in, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pengelly, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Brixham cave, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Cavillon cave, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Devonshire caves, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pennington, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Périgord, caves of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">articles found in the, <a href="#Page_337">337–339</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Perthes, M. Boucher de, on flint implements, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Perthi-Chwareu, pottery and implements from, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Professor Busk on human bones from, <a href="#Page_167">167–179</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">refuse heap at, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">remains of animals at, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153–155</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">remains of man at, <a href="#Page_153">153–155</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">sepulchral caves at, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Phahlbauten, the Swiss, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Phillips, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on formation of caves, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on stalagmite, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the Ingleborough cave, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the origin of caves, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Physiography of Great Britain in late pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Mediterranean in pleistocene age, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Picts and Scots, raids of, in Britain, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pickermi, fossil remains at, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Plas Heaton, the tunnel-cave of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Platycnemic leg-bones, <a href="#Page_173">173–176</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Platycnemism, Professor Busk on, <a href="#Page_177">177–179</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pleiocene and pleistocene characteristic animals, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">species in Europe, mixture of, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pleiocene mammalia, the, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">period, the, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">species, <i class="taxonomy">machairodus</i> a, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pleistocene age, the, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">animals living in, <a href="#Page_359">359–361</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">physiography of Mediterranean in, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">remains of animals before the, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">climate and geography, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">coast-line of North-Western Europe, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">divisions, early, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">divisions, late, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">divisions, middle, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">relation of, to prehistoric period, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">strata, classification of, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Po, the river, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Poole’s cavern, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pot-holes and “cirques” in calcareous rocks, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Porcupine, in Spain and Africa, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">found in Belgium, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prehistoric period, the, archæological classification of, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">conditions of life in, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">difference between the historic and, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">relation of pleistocene to, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prestwich, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on Brixham cave, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on carbonate of lime in Thames water, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the discoveries in the valley of the Somme, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the denudation of the Mendips and Ardennes, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on palæolithic man, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Provence, bone-caves of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pruner-Bey, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Prunières, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Purpura lapillus</i> in cave of Cro-Magnon, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Pyrenees, the, animals living to the North of the Alps and, <a href="#Page_359">359–361</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">glaciers of, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Q.</li> - -<li class="indx">Quatrefages, M. de, cited, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">R.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_454">454</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Rabbit, the (<i>see</i> <i class="taxonomy"><a href="#Lepus_cuniculus">lepus cuniculus</a></i>).</li> - -<li class="indx">Ramsay, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rat, the common, migrations of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rattonneau, island of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ravines, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reggio, cave of, in Modena, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Reindeer, the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">absence of, in middle pleistocene division, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">engraving of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the cave of Lombrive, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the caves of Périgord, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the Trou du Frontal, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">—period of M. Lartet, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">range of, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rhætic age, fossils of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Rhinoceros etruscus</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">hemitœchus</i>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">megarhinus</i>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_416">416–418</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1"><i class="taxonomy">tichorhinus</i> (woolly), <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rhosdigre cave, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">contents of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">greenstone celt from, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rians, cave of, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Richard, the Abbé, cited, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rivière, M., explorations of, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roedeer, the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rolleston, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovery of pigmy hippopotamus by, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Roman dominion in Britain, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rosenmüller, cited, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Rütimeyer, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">S.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sahara, the, changes of level in, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Samian ware in the Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in the Dowkerbottom cave, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">San Ciro, cave of, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schaaffhausen, M., cited, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the skull from Neanderthal, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Schmerling, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">researches of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sclaigneaux, cave of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">platycnemic tibia from, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sanford, Mr., Ayshford, cited, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Second ice or glacial period, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Selsea, remains found at, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Serres, M. de, cited, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Serval, the, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Sicily, bone-caves of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Iberians in, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">species from, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Skulls, measurements of brachy-cephalic and dolicho-cephalic, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">from Perthi-Chwareu, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of doubtful antiquity, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">table of dolicho-cephalic, found in Britain and Ireland, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Smith, Mr. Roach, on Roman coins, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Smith, Rev. G. N., on Tenby bone-caves, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Solutré, horse’s skeleton from, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Somerset, hyænas in, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">mammalia in the caves of, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soreil, M., on the cave of Chauvaux, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Soundings, evidence of, in Southern Europe, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">South Wales, caves of, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">mammalia in, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Southern Europe, bone-caves of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spain, articles found in a copper-mine in, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">historical evidence as to the peoples of Gaul and, <a href="#Page_220">220–222</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spratt, Admiral, explorations of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Spring, Dr., discoveries of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on the cave of Chauvaux, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stag, the, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stalagmite, rate of the accumulation of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Stanley, Rev. E., cited, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Sus Indica</i>, the, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Sus palustris</i>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Sus scrofa</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Switzerland, caves of, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Symonds, Rev. W. S., explores King Arthur’s cave, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">T.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tapir, the <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Temperature of caves, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tenby, cave of Caldy near, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the Black Rock near, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thames water, carbonate of lime in, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thomas, Rev. D. R., on chambered tomb at Cefn, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thor’s cave, near Ashbourne, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">occupied by Brit-Welsh, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Thurnam, Dr., cited, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on classification of crania, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on craniology of Britain in neolithic age, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on dolicho-cephalic skulls, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on skulls from cave of Orrouy, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tiddeman, Mr., on the Victoria cave, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Troglodytes, name of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Trogontherium cuvieri</i>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tropical and cold climates, animals common to, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Trou du Frontal, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">crania in, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tunbridge Wells, rocks at, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Turner, Professor, on remains in a cave at Oban, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Turritella communis</i> in cave of Cro-Magnon, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tuto, islands of, caves in, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Tyddyn Bleiddyn, cairn of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">U.</li> - -<li class="indx">Ultz, burial-places of, in Westphalia, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Unio pictorum</i> dredged from bottom of English Channel, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Uphill, cave of, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>; skull from, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Urus, the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus arctos</i>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus arvernensis</i>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx"><i class="taxonomy">Ursus spelæus</i>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">V.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_455">455</a></span></li> - -<li class="indx">Val d’Arno, fauna of the, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Valleys, change in physical conditions of, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">deposits in caves and, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in limestone districts, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">strata of sand and gravel in, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Victoria cave, the, bones of animals in, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">Brit-Welsh stratum in, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bronze articles in, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">coins in, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">date of neolithic occupation in, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovery of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">exploration of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">grey clays in, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">human bone from oldest ossiferous stratum in, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">implements and ornaments in, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">miscellaneous articles in, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">period of Brit-Welsh occupation in, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pleistocene occupation by hyænas in, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">pre-glacial age of pleistocene stratum in, <a href="#Page_121">121–123</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vivian, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Virchow, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">on dolicho-cephalic skulls, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Vogt, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">W.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water, action of, in caves, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Water caves of Derbyshire, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Somersetshire, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">of Yorkshire, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Weathercote, caves at, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whidbey, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Whitcombe’s Hole, a cave of the Iron Age, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Willett, Mr., cited, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Williams, Rev. D., explorations of, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Williams, Rev John, on caverns in island of Tuto, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Williamson, Rev. J., cited, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wilson, Professor, cited, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Winterbourne Stoke, the barrow of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Winwood, Rev. H. H., cited, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">discovers remains of animals at Freshford, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">explores the cave at Longberry Bank, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wolf, the, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Britain, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">in Spain, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">last, in Scotland, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Woman’s cave, the, near Alhama, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wood, Colonel, cited, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li> - -<li class="indx">Wookey Hole, hyæna den of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">ashes and implements found at, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">bone-beds at, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">flint implements found at, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">hyæna den of, inhabited by man, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">legend of the dog at, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</li> -<li class="isub1">the water cave of, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">X.</li> - -<li class="indx">Xenophon on the panther, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li> - -<li class="ifrst">Y.</li> - -<li class="indx">Yorkshire, caves in, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li> - -</ul> -</div></div> - -<p class="p2 center smaller">THE END.</p> - -<p class="p2 center small">LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS.</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="footnotes"> -<h2 class="nobreak p1"><a id="FOOTNOTES"></a>FOOTNOTES</h2> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> The Natural History of the Hartz Forest (Hercynia Curiosa), -translated from the German of H. Behrens, M.D., by John Andree, -1670, p. 41.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Florus, lib. iii. c. x. Delphin. 4to. 1714, p. 112.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> Since this was written, Sir C. Lyell has withdrawn his term -“Post-pleiocene” in favour of Pleistocene. (“Antiquity of Man,” -4th edition, 1873.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> Hist. Anim. vol. i. Folio, 1603. Article “Monoceras.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> Described by Professor Owen, Quart. Geol. Journ. p. 417. -See Hanbury on “Chinese Materia Medica,” 1862, 8vo. p. 40. Some -of the dragons’ teeth were found in caves by Mr. Swinhoe.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> Hercynia Curiosa.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> See Cuvier, Oss. Foss. vol. iv. pp. 290 et seq.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> The references are to be found in Cuvier, top. cit. and in Buckland, -“Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” 4to. 1822. Most of them I have verified.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn1"><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> Phil. Trans. 1817, p. 176.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> Pengelly, “Literature of Kent’s Cavern,” Devonshire Association. -1868–9. “Kent’s Hole,” Lecture, delivered in Hulme Town -Hall, 1872.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> Comptes Rendus, 1847, pp. 649–50, et 1864, p. 230.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> Prestwich, Phil. Trans. 1860. Proceed. Royal Soc. 1859.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="fnanchor">13</a> Quart. Geol. Journ. Jan. 1861.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> Falconer, Palæont. Mem. vol. ii. p. 498.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1865–72.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> The authorities for this paragraph are Cuvier (Oss. Foss.), Desnoyers -(Article “Grottes,” Dictionnaire Univ. d’Histoire Naturelle), -Marcel de Serres (Cavernes à Oss. Foss. du Département de l’Aude, -1839), Gervais (Paléontologie Française, 1859, and Nouvelles Recherches -sur les Animaux Vertébrés, Vivants et Fossiles, 1868–9–70).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> An. des Sc.: Nat. Zool. iv. sér. t. xv.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> Recherches sur les Oss. Foss. découverts dans les Cavernes de la -Province de Liège, 4to. atlas folio.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> Bull. de l’Académie Royale de Belgique, 1 sér. t. xx. p. 427, 1853; -2 sér. t. xviii. p. 479, 1864; xxii. p. 187, 1866.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs de -Dinant sur Meuse. Bruxelles, 1871. 2nd edit., 1872.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> Ice-caves, 8vo. 1865, Longmans.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> D’Orbigny, Dictionnaire Universel d’Histoire Naturelle, Article -“Grottes.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> Quart. Geol. Journ. xxvii. 312.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="fnanchor">25</a> When the English conquered Somerset from the Brit-Welsh, they -translated the Celtic Ogo into Hole, whence the cave and village of -Wookey Hole were named, just as they translated a neighbouring -hill, called Pen, into Knowle, the generic Celtic term in each case -being used to specify a particular object. There are many other -instances of the like use of a Celtic name by the English conquerors -of the Celts. In the Limestone plateau of Llanamynech, -near Oswestry, there is a cave called “The Ogo.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> Phil. Trans. 1680, p. 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> The cave is accessible, and can be examined without any climbing.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="fnanchor">28</a> Both of these caves are kept in excellent order, and the latter is -lighted with gas.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> The cave is admirably preserved by the care of the owner, J. -Farrer, Esq., and may be visited without any difficulty.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> Rivers, Mountains, and Sea-coast of Yorkshire, 8vo. 1854, p. 34.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="fnanchor">31</a> On the Ordnance Maps it is wrongly printed Alum Pot.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> Op. cit. Article Grottes.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs de -Dinant sur Meuse, Bruxelles, 1871.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> The bare pavements above Malham Cove are worthy of a careful -examination.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> I have used the term incretionary as implying an accumulation of -mineral matter from the circumference of a cavity towards its centre, -as in the case of an agate. Concretionary action, with which it is -generally confused, ought to be defined as the deposition of successive -layers of matter round a nucleus or centre. The one action operates from -the circumference to the centre, the other from the centre to the circumference.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> Corals and Coral Islands, 1872, p. 361.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> Prestwich, Ann. Address Geol. Soc. 1872, p. 84.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="fnanchor">38</a> Phil. Trans. April 7th, 1680, p. 731.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> “Ice-Caves in France and Switzerland.” Longmans, 1865, p. 296.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> Leges Walliæ.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> Bell, “British Quadrupeds,” 8vo. p. 386.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_42" href="#FNanchor_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> The authorities for the preceding paragraphs will be found in -Chapter II. of my Preliminary Treatise on the “Relation of the -Pleistocene Mammalia to those now living in Europe” (Palæont. -Soc. 1874).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_43" href="#FNanchor_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> Benedict. ad Mensas Ekkehardi Monachi Sangallensis, l. 129.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_44" href="#FNanchor_44" class="fnanchor">44</a> Buffon, Quadrupeds, l. v. p. 52; l. x. p. 67. Sir G. C. Lewis, -“Notes and Queries,” 2nd series, l. ix. pp. 4, 5.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_45" href="#FNanchor_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> See Rolleston, Journ. Anat. and Phys., 1868, pp. 51–2. Lenz, -“Zoologie der Alten.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_46" href="#FNanchor_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> <a href="#Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>, <span class="smcap smaller">A</span>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_47" href="#FNanchor_47" class="fnanchor">47</a> Roach Smith, “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, p. 72, 1844. -It is noticed by Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Historic Society of Lancashire -and Cheshire, May 11, 1865; and by Mr. Denny, Trans. Geol. -and Polytechnic Soc. of West Riding, 1859.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_48" href="#FNanchor_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, pp. 69, 70.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_49" href="#FNanchor_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> The Victoria Cave has engaged the attention of the following -writers:—Farrer, Proceed. Soc. Antiquaries, vol. iv.;—Roach Smith -and Jackson, “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, 1844;—Denny, -Proceed. Geol. and Polytechnic Society of the West Riding of Yorkshire, -1859;—Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Historic Society of Cheshire, -May 11, 1865;—Boyd Dawkins, “Nature,” April 21, 1870; British -Assoc. Reports, 1870; Macmillan’s Magazine, Sept. 1871; Journ. Anthrop. -Institute, 1871;—Tiddeman, “Nature,” 1872;—Boyd Dawkins -and Tiddeman, British Assoc. Reports, 1872;—Tiddeman, Geol. Mag., -Jan. 1873;—Boyd Dawkins, Proceed. Manch. Philosophical Soc., -Feb. 1873;—Brockbank, Proceed. Manch. Philosophical Soc., March -1873.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_50" href="#FNanchor_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> See Palæont. Society, 1874—Boyd Dawkins’ Preliminary Treatise, -Chapter II.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_51" href="#FNanchor_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> R. D. Darbishire, Proceed. Manchester Numismatic Society, -Part II. 1865: “On some Autonomous Coins of Ancient Spain.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_52" href="#FNanchor_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> Vetusta Monumenta, vol. vi.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_53" href="#FNanchor_53" class="fnanchor">53</a> I have to thank the Rev. J. R. Green for allowing me to quote -this passage from his work, which is now in the press.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_54" href="#FNanchor_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> Antiquités Suisses, Second Supplement; Lausanne, 1867, p. 15, -Pl. xii. figs. 3, 4.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_55" href="#FNanchor_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> La Seine Inférieure, 4to., 1867, p. 203.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_56" href="#FNanchor_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> See Kemble, “Horæ Ferales,” 4to.; Description of Plates by A. -W. Franks, p. 64.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_57" href="#FNanchor_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> <span xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">ταῦτα φασι τὰ χρώματα τοὺς ἐν Ὠκεανῷ βαρβάρους ἐγχεῖν τῷ χάλκῳ -διαπύρῳ, τὰ δὲ συνίστασθαι καὶ λιθοῦσθαι, καὶ σώζειν ἃ ἐγράφη</span> (Icon. -lib. i. c. 28). The art was evidently unknown in Rome at this time.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_58" href="#FNanchor_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> Notice des Émaux du Musée du Louvre, 1857, pp. 25, 26.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_59" href="#FNanchor_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Hist. Soc. Lancashire and Cheshire, 1866. -Limestone Caves of Craven.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_60" href="#FNanchor_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> Proc. Geol. and Polytechnic Soc. of West Riding of Yorkshire, -1859, p. 45 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_61" href="#FNanchor_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> Denny and Farrer, op. cit. 1864–5, 414 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i>; Farrer, Proc. -Soc. Antiq. vol. iv.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_62" href="#FNanchor_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> The authorities for this paragraph are Gildas, Nennius, and others, -printed in “Monumenta Historica Britannica,” folio, Rolls Publication.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_63" href="#FNanchor_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> “Repellunt nos Barbari ad mare, repellit nos mare ad Barbaros; -inter hæc oriuntur duo genera funerum; aut jugulamur aut mergimur.” -<span class="smcap">Gildas</span>, xvii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_64" href="#FNanchor_64" class="fnanchor">64</a> “Britones de ipsis montibus, speluncis ac saltibus dumis consertis -continue rebellabant.” <span class="smcap">Gildas</span>, xvii. Bæda, <cite>Hist. Eccles.</cite> lib. i. cxiv.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_65" href="#FNanchor_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_66" href="#FNanchor_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 449. “From Anglia, which has -ever since remained waste between the Jutes and Saxons, came the -men of East Anglia, Middle Anglia, Mercia, and all North-humbria.” -The MS. A, from which this was taken, ends in <span class="smcap smaller">A.D.</span> 975. The passage -was taken from Bæda who lived in the 8th century.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_67" href="#FNanchor_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> See E. A. Freeman, “Norman Conquest,” vol. i.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_68" href="#FNanchor_68" class="fnanchor">68</a> “Confovebatur ... de mari usque ad mare ignis orientalis -sacrilegorum manu exaggeratus, et finitimas quasque civitates populans, -qui non quievit accensus donec cunctam pene exurens insulæ -superficiem, rubra occidentalem trucique oceanum linguâ delamberet.”—xxiv.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_69" href="#FNanchor_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_70" href="#FNanchor_70" class="fnanchor">70</a> On the date of the conquest of Lancashire see “Manchester Phil. -and Lit. Soc. Proc.” 1873, p. 25. In working out this somewhat -difficult question, I am indebted to the Rev. J. R. Green for most -valuable aid.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_71" href="#FNanchor_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> Gildas, Nennius, the Annales Cambriæ, Bæda, and the Anglo-Saxon -Chronicle are the authorities for these statements.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_72" href="#FNanchor_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> The section of the Victoria Cave published by Mr. Tiddeman in -the Geological Magazine expresses the relation of the clay with -boulders to the cave-earth with greater clearness than I could observe -on the ground. The laminated clay is not yet proved to occupy -such a large area in the cave, or to be so regularly deposited, or so -clearly defined. It occurs at <em>various</em> levels in the mass of the grey -clay in the section (to be seen on May 21, 1873), above and below the -cave-earth.—“The Older Deposits in the Victoria Cave,” Geol. -Mag. x. p. 11.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_73" href="#FNanchor_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> See Essays by the writer in “Pop. Sci. Rev.” Oct. 1871: “On the -relation of the Pleistocene Mammalia to the Glacial period.” “On the -Classification of the Pleistocene Strata of Europe by means of the -Mammalia;” Quart. Geol. Journ. June 1872.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_74" href="#FNanchor_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, 6<sup>e</sup> Sér. -tome v. 1849, Pl. xiii. Fig. 1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_75" href="#FNanchor_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> See my “Pleistocene Mammals of Yorkshire,” Geol. and Polytechnic -Soc. of West Riding of Yorks. Leeds, Aug. 6th, 1866.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_76" href="#FNanchor_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> See Brit. Ass. Reports, Bradford, 1873.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_77" href="#FNanchor_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> Mem. Anthrop. Soc. vol. ii. p. 358.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_78" href="#FNanchor_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> Sussex Archæol. Coll., 1863.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_79" href="#FNanchor_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> Trans. Midland Sci. Ass., Sess. 1864–5, pp. 1–6, 19, 29, Plates -1–15, “Report on the Exploration of Thor’s Cave,” by E. Brown, Esq.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_80" href="#FNanchor_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> See E. A. Freeman, “Norman Conquest,” vol. i. p. 43.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_81" href="#FNanchor_81" class="fnanchor">81</a> Preliminary Treatise on the Relation of the Pleistocene Mammalia -to those now living in Europe. Palæont. Soc. 1874, chap. ii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_82" href="#FNanchor_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> “Equos etiam plerique in vobis comedunt, quod nullus Christianorum -in orientalibus facit.” Haddan and Stubbs, “Councils and Ecclesiastical -Documents relating to Great Britain and Ireland,” vol. ii. p. 459.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_83" href="#FNanchor_83" class="fnanchor">83</a> Laing, “Norway,” p. 316. Mr. Laing justly argues that the habit -of eating horseflesh in Norway, where pasturage is scant, must have -been acquired in the luxuriant grassy steppes of Central Asia by the -ancestors of the Scandinavians.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_84" href="#FNanchor_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> Benedict. ad Mensas Ekkehardi Monachi Sangallensis, Pertz. Mon. -Germ., vol. vi. p. 117.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_85" href="#FNanchor_85" class="fnanchor">85</a> “Pleistocene Mammalia.” Palæont. Soc. 1866. Introd. Internat. -Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, Paris, and Norwich volumes.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_86" href="#FNanchor_86" class="fnanchor">86</a> These questions are treated in detail in my Preliminary Treatise, -“Brit. Pleist. Mammalia.” Palæont. Soc. 1874.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_87" href="#FNanchor_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> “Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,” p. 2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_88" href="#FNanchor_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> Somerset Archæol. and Nat. Hist. Soc. 1864. “On the Caverns of -Burrington Combe.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_89" href="#FNanchor_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> Elliott, “Geologist,” 1862, p. 34, ditto p. 167. Huxley, ditto, -p. 205. Carter Blake, ditto, p. 312. Mackie, “Proceed. Soc. Antiq.” -2nd Series, vol. ii. p. 177.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_90" href="#FNanchor_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> This woodcut, as well as <a href="#Fig_33">Figs. 33</a> and <a href="#Fig_35">35</a>, have been kindly lent -by the Council of the Society of Antiquaries.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_91" href="#FNanchor_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> Commissao Geologica de Portugal. Estudos Geoligicos. Da -Existencia do homen no nosso solo em Tempos mui remotos provada -pelo estudos des cavernas. Primeiro opusculo. Noticea ácerca das -Grutas da Césareda. Por J. F. N. Delgado com a versao em Francez -por M. Dalhunty.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_92" href="#FNanchor_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> Ethnol. Journ. N.S. 7, p. 43.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_93" href="#FNanchor_93" class="fnanchor">93</a> For definition of these terms, see p. <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_94" href="#FNanchor_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, Norwich -Volume, p. 84.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_95" href="#FNanchor_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> International Congress, Paris Volume, p. 159.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_96" href="#FNanchor_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 363.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_97" href="#FNanchor_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> Burial in the contracted posture, which is so characteristic of the -neolithic age, was probably due, as is suggested by my friend Mr. John -Evans, F.R.S., to the habit of sleeping in that posture and not at full -length on a bed. The body was not laid out after death, but may -have been folded together, as in the case of the ancient Peruvian mummies. -No regularity, however, in the contracted posture could be -observed in the many tumuli and caves which I have explored, although -very generally the corpse had been interred on its side.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_98" href="#FNanchor_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> Edinburgh New Phil. Soc. (1833), No. 27, p. 40.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn2"><a id="Footnote_99" href="#FNanchor_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> For the definition of the term, see <a href="#Page_190">p. 190</a>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_100" href="#FNanchor_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, vol. ii. New Series, -No. 1, April 1870, p. 45, pl. vii. fig. 3.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_101" href="#FNanchor_101" class="fnanchor">101</a> Nilsson’s “Stone Age,” translated by Sir J. Lubbock.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_102" href="#FNanchor_102" class="fnanchor">102</a> These are merely samples of the large number of human skulls and bones -which were discovered.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_103" href="#FNanchor_103" class="fnanchor">103</a> Amongst the Keiss crania described by Prof. Huxley, this most closely -resembles his No. 5; but it is of the same type as No. 3 and No. 7, and not very -far from that of the Towyn-y-capel cranium, through which the transition to -the Mewslade form (“Nat. Hist. Rev.” vol. i. p. 174, pl. v.) is very easy.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_104" href="#FNanchor_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> The forms most closely resembling this skull amongst those from Keiss are -Nos. 3 and 7.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_105" href="#FNanchor_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> Déformation du crâne resultant de la méthode la plus générale de couvrir la -tête des enfans. Paris, 1834.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_106" href="#FNanchor_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> Essai sur les déformations artificielles du crâne, par L. A. Gosse, de Genève. -Paris, 1855.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_107" href="#FNanchor_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> Recherches sur quelques déformations du crâne observées dans le Département -des Deux-Sêvres (“Ann. Médico-psychologique”). Paris, 1852.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_108" href="#FNanchor_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> This index is obtained by dividing the least circumference by the length of -the bone.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_109" href="#FNanchor_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> “Mémoires sur les ossemens des Eyzies.” Paris, 1868. “On the Human -Skulls and Bones found in the Cave of Cro-magnon,” Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ, -p. 97.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_110" href="#FNanchor_110" class="fnanchor">110</a> But these are by no means extreme instances of the Gibraltar <i class="anatomy">tibiæ</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_111" href="#FNanchor_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> As regards the absolute dimensions of the skulls, it would seem that the -Welsh crania stand high in the scale—quite as high as any of the existing races -of mankind. I have made the comparison in a rough way in the following -manner:— -</p> -<p> -If the numbers representing the <em>length</em>, <em>breadth</em>, and <em>height</em> of the skull are -added together, a number is obtained which will, of course, in some measure, -indicate the gross dimensions of the skull. From the rather numerous data -furnished by my own Tables of Measurements I obtained the results stated in -the subjoined list, in which the gross mean dimensions of various sets of crania -are contrasted. -</p> - -<table id="list_179" summary="sum of skull dimensions"> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 1. Scandinavian priscan skulls of the neolithic epoch</td> - <td class="tdr">18·88</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 2. Esquimaux and Greenlanders</td> - <td class="tdr">18·81</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 3. Perthi-Chwareu skulls</td> - <td class="tdr">18·65</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 4. Modern European</td> - <td class="tdr">18·58</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 5. Various ancient and priscan skulls</td> - <td class="tdr">18·55</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 6. Burmese</td> - <td class="tdr">18·55</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 7. Caffres and Zooloos (extratropical negroes)</td> - <td class="tdr">18·45</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 8. Derbyshire tumuli</td> - <td class="tdr">18·42</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl"> 9. Tasmanian</td> - <td class="tdr">17·95</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">10. Hottentot</td> - <td class="tdr">17·80</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">11. Negroes (intertropical)</td> - <td class="tdr">17·67</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">12. Australian</td> - <td class="tdr">17·58</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">13. Bushmen</td> - <td class="tdr">17·48</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">14. Veddahs</td> - <td class="tdr">17·09</td></tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdl">15. Andamanese</td> - <td class="tdr">17·00</td></tr> -</table> -</div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_112" href="#FNanchor_112" class="fnanchor">112</a> “Notes on the Human Remains from Keiss,” p. 85.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_113" href="#FNanchor_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">Loc. cit.</i> p. 114.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_114" href="#FNanchor_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> Vol. i. p. 174, pl. v.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_115" href="#FNanchor_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> The stature is obtained, according to Prof. Humphry’s method, -from the length of the femur, which is 27·5 of stature taken as 100.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_116" href="#FNanchor_116" class="fnanchor">116</a> <span xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">Ορθος</span> straight, <span xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">γναθος</span> jaw, with profile vertical, as opposed to <span xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">προγναθος</span>, -with projecting jaws, or “snouty.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_117" href="#FNanchor_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> “Anthropological Memoirs,” vols. i. and iii.; Huxley and Laing, -“Prehistoric Remains in Caithness.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_118" href="#FNanchor_118" class="fnanchor">118</a> “Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester,” vol. v. p. 213.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_119" href="#FNanchor_119" class="fnanchor">119</a> “Anthrop. Mem.” vol. i. p. 144.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_120" href="#FNanchor_120" class="fnanchor">120</a> Brit. Assoc. Report, 1871, p. 160, “On Human and Animal Bones -and Flints, from a Cave at Oban, Argyleshire,” by Prof. Turner.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_121" href="#FNanchor_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness,” p. 119 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_122" href="#FNanchor_122" class="fnanchor">122</a> “Prehistoric Annals of Scotland.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_123" href="#FNanchor_123" class="fnanchor">123</a> The evidence of cannibalism in the contents of the tumuli seems -to me to be doubtful.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_124" href="#FNanchor_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 182.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_125" href="#FNanchor_125" class="fnanchor">125</a> Bull. Soc. Anthrop. iv.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_126" href="#FNanchor_126" class="fnanchor">126</a> Anthrop. Mem. i. 490.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_127" href="#FNanchor_127" class="fnanchor">127</a> Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, 1869.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_128" href="#FNanchor_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, 1869.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_129" href="#FNanchor_129" class="fnanchor">129</a> Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez, “Antiguedades Prehistoricas de -Andalucia.” Madrid, 1868. 8vo.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_130" href="#FNanchor_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> “The Woman’s Cave,” 4to. Parts I. and II. 1870–1. Cadiz, -Federico Joly y Velasco.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_131" href="#FNanchor_131" class="fnanchor">131</a> Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_132" href="#FNanchor_132" class="fnanchor">132</a> Ethnological Journ. N.S. vii. p. 107.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_133" href="#FNanchor_133" class="fnanchor">133</a> Broca, “Bull. Soc. Anthrop.” s.s. t. i. p. 470; t. ii. p. 10–30; -s.s. t. iii. p. 43–101. The cephalic index in the preceding Table differs -slightly from that given by M. Broca. Thurnam, “Anthrop. Mem.” -iii. p. 64 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_134" href="#FNanchor_134" class="fnanchor">134</a> These skulls are preserved in the Museum of the Anthropological -Society at Paris, where by the kindness of Dr. Broca I was allowed -to study them in the autumn of 1873. Some were marked with the -“tête annulaire.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_135" href="#FNanchor_135" class="fnanchor">135</a> Laing and Huxley, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_136" href="#FNanchor_136" class="fnanchor">136</a> Spring, “Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belgique,” 1 sér. l. xx. p. 427; 2 sér. -l. xviii. p. 479; l. xxii. p. 187.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_137" href="#FNanchor_137" class="fnanchor">137</a> Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les Âges de la Pierre dans les -environs de Dinant sur Meuse,” 2d edit. p. 222.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_138" href="#FNanchor_138" class="fnanchor">138</a> Soreil, “Sur Nouvelle Exploration de la Caverne de Chauvau,” -Congrès Intern. Anthropologie et d’Archéologie Prehistoriques, -p. 381 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i> Bruxelles, 1872.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_139" href="#FNanchor_139" class="fnanchor">139</a> International Congress, Bruxelles, 1872, p. 370.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_140" href="#FNanchor_140" class="fnanchor">140</a> Cæsar, i. 50.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_141" href="#FNanchor_141" class="fnanchor">141</a> “Bull. Soc. Anthrop de Paris,” 2 sér. t. 111., p. 118.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_142" href="#FNanchor_142" class="fnanchor">142</a> “Diodorus Siculus,” iv. 6; v. 39. Steur, “Ethnographie des Peuples -de l’Europe,” p. 31 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i>; Donaldson, “Varronianw.” p. 70 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i> -Dion. Hal. i 22. See also Niebuhr and Mommsen. The documentary -evidence is so uncertain as to the affinities of the Ligurians -that scarcely any two writers agree. “Quot homines tot sententiæ.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_143" href="#FNanchor_143" class="fnanchor">143</a> Thucydides, vi. 2.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_144" href="#FNanchor_144" class="fnanchor">144</a> Tacitus, “Agricola,” xi.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_145" href="#FNanchor_145" class="fnanchor">145</a> Cæsar, i. 12.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_146" href="#FNanchor_146" class="fnanchor">146</a> Prof. Huxley brings them into relation with the ancient Egyptians, -the “Melanochroi” of India, and the Australians, “Critiques and -Addresses,” p. 134; Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, p. 92 -<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_147" href="#FNanchor_147" class="fnanchor">147</a> See Prof. Huxley’s “Critiques and Addresses,” p. 167.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_148" href="#FNanchor_148" class="fnanchor">148</a> For a masterly account of the varying stature in Britain and Ireland, -see Dr. Beddoe’s Essay, “Anthrop. Soc. Mem.” iii. p. 384–573.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_149" href="#FNanchor_149" class="fnanchor">149</a> <span xml:lang="grc" lang="grc">“τοὺς μὲν Ἀκυϊτανοὺς τελέως ἐξηλλαγμένους οὐ τῇ γλώττῃ μόνον -ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῖς σώμασιν, ἐμφερεῖς Ἰβήρεσι μᾶλλον ἢ Γαλάταις· τοὺς δὲ -λοιποὺς Γαλατικοὺς μὲν τὴν ὄψιν, ὁμογλώττους δ’ οὐ πάντας, ἀλλ’ ἐνίους -μικρὸν παραλλαττόντας ταῖς γλώτταις.”</span>—Lib. iv. c. 1, §1.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_150" href="#FNanchor_150" class="fnanchor">150</a> The correspondence of my map, <a href="#Fig_68">Fig. 68</a>, with that of M. Broca, -is one of those undesigned coincidences which are so valuable in -arriving at truth, for his most admirable essay on the Ethnology of -France did not come into my hands until my own map was engraved. -M. Broca takes a different point of view to that advanced in these -pages, holding that the Celts were dark and the Belgic were blue-eyed -tall Kymri or Cimbri. The Celts known to history were undoubtedly -a tall fair race.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_151" href="#FNanchor_151" class="fnanchor">151</a> In treating this difficult subject, I have purposely omitted to use -the uncertain light of philology. We may expect to derive as much -knowledge as to the relations between Tyrrhenian, Ligurian, Basque, -and other obscure non-Aryan peoples from the study of languages, as -we have already obtained of the Aryans by the same means. It is -very probable that, like the Sanscrit, the Basque roots will be found -widely spread both in Asia, Asia Minor, Europe, and N. Africa.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_152" href="#FNanchor_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> “Anthrop. Mem.” Vols. i. and iii. (Crania Britannica.)</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_153" href="#FNanchor_153" class="fnanchor">153</a> See Huxley’s “Critiques and Addresses,” p. 167 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_154" href="#FNanchor_154" class="fnanchor">154</a> “Rutilæ Caledoniam habitantium comæ, magni artus Germanicam -originem asseverant.” Agricola, c. xi.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_155" href="#FNanchor_155" class="fnanchor">155</a> “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” p. 82 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_156" href="#FNanchor_156" class="fnanchor">156</a> Schmerling, “Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles découverts -dans les Cavernes de la province de Liége.” 4to. 1833–4, p. 29 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_157" href="#FNanchor_157" class="fnanchor">157</a> Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les âges de la Pierre, dans les environs -de Dinant-sur-Meuse,” p. ix. The implements are palæolithic (see -p. 22), but there is no evidence that they are of the same antiquity as -the human remains. They may be, and probably are, much older.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_158" href="#FNanchor_158" class="fnanchor">158</a> “Man’s Place in Nature,” chap. iii. Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man,” -1st edition, p. 63.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_159" href="#FNanchor_159" class="fnanchor">159</a> Dupont, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> p. 56.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_160" href="#FNanchor_160" class="fnanchor">160</a> Prehistoric Congress, Brussels, 1872, p. 549 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_161" href="#FNanchor_161" class="fnanchor">161</a> Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_162" href="#FNanchor_162" class="fnanchor">162</a> Intern. Congress, Brussels Volume, p. 549.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_163" href="#FNanchor_163" class="fnanchor">163</a> Dupont, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> p. 140.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_164" href="#FNanchor_164" class="fnanchor">164</a> Buckland, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” p. 135. These specimens are in -the Oxford Museum, and are identified by Lord Enniskillen as having -been derived from Gailenreuth.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_165" href="#FNanchor_165" class="fnanchor">165</a> Schaaffhausen, translated by Busk, “Nat. Hist. Review,” April -1861. Huxley, “Man’s Place in Nature,” iii. p. 156–171. Lyell’s -“Antiquity of Man,” 1st edition, p. 75.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_166" href="#FNanchor_166" class="fnanchor">166</a> Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness,” p. 115.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_167" href="#FNanchor_167" class="fnanchor">167</a> Compare Lyell, 1st edition, p. 182 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i>, with 4th edition, p. 122 -<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_168" href="#FNanchor_168" class="fnanchor">168</a> Phil. Trans. 159, p. 517.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_169" href="#FNanchor_169" class="fnanchor">169</a> Vogt, “Lectures on Man,” pp. 329–380. Thurnam, “Anthrop. -Mem.” i. 501.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_170" href="#FNanchor_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> It has been dug out in its natural position, and is now to be seen -in the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, where I studied it in the summer -of 1873.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_171" href="#FNanchor_171" class="fnanchor">171</a> Pengelly, “The Cave Man of Mentone,” Trans. Devon Ass. 1873. -Moggridge, Brit. Ass. Edinburgh, 1873.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_172" href="#FNanchor_172" class="fnanchor">172</a> Prehistoric Congress, Bologna Volume, p. 391, 1873.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_173" href="#FNanchor_173" class="fnanchor">173</a> See on this point a valuable essay by Mr. Hyde Clark, “Palestine -Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement,” N.S. April 1871, p. 97 -<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_174" href="#FNanchor_174" class="fnanchor">174</a> The authorities for these facts will be found in my “Preliminary -Treatise,” Palæont. Soc. 1874. The prehistoric age of the forest is -to be fixed by the presence of the goat and <i class="taxonomy">Bos longifrons</i>, both of -which were unknown in Europe in the pleistocene age.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_175" href="#FNanchor_175" class="fnanchor">175</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xx. p. 188 <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_176" href="#FNanchor_176" class="fnanchor">176</a> See Prestwich, “Phil. Trans.” 1860, p. 277, and 1864, p. 247, -and “Quart. Geol. Journ.” <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">passim</i> 1859–70.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_177" href="#FNanchor_177" class="fnanchor">177</a> “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ.” 4to. 1824, p. 133.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_178" href="#FNanchor_178" class="fnanchor">178</a> I am indebted to Lord Enniskillen, who explored Gailenreuth -along with Sir Philip Egerton, for several corrections in Buckland’s -section.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_179" href="#FNanchor_179" class="fnanchor">179</a> Op. cit. p. 137.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_180" href="#FNanchor_180" class="fnanchor">180</a> Op. cit. p. 1. <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_181" href="#FNanchor_181" class="fnanchor">181</a> Op. cit. p. 38.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_182" href="#FNanchor_182" class="fnanchor">182</a> Buckland, op. cit. p. 61.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_183" href="#FNanchor_183" class="fnanchor">183</a> “Edinburgh New Phil. Soc.” No. 27, p. 40. Falconer, “Palæont. -Mem.” ii. p. 541. I have examined nearly all the contents of these -caves.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_184" href="#FNanchor_184" class="fnanchor">184</a> Anthrop. Institute Meeting, 9 Dec. 1873.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_185" href="#FNanchor_185" class="fnanchor">185</a> Buckland, op. cit. 80.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_186" href="#FNanchor_186" class="fnanchor">186</a> Op. cit. p. 80.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_187" href="#FNanchor_187" class="fnanchor">187</a> Falconer “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 498.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_188" href="#FNanchor_188" class="fnanchor">188</a> “On the Tenby Bone Caves,” by a Pembrokeshire Rector. London: -Kent and Co.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_189" href="#FNanchor_189" class="fnanchor">189</a> See “Brit. Assoc. Rep.” 1871. “Geol. Mag.” viii. 433.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_190" href="#FNanchor_190" class="fnanchor">190</a> Buckland, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> p. 60.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_191" href="#FNanchor_191" class="fnanchor">191</a> Buckland, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> Rutter, “Delineations of Somerset,” p. 100.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_192" href="#FNanchor_192" class="fnanchor">192</a> See Buckland, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> Rutter, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_193" href="#FNanchor_193" class="fnanchor">193</a> See “Catalogue of Mammalia, in Taunton Museum,” by W. A. -Sanford, Esq. Som. Archæol. Soc.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_194" href="#FNanchor_194" class="fnanchor">194</a> Rutter gives a very good section of this cave (<i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> p. 78).</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_195" href="#FNanchor_195" class="fnanchor">195</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1862: On a Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole. -Also “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1863.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_196" href="#FNanchor_196" class="fnanchor">196</a> An incident connected with our work illustrates remarkably the -attachment which a dog will suddenly show towards a stranger. In -our lodging at Wells there was a beautiful Scotch deerhound, named -“Luna,” whose master was away at the time. Luna persisted in -being with us day and night. In the morning she walked with -us to the cave, and lay watching at the entrance till we came out, for -she was afraid to venture into the darkness. In the evening she -returned home with us. She continued to do this the whole time of -that year’s excavations. It was only natural to suppose that when we -left she would, like other dogs, pick up new friends. But she did -nothing of the kind. When we inquired the next year upon our return, -we were told that poor Luna refused food the day we left, and -gradually pined away and died.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_197" href="#FNanchor_197" class="fnanchor">197</a> Possibly it may have belonged to <i class="taxonomy">Elephas</i>, but its more compact -texture seems to me to indicate rhinoceros.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_198" href="#FNanchor_198" class="fnanchor">198</a> Bone needles were found in Kent’s Hole and in many foreign -caves of this age.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_199" href="#FNanchor_199" class="fnanchor">199</a> These woodblocks were used in my essay on Hyænas in the -“Natural History Review,” and have been lent by the kindness of -Messrs. Williams and Norgate.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_200" href="#FNanchor_200" class="fnanchor">200</a> Pengelly, “Literature of the Oreston Caverns,” Trans. Dev. Ass. -1872. Buckland, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_201" href="#FNanchor_201" class="fnanchor">201</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxvi. 457, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_202" href="#FNanchor_202" class="fnanchor">202</a> “The Literature of the Caverns near Yealmpton, South Devon,” -by W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.S.A. Trans. Devon Ass., 1870.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_203" href="#FNanchor_203" class="fnanchor">203</a> Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 486, 591.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_204" href="#FNanchor_204" class="fnanchor">204</a> Proceed. Royal Soc. xx. p. 514. “Report on the Exploration of -Brixham Cave,” by W. Pengelly, F.R.S., G. Bush, F.R.S., John Evans, -F.R.S., and Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S. This report was delayed by -the death of Dr. Falconer.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_205" href="#FNanchor_205" class="fnanchor">205</a> “Ancient Stone Implements,” p. 46–8.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_206" href="#FNanchor_206" class="fnanchor">206</a> “Proceed. Royal Soc.” 1872, vol. xxii. p. 523–4.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_207" href="#FNanchor_207" class="fnanchor">207</a> “Trans. Devon Ass.” On the Introduction of Cavern Accumulations.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_208" href="#FNanchor_208" class="fnanchor">208</a> “Trans. Devon Ass.” 1870.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_209" href="#FNanchor_209" class="fnanchor">209</a> Pengelly, “Literature of Kent’s Hole:” Trans. Ass. Devon. -1868 9–70. Godwin Austen, “Proceed. Geol. Soc.” iii. 286–7. “Trans. -Geol. Soc.” vi. p. 433, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i> Vivian, “Brit. Ass. Rep.” 1847, p. 73.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_210" href="#FNanchor_210" class="fnanchor">210</a> The committee consisted of Sir C. Lyell, Prof. Phillips, Sir John -Lubbock, Mr. John Evans, Mr. Edward Vivian, Mr. William Pengelly, -to which subsequently Mr. George Busk, Mr. Boyd Dawkins, and -Mr. Ayshford Sanford were added.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_211" href="#FNanchor_211" class="fnanchor">211</a> For <a href="#Fig_96">Figs. 96 to 100</a> I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Evans.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_212" href="#FNanchor_212" class="fnanchor">212</a> See Evans’ “Ancient Stone Implements,” Fig. 388. It is unnecessary -to describe the implements.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_213" href="#FNanchor_213" class="fnanchor">213</a> For an account of Machairodus, see “Brit. Pleistocene Mammalia,” -Palæont. Soc., <i class="taxonomy">Felidæ</i>, cxxii. p. 184.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_214" href="#FNanchor_214" class="fnanchor">214</a> Gervais, “Zool. et Paléont. Françaises,” 1859, p. 251. “Animaux -Vertébrés, Vivants et Fossiles,” 1867–9, p. 78, pl. xviii. Lartet, Prehistoric -Congress, Paris Volume, 1868, p. 269.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_215" href="#FNanchor_215" class="fnanchor">215</a> These figures have been kindly lent by the Palæontographical -Society.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_216" href="#FNanchor_216" class="fnanchor">216</a> “Journ. Royal Dublin Soc.” ii. p. 344.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_217" href="#FNanchor_217" class="fnanchor">217</a> “Journ. Geol. Soc. Dublin,” x. p. 147. “Journ. Royal Dublin -Soc.” ii. p. 352.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_218" href="#FNanchor_218" class="fnanchor">218</a> Scott, “Geol. Soc. Dublin,” Feb. 10, 1864.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_219" href="#FNanchor_219" class="fnanchor">219</a> An account of the numerous caves of France will be found in the -works of M. de Serres, “Revue Archéologique” and in the “Matériaux -pour l’Histoire de l’Homme.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_220" href="#FNanchor_220" class="fnanchor">220</a> Boyd Dawkins, “Brit. Pleist. Mam. Palæont. Soc.” 1872, p. 189.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_221" href="#FNanchor_221" class="fnanchor">221</a> Gervais, “Animaux Vertébrés,” p. 78, pl. xviii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_222" href="#FNanchor_222" class="fnanchor">222</a> Lartet, International Congress, Paris Volume, p. 269.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_223" href="#FNanchor_223" class="fnanchor">223</a> “Cavernes du Périgord,” “Revue Archéologique,” 8vo. 1864. -“Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,” 4to. 1865–74. This magnificent history of the -researches, in the prosecution of which Mr. Christy lost his life, was -published at his expense under the editorship of Prof. Rupert Jones, -F.R.S., to whom I am indebted for the liberty to use the letterpress -and engravings quoted in this book.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_224" href="#FNanchor_224" class="fnanchor">224</a> The same bones of the ox and horse are now imported into -Britain from South America for the manufacture of buttons.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_225" href="#FNanchor_225" class="fnanchor">225</a> Boyd Dawkins, “Range of the Mammoth,” Pop. Sc. Rev. July, -1868.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_226" href="#FNanchor_226" class="fnanchor">226</a> “Recherches sur les oss. foss. découverts dans les Cavernes de -Liége.” 4to.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_227" href="#FNanchor_227" class="fnanchor">227</a> Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs -de Dinant-sur-Meuse.” 2nd edit. p. 187.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_228" href="#FNanchor_228" class="fnanchor">228</a> Dupont, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> “Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belgique,” xxii. p. 20. -Hamy, “Paléontologie Humaine,” p. 231.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_229" href="#FNanchor_229" class="fnanchor">229</a> The discovery will shortly be published by Prof. Heine, of Zurich.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_230" href="#FNanchor_230" class="fnanchor">230</a> “Matériaux pour l’Histoire de l’Homme,” May 1869, p. 272.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_231" href="#FNanchor_231" class="fnanchor">231</a> “Ancient Stone Implements.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_232" href="#FNanchor_232" class="fnanchor">232</a> “Ann. des Sc. Nat.” 4th sér. t. 15, p. 231.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_233" href="#FNanchor_233" class="fnanchor">233</a> Hamy, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">op. cit.</i> Lubbock, “Prehistoric Man.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_234" href="#FNanchor_234" class="fnanchor">234</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” June 5, 1872.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_235" href="#FNanchor_235" class="fnanchor">235</a> Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 432. “Mém. -Anthrop. Soc. de Paris,” 2nd sér. t. 6, p. 170.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_236" href="#FNanchor_236" class="fnanchor">236</a> “Eskimos in the South of Gaul.” Saturday Review, December -8th, 1866. Edinburgh Review, “Prehistoric Times.” October 1870.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_237" href="#FNanchor_237" class="fnanchor">237</a> The authorities for the foreign lists of animals will be found in the -“Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1872, p. 424. The British animals have been -determined principally by myself and Dr. Falconer.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_238" href="#FNanchor_238" class="fnanchor">238</a> “Classification of the Pleistocene Strata,” Quart. Geol. Journ. -Nov. 1872, p. 410.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_239" href="#FNanchor_239" class="fnanchor">239</a> Godwin Austen, “Quart. Geol. Journ.” vol. i. p. 69. De la Bêche, -“Theoretical Researches,” p. 190. Lyell, “Antiquity of Man,” 4th -edit. p. 328.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_240" href="#FNanchor_240" class="fnanchor">240</a> The accumulation of the remains of reindeer in the limited area of -the excavation was enormous.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_241" href="#FNanchor_241" class="fnanchor">241</a> “Les Oss. Foss. de Pikermi,” 4to.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_242" href="#FNanchor_242" class="fnanchor">242</a> Some parts of the rest of this chapter have been published in the -“Popular Science Review,” March 1873.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_243" href="#FNanchor_243" class="fnanchor">243</a> “Palæontographical Memoirs,” vol. ii. p. 554. Busk, Prehistoric -Congress, Norwich volume, 1869.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_244" href="#FNanchor_244" class="fnanchor">244</a> “Comptes Rendus,” xlvi. 1858.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_245" href="#FNanchor_245" class="fnanchor">245</a> Prehistoric Congress, Paris volume, p. 96.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_246" href="#FNanchor_246" class="fnanchor">246</a> “Brit. Ass. Reports,” Edinburgh, 1871.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_247" href="#FNanchor_247" class="fnanchor">247</a> “Brit. Assoc. Rep.” 1871.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_248" href="#FNanchor_248" class="fnanchor">248</a> <cite>Découverte d’une Squelette Humaine de l’époque Paléolithique dans -les Cavernes de Baoussé-Roussé, dites Grottes de Menton</cite>, 1873; also Prehistoric -Congress, Brussels volume. M. Rivière adds the Wapiti, or -large variety, and the <i class="taxonomy">Cervus Corsicanus</i>, or small variety of the stag, -the chamois, and the woolly rhinoceros (the two last of which may be -perhaps identical with the ibex and <i class="taxonomy">R. hemitœchus</i>, determined by -Prof. Busk, as neither is mentioned by M. Rivière), and the <i class="taxonomy">Capra -primigenia</i> of Gervais, a large goat commonly found in neolithic -caves.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_249" href="#FNanchor_249" class="fnanchor">249</a> The depth at which the skeleton was found is a matter of dispute, -the estimates varying from seven feet (Pengelly) to (6·55 m.) 21·49 feet -(Rivière). Pengelly, <cite>Cave man of Mentone</cite>, “Trans. Devon Ass.” 1873, -pp. 10 and 13.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_250" href="#FNanchor_250" class="fnanchor">250</a> “Palæont. Mem.” ii. p. 543.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_251" href="#FNanchor_251" class="fnanchor">251</a> It is of the same species as the bear from Grays Thurrock.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_252" href="#FNanchor_252" class="fnanchor">252</a> Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. p. 552. Spratt, “Quart. -Geol. Journ.” xxiii. p. 293.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_253" href="#FNanchor_253" class="fnanchor">253</a> “Bull. Soc. Géol. Fr.” 2<sup>e</sup> sér. t. xi. p. 340.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_254" href="#FNanchor_254" class="fnanchor">254</a> Gervais, “Animaux Vertébrés Vivants et Fossiles,” 4to. p. 88.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_255" href="#FNanchor_255" class="fnanchor">255</a> Hooker, “Nat. Hist. Review,” II. p. 12, 1861.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_256" href="#FNanchor_256" class="fnanchor">256</a> <cite>Nature</cite>, vol. v. p. 444; vol. vi. 536.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_257" href="#FNanchor_257" class="fnanchor">257</a> “A Journey to Morocco, and the Ascent of the Great Atlas,” 8vo. -Slater, Troubridge, Salop.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_258" href="#FNanchor_258" class="fnanchor">258</a> “Geological Notes on a Journey from Algiers to Morocco.” Geol. -Soc. Feb. 25, 1874.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_259" href="#FNanchor_259" class="fnanchor">259</a> See “British Pleistocene Mammalia,” Palæont. Soc. <i class="taxonomy">Felis spelæa</i>, -c. xviii.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_260" href="#FNanchor_260" class="fnanchor">260</a> “<i class="taxonomy">Ovibos moschatus</i>,” Palæont. Soc. 1872, p. 27, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et seq.</i></p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_261" href="#FNanchor_261" class="fnanchor">261</a> This is treated at greater length in my “Essay on Classification,” -Quart. Geol. Journ. Nov. 1872, and in the “Introduction to British -Pleistocene Mammalia,” Palæont. Soc.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_262" href="#FNanchor_262" class="fnanchor">262</a> Mr. James Geikie’s view (“The Great Ice-Age,” 8vo. 1874) -that the mixture of the northern and southern forms is due to the -destruction of ossiferous strata by streams, which subsequently deposited -remains of widely different ages together, is rendered untenable -by the fact that they are generally preserved in the same mineral state. -It would have been impossible for this to have taken place without -leaving decided traces behind in the rolled and water-worn condition -of the older series, such as may be seen in the case of the eocene and -meiocene fossils in the Red Crag of Suffolk.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_263" href="#FNanchor_263" class="fnanchor">263</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxii. 391.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_264" href="#FNanchor_264" class="fnanchor">264</a> See Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_265" href="#FNanchor_265" class="fnanchor">265</a> I have to acknowledge the kind assistance of Professors Hull -and Harkness, Mr. Kinahan, and the Rev. H. M. Close, in correlating -the Irish with the English glacial deposits. The reader will find the -glacial period most ably treated in Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man.”</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_266" href="#FNanchor_266" class="fnanchor">266</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxi. 161.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_267" href="#FNanchor_267" class="fnanchor">267</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1872, p. 410.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_268" href="#FNanchor_268" class="fnanchor">268</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xx. p. 457.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_269" href="#FNanchor_269" class="fnanchor">269</a> “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. p. 49.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_270" href="#FNanchor_270" class="fnanchor">270</a> “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. pp. 189, 190.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_271" href="#FNanchor_271" class="fnanchor">271</a> “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxiv. p. 484. “International Congress,” -Norwich volume. See also “Evans’ Ancient Stone Implements,” -p. 570.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_272" href="#FNanchor_272" class="fnanchor">272</a> “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 642, <i xml:lang="la" lang="la">et passim</i>.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_273" href="#FNanchor_273" class="fnanchor">273</a> This implement was exhibited before the Meeting of the British -Association at Edinburgh, in 1871.</p></div> - -<div class="footnote"> - -<p class="fn3"><a id="Footnote_274" href="#FNanchor_274" class="fnanchor">274</a> Brit. Ass. Reports, 1865, p. 18.</p></div> -</div></div> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="transnote"> -<h2 class="nobreak p1"><a id="Transcribers_Notes"></a>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<p>Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a predominant -preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed.</p> - -<p>Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks retained.</p> - -<p>Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.</p> - -<p>The corrections listed in “Additions and Corrections” at the -beginning of the book have been made to the main text of this -eBook. The additions have not been added. The errors listed -for pages 196 and 201 were not found in the text, and both -the opening and closing inverted commas (quotation marks) -have been removed on page 386.</p> - -<p>Unlike the printed book, all illustrations in this eBook -appear between paragraphs, so the page references in the -List of Illustrations do not necessarily match their actual -positions. However, links, in versions of this eBook that support -them, do lead directly to the corresponding illustrations.</p> - -<p>The Index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.</p> - -<p>Text has many references to “Lartet” and just a few to “Lortet”. They -seem to refer to the same person, but both are listed in the Index, -so both spellings have been retained.</p> - -<p>Text refers to “Rev. J. MacEnery”, “Rev. J. McEnery” and “McEnery”. These -all refer to the same person, but the correct spelling is uncertain, so -both variations have been retained.</p> - -<p>Some of the fractional numbers (e.g., 1/1, 1/2) in illustration captions -were unclear and may have been incorrectly transcribed.</p> - -<p>In some tables, a special space character was used to align decimals. Display -software that does not support that character may show a question mark in its place.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_2">2</a>: “dwellings of evil spirits” was misprinted as “swellings”.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_147">147</a>: Footnote 95 (originally 2) was not referenced in the text. -Transcriber has arbitrarily placed a reference to it.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_199">199</a>: “Valcleuse” currently is spelled “Valcluse”.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_310">310</a>: The reference to “Figs. 92, 93” was misprinted -as “Figs. 92, 33” and has been corrected here.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_339">339</a>: Identifications of the three illustrations were added -by Transcriber.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_381">381</a>: The top of the map was close to the physical book’s binding and -was distorted during scanning. The Transcriber attempted to remedy this -distortion.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_436">436</a>: The letters in the diagram were printed in italics. For readability, -the Plain Text version of this eBook omits the underscores that indicate italics. -The HTML and mobile versions use an image of the diagram.</p> - -<p>Page <a href="#Page_449">449</a> (Index): “Caves, used as places of refuge” gave no page reference. -The Table of Contents refers to page 102, and the Transcriber added that to the index entry.</p> - -<p>These are images of wide tables whose text versions in the body of this eBook -may not display properly or in their entirety on some devices:</p> - -<div id="if_p_166" class="figcenter" style="width: 561px;"><img src="images/p_166.jpg" width="561" height="600" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_166">166</a></div></div> -<div id="if_p_171" class="figcenter" style="width: 767px;"><img src="images/p_171.jpg" width="767" height="438" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_171">171</a></div></div> -<div id="if_p_173" class="figcenter" style="width: 534px;"><img src="images/p_173.jpg" width="534" height="358" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_173">173</a></div></div> -<div id="if_p_174" class="figcenter" style="width: 528px;"><img src="images/p_174.jpg" width="528" height="425" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_174">174</a></div></div> -<div id="if_p_197" class="figcenter" style="width: 584px;"><img src="images/p_197.jpg" width="584" height="338" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_197">197</a></div></div> -<div id="if_p_199" class="figcenter" style="width: 467px;"><img src="images/p_199.jpg" width="467" height="726" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_199">199</a></div></div> -<div id="if_p_360" class="figcenter" style="width: 609px;"><img src="images/p_360.jpg" width="609" height="981" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_360">360</a></div></div> -<div id="if_p_361" class="figcenter" style="width: 613px;"><img src="images/p_361.jpg" width="613" height="979" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_361">361</a></div></div> -<div id="if_p_443" class="figcenter" style="width: 595px;"><img src="images/p_443.jpg" width="595" height="356" alt="" /><div class="caption">Page <a href="#list_443">443</a></div></div> - -</div></div> - - - - - - - - -<pre> - - - - - -End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Cave Hunting, by William Boyd Dawkins - -*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAVE HUNTING *** - -***** This file should be named 52424-h.htm or 52424-h.zip ***** -This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: - http://www.gutenberg.org/5/2/4/2/52424/ - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Sharon Joiner, Charlie Howard, -and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images -made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.) - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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