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diff --git a/old/52424-0.txt b/old/52424-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a9711e4..0000000 --- a/old/52424-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,16384 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Cave Hunting, by William Boyd Dawkins - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - -Title: Cave Hunting - Researches on the evidence of caves respecting the early - inhabitants of Europe - -Author: William Boyd Dawkins - -Release Date: June 28, 2016 [EBook #52424] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CAVE HUNTING *** - - - - -Produced by Chris Curnow, Sharon Joiner, Charlie Howard, -and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at -http://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images -made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.) - - - - - - - - - -Transcriber’s Note: Italic text is enclosed in _underscores_; -superscripts are indicated by carets: 4^e. - - - - -CAVE HUNTING. - -[Illustration] - -[Illustration: _Fig. 1._ - -_Fig. 2._ - -_Fig. 3._ - -_Fig. 4._ - -_Fig. 5._ - -_Fig. 6._ - -_Fig. 7._ - -_Fig. 8._ - - C. F. Kell Lath. London F.C. - -ENAMELS FROM THE VICTORIA CAVE. p98. - -London; Macmillan & C^o. 1874.] - - - - - CAVE HUNTING, - - RESEARCHES ON - THE EVIDENCE OF CAVES - RESPECTING THE - EARLY INHABITANTS OF EUROPE - - BY - - W. BOYD DAWKINS, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., - - _Curator of the Museum and Lecturer in Geology in - The Owens College, Manchester_. - - - _ILLUSTRATED BY COLOURED PLATE AND WOODCUTS._ - - - London: - MACMILLAN AND CO. - 1874. - - [_The Right of Translation and Reproduction is reserved._] - - - - - LONDON: - R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, - BREAD STREET HILL. - - - - - TO - - THE BARONESS BURDETT COUTTS, - - THE FOUNDER OF THE SCHOLARSHIPS - FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCE - IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, - - This Work is Dedicated, - - AS A SLIGHT ACKNOWLEDGMENT FROM HER FIRST SCHOLAR. - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The exploration of caves is rapidly becoming an important field of -inquiry, and their contributions to our knowledge of the early history -of the sojourn of men in Europe are daily increasing in value and in -number. Since the year 1823, when Dr. Buckland published his famous -work, the “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” no attempt has been made to correlate, -and bring into the compass of one work, the crude mass of facts which -have been recorded in nearly every country in Europe. In this volume -I have attempted to bring the history of cave-exploration down to the -knowledge of to-day, and to put its main conclusions before my readers -in one connected and continuous narrative. Since Dr. Buckland wrote, -the momentous discovery of human relics along with the extinct animals -in caves and river deposits has revolutionised the current ideas as to -the antiquity and condition of man; and works of art of a high order, -showing a familiarity with nature and an aptitude for the delineation -of the forms of animals by no means despicable, have been discovered in -the caves of Britain, France, Belgium, and Switzerland, that were the -dwellings of the primeval European hunters of reindeer and mammoths. -The discoveries in Kent’s Hole and in the caves of Belgium led to those -in the caves of Brixham and Wookey Hole, and finally to those of -Auvergne and the south of France, as well as of Germany and Switzerland. - -Archæology, also, by the use of strictly inductive methods, has grown -from a mere antiquarian speculation into a science; and its students -have proved the truth of the three divisions of human progress -familiar to the Greek and Roman philosopher, and expressed in the -pages of Hesiod and Lucretius--the Ages of Stone, Bronze and Iron. The -subdivision of the first of these into the older, or palæolithic, and -newer, or neolithic, by Sir John Lubbock, is the only refinement which -has been made in this classification. Sir Charles Lyell has discussed -the various problems offered by the general consideration of the first -of these divisions in “The Antiquity of Man;” while Sir John Lubbock, -in “Prehistoric Man,” has followed Dr. Keller and others in working out -the past history of mankind by a comparison of the habitations, tombs, -implements and weapons found in Europe, with those of modern savages. -This work is intended to be to a considerable extent supplementary to -theirs,--to treat of the formation of caves, and of the light thrown by -their contents on the sojourn of man in Europe, on the wild animals, -and on the changes in climate and geography. - -In treating of the caves of the historic period, I have given -considerable prominence to the exploration of the Victoria Cave, near -Settle, which has led to the discovery that many caverns were inhabited -in this country during the fifth and sixth centuries, and that they -contain works of art of a high order. In the difficult task of bringing -them into relation with British history and art, I have to acknowledge -the kind assistance of Mr. E. A. Freeman, the Rev. J. R. Green, and Mr. -A. W. Franks. - -In the neolithic division of the prehistoric period, I have -published at length my recent discoveries in the sepulchral caves of -Denbighshire, and am allowed by my friend, Professor Busk, to reprint -his description of the human bones. To his suggestive essay on the -Gibraltar caves, as well as to the works of the late Dr. Thurnam, and -of Professors Broca and Huxley, I am indebted for the clue to the -identification of the neolithic dwellers in caves with the ancient -Iberians or Modern Basques. That portion of the evidence which relates -to France I have verified by a personal examination of the human -remains from caves and tombs in the Museums of Bordeaux, Toulouse, -Lyons and Paris. - -The results of the exploration of the Hyæna-den of Wookey Hole have -been given in greater detail in the portion of the work devoted to the -palæolithic age than they would have been, had they been before fully -recorded. And in this division of the subject I have largely made -use of the “Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,” which embodies the discoveries in -Auvergne of my late friends Professor E. Lartet and Mr. Christy. To the -editors of that work I am indebted for permission to use some of the -plates and letterpress. - -The history of the pleistocene mammalia, in which palæolithic man -forms the central figure, has been my especial study for many years. -And the evidence which is offered by the animals as to the geography -and climate of Europe, which I have published from time to time in the -works of the Palæontographical Society, the _Geological Journal_, and -in the _Popular Science_, _British Quarterly_, and _Edinburgh Reviews_, -is collected together in this work, and brought into relation with the -inquiry into the extension of ice over Europe in the glacial period, -and into the soundings of the European seas. In approaching these -and the like problems, I have done my best to arrive at the truth by -visiting as far as possible the foreign localities and collections, and -by correspondence with the discoverers of new facts. - -In addition to those names which I have already mentioned, I have -to express my thanks to the Councils of the Society of Antiquaries, -the Geological Society, and of the Anthropological Institute and to -Mr. John Evans, for the use of woodcuts; to Mr. Rooke Pennington for -looking over some of the proof sheets; and to Professors Gaudry, -Rütimeyer, Lortet, Nilsson, and Steenstrüp, and the Rev. Canon -Greenwell for aid of various kinds. But especially do I feel grateful -to my old friend and master, the late lamented Professor Phillips, for -frequent help and prudent counsel. - -In laying this book before my readers I would merely further remark, -that it is a faint outline of a new and vast field of research, in -which I have attempted to give prominence to the more important points, -rather than a finished and detailed history of cave-exploration. - - W. B. D. - - THE OWENS COLLEGE, MANCHESTER, - _20th July, 1874_. - - - - -CONTENTS. - - - CHAPTER I. - - INTRODUCTION. - - PAGE - - Legends and Superstitions connected with Caves 1-5 - - The Physical Division of the Subject 5, 6 - - The Biological Division 6 - - Men and Animals 6 - - Ethnological, Archæological, and Geographical Bearings 7-9 - - The Three Classes of Bone-Caves 10, 11 - - History of Cave-Exploration in Europe 11 - - ” ” Germany 11, 12 - - ” ” Great Britain 13-18 - - ” ” France 18-20 - - ” ” Belgium 20, 21 - - ” ” Southern Europe 21, 22 - - - CHAPTER II. - - PHYSICAL HISTORY OF CAVES. - - Caves formed by the Sea and by Volcanic Action 23 - - Caves in Arenaceous Rocks 24 - - Caves in Calcareous Rocks of various ages 25-27 - - Their Relation to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines 27, 28 - - Water-Cave of Wookey Hole 29-31 - - Goatchurch Cave 31-34 - - Water-Caves of Derbyshire 34 - - Water-Caves of Yorkshire--Ingleborough 35-39 - - Rate of Deposit of Stalagmite 39-41 - - Descent into Helln Pot 41-47 - - Caves and Pots round Weathercote 47-50 - - Formation of Caves, Pot-holes, and Ravines 50-57 - - Caverns not generally formed in line of Faults 57 - - Various Ages of Caves 58-61 - - Filling up of Caves 61 - - Cave of Caldy 62-68 - - Black-Rock Cave, Tenby 68 - - Carbonate of Lime dissolved by Atmospheric Water 69-70 - - Circulation of Carbonate of Lime 71 - - Temperature of Caves 71-72 - - Conclusion 73 - - - CHAPTER III. - - HISTORIC CAVES IN BRITAIN. - - Definition of Historic Period 74 - - Wild Animals in Britain during the Historic Period 75-77 - - Animals living under the care of Man 77 - - Classificatory Value of Historic Animals 78-81 - - The Victoria Cave, Settle, Yorkshire--History of Discovery 81-85 - - The Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh Stratum 86-88 - - Bones of the Animals 88-90 - - Miscellaneous Articles 90-92 - - The Coins 93 - - The Jewellery, and its relation to Irish Art 94-101 - - Similar remains in other Caves in Yorkshire 101 - - Caves used as places of Refuge 102 - - The evidence of History as to Date 103-111 - - Britain under the Romans 103-105 - - The inroads of the Picts and Scots 105 - - The English Conquest 107 - - The Neolithic Stratum 111-115 - - Approximate Date of the Neolithic Occupation 115 - - The Grey Clays 116-118 - - The Pleistocene Occupation by Hyænas 118-121 - - Probable Pre-glacial Age of the Pleistocene Stratum 121-125 - - The Kirkhead Cave 125 - - Poole’s Cavern, Buxton 126 - - Thor’s Cave, near Ashbourne 127-129 - - Historic Value of Brit-Welsh group of Caves 129 - - Principal Animals and Articles in Brit-Welsh Caves 130-132 - - The Use of Horse-flesh 132 - - Cave of Longberry Bank, Pembrokeshire 133 - - - CHAPTER IV. - - CAVES USED IN THE AGES OF IRON AND BRONZE. - - Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time 134-136 - - The Prehistoric Fauna 136-138 - - Archæological Classification 138-140 - - Caves of the Iron Age 140 - - Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain 141-145 - - The Caves of the Césareda in Portugal probably occupied by - Cannibals 145-147 - - Cave of Reggio in Modena 148 - - - CHAPTER V. - - CAVES OF THE NEOLITHIC AGE. - - Neolithic Caves in Great Britain--Perthi-Chwareu 149-156 - - Rhosdigre 156-158 - - Neolithic Caves in the neighbourhood of Cefn, St. Asaph 159-161 - - Chambered Tomb near Cefn 161-164 - - Correlation of Chambered Tomb with the Caves of Perthi-Chwareu - and Cefn 164 - - Contents of Caves and Tombs, tabulated 165-166 - - Description of Human Remains by Professor Busk 166-187 - - General conclusions as to Human Remains 197-188 - - - CHAPTER VI. - - THE RANGE OF NEOLITHIC DOLICHO-CEPHALI AND BRACHY-CEPHALI. - - Cranial Terminology 189-190 - - Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali 191-194 - - Range of the Dolicho-cephali in Britain and Ireland 194-197 - - Range of the Brachy-cephali 197 - - Their Range in France 198 - - Caverne de l’homme Mort 198-202 - - Sepulchral Cave of Orrouy 202 - - Skulls from French Tumuli 203 - - The Dolicho-cephali of Iberian Peninsula--Gibraltar 204-208 - - Spain--Cueva de los Murcièlagos 208-210 - - The Woman’s Cave near Alhama 210 - - The Guanches of the Canary Isles 211 - - Iberic Dolicho-cephali of the same race as those of Britain 212 - - Dolicho-cephali cognate with the Basque 213-215 - - Sepulchral Cave of Chauvaux 215-218 - - Cave of Sclaigneaux 218-220 - - Evidence of History as to the Peoples of Gaul and Spain 220-223 - - The Basque Population the oldest 223 - - Population of Britain 224 - - Basque Characters in British and French Populations present 225-227 - - Whence come the Basques? 227 - - The Celtic and Belgic Brachy-cephali 228-230 - - The Ancient German Race 230 - - General conclusions 231 - - - CHAPTER VII. - - CAVES CONTAINING HUMAN REMAINS OF DOUBTFUL AGE. - - The Paviland Cave 232-234 - - Cave of Engis 234, 235 - - Trou du Frontal 236-239 - - Cave of Gendron 239 - - ” Gailenreuth 240 - - ” Neanderthal 240-241 - - ” Aurignac 242-247 - - ” Bruniquel 247, 248 - - ” Cro-Magnon 249-256 - - ” Lombrive 256 - - ” Cavillon, near Mentone 257 - - Grotta dei Colombi, Palmaria, inhabited by Cannibals 258-261 - - General conclusions as to Prehistoric Caves 261-263 - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - THE PLEISTOCENE CAVES OF GERMANY AND GREAT BRITAIN. - - Relation of Pleistocene to Prehistoric Period 264 - - Magnitude of Interval 265 - - Animals 265, 266 - - Physical Changes--Excavation and filling up of Valleys 267-272 - - Fisherton, near Salisbury 267 - - Freshford, near Bath 269 - - Comparison of Deposits in Valleys with those in Caves 272 - - Difference of Mineral Condition 273 - - Pleistocene Caves of Germany--Gailenreuth 273-276 - - Kühloch 276-278 - - Pleistocene Caves of Great Britain 278 - - ” ” Yorkshire--Kirkdale 279-284 - - ” ” Derbyshire--Dream Cave 284, 285 - - ” ” North Wales, near St. Asaph 286, 287 - - Caves of South Wales in Glamorgan and Carmarthen 288 - - ” Pembrokeshire 289 - - ” Monmouth 290 - - ” Gloucestershire and Somersetshire 291 - - ” the Mendip Hills--Hutton 292 - - Banwell 293 - - Uphill 294 - - Hyæna Den, Wookey Hole 295-314 - - The district of the Mendip higher in Pleistocene Age than now 314 - - The condition of Bones gnawed by Hyænas 314-317 - - The Caves of Devonshire--Oreston 317, 318 - - Caves at Brixham 319-324 - - Kent’s Hole 324-330 - - Probable Age of the Machairodus in Kent’s Hole 330-335 - - Caves of Ireland--Shandon 335 - - - CHAPTER IX. - - THE INHABITANTS OF THE CAVES OF NORTH-WESTERN EUROPE, AND THE - EVIDENCE OF THE FAUNA AS TO THE ATLANTIC COAST-LINE. - - The Caves of France 336 - - Cave of Baume 337 - - Caves of Périgord 337-347 - - ” Belgium 347, 348 - - Trou de Naulette 349 - - Caves of Switzerland 350 - - Cave-dwellers and Palæolithic Men of the River-gravels 351 - - Classification of Palæolithic Caves 351-353 - - Relation of Cave-dwellers to Eskimos 353-359 - - Pleistocene Animals living north of the Alps and Pyrenees 359 - - Relation of Cave to River-bed Fauna 362 - - The Atlantic Coast-line 362-366 - - Distribution of Palæolithic Implements 366, 367 - - - CHAPTER X. - - THE FAUNA OF THE CAVES OF SOUTHERN EUROPE, AND THE EVIDENCE - AS TO THE MEDITERRANEAN COAST-LINE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE. - - Changes of Level in Mediterranean Area in Meiocene and - Pleiocene Ages 369 - - Bone-caves of Southern Europe 370 - - Caves of Gibraltar 371, 372 - - Bone-caves of Provence and Mentone 373-375 - - ” Sicily 375-377 - - ” Malta 377 - - Range of Pigmy Hippopotamus 378 - - Fossil Mammalia in Algeria 379 - - Living Species common to Europe and Africa 379 - - Evidence of Soundings 380-382 - - The Glaciers of Lebanon 382 - - Glaciers of Anatolia 383-386 - - ” of the Atlas Mountains 386 - - ” probably produced by elevation above the Sea 387-389 - - Mediterranean Coast-line comparatively modern 389 - - Changes of Level in the Sahara 390 - - - CHAPTER XI. - - THE EUROPEAN CLIMATE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE. - - Evidence of the Mammalia as to Climate 392 - - Southern Group of Animals 393-395 - - Northern Group 395-397 - - Probable cause of Association of Northern and Southern - Groups 397, 398 - - The Temperate Group 399 - - Species common to Cold and Tropical Climates 400 - - Extinct Species 400 - - Two Periods of Glaciation in Britain 401-403 - - Three Climatal Changes on the Continent 403 - - Europe invaded by Pleistocene Animals before the Glacial - Period 404-406 - - Mammalia lived in Europe during the second Glacial Period 406 - - The Glacial Period does not separate one Life-era from another 407 - - Bone-caves inhabited before and after the Glacial Period 408 - - Relation of Palæolithic Man to Glacial Period 409 - - Age of Contents of Caves in Glacial Districts 410 - - - CHAPTER XII. - - CONCLUSION. - - Classification of Pleistocene Strata by the Mammalia 412-414 - - Late Pleistocene Division 414 - - Middle Pleistocene Division 415-417 - - Early Pleistocene Mammalia 417-420 - - The Pleiocene Mammalia 420-423 - - Summary of Characteristic Pleistocene and Pleiocene Species 423, 424 - - Antiquity of Man in Europe 424-426 - - Man lived in India in the Pleistocene Age 426-428 - - Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related to those of - Europe? 428 - - Palæolithic Man in Palestine 429 - - Conclusion 430 - - - APPENDIX I. - - ON THE INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF CAVE-HUNTING. - - Instruments used in Cave-hunting 435 - - Search after Bone-caves 437 - - Three modes of Cave-digging 438 - - Stalagmitic floors to be broken up 440 - - The Preservation of Fossil Remains 440 - - - APPENDIX II. - - Observations on the Accumulation of Stalagmite in the - Ingleborough Cave 442 - - - - -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - FIG. PAGE - - Coloured Enamels from Victoria Cave _Front._ - - 1 Diagram of Wookey Hole, Cave and Ravine 30 - - 2 Diagram of Helln Pot and the Long Churn Cavern 41 - - 3 Diagram of Helln Pot 42 - - 4 Diagram of Helln Pot, showing Waterfall at the bottom 45 - - 5 Waterfall in Pot-hole, at Weathercote 48 - - 6 Diagram of Subterranean Course of Dalebeck 49 - - 7 Diagram of an acid-worn joint, Doveholes, Derbyshire 52 - - 8 Diagram of the Source of the Aire at Malham 55 - - 9 A View in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy 63 - - 10 Stalagmites in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy 63 - - 11 The Fairy Chamber, Caldy 64 - - 12 Pools in Fairy Chamber 65 - - 13 Pool in Fairy Chamber 65 - - 14 Edge of Pool in Fairy Chamber 65 - - 15 Cone with Straw-column 65 - - 16 Basin containing Cave-pearls 67 - - 17 Fungoid Structures, magnified 67 - - 18 Fungoid Structure, Black-rock Cave 68 - - 19 View of King’s Scar, Settle, showing the Entrances of the - Victoria and Albert Caves 82 - - 20 Longitudinal Section of Victoria Cave 86 - - 21 Vertical Section at the Entrance to the Victoria Cave 87 - - 22 Spoon-brooch 91 - - 23 Ornamented Bone Fastener 92 - - 24 Two Bone Links 92 - - 25 Bronze Brooch 95 - - 26 Bone Harpoon 112 - - 27 Bone Bead 113 - - 28 Stone Adze of doubtful origin 114 - - 29 Section below Grey Clay, at Entrance to Victoria Cave 117 - - 30 Skull of Woolly Rhinoceros, showing the part which is not - eaten by Hyænas 119 - - 31 Bronze Bracelet from Thor’s Cave 129 - - 32 Bronze Knife, Heathery Burn 142 - - 33 Bronze Armlet, Heathery Burn 143 - - 34 Bronze Spear-head, Heathery Burn 143 - - 35 Bronze Mould for casting a socketed Celt 143 - - 36 Section of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu 152 - - 37 Plan of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu 154 - - 38 Greenstone Celt, Rhosdigre Cave 157 - - 39 Plan of Chambered Tomb at Cefn 162 - - 40, 41, 42 Skull from Sepulchral Cave at Perthi-Chwareu 168 - - 43, 44, 45 Skull from Sepulchral Cave at Perthi-Chwareu 169 - - 46 Section of Femur 172 - - 47, 48, 49, 50, 51 Section of Tibiæ 176 - - 52, 53, 54 Platyenemic Tibiæ 177 - - 55, 56, 57, 58 Human Femora 182 - - 59, 60, 61 Skull from Cave at Cefn, St. Asaph 185 - - 62, 63, 64 Skull from Genista Cave 207 - - 65, 66 Skull from Cave of Sclaigneaux 219 - - 67 Platyenemic Tibia from Sclaigneaux 219 - - 68 Map of the Distribution of Iberic, Celtic, and Belgic - Peoples at dawn of History 221 - - 69 Section of the Trou du Frontal 237 - - 70 Diagram of the Cave of Aurignac 245 - - 71 Section across the valley of the Vezère and rock of - Cro-Magnon 249 - - 72 Detailed Section of the Cave of Cro-Magnon 251 - - 73 Thigh-bone of Child from Grotta dei Colombi 260 - - 74 Section of Valley-gravels at Fisherton 268 - - 75 Section of Valley-gravels at Freshford, Bath 270 - - 76 Section of Gailenreuth Cave 274 - - 77 Plan of Kirkdale Cave 279 - - 78 Sections of Kirkdale Cave 280 - - 79 Molar of Hippopotamus 281 - - 80 Leg-bones gnawed by Hyænas 282 - - 81 The Dream-cave, Wirksworth 285 - - 82 Left Lower Jaw of Glutton, Plas Heaton Cave 287 - - 83 Plan of Hyæna Den, Wookey Hole 297 - - 84, 85, 86, 87 Four Views of Flint Implements from Wookey Hole 299 - - 88 Section showing Contents of Hyæna Den 304 - - 89 Transverse section of ditto 305 - - 90 Longitudinal section 306 - - 91 Longitudinal section 311 - - 92 Gnawed Jaw of Hyæna from Wookey 313 - - 93 Upper and Lower Jaws of Hyæna Whelp, Wookey 315 - - 94 Thigh-bone of Woolly Rhinoceros gnawed by Hyænas, Wookey 316 - - 95 Diagram of deposits in Brixham Cave 320 - - 96 Lanceolate Implement from Kent’s Hole 326 - - 97 Oval Implements from Kent’s Hole 326 - - 98 Harpoon from Kent’s Hole 327 - - 99 Harpoon-head from Kent’s Hole 327 - - 100 Hammer-stone 328 - - 101, 102 Upper Canine of Machairodus, Kent’s Hole 331 - - 103, 104, 105 Incisors of Machairodus, Kent’s Hole 333 - - 106 Flint-flake, Les Eyzies 339 - - 107 Flint Scraper, Les Eyzies 339 - - 108 Flint Javelin-head, Laugerie Haute 339 - - 109 Flint Arrow-head, Laugerie Haute 340 - - 110 Bone needle, La Madelaine 340 - - 111, 112 Harpoons of Antler, La Madelaine 342 - - 113, 114 Arrow-heads, Gorge d’Enfer 342 - - 115 Bone Awl, Gorge d’Enfer 342 - - 116 Carved Handle of Reindeer Antler 343 - - 117 Two sides of Reindeer Antler, La Madelaine 344 - - 118 Horses engraved on Antler, La Madelaine 344 - - 119 Group of Reindeer, Dordogne 345 - - 120 Mammoth engraved on Ivory, La Madelaine 346 - - 121 Carved Implement of Reindeer Antler, Goyet 348 - - 122 Eskimos Spear-head, bone 353 - - 123 Eskimos Arrow-straightener of Walrus-tooth 354 - - 124 Eskimos Plane, or Scraper 355 - - 125 Eskimos Hunting Scene 357 - - 126 Map of the Physiography of Great Britain in Late Pleistocene - Age 363 - - 127 Molar of _Hippopotamus Pentlandi_ 377 - - 128 Molar of _Elephas Melitensis_ 378 - - 129 Map of the Physiography of the Mediterranean in the - Pleistocene Age 381 - - - - -LISTS OF SPECIES AND TABLES OF MEASUREMENTS. - - - PAGE - - List of Animals extinct during the Historic Age 78 - - ” Animals introduced during the Historic Age 79 - - ” Coins found in the Victoria Cave 93 - - ” Principal Animals and Objects found in Brit-Welsh Strata - in Caves 131 - - ” Animals found in the Refuse-heap, Perthi-Chwareu 150 - - ” Contents in Neolithic Caves and Cairn, North Wales 166 - - Dimensions of Perthi-Chwareu Skulls 171 - - Dimensions of Perthi Chwareu Tibiæ 173 - - Proportions of ordinary Tibiæ 174 - - Comparative Measurements of Skulls 179 - - Table of Long Skulls from Britain and Ireland 197 - - ” Measurements of British Brachy-cephali, and Gaulish - and Belgic Brachy-cephali and Dolicho-cephali 199 - - Measurements of various Skulls 213 - - Measurements of Skulls of doubtful antiquity 236 - - List of Late Pleistocene Animals unknown in Britain in the - Prehistoric Age 266 - - ” Remains found in Wookey Hyæna Den 310 - - Late Pleistocene Fauna north of Alps and Pyrenees 360, 361 - - List of Animals from the Caves of Gibraltar 372 - - Fauna from the Caves of Mentone 373 - - ” Bone-caves of Sicily 376 - - List of Animals from the Middle Pleistocene 415 - - ” ” ” Early Pleistocene 418 - - ” Pleistocene Mammalia 420, 422 - - ” Characteristic Animals of the Pleistocene Period 423 - - ” ” ” ” Pleiocene Period 424 - - - - -ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. - - -Page 1, line 7, _for_ “Cythæron” _read_ “Cithæron.” - -Page 8, line 4, _for_ “that” _read_ “who.” - -Page 17, line 5, _for_ “Seine” _read_ “Somme.” - -Page 60, lines 29, 30, _for_ “non-ossiferous” _read_ “no ossiferous.” - -Page 82, fig. 19, _for_ “A, B, Albert, C, Victoria” _read_ “A, B, -Victoria, C, Albert.” - -Page 95, fig. 25.--This design is to be seen in the chalice discovered -in 1868, in a rath at Ardagh, Limerick, and described by the Earl of -Dunraven (Trans. Royal Irish Acad. xxiv. Antiquities). The chalice is -made of gold, silver, bronze, brass, copper, and lead, and from the -identity of its inscription and ornament with those of Irish MSS. of -ascertained age, may be referred to a date ranging from the 5th to -the 9th centuries. It is also adorned with squares of blue and red -enamel of the same kind as that of the brooches from the Victoria Cave, -figured in the coloured plate. The same design is also presented by -the “bronze head-ring” found in 1747 at Stitchel, in Roxburgh, (Wilson -“Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,” ii. 146) as well as by one of the -silver articles known as “The Norrie Law Relics,” found in a tumulus -on the shore of the Bay of Largo, Firth of Forth. Of the coins found -at the same place, the latest, belonging to Tiberius Constantine (d. -682), fixes the date as not earlier than the 7th century. Some of -the sculptured stones of Scotland, such as the Dunnichen stone, are -ornamented also in the same style, and, according to Professor Wilson, -belong to “the transition period from the 4th to the 8th centuries, -when pagan and Christian rites were obscurely mingled,” (ii. 259). In -Scotland, therefore, as well as Ireland, this style of ornamentation -is of the same age, corresponding in the main with that of Brit-Welsh -articles in the Victoria Cave, proved by the associated coins to be -later than the 4th century. - -Page 120, line 4.--These teeth are considered by Dr. Leith Adams to -belong to _Elephas antiquus_, which has been discovered in other places -in Yorkshire. They may possibly belong to that animal; but they may, -with equal justice, be identified with the wide-plated variety of the -teeth of the Mammoth. The great variation in the width of the component -plates of the fossil teeth of Mammoth observable in the large series -from Crayford and the caves of the Mendip Hills, and in those in the -magnificent Museum of Lyons, causes me to hesitate in considering them -to belong to the rarer species. - -Page 130, line 2.--This has been verified while these sheets were -passing through the press by the discovery of Brit-Welsh articles in -a cave in Kirkcudbrightshire by Messrs. A. R. Hunt and A. J. Corrie, -among which are bone fasteners similar in outline to that from the -Victoria Cave (Fig. 23). - -Page 190.--In using this classification of crania, I have purposely -attached higher value to the two extremes of skull form, or the long -and the broad, than to the intermediate oval forms, which cannot be -viewed as distinctive of race, because they may be the results either -of the intermarriage of a long-headed with a short-headed people, or of -variation from the type of one or other of them. - -Page 196, heading, _for_ “Dolicho-cepha” _read_ “Dolicho-cephali.” - -Page 201, heading, _dele_ “A”. - -Page 213, note 2.--The “tête annulaire,” or annular depression, is -also visible on some of the broad as well as the long skulls from -a “Merovingian” cemetery at Chelles in the same collection. The -association in this cemetery of the two skull-forms is probably due to -the Merovingians being the masters, and the Celts the servants, and the -conquerors and the vanquished being buried in the same spot. - -Page 220, line 24, _for_ “Volscæ” _read_ “Volcæ.” - -Page 223, line 25, _for_ “east” _read_ “west.” - -Page 228, line 3, _dele_ “that.” - -Page 229, line 3, _for_ “set foot” _read_ “settled.” The statement in -the text is too strong. The conquest of Gaul by the Huns under Attila -was averted by his defeat in the famous battle of Chalons. - -Page 275, line 21, _for_ “are” _read_ “is.” - -Page 279.--Since this was written a new ossiferous deposit has been -found in a fissure at Lothorsdale, near Skipton, from which the remains -of the _Elephas antiquus_ and _Hippopotamus amphibius_ have been -obtained. - -Page 284.--The ossiferous fissure at Windy Knoll, near Castleton, -recently explored by Messrs. Tym, Pennington, Plant, Walker and -others, has added several animals to the pleistocene fauna of that -district--the bison, roe, reindeer, bear, wolf, fox, and hyæna, the -first of these species being remarkably abundant, and of all ages. The -remains were probably introduced by a stream from a higher level. - -Page 337, note 2, line 2, _for_ “the Revue” and “les Matériaux” _read_ -“in the Revue” and “in the Matériaux.” - -Page 337, note 5, _for_ “Aquitainicæ” _read_ “Aquitanicæ.” - -Page 347, line 6, _for_ “mind” _read_ “minds.” - -Page 356, line 15, _for_ “Port” _read_ “Fort.” - -Page 361.--Mr. Ayshford Sanford adds the _Felis Caffer_ to the list -from Bleadon, and the _Gulo borealis_ to that of the animals from -Kent’s Hole. - -Page 386, line 10, _dele_ inverted commas. - -Page 386, line 17, _for_ “or from 1,000 to 2,000 feet lower than the -glacial covering” _read_ “thus differing by a line of from 1,000 to -2,000 feet from the glacial covering” (Palgrave). - - - - -CAVE-HUNTING. - - - - -CHAPTER I. - -INTRODUCTION. - - Legends and Superstitions connected with Caves.--The Physical - Division of the Subject.--The Biological.--The Inhabitants - of Caves.--Men and Animals.--Ethnological, Archæological, - and Geographical Bearings.--The three Classes of Bone-Caves: - Historic, Prehistoric, Pleistocene.--History of Cave Exploration - in Europe: Germany, Great Britain, France, Belgium, Southern Europe. - - -Caves have excited the awe and wonder of mankind in all ages, and -have figured largely in many legends and superstitions. In the Roman -Mythology, they were the abode of the Sibyls, and of the nymphs, and -in Greece they were the places where Pan, Bacchus, Pluto, and the Moon -were worshipped, and where the oracles were delivered, as at Delphi, -Corinth, and Mount Cithæron; in Persia they were connected with the -obscure worship of Mithras. Their names, in many cases, are survivals -of the superstitious ideas of antiquity. In France and Germany they are -frequently termed “Fairy, Dragons’, or Devils’ Caves,” and, according -to M. Desnoyers, they are mentioned in the invocation of certain -canonized anchorites, who dwelt in them after having dispossessed and -destroyed the dragons and serpents, the pagan superstition appearing in -a Christian dress. - -In the Middle Ages they were looked upon as the dwellings of evil -spirits, into the unfathomable abysses of which the intruder was lured -to his own destruction. Long after the fairies and little men had -forsaken the forests and glens of Northern Germany, they dwelt in their -palaces deep in the hearts of the mountains,--in “the dwarf holes,” as -they were called--whence they came, from time to time, into the upper -air. Near Elbingrode, for example, in the Hartz, the legend was current -in the middle of the last century, that when a wedding-dinner was being -prepared the near relations of the bride and bridegroom went to the -caves, and asked the dwarfs for copper and brass kettles, pewter dishes -and plates, and other kitchen utensils.[1] “Then they retired a little, -and when they came back, found everything they desired set ready for -them at the mouth of the cave. When the wedding was over they returned -what they had borrowed, and in token of gratitude, offered some meat to -their benefactors.” Allusions, such as this, to dwarfs, according to -Professor Nilsson, point back to the remote time when a small primeval -race, inhabiting Northern Germany, was driven by invaders to take -refuge in caverns,--a view that derives support from the fact that in -Scandinavia the tall Northmen were accustomed to consider the smaller -Lapps and Finns as dwarfs, and to invest them with magic power, just -as in Palestine the smaller invading peoples considered their tall -enemies giants. The cave of Bauman’s hole, also in the Hartz district, -was said, in the middle of the last century, to have been haunted -by divers apparitions, and to contain a treasure guarded by black -mastiffs; and in Burrington Combe, in Somersetshire, some twenty years -ago, a cave was dug out by a working man, under the impression that it -contained gold. The hills of Granada are still believed, by the Moorish -children, to contain the great Boabdil and his sleeping host, who will -awake when an adventurous mortal invades their repose, and will issue -forth to restore the glory of the Moorish kings. - -It is, indeed, no wonder that legends and poetical fancies such as -these should cluster round caves, for the gloom of their recesses, -and the shrill drip of the water from the roof, or the roar of the -subterranean water-falls echoing through the passages, and the white -bosses of stalagmite looming like statues through the darkness, offer -ample materials for the use of a vivid imagination. The fact that -often their length was unknown, naturally led to the inference that -they were passages into another world. And this is equally true of -the story of Boabdil, of that of the Purgatory of St. Patrick, in the -north of Ireland, and of the course of the river Styx, which sinks -into the rocks and flows through a series of caverns that are the dark -entrance-halls of Hades. The same idea is evident in the remarkable -story, related by Ælian (Lib. xvi. 16). “Among the Indians of Areia -there is an abyss sacred to Pluto, and beneath it vast galleries, -and hidden passages and depths, that have never been fathomed. How -these are formed the Indians tell not, nor shall I attempt to relate. -The Indians drive thither (every year) more than 3,000 different -animals--sheep, goats, oxen, and horses--and each acting either from -dread of the dreadful abyss, or to avert an evil omen in proportion to -his means, seeks his own and his family’s safety by causing the animals -to tumble in; and these, neither bound with chains nor driven, of their -own accord finish their journey as if led on by some charm; and after -they have come to the mouth of the abyss they willingly leap down, and -are never more seen by mortal eyes. The lowing, however, of the cattle, -the bleating of the sheep and of the goats, and the whinnying of the -horses are heard above ground, and if anyone listen at the mouth, he -will hear sounds of this kind lasting for a long time. Nor do they ever -cease, because beasts are driven thither every day. But whether the -sound is made by those recently driven in, or by some of those driven -in some time before, I do not express an opinion.” The Roman Catholic -Church took advantage of this feeling of superstitious awe, as late as -the Middle Ages. At the time of the Reformation it was believed that a -cave at Bishofferode would prove the death of some person in the course -of the year, unless a public yearly atonement were made. Accordingly -a priest came, on a certain day, to the chapel on the hill opposite, -whence he passed in solemn procession to the cave, “and let down into -it a crucifix, which he pulled up again, and took this occasion to -remind them of hell, and to avoid the punishment due to their sins.” - -The beauty of the interiors of some of the caves could not fail to give -rise to more graceful fancies than these. The fantastic shapes of the -dripstone, with which they are adorned, now resembling Gothic pillars -supporting a crystalline arcade, or jutting out in little spires and -minarets, and very generally covering the floor with a marble-like -pavement, and in some cases lining the pools of water with a fretwork -of crystals that shine like the facets of a diamond, were fitting -ornaments for the houses of unearthly beings, such as fairies. - - -_The Physical Division of the Subject._ - -It is by no means my intention in this work to give a history of -legends such as these, but to take my readers with me into some of -the more important and more beautiful caves in this country. The -exploration of the chambers and passages of which they are composed, -the fording of the subterranean streams by which they are frequently -traversed, or the descent into deep chasms which open in their floors, -have the peculiar charm of mountaineering, not without a certain -pleasurable amount of risk. But to physicist and geologist they offer -far more than this. They give an insight into the wonderful chemistry -by which changes are being wrought, at the present time, in the solid -rock. Nor are the conclusions to which we are led by the investigation -of these chemical changes merely confined to the interior of caves. -They enable us to understand how some of the most beautiful scenery -in Europe has been formed, and to realize the mode by which all -precipices and gorges have been carved out of the calcareous rock. In -the next chapter we shall see why it is that the combination of hill -and valley, ravine and precipice, present the same general features in -all limestone districts--why, for instance, the ravines of Palestine -are the same as those of Greece, and both are identical with those -in Yorkshire. The origin and the history of caves will be examined, -as well as their relation to the general physical geography of the -calcareous strata. All these subjects are comprehended in the first or -the physical division of cave-hunting. - - -_The Biological Division._ - -We must now proceed to the definition of the scope and object of the -second, or Biological, division of the subject. - -Caves have been used by man, and the domestic animals living under his -protection, from the earliest times recorded by history down to the -present day. Those penetrating the rugged precipices of Palestine, -we read in the Old Testament, served both for habitation and for -burial, and, from the notices which are scattered through the early -Greek writers, we may conclude that those of Greece were used for -dwelling-places. The story of the Cyclops proves that they were also -used as folds for goats. The name of Troglodytes, given to many peoples -of the most remote antiquity, implies that there was a time in the -history of mankind when Pliny’s statement “specus erat pro domibus” -was strictly true (“Hist. Nat.” I. v. c. 56). The caves of Africa -have been places of retreat from the remotest antiquity down to the -French conquest of Algeria, and in 1845 several hundred Arabs were -suffocated in those of Dahra by the smoke of a fire kindled at the -entrance by Marshal (then Colonel) Pelissier. Dr. Livingstone alludes -in his recent letters to the vast caves of Central Africa, which -offer refuge to whole tribes with their cattle and household stuff. -In France, according to M. Desnoyers, there are at the present time -whole villages, including the church, to be found in the rock, which -are merely caves modified, extended, and altered by the hand of man. -The caves of the Dordogne were inhabited in the middle ages. Floras -writes that the Aquitani, “callidum genus in speluncas se recipiebant, -Cæsar jussit includi,”[2] and the same caves afforded shelter to the -inhabitants of the same region in the wars of King Pepin against -the last Duke of Aquitaine. In this country a small cave in Cheddar -Pass was occupied till within the last few years. The caves in the -northern counties are stated by Gildas to have offered a refuge to -the Brit-Welsh inhabitants of Britain during the raids of the Picts -and Scots; and in the year 1745 those of Yorkshire were turned to the -same purpose during the invasion of the Pretender. We might reasonably -expect to find in caves turned to these uses objects left behind, which -would tell us something of the manners and customs of their possessors, -and light up the catalogue of battles and intrigues of which history -generally consists. The results obtained from the Brit-Welsh group of -caves, treated in the third chapter, show that this hitherto neglected -branch of the inquiry is not without value to the historian. - -Caves containing remains of this kind may be conveniently termed -historic, because they may be brought into relation with history. It -must, however, be carefully remarked that the term does not relate -to history _in general_, but to that _in particular_ of each country -which happens to be under investigation. The misapprehension of -this has caused great confusion, and many mistakes in archæological -classification and reasoning. - -Again, our experience of the habits of rude and uncivilized peoples -would naturally lead us to look to caves, as the places in which we -should be likely to meet with the remains of the men who lived in -Europe before the dawn of history. Such remains we do find that, -placed side by side with others from the tombs and dwellings, enable -us to discover some, at least, of the races who lived in Europe -in long-forgotten times, and to ascertain roughly the sequence of -events in the remote past, far away from the historical border. It -may, indeed, seem a hopeless quest to recover what has been buried -in oblivion so long, and it is successful merely through the careful -comparison of the human skeletons in the caves and tombs of Britain, -France, and Spain, with those of existing races, and of the implements -and weapons with those which are now used among savage tribes. By this -means we shall see that there are good grounds for extending the range -of the Iberian people over a considerable area in Europe, and for -the belief that the Eskimos once lived as far south as Auvergne. In -discussing both these problems it will be impossible to shut our eyes -to the continuity that exists between geology, archæology, biology, and -history--sciences which at first sight appear isolated from each other. - -The bones of the domestic animals in the caves will necessarily lead to -the further examination of the appearance and disappearance of breeds -under the care of man. And this complicated question has an important -bearing not merely on the ethnology, but also on the history, of some -of the European peoples. It must be admitted, however, that this -branch of the subject is, as yet, known merely in outline, and we can -only hope to ascertain a few facts which may form a basis for future -investigation. - -From another point of view the contents of caves are peculiarly -valuable. They have been used as places of shelter, not merely by man, -but by wild animals, from the time they first became accessible to -the present day. In the same way, therefore, as now they contain, in -their superficial layers, the bones of sheep, oxen, and horses, foxes, -rabbits, and badgers, so in their deeper strata lie buried the remains -of the animals which were living in Europe long before the historic -times. In other words, they enable us to make out the groups of animals -inhabiting the neighbouring districts, and which in many cases have -either forsaken their original abodes or have become extinct. And since -those which are extinct, or which have migrated, could not have lived -where their remains are found under the present conditions of life, an -inquiry into their history leads us into the general question of the -ancient European climate and geography. It is obvious, for example, -that the spotted hyæna, which formerly inhabited the caves of Sicily, -could not have crossed over to that island after it was separated from -Africa and Italy; and it would be impossible for the musk-sheep, the -most arctic of the herbivora, to live as far south as Auvergne under -the present climatal conditions. The presence, therefore, of these -animals in these districts is proof in the one case of a geographical, -and in the other of a climatal, change. - -The discussion of all these questions is comprehended under the second, -or biological, division of cave-hunting, which may be defined as an -inquiry into the remains of man and animals found in the caves, and -into the conditions under which they lived in Europe. - - -_The three Classes of Bone-caves._ - -In the biological branch of the subject the caves will be treated -first which are comprehended within the limits of history; then we -shall pass on to the investigation of Prehistoric caves, or those -which have been inhabited in the interval that separates history from -the remote geological era, which is characterized by the existence of -the extinct mammalia in Europe. And, lastly, those will be examined -which have furnished the remains of the extinct animals, and which -are termed by the geologists Pleistocene, from the fact that a larger -percentage of existing species were then living than in the preceding -Pleio-, Meio-, and Eocene periods. The equivalent terms “Quaternary,” -used by many French geologists, and the “Post-pleiocene division of the -Post-tertiary Formation,” used by Sir Charles Lyell, are not adopted -in this work, because they imply a break in the continuity of life, -which does not exist. “Pleistocene” was invented and subsequently -discarded by Sir C. Lyell,[3] and is at present used by many eminent -writers, such as Forbes, Phillips, Gervais, and others. The ossiferous -caves will therefore be divided into the Historic, Prehistoric, and -Pleistocene groups. And it will be more convenient to work backwards -in time from the basis offered by history, than to begin with the -Pleistocene, or oldest division, and bring the narrative down to the -present day. - -This classification, founded in part on the principle of change -in the animal world, and partly on the basis offered by history, -coincides, only in part, with that of the archæologists based on the -remains of man’s handiwork. The Pleistocene age is the equivalent of -the Palæolithic, or that of rude unpolished stone; the Prehistoric -represents the ages of polished stone, bronze, and iron in part, or -those stages in human progress when the use of these materials became -general for the purposes of every-day life; while the Historic covers -merely the later portion of that of iron. - - -_History of Cave-Exploration in Europe._ - -_Germany._--The rest of this chapter must be devoted to an outline of -the history of cave-exploration during the last two centuries. The -dread of the supernatural, which preserved the European caves from -disturbance, was destroyed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries -by the search after “ebur fossile,” or unicorn’s horn, which ranked -high in the materia medica of those days as a specific for many -diseases, and which was obtained, in great abundance, in the caverns of -the Hartz, and in those of Hungary and Franconia. As the true nature -of the drug gradually revealed itself, the German caves became famous -for the remains of the lions, hyænas, fossil elephants, and other -strange animals, which had been used for medicine. We owe the first -philosophical discussion on the point to Dr. Gesner,[4] who, although -he maintained that the fossil unicorn consisted, in some cases, of -elephant’s teeth and tusks, and in others of its fossil bones, did not -altogether give up the idea of its medicinal value. It is a singular -fact, that fossil remains of a similar kind are, at the present time, -used by the Chinese for the same purpose, and sold in their druggists’ -shops.[5] The cave which was most famous at the end of the seventeenth -century was that of Bauman’s Hole, in the Hartz, in the district of -Blankenbourg. It is noticed in the Philosophical Transactions for the -year 1662, and was subsequently described by Dr. Behrens,[6] Leibnitz, -De Luc, and Cuvier, along with others in the neighbourhood. Those of -Hungary come next in point of discovery, the first notice of them -being due to Patterson Hayne in 1672. They penetrate the southern -slopes of the Carpathian ranges, and are known by the name of dragons’ -caves, because the bones which they contain had been considered from -time immemorial to belong to those animals by the country people. -These remains were identified by Baron Cuvier as belonging to the -cave-bear.[7] - -It was not, however, until the close of the eighteenth century that the -exploring of caves was carried on systematically, or their contents -examined with any scientific precision. The caves of Franconia, in -the neighbourhood of Muggendorf, were described by Esper in 1774, by -Rosenmuller in 1804, and six years later by Dr. Goldfuss. The most -important was that of Gailenreuth, both from the vast quantity of -remains which it was proved to contain, and the investigations to which -it led. The bones of the hyæna, lion, wolf, fox, glutton, and red -deer were identified by Baron Cuvier; while some of the skulls which -Dr. Goldfuss obtained have been recently proved, by Professor Busk, -to belong to the grizzly bear. They were associated with the bones of -the reindeer, horse and bison. Rosenmuller was of opinion that the -cave had been inhabited by bears for a long series of generations; and -he thus realized that these remains proved that the animals found in -the cave had once lived in that district, and had not been swept from -the tropics by the deluge. The interest in these discoveries was at -its height in the year 1816, when Dr. Buckland visited the cave, and -acquired that knowledge of cave-exploring which he was subsequently -to use with such good effect in this country.[8] From this time down -to the present day, no new fact of importance has been added to our -knowledge of caves by explorations in Germany. - - -_Great Britain._--The first bone-cave systematically explored in -this country was that discovered by Mr. Whidbey,[9] in the Devonian -limestone at Oreston, near Plymouth, in 1816; and the remains obtained -from it were identified by Sir Everard Home as implying the existence -of the rhinoceros in that region. This discovery followed close upon -the researches in Gailenreuth, and was due in some degree to the -request which Sir Joseph Banks made, that Mr. Whidbey, in quarrying the -stone for the Plymouth breakwater, should examine the contents of any -caverns that he might happen to meet with. It preceded Dr. Buckland’s -exploration of Kirkdale by about four years. - -In the summer of 1821 a cave was discovered, in a limestone quarry at -Kirkdale, in Yorkshire, which was found to contain bones and teeth of -animals. On hearing of the discovery, Dr. Buckland posted at once from -South Wales to the spot, and published the result of the explorations -in the Philosophical Transactions for the next year. He brought forward -evidence that the cave had been inhabited by hyænas, and that the -broken and gnawed bones of the rhinoceros, mammoth, stag, bison, and -horse belonged to animals which had been dragged in for food. He also -established the fact that all these animals had lived in Yorkshire -in ancient times, and that it was impossible for the carcases of the -hyæna, rhinoceros, and mammoth to have been floated from those regions -where they are now living into the position where he found their bones. -He subsequently followed up the subject by investigating bone-caves -in Derbyshire, South Wales, and Somerset, as well as in Germany, and -published his great work, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” in 1822, which laid the -foundations of the new science of cave-hunting in this country. The -exploration of Kirkdale followed closely upon that of Gailenreuth, and -was merely the application of those principles of research which had -been discovered in Germany to caves in a new district. - -From this time forward bone-caves were discovered in Great Britain -in increasing numbers, and explored by many independent observers. -The famous cavern of Kent’s Hole, near Torquay, furnished the Rev. J. -McEnery, between 1825 and the year 1841, in which he died, with the -first flint implements ever discovered in a cave along with the bones -of extinct animals. He recognized the fact that they may be proof of -the existence of man during the time that those animals were alive; -but the scientific world was not then sufficiently educated to accept -the antiquity of the human race on the evidence brought forward, and -Dr. Buckland himself was so influenced by the opinions of his times, -that he refused even to entertain the idea. Although the discovery -was verified by the independent researches of Mr. Godwin Austin in -1840, and by the Torquay Natural History Society in 1846, the force of -prejudice was so strong, that the matter was not thought even worthy of -investigation. Mr. McEnery’s manuscripts were lost until the year 1859, -when an abstract of them was published by Mr. Vivian, and subsequently -they were printed in full by Mr. Pengelly, the able superintendent of -the exploration which has been carried on by a committee of the British -Association since 1865, by whom several thousand flint implements have -been obtained, under the conditions pointed out by the Rev. J. McEnery -and Mr. Godwin Austen.[10] - -While the important question of the antiquity of man was being passed -by as of no account, other caves were being examined in this country. -Those of Banwell, Burrington, Sandford Hill, Bleadon, and Hutton, -in the mountain limestone of the Mendip hills, were being worked by -the Rev. J. Williams and Mr. Beard, and furnished the magnificent -collection of mammalian bones now in the museum at Taunton. In North -Wales, also, Mr. Lloyd discovered a similar suite of bones in the -limestone caves in the neighbourhood of St. Asaph at Cefn, and in South -Wales numerous remains were obtained by many explorers in those of -Pembrokeshire and Gower. - -The result of these discoveries was the proof that certain extinct -animals, such as the woolly rhinoceros and the mammoth, had lived in -this country in ancient times, along with two other groups of species -which are at present known only to live in hot and cold climates--the -spotted hyæna and hippopotamus of Africa, with the reindeer and the -marmot of the colder regions of the earth. - -The discovery in 1858, and the exploration, of the now famous cave -of Brixham, by the Royal and Geological Societies, marked the dawn -of a new era in cave-hunting. Under the careful supervision of Mr. -Pengelly, flint implements were discovered underneath stalagmite, and -in association with the remains of the hyæna and woolly rhinoceros and -mammoth, in undisturbed red loam, under conditions that prove man to -have been living in Devonshire at the same time as those animals. This -singularly opportune discovery destroyed for ever the doubts that had -overhung the question of the antiquity of man, and of his co-existence -in Europe in company with the animals whose remains occur both in the -caverns and river-deposits. - -In 1847 M. Boucher de Perthes described certain rude flint implements -that he obtained from the fluviatile gravels of Abbeville (“Antiquités -Celtiques,” vol. i.), along with the bones of extinct animals; and -his discovery was treated with the same scepticism in France as that -of the Rev. J. McEnery in England, although it was verified by flint -implements being discovered, under exactly the same conditions, in the -gravels of Amiens, some forty miles away, by Dr. Rigollot.[11] In the -autumn of 1858, Dr. Falconer, who had been superintending the work -in the Brixham cave, visited the collection made by M. de Perthes, -while on his way to examine the caves of Sicily, and recognizing -man’s handiwork in the implements, he asked his friend Mr. Prestwich -to explore the Valley of the Somme. This he accordingly did, and in -company with Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., dug out with his own hands an -implement from the undisturbed strata,[12] and thus finally settled the -disputed question. It is undoubtedly true, that scientific opinion was -tending towards the acceptance of the evidence in favour of man having -lived in Europe in the Pleistocene age; but the researches in Brixham -cave established the fact on the highest possible authority, and -confirmed the long-neglected discoveries in the valley of the Somme. -By the end of 1859 it was fully accepted by the scientific world, and -caused the exploration of caves to be carried on with increased vigour. - -In December 1859,[13] I began the exploration of the hyæna-den of -Wookey Hole, near Wells, Somerset, in company with the Rev. J. -Williamson, and obtained flint instruments along with the remains -of the mammoth, hyæna, woolly rhinoceros, and other animals, under -conditions that proved the contemporaneity of man with the extinct -mammalia. And from that time down to the present date I have carried -on researches in caves in various parts of Great Britain. In the -district of Gower also, many ossiferous caverns were investigated, -in 1858-9-60-1 by Colonel Wood and Dr. Falconer, and in one of them -flint implements were obtained along with the bones of the extinct -mammalia.[14] Kent’s Hole, begun in 1865 by the British Association, -and still being worked, furnishes annually a vast number of bones -and teeth of hyænas, rhinoceroses, cave-bears, and horses, and other -animals, along with flint and bone implements.[15] - -In 1869 I had the good fortune to discover, and subsequently to -explore, a group of sepulchral caves in Denbighshire, which had been -used by an Iberian or Basque race in the Neolithic age (Chapter V.); -and in the following year the Settle Cave Committee began their work -in Yorkshire under my advice. And this has led to the important -conclusion, that a group of caves, extending over a wide area in the -centre and north of England, was occupied by the Brit-Welsh in the -obscure interval which elapsed between the departure of the Roman -legions and the English conquest. - - -_France._--The researches of Buckland into the caves of Great Britain, -and of Goldfuss and others into those of Germany, and more especially -the publication of the “Ossemens Fossiles,” by Cuvier, gave an impetus -to cave-exploration in France which yielded the same results as in -our own country. The mammalia obtained from the cave of Fouvent (Haut -Saone) in 1800 were described in the “Ossemens,” as well as those -from Gondenans. In the Gironde, the Cave of Avison was explored by -M. Billaudel in 1826-27. In the south, Marcel de Serres, aided by -MM. Dubrueil and Jeanjean, examined the important Cave of Lunel-viel -in 1824, and published their results in a work that holds the same -position in France as the “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ” in England. The caverns -of Pondres, Souvignargues, and of Bize were explored, the two first -by M. Christol in 1829, the last by M. Tournal in 1833, and those of -Villefranche (Pyrénées-orient), Mialet (Gard), and Nabrigas (Lozère) -were described by De Serres in 1839, who subsequently added those of -Carcas-sonne to the list in 1842. In this year MM. Prevost and J. -Desnoyers explored the caves of Montmorency in the neighbourhood of -Paris, and described the remains discovered in those of Bicêtre. The -Cave of Pontil (Hérault) described by M. de Serres in 1847, was proved -in 1864, by Professor Gervais, to contain two distinct strata, the -neolithic lying over the palæolithic, as in Kent’s Hole.[16] - -In 1860,[17] the famous Cave of Aurignac was proved, by the -investigations of Professor Lartet, to have been inhabited by man in -the life-time of the extinct mammalia. Three years later the caves -of Périgord were explored by that gentleman, along with Mr. Christy, -and yielded results which mark a new era in the history of man in the -remote past. From the remarkable collection of implements and weapons, -the habits and mode of life of the occupants can be ascertained with -tolerable certainty, and from their comparison with the like articles -now in use among savage tribes, it may be reasonably inferred that -they were closely related in blood to the Eskimos. This most important -question will be investigated in its proper place, in the chapter -relating to the palæolithic caves of France. Professor Lartet, M. Louis -Lartet, Sir Charles Lyell, and other eminent observers believe further, -that the interments that have been discovered in Aurignac and in Cro -Magnon,[18] in Périgord, are to be assigned to the same relative age -as the occupation of the caves by man. From the fact, however, that -the skeletons in both these cases were _above_ the strata accumulated -by the palæolithic cave-dwellers, it may be concluded that they were -deposited after those strata were formed, in other words, that they are -of a later age. - -From 1863 down to the present time very many caves have been explored -in France without any further addition to our knowledge, excepting the -verification of the facts, afforded by the caves of Brixham and of -Périgord, as to the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia, and -his probable identity in race with the Eskimos. - - -_Belgium._--The caves of Belgium[19] have afforded evidence of -precisely the same nature as those of England and France. Dr. -Schmerling, of Liège, published the results of his researches, begun -in 1829, into the bone-caves on the banks of the Meuse and its -tributaries, in 1833-4, and proved that the mammoth, rhinoceros, -cave-bear, and hyæna formerly lived in that district. He also arrived -at the conclusion that man was living at that remote time, from the -discovery of flint-flakes and human bones along with the remains -of those animals in the caves of Engis and Engihoul. In 1853,[20] -Professor Spring discovered a quantity of burned, broken, and cut -bones belonging to women and children, in the Cave of Chauvaux, which -he considered to imply that it had been inhabited by a family of -cannibals. Axes of polished stone were also met with, that indicated -the relative age to be neolithic. - -To pass over the human skeleton found in the Neanderthal Cave in 1857 -by Dr. Fuhlroth, which is of doubtful antiquity, the next discoveries -of importance are those made by M. Dupont in the years 1864-70, in -the province of Namur, that established the fact that the same race -of men who inhabited Auvergne in the palæolithic age had also lived -in Belgium. M. Dupont considers that the interments in the Trou de -Frontal[21] belong also to the palæolithic age, and that therefore man -at that remote time was possessed of religious ideas. Before, however, -this view can be accepted, it will be necessary to show the exact -relation of the bones of the reindeer, chamois, mammoth, and other -animals found outside the slab of stone, at the mouth of the sepulchral -chamber, to the human remains within. In this case, as in Aurignac -and Cro Magnon, the evidence seems to me insufficient to establish so -important a conclusion. - - -_Southern Europe._--In southern Europe the bone-caves of Sicily, -worked in 1829 for the sake of the animal remains to be used in sugar -refining, were scientifically examined by Dr. Falconer in 1859; those -of Malta by Captain Spratt in the same year; and those of Gibraltar by -Captain Broome in the years 1862-8. They established the existence of -the serval and the African elephant, and other characteristic African -species, in Europe, and offer as we shall see in this work, important -testimony as to the geography of the Mediterranean area in the -Pleistocene age. - -In this outline of the history of cave-exploration it will be seen, -that the additions to our knowledge of the past have been neither -few nor insignificant, nor in one line of inquiry. And if the -attention which is now being directed to the subject be due to the -general development of scientific thought, it is equally true, that -the results have reacted on scientific thought in general, and have -especially benefited the sciences of geology, archæology, and history. -A rich field of investigation lies before the cave-hunter, in Greece, -Palestine, Lycia, Persia, and the limestone plateaux of central -Asia; and since these discoveries have been so valuable in central -and north-western Europe, what may we not recover from the grasp of -oblivion, of the infancy and early culture of mankind in the very -birth-place and “pathway of the nations”? - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -PHYSICAL HISTORY OF CAVES. - - Caves formed by the Sea and by Volcanic Action.--Caves in - Arenaceous Rocks.--Caves in Calcareous Rocks of various ages. - --Their Relation to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines.-- - The Water-cave of Wookey Hole.--The Goatchurch Cave.--The - Water-caves of Derbyshire.--Of Yorkshire.--The Ingleborough - Cave.--The Rate of Deposit of Stalagmite.--The Descent into - Helln Pot.--The Caves and Pots round Weathercote.--The Formation - of Caves, Pot-holes, and Ravines.--Caverns not generally formed - in line of Faults.--Of various Ages.--Their Filling-up.-- - The Cave of Caldy.--The Blackrock Cave.--Great quantity - of Carbonate of Lime dissolved by Atmospheric Water.--The - Circulation of Carbonate of Lime.--The Temperature of Caves.-- - Conclusion. - - -_Caves formed by the Sea and by Volcanic Action._ - -In this chapter we shall treat of the origin of caves and of their -place in physical geography. The most obvious agent in hollowing out -caves is the sea. The set of the current, the tremendous force of the -breakers, and the grinding of the shingle, inevitably discover the weak -places in the cliff, and leave caves as the results of their work, -modified in each case by the local conditions of the rock. Caves formed -in this manner have certain characters which are easily recognized. -Their floors are very rarely much out of the horizontal, their outlook -is over the sea, and they very seldom penetrate far into the cliff. -A general parallelism is also to be observed in a group in the same -district, and their entrances are all in the same horizontal plane, or -in a succession of horizontal and parallel planes. In some cases they -are elevated above the present reach of the waves, and mark the line -at which the sea formerly stood. From their generally inaccessible -position sea-caves have very rarely been occupied by man, and the -history of their formation is so obvious that it requires no further -notice. Among them the famous Fingal’s Cave, off the north coast -of Ireland, and that of Staffa, on the opposite shore of Scotland, -hollowed out of columnar basalt, are perhaps the most remarkable in -Europe. - -In volcanic regions also there are caves formed by the passage of lava -to the surface of the ground, or by the imprisoned steam and gases in -the lava while it was in a molten state: but these are of comparatively -little importance so far as relates to the general question of caves, -from the very small areas which are occupied by active volcanoes -in Europe. They have been observed in Vesuvius, Etna, Iceland, and -Teneriffe. - - -_Caves in Arenaceous Rocks._ - -Caves also occur sometimes in sandstones, in which case they are the -result of the erosion of the lines of the joints by the passage of -subaërial water, and if the joints happen to traverse a stratum less -compacted than the rest, the weak point is discovered, and a hollow -is formed extending laterally from the original fissure. The massive -millstone grit of Derbyshire and Yorkshire present many examples of -this, as for instance in Kinderscout in the former county. The rocks -at Tunbridge Wells also show to what extent the joints in the Wealden -sandstones may become open fissures, more or less connected with caves, -on a small scale, by the mere mechanical action of water. M. Desnoyers -gives instances of the same kind in the Tertiary sandstones of the -Paris basin, which have furnished remains of rhinoceros, reindeer, -hyæna, and bear. Caverns, however, in the sandstone are rarely of -great extent, and may be passed over as being of small importance in -comparison with those in the calcareous rocks. - - -_Caves in Calcareous Rocks of various ages._ - -It has long been known that wherever the calcareous strata are -sufficiently hard and compact to support a roof, caves are to be found -in greater or less abundance. Those of Devonshire occur in the Devonian -limestone; those of Somerset, Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, -and Northumberland, as well as of Belgium and Westphalia, in that -of the carboniferous age. In France also, those of Maine and Anjou, -and most of those of the Pyrenees and in the department of Aude, are -hollowed in carboniferous limestone, as well as the greater part of -those in North America, in Virginia, and Kentucky. The cave of Kirkdale -in Yorkshire, and most of those in Franconia and in Bavaria penetrate -Jurassic limestones, which have received the name of Hohlenkalkstein -from the abundance of caverns which they contain. They are developed on -a large scale in the Swiss and French Jura, and in some cases afford -passage to powerful streams, and in others are more or less filled -with ice, thus constituting the singular “glacières” that have been so -ably explored by the Rev. G. F. Browne.[22] - -The compact Neocomian and Cretaceous limestones contain most of the -caverns of Périgord, Quercy, and Angoumois, and some of those in -Provence and Languedoc, those of Northern Italy, Sicily, Greece, -Dalmatia, Carniola, and Turkey in Europe, of Asia Minor and Palestine. - -The tertiary limestones, writes M. Desnoyers,[23] offer sometimes, but -very rarely, caves that have become celebrated for the bones which -they contain, such as those of Lunel-Viel, near Montpelier, those of -Pondres and Souvignargues, near Sommières (Gard), and of Saint Macaire -(Gironde). The same may also be said of the calcaire grossier of the -basin of Paris. - -Certain rocks composed of gypsum also contain caverns of the same sort -as those in the limestones. In Thuringia, for example, near Eisleben, -they occur in the saliferous and gypseous strata of the zechstein, -and are connected with large gulfs and cirques on the surface, which -are sometimes filled with water. In the neighbourhood of Paris, and -especially at Montmorency, they contain numerous bones of the extinct -mammalia. M. Desnoyers points out their identity, in all essentials, -with those in calcareous strata, and infers that they have been -produced in the same way. Some of them may have been formed by the -removal of the salt, which is very frequently interbedded with the -gypsum, by the passage of water. In Cheshire the pumping of the brine -from the saliferous and gypseous strata produces subterranean hollows, -which sometimes fall in and eventually cause depressions on the -surface, such as those which are now destroying the town of Northwich, -and causing the neighbouring tidal estuary to extend over what was -formerly meadow land. This explanation, however, will not apply to -those in the neighbourhood of Paris, because there is no trace of their -ever having contained salt. - - -_The Relation of Caves to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines._ - -The caverns hollowed in calcareous rocks present features by which they -are distinguished from any others. They open, for the most part, on the -abrupt sides of valleys and ravines at various levels, being arranged -round the main axis of erosion just as branches are arranged round -the trunk of a tree--as, for example, in Cheddar Pass. The transition -in some cases from the valley to the ravine, and from the ravine to -the cave, is so gradual, that it is impossible to deny that all three -are due to the same cause. The caves themselves ramify in the same -irregular fashion as the valleys, and are to be viewed merely as the -capillaries in the general valley system, through which the rainfall -passes to join the main channels. Very frequently, however, the -drainage has found an outlet at a lower level, and its ancient passage -is left dry; but in all cases unmistakeable proof of the erosive action -of water is to be seen in the sand, gravel, and clay which compose the -floor, as well as in the worn surfaces of the sides and the bottom. - -In all districts in which caves occur are funnel-shaped cavities of -various sizes, known as “pot-holes” or “swallow-holes” in Britain, as -“betoires,” “chaldrons du diable,” “marmites de géants,” in France, -and as “kata-vothra” in Greece, in which the rainfall is collected -before it finally disappears in the subterranean passages. They are to -be seen in all stages; sometimes being mere shallow funnels, that only -contain water after excessive rain, and at others as profound vertical -shafts, into which the water is continually falling, as in Helln Pot, -in Yorkshire. The cirques, also, described by M. Desnoyers, belong to -the same class of cavities, although all those which are mentioned by -the Rev. T. G. Bonney,[24] at the head of valleys, and in some cases -hollowed in shale and igneous rocks, are most probably to be referred -to the vertical, chisel-like action of streams flowing under physical -conditions, that resemble those under which the cañons of the Colorado, -or of the Zambesi, are being excavated, and in which frost, ice, and -snow have played a very subordinate part. - -The intimate relation between pot-holes, caves, ravines, and valleys -will be discussed in the rest of this chapter, and illustrated by -English examples; and then we shall proceed to show that the chemical -action of the carbonic acid in the rain-water, and the mechanical -friction of the sand and gravel, set in motion by the water, by which -Professor Phillips explains the origin of caves, will equally explain -the pot-holes and ravines by which they are invariably accompanied. - - -_The Water-Cave of Wookey Hole, near Wells, Somerset._ - -Caves may be divided into two classes: those which are now mere -passages for water, in which the history of their formation may be -studied, and those which are dry, and capable of affording shelter -to man and the lower animals. Among the water-caves, that of Wookey -Hole[25] is to be noticed first, since its very name implies that it -was known to the Celtic inhabitants of the south of England, and since -it was among the first, if not the first, of those examined with any -care in this country, Mr. John Beaumont[26] having brought it before -the notice of the Royal Society in the year 1680. - -The hamlet of Wookey Hole nestles in a valley, through which flows the -river Axe, and the valley passes insensibly, at its upper end, into a -ravine, which is closed abruptly by a wall of rock (Fig. 1), about two -hundred feet high, covered with long streamers and festoons of ivy, and -affording scanty hold, on its ledges and in its fissures, to ferns, -brambles, and ash saplings. At its base the river Axe issues, in full -current, out of the cave, the lower entrance of which it completely -blocks up, since the water has been kept back by a weir, for the use -of a paper-mill a little distance away. A narrow path through the -wood, on the north side of the ravine, leads to the only entrance -now open.[27] Thence a narrow passage leads downward into the rock, -until, suddenly, you find yourself in a large chamber, at the water -level. Then you pass over a ridge, covered with a delicate fretwork -of dripstone, with each tiny hollow full of water, and ornamented -with brilliant lime crystals. One shapeless mass of dripstone is -known in local tradition as the Witch of Wookey, turned into stone by -the prayers of a Glastonbury monk. Beyond this the chamber expands -considerably, being some seventy or eighty feet high, and adorned with -beautiful stalactites, far out of the reach of visitors. The water, -which bars further entrance, forms a deep pool, which Mr. James Parker -managed to cross on a raft (see Appendix I.) into another chamber, -which was apparently easy of access before the construction of the -weir. It was in this further chamber that Dr. Buckland found human -remains and pottery. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of Wookey Hole Cave and Ravine.] - -The cave has been proved to extend as far as the village of Priddy, -about two miles off, on the Mendip hills, by the fact observed by Mr. -Beaumont, that the water used in washing the lead ore at that spot, in -his time, found its way into the river Axe, and poisoned cattle in -the valley of Wookey. And this observation has been verified during -the last few years by throwing in colour and chopped straw. The stream -at Priddy sinks into a swallow-hole (Fig. 1), and has its subterranean -course determined by the southerly dip of the rock, by which the -joints running north and south afford a more free passage to the water -than those running east and west. The cave is merely a subterranean -extension of the ravine in the same line, as far as the swallow-hole, -and all three have been hollowed, as we shall see presently, by the -action of the stream and of carbonic acid in the water. - - -_The Goatchurch Cave._ - -The largest cavern in the Mendip hills is that locally known as the -Goatchurch, which opens on the eastern side of the lower of the two -ravines that branch from the magnificent defile of Burrington Combe, -about two miles from the village of Wrington, at the height of about -120 feet from the bottom of the ravine. After creeping along a narrow, -muddy passage, with a steep descent to the west, at an angle of about -30°, you suddenly pass into a stalactitic chamber of considerable -height and size. From it two small vertical shafts lead into the -lower set of chambers and passages; the first being blocked up, and -the second being close to a large barrel-shaped stalagmite, to which -Mr. Ayshford Sanford, Mr. James Parker, and myself fastened our ropes -when we explored the cave in 1864. The latter affords access into a -passage, beautifully arched, and passing horizontally east and west, -and just large enough to admit a man walking upright. At the further -end numerous open fissures, caused by the erosion of the joints in the -limestone, cross it at right angles, and pass into several ill-defined -chambers, partially stalactitic, but for the most part filled with -loose, bare, cubical masses of limestone. Two of the transverse -fissures lead into a large chamber, at a lower level. At its lower end, -on crawling along a narrow passage, we came into a second chamber, -also of considerable height and depth, at the bottom of which the -noise of flowing water can be heard through two vertical holes, just -large enough to admit of access. On sliding down one of these we found -ourselves in a third chamber, which was traversed by a subterranean -stream, doubtless in part the same which disappears in the ravine, at a -point eighty feet above by aneroid measurement. The temperature of the -water, as compared with that of the stream outside (49° : 59°), renders -it very probable that, between the point of disappearance in the ravine -and reappearance in the cave, it is joined by a stream of considerable -subterranean length, since the water could not have lost ten degrees -in the short interval which it had to traverse, were it supplied only -from the stream in the ravine. From the point of its disappearance in -the cave, the water passes downwards to join the main current flowing -underneath Burrington Combe, that gushes forth in great volume at -Rickford. The lowest portion of the cave was eighteen or twenty feet -below the stream, and 220 feet below the entrance of the cavern. - -On examining the floors of the chambers and passages, we discovered -that they were composed of the same kind of sediment as that which is -now being deposited by the water in Wookey Hole, and there could be -no doubt but that they had been originally traversed by water. For -this to have taken place it is necessary to suppose that, while the -Goatchurch was a water cave, the ravine on which it opens was not -deeper than the entrance--in other words, that in the interval between -the formation and excavation of the chambers and passages, to the -present time, the ravine has been excavated in the limestone to a depth -of a hundred and twenty feet, and the water which originally passed -through the entrance has found its way, by a new series of passages, to -the point where it appears at the bottom of the cave. - -We obtained evidence that the horizontal passage, immediately below the -first vertical descent, had been inhabited at a very remote period. At -the spot where Mr. Beard, of Banwell, obtained a fine tusk of mammoth, -we found a molar of bear, and a fragment of flint, which were imbedded -in red earth, and were underneath a crust of stalagmite of about two -inches in thickness. It would follow from this, that the date of the -formation of this part of the cave was before the time when the traces -of elephants, bears, and of man were introduced. - -The cave is the resort of numerous badgers. On hiding ourselves in -one of the transverse fissures, and throwing our light across the -horizontal passage, these animals ran to and fro across the lighted -field with extraordinary swiftness, and had it not been for the white -streaks on the sides of their heads, which flashed back the light, they -would not have been observed. Though they are rarely caught, they must -be abundant in the district. - -Like all the other large caverns in the district, it has its legends. -The dwellers in the neighbourhood, who have never cared to explore its -recesses, relate that a certain dog put in here found its way out, -after many days, at Wookey Hole, having lost all its hair in scrambling -through the narrow passages. At Cheddar the same legend is appropriated -to the Cheddar cave. At Wookey the dog is said to have travelled back -to Cheddar. Some eighteen years ago, while exploring the limestone -caves at Llanamynech, on the English border of Montgomeryshire, I -met with a similar story. A man playing the bagpipes is said to have -entered one of the caves, well provisioned with Welsh mutton, and after -he had been in for some time his bagpipes were heard two miles from the -entrance, underneath the small town of Llanamynech. He never returned -to tell his tale. The few bones found in the cave are supposed to be -those which he had picked on the way. This is doubtless another form of -the story of the dog; both owe their origin to the vague impression, -which most people have, of the great extent of caverns, and both -versions are equally current in France and Germany. - - -_The Water-caves of Derbyshire._ - -The celebrated cavern of the Peak, at Castleton in Derbyshire, presents -the same essential character as that of Wookey Hole. It runs into the -hill-side at the end of the ravine, and is traversed by a powerful -stream of water, which has been met with in driving an horizontal -adit in lead-mining at a considerable distance from the entrance, and -finally traced to a distant swallow-hole. At a little distance from -Buxton a smaller cave, known as Poole’s Cavern, is in part traversed -by water, which has found an outlet at a lower level, and allowed of -the present entrance being used by the Brit-Welsh (Romano-Celtic) -inhabitants of the district as a habitation in the fifth and sixth -centuries.[28] There are, besides these, very many others, some known, -others unknown, that debouch on the sides of the dales in Derbyshire -and Staffordshire, and are all well worthy of examination, since they -illustrate not merely the history of the formation of caves, but also -have been proved to contain works of art, pottery and flint implements, -and the remains of animals, such as the mammoth and rhinoceros. - - -_The Water-caves of Yorkshire._ - -The caves in the mountain limestone of Yorkshire rival in size those -of Carniola, or those of Greece, and they are to be seen in all stages -of formation. In their gloomy recesses all the higher qualities of a -mountaineer may be exercised, and there is sufficient danger to give a -keen zest to their exploration. The mountain streams sometimes plunge -into a yawning chasm, locally known as a pot, and at others emerge from -the dark portals of a cave in full current. There is, perhaps, no place -in the world where the subterranean circulation of water may be studied -with better advantage. - -Ingleborough forms a centre from which the rainfall on every side -finds its way into the dales, through a system of caves more or less -complicated, which during the last forty years have been thoroughly -explored by Mr. Farrer, Mr. Birkbeck, and Mr. Metcalfe. On the south -it collects in a ravine, and then leaps into a deep bottle-shaped hole -called “Gaping Gill,” into which Mr. Birkbeck unsuccessfully attempted -to descend, the sharp edges of the rock cutting the rope, and very -nearly causing a serious accident. In depth it is about three hundred -feet. The stream thence finds its way through a series of chambers and -passages until it reappears in the famous Ingleborough cave, that was -explored by Mr. Farrer in the year 1837, and proved to pass into the -rock between seven and eight hundred yards. - -The present entrance of the Ingleborough cave[29] is dry, except after -heavy rains, when the current reverts to its old passage. The following -admirable account of the interior is given by Professor Phillips:--[30] - -“From Mr. Farrer’s plan and description, as given in the ‘Proceedings -of the Geological Society,’ June 14, 1848, and from information -obligingly communicated to me, a clear notion of the history of this -most instructive spar grotto may be formed. For about eighty yards -from the entrance the cave has been known immemorially. At this point -Josiah Harrison, a gardener in Mr. Farrer’s service, broke through a -stalagmitical barrier which the water had formed, and obtained access -to a series of expanded cavities and contracted passages, stretching -first to the N., then to the N.W.; afterwards to the N. and N.E., and -finally to the E., till after two years spent in the interesting toil -of discovery, at a distance of 702 yards from the mouth, the explorers -rested from their labours in a large and lofty irregular grotto, in -which they heard the sound of water falling in a still more advanced -subterranean recess. It has been ascertained, at no inconsiderable -personal risk, that this water falls into a deep pool or linn at a -lower level, beyond which further progress appears to be impracticable. -In fact Mr. Farrer explored this dark lake by swimming--a candle in his -cap and a rope round his body. - -“In this long and winding gallery, fashioned by nature in the -marble heart of the mountain, floor, roof, and sides are everywhere -intersected by fissures which were formed in the consolidation of the -stone. To these fissures and the water which has passed down them, we -owe the formation of the cave and its rich furniture of stalactites. -The direction of the most marked fissures is almost invariably N.W. -and S.E., and when certain of these (which in my geological work I -have called master fissures) occur, the roof of the cave is usually -more elevated, the sides spread out right and left, and often ribs and -pendants of brilliant stalactite, placed at regular distances, convert -the rude fissure into a beautiful aisle of primæval architecture. Below -most of the smaller fissures hang multitudes of delicate translucent -tubules, each giving passage to drops of water. Splitting the rock -above, these fissures admit, or formerly admitted, dropping water: -continued through the floor, the larger rifts permit, or formerly -permitted, water to enter or flow out of the cave. By this passage of -water, continued for ages on ages, the original fissure was in the -first instance enlarged, through the corrosive action of streams of -acidulated water; by the withdrawal of the streams to other fissures, -a different process was called into operation. The fissure was bathed -by drops instead of streams of water, and these drops, exposed to air -currents and evaporation, yielded up the free carbonic acid to the -air and the salt of lime to the rock. Every line of drip became the -axis of a stalactitical pipe from the roof; every surface bathed by -thin films of liquid became a sheet of sparry deposit. The floor grew -up under the droppings into fantastic heaps of stalagmite, which, -sometimes reaching the pipes, united roof and floor by pillars of -exquisite beauty.” - -At the time of its exploration, the water stood at a considerably -higher level inside than at the present time, and formed deep pools. -The barrier of dripstone has been cut through, and the water level -lowered, and a passage made for a considerable distance. Inside, the -old water line, which separated the subaërial from the subaqueous -dripstone, is very distinct, the former being deposited in thick -bosses, crumpled curtains, drops, straws, pyramids, and other fantastic -drip-structures, while the latter is honeycombed, and composed of -rounded, grape-like masses. Between them an ice-like coating of -stalagmite forms a dividing line, now supported in mid air, but that -formerly shot across the surface of the pools that have been drained, -or rested on the mud and stones which had been brought down by the -stream in ancient times. In some places it still rests on the surface -of the pools. - -A stalactitic curtain on the right-hand side presents a very singular -appearance, its surface being covered with an abundant crop of tiny -club-like bodies about one-tenth of an inch in length, and consisting -each of a shining drop of water, enclosing a minute fungus. These may -possibly explain in some degree the peculiar fungoid-appearance of -certain small bosses of dripstone which I have met with in the caves -of Pembrokeshire: for an accumulation of carbonate of lime on such a -nucleus would produce the forms which they assume (see Fig. 17). - -There are also magnificent groups of dripstone, and each joint in the -rock is adorned with lines, and pipes, and fringes of calc spar, or -widened out into roof-shaped hollows, and traversed by deep, vertical -grooves, caused by the passage of water laden with carbonic acid. -The general surface of the roof, where the rock is bare, has had its -fossils etched out by the acidulated water. In one place you may stand -under a branching coral, with its sides and base distinctly marked, and -in another fossil shells stand out almost in their original beauty. - - -_Rate of the Accumulation of Stalagmite._ - -The rate at which the calcareous matter is being deposited at the -present time is very easy to be estimated, for that accumulated since -the passage was cleared out is white, and contrasts with the dirty, -grey-red colour of the older kind. In one case a thickness of 0·24 -had been formed in thirty-five years, by the water flowing down the -side of the passage excavated by Mr. Farrer, while in another, in -about the same time, 0·05 inch had been formed. This would give an -annual accumulation of 0·0068 in the one case, and in the other about -one-fifth of that amount. This rate does not agree with the rate of -increase noted by Mr. Farrer and Professor Phillips in the case of a -large stalagmite called the Jockey Cap, on which a line of drops is -continually falling from one point in the roof. Its circumference in -1839 measured 118 inches, in 1845, 120 inches, and in 1873, I found -it to be 128 inches. The annual rate of increase from 1845 to 1873 is -·2941 inch, and that from 1839 to 1845 is ·2857. I found, however, -that the most remarkable increase was that in height. In 1845 its -apex was 95·25 inches from the roof, in 1873, 87 inches, which would -imply an annual deposit of not less than ·2946. (See Appendix II.) -At this rate it will arrive at the roof in about 295 years. But even -this comparatively short lapse of time will probably be diminished by -the growth of a pendant stalactite above, that is now being formed in -place of that which measured 10 inches in 1845, and has since been -accidentally destroyed. - -It is very possible that the Jockey Cap may be the result, not of the -continuous, but of the intermittent drip of water containing carbonate -of lime, and that therefore the present rate of growth is not a measure -of its past or future condition. Its age in 1845 was estimated by -Professor Phillips at 259 years, on the supposition that all or nearly -all of the carbonate of lime in each pint was deposited. If, however, -it grew at its present rate, it may be not more than 100 years old; and -if it be taken as a measure of the rate generally, all the stalagmites -and stalactites in the cave may not date further back than the time of -Edward III. - -It is evident, from this instance of rapid accumulation, that the value -of a layer of stalagmite in measuring the antiquity of deposits below -it, is comparatively little. The layers, for instance, in Kent’s Hole, -which are generally believed to have demanded a considerable lapse of -time, may possibly have been formed at the rate of a quarter of an inch -per annum, and the human bones which lie buried under the stalagmite -in the cave of Bruniquel, are not for that reason to be taken to be -of vast antiquity. It may be fairly concluded, that the thickness of -layers of stalagmite cannot be used as an argument in support of the -remote age of the strata below. At the rate of a quarter of an inch -per annum, twenty feet of stalagmite might be formed in 1,000 years. - - -_The Descent into Helln Pot._ - -The subterranean passages grouped round Helln Pot, a tremendous chasm -near Selside, on the east of Simon’s Fell in Ribblesdale, illustrate -in a remarkable degree the mode in which the water is at present -wearing away the rock. Those which have been explored constitute the -Long Churn Cavern, which is comparatively easy of access through a -hole known as Diccan Pot (Fig. 2, _a_). On descending into it, the -visitor finds himself in the bed of a stream that now roars in a -waterfall, now gurgles over the large fallen blocks from the roof, and -that here and there has worn for itself deep pools by the mechanical -friction of the sand and pebbles brought down by the current. If it be -followed down after passing over a waterfall, the light of day is seen -streaming upwards beneath the feet from the point where the water leaps -into the great chasm of Helln Pot (Figs. 2, _b_. 3, _a_). Above the -entrance there is a complicated network of passages, some dry, and some -containing streams which have not yet been fully explored. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of Helln Pot and the Long Churn -Cavern.] - -The two actions by which caves are hewn out of the calcareous rock are -seen here in operation side by side. Below the level of the stream -the rock is seen to be smoothed and polished by the mechanical action -of the materials swept down by the current. Above the water-level the -sides of the cave are honeycombed and eaten into the most fantastic and -complex shapes, the resultant surface (see Fig. 7) bearing small points -and keen knife-edges of stone, that stand out in relief and mark the -less soluble portions of the rock. This is due to the chemical effect -of the carbonic acid in the water percolating through the strata. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of Helln Pot.] - -The Helln Pot, into which the stream flowing through the Long Churn -Cave falls, is a fissure (Figs. 2, 3, 4) a hundred feet long by thirty -feet wide, that engulfs the waters of a little stream on the surface, -which are dissipated in spray long before they reach the bottom. -From the top you look down on a series of ledges, green with ferns -and mosses, and, about a hundred feet from the surface, an enormous -fragment of rock forms a natural bridge across the chasm from one ledge -to another. A little above this is the debouchement of the stream -flowing through the Long Churn Cave (Fig. 3, _a_), through which Mr. -Birkbeck and Mr. Metcalfe made the first perilous descent in 1847. The -party, consisting of ten persons, ventured into this awful chasm with -no other apparatus than ropes, planks, a turn-tree, and a fire-escape -belt. On emerging from the Long Churn Cave they stood on a ledge of -rock about twelve feet wide, and which gave them free access to the -“bridge” (Fig. 2, _b_). This was a rock ten feet long, which rested -obliquely on the ledges. Having crossed over this, they crept behind -the waterfall which descended from the top, and fixed their pulley, -five being let down while the rest of the party remained behind to -hoist them up again. In this way they reached the bottom of the pot, -which before had never been trod by the foot of man. Thence they -followed the stream downwards as far as the first great waterfall, down -which Mr. Metcalfe was venturesome enough to let himself with a rope, -and to push onwards until daylight failed. He was within a very little -of arriving at the end of the cave into which the stream flows, but -was obliged to turn back to the daylight without having accomplished -his purpose. The whole party eventually, after considerable danger and -trouble, returned safely from this most bold adventure. - -A second descent was made in 1848 from the surface, and a third in -the spring of 1870, in both of which Mr. Birkbeck took the lead. The -apparatus employed consisted of a windlass (Fig. 3), supported on two -baulks of timber, and a bucket, covered with a shield, sufficiently -large to hold two people, and two guiding ropes to prevent the -revolution of the bucket in mid air. There was also a party of navvies -to look after the mechanical contrivances, and two ladders about eight -feet long to provide for contingencies at the bottom. Thirteen of -us went down, including three ladies. As we descended, the fissure -gradually narrowed, until at the bottom it was not more than ten feet -wide. The actual vertical descent was a hundred and ninety-eight feet. -After running the gauntlet of the waterfall we landed in the bed of -the stream, which hurried downwards over large boulders of limestone -and lost itself in the darkness of a large cave, about seventy feet -high. We traced it downwards, through pools and rapids to the first -waterfall, of about twenty feet. This obstacle prevented most of the -party going further, for the ladders were too short to reach to the -bottom. By lashing them together, however, and letting them down, we -were able to reach the first round with the aid of a rope, and to -cross over the deep pool at the bottom. Thence we went on downwards -through smaller waterfalls and rapids, until we arrived at a descent -into a chamber, where the roar of water was deafening. Down to this -point the daylight glimmered feebly, but here our torches made but -little impression on the darkness. One of the party volunteered to go -down with a rope, and was suddenly immersed in a deep pool; the rest, -profiting by his misadventure, managed to cling on to small points of -rock, and eventually to reach the floor of the chamber. We stood at -last on the lowest accessible point of the cave, about 300 feet from -the surface. It was indeed one of the most remarkable sights that -could possibly be imagined. Besides the waterfall down which we came, -a powerful stream poured out of a cave too high up for the torches to -penetrate the darkness, and fell into a deep pool in the middle of the -floor, causing such a powerful current of air that all our torches were -blown out except one. The two streams eventually united and disappeared -in a small black circling pool, which completely barred further ingress. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of Helln Pot, showing Waterfall at the -Bottom.] - -The floor of the pot and the cave was strewn with masses of limestone -rounded by the action of the streams; and the water-channels were -smoothed and grooved and polished, in a most extraordinary way, by the -silt and stones carried along by the current. Some of the layers of -limestone were jet black, and others were of a light fawn-colour, and -as the strata were nearly horizontal, the alternation of colours gave -a peculiarly striking effect to the walls. Beneath each waterfall was -a pool more or less deep, and here and there in the bed of the stream -were holes, drilled in the rock by stones whirled round by the force -of the water. High up, out of the present reach of the water, were old -channels, which had evidently been watercourses before the pot and -cave had been cut down to their present level. In the sides of the pot -there are two vertical grooves reaching very nearly from the top to the -bottom, which are unmistakeably the work of ancient waterfalls. There -was no stalactite, but everywhere the water was wearing away the rock -and enlarging the cave. We found our way back without any difficulty, -a small passage on the right-hand side enabling us to avoid the very -unpleasant task of scrambling up two of the waterfalls. We arrived -finally at the top, after about five hours’ work in the cave, wet to -the skin. - -We had very little trouble in making this descent, because of the -completeness of Mr. Birkbeck’s preparations; but we could fully realize -what a dangerous feat the first explorers performed when they ventured -into an unknown chasm, comparatively unprepared. The very name “Helln -Pot,” = Ællan Pot, or Mouth of Hell, testifies to the awe with which -the Angles looked down into its recesses.[31] - -Such is the interior of one of those great natural laboratories in -which water is wearing away the solid rock, either hollowing it into -caves or cutting it into ravines. At the bottom of Helln Pot it was -impossible not to realize, that the enormous chasm had been formed by -the same action as that by which it was being deepened before our eyes. -It was merely a portion of the vast cave into which it led, which had -been deprived of its roof, and opened out to the light of heaven. The -bridge was but a fragment of the roof which happened to fall upon the -two ledges. The rounded masses of rock at the bottom are fragments that -have fallen probably within comparatively modern times. The absence of -stalactites and of stalagmites proves that the destructive action is -rapidly going on. - -The water-course at the bottom contained pebbles and boulders of -limestone, and gritstone rounded by friction against one another and -the rocky floor. The gritstone has probably been derived from the wreck -of the boulder clay on the surface above the Helln Pot, and ultimately -torn from the millstone grit of the higher hills in the district. - - -_Caves and Pots at Weathercote._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Waterfall in Pot-hole at Weathercote.] - -On the north side of Ingleborough the series of caves and pots round -the little Church of Chapel-en-le-Dale are especially worthy of -attention. The chasm at Weathercote opens suddenly in the hill-side, -and is perfectly accessible to visitors. You come suddenly upon a cleft -a hundred feet deep, with its ledges covered with mosses, ferns, and -brambles; at one end a body of water rushes from a cave, and under a -great bridge of rock, and falls seventy-five feet, a mass of snow-white -foam filling the bottom with spray (Fig. 5). The large masses of -rock piled in wild confusion at the bottom, the dark shadows of the -overhanging ledges, and the thick covering of green moss, to which the -spray clings in tiny glittering drops, form a picture which cannot -easily be forgotten. In the sunshine an almost circular rainbow is -to be seen from the bottom. The stream passes from the bottom into -a cave, and thence downwards to two large pots (Fig. 6), about two -hundred yards away. In flood-time the channel has been known to become -blocked up, and Weathercote has been filled to the brim. Usually after -heavy rains the current is said to flow so violently into the first of -the pot-holes, that it throws up stones at least thirty or forty feet -from the bottom, with a peculiar rattling noise. From this strange -phenomenon it is known as Jingle Pot, while the lower of the two is -termed Hurtle Pot, because in flood-time the water whirls so fast -round, that it is “hurtled” out at the top. The water flowing through -Weathercote is derived from the little stream of Ellerbeck, which -disappears in the limestone hills about a mile to the north, and runs -at right angles to Dalebeck, or the stream flowing down to Ingleton, -which it has been proved to join at a spot below Jingle Pot, by Mr. -Metcalfe, who made his way down into it from the chasm of Weathercote. - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Diagram of Subterranean Course of Dalebeck.] - -The course of Dalebeck, as you pass up the valley of Chapel-en-le-Dale, -affords a striking instance of the dependence of scenery upon the -nature of the rock. In its lower portion it has cut out for itself -a deep ravine in the hard Silurian strata, in which you come upon -the waterfalls, deep pools, and trees, that look as if they had been -transported bodily from the district of Cader Idris, and inserted into -the limestone scenery of the dales. The Silurian rocks are very much -contorted, and on their waterworn edges lie the nearly horizontal -limestone strata, in which the upper part of the valley has been -scooped. As we rise the ravine opens into a valley (Fig. 6), along -which the beck flows, until suddenly it is lost in a fissure, at a -place called Godsbridge. Its subterranean course is marked, first of -all, by a small depression known as Sandpot, and still higher by Hurtle -Pot. It ultimately reappears at the surface, above Weathercote, and -after passing through a picturesque cavern, known as the Gatekirk, its -fountainhead is reached. The subterranean portions of its course are -in the same right line as the open valley, and the pot-holes have been -formed in the same manner as Helln Pot, by the passage of water at a -time when the drainage found its way down the valley at a higher level -than at present, very much as it does now in times of extraordinary -floods. - -Water-caves such as these are by no means uncommon in Yorkshire. In the -dales there is scarcely a mass of limestone without its subterranean -water system, as well as channels deserted by water, which are now -dry caves situated at higher levels. These are always arranged on the -line of the natural drainage, and generally open on the sides of the -valleys and precipices. If you look northward from the flat crown of -Ingleborough, you can see the ravines which radiate from it on the -surface of the shale below, abruptly ending in pot-holes when they -reach the limestone. In each case the streams reappear, issuing out of -the caves at the points in Chapel-en-le-Dale, where the horizontal beds -of limestone rest on the upturned edges of the impermeable Silurian -rocks. - - -_The Formation of Caves and their Relation to Pot-holes and Ravines._ - -The general conditions under which caves occur in limestone rocks, -and the phenomena which they present, may be gathered from the above -examples. Universally the pot-holes, ravines, and caverns are so -associated together, that there can be but little doubt that they are -due to the operation of the same causes. - -It requires but a cursory glance to see at once that running water -was the main agent. The limestone is so traversed by joints and lines -of shrinkage, that the water rapidly sinks down into its mass, and -collects in small streams, which owe their direction to the dip of -the strata and the position of the fissures. These channels are being -continually deepened and widened by the mere mechanical action of the -passage of stones and silt. But this is not the only way in which the -rock is gradually eroded. The limestone is composed in great part of -pure carbonate of lime, which is insoluble in water. It is, however, -readily dissolved in any liquid containing carbonic acid, which is -an essential part of our atmosphere, is invariably present in the -rain-water, and is given off by all organic bodies. By this invisible -agent the hard crystalline rock is always being attacked in some form -or another. The very snails that take refuge in its crannies leave an -enduring mark of their presence in a surface fretted with their acid -exhalations, which sometimes pass current among geologists for the -borings of pholades, and are the innocent cause of much speculation as -to the depression of the mountain-tops beneath the sea in comparatively -modern times. The carbonic acid taken up by the rain is derived, in the -main, from the decomposing vegetable matter which generally forms the -surface soil on the limestone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Diagram of an acid-worn joint, Doveholes, -Derbyshire.] - -The view from the ancient camp on the top of Ingleborough offers a -striking example of the effect of rain-water in eroding the surface of -the limestone. As you look down over the dark crags of millstone grit, -great, grey, pavement-like masses of limestone strike the eye, standing -above the heather, perfectly bare, and in the distance resembling -clearings, and in rainy weather sheets of snow. On approaching them -the surface of erosion becomes more and more apparent, and the shapes -due to the mere accident of varying hardness in the rock, or the -varying quantity of water passing over it, present a most astonishing -variety. There are, however, general principles underlying the -confusion. The lines of joints in the strata being lines of weakness, -searched out by the acid-laden water, have been widened into chasms, -sometimes of considerable depth; and as they cross at right angles, -the whole surface is formed of rectangular masses, each insulated -from its fellow, and some of them detached from the strata beneath so -as to form rocking-stones. The mode in which the acid has attacked -one of these joints in the limestone of Doveholes in Derbyshire is -represented in Figure 7, the surface being honeycombed and worn into -sharp points, solely by chemical action. The minute fossil-shells -also, and fragments of crinoid standing out in bold relief, lead to -the same conclusion--that the denuding agent is chemical and not -mechanical. Each of the upper surfaces of the blocks is traversed by -small depressions, which are valley systems in miniature, in which the -tiny valleys converge into a main trunk leading into the nearest chasm. -There are also tiny caves and hollows, that are sometimes mistaken for -borings made by pholas. In the chasms the vegetation is most luxuriant, -and the dark green fronds of harts-tongue, the delicate Lady-fern, and -the graceful _Asplenium nigrum_, grow with a rare luxuriance. - -In these pavements every feature of limestone scenery is represented on -a minute scale. There are the valley systems on the surface, determined -by the direction of the drainage; the long chasms represent the open -valleys and ravines, and the caves and hollows, for the most part, run -in the line of the joints. - -The carbonic acid has left precisely the same kind of proof of its work -within the caves as we find above-ground; and it would necessarily -follow, that to it, as well as to the mechanical power of the waters -flowing through them, their formation and enlargement must be due, as -Professor Phillips has pointed out in his “Rivers, Mountains, and Sea -Coast of Yorkshire,” pp. 30-1. - -From the preceding pages it will be seen that caves in calcareous -rocks are merely passages hollowed out by water, which has sought out -the lines of weakness, or the joints formed by the shrinkage of the -strata during their consolidation. The work of the carbonic acid is -proved, not merely by the acid-worn surfaces of the interior of the -caves, but also by the large quantity of carbonate of lime which is -carried away by the water in solution. That, on the other hand, of the -mechanical friction of the stones and sand against the sides and bottom -of the water-courses, is sufficiently demonstrated by their grooved, -scratched, and polished surfaces, and by the sand, silt, and gravel -carried along by the currents. The generally received hypothesis, that -they have been the result of a subterranean convulsion, is disproved by -the floor and roof being formed, in very nearly every case, of solid -rock; for it would be unreasonable to hold that any subterranean force -could act from below, in such a manner as to hollow out the complicated -and branching passages, at different levels, without affecting the -whole mass of the rock. Nor is there cause for holding the view put -forth by M. Desnoyers[32] or M. Dupont,[33] that they are the result -of the passage of hydrothermal waters. The causes at present at work, -operating through long periods of time, offer a reasonable explanation -of their existence in every limestone district; and those which are -no longer watercourses can generally be proved to have been formerly -traversed by running water, by the silt, sand, and rounded pebbles -which they contain. In their case, either the drainage of the district -has been changed by the upheaval or depression of the rock, or the -streams have searched out for themselves a passage at a lower level. - -But if caves have been thus excavated, it is obvious that ravines and -valleys in limestone districts are due to the operation of the same -causes. If, for instance, we refer to Figures 1 and 6, we shall see -that the open valley passes insensibly into a ravine, and that into -a cave. The ravine is merely a cave which has lost its roof, and the -valley is merely the result of the weathering of the sides of the -ravine. There can be no manner of doubt but that, in both these cases, -the ravine is gradually encroaching on the cave, and the valley on -the ravine; and if the strata be exposed to atmospheric agencies long -enough, the valley of the Axe will extend as far as Priddy (Fig. 1), -and that of Dalebeck to the watershed above the Gatekirk cave (Fig. 6). - -In the same manner the lofty precipice of Malham Cove, near Settle, -in Yorkshire (Fig. 8), is slowly falling away and uncovering the -subterranean course of the Aire. Eventually the ravine thus formed will -extend as far as Malham Tarn, and the Aire flow exposed to the light of -day from its source to the sea.[34] - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Diagram of Source of the Aire at Malham.] - -This view is applicable to many if not to all ravines and valleys in -calcareous rocks, such as the Pass at Cheddar, or the gorge of the Avon -at Clifton, and those of Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Wales. And since -the agents by which the work is done are universal, and calcareous rock -for the most part of the same chemical composition, the results are the -same, and the calcareous scenery everywhere of the same type. In the -lapse of past time, so enormous as to be incapable of being grasped by -the human intellect, these agents are fully capable of producing the -deepest ravines, the widest valleys, and the largest caves. - -This view of the relation of caves to ravines was so strongly held by -M. Desnoyers, that he terms the latter “cavernes à ciel ouvert.” I -arrived independently at the same conclusion after the study of the -scenery of limestone for many years. - -In many cases, however, in northern latitudes and in high altitudes, -the ravine or valley so formed has been subsequently widened and -deepened by glacial action. That, for instance, of Chapel-en-le-Dale -bears unmistakeable evidence of the former flow of a glacier, in the -_roches moutonnées_ and travelled blocks that it contains. To this is -due the flowing contour and even slope of its lower portion. - -The pot-holes and “cirques” in calcareous rocks with no outlet at the -surface, may also be accounted for by the operation of the same causes -as those which have produced caves. Each represents the weak point -towards which the rainfall has converged, caused very generally by -the intersection of the joints. This has gradually been widened out, -because the upper portions of the rock would be the first to seize the -atoms of carbonic acid, and thus be dissolved more quickly than the -lower portions. Hence the funnel shape which they generally assume, and -which can be studied equally in the compact limestone or in the soft -upper chalk. They are to be seen on a small scale also in all limestone -“pavements.” Sometimes, however, the first chance which the upper -portions of the funnels have of being eroded by the acidulated water, -is more than counter-balanced by the increased quantity converging at -the bottom, and the funnel ends in a vertical shaft. If the area in the -rock thus excavated be sufficiently large to allow of the development -of a current of water, the mechanical action of the fragments swept -along its course will have an important share in the work, as we have -seen to be the case in Helln Pot. - - -_Caves not generally found in Line of Faults._ - -In some few cases the lines of weakness which have been worn into -caves, pot-holes, ravines, and valleys, may have been produced, as -M. Desnoyers believes, by subterranean movements of elevation and -depression; but in all those which I have investigated the faults do -not determine the direction of the caverns. The mountain limestone -of Castleton, in Derbyshire, offers an example of caves intersecting -faults without any definite relation being traceable between them. The -ramifications of the Peak cavern traverse the Speedwell Mine nearly -at right angles, and the water flowing through it has been traced, -Mr. Pennington informs me, to a swallow-hole near Chapel-en-le-Frith, -running across two, if not three faults, which are laid down in the -geological map. As a general rule caverns are as little affected by -disturbance of the rock as ravines and valleys which have been formed -in the main irrespective of the lines of fault. - -M. Desnoyers points out the close analogy between caverns and mineral -veins, and infers that both are due to the same causes. This, -undoubtedly, exists in that class of veins which are known to miners as -“pipe” and “flat veins;” and there is clear proof, in the majority of -cases, that the cavities in which the minerals occur have been formed -by the action of running water, and have subsequently been more or less -filled with their mineral contents; and these have been deposited on -the sides of the cavity by the same “incretionary[35]” action, as that -by which dripstone is now being formed in the present caves from the -solution of carbonate of lime. Such veins present every conceivable -form of irregularity, and frequently contain silt, sand, and gravel, -which have been left behind by their streams, and their history is -identical with that of the caverns. - -It is not so, however, with the second class of veins, the “rake,” -“right running,” and “cross courses,” as the miners term them, or -those which occupy lines of fault. The fissures which contain the ore -are proved very frequently, by their scratched and grooved sides, -and polished surfaces or slicken-sides, to have been the result of -subterranean movements by which the rock has been broken by mechanical -force. They have been subsequently modified, in various ways, by the -passage of water, and filled with minerals, in the same manner as -the preceding class. With this exception they present no analogy to -the caverns, with which they contrast strongly in their rectilinear -direction, as well as in their purely mechanical origin. - - -_The various Ages of Caves._ - -It is very probable that caves were formed in calcareous rocks from -the time that they were raised to the level of the sea, since they -abound in the Coral Islands. “Caverns,” writes Prof. Dana,[36] “are -still more remarkable on the Island of Atiu, on which the coral-reef -stands at about the same height above the sea as on Oahu. The Rev. -John Williams states--that there are seven or eight of large extent on -the Island of Tuto; one he entered by a descent of twenty feet, and -wandered a mile in one only of its branches, without finding an end to -‘its interminable windings.’ He says--‘Innumerable openings presented -themselves on all sides as we passed along, many of which appeared to -be equal in height, beauty, and extent to the one we were following. -The roof, a stratum of coral-rock fifteen feet thick, was supported by -massy and superb stalactitic columns, besides being thickly hung with -stalactites from an inch to many feet in length. Some of these pendants -were just ready to unite themselves to the floor, or to a stalagmitic -column rising from it. Many chambers were passed through whose -fret-work ceilings and columns of stalactites sparkled brilliantly, -amid the darkness, with the reflected light of our torches. The effect -was produced not so much by single objects, or groups of them, as by -the amplitude, the depth, and the complications of this subterranean -world.’” - -Calcareous rocks might, therefore, be expected to contain fissures and -caves of various ages. In the Mendip Hills they have been proved by -Mr. Charles Moore to contain fossils of Rhætic age, the characteristic -dog-fishes, _Acrodus minimus_, and _Hybodus reticulatus_, the elegant -sculptured Ganoid fish, _Gryrolepis tenuistriatus_, and the tiny -marsupials, Microlestes and its allies. This singular association of -terrestrial with marine creatures is due to the fact, that while that -area was being slowly depressed beneath the Rhætic and Liassic seas, -the remains were mingled together on the coast-line, and washed into -the crevices and holes in the rock. - -The older caves and fissures have very generally been blocked up by -accumulations of calc-spar or other minerals, and they are arranged on -a plan altogether independent of the existing systems of drainage. - -It is a singular fact that no fissures or caves should, with the -above exception, contain the remains of animals of a date before the -Pleistocene age. There can be but little doubt that they were used -as places of shelter in all ages, and they must have entombed the -remains of the animals that fell into them, or were swept into them by -the streams. Caves there must have been long before, and the Eocene -Palæotheres, and Anoplotheres met their death in the open pit-falls, -just as the sheep and cattle do at the present time. The Hyænodon -of the Meiocene had, probably, the same cave-haunting tastes as his -descendant, the living Hyæna, and the marsupials of the Mesozoic age -might be expected to be preserved in caves, like the fossil marsupials -of Australia. The chances of preservation of the remains when once -cemented into a fine breccia, or sealed down with a crystalline -covering of stalagmite, are very nearly the same as those under -which the Pleistocene animals have been handed down to us. The only -reasonable explanation of the non-discovery of such remains seems to -be, that the ancient suites of caves and fissures containing them, -and for the most part near the then surface of the rock, have been -completely swept away by denudation, while the present caverns were -either then not excavated or inaccessible. - -Such an hypothesis will explain the fact that the no ossiferous caverns -are older than the Pleistocene age, not merely in Europe, but in North -and South America, Australia, and New Zealand. The effect of denudation -in rendering the geological record imperfect, may be gathered from -the estimate, which Mr. Prestwich has formed, of the amount of rock -removed from the crests of the Mendips and the Ardennes, which is in -the one case a thickness “of two miles and more,” and in the other as -much as “three or four miles.”[37] Under these conditions we could not -expect to find a series of bone caves reaching far back into the remote -geological past, since the caves and their contents would inevitably be -destroyed. - - -_The Filling up of Caves._ - -We must now consider the condition under which caves become filled up -with various deposits. If the velocity of the stream in a water-cave -be lessened, the silt, sand, or pebbles it was hurrying along will -be dropped, and may ultimately block up the entire watercourse. In -bringing this to pass, however, the carbonate of lime in the water -plays a most important part. If the excess of carbonic acid by which it -is held in solution be lost by evaporation, it immediately reassumes -its crystalline form, and shoots over the surface of the pool like -plates of ice, or is deposited in loose botryoidal masses at their -sides and on their bottoms; and, since the atmospheric water very -generally percolates through the crannies in the rock, the sides and -roof of the channel, above the level of the water, are adorned with -a stony drapery of every conceivable shape. The rate at which this -accumulation takes place depends upon the free access of air necessary -for evaporation, and is therefore variable,--as in the case of the -Ingleborough cave. In all the caves which I have examined there is a -free current of air. If a water-channel becomes blocked up by either -or both these causes, the joints and fissures in the rock offer an -outlet to the drainage, more or less free, at a lower level, as in -the Ingleborough cave, Poole’s cave, near Buxton, and many others. -Sometimes, however, owing to the increased rain-fall, or to the -obstruction of the lower channels, the water re-excavates the old -passages, as we shall see to have been the case with the famous caverns -of Kent’s Hole and Brixham. In the summer of 1872, a sudden rain-fall -not merely opened out for itself a new passage into a swallow-hole -close to Gaping Gill, on the flanks of Ingleborough, but forced its way -out through the old entrance of the Ingleborough cave, breaking up the -calcareous breccia, and removing the large stones in its course. A cave -obviously may become dry, either by the drainage passing along a lower -level, or by the elevation of the district by subterranean energy. -After it has been forsaken by the stream, the particles brought down by -the atmospheric water percolating through the joints, tend to fill it -up on the surface, and these may be either of clay, loam, or sand. - -These actions may be studied in this country in the well-known caves of -Ingleborough, Buxton, Cheddar, Wookey Hole, and a great many others in -Derbyshire, Yorkshire, Staffordshire, Durham, Cumberland, and Wales. - - -_The Cave of Caldy._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--A View in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Stalagmites in the Fairy Chamber, Caldy.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--The Fairy Chamber, Caldy.] - -Among the most beautiful stalactite caverns in this country is that on -the island of Caldy, immediately opposite to Tenby in Pembrokeshire, -discovered some years ago in the limestone cliff, and explored by Mr. -Ayshford Sanford and the Rev. H. H. Winwood, in 1866, and subsequently -by the writer in 1871 and 1872. On creeping through a narrow entrance -with an outlook to the sea on a precipitous side of a quarry, a passage -leads to a chamber of considerable horizontal extent, the bottom being -covered with silt, on which stand pedestals of dripstone from an inch -to two feet in length, each rising from a thin calcareous crust which -does not altogether conceal the silt below. From it a low entrance -leads into a fairy-like chamber, the floor consisting of a rich red, -crystalline pavement, perfectly horizontal, and studded here and there -with round bosses (Figs. 9, 10, 11), either red or snow-white. From -the roof hang stalactites offering the same beautiful contrast of -colours, forming a delicate canopy of tassels, or passing downwards to -the floor and constituting slender shafts about three feet long, and -about the diameter of straws. Each of these is hollow, translucent, and -more or less traversed by water, and in some places each stood next -its fellow, almost as close as the straws in a cornfield. Sometimes -the shaft stands on a cone (Fig. 11) of dripstone, more or less raised -above the floor. Small pools of water occupy hollows in the pavement, -each lined with glittering crystals of calcite (Fig. 12), which are -slowly shooting over the surface, and converting some of the open -hollows into bottle-shaped cavities (Fig. 13). Their sides and bottoms -are covered with a crystalline growth of singular beauty, of which an -idea may be formed by woodcut 14, which represents the edge. Where the -drip happened to fall into a shallow pool, it gradually built up for -itself a cone, on the lower portion of which the varying water-level -is marked by horizontal rings of crystals (Fig. 15), and the normal -waterline by the upper horizontal plate. Sometimes these were united -to the roof by a slender straw-shaft. In Figure 11 the original shaft -has been broken away, and as the direction of the drip has slightly -shifted, a new one gradually descended, until finally it became -cemented to the side of the cone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Pools in Fairy Chamber.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Pool in Fairy Chamber.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Edge of Pool in Fairy Chamber.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Cone with Straw-column.] - -The history of these structures is very evident. The straw-like -stalactites were formed by the evaporation of the carbonic acid from -the surface of each drop of water, as it accumulated in one spot, and -the consequent deposit of carbonate of lime around its circumference. -It could not be formed in the centre, because of the continual movement -of the successive drops in falling. By a circumferential growth of -this kind a small crystal tube, of the diameter of a drop, is slowly -developed, which continues to lengthen until the result is one of the -straw-columns, with a hole in the centre for the passage of the water, -which cannot readily part with its carbonic acid till it arrives at the -end of the tube. Sometimes the hole has been subsequently blocked up -by calc-spar, or the general surface been covered over with successive -layers, until it becomes a mass of considerable diameter. If the drop -fell into a deep pool, the straw-column was continued down to the -water-line; if in shallow water, or on the floor, a pedestal was built -up, as is represented in the preceding figures. The crystallization -going on in the pools is greater at the surface than below, because -of the greater evaporation, and consequently the stalagmitic film is -gradually extending over it on every side from the edges (Figs. 12, 13). - -As I broke my way into some of the unexplored recesses, through the -thickly planted straw-shafts, and scene after scene of fairy beauty, -unsullied by man, opened upon my eyes, the ringing of the fragments on -the crystalline floor that accompanied almost every movement made me -feel an intruder, and sorry for the destruction. - -In some places, where the drip was continuous, and the calcareous basin -which it had built up for itself shallow, small spherical bodies of -calcite were so beautifully polished by friction in the agitated water, -that they deserve the name of cave-pearls from their lustre. In Fig. 16 -I have represented a tiny basin with its pearly contents. Where the -drip had ceased to be continuous each of these formed a nucleus for the -deposit of calcite crystals, by which they were united to the bottom of -the basin. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Basin containing Cave-pearls.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Fungoid Structures, magnified.] - -In the principal chamber in the cave, which is very nearly free from -drip, the upper surfaces of the stones and stalagmites on the floor are -covered with a peculiar fungoid-like deposit of calcite, consisting -of rounded bosses, attached to the general surface by a pedicle (see -Figs. 17, 18) sometimes not much thicker than a hair. They stood -close together at various levels, following the inequalities of the -surface of attachment, and being on an average about 0·2 inch long. -Several microscopical sections (Fig. 17) showed that each was formed -originally on a slight elevation of the general surface, which would -cause a greater evaporation of water than the surrounding portions, -and therefore be covered with a greater deposit of calcite. This -process would go on until the height was reached to which the water -slowly passing over the general surface would no longer rise. Hence -the remarkable uniformity of the height of the bosses. The evaporation -is greater at the point furthest removed from the general surface, and -therefore the apex is larger than the base (see Fig. 17). In Figure -18 they stand as thickly together as trees in a virgin forest, and -are developed in greatest vigour where the small eminences cause a -greater evaporation than the small depressions, and are stoutest and -strongest at the free edges. Some of the pedicles, as in the figure, -present traces of erosion, the outer layers having been eaten away by -acid-laden water. - -Some of these singular little bosses may have been moulded on minute -fungi, such as those in the cave of Ingleborough, but their presence is -not revealed by the microscope. - - -_The Black-rock Cave, near Tenby._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Fungoid Structure, Black-rock Cave.] - -I met with this remarkable kind of calcareous deposition in a second -cave in the neighbourhood of Tenby. When examining the Black-rock -quarries in 1871, the workmen pointed out a small opening which they -believed to be the entrance of a cave, but which was too small for them -to enter. By knocking off, however, a few sharp angles, I got into -a small chamber about five feet high, with sides, roof, and bottom -covered with massive dripstone. A few loose stones rested on the -bottom. The whole surface, even including the stones upon the floor, -one of which is figured (Fig. 18), was so completely covered with -these peculiar fungoid bodies, that it was impossible to move without -destroying hundreds of them. All were about the same height, 0·2 -inches, snow-white, or of a rich reddish brown, and conformed to the -unequal surface on which they stood. It is quite impossible to describe -the effect of a whole chamber bristling with these peculiar structures. -The only author by whom they are mentioned, Mr. John Beaumont--who -described the caves of Mendip in 1680, considered them to be veritable -plants of stone.[38] The beautiful forms assumed by the dripstone in -the caves of Caldy and Black-rock are by no means uncommon, but I have -never met with them anywhere else in such perfection. They may be -studied in all stalactitic caverns. - - -_Great Quantity of Carbonate of Lime dissolved by Atmospheric Water._ - -A small portion only of the carbonate of lime is deposited as tufa -or dripstone in the neighbourhood of the rock from which it has been -derived, as compared with that carried by the streams into the rivers, -and the rivers into the sea. An idea of this quantity may be formed -from the calculation of the solid matter conveyed down by the Thames, -given by Mr. Prestwich in his Presidential Address to the Geological -Society in 1871, p. lxvii. - -“Taking the mean daily discharge of the Thames at Kingston at -1,250,000,000 gallons, and the salts in solution at nineteen grains per -gallon, the mean quantity of dissolved mineral matter there carried -down by the Thames every twenty-four hours is equal to 3,364,286 lbs., -or 150 tons, which is equal to 548,230 tons in the year. Of this daily -quantity about two-thirds, or say 1,000 tons, consist of carbonate of -lime and 238 tons of sulphate of lime, while limited proportions of -carbonate of magnesia, chlorides of sodium and potassium, sulphates of -soda and potash, silica and traces of iron, alumina, and phosphates, -constitute the rest. If we refer a small portion of the carbonates and -the sulphates and chlorides chiefly to the impermeable argillaceous -formations washed by the rain-water, we shall still have at least -ten grains per gallon of carbonate of lime, due to the chalk, upper -greensand, oolitic strata, and marlstone, the superficial area of -which, in the Thames basin above Kingston, is estimated by Mr. Harrison -at 2,072 square miles. Therefore the quantity of carbonate of lime -carried away from this area by the Thames is equal to 797 tons daily, -or 290,905 tons annually, which gives 140 tons removed yearly from -each square mile; or, extending the calculation to a century, we have -a total removal of 29,090,500 tons, or of 14,000 tons from each square -mile of surface. Taking a ton of chalk, as a mean, as equal to fifteen -cubic feet, this is equal to the removal of 210,000 cubic feet per -century for each square mile, or of 9/100 of an inch from the whole -surface in the course of a century, so that in the course of 13,200 -years a quantity equal to a thickness of about one foot would be -removed from our chalk and oolitic districts.” - -This destructive action, operating through long periods of time, -destroys not merely the general surface of the limestone, but, where it -is localized by the convergence of water, is capable of excavating the -deepest gorges and the longest caves. The quantity of material carried -away in solution is a measure of the power of carbonic acid in the -general work of denudation. - - -_The Circulation of Carbonate of Lime._ - -The circulation of carbonate of lime in nature presents us with a -never-ending cycle of change. It is conveyed into the sea to be built -up into the tissues of the animal and vegetable inhabitants. It -appears in the gorgeous corallines, nullipores, calcareous sea-weeds, -sea-shells, and in the armour of crustaceans. In the tissues of -the coral-zoophytes it assumes the form of stony groves, of which -each tree is a colony of animals, and in the wave-defying reef it -reverts to its original state of limestone. Or, again, it is seized -upon by tiny masses of structureless protoplasm, and fashioned into -chambers of endless variety and of infinite beauty, and accumulated -at the bottom of the deeper seas, forming a deposit analogous to our -chalk. In the revolution of ages the bottom of the sea becomes dry -land, the calcareous _débris_ of animal and vegetable life is more -or less compacted together by pressure and by the infiltration of -acid-laden rain-water, and appears as limestone of various hardness and -constitution. Then the destruction begins again, and caves, pot-holes, -and ravines are again carved out of the solid rock. - - -_The Temperature of Caves._ - -The air in caves is generally of the same temperature as the mean -annual temperature of the district in which they occur, and therefore -cold in summer and warm in winter. This would be a sufficient reason -why they should be chosen by uncivilized peoples as habitations. - -The very remarkable glacières, or caves containing ice instead of -water, in the Jura, Pyrenees, in Teneriffe, Iceland, and other -districts of high altitude and low temperature, in which the -temperature even in summer does not rise much above freezing-point, may -be explained by the theory advanced independently by De Luc and the -Rev. G. F. Browne. “The heavy cold air of winter,” writes the latter, -“sinks down into the glacières, and the lighter, warm air of summer -cannot on ordinary principles dislodge it, so that heat is very slowly -spread in the caves; and even when some amount of heat does reach the -ice, the latter melts but slowly, since a kilogramme of ice absorbs 79° -C. of heat in melting; and thus when ice is once formed, it becomes a -material guarantee for the permanence of cold in the cave. For this -explanation to hold good it is necessary that the level at which the -ice is found should be below the level of the entrance to the cave; -otherwise the mere weight of the cold air would cause it to leave its -prison as soon as the spring warmth arrived.” It is also necessary that -the cave should be protected from direct radiation and from the action -of wind. These conditions are satisfied by all the glacières explored -by Mr. Browne.[39] The apparent anomaly that one only out of a group -of caves exposed to the same temperatures should be a glacière, may be -explained by the fact that these conditions are found in combination -but rarely, and if one were absent there would be no accumulation of -perpetual ice. It is very probable that the store of cold laid up in -these caves, as in an ice-house, has been ultimately derived from the -great refrigeration of climate in Europe in the Glacial Period. - - -_Conclusion._ - -In this chapter we have examined the physical history of caves, their -formation, and their relation to pot-holes, cirques, and ravines; and -we have seen that they are not the result of subterranean disturbance, -but of the mechanical action of rain-water and the chemical action -of carbonic acid, both operating from above. We have seen that -cave-hunting is not merely an adventurous amusement, but also a quest -that brings us into a great laboratory, so to speak, in which we can -see the natural agents at work that have carved out the valleys and -gorges, and shaped the hills wherever the calcareous rocks are to be -found. - -The rest of this treatise will be devoted to the evidence which they -offer as to the former inhabitants, both men and animals, of Europe. - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -HISTORIC CAVES IN BRITAIN. - - Definition of Historic Period.--Wild Animals in Britain during - the Historic Period.--Animals living under the care of Man.-- - Classificatory value of Historic Animals.--The Victoria Cave, - Settle, Yorkshire.--History of Discovery.--The Romano-Celtic or - Brit-Welsh Stratum.--The Bones of the Animals.--Miscellaneous - Articles.--The Coins.--The Jewelry, and its Relation to Irish - Art.--Similar Remains in other Caves in Yorkshire.--These - Caves used as Places of Refuge.--The evidence of History as to - Date.--Britain under the Romans.--The Inroads of the Picts and - Scots.--The English Conquest.--The Neolithic Stratum.--The - approximate Date of the Neolithic Occupation.--The Grey Clays. - --The Pleistocene Occupation by the Hyænas.--The probable - Preglacial Age of the Pleistocene Stratum.--The Kirkhead Cave. - --Poole’s Cave, near Buxton.--Thor’s Cave, near Ashbourne.-- - Historic value of Brit-Welsh Group of Caves.--Principal Animals - and Articles.--The use of Horse-flesh.--The Cave of Long-berry - Bank. - - -_Definition of Historic Period._ - -In the preceding chapter the origin of caves has been discussed, as -well as their relation to the physical geography of the districts in -which they are found. We must now pass on to the biological division -of the subject, which relates to the animals that they contain and the -inferences that may be drawn from their occurrence. The caves will be -divided into historic, prehistoric, and pleistocene, according to the -principles laid down in the first chapter. - -It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to define with precision -the point where legend ends and history begins; but the line may be -drawn with convenience at the first beginning of a connected and -continuous narrative, rather than at the first isolated notice of a -country. If we accept this definition, the historic period in Great -Britain cannot be extended further back than the temporary invasion -of Julius Cæsar, B.C. 55, even if so far, since of the interval that -elapsed between that event and the subjugation under Claudius, in the -year A.D. 43, we know scarcely anything. Of the events which happened -in this country before Cæsar’s invasion there is no documentary -evidence, although, by the modern method of scientific research, we are -able to extend the narrative away from the borders of history far back -into the archæological and geological past. - - -_Wild Animals in Britain during the Historic Period._ - -During the historic period great changes have taken place in the -animals inhabiting Great Britain. The wild animals have been diminished -in number, and their area of occupation has been narrowed by the -increase of population and the improvement in weapons of destruction. -The brown bear, inhabiting Britain during the time of the Roman -occupation, was extirpated probably before the tenth century. The -current belief that it was destroyed in Scotland by the founder of -the Gordon family in 1057 is unsupported by any documentary evidence -which I have been able to discover; the crest of the Gordons, which -is supposed to have been derived from the last of those animals slain -in the island, consisting of three boars’, not _bears’_, heads. The -last wolf is said to have been destroyed in Scotland in 1680, while in -Ireland the animal lingered thirty years later to be a terror to the -defenceless beggars. It was deemed worthy of a special decree for its -destruction in the reign of Edward I. The wild boar was extinct before -the reign of Charles I., while the beaver, which was hunted for its fur -on the banks of the Teivi in Cardiganshire during the time of the first -Crusade, became extinct shortly afterwards. The stag was so abundant in -the south of England as recently as the reign of Queen Anne, that she -saw a herd of no less than five hundred between London and Portsmouth. -At present the animal lives only in a half-wild condition, in the -forest of Exmoor and the Highlands of Scotland; while the roedeer is -now only found wild in Scotland, although it formerly ranged throughout -the length and breadth of the country. - -The reindeer is proved to have been living in Caithness as late as the -year 1159, by a passage in the Orkneyinga Saga. - -The common rat, _Mus decumanus_, is the only wild or semi-wild animal -that has migrated into this country during the historic period contrary -to the will of man. In 1727 it (_Pallas, Glires_) had begun to invade -Southern Russia from the regions of Persia and the Caspian Sea. Thence -it swiftly spread over Asia Minor, and while it was advancing to the -west overland, it was carried by ships to nearly all the ports in the -world. It arrived in Britain certainly before the year 1730, and has -since nearly exterminated the black indigenous species. It is the only -wild animal which is known to have invaded Europe since the pleistocene -age, with the exception, perhaps, of the true elk. - - -_Animals living under the care of Man._ - -The fallow-deer, indigenous in the countries bordering on the -Mediterranean, was probably introduced by the Romans, since its remains -occur in refuse-heaps of Roman age, such as that of London Wall, and -of Colchester, while it has not been met with in older deposits. To -them, also, we probably owe the introduction of the pheasant, which -was sufficiently abundant in the neighbourhood of London in the time -of Harold to be mentioned as one of the articles of food eaten on -feast-days by the households of the Canons at Waltham Abbey in 1059. -The domestic fowl has left the first traces of its presence in this -country in the Roman refuse-heaps, although it was known to the Belgæ, -according to the testimony of Cæsar, before the first Roman invasion. - -The earliest mention of the domestic cat in this country is to be -found in the laws of Howel Dha,[40] that were probably codified at -the end of the tenth or in the eleventh century, although many of the -enactments may be of a much earlier date. The king’s cat is assessed -at eightpence, or twice as much as that belonging to any subject. The -ass[41] was certainly known in Britain in the days of Æthelred (A.D. -866-871), when, according to Professor Bell, its price was fixed at the -large sum of twelve shillings. The larger breed of cattle represented -by the Chillingham ox, and descended from the great Urus, first -appears in this country about the time of the English invasion. It -gradually spread over those districts conquered by the English, until -the small aboriginal dark-coloured, short-horn _Bos longifrons_, which -was the only domestic breed in the prehistoric and Roman times, is now -only to be met with in the hill country of Wales and of Scotland, in -which the Brit-Welsh or Romano-Celtic inhabitants still survive. - - -_Classificatory value of Historic Animals._ - -The principal changes in the fauna of Great Britain during the historic -age are the extinction of the bear, wolf, beaver, reindeer, and -wild boar, and the introduction of the domestic fowl, the pheasant, -fallow-deer, ass, the domestic cat, the larger breed of oxen, and the -common rat; and as this took place at different times, it is obvious -that these animals enable us to ascertain the approximate date of the -deposit in which their remains happen to occur. And for this purpose -the following table[42] may be consulted:-- - - -ANIMALS EXTINCT. - - A.D. - Brown bear circa 500-1000 - Reindeer ” 1200 - Beaver ” 11-1200 - Wolf ” 1680 - Wild boar ” 1620 - - -ANIMALS INTRODUCED. - - Domestic fowl before 55 B.C. - Fallow-deer circa ” - Pheasant ” ” - Domestic ox of Urus type ” 449 A.D. - Ass ” 800-850 - Cat ” 800-1000 - Common rat ” 1727-30 - -Some or other of these animals are met with in the peat-bogs and -alluvia, and in caves, but far more abundantly in the refuse-heaps left -behind by man, by whom they have here been used either for service or -for food. - -The disappearance of certain wild species, from the areas in which they -lived on the continent, in historic times, has not been ascertained -so accurately as in this country, and many animals, which have become -extinct in our restricted and highly-cultivated island, are still to -be found in the continental forests, morasses, and mountains. The -brown bear is still to be met with in the Pyrenees, the Vosges, and -in the wilder and more inaccessible portions of northern, middle, and -southern Europe. The wolf still survives in France, and during the late -German war preyed upon the slain after some of the battles. It, as well -as the wild boar, ranges throughout the uncultivated regions of the -continent. The beaver still lives in the waters of the Rhone, as well -as in the rivers of Lithuania and of Scandinavia, and the reindeer, -now restricted to the regions north of a line passing east and west -through the Baltic, extended further south, in sufficient numbers to -be remarked by Cæsar, among the more noteworthy animals living in the -great Hercynian forest, which overshadowed northern Germany in his -days. This forest also afforded shelter to the true elk and the bison, -both of which still live in Lithuania, as well as to the Urus, which -was hunted by Charles the Great, near Aachen, and probably became -extinct in the fifteenth or sixteenth century. The lion inhabited the -mountains of southern Thrace in the days of Herodotus and of Aristotle, -and became extinct in Europe between 330 B.C. and the days of Dio -Chrysostom Rhetor (A.D. 100), who expressly says that there were no -lions in Greece in his time. The panther also inhabited the same -district when Xenophon wrote his “Treatise on Hunting.” - -The fallow-deer was believed by the late Professor Edouard Lartet to -have been introduced into France by the Romans. On a visit, however, to -Paris in September 1873, Professor Gervais called my attention to an -antler of the animal in the Jardin des Plantes, said to have been found -in a refuse-heap along with axes of polished stone. It must therefore -have lived in France in the Neolithic age, if it were obtained from an -undisturbed deposit. It gradually spread into Germany and Switzerland, -until in the eleventh century it was sufficiently abundant to be -mentioned among the articles of food in a metrical grace of the monks -of St. Gall. - - “Imbellem damam faciat benedictio summam.”[43] - -The domestic fowl is to be recognized on Gallic coins before the -Roman invasion, and therefore was probably known at the very dawn of -Gallic history. The larger breed of oxen, descended from the Urus -type, has been known in France, Germany, Lombardy, Scandinavia, and -Switzerland, in the remote division of the prehistoric age known -as the Neolithic.[44] The buffalo, on the other hand, of the Roman -Campagna, was introduced into Italy, according to Paulus Diaconus, in -the year 596, and the domestic cat,[45] known to the Greeks from their -intercourse with Egypt, became familiar to the eyes of the inhabitants -of Rome and Constantinople as early as the fourth century after Christ. - -It is evident from the survival of the wolf, the bear, beaver, -reindeer, and the wild boar on the continent at the present time, -that the chronological table which I have constructed for Britain -is inapplicable to Europe in general. In the present state of our -knowledge of the varying ranges of the animals, it seems impossible to -form any similar scheme. - -The historic caves are characterized by the presence of some of these -animals, as well as of coins and pottery, and other articles by which -the date of their occupation may be ascertained. - - -_The Victoria Cave, Settle, Yorkshire._ - -The most important historic cave in this country is that discovered -by Mr. Joseph Jackson, near Settle, in Yorkshire, on the coronation -day of Queen Victoria, in 1838, and which has therefore been called -the Victoria Cave. It runs horizontally into the precipitous side of -a lonely ravine known as King’s Scar (Fig. 19), at a height of about -1,450 feet above the sea, according to Mr. Tiddeman, and it consists of -three large ill-defined chambers filled with débris nearly up to the -roof. - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--View of King’s Scar, Settle, showing the -entrances of the Victoria and Albert Caves (from a photograph). A, B, -Victoria; C, Albert.] - -The entrances face to the south-west, and open at the bottom of an -overhanging cliff at the point where a scree, or accumulation of -fragments from the cliff above, gradually slopes down to the bottom of -the valley, about one hundred feet below. When Mr. Jackson made his -discovery, he passed inwards through a small entrance,[46] and was -rewarded by finding in the earth on the floor a number of Roman coins, -together with ornaments and implements of bronze, and some brooches -of singular taste and beauty, with implements of bone, and large -quantities of broken bones and fragments of pottery. The collection -was very miscellaneous; for besides iron spear-heads, nails, daggers, -spoon-brooches of bone, spindle-whorls, beads of amber and of glass, -there were bronze brooches, finger-rings, armlets, bracelets, buckles, -and studs. All were lying pêle-mêle together, side by side with the -broken bones of the animals, and the whole set of remains, with the -exception of some of the brooches, was of the kind which is usually met -with in the neighbourhood of Roman camps, cities, and villas which have -been sacked. - -The fragments of Samian ware and Roman pottery scattered through the -mass, as well as coins of Trajan and Constantine, proved further, -that the cave had been inhabited after the Roman invasion, and not -earlier than the middle of the third century; and the rude imitations -of Roman coins were, according to Mr. Roach Smith,[47] probably in -circulation for some centuries after the departure of the Romans -from Britain.--“And although some of these remains are indicative -of sepulture, yet from the evidence furnished there appears no -positive proof of their having formed part of funereal deposits. A -more satisfactory conclusion seems to arise in considering that these -caves (_i.e._ the group) may have been used as places of refuge by the -Romanized Britons during the troublous times at and after the close of -the fourth century.” This conclusion we shall see fully borne out by -the evidence subsequently obtained. Mr. Jackson gives the following -account of the discovery:-- - -“The entrance was nearly filled up with rubbish, and overgrown with -nettles. After removing these obstructions, I was obliged to lie down -at full length to get in. The first appearance that struck me on -entering was the large quantity of clay and earth, which seemed as if -washed in from without, and presented to the view round pieces like -balls of different sizes. Of this clay there must be several hundred -waggon loads, but abounding more in the first than in the branch caves. -In some parts a stalagmitic crust has formed, mixed with bones, broken -pots, &c. It was on this crust I found the principal part of the coins, -the other articles being mostly imbedded in the clay. In the other -caves very little has been found. When we get through the clay, which -is very stiff and deep, we generally find the rock covered with bones, -all broken and presenting the appearance of having been gnawed. The -entrance into the inner cave has been walled up at the sides. In the -inside were several large stones lying near the hole, any one of which -would have completely blocked it up by merely turning the stone over. -I pulled the wall down, and the aperture was now about a yard wide, -and two feet high. On digging up the clay at about nine or ten inches -deep, I found the original floor; it was hard and gravelly, and strewed -with bones, broken pots, and other objects. The roof of the cave was -beautifully hung with stalactites in various fantastic forms and as -white as snow.”[48] - -The interest in these discoveries led Mr. Denny, Mr. Farrer, and other -gentlemen to examine the superficial stratum from time to time, -until, in 1870, Sir James Kay-Shuttleworth, Mr. Walter Morrison, Mr. -Birkbeck, and other gentlemen in the neighbourhood formed a committee -for the investigation of the contents of the cave, which had been -placed at their disposal by the courtesy of the owner, the late Mr. -Stackhouse. They were aided by the assistance of Sir C. Lyell, Sir. J. -Lubbock, and Mr. Darwin, Professor Phillips, Mr. Franks, and others, -and by a grant obtained from the British Association, and have carried -on the work since that time with comparatively little interruption. -Mr. Jackson, the original discoverer, superintended the workmen; -while I identified the works of art and the mammalian remains that -were discovered, and drew up for the committee the reports brought -before the British Association in 1870, 1871, and 1872, and before -the Anthropological Institute in 1871. Mr. Tiddeman also contributed -a report on the physical history of the cave, which is printed in the -British Association Report for 1872, and subsequently in the Geological -Magazine, January 1873.[49] - - -_The Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh Stratum._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Longitudinal Section of Victoria Cave.] - -The committee resolved not to begin at the entrance which Mr. Jackson -discovered in 1838 (Fig. 19 A), but to make a new passage, at a point -where daylight could be seen through the chinks of the broken débris, -which there prevented access. Ground was broken on a small plateau -in front of this (Figs. 19 B, 20), which, from the sunny aspect and -commanding view, would naturally be chosen by the dwellers in the -cave as their more usual place for eating and lounging, and in which -we might therefore expect to find the remains of whatever they had -dropped or lost. The gloomy recesses of a cave, indeed, even if -lit up by large fires or by torches, are not fitted for any other -purpose than for sleeping or concealment; and if we add in this case -the damp cold clay under foot and the constant drip of the water -overhead, it was only reasonable to infer that most of their life -was spent out of doors, and that the cave was used merely as a place -of retirement for shelter. As the trench progressed we dug first of -all through a thickness of two feet (Figs. 20, 21) of angular blocks -of limestone, that had fallen from the cliff above, and that rested -on a black layer (No. 4) containing the kind of remains which we had -expected. The layer was composed of fragments of bone and charcoal, -surrounding the burnt stones which had formed the ancient hearths, -and contained large quantities of the broken bones of animals which -had been used for food, and coins and articles of luxury, as well as -those instruments which were more naturally suited for the half-savage -life of dwellers in caves. As we opened out the new mouth, the angular -fragments disappeared and the black layer rose to the surface, -composing the floor, and lying in some places beneath enormous blocks -of limestone which had fallen from the roof since its accumulation, and -being continuous with the layer in which Mr. Jackson first made his -discoveries. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Vertical Section at the Entrance to the -Victoria Cave.] - -It was evident that this stratum had been formed during the sojourn of -man in the cave, and we shall find, in the examination of the remains -which it furnished, proof that it is connected with the obscure history -of Britain during the fifth and sixth centuries. We will take each -group of objects in its proper class, beginning with what at first -sight seems the least promising, the broken bones of the animals that -supplied the inhabitants with food. - - -_The Bones of the Animals._ - -The bones of the Celtic short-horn (_Bos longifrons_) were very -abundant, and proved that a variety of ox, indistinguishable from the -small dark mountain cattle of Wales and Scotland, was the chief food -of the inhabitants. A variety of the goat with simple recurved horns, -which is commonly met with in the Yorkshire tumuli explored by Canon -Greenwell, and in the deposits round Roman villas in Great Britain, -furnished the mutton; while the pork was supplied by a domestic breed -of pigs with small canines; and since the bones of the last animal -belong for the most part to young individuals, it is clear that the -young porker was preferred to the older animal. The bill of fare was -occasionally varied by the use of horse-flesh, which formed a common -article of food in this country down to the ninth century. To this list -must be added the venison of the roedeer and stag, but the remains of -these two animals were singularly rare. Two spurs of the domestic fowl, -and a few bones of wild duck and grouse, complete the list of animals -which can with certainty be affirmed to have been eaten by the dwellers -in the cave. The numerous unbroken bones, some very gigantic, of the -badger, and those of the fox, wildcat, hare, and water-vole, commonly -called water-rat, have probably been introduced subsequently, from -those animals having used the cave as a place of shelter. There were -also bones of the dog, which from their unbroken condition proved that -the animal had not been used for food, as it certainly was used by -the men who lived in the caves of Denbighshire in the Neolithic age. -The whole group of remains implies that the dwellers in the Victoria -Cave lived upon their flocks and herds, rather than by the chase. And -since the domestic fowl was not known in Britain until about the time -of the Roman invasion, the presence of its remains fixes the date of -the occupation as not earlier than that time. On the other hand, since -the small Celtic short-horn (_Bos longifrons_) was the only domestic -ox in use known in Roman Britain, and since it disappeared from those -portions of the country which were conquered by the English, along -with its Celtic possessors, the date is fixed in the other direction -as being not much later than the Northumbrian conquest of that portion -of Yorkshire. I shall return to this part of the subject presently; -here I will only remark, that the present distribution of the lineal -descendants of the Celtic short-horn, the small, dark-coloured Scotch -and Welsh cattle, corresponds with those regions on which the Celtic -population fell back before the English. And its survival in Wales, and -until comparatively recently in Cornwall, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, -may be accounted for by the fact, that in those districts the Celtic -populations of Roman Britain were not displaced by the English -invaders.[50] - -The larger breed of cattle known in its purity as the white ox of -Chillingham, from which all our purely English breeds have been -derived, was imported originally by the English, and spread over the -whole country which they occupied, until at last the smaller and more -ancient oxen survived only in a few isolated areas in the north and -west of Britain. This displacement of the Celtic short-horn by the -English oxen of the Urus type corroborates, in a striking degree, the -truth of Mr. Freeman’s view of the ruthless destruction of everything -Roman and Celtic at the hands of the English. It is clear, therefore, -that from the examination of the bones we may infer that the cave was -occupied before the Celtic short-horn was supplanted in this district -by the larger domestic breed of oxen, and after the introduction of the -domestic fowl, that is to say, in the interval which elapsed between -the Roman and English invasions. - -We must now treat of the remains of man’s handiwork in the cave. - - -_Miscellaneous Articles._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Spoon-brooch (natural size).] - -The ornaments and implements of bone consist of carefully smoothed -pins, and points intended to be fitted to a handle, knife-handles made -of bone and antler; three spindle-whorls made of the perforated head -of a femur; a stud; a perfect spoon-shaped fibula (Fig. 22), which -corresponds with one of those in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, -as well as several fragments, and which when in use was passed through -holes in the clothes, in such a manner that the two ends alone were -visible. These are ornamented, and the shaft and the whole back is more -or less polished by wear. Eight articles bear a close resemblance to -the handles of gimlets (Figs. 23, 24), and most probably have been -used as studs, or links, for fastening together clothing. The fact, -indeed, that some have the central hole worn by the friction of a thong -or string of some kind, coupled with the worn state of some of their -surfaces, renders this guess very likely to be true. In Fig. 24, _a_, -the ornament in right lines, which once covered the surface as in Fig. -24, _b_, is very nearly obliterated by friction against some soft body -such as clothing. A reference to the figures will give a better idea of -their shape and ornamentation than a mere description. Two perforated -discs may have been used as studs. There are also many nondescript -articles, consisting of sockets made of antler of stag, and bone rods -carefully rounded, together with cut bones of uncertain use. For the -identification of the ivory boss of a sword-hilt I am indebted to the -kindness of Mr. Franks. - -Besides the ornaments in bone and antler, there were seven glass beads, -five transparent and two of a bluish tint, and one of jet turned in -a lathe; as well as a fragment of a jet bracelet. Among the articles -of daily use were many rounded pebbles, with marks of fire upon them, -which had probably been heated for the purpose of boiling water. -Pot-boilers, as they are called, of this kind are used by many savage -peoples at the present day, and if we wished to heat water in a vessel -that would not stand the fire, we should be obliged to employ a similar -method. Other stones formed parts of ancient hearths, and two or three -grooved slabs of sandstone had evidently been used for rounding and -sharpening bone pins. The fragments of pottery were very abundant, and -were all of the type usually found round Roman villas. One fragment of -Samian ware was ornamented with the representation of a hunt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Ornamented Bone-fastener (natural size).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Two Bone-links; _a_ worn, _b_ unworn (natural -size).] - -This group of articles throws but little light on the date of the -occupation of the cave. The Samian ware, and the ivory boss of a Roman -sword, merely imply that it was either Roman or post-Roman. - - -_The Coins._ - -If we turn now to the coins, we shall find the date to lie within -narrower limits than those fixed by the animals. They consist of:-- - - Two silver of Trajan, d. 117. - Four bronze of Tetricus I., 267-274. - One bronze of Tetricus II., 267-274. - One bronze of Gallienus, d. 268. - One bronze of Constantine II., d. 343. - One bronze of Constans, d. 353. - Three barbarous imitations in bronze of coins of Tetricus, - circa 400-500 A.D. - -In a group of coins such as this the latest only give a clue to the -date, since the earlier may have remained in circulation long after -they were struck. In India, for example, those of Alexander the Great -have not yet disappeared from the country, and in Spain, in the shops -of Malaga, Moorish, Roman, and even Phœnician coins were current in -1863, as well as all those which have been struck since.[51] We may -therefore disregard the earliest coins, and fix our attention more -particularly on those of the Constantine family, and the bronze minimi -mentioned last in the list. The presence of the coin of Constans -implies that the cave was occupied either during or after 337 A.D., -when he ascended the throne; while the date of the minimi has not been -ascertained with accuracy. “They abound upon all Roman sites, such as -Verulam and Richborough. In size they come nearest to those struck -under Arcadius and his successors, and I think that you will not be -far wrong in assigning them to the first half of the fifth century. -The latest of the genuine Roman coins found in this country are those -of Arcadius and Honorius; at least, the finding of any of later date -is quite exceptional. What the currency was between that time and the -commencement of the Saxon coinage it is hard to say. It seems probable, -however, that gold and silver had nearly disappeared, and that the -needs of a small local commerce were supplied by the Roman copper -coins of which abundance remained in the country, and by small pieces -struck after their model, not improbably by private speculators.” This -opinion, which Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., has been kind enough to write -me, coincides with that of Mr. Newton, as well as that of Mr. Roach -Smith; and we may therefore assume, with tolerable certainty, that -the cave was inhabited during the first half of the fifth century or -afterwards, at a time when the withdrawal of the Roman Legions had left -the colony of Britain, whose youth and vigour had been consumed in the -fierce struggle of the rivals for the throne of the West, a prey to the -barbarian invaders. - -It is of course conceivable that some of these coins may have been -dropped at one time, and some at another, but nevertheless it seems -very probable that the whole accumulation belongs to the same relative -age. But whether this be accepted or not, it is certain the cave was -inhabited during the time that the minimi were in circulation,--that is -to say, during the first half of the fifth century, or from that time -forwards. - - -_The Jewellery, and its Relation to Irish Art._ - -This conclusion as to the date, derived from the coins, is confirmed -in a remarkable degree by the examination of the articles of -luxury. Besides two bronze brooches of the Roman pattern, known by -archæologists as harp-shaped (Coloured Plate, fig. 5), was one of the -split-ring type, with a moveable pin, which is generally assigned to -the later period of the Roman occupation of this country. One type -of brooch was composed of two circular plates of bronze, soldered -together, the front being very thin and bearing flamboyant and spiral -patterns in relief (Fig. 25), of admirable design and execution. The -original of the figure was discovered by Mr. Jackson, and is more -perfect than any of those which we obtained in our excavations. It -is altogether unlike any Roman brooch properly so called, both in -its composite make and style of ornament. A similar brooch has been -discovered at Brough Castle, in Westmoreland, and was figured in the -Proceedings of the Antiquarian Society (vol. iv. 129), by Sir James -Musgrave, and a second is preserved in the Museum of the Royal Irish -Academy (492). The style corresponds with that of a medallion on a -Runic casket of silver-bronze, figured by Prof. Stevens, and stated -to have been obtained from Northumbrian Britain, as well as that of a -brooch in the Museum at Mainz, assigned by the same authority to the -third or fourth century. It is also to be met with in the illuminations -of one of the Anglo-Saxon Gospels at Stockholm, as well as in those -of the Gospels of S. Columban, preserved in the library of Trinity -College, Dublin, and in the “Book of Kells” (8-900).[52] In all these -cases it cannot be affirmed to be Roman, and it is not presented by -ornaments of either purely English or Teutonic origin. It is most -closely allied to that work which is termed by Mr. Franks “late -Celtic.” From its localization in Britain and Ireland, it seems to be -probable that it is of Celtic derivation; and if this view be accepted, -there is nothing at all extraordinary in its being recognized in the -illuminated Irish Gospels. Ireland, in the sixth and seventh centuries, -was the great centre of art, civilization, and literature; and it is -only reasonable to suppose that there would be intercourse between -the Irish Christians and those of the west of Britain during the time -that the Romano-Celts, or Brit-Welsh, were being slowly pushed to the -westward by the heathen English invader. Proof of such an intercourse -we find in the brief notice in the “Annales Cambriæ,” in which Gildas, -the Brit-Welsh historian, is stated to have sailed over to Ireland in -the year A.D. 565. It is by no means improbable that about this time -there was a Brit-Welsh migration into Ireland, as well as into Brittany. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Bronze Brooch (natural size).] - -Nor is it at all strange that the same style of ornament should occur -in some few cases in North Germany. - -“The conquest of Britain,” writes the Rev. J. R. Green (“History of the -English People,” p. 16[53]), “had thrust a wedge of heathendom into -the heart of the Western Church. On the one side lay Italy and Gaul, -whose Churches owned obedience to the see of Rome, on the other the -free Celtic Church of Ireland. But the condition of the two portions -of Western Christendom was very different. While the vigour of Latin -Christianity was exhausted in a bare struggle for life, Ireland as yet -unscourged by invaders had drawn from its conversion an energy such as -it has never known since. Christianity had been received there with -a burst of popular enthusiasm. Letters and arts sprang up rapidly in -its train; the science and Biblical knowledge which had fled from the -continent took refuge in famous schools which made Durrow and Armagh -the universities of the West. The new life soon beat too strongly to -brook confinement within insular bounds. Patrick, the first missionary -of Ireland, had not been half a century dead, when Celtic Christianity -flung itself with a fiery zeal into battle with the mass of heathenism -which had rolled in upon the Christian world. Irish missionaries -laboured among the Picts of the Highlands, among the Frisians of -the northern seas; Columban founded monasteries in Burgundy and the -Apennines; the canton of St. Gall still commemorates in its name the -missionary before whom the spirits of flood and fell fled wailing over -the waters of the Lake of Constance. For a time it seemed as if the -course of the world’s history was to be changed, as if the older race -that Roman and Teuton had swept before them had turned to the moral -conquest of its conquerors, as if Celtic and not Latin Christianity was -to mould the destinies of the Churches of the West.” - -It is impossible that Irish-Celtic art should not have made itself -felt wherever the Irish missionaries penetrated, and especially -in the gorgeous illuminated Gospels, which it was the pride of S. -Columban and his school to have made, and which now excite our wonder -and admiration. The early Christian art in Ireland grew out of the -late Celtic, and was, to a great extent, free from the influence of -Rome, which is stamped on the Brit-Welsh art of the same age in this -country. The style, therefore, of these circular brooches, from its -correspondence with that of the Irish illuminated gospels, affords -reasonable grounds for the belief that the Victoria Cave was inhabited -in the sixth century, or possibly later, but before the English -invaders had swept the Brit-Welsh away from the district. - -Two other brooches were also discovered in the black layer, which are -even of greater interest than those which have just been described. -The one represents a dragon (colored Plate, fig. 3), with its eye made -of red enamel; the other (colored Plate, fig. 7) shaped, like the -letter S, has its front composed of an elaborate cloissonnée pattern -in red, blue, and yellow enamels, and is of the same design as two -brooches in the British Museum, discovered, one near Whittington Hill, -in Gloucestershire, and the other near Malton, in Yorkshire. All three -were, undoubtedly, turned out of the same artistic school, and they may -have been made by one workman. The enamel, in all these examples, seems -to have been inserted into hollows in the bronze, and then to have -been heated so as to form a close union with them, and in some cases -where it has been broken, as in colored Plate, fig. 7, small fragments -still remain to attest the completeness of the fusion with the bronze. -The style of workmanship is neither Roman nor Teutonic. An enamelled -fibula with spirals in relief, found at Reichenbach[54] (Soleure) in -a post-Roman sepulchre, and figured by Bonstettin, is of a similar -design, and it may be traced also in two brooches obtained by the Abbé -Cochet, from the Merovingian Cemetery of Envermeu,[55] although they -are of more massive and square construction than those of Yorkshire. - -One harp-shaped brooch (colored Plate, fig. 1) is ornamented with -diamonds of blue enamel, separated by small triangles of red, and shows -in its Roman design and Celtic ornamentation the union between Celtic -and Roman art. A similar specimen from Brough Castle, Westmoreland, is -preserved in the British Museum, and may have been turned out of the -same workshop. We also met with an enamelled disk (colored Plate, fig. -6), and a finger-ring (fig. 4) of bronze-gilt, ornamented with blue -enamel. - -Several enamelled fibulæ in the British Museum, obtained by Sir James -Musgrave, at Kirby Thore, Westmoreland, belong to the same style of art -as those of the Victoria cave, and were associated with the same class -of remains. Shields,[56] scabbards, horse trappings, and other articles -have also been discovered in this county, decorated in the same fashion -with coloured enamels, and especially a bronze vase from the late Roman -tumuli, called the Bartlow Hills. They all belong to the class termed -“late Celtic” by Mr. Franks, and are considered by him to be of British -manufacture. - -This view is supported by the only reference to the art of enamelling -which is furnished by the classical writers. Philostratus, a Greek -sophist, who left Athens in the beginning of the third century to join -the Court of Julia Domna, the wife of the Emperor Severus, writes:--“It -is said that the barbarians living in or by the ocean, pour these -colors (those of the horse trappings) on heated bronze, that these -adhere, grow as hard as stone, and preserve the designs that are made -in them.”[57] Mr. Franks’ opinion that this passage relates to Britain, -seems to be more probable than that of the eminent French archæologist, -M. de Laborde, who holds that it relates to Gaul and especially to -“Belgica.”[58] - -When we consider the variety of enamelled objects which have been -discovered in the north of England, it seems to be by no means -improbable that the principal centre of the art enamelling was -here rather than in the south; and this conclusion is considerably -strengthened by the fact that under the Romans political power centered -in the district between the Humber and the Tyne, and that York, and not -London, was the capital of Britain and the seat of the Roman Prefect. -It is worthy of remark, that since the Emperor Severus built the wall -which bears his name, marched in person against the Caledonians, and -died at York, the account of the enamels may have been brought to the -court of the Empress Julia from this very region, and thus come to be -recorded by Philostratus. - -Two harp-shaped fibulæ, obtained by Mr. Jackson from the Victoria -cave, and ornamented with enamel, are coated with silver, and in one -of them two small blocks of that metal still remain firmly imbedded in -the bronze. It is very probable that most of the ornaments were plated -either with silver or gold, traces of which, in some cases, still -remain. - -Among the miscellaneous objects in metal are a bronze wire brooch -(colored Plate, fig. 8), two bracelets, composed of twisted bronze-gilt -wire; and one fragment in solid bronze, ornamented with right lines; -one plain bronze finger-ring; two small buckles, respectively of bronze -and of iron, and a small bronze flattened pin (colored Plate, fig. 2), -ending in two points to which, at first, we were unable to assign a -use. When, however, the two points were compared with the circles on -the ornaments of bone (Fig. 22), there was but little doubt that this -curious object was employed as a pair of fixed compasses. There were -also iron articles which were too much corroded to admit of a guess at -their probable use, besides a Roman key, knife-blades, and a spear-head -discovered by Mr. Jackson. - -The number of ornaments found in the Victoria Cave from time to time -by various explorers is very considerable. They are scattered in the -private collections of Messrs. Jackson and Eckroyd Smith, and in the -Museums of Giggleswick Grammar-school, and of Leeds, and the British -Museum. - - -_Similar remains in other Caves in Yorkshire._ - -The Victoria cave is by no means the only one in the district that -has furnished works of art and the remains of animals. The Albert -cave (Fig. 19, _c_.) close by is, as yet, only explored sufficiently -to prove that it contains the same kind of objects; and from that -of Kelko, overlooking Giggleswick, they have been obtained by Mr. -Jackson;[59] as well as from that of Dowker-bottom between Arncliffe -and Kilnsay, by Mr. James Farrer and Mr. Denny.[60] From the last, -seven spoon-shaped brooches of bone, and two spindle-whorls of Samian -ware of the bottom of a vase, are preserved in the British Museum, as -well as a bronze needle, and brooches both harp-shaped and discoid, -and fragments of pottery. Three coins in bronze, according to Mr. -Farrer,[61] prove that the date of the accumulation is late or -post-Roman, one being of Claudius Gothicus, whose reign ended A.D. 270, -and two belonging to the Tetrici, A.D. 267-273, since they would remain -in circulation for some time after they were struck. A bronze pin, in -the possession of Mr. Jackson, from Dowker-bottom, is remarkable for -the head being plated with silver. - -The fragment of flattened antler from this cave, referred by Mr. Denny -to the elk, most probably belongs to the crown of an old antler of the -stag, and the remains of the “Canis primævus” of that author cannot be -distinguished from those of a large dog. The bones of the wolf, and an -enormous stag in the Museum of the Philosophical Society at Leeds, are -probably much older than the Brit-Welsh stratum. - - -_These Caves used as Places of Refuge._ - -The presence of these works of art, in association with the remains -of the domestic animals used for food, is only to be satisfactorily -accounted for in the way proposed by Mr. Dixon. Men accustomed to -luxury and refinement were compelled, by the pressure of some great -calamity, to flee for refuge, and to lead a half-savage life in -these inclement caves, with whatever they could transport thither -of their property. They were also accompanied by their families, for -the number of personal ornaments and the spindle-whorls imply the -presence of the female sex. We may also infer that they were cut off -from the civilization to which they had been accustomed, since they -were compelled to extemporize spindle-whorls out of the pieces of the -vessels that they brought with them, instead of using those which had -been manufactured for the purpose. - - -_The evidence of History as to the Date._ - -We have already seen from the examination of the coins, that the -Victoria cave was occupied during or after the first half of the fifth -century, and from the works of art that it may have been, and probably -was, occupied at a later time. To fix the latest possible limit to the -occupation of the group of caves to which it belongs, we must appeal to -contemporary history. - -During the first four centuries of Roman dominion in Britain, the -spread of the manners and arts of the great mistress of the world -followed close upon her success in arms; and the policy of one of the -greatest of her generals, Agricola, bore fruit in the adoption of her -civilization by the British provincials. The population clustered -round the Roman stations, and cities sprang up, such as Chester, Bath, -York, and Lincoln, between which a ready communication was maintained -by the roads that still remain as monuments of engineering skill, and -which, in many cases, have been used uninterruptedly from that time to -the present day. Agriculture was carried on to such an extent, that -Britain became one of the principal corn-producing regions of the Roman -Empire; and a commerce with foreign countries was carried on from -the ports on the banks of the Thames and the Severn (Gildas, i.). -The mineral sources were also fully explored; tin was sought in the -mines of Cornwall, lead in those of Derbyshire and Somersetshire, and -iron in the forest of Dean, Sussex, and Northumberland. Nor was this -material prosperity unaccompanied by the signs of luxury and culture. -Numerous villas were dotted throughout the province, resembling in size -and plan the quadrangle of a mediæval college at Oxford or Cambridge, -and even in ruins astonishing us by their magnitude and the beauty -of their tessellated pavements. York was the capital of the province -and the centre of government, and consequently Yorkshire must have -been, if anything, more completely penetrated with the Roman arts and -civilization than any other part of Britain. The relation of the Roman -conquerors to the conquered Celtic inhabitants was somewhat analogous -to that which now exists between the English and the subject nations -in India. Latin was the language spoken by the higher classes in the -cities, of the army, and probably of the courts of law; while in the -country the Celtic tongue held its ground, and still survives in the -language of Wales. Christianity was probably professed in this country -about the time of Constantine, and became the dominant religion by the -middle of the fifth century, if not before. - -Underneath all the outward signs of prosperity during the Roman rule -in Britain, there were causes at work which ensured the ruin of the -province. The policy of centralization, and the very perfection of -the machinery for government on autocratic principles, which brought -about the destruction of the Roman Empire, as in our own days they have -nearly ruined France, bore fruit in Britain in the helpless apathy of -the provincials when the machinery was broken up. It is therefore no -wonder that when the Roman garrison was finally withdrawn from this -country, in the year 409, the provincials were left an easy prey to -their enemies. Nor need we wonder that they set up isolated centres of -government, which we may term communes, in the year 410, in which each -city stood out for itself, instead of combining together for the common -weal. From this time forward the inhabitants of the Roman province -of Britain, severed from the Roman Empire, became a prey to the many -tyrants who sprang up, and the anarchy followed so pathetically -described by Gildas. It was at this time that the coinage became -debased, and Roman coins afforded the patterns for the small bronze -minimi of the Settle cave,[62] which are so abundant among the ruins of -Roman cities in this country, such as St. Alban’s. - -The invaders of Britain must now be considered. The Picts and Scots -had secured a rude liberty under the protection of their mountains -and morasses, rather than by their success in arms against the Roman -legions, and their raids into the Roman province had been curbed by the -walls and lines of forts, extending, the one from the Firth of Forth -to the Firth of Clyde, the other from the Solway Firth to the Tyne. -In spite of these, however, from time to time, in the fourth century, -they carried desolation into Northumberland and Yorkshire, even if they -did not penetrate farther into the south. And on the withdrawal of the -Roman legions, at the beginning of the fifth century, their raids were -organized on a much larger scale. In the pages of Gildas we have a -melancholy picture of their results. In the letter written to Ætius, -the Roman commander in Gaul, in 446, the Britains are described as -sheep, and the Picts and Scots as wolves. “The barbarians drive us back -to the sea; the sea drives us back again to perish at the hands of the -barbarians,” are the words put into the mouth of the embassy.[63] One -plea for aid, which they advanced, is especially interesting, because -it shows incidentally that the Roman civilization did not disappear -with the withdrawal of the legions--the plea that unless they were -succoured the name of Rome would be dishonoured. Nerved by despair, the -British in the following year take up arms, and, according to Gildas, -leave their houses and lands, and taking shelter in mountains and -forests, and in caves,[64] succeed in driving back their Pictish and -Scottish enemies. - -It is very significant that _caves_ should be mentioned in this -account; for the region of Craven is one of the very few in the country -in which they are sufficiently abundant to allow of their being used -as places of shelter on a scale sufficiently large to be recorded in -history; and when we consider that one of the natural highways from -Scotland into central England lies through that district, it seems to -me extremely probable that the group of caves of which Victoria is -one is that referred to. On this point it is worthy of record, that -in the year 1745, when the younger Pretender was at Shap, and it was -doubtful whether he would take the route through Ribblesdale or by way -of Preston, the eldest son of one of the landowners near Settle, was -hidden, along with the family plate, in a Cave close to the Victoria, -in the belief that the Highlanders were in the habit of eating children -as well as of laying hands on the precious metals. The historical -notice tallies exactly with the geographical position, and is not -inconsistent with the evidence offered by the coins and other remains. -The date, therefore, of the occupation may probably be assigned as -about the middle of the fifth century. - -This, however, is not the latest date that can be assigned. In the year -449, the three ships which contained Hengist and his warriors, landed -at Ebbsfleet, in Thanet, and the first English colony was founded -among a people who were known to the strangers as “Brit-Welsh.”[65] -From that time a steady immigration of Angle, Jute, Saxon, and Frisian -set in towards the eastern coast of Britain, as far north as the -Firth of Forth, until, in the first half of the sixth century, the -whole of the eastern part of our island was taken possession of by -various tribes,[66] whose names, for the most part, still survive in -the names of our counties. The principal rivers also afforded them a -free passage into the heart of the country, and the kingdom of Mercia -gradually expanded until it embraced, not only the basin of the Trent, -but reached as far as the line of the Severn. The river Humber afforded -a base of operations for the Anglian freebooters, who founded the -kingdom of Deira or modern Yorkshire; while the camp of Bamborough -was the centre from which Ida, who landed with fifty ships in the -year 547, conquered Bernicia, or the region extending from the river -Tees to Edinburgh. The tide of English colonization rolled steadily -westward, until, at the close of the sixth century, the hilly and -impassable districts culminating in the Pennine Chain, and extending -southwards from Cumberland and Westmoreland, through Yorkshire and -Derbyshire, formed the barrier between the Brit-Welsh kingdoms of Elmet -and Strathclyde on the east, and the English on the west. To the south -of this the Brit-Welsh dominion was bounded by the river Severn, and -included Chester and the whole of the basin of the Dee; while Somerset, -Devon, and Cornwall, and the district round Bradford and Malmesbury -formed the kingdom of West Wales.[67] - -The long war by which the borders of England were gradually pushed to -the west, at the expense of the Brit-Welsh, was one of the most fearful -of which we have any record. The English invaders came over, with -their wives and children and household stuff, in such force that the -country which they left behind was left desolate for several centuries. -Worshippers of Thor and Odin, and living a free life, equally -divided between farming, hunting, and war, they were mortal foes to -Christianity and to Roman civilization. They destroyed the Brit-Welsh -cities with fire and sword; and the ashes of the Roman villas, which -are to be found in nearly every part of the Roman province of Britain, -testify to the keenness of their hate to everything which was at once -Christian, Roman, and Celtic. Gildas forcibly describes the destruction -which they wrought among his countrymen, by the metaphor that “the -flame kindled in the east, raged over nearly all the land, until it -flared red over the western ocean.”[68] In the conquered districts the -Brit-Welsh were either exterminated or enslaved, and their civilization -was wholly replaced by the rude culture of the English. - -It follows, from the nature of this conquest, that any group of -remains, such as those in the caves under consideration, must be -assigned to the time before the English had possession of the district, -and we must therefore see what historical proof is to be found on the -point. - -At the close of the sixth century the Brit-Welsh kingdom of Elmet -(in the basin of the river Aire)--a name which still survives in -Barwick-in-Elmet, a little village about seven miles to the north-east -of Leeds--extended over the country round Leeds and Bradford, passing -westwards towards, if not into, Lancashire, and northwards probably -so as to embrace Ribblesdale, and forming a barrier to the westward -advance of the English possessors of eastern Yorkshire. Its downfall -will give us the latest possible limit which we are seeking for the -Brit-Welsh occupation of the Victoria Cave. The two kingdoms of Deira -and Bernicia had united to form the powerful state of Northumbria, -at the beginning of the seventh century, under Æthelfrith, who -carried on the war against the Brit-Welsh with greater vigour than -his predecessors. In 607[69] he marched along the line of the -Trent, through Staffordshire, avoiding thereby the difficult and -easily-defended hilly country of Derbyshire and East Lancashire, to -the battle near Chester, famous for the destruction of the power of -Strathclyde, and the death of the monks of Bangor, who fought against -him with their prayers. By this decisive blow, the English first set -foot on the coast of the Irish Channel, and Strathclyde and Elmet, on -the one hand, were cut asunder from Wales. On the other Chester was -so thoroughly destroyed that it remained in ruins for nearly three -centuries, to be rebuilt by Æthelflæd, “the Lady of the Mercians,” in -907, and the plains of Lancashire lay open to the invader.[70] This -western advance of the Northumbrians was completed by the conquest of -Elmet, in 616, by Eadwine, and the whole district from Edinburgh, as -far south as the Humber, and as far west as Chester, became subject to -his rule.[71] The latest possible date, therefore, that can be assigned -for the occupation of these caves by the Brit-Welsh is determined by -that event. It cannot be later than the first quarter of the seventh -century, or the time when what remained of Roman art and civilization -in that district was swept away by the ancestors of the present -dalesmen. The relics in the caves must have been accumulated in the two -centuries which elapsed between the recall of the legions in the days -of Honorius and the English conquest. They are traces of the anarchy -which existed in those times, and they tell a tale of woe, wrought on -the Brit-Welsh, by Pict, Scot, or Englishman, as eloquently as the -lament of Gildas, or the mournful verses of Talliesin. They complete -the picture of the desolation of those times revealed by the ashes of -the villas and cities which were burned by the invaders. - -We have now examined the evidence as to date offered by the contents -of these caves, and we have seen that it agrees with the contemporary -history. It may therefore be concluded that it lies in the fifth and -sixth centuries, possibly the first quarter of the seventh. - - -_The Neolithic Stratum._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Bone Harpoon (natural size).] - -This occupation of the Victoria Cave by the Brit-Welsh is a mere -episode in its history. It was inhabited by man in the neolithic age, -at a time so remote that the interval between it and the historical -period can only be measured by the rude method by which geologists -estimate the relative age of the rocks. At the entrance the dark -Romano-Celtic or Brit-Welsh stratum (Fig. 20, No. 4; Fig. 21, No. 4) -lay buried, as we have seen, under an accumulation of angular fragments -of stone which had fallen from the cliff. It rested on a similar -accumulation (Fig. 20, No. 3; Fig. 21, No. 3) which was no less than -six feet thick, and at the bottom of this, at the point where it was -based on a stiff grey clay, a bone harpoon (Fig. 26) was discovered, as -well as charcoal; a bone bead (Fig. 27), three rude flint flakes, and -the broken bones of the brown bear, stag, horse, and Celtic shorthorn -(_Bos longifrons_). The harpoon is a little more than three inches -long, with the head armed with two barbs on each side, and the base -presenting a mode of securing attachment to the handle which has not -before been discovered in Britain. Instead of a mere projection to -catch the ligatures by which it was bound to the shaft, there is a -well-cut barb on either side, pointing in a contrary direction to those -which form the head. Ample use for such an instrument would be found in -Malham tarn, some three miles off, and very probably also in that which -formerly existed close by at Attermire, but which has been choked up by -peat, and is now turned into grass-land by drainage. The remains of the -brown bear consist of numerous hollow bones and teeth, and the shaft -of a femur with its articular ends broken off, has been polished by -friction against some soft substance, so that its surface has a lustre -like that of glass. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27. Bone-bead (natural size.)] - -The question naturally arises, who were the ancient inhabitants of the -cave whose rude implements occur in this lower stratum? From the few -remains which we discovered, they were hunters and fishermen, and the -possessors of domestic oxen, and possibly horses, and in a much lower -state of civilization than the Brit-Welsh inhabitants who succeeded -them in the cave after a long interval. There is no proof that they -used a coinage, or that they were acquainted with metal. The conclusion -that they were neolithic is based on the following evidence:--In 1871 -the Exploration Committee examined a small cave about 200 yards off, -in King’s Scar, and obtained the broken bones of the stag, Celtic -short-horn (_Bos longifrons_), goat, and horse, a whetstone, and a -rudely chipped scraper, to which, subsequently, Mr. John Birkbeck, -jun., made the important addition of part of a human thigh-bone. This -set of remains, the human thigh-bone excepted, agrees with those in the -lower stratum in the Victoria Cave, not merely in the absence of metal, -but also in affording signs of a comparatively rude civilization; -and we might reasonably expect that the two caves so close to each -other, would have been occupied by the same people at approximately -the same time. If this be allowed, the thigh-bone may be assigned to -one of these earlier inhabitants, the place of habitation being, as -is frequently the case, subsequently used for purposes of burial. The -thigh-bone itself is characterized by the great development of the -muscular ridge known to anatomists as the _linea aspera_, implying -the peculiar flatness of shin which is termed by Professor Busk -platycnemism. This peculiar form has been met with in the neolithic -tumuli of Yorkshire, explored by the Rev. Canon Greenwell, as well as -in the human remains which I have discovered in the neolithic caves and -chambered tombs of Denbighshire; and since it has not been observed -in any human skeletons in this country which are not of that age, it -may be fairly taken to prove that a neolithic people formerly lived in -Ribblesdale. And further, since the traces of rude culture met with -in these two caves are the same as those which characterize neolithic -burial and dwelling places throughout Europe, they may be assigned to -that remote age. Similar human remains were obtained by Mr. Farrer from -the Dowker-bottom Cave, and imply that that cave also was used as a -neolithic burial-place. - -The identification of this race with the Basque or Iberian stock, from -which are descended the small, dark peoples of Derbyshire, Wales, and -certain parts of Ireland, must be referred to the chapters on the -Neolithic Caves. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--Stone Adze: _a_, side view; _b_, edge (natural -size).] - -The reputed discovery of an adze (Fig. 28), of a variety of greenstone -which Mr. Wyndham identifies with melaphyr, many years ago in the -Victoria Cave, may offer additional evidence as to its having been -occupied by a neolithic tribe. It was presented to the Museum of the -Philosophical Society at Leeds by Mr. Jackson, and figured by Mr. Denny -among the remains from the Caves of Craven, and presents characters -that have not, to my knowledge, been met with in any other neolithic -implement found in Great Britain: one end being roughly chipped for -insertion into a socket, while the other is carefully ground into a -chisel edge. In these respects, as Mr. O’Callaghan and Mr. Denny have -observed, it bears a striking resemblance to the stone adzes used by -the South Sea Islanders, and especially in Tahiti;--a resemblance -so strong that, unless it had been traced from the hands of the -discoverer into the Museum at Leeds, it would be considered by many -archæologists as an implement actually obtained from the South Seas. -It may have been derived from the lower stratum, which furnished the -equally peculiar harpoon, Fig. 26. - - -_The Approximate Date of the Neolithic Occupation._ - -From the position in which these remains occurred, it is obvious that -a neolithic tribe occupied the cave before the accumulation of the -angular fragments, six feet in thickness (Fig. 20, No. 3; Fig. 21, No. -3), just as the date of the Brit-Welsh occupation is fixed as being -after this, and before the accumulation of the two feet of débris -above (No. 5). And in this we have a means of roughly estimating the -interval of time between them. It is clear that the accumulation of -two feet of angular fragments, torn away by the action of the weather -from the cliff, has been formed in about 1,200 years, _i.e._ between -the Brit-Welsh occupation and the present time. If it be admitted that -equal quantities of the cliff have been weathered away in equal times, -it will follow that the thickness of six feet between the Brit-Welsh -stratum and that under examination was formed during a time thrice as -long, or 3,600 years; and that consequently the date of the earlier -occupation of the cave by man is fixed as being about 4,800, or 5,000 -years ago. It is perfectly true, that in ancient times the frosts -may have been more intense than they are now, and therefore that -the rate of weathering may have been faster. To the objection that -possibly a large mass of cliff may have tumbled down at one time, and -subsequently been disintegrated, it may be answered, that at the point -at the entrance where the section was taken there was no evidence of -any such fall; the angular blocks, both above and below the Brit-Welsh -stratum, being as nearly as possible of the same size, and not lying -with their faces parallel to each other, as would have been the case -had they been disintegrated fallen blocks. Nevertheless this attempt -to fix a date cannot lay claim to scientific precision, and in that -respect is neither better, nor worse, than any other similar attempt -founded on the rate at which a valley is being excavated, or alluvium -being deposited, or on the retrocession of a waterfall, such, for -example, as Niagara. It is merely valuable as enabling us to form some -sort of idea of the high antiquity of the neolithic men who left these -remains behind in the cave. - -As the trench (see Figs. 20, 21) begun on the outside passed into the -entrance of the cave, the accumulation of stones above the neolithic -stratum disappeared, and the latter became intermingled with the -Brit-Welsh layer above, so that it would have been impossible to -distinguish the one from the other had not the talus marked the -interval in the plateau outside. The talus also above the Brit-Welsh -stratum ceased at the entrance, although here and there large blocks -of stone, fallen from time to time from the roof, rested on its upper -surface. - - -_The Grey Clays._ - -Immediately below the neolithic stratum, a deposit of stiff grey clay -of unknown depth occupies both the entrance and the inside of the cave -(Figs. 20, 21), containing fragments of limestone and large angular -blocks which had fallen from the roof. A shaft sunk to a depth of -twenty-five feet near the entrance failed to arrive at the bottom, but -presented the following section in descending order: stiff grey clay -with layer of stalagmite six feet thick; a finely laminated calcareous -clay twelve feet thick; and below, a similar bed of clay to that on the -surface. In a second shaft sunk to the depth of twelve feet farther -within the cave, the base of the grey clay was not reached.[72] - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Section below Grey Clay at entrance.] - -A third shaft, at the entrance, however, penetrated the clay, No. -1 of Figs. 20, 21, 29, at a depth of about five feet, and revealed -the existence below of a reddish-grey loamy cave-earth (Fig. 29, A), -containing bones and teeth of the same animals as those from the -caverns of Kent’s Hole, Wookey Hole, and others, which belonged to a -group that invaded Europe before the glacial period, and that inhabited -the region north of the Alps and the Pyrenees in pre- and post-glacial -times.[73] - -We subsequently discovered the cave-earth to be from three to four feet -thick, and that it rested on an accumulation (Fig. 29, B) of large -blocks of limestone, the interstices between which were filled with -clay, sometimes laminated and at others homogeneous, as well as with -coarse sand. Below this we broke into an empty passage, one side of -which was formed by the solid rock, and the other of blocks of stone -imbedded in the clay. - -As we opened out a horizontal passage towards the cave-earth, A, from -the outside, the talus (Fig. 29, C) of angular débris was cut through -first, which gradually became more and more clayey in its lower -portions: at one point, D, there were several glaciated blocks, some -imbedded in clay and others perfectly free. It rested obliquely on the -edges of the cave-earth, and passed gradually at the entrance into the -clay occupying the interior of the cave. - - -_The Pleistocene Occupation by Hyænas._ - -The remains of the spelæan variety of the spotted hyæna were very -abundant in the cave-earth, consisting of fragments of skulls, jaws, -and bones, and especially of coprolites, which formed irregular floors, -accumulated during successive occupations of the cave by that animal. -All the bones were gnawed and scored by teeth, the lower jaws were -without the angle and coronoid process (see Fig. 92), and the hollow -bones which contain marrow were broken, while those which were solid -and marrowless were for the most part perfect: and this held good, not -merely of the remains of the hyæna, but of those of all the animals -which constituted their prey. The bones, for example, of the woolly -rhinoceros are represented merely by the hard distal portion of the -shaft of the humerus, and of the solid bones of the ulna and radius, -while the only portions of skull are the solid pedestal offered by the -nasal bones on which the front horn was supported, and a few smaller -fragments. The pedestal in question is depicted by the dark shaded -portion of Fig. 30, the outline of the skull and lower jaw being taken -from one of Professor Brandt’s plates of the Woolly Rhinoceros found in -Siberia.[74] The teeth which imply the presence of the mammoth (milk -molars 3 and 4) were those of a young individual, as is very generally -the case in caves which have been occupied by hyænas. The young would -naturally be more exposed to the attack of those cowardly beasts of -prey than the adult, armed with its long curved tusks, and defended, -not merely by its thick skin, but also by the covering of wool and -long hair which is peculiar to the species. Besides these animals, the -reindeer, red-deer, bison, horse, the brown, grizzly, and great cave -bears, were preyed upon by the hyænas and dragged into the cave. All -these species were discovered within an area of a few square yards of -cave-earth, which passes into the interior of the cave under the grey -clay. They belong to that well-defined group known as pleistocene, -quaternary, or post-pleiocene, which was proved to have inhabited -Yorkshire[75] in ancient times from Dr. Buckland’s discoveries in -Kirkdale, and Mr. Denny’s examination of the river-deposit at Leeds, in -which the remains of the hippopotamus were obtained. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Skull of Woolly Rhinoceros, showing the part -which is not eaten by the hyænas.] - -The last and most important addition to this fauna is that of man, a -fragment of fibula in the same mineral condition as the rest of the -pleistocene bones, having been identified by Professor Busk with an -unusually massive recent human fibula. Although the fragment is very -small, its comparison with the abnormal specimen in Professor Busk’s -possession removes all doubt from my mind, as to its having belonged -to a man, who was contemporary with the cave-hyæna and the other -pleistocene animals found in the cave. - - -_The probable Pre-glacial Age of the Pleistocene Stratum._ - -Is this occupation of the Victoria Cave by the pleistocene mammalia -pre-glacial or post-glacial?--before, or after, the great lowering -of the temperature in northern Europe? This difficult question can -only be answered by an appeal to the physical history of the clay and -cave-loam, and to the evidence as to glacial action in the district, -and to the distribution of the mammalia in Great Britain during the -pleistocene period. Glaciers have left their marks in nearly every -part of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and especially in the neighbourhood -of the Victoria Cave. The hill-sides around are studded with large -ice-borne Silurian rocks; boulder-clay occupies nearly every hollow on -the elevated plateaux; and moraines are to be observed in nearly every -valley. At the entrance of the cave itself, ice-scratched Silurian -grit-stones are imbedded in the clay, which abuts directly on the -cave-loam, and passes insensibly into the clay, with angular blocks of -limestone within the cave. They may possibly be the constituents of a -lateral moraine _in situ_, as Mr. Tiddeman suggests, or they may merely -be derived from the waste of boulder-clay which has dropped from a -higher level. - -The latter view seems to me to be most likely to be true, because some -of the boulders have been deprived of the clay in which they were -imbedded, and are piled on each other with empty space between them, -the clay being carried down to a lower level and re-deposited. Their -position, however, on the edges of the cave-earth implies, in any case, -that they had been dropped after its accumulation. - -There is another point to be considered in the physical evidence. The -deposits above the cave-earth, occupying the interior and entrance -of the cave, have been introduced by the rains, either through the -entrance, or through the crevices which penetrate the roof, and consist -of a finer detritus washed out of the boulder-clay on the surface at a -higher level. The cave-earth, however, although it has been introduced -in the same way, cannot be accounted for on the supposition that it was -derived from the boulder-clay, with which it contrasts in the fact that -it is a loam, of a reddish grey colour, containing a large percentage -of carbonate and phosphate of lime. - -Similar deposits, characterized by their red colour, are to be found -in nearly all the caves of the south of England, in France, and -southern Europe, not complicated, as here, by the glacial phenomena -of the district. Had the layer been formed in the Victoria Cave, from -the destruction of the boulder-clay, it would have been identical in -composition with the deposits above. - -The laminated portions of the grey clay are considered by Mr. Tiddeman -to have been formed by the flow of water through the entrance, derived -from the daily melting of the glacier which occupied the valley in -ancient times, and he compares it with a similar lamination in the -boulder-clay at Ingleton, which has been described by Mr. Binney in -the neighbourhood of Clifton, near Manchester, under the expressive -name of “book-leaves.” Since, however, similar accumulations are being -formed at the present time at the bottom of pools in many caves, as, -for example, in that of Ingleborough, they cannot be taken to imply a -glacial origin. They are not found merely in one spot in the Victoria -Cave, but are scattered, more or less, through the general mass of -the clay, and occur abundantly even below the cave-earth, having been -deposited in the interstices between the large blocks of limestone. -In these positions they are of uncertain age, and there is no reason -why some of the hollows which we discovered below the cave-earth (Fig. -29, B) should not be filled with them at the present time by the heavy -rains. They dip at all angles, and are conformable to the surfaces on -which they have been dropped. - -The most important argument in favour of the pre-glacial age of the -mammaliferous cave-earth is afforded by the range of the animals in -Great Britain during the time that certain areas were occupied by -glaciers. In a paper read before the Geological Society in 1869, I -showed that those areas in Great Britain in which the marks of glaciers -were the freshest and most abundant coincided with those which were -barren of the remains of the pleistocene mammalia, and I therefore -inferred that this was due to the fact, that the areas in question were -covered by ice at the time that pleistocene animals were so numerous in -the caves, and river-deposits of southern and eastern England, and on -the continent. In a map published in 1871, Cumberland, Westmoreland, -Lancashire, and the greater portion of Yorkshire are represented as -being one of these barren areas, in which no pleistocene mammalia -have been observed. It is obvious that the hyænas, bears, mammoths, -and other creatures found in the pleistocene stratum, could not have -occupied the district when it was covered by ice; and had they lived -soon after the retreat of the ice-sheet, their remains would occur in -the river-gravels, from which they are absent throughout a large area -to the north of a line drawn between Chester and York, whilst they -occur abundantly in the glacial river deposits south of that line. On -the other hand, they belong to a fauna, that overran Europe, and must -have occupied this very region before the glacial period, since their -remains have been found in pre-glacial strata to the north in Scotland, -to the south at Selsea, and to the east in Norfolk and Suffolk. It -may, therefore, reasonably be concluded that they occupied the cave -in pre-glacial times, and that the stratum in which their remains -lie buried, was protected from the grinding of the ice-sheet, which -destroyed nearly all the surface accumulations in the river-valleys, by -the walls and roof of rock, which has since, to a great extent, been -weathered away.[76] This view is also held by Mr. Tiddeman. - -The exploration of the Victoria Cave, which has hitherto yielded such -interesting evidence of three distinct occupations--first by hyænas, -then by neolithic men, and lastly by the Brit-Welsh, is by no means -complete. The cave itself is of unknown depth and extent, and the mere -removal of so much earth and clay as it is at present known to contain -will be a labour of years. The results of the exploration, up to the -present time, are of almost equal value to the archæologist, to the -historian, and the geologist, and prove how close is the bond of union -between three branches of human thought which at first sight appear -remote from each other. The discussion of the problems connected with -the neolithic and pleistocene strata must be referred to the fifth and -following chapters. - - -_The Kirkhead Cave._ - -Other caves in this country, besides the group under consideration in -Yorkshire, have been occupied by the Brit-Welsh. That known as the -Kirkhead Cave, on the eastern shore of the Promontory of Cartmell, on -the northern shore of Morecambe Bay, explored by Mr. J. P. Morris,[77] -and a Committee of the Anthropological Society in 1864-5, contained -remains of the same type as those of the Brit-Welsh stratum in the -Victoria Cave. In the débris which formed the floor and extended to -an unknown depth below, a coin of Domitian, “a trefoil-shaped Roman -fibula,” a pin, ornamented with green enamel, and a bronze ring were -discovered in association with broken remains of domestic animals--_Bos -longifrons_, pig and goat, dog and horse, as well as stag, roe, wild -goose, and many human bones. A bronze celt and a spear-head were also -found, at a depth respectively of five and six feet, and a flint flake -at a depth of seven feet; and fragments of pottery, a bead of amber, -cut bones, the perforated head of the femur, and other articles. From -this group of remains it may be inferred that the cave was occupied by -the Brit-Welsh, and before them by the users of bronze, and possibly by -a neolithic people, and that it had at some time or another been used -as a place of burial. Just inside the entrance, which overlooked the -sea at a height of 45 feet, a semi-circular breastwork of large stones -rendered the cave habitable, and capable of easy defence. - -Mr. Morris’s view that the discovery of a bronze celt, flint flakes, -and coins in this cave proves that all three were in use at the same -time, and by the same people, is not borne out by the published account -of the excavation. There is no proof that the deposit had not been -disturbed, or that the articles were not dropped at different times. -And in support of this conclusion, it may be advanced, that there is -no case on record of the discovery of bronze celts or swords along -with any Roman coins under conditions which would prove that they were -in use at the same time. Had such been the case the ruins of the many -Roman villas and cities, destroyed by the English, would have furnished -some examples. At Silchester, even such a rare article as a Roman eagle -has been met with. There is every reason to believe with Sir John -Lubbock, Mr. Evans, and other eminent archæologists, that the use of -bronze for weapons had been superseded by that of iron before the dawn -of history in this country. It is otherwise with the flint flakes; -since my discovery of several inside a Roman coffin at Hardham, near -Pulborough, in Sussex, in a cemetery that belongs to the later portion -of the Roman dominion in Britain, proves that they were used for some -purpose at that time.[78] - - -_Poole’s Cave, near Buxton._ - -In the collection of articles obtained from Poole’s Cave, in Buxton, -in Derbyshire, I identified, in 1871, in company with Mr. Pennington, -bronze Roman coins, minimi, Samian and other ware, and large quantities -of broken bones of the same animals as those from the Victoria Cave. A -bronze harp-shaped fibula of the type of Fig. 5 of the coloured Plate -is inlaid with silver, and is so perfect that it might still be used. - - -_Thor’s Cave, near Ashbourne._ - -A cave also, in Staffordshire, four miles from Ilam, explored by the -Midland Scientific Association in 1864,[79] under the supervision of -Mr. Carrington, has furnished articles of the same kind as those of -Yorkshire. It is known as Thor’s cave, and penetrates the lofty cliff -of limestone, on the south side of the river Manifold, at a height of -about 254 feet from the bottom of the valley, and about 900 feet above -the sea, running horizontally inwards, and being divided inside by a -row of buttressed columns into two noble gothic aisles. Its bottom was -occupied by clay, in which, near the entrance, there were thick layers -of charcoal at depths of two, three, and four feet below the surface, -mingled with broken bones and pottery, that indicated the spots where -fires had been kindled. The articles discovered were as follows:-- - -“_Bronze._--Armlet, two fibulæ of harp pattern (see coloured Plate, -Fig. 5), two plain breast-pins and rings, a curious wheel-shaped -instrument. - -“_Iron._--Large triangular fork, arrow-heads, lance-heads, several -knives and a chopper, of singular shapes, reaping hook (?), adze, pins, -two girdle hooks (?), &c. - -“_Bone._--Seven snags of deer’s horns, variously cut and perforated, -several others not perforated, curious bone comb ornamented with -circles, flat bone perforated with four holes, two leg-bones carved -at the ends, pin, a large quantity of bones of animals that had been -consumed for food. - -“_Stone._--Greenstone pounder, fragments of querns, perforated disk, &c. - -“_Pottery._--A large collection of fragments of various periods, among -the rest several pieces of true Samian ware.” - -Mr. Edwin Brown, from whose report this list is taken, concludes that -Thor’s cave was occupied during “the late Celtic and Romano-Celtic -periods.” The harp-fibulæ are of a pattern identical with several of -those discovered in the Victoria Cave, and the holes at their upper -ends were probably intended for the reception of enamel. The bronze -instrument, consisting of a disk cut out into a flamboyant pattern -like that of the round brooch from the Victoria Cave (Fig. 25), and -joined to a central stem ornamented with waved lines, was intended for -suspension; possibly, as Mr. Carrington suggests, it may have been -used for spinning. It is a remarkably fine example of Brit-Welsh or -late Celtic art. The bone comb is of the same type as those from the -Brit-Welsh caves of Yorkshire. It is evident, from Mr. Brown’s account, -that there were distinct layers of occupation; but, unfortunately, the -articles found in each were not separated from the rest. One armlet -(Fig. 31), composed of a thin plate of bronze, and ornamented with a -dotted-line pattern, is of the peculiar type which is characteristic of -the bronze age. - -The cave had also been used as a place of sepulture, for near “the -pulpit rock,” and at a depth of five feet from the surface, a skeleton -rested in the sitting posture which is so characteristic of neolithic -interments in Europe. It had also been entered by man even before any -of these accumulations. “In the south recess, behind and below any -traces of man’s occupation, the diggers came upon a kind of flooring -of tabular masses of breccia stretching almost across the cave, and on -one side attached firmly to the wall,” beneath which rested, in the -undisturbed clay, a deer’s horn, rudely sawn across and perforated by -two holes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Bronze Bracelet from Thor’s Cave.] - -Thor’s Cave, therefore, like the Victoria, has been occupied by man in -the Brit-Welsh stage of the historic period, as well as in the bronze, -and possibly in the neolithic ages. - - -_Historic Value of Brit-Welsh Group of Caves._ - -The discovery that caves were used as habitations by men accustomed -to the elegance of civilized life, not merely in Yorkshire, but in -districts so far removed from each other as Staffordshire and the -extreme north of Lancashire, during the fifth and sixth centuries, -implies the pressure of a far-reaching calamity by which they were -driven from their homes. It completes and rounds off the story of the -social condition of the country during these troubled times, which is -revealed in the sacked and burned Brit-Welsh cities and villas, as -well as in the scanty records of the English invasion. - -Subsequent investigation will probably show that caves were occupied -at this time in every part of the country which was conquered by -the English. In the upper stratum of Kent’s Hole, for example, near -Torquay, similar articles, with the exception of the enamels, have been -discovered. There, however, the occupation may have been considerably -later than in the caves of Yorkshire, because the Roman civilization -was not supplanted in Devonshire by the English until the beginning of -the ninth century. The river Tamar then marked the frontier between -the English, and the Brit-Welsh of the promontory of Cornwall, which -represented the dominion of West Wales in the days of Ecgberht.[80] - -In the numerous caves of Wales, on the other hand, which I have -explored, there is no trace of inhabitants of the fifth and sixth -centuries, a circumstance that is easily accounted for by the fact -that Wales was not invaded at that time by the English. There would -therefore be no reason for the civilized Brit-Welsh to fly to caves for -refuge. - - -_Principal Animals and Articles in Brit-Welsh Caves._ - -The following are the more important animals and articles found in the -group of caves under consideration. The species are identical with -those which I have tabulated from refuse-heaps of Roman age.[81] - - -_List of Principal Animals and Objects found in Brit-Welsh Strata in -Caves._ - - +-------------------------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+------+ - | ANIMALS. |Victoria|Kelko|Dowker |Kirk |Poole’s|Thor’s| - | | | |Bottom.|head.|Cavern.|Cave. | - +-------------------------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+------+ - | | | | | | | | - | DOMESTIC. | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - |_Canis familiaris_--Dog | X | X | X | X | X | ? | - | | | | | | | | - |_Sus scrofa_--Pig | X | X | X | X | X | ? | - | | | | | | | | - |_Equus caballus_--Horse | X | X | X | X | X | ? | - | | | | | | | | - |_Bos longifrons_--Celtic | | | | | | | - | Short-horn | X | X | X | X | X | ? | - | | | | | | | | - |_Capra hircus_--Goat | X | X | X | X | X | ? | - | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - | WILD. | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - |_Canis vulpes_--Fox | X | ... | X | X | X | ? | - | | | | | | | | - |_Meles taxus_--Badger | X | ... | X |... | ... | x | - | | | | | | | | - |_Cervus elaphus_--Stag | X | ... | X | X | X | ? | - | | | | | | | | - |_Cervus capreolus_--Roe | X | ... | X | X | ... | ? | - | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | - |Roman coins or imitations| X | X | X | X | X | X | - | | | | | | | | - |Enamelled ornaments in | | | | | | | - | bronze | X | X | X | X | ... | ... | - | | | | | | | | - |Bronze ornaments inlaid | | | | | | | - | with silver | X | X | X | ... | X | ... | - | | | | | | | | - |Iron articles | X | X | X | ... | X | X | - | | | | | | | | - |Samian ware | X | ... | X | ... | X | X | - | | | | | | | | - |Black ware | X | X | X | ... | X | X | - | | | | | | | | - |Bone-spoon fibulæ | | | | | | | - | (Fig. 22) | X | X | X | ... | ... | ... | - | | | | | | | | - |Bone combs | X | X | X | ... | ... | X | - +-------------------------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+------+ - -All the less important animals and articles are omitted from this list. -It will be observed that the brown bear, the wolf, and the fallow-deer -are absent. The brown bear was probably at this time very rare in -Britain, since its remains have been met with in but two out of the -many Roman refuse-heaps in the country, at London and Colchester. The -well-known lines of Martial, however, imply that it was imported from -Britain to Rome at this time-- - - “Nuda Caledonio sic pectora præbuit urso, - Haud falsa pendens in cruce Laureolus.” - -It probably became extinct about the ninth or tenth century. The wolf -obviously would not be likely to be used for food, although it probably -was abundant in the district. The fallow-deer also had not penetrated -into the hilly districts, although it had become naturalized in this -country by the Romans, so as to have been frequently used as an article -of food before the English invasion. I have seen its characteristic -antlers in refuse-heaps, both in London and Colchester, which have -furnished Roman coins and pottery. - -The beaver was probably very rare in the fifth and sixth centuries, and -has been met with in no cave-deposit, either historic or prehistoric, -in this country. It was, however, known to the Anglian conquerors of -Yorkshire (Northumbria), who called Beverley (lea, leag-) after its -name. - - -_The Use of Horseflesh._ - -The broken bones of the horse, in all the caves above mentioned, -leave no room to doubt that horseflesh was a common article of food -at that time. It was so, indeed, throughout Roman Britain, and after -the English invasion was used as late as the Council of Celchyth,[82] -in the year 787. It was forbidden by the Church because it was eaten -by the Scandinavian peoples in honour of Odin. In Norway,[83] Hacon, -the foster-son of Æthelstan, was compelled to eat it by the bonders, -in 956, and the revolt of the bonders which ended in the bloody battle -of Stikklestadt, in which Olaf met his death, in 1030, was caused by -his cruelties to the eaters of horseflesh. As Christianity prevailed -over the worship of Thor and Odin, it was banished from the table. -The present prejudice against its use is a remarkable instance of the -change in taste, which has been brought about by an ecclesiastical -rule aimed against a long-forgotten faith. The rule was not, however, -always obeyed, for the Monks of St. Gall, in the eleventh century, not -only ate horseflesh, but returned thanks for it, in a metrical grace, -written by Ekkehard the Younger (died 1036):-- - - “Sit feralis equi caro dulcis sub cruce Christi.”[84] - - -_The Cave of Longberry Bank._ - -The cave of Longberry Bank, near Penally, in Pembrokeshire, may also -be classed with those which were inhabited in historic times, since -it contained red fine-grained pottery of a kind commonly found in the -ruins of Roman villas. It was explored by the Rev. H. H. Winwood, in -1866, in whose collection are the remains of the _Bos longifrons_, -goat, badger, dog, as well as shells of oyster, large limpets and -mussel from the neighbouring shore. Some of the bones are burned. -Several human vertebræ and a metacarpal were probably the traces of an -interment of unknown date; and the two flint flakes are of uncertain -age. - -The results obtained by the exploration of the caves described in this -chapter are to be taken merely as the first-fruits of a new line of -inquiry, which is likely to throw light on many points relating to art, -history, and the range of the animals, and not as being perfect or -final. On the continent, no historic caves of importance have as yet -been explored. - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -CAVES USED IN THE AGES OF IRON AND OF BRONZE. - - The Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time.--The - Prehistoric Fauna.--The Archæological Classification.--Caves of - the Iron Age.--Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain.--The Caves - of Césareda in Portugal probably occupied by Cannibals.--The Cave - of Reggio in Apulia. - - -_The Difference between Historic and Prehistoric Time._ - -It will be necessary before we examine the group of caves used by man -in prehistoric times, to point out the important difference in the -measurement of time within and beyond the borders of history. When we -speak, for example, of the date of the Norman Conquest, we imply that -we can ascertain by historical records, not merely that it succeeded -the invasion of Britain by the English or Danes, and happened before -our own time, but that the interval which separates it from those -events can be accurately measured by the unit of years. If, however, -we attempt to ascertain the date of any event which happened outside -the historical limit, we shall find that it is a question solely -of relation. When we speak, for example, of the neolithic age, we -merely mean a certain stage of human progress which succeeded the -palæolithic, and preceded the bronze age, but we have no proof of -the length of the interval dividing it from the one or the other. The -historic “when?” implies “how long ago?” the prehistoric “when?” merely -implies a definition before and after certain events, without any idea -of the measurement of the intervals. - -An attempt to ascertain the absolute date of prehistoric events must -of necessity fail, since it is based on the improbable assumption -that the physical agents have acted uniformly, and that therefore the -results may be used as a natural chronometer. The present rate of the -accumulation of _débris_, as at the Victoria Cave of the preceding -chapter, or of that of silt in the deltas of rivers, such as the Nile, -or the Tinière, may convey a rough idea of the high antiquity of -prehistoric deposits; but a slight change either of the climate, or of -the rainfall, would invalidate the conclusion. When the greater part -of Europe lay buried under forest, when Palestine supported a large -population, and when glaciers crowned some of the higher mountains of -Africa, such as the Atlas, the European and Egyptian climates were -probably moister than at the present time, and the rainfall and the -floods greater, and consequently the accumulation of sediment quicker -than the observed rate under the present conditions. And in the same -way all estimates of the lapse of past time, based upon the excavation -of a river valley, or the retrocession of a waterfall, such as Niagara, -lie open to the same kind of objection. It is not at all reasonable to -suppose that the complex conditions which regulate the present rate of -erosion, have been the same during the time the work has been done, -and it therefore follows that the work done is a measure of the power -employed, and not of the length of time during which it has been in -operation. We must, therefore, give up the idea of measuring the past -beyond the memory of man, as represented in historical documents, by -the historic unit of years. We can merely trace a definite sequence of -events, separated one from another by uncertain intervals. And for that -series of events which extends from the borders of history back to the -remote age where the geologist, descending the stream of time, meets -the archæologist, I have adopted the term prehistoric.[85] - - -_The Prehistoric Fauna._ - -The prehistoric period is characterized by the arrival of the domestic -animals in Europe, under the care of man. The dog, swine, horse, -horned-sheep, goat, _Bos longifrons_, and the larger ox descended from -an ancestor, according to Professor Rütimeyer, of the type of the great -Urus, make their appearance together, in association with the remains -of man, in the neolithic stage of civilization.[86] Subsequently they -spread over the whole of our continent, for the most part under the -care of man. The _Bos longifrons_, however, and possibly also the -Urus, reverted to feral conditions, just as the horses and oxen, in -the Americas and Australia, have done at the present time, and their -remains are therefore frequently found in association with animals -undoubtedly wild. The domestic horse, the variety of hog descended -from the wild boar, and the domestic cattle derived from the Urus, may -possibly have passed under the yoke of man, in Europe, since their -wild stocks were to be found in that area, both in the prehistoric -and pleistocene times. This, however, cannot be affirmed of the swine -descended from the southern variety of _Sus Indica_, or of the Celtic -shorthorn, of the sheep, or goat, since their wild ancestors were not -indigenous in Europe. These animals must have been domesticated in -some area outside Europe; and since central Asia is the region where -the wild stocks still exist, from which all the domestic animals are -descended, it is reasonable to suppose that they were domesticated -in that region, and thence introduced, by a race of shepherds and -herdsmen, into our quarter of the world. - -This conclusion is considerably strengthened by the evidence which -Professor Heer has advanced, as to the vegetables used by the dwellers -on piles in the Swiss lakes, among which some, such as the two kinds of -millet, the six-rowed barley (hordeum hexastichon), the Egyptian wheat -(triticum turgidum), and a weed (Silene cretica), accidentally brought -along with them, are distinctively of southern derivation. - -The most important wild animals living in this country during the -prehistoric period are the urus, the gigantic skulls of which occur -in the peat bogs of England and Scotland, the Irish elk, the moose -(_Cervus alces_), and the reindeer. The two last are far more abundant -in the north than in the south of Britain; their remains have been -discovered in the neighbourhood of London, those of both animals at -Walthamstow, and those of the latter at Crossness in Kent, on the banks -of the Thames. The remains of the bison have not been recorded from any -prehistoric deposit in this country. - -The Irish elk is the only animal which has become extinct; while the -moose, or true elk, is the only wild species which has not been proved -to have been living in the preceding age. The stag was very abundant. - -The prehistoric fauna is distinguished from that of the pleistocene -not merely by the appearance of the animals above mentioned, which -were hitherto unknown, but by the absence of many species which were -living during the latter period. The cave bear, woolly rhinoceros, and -mammoth, for example, became extinct, the musk-sheep and lemming were -banished from a temperate latitude to take refuge in the regions of the -north, while the spotted hyæna, the hippopotamus, and Felis caffer, -retired to the warm regions of Africa, where they are still living. - - -_The Archæological Classification._ - -The prehistoric period has been classified by the archæologists -according to the stages of human progress which it presents. At the -frontier of history, in each country, we find that the dwellers -were acquainted with the use of iron, and had found it to be the -most convenient material for the manufacture of cutting weapons and -implements. Before this the voice of tradition points out that bronze -was the only material used for these purposes, and stone before bronze. -These three stages of human culture, or the ages of iron, bronze, and -stone, have been fully verified by investigations which have been -made in various parts of Europe, into the prehistoric habitations and -burial-places of man. - -This classification by no means implies an exact chronology, or that -any one of these ages, with the exception perhaps of the first, covered -the whole of Europe at the same point of time, but that the order in -which they followed each other is the same in each country which has -been explored. There is good reason for the belief, that at the time -the Egyptian and Assyrian empires were in the height of their glory, -Northern Europe was inhabited by rude polished-stone-using races. And -it is a well-ascertained fact, that while the inhabitants of Britain -and Scandinavia were in their bronze age, the Etruscans and Phœnicians -were in their full power in the south. It is obvious again, that, even -in the same country, the poorer classes must have been long content -to use the ruder and more common materials for their daily needs, -while the richer and more powerful used the rarer and more costly. -These three ages must therefore necessarily overlap. “Like the three -principal colours of the rainbow,” writes Mr. Evans,[87] “these three -stages of civilization overlap, intermingle, and shade off the one -into the other; and yet their succession, as far as Western Europe -is concerned, appears to be equally well defined with that of the -prismatic colours, though the proportions of the spectrum may vary in -different countries.” They cannot reasonably be viewed as hard and fast -lines of division, mapping off successive quantities of time. - -The age of stone is subdivided by Sir John Lubbock into the neolithic -periods, or that in which polished stone was the only material used -for cutting, and the palæolithic, in which mankind had not learnt to -grind and polish his implements. The latter belongs to the pleistocene, -or quaternary period, since the palæolithic implements are found in -association with the remains of the animals characteristic of that age. - -The prehistoric caves, therefore, may be divided into three classes -if the archæological method of analysis be employed: 1, into those -containing evidence of the use of iron; 2, those containing proof -of the knowledge of bronze; 3, and lastly, those in which traces of -polished stone weapons have been discovered unassociated with metals. -By the animal remains which they contain they may be distinguished -from those of the pleistocene age, both by the absence, as well as the -presence of certain species which have been enumerated. - -From the archæological point of view, two out of the four ages are -still represented. Stone is, at the present time, the only material -used in the more remote regions of Australia, although it is fast being -replaced by iron, which has superseded bronze, and is spreading rapidly -over the whole earth. The group of historic caves described in the -preceding chapter may be said to belong to the iron age, that is to -say, to that later portion of it in which the events are recorded in -history. - -The traces of the occupation of caves by man in the iron and bronze -ages are so extremely scarce, that it is certain that they were -but rarely used as habitations. Man had sufficiently advanced in -civilization in those times to construct artificial dwellings and tombs -for himself, instead of using the natural shelters which were so very -generally occupied in Europe by his ruder neolithic predecessors. - - -_Cave of the Iron Age._ - -In the course of the systematic exploration of caves in the Mendip -Hills, carried on by Messrs. Ayshford Sanford, Parker, and myself, a -cave was examined in Burrington Combe, near Wrington, in Somerset, -which may be referred to the iron age, and which we named Whitcombe’s -Hole. It opened upon the side of that magnificent combe, at a height -of about 135 feet from the bottom and fifteen from the top, and ran -horizontally inwards, the floor being formed of an accumulation of -earth mingled with charcoal, and containing numerous broken bones -and teeth. The latter belonged to the wolf, fox, badger, rabbit, -hare, stag, goat, and Celtic shorthorn. In the lower portion were the -fragments of a rude, unornamented urn of a coarse black ware, with the -rim turned at right angles, along with a bent piece of iron, which -bears a strong resemblance to those found strengthening the corners of -wooden coffins in the Gallo-Roman graves on the banks of the Somme. The -fractures of the bones, with one exception, were caused by the hand -of man, and not by the teeth of the carnivora. The position renders -the cave eminently fitted for concealment, for while commanding an -extensive view down the Combe, it is invisible both from above and -below, and opening on the face of an almost vertical cliff, it is -easily defended. If the urn be sepulchral, the interment must be of -a later date than the occupation, because it is made in the _débris_ -which resulted from the latter.[88] - - -_Caves of the Bronze Age in Britain._ - -The cave of Heathery Burn,[89] near Stanhope, in Weardale, co. Durham, -is the only one in this country that has furnished a large series of -articles of the bronze age. It is described by Mr. Elliott as running -into the precipitous side of a ravine, at a height of about 10 to -12 feet above the level of the Stanhope Burn, and as being partially -traversed by water. Since its discovery in 1861, it has been altogether -destroyed by the removal of the stone to be used as a flux in smelting -the ore of the Weardale Iron Company, and an admirable section of its -contents was therefore visible from time to time. A stratum of sand at -the bottom, two feet nine inches thick, deposited by the stream, and -containing angular masses of limestone that had dropped from the roof, -was covered by a sheet of stalagmite three inches in thickness. On this -rested a mass of bones and implements imbedded in silt or sand, and -sealed over by a thickness of stalagmite of from two to eight inches. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Bronze Knife, Heathery Burn (natural size).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Bronze Armlet, Heathery Burn.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Bronze Spearhead, Heathery Burn (½ size).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--Bronze Mould for casting a socketed celt.] - -On removing the upper of these two stalagmitic floors a perfect human -skull was discovered, along with broken bones of animals, charcoal, -limpet shells, bone pins, an instrument of bone like a paper-knife, -coarse pottery with fragments of chert imbedded in its mass, a portion -of a jet armlet, as well as several boars’ tusks. The same stratum -at another place furnished a singular bronze knife with a socket for -the handle (Fig. 32),[90] bronze pins, celts, an armlet of twisted -wire (Fig. 33), along with shells of limpet, mussel, and oyster, and -charcoal, and at a third, on the other side of the watercourse, a -bronze spear-head. Subsequently, many articles were added to the -above list, seven pins, three rings, two split-rings, a “razor,” disk, -three socketed celts, one chisel, two gouges, and four spear-heads of -bronze, and a fine bracelet, and two ornaments of the horse-shoe, or -split-ring type, made of thin plates of gold. One of the spear-heads, -in the collection of the Rev. Canon Greenwell, is represented in Fig. -34. There were also waste pieces of bronze, and the half of a bronze -mould for casting celts, Fig. 35, in which one of the associated celts -had actually been cast, since it is of the same pattern. These articles -were probably concealed in the cavern by workers in bronze, who were -prevented, by some unforeseen accident, from obtaining them again. The -charcoal and the broken bones of the _Bos longifrons_, badger, and dog, -imply that the cave had been used as a habitation; and possibly the -two human skulls, which have been described by Professor Huxley and -Mr. Carter Blake, may have belonged to the possessors of the hoard of -bronze and gold. Both were discovered in the same stratum and below the -floor of stalagmite. - -The more perfect of the two skulls is considered by Professor Huxley to -belong to the same long-headed race of men as that found at Muskham, in -the valley of the Trent,--to a form which he terms the River-bed type, -and that cannot be separated from those obtained from the long tumuli -of the South of England, and considered by Dr. Thurnam to belong to a -Neolithic Basque, or Iberian population. - -Articles distinctly of the bronze age have been already noticed as -having been met with in the caves of Kirkhead, in Cartmell, and in -Thor’s Cave, in Staffordshire. From the latter the bracelet of thin -bronze, Fig. 31, was obtained by Mr. Carrington, of Wetton. The rarity -of bronze implements in caves in Britain and the Continent is probably, -to a large extent, due to the value of the material, and to the fact -that it could be re-melted. If a bronze article happened to be broken, -the pieces would naturally be kept for future use, and not thrown away, -as in the case of a fractured stone implement. The former, therefore, -are rare, the latter comparatively abundant. - -The cave called the Cat-Hole, in Gower (Glamorgan), explored by -Colonel Wood in 1864, contained several human skeletons, flint flakes, -fragments of red pottery marked with a string, cut bones, a stone -muller, and a bronze socketed celt. The last is of the same pattern -as some of those in the collection of the Rev. Canon Greenwell, from -Heathery Burn, and has been cast in a mould similar in size and -ornamentation to that figured in woodcut 35. - - -_The Caves of Césareda probably occupied by Cannibals._ - -The contents of three caves[91] in the Iberian peninsula, referable to -the dawn of the bronze age, render it very probable that the use of -human flesh was not unknown in those times. - -In 1867 Senhor J. L. Delgado described his researches in the caverns -of Césareda, in the valley of the Tagus, in the Casa da Maura, Lapa -Furada, and Cova da Maura. The first of these contained two distinct -strata. The lower, consisting of sand mixed with fragments of rock, -rested on the stalagmite, and contained fragments of charcoal, one -implement of bone, and many of flint, a scraper, a flake, and an -arrow-head. The broken bones and teeth belonged to the following -animals:--The lynx, fox, brown-bear, dog and wolf, a species of deer, -the water-vole, and the rabbit. None of the remains of the carnivora -had been subjected to the action of fire, or had been used for food. A -human skull with lower jaw was dug out of the deepest part, but, since -the matrix had been disturbed, it had probably been interred after the -accumulation of the deposit. - -It is recognized by Professor Busk[92] as belonging to the same long -type as the skulls of the caves of Gibraltar and the Basque graveyard, -measuring in length 6·7 inches, in breadth 5·3, in height 5·5, and -therefore possessing cephalic and latitudinal indices of ·785 and -·820.[93] - -The upper stratum, a sandy loam, contained a large quantity of stones, -and numerous articles fabricated by man: polished-stone axes, flakes, -and other instruments of flint, bone, and antler, fragments of coarse -black pottery, with bits of calcareous spar imbedded in its substance, -and two plates of schist ornamented with a rude design, which may have -been used as amulets. Fragments of charcoal were scattered throughout -the matrix, and adhered to some of the pottery and to the burnt -pebbles. The most abundant remains were those of man. They were to be -counted by thousands, and were so fragmentary and scattered that it was -impossible to put together one perfect skeleton. The teeth, belonging -for the most part to children or fully-grown adults, were particularly -abundant. The long bones had lost, very generally, their articular -ends, had been fractured longitudinally, and some of them had been cut -and scraped. It is therefore probable that this accumulation was formed -by a tribe of cannibals: the evidence that human flesh formed their -principal food being precisely of the same nature as that by which the -flint-folk of the Périgord are proved to have subsisted on the flesh of -the reindeer. Professor Busk,[94] however, is inclined to believe the -facts in support of cannibalism insufficient. The associated animals -consisted of the bat, dormouse, rabbit, horse, a small ox, allied to -_Bos longifrons_, sheep or goat, wild cat, wolf, fox, and dog. The -contents of the other two caves were precisely of the same nature, and -had been accumulated under the same conditions. - -A bronze arrow-head, discovered in the upper stratum, and the -ornamentation of the stone amulet, consisting of alternate triangles -and zigzag ladders, as remarked by Mr. John Evans, indicate that the -upper deposit belongs to the age of bronze, and probably to an early -stage, when stone was being superseded by bronze, since many stone -celts were found in the same spot. - -The ancient burial-places of Ultz, in Westphalia, furnish a second -case of the practice of cannibalism, according to M. Schaaffhausen of -Bonn[95]. They are probably of the age of bronze. - - -_The Cave of Reggio, in Modena._ - -The human remains in a cave in the province of Reggio,[96] on the -northern flank of the Apennines, brought before the Prehistoric -Congress at Bologna by M. l’Abbé Chierici, and considered by him to be -proofs of cannibalism, are probably merely the result of interment in a -refuse-heap that had previously been accumulated. They were associated -with bronze pins, rivets, polished-stone axes, and various implements -of bone, fragments of pottery and of charcoal, bones of pig, sheep, -and dog, and belong therefore to the period of transition from the -neolithic to the bronze age. - -The caves have contributed but very little to our knowledge of the -bronze-folk in any part of Europe. Examples, such as those given above, -are scattered through France and Spain, but they are not sufficiently -important to require notice. We could not expect that men, in the high -state of civilization implied by the beautiful jewellery and ornaments -which are distinctive of the bronze-folk, would have chosen the wild, -half-savage life which is involved in cave-habitation. - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -CAVES OF THE NEOLITHIC AGE. - - Neolithic Caves in Great Britain.--The Refuse-heap at - Perthi-Chwareu.--The Sepulchral Caves.--The Neolithic Caves in - the neighbourhood of Cefn, St. Asaph.--The Chambered Tomb near - Cefn.--Interments in Tomb and Caves of the same age.--Contents - of Tomb and Caves.--Description of Human Remains by Professor - Busk--From Cave No. 1 at Perthi-Chwareu--from Cairn at Cefn--from - Cave at Cefn.--General Conclusions as to Human Remains. - - -It is evident, from the scanty remains found in caves, that they were -not the normal habitations of men in the Bronze or Iron stages of -culture. We shall, however, find that they were used by the neolithic -peoples, both for shelter and for burial, in nearly every portion of -Europe which has been explored. - - -_Neolithic Caves in Great Britain.--Perthi-Chwareu._ - -The most remarkable examples of caves, turned to both these uses, in -Britain, are offered by the group clustering round a refuse-heap at -Perthi-Chwareu, a farm high up in the Welsh hills, about ten miles to -the east of Corwen, and a mile to the west of the little village of -Llandegla, in Denbighshire. - - -_The Refuse-heap._ - -The first intimation of any prehistoric remains in that locality was -afforded by a small box of bones forwarded to me by Mr. Darwin, in -1869; and this I was able to follow up, through the kind assistance of -Mrs. Lloyd, the owner of the property on which they were found, from -time to time, during 1869-70-71-2. The mountain limestone, which there -forms hill and valley, consists of thick masses of hard rock, separated -by soft beds of shale, and contains large quantities of _producti_, -crinoids and corals. The strata dip to the south, at an angle of about -1 in 25, and form two parallel ridges, with abrupt faces to the north, -and separated from each other by a narrow valley, passing east and west -along the strike. The remains sent by Mr. Darwin were obtained from a -space between two strata near the top of the northern ridge, whence the -intervening softer material had been carried away by water. Its maximum -height was 6 inches, and its width 20 feet or more; and it extended -in a direction parallel to the bed of the rocks. The bones, which -had evidently been washed in by the rain, and not carried in by any -carnivora, belong to the following species:-- - - _Canis familiaris_--The Dog. - _Canis vulpes_--The Fox. - _Meles taxus_--The Badger. - _Sus scrofa_--The Pig. - _Cervus capreolus_--The Roe-deer. - _Cervus elaphus_--The Red-deer. - _Capra hircus_--The Goat. - _Bos longifrons_--The Celtic Short-horn. - _Equus caballus_--The Horse. - _Arvicola amphibius_--The Water-rat. - _Lepus timidus_--The Hare. - _Lepus cuniculus_--The Rabbit. - - The Eagle. - -Nearly all the bones were broken, and belonged to young animals. Those -of the Celtic short-horn, of the sheep or goat, and of the young pig, -were very abundant; while those of the roe and stag, hare and horse, -were comparatively rare. The remains of the domestic dog were rather -abundant, and the percentage of young puppies implies also that they, -like the other animals, had been used for food. Possibly the hare may -also have been eaten, but its remains were scarce, and belonged to -adults. Some of the bones had been gnawed by dogs. The only reasonable -cause that can be assigned for the accumulation of the remains of these -animals is, that the locality was inhabited by men of pastoral habits, -but yet to a certain extent dependent on the chase, and that the relics -of their food were thrown out to form a refuse-heap. The latter had -altogether disappeared from the surface of the ground, from the action -of the rain and other atmospheric causes, while those portions of it -which chanced to be washed into the narrow interspace between the -strata were preserved, to mark the spot which it once occupied. - -There was nothing in the deposit that fixes the date of its -accumulation. It may have been of the stone, bronze, or iron age; but -from the presence of the goat, short-horned ox, and dog, it certainly -does not date so far back as the epoch of the reindeer, mammoth, -rhinoceros, and cave-hyæna. The presence of the Celtic short-horn -throws no light upon the antiquity, because for centuries after it -had ceased to be the domestic breed in England it remained in Wales, -and still lives in the small black Welsh cattle, that are lineal -descendants of those which furnished beef to the Roman provincials in -Britain. - - -_The Sepulchral Caves._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Section of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu. Scale 12 -feet to 1 inch.] - -While the refuse-heap was being explored, I chose a small depression -(Fig. 36 A) in the precipitous side of the southern ridge, that formed -a kind of rock shelter overlooking the valley, and that seemed to be -a likely place for the abode of man, or of wild animals. On setting -the men to work, in a few minutes we began to discover the remains of -dog, marten-cat, fox, badger, goat, Celtic short-horn, roe-deer and -stag, horse, and large birds. Mixed with these, as we proceeded, we -began to find human bones, between and underneath large masses of rock, -that were completely covered up with red silt and sand. As these were -cleared away, we gradually realized that we were on the threshold of -a sepulchral cave. In the small space then excavated, human remains, -belonging to no fewer than five individuals, were found. Subsequently -the work was carried on by Mrs. Lloyd, under the careful supervision -of her agent Mr. Reid. The rock-shelter narrowed into a “tunnel cave,” -that penetrated the rocks in a line parallel to the bedding, and, -roughly speaking, at right angles to the valley, having a width varying -from 3 feet 4 inches to 5 feet 6 inches, and a height from 3 feet 4 -inches to 4 feet 6 inches. - -The entrance was completely blocked up with red earth and loose stones, -the latter, apparently, having been placed there by design (Figs. 36, -37). The inside of the cave was filled with red earth and sand to -within about a foot of the roof. The remains were found, for the most -part, on or near the top; but in some cases they were deep down. One -human skull, for example, was found six inches only above the rocky -floor. The human bones were associated with those of the animals of -which a list has been given, and occurred in little confused heaps. -One human femur was in a perpendicular position. The account of the -continuation of the digging is given almost in the words of Mrs. -Lloyd. On the second day, after an hour’s work, a human skull was -found near the roof of the cave, resting on a femur; then eleven feet -explored brought to light a large quantity of human bones, including -nine femurs. The third and fourth days were devoted to clearing out -the cave (Fig. 36-7 B) up to this point, and to excavating about four -feet further in, or fifteen from the entrance. During the work two -teeth of a horse were found, resting on the floor near the entrance, -and nine more about ten feet within the cave; also a boar’s tusk of -remarkable size, and close by a mussel and cockle-shell, and valve -of _Mya truncata_, along with a quantity of human and other bones; -including five skulls, more or less perfect, and many fragments. All -these skulls were found between the tenth and fifteenth feet from the -entrance. During the fifth and sixth days, the work was superintended -by Mr. Reid, who entirely cleared the cave for about thirteen feet -further: the first eight feet yielded a small quantity of human and -other bones, including the perfect skull of a marten-cat and the -incisor of a wild boar. The only implement found in the cave, a broken -flint flake, occurred here, and a nearly perfect human skull, lying -face downwards, with the pelvis adhering to one side. The last five -feet furnished only two bones, both of the short-horned ox. The end of -the cave was composed of unproductive grey clay. (Figs. 36-7 C.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Plan of Cave at Perthi-Chwareu.] - -Small fragments of charcoal occurred throughout the cave, and a great -many rounded pebbles from the boulder clay of the neighbourhood. - -The human remains belong for the most part to very young or adolescent -individuals, from the small infant to youths of twenty-one. Some, -however, belong to men in the prime of life. All the teeth that had -been used were ground perfectly flat. The skulls belong to that type -which Professor Huxley terms the “river-bed skull.” Some of the tibiæ -present the peculiar flattening parallel to the median line, which -Professor Busk denotes by the term platycnemic, and some of the femora -were traversed by a largely developed and prominent _linea aspera_; -but these peculiarities were not seen on all the femora and tibiæ, -and cannot therefore be considered characteristic of race, but most -probably of sex. They were not presented by any of the younger bones. - -All the human remains had undoubtedly been buried in the cave, since -the bones were in the main perfect, or only broken by the large stones -which had subsequently fallen from the roof. From the juxtaposition -of one skull to a pelvis, and the vertical position of one of the -femora, as well as the fact that the bones lay in confused heaps, it -is clear that the corpses had been buried in the contracted posture, -as is usually the case in neolithic interments. And since the area was -insufficient for the accommodation of so many bodies at one time, it is -certain that the cave had been used as a cemetery at different times. -The stones blocking up the entrance were probably placed as a barrier -against the inroads of wild beasts. - -These remains are the first in this country which present the peculiar -character of platycnemism, noticed by Professor Busk and Dr. Falconer -in human remains in the caves of Gibraltar, and by Dr. Broca in some of -those from the dolmens of France, and subsequently in the celebrated -skeletons found in the cave of Cro-magnon. I have also observed the -same peculiar flattening of the tibia in the only fragment of human -bone obtained by Mr. Foote, in the Lateritic deposits of the eastern -coast of Southern India, along with the stone implements figured in the -Norwich Volume of the International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology -(1868, p. 224). - -The remains of the animals associated with the human bones belong -to the same species as those mentioned above from the débris of a -refuse-heap, and are in a similar broken and split condition. They may -have been deposited at the same time as the human skeletons, but, from -the fact that some of them are gnawed by dogs, it is most probable -that they were accumulated while the cave was used as a dwelling. If -the bodies were placed on an old floor of occupation, and afterwards -disturbed by rabbits and badgers, the remains would be mingled together -as they were found to be mingled. The contents had evidently been -disturbed by the burrowing of all these animals. - -Subsequently we discovered and explored no less than four other -sepulchral caves, within a few hundred yards of the refuse-heap, in -which the corpses had been buried in the same crouching posture. From -one on the farm of Rhosdigre we obtained a perfect celt of polished -greenstone which had never been used (Fig. 38), together with several -flint flakes, and numerous fragments of pottery, rude, black inside, -hand-made, and containing in their substance small fragments of -limestone. - -Similar potsherds are preserved in the Oxford Museum, from the -superficial deposits of the caves of Gailenreuth and Kuhlock, and I -have observed them also among the remains from Kent’s Hole. The celt -was most probably, from its unworn condition, buried with the dead, and -it stamps the neolithic age of the interments of the whole group. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Greenstone Celt, Rhosdigre Cave. (Nat. size.)] - -Among the broken bones from this cave were the teeth of the brown -bear, and the lower jaw of a wolf; and the fractured bones of the -dog implied that that animal ministered to the appetite, as well as -obeyed the commands, of the neolithic inhabitants. I have met with -similar evidence of the use of dog’s flesh for food among the broken -bones which Canon Greenwell obtained from the neolithic tumuli of the -Yorkshire Wolds. On the other hand, the marks of the teeth of dogs, or -wolves, on some of the human femora, implied that those animals made -their way into this cave and feasted on the corpses. - -The neolithic age of these interments is proved, not merely by the -presence of the stone axe, or of the flint flakes, but by the burial in -a contracted posture,[97] and the fact that the skulls are identical -with those obtained from chambered tombs in the south of England proved -to be neolithic by Dr. Thurnam. - -The number of skeletons of all ages, and of both sexes, buried in -these caves was very considerable; and they had been placed on the -old floor of occupation at successive times. In that of Rhosdigre -the accumulation of charcoal, broken bones, and fragments of pottery -below some of the human skeletons, proved that it had been used for a -habitation before it was used for a burial-place. It is very probable -that originally the head of a family, or a clan, or a tribe, was buried -in his own cave-dwelling, and that it was afterwards used as a cemetery -for his blood relations and followers. - - -_The Neolithic Caves in the neighbourhood of Cefn, near St. Asaph._ - -The same class of remains, referable to the neolithic age, have been -met with in the caves in the limestone cliffs of the beautiful valleys -of the Clwyd and the Elwy, near St. Asaph. In the collection of fossil -bones in the possession of Mrs. Williams Wynn, discovered in 1833, in a -cave at Cefn, by Mr. Edward Lloyd,[98] is a human skull and lower jaw, -along with platycnemic limb-bones. They were found mingled with the -bones of goat, pig, fox, and badger, and cut antlers of the red-deer, -inside the lower entrance of the cave, in which the extinct pleistocene -animals were found in the valley of the Elwy. Four flint flakes also -were discovered along with them. - -The skull in its general features strongly resembles those found in the -group of caves at Perthi-Chwareu, and presents a cephalic index[99] -of ·770, which comes within the limits of the extreme forms from that -locality. Professor Busk, however, as will be seen in his account of -this skull, because of its low altitudinal index--·702, as compared -with ·710 of the lowest Perthi-Chwareu skull--is inclined to view it as -of a different type. The conditions, on the other hand, under which it -was found appear to me to be circumstantial evidence that the interment -is of the same relative age as that of Perthi-Chwareu. Both were in -caves: in both the remains of the same domestic and wild animals were -found in the same fragmentary condition. Flint flakes also occurred -in both; and what is more important, the platycnemic limb-bones in -both imply a somewhat similar mode of life in the people to whom they -belonged. This body of evidence, in favour of the interments having -been made by the same race of men who lived some time in Denbighshire, -seems to me of greater weight than that to the contrary afforded by -the difference of ·008 in the altitudinal indices of the skulls. After -a comparison of the carefully prepared measurements of the crania -published in the “Crania Britannica” with those published elsewhere, -I cannot resist the conviction, that if similar modes of life and of -burial in Britain imply an identity of race, cranial variation within -the limits of that race is by no means very small. Absolute purity of -blood in an island so near the Continent as Britain cannot be looked -for; and unity of type resulting from isolation from other races, such -as that presented by the Australians, is not likely to be met with. It -is therefore very probable that some of the variations may be accounted -for by the blending of different ethnical elements in one race. I am -consequently inclined to view the interments in these two caves as -having been made by the same people, in spite of the small cranial -difference manifested by the Cefn skull. - -The cave in Brysgill, a small ravine leading into the valley of the -Elwy, explored by Mr. Mainwaring and Mrs. Williams Wynn in 1871, -furnished evidence of the occupation of man, probably of the neolithic -age. From a dark layer composed of loam, black with fragments of -charcoal, a flint arrow-head, a core, a flake, and broken bones of the -horse, _Bos longifrons_, goat, and dog, were obtained, as well as a few -human bones which had not been broken by design. - -The excavations carried on in the small tunnel-cave of Plas-Heaton, by -Mr. Heaton and Professor Hughes, have shown that it was inhabited at -two different ages. In the upper or prehistoric stratum were broken -bones of the dog, badger, goat, _Bos longifrons_, and stag; while in -the lower, or pleistocene, were the remains of the hyæna, reindeer, -cave-bear, and the lower jaw of the glutton. - - -_The Chambered Tomb near Cefn, St. Asaph._ - -While the caves at Perthi-Chwareu were being explored, the accidental -discovery of human remains in the cairn of Tyddyn Bleiddyn, near Cefn, -St. Asaph, in 1869, led to a systematic examination of its contents by -Mrs. Williams Wynn, under the superintendence of the Rev. D. R. Thomas, -myself, and the Rev. H. H. Winwood, which has resulted in the proof, -that the people who buried their dead in caves used stone-chambered -tombs for the same purpose. - -The cairn of loose fragments of limestone had been removed for -road-mending before the cap-stones of the stone chamber were exposed, -and these were broken before any scientific observation was made. The -Rev. D. R. Thomas, however, rescued many of the human remains from -destruction, and began the exploration which defined the extent of the -chamber A (Fig. 39). - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Plain of Chambered Tomb at Cefn.] - -Subsequently it was resumed in my presence, and the chamber A (Fig. -39) fully cleared out. At the point _c_ it was partially shut off -from the passage B by a slab of stone 18 inches high. The passage led -from the chamber in a northern direction, and was 6 feet long by 2 -wide. The chamber gradually narrowed towards the passage, being 5 feet -wide at its broad end, and 9 feet long. In the passage, as well as -in the chamber, there were human bones belonging to individuals who -had been buried in a crouching posture. Unfortunately, as the remains -have been scattered, it is impossible to ascertain the exact number of -the burials. I have, however, restored one skull and examined seven -frontal bones, and other remains, which indicate that there were at -least twelve persons, varying in age from infancy to full prime, buried -in this tomb. In addition to these, there is a large box of bones in -the possession of the Rev. D. R. Thomas, as well as other remains in -other hands. But although the exact number of bodies interred cannot -be made out, there is full proof that there were too many to have -been deposited at one time in so small a cubic area; and therefore -they must have been deposited at different times, as in the caves -at Perthi-Chwareu. There were no remains of either wild or domestic -animals; and the only foreign object was a small slightly chipped flint -pebble. From the remarkable conformation of the nasal bones of some of -the skulls, it would seem likely that the burial-place belonged to one -family; but, for a reason (see Notes on Human Remains, p. 183) stated -by Professor Busk, this is by no means a certain inference. - -The plan of the chamber and passage corresponds with that of the long -barrow of West Kennet, figured in the “Crania Britannica,” and with -that of the cromlech of Le Creux des Fées, Guernsey, described by -Lieutenant Oliver.[100] In the former of these the corpses were buried -in a contracted posture, along with flint scrapers and fragments of -rude pottery. In the latter the original contents have disappeared. To -speak in general terms, the chamber and passage belong to the class of -tombs which Dr. Thurnam names “Long Barrows,” and Professor Nilsson -“Ganggräben,” and which are found in Scandinavia and France, as well -as in Britain. And it is worthy of note that the partial insulation of -the chamber A (Fig. 39) from the passage B by a slab (_c_), which does -not reach up to the height of the walls, is to be seen in similar tombs -both in Guernsey and in Brittany. - -A second and larger chamber, composed of cave slabs of limestone, -was discovered in the same cairn in 1871 by the Rev. D. R. Thomas, -and completely excavated by him along with myself and the Rev. H. H. -Winwood. It was of a rudely triangular form, 10 feet long by 6 wide, -traversed by a partition of slabs, and provided with a narrow passage -10 feet long by 2 feet 6 in width, opening to the north, and fenced off -completely from the chamber by a slab, as in the preceding case. Both -the chamber and the passage were full of human remains of all ages, -buried in a contracted posture; the number of interments being far too -great to have allowed the bodies to have been deposited at one time. -From the former I identified the broken jaw of a roebuck and remains of -goat, a broken flint, and round pebbles of quartz, while in the latter -there were the teeth and bones of the dog and the pig. - -Some of the tibiæ from both the chambers were platycnemic, but that -character was only to be recognized in the older bones. The skulls, -from the second of the two chambers, agree so exactly with those from -the caves, that it is not necessary to add to the table of measurements -which Professor Busk has drawn up (p. 171). - - -_Correlation of Chambered Tomb with Interments in the Caves of -Perthi-Chwareu and Cefn._ - -Nor are we without evidence that the builders of this cairn belonged -to the same race as those who buried their dead in the caves of -Perthi-Chwareu and of Cefn. The crania and the limb-bones are -identical, and in both the tombs and caves the dead were buried in a -contracted posture. - -Why then, it may be asked, were the remains of animals so rare in the -one and so abundant in the other? In my opinion this difference may -be explained by the hypothesis, invented by Professor Nilsson, of the -origin of chambered tombs.[101] The idea of the “gallery graves,” -according to that high authority, was derived from the subterranean -house in which the deceased lived, and in which he was buried after -his death, after the fashion of the Eskimos at the present day. The -plan of the houses, like that of the ancient Lycian dwellings described -by Sir Charles Fellowes, was preserved in the tombs, and probably for -many ages after houses were no longer made in that fashion; since the -principle of conservatism and the force of custom are more deeply -rooted in religious and solemn ceremonial than in the changes of -every-day life. - -The rarity of the remains of the animals may be explained by the -fact of these tombs never having been used as dwellings, while their -abundance in the caves may be accounted for by the latter having been -inhabited by man, and thus the idea of the dead resting in his own -house would be the cause of burial both in caves and chambered tombs. -It is not at all strange that the same race should have used both for -sepulture, when we consider that a “gallery grave” is an artificial -cave, and that natural caves are few in number. - -This ancient race is proved by the remains to have been pastoral, -rather than dependent on the chase, their principal food being the -domestic goat, the short-horn (_Bos longifrons_), the horse, and -hog. They are also proved to have been neolithic, not merely by the -discovery of a polished stone axe in one of the caves, but also by the -shape of the “gallery graves,” which Professor Nilsson and Dr. Thurnam -agree in referring to that stage of culture. - - -_Table of Contents of Caves and Chambered Tomb._ - -The contents of the caves and the stone chambers may be gathered from -the Table which we give on the next page. - -The broken bones of the hare prove that there was no prejudice against -its flesh, as was the case among the neolithic dwellers in the Swiss -Pfahlbauten. We shall see in the next chapter that the animal was -also eaten by the dwellers in the neolithic caves both of France and -Belgium. - - -_List of Objects in Neolithic Caves and Cairn in North Wales._ - - Column-heading Key: - A Refuse-heap, Perthi-Chwareu. - B Cave No. 1. - C Cave No. 2. - D Cave Rhosdigre No. 1. - E Cave Rhosdigre No. 2. - F Cave Rhosdigre No. 3. - G The Cefn Cave. - H Cairn of Tyddyn Bleiddyn, near Cefn. - - +------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | ANIMALS. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | - +------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - | DOMESTIC. | | | | | | | | | - |_Canis familiaris_--Dog | X | X | X | X | X | X | | X | - |_Sus scrofa_--Pig | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | - |_Equus caballus_--Horse | X | X | X | X | X | X | | | - |_Bos longifrons_--Celtic Short-horn | X | X | X | X | X | X | | | - |_Capra hircus_--Goat | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | - | | | | | | | | | | - | WILD. | | | | | | | | | - |_Canis lupus_--Wolf | | | | X | | | | | - |_Canis vulpes_--Fox | X | X | X | X | X | | X | | - |_Meles taxus_--Badger | X | X | X | X | X | | X | | - |_Ursus arctos_--Bear | | | | X | | | | | - |_Sus scrofa_--Wild Boar | | X | | | | | | | - |_Cervus elaphus_--Stag | X | X | | X | | | | | - |_Cervus capreolus_--Roe | X | X | | | | | | X | - |_Lepus cuniculus_--Rabbit | X | X | X | X | X | | | | - |_Lepus timidus_--Hare | X | X | | X | X | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | - |Polished Celts | | | | X | | | | | - |Flint Flakes or Chips | | X | | X | | | X | X | - |Pottery | | | | X | X | X | X | | - |Human Skeletons | | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | - |Platycnemic bones | | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | - +------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ - - -_Description of the Human Remains by Professor Busk._ - -For the following account of the human remains, reprinted from the -“Journal of the Ethnological Society,” January 1871, I am indebted to -the kindness of my friend Professor Busk, to whom examples of all the -forms were forwarded:-- - - - _Notes on the Human Remains._ By Professor BUSK, F.R.S. - - § 1. INTRODUCTION. - - The remains discovered in the sepulchral cave at Perthi-Chwareu, - according to a list furnished by Mr. Boyd Dawkins, are as under; - but I believe this catalogue does not include all that were found - in the locality.[102] - - 1. Eleven more or less perfect skulls, some, however, represented - by mere fragments. - - 2. Twelve mandibles. - - 3. Seven arm-bones or _humeri_--four right and three left. - - 4. Six _ulnæ_. - - 5. Twenty-two thigh-bones, including five pairs, five odd ones of - the right side, and seven of the left; and amongst them are three - of very young children. - - 6. Seventeen _tibiæ_ or leg-bones, nine of the right and eight of - the left side, and apparently none of them in pairs; so that there - must probably have been a good many more. - - 7. Eight _astragali_. - - 8. Nine _calcanea_, or heel-bones. - - The number of individuals, therefore, whose relics were deposited - in this cavern could not have been less than sixteen, and may have - been many more. They appear to have been of all ages and of both - sexes. - - Of the other bones of the skeleton, of which there must have been - abundance, I have received no information. - - In the Cefn Cave there were discovered:-- - - 1. One mandible. - 2. One _humerus_. - 3. Two _ulnæ_. - 4. A pair of thigh-bones. - 5. A pair of leg-bones. - - and in the tumulus:-- - - 1. Portions of seven skulls. - 2. Two right _humeri_. - 3. A pair of _ulnæ_. - 4. A right _femur_. - - From St. Asaph the only bone that has come under my observation is - a single _calvaria_. - - - § 2. DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES FROM THE CAVERN AT PERTHI-CHWAREU. - - (a.) _General Condition._--In general condition, as regards colour - and texture, these bones present some, but no very striking, - differences; on the whole they are much alike, though it might - be supposed that some have lain longer in the ground than the - others. One or two among them (but these are apparently the - younger bones) are fragile; the majority, however, are as firm as - common churchyard bones, and some have quite the natural degree of - hardness. They are of a lightish-yellow colour, do not adhere to - the tongue, and afford scarcely any earthy smell when breathed upon - or moistened: only one among them presents any staining from oxide - of manganese; and this exists in diffuse blotches, and is not at - all of the dendritic form. Many are partially covered with a very - thin film of crystalline carbonate of lime. - - [Illustration: FIGS. 40, 41, 42.--Skull from Sepulchral Cave at - Perthi-Chwareu.] - - (b.) _The Skulls._--Of these only three of the more perfect have - come under my observation. These alone will form the subject of - what I have to remark on this portion of the skeleton. But in - the subjoined Table I. (p. 171) I have given, together with the - dimensions of these three, those of five others which have been - furnished to me by Mr. Dawkins. - - In the specimen No. 1 (Figs 40, 41, 42) the entire facial part - is wanting, together with the whole of the base and a great part - of one side of the _calvaria_. The skull is of an oval form, - symmetrical, with a rather prominent occiput. The region of the - vertex is slightly and evenly arched; and the forehead, though - not high, is vertical, and slightly compressed on the sides. The - sutures are all open and finely serrated. The frontal sinuses - are distinct though small. The supra-orbital ridge is thin, but - rather prominent towards the external angular process. The mastoid - processes are very large, and the digastric _fossa_ remarkably - deep. The occipital spine is very prominent, as are the lateral - ridges. The temporal ridges, also, and, in short, all the muscular - impressions, are very strongly marked. - - The skull is evidently that of a powerful, muscular man, in the - prime of life, and apparently of robust, but not coarse build.[103] - - [Illustration: FIGS. 43, 44, 45.--Skull from Sepulchral Cave at - Perthi-Chwareu.] - - Skull No. 2 (Figs. 43, 44, 45) is that of an adult male, - presenting as nearly as possible the same dimensions, form, - and other characters as that above described, except that the - bone is somewhat thicker and heavier. The muscular ridges and - impressions are even more strongly developed than in the former, - and especially the temporal ridges immediately above the external - angular processes. The left _maxilla_ remains loosely attached, - containing the two bicuspid teeth, which are of small size, and - worn quite flat, and to such an extent as to render it probable - that the man was somewhat advanced in years, although none of the - sutures are closed. The face is strictly orthognathous, and the - skull dolichocephalic and aphanozygous.[104] - - Skull No. 3 is the entire _calvaria_ of a very young individual. - The two milk-molars remain on either side; and behind them the - first true molar is fully out, but not in the least worn. The - incisors and canines have fallen out. The former, from the size of - the _alveoli_, were of the permanent set, but not the latter. The - age of the individual, therefore, may be estimated as about seven - or eight. - - The only point worthy of notice in this _calvaria_ is the existence - of a well-marked depression across the middle of the occipital - bone, which appears exactly as if it had been caused by the - constriction of a bandage. The depression barely extends beyond - the lambdoidal suture into the parietals. It requires, perhaps, - some imagination to perceive the slight traces of a corresponding - depression in the forepart of the skull; but I think a faint - depression may be there perceived on careful inspection. The effect - of the occipital constriction, if it be such, reminds one of some - of the deformed French skulls described by M. Foville[105] and by - M. Gosse.[106] In all other respects the skull is well formed and - symmetrical. It is strictly orthognathous, and of a broad oval - shape. - - If deformed artificially, it would come under the head of “tête - annulaire” of M. Gosse; and Dr. Foville shows that this kind of - deformation arises from the popular custom of applying a kind of - bandage round the head of the new-born infant, which, passing - over the anterior fontanelle, descends obliquely, and is crossed - behind the occiput and brought back and tied in front. This band, - or “serre-tête,” he states, is worn during the first year, and - for a longer period by female children than by males. Dr. Lunier - gives pretty nearly the same account, adding, however, further - particulars.[107] It may be remarked, also, that the Berbers, who - formed great part of the Moorish forces that invaded Europe in - the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries, used to elongate the skull - posteriorly and flatten the forehead. - - - TABLE I.--_Dimensions of Perthi-Chwareu Skulls._ - - +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------- - | | | | | Least |Greatest| - | | | | |frontal |frontal |Parietal - | No. |Length.|Breadth.|Height.|breadth.|breadth.|breadth. - +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------- - | 1. | 7·5 | 5·7 | -- | 4·0 | 5·0 | 5·5 - | 2. | 7·6 | 5·7 | 5·4 | 4·0 | 4·9 | 5·5 - | 3. | 6·5 | 5·2 | 5·5 | 3·4 | 4·5 | 5·1 - | 4. | 7·4 | 5·8 | 5·8 | 3·9 | 5·0 | 5·8 - | 5. | 6·7 | 5·0 | -- | 3·5 | 4·4 | 5·4 - | 6. | 6·8 | 5·4 | -- | 3·6 | 4·3 | 5·3 - | 7. | -- | 5·5 | -- | -- | -- | 5·3 - | 8. | 7·0 | 5·2 | -- | 3·6 | 4·4 | 5·2 - +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------- - |Mean[A] | 7·07 | 5·5 | 5·6 | 3·8 | 4·64 | 5·4 - +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------- - |Cefn Cave | 7·4 | 5·7 | 5·2 | 3·8 | 4·7 | 5·5 - +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------- - |Cefn Tumulus | 7·38 | 5·65 | -- | 3·6 | 4·5 | 5·55 - +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------- - |Ditto | 7·2 | 5·6 | 5·7 | 3·6 | 4·35 | 5·5 - +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------- - | | 7·5 | 5·4 | 5·9 | 4·0 | 4·6 | 5·35 - +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------- - |Genista Cave, | 7·95 | 5·5 | 5·7 | 3·9 | 5·0 | 5·4 - |Gibraltar | | | | | | - +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------- - |Ditto | 7·35 | 5·6 | 6·1 | 3·8 | 4·9 | 5·4 - +--------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------- - - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+-------- - | | | | | | - | |Occipital|Zygomatic|Frontal|Vertical|Parietal - | No. |breadth. |breadth. |radius.|radius. |radius. - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+-------- - | 1. | 4·6 | -- | -- | -- | -- - | 2. | 4·8 | -- | 4·9 | 5·0 | 5·2 - | 3. | 4·1 | 3·9 | 4·2 | 4·5 | 4·7 - | 4. | 4·4 | 4·7 | 4·4 | 4·6 | 4·7 - | 5. | 4·1 | -- | 4·0 | 4·3 | 4·6 - | 6. | 4·0 | -- | 4·3 | 4·5 | 4·8 - | 7. | -- | -- | -- | -- | 4·6 - | 8. | 4·1 | -- | 4·1 | 4·3 | 4·5 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+-------- - |Mean[A] | 4·3 | -- | 4·3 | 4·5 | 4·7 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+-------- - |Cefn Cave | 4·8 | -- | 4·6 | 4·6 | 4·7 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+-------- - |Cefn Tumulus | -- | -- | 4·5 | 4·6 | 4·9 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+-------- - |Ditto | 4·35 | 4·6 | 4·45 | 4·8 | 4·9 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+-------- - | | 4·35 | 4·9 | 5·0 | 5·0 | 5·05 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+-------- - |Genista Cave, | 4·45 | 5·2 | 4·7 | 4·8 | 4·9 - |Gibraltar | | | | | - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+-------- - |Ditto | 4·5 | 5·2 | 4·75 | 4·9 | 5·1 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+--------+-------- - - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+-------------- - | | | |Fronto-| - | |Occipital|Maxillary| nasal | - | No. | radius. | radius. |radius.|Circumference. - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+-------------- - | 1. | -- | -- | -- | 21·2 - | 2. | 4·4 | -- | 3·7 | 21·6 - | 3. | 4·1 | 3·2 | 3·0 | 19·0 - | 4. | 4·3 | 3·9 | 3·6 | 23·5 - | 5. | 4·0 | -- | -- | 18·5 - | 6. | 4·2 | -- | -- | 19·8 - | 7. | 4·0 | -- | -- | -- - | 8. | 4·1 | -- | 3·4 | 19·5 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+-------------- - |Mean[A] | 4·2 | 3·5 | 3·42 | 20·0 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+-------------- - |Cefn Cave | 4·0 | -- | 3·8 | 21.0 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+-------------- - |Cefn Tumulus | 4·5 | -- | 3·6 | -- - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+-------------- - |Ditto | 4·3 | -- | 3·7 | 20·1 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+-------------- - | | 4·35 | 4·2 | 4·2 | 20·9 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+-------------- - |Genista Cave, | 4·25 | 4·1 | 3·75 | 20·6 - |Gibraltar | | | | - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+-------------- - |Ditto | 4·9 | 4·0 | 3·65 | 20·8 - +--------------+---------+---------+-------+-------------- - - +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+--------- - | | | | | - | | |Longitudinal| (_a_) | (_b_) - | No. |Circumference.| arc. |Frontal.|Parietal. - +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+--------- - | 1. | 21·2 | -- | 5·0 | 5·5 - | 2. | 21·6 | 15·9 | 5·5 | 5·6 - | 3. | 19·0 | 14·7 | 4·9 | 5·3 - | 4. | 23·5 | 16·9 | 5·0 | 5·0 - | 5. | 18·5 | -- | 4·4 | 5·2 - | 6. | 19·8 | 14·6 | 4·8 | 5·3 - | 7. | -- | -- | -- | -- - | 8. | 19·5 | -- | 4·5 | 4·9 - +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+--------- - |Mean[A] | 20·0 | 15·3 | 4·9 | 5·2 - +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+--------- - |Cefn Cave | 21.0 | 15·1 | 5·0 | 5·5 - +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+--------- - |Cefn Tumulus | -- | -- | 5·2 | 5·2 - +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+--------- - |Ditto | 20·1 | -- | 5·0 | 5·0 - +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+--------- - | | 20·9 | -- | 4·9 | 5·6 - +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+--------- - |Genista Cave, | 20·6 | 14·0 | 5·2 | 4·8 - |Gibraltar | | | | - +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+--------- - |Ditto | 20·8 | 15·3 | 4·8 | 5·6 - +--------------+--------------+------------+--------+--------- - - +--------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - | | | Frontal | Vertical | Parietal - | | (_c_) |transverse|transverse|transverse - | No. |Occipital.| arc. | arc. | arc. - +--------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - | 1. | -- | 12·0 | 13·0 | 14·0 - | 2. | 4·8 | 13·0 | 13·5 | 13·8 - | 3. | 4·5 | 11·6 | 12·45 | 13·4 - | 4. | 6·? | 11·0 | 13·0 | 14·0 - | 5. | -- | 11·0 | 12·5 | 13·4 - | 6. | 4·5 | 14·0 | 12·0 | 13·0 - | 7. | -- | -- | -- | -- - | 8. | 4·8 | 11·0 | 11·5 | 13·0 - +--------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - |Mean[A] | 5·0 | 12·0 | 12·5 | 13·5 - +--------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - |Cefn Cave | 4·6 | 12·2 | 12·8 | 13·8 - +--------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - |Cefn Tumulus | -- | 12·4 | 12·4 | 12·8 - +--------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - |Ditto | 4·9 | 12·0 | 13·1 | 13·25 - +--------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - | | 4·6 | 12·8 | 13·25 | 13·25 - +--------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - |Genista Cave, | 4·0 | 12·5 | 13·2 | 13·3 - |Gibraltar | | | | - +--------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - |Ditto | 4·9 | 12·3 | 13·2 | 13·3 - +--------------+----------+----------+----------+---------- - - +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ - | |Occipital |Latitudinal| | - | |transverse|or cephalic|Altitudinal| - | No. | arc. | index. | index. | - +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ - | 1. | 12·0 | ·760 | -- | - | 2. | 12·4 | ·750 | ·710 | - | 3. | 11·2 | ·800 | ·846 | - | 4. | 12·0 | ·797 | ·797 | - | 5. | -- | ·746 | -- | - | 6. | 11·0 | ·794 | -- | - | 7. | -- | -- | -- | - | 8. | 12·0 | ·743 | -- | - +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ - |Mean[A] | 11·8 | ·765[A] | -- | - +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ - |Cefn Cave | 12·0 | ·770 | ·702 | - +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ - |Cefn Tumulus | 10·9 | ·765 | -- | - +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ - |Ditto | 11·5 | -- | -- | - +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ - | | 10·5 | -- | -- | - +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ - |Genista Cave, | 11·4 | ·748 | ·714 | - |Gibraltar | | | | - +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ - |Ditto | 11·6 | ·761 | ·889 | - +--------------+----------+-----------+-----------+ - - [A] In taking this mean, the cephalic index of the young skull, - No. 3, is omitted; if included, the mean would be ·785. - - [Illustration: FIG. 46.] - - (c.) _Thigh-bones._--I have had an opportunity of examining only - a single perfect specimen of the thigh-bones. This is an entire - bone, 18·2 inches long, with a least circumference of 3·5. Its - perimetral index[108] consequently is ·192, which is about the - normal standard. The _linea aspera_, at the middle of the bone more - especially, is very prominent, so that the bone may be termed, in - some degree, carinated (Fig. 46). The shaft is straight; and the - chief peculiarities, besides the prominent _linea aspera_, which it - presents, are (1) an unusual compression in the antero-posterior - direction in the upper part, for the extent of about three inches - below the _trochanter minor_. At about two inches below that - process, or at a point corresponding with the lower part of the - insertion of the _pectineus_ muscle, the shaft measures ·9 × 1·45, - whilst in three other ordinary _femora_ with which I have compared - it, the bone at the corresponding part measures ·9 × 1·20, ·9 - × 1·10, ·9 × 1·15, showing that the Perthi-Chwareu _femur_ is - unusually expanded laterally in the upper part of the shaft. The - consequence is to give the bone at that part a peculiar aspect, - which is especially seen in an acute internal angle, and one rather - less acute externally, instead of the usually rounded internal and - external borders. (2) The distal extremity appears to be rather - disproportionately large as compared with a recent well-formed bone - of the same length, the condyles measuring 2·5 × 3·3 instead of 2·4 - × 3·05; and the lower part of the shaft is also somewhat expanded. - But the chief peculiarity, as above remarked, is the compression of - the shaft in the upper part. Besides the _linea aspera_, all the - muscular impressions are strongly marked, and especially those for - the insertion of the _gluteus maximus_ and the _trochanter minor_. - The neck is long and very oblique, and the head, upon which only - a small portion of the articular surface is left, must have had a - diameter of about 1·9. - - Mr. Boyd Dawkins has furnished me with the principal dimensions of - several other _femora_, varying in length from 16 to 18 inches, - and affording an average length of about 17, corresponding to a - mean height of the individuals of about 5 ft. 4 in. to 5 ft. 5 in., - the tallest being perhaps 5 ft. 6 in., and the shortest about - 5 ft. 2 in., no doubt a woman. The mean perimetral index of the - eight _femora_ is ·186, which shows, in comparison with the usual - thickness of well-formed male thigh-bones of the present day, a - certain degree of slenderness. That this is not altogether owing - to the circumstance that the bones include those of perhaps more - than one female is proved by the fact that in no instance does the - perimetral index exceed ·192, and in one thigh-bone, 18″·2 long, it - is not more, if the circumference is correctly given, than ·178, - the normal perimetral index for the adult male _femur_ in this - country being taken as about ·194. - - (d.) _Tibiæ._--Of the leg-bones brought under my notice, five are - entire and five more or less defective. The principal dimensions - and proportions of these bones, so far as they could be taken, are - given in the subjoined Table. - - - TABLE II.--_Dimensions, &c., of Perthi-Chwareu Tibiæ._ - - +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+ - | | | | | Antero- | | | - | | |Transverse| |posterior | | | - | | | diameter,| Least | diameter |Perimetral|Latitudinal| - | No. |Length.| proximal |circum- | and | index. | index. | - | | | end. |ference.|transverse| | | - | | | | | diameter | | | - | | | | | of shaft.| | | - +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+ - | | | | | | | | - | 1. | 14·9 | 2·8 | 3·2 | 140 × 80 | ·214 | ·571 | - | 2. | 13·7 | 2·7 | 2·9 | 120 - 75 | ·211 | ·625 | - | 3. | 13·2 | 3·0 | 3·0 | 135 × 80 | ·227 | ·592 | - | 4. | 12·9 | 2·5 | 2·5 | 125 × 70 | ·193 | ·541 | - | 5. | 12·9 | 2·5 | 2·75 | 100 × 70 | ·211 | ·700 | - | 6. | -- | -- | -- | 135 × 90 | -- | ·666 | - | 7. | -- | -- | -- | 140 × 90 | -- | ·642 | - | 8. | -- | -- | -- | 130 - 70 | -- | ·538 | - | 9. | -- | -- | -- | 135 × 85 | -- | ·629 | - +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+ - | | | | | | | | - |Mean.| 13·5 | 2·7 | 2·86 | 129 × 79 | ·211 | ·611 | - | | | | | | | | - +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+ - - In this Table the _length_ means the extreme length of the bone as - measured from the summit of the spinous process to the point of the - internal malleolus; and the numbers in the fifth column represent - the antero-posterior and the transverse diameter of the shaft at - the point where the popliteal line terminates at the inner border - of the bone, which is usually about an inch and a half below the - nutritive foramen. The _latitudinal_ index represents the relation - that the transverse diameter bears to the antero posterior, and - it is employed to indicate, with some degree of precision, the - actual amount of compression or flattening of the shaft as compared - with the normal form, which may, so far as my observations - show, be taken for the ordinary English _tibiæ_ as from ·700 or - ·800, or in the mean at ·730, as will be seen in the subjoined - Table, which contains the proportions of thirteen leg-bones taken - indiscriminately from a drawer in the College of Surgeons. - - - TABLE III.--_Proportions, &c., of ordinary Tibiæ._ - - +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+ - | | | | | Antero- | | | - | | |Transverse| |posterior | | | - | | | diameter,| Least | diameter |Perimetral|Latitudinal| - | No. |Length.| proximal |circum- | and | index. | index. | - | | | end. |ference.|transverse| | | - | | | | | diameter | | | - | | | | | of shaft.| | | - +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+ - | | | | | | | | - | 1. | 16·7 | 3·15 | 3·4 | 130 × 100| ·202 | ·769 | - | 2. | 16·4 | 3·2 | 3·5 | 150 × 115| ·213 | ·766 | - | 3. | 15·8 | 2·95 | 3·0 | 120 × 90 | ·189 | ·750 | - | 4. | 15·5 | 2·95 | 2·9 | 140 × 90 | ·122 | ·642 | - | 5. | 15·3 | 2·9 | 2·8 | 130 × 90 | ·150 | ·692 | - | 6. | 15·2 | 3·0 | 3·2 | 140 × 90 | ·213 | ·642 | - | 7. | 15·0 | 2·8 | 2·8 | 140 × 90 | ·187 | ·642 | - | 8. | 15·0 | 2·6 | 2·8 | 120 × 85 | ·187 | ·709 | - | 9. | 15·0 | 2·6 | 2·8 | 120 × 90 | ·187 | ·782 | - | 10. | 15·5 | 3·0 | 2·9 | 120 × 95 | ·193 | ·791 | - | 11. | 13·5 | 2·8 | 2·9 | 120 × 90 | ·214 | ·750 | - | 12. | 13·4 | 2·75 | 2·7 | 120 × 85 | ·201 | ·708 | - | 13. | 12·8 | 2·5 | 2·4 | 100 × 85 | ·187 | ·850 | - +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+ - | | | | | | | | - |Mean.| 15·1 | 2·88 | 2·9 | 126 × 91 | ·188 | ·730 | - | | | | | | | | - +-----+-------+----------+--------+----------+----------+-----------+ - - Comparison of the mean proportions given in the two Tables shows:-- - - (1) That the Perthi-Chwareu leg-bones are, on the whole, shorter, - and absolutely smaller in all dimensions but one, viz. in the - antero-posterior diameter of the shaft, which, notwithstanding the - smaller size generally of the bones, is rather greater (that is to - say, in the proportion of 129 to 126) than in the ordinary run of - English _tibiæ_. - - (2) That their perimetral index is greater, showing that, in - proportion to their length, the Welsh bones are somewhat thicker, - or in the proportion of 211 to 188. - - (3) But the most marked difference is seen in the latitudinal - index, which in the Perthi-Chwareu bones is ·611, and in those of - the ordinary type ·730, varying in the former case from ·538 to - ·700, and in the latter from ·642 to ·850; but the last is probably - an exceptional case. In accordance with this, we find that the mean - transverse diameter of the shaft at the point above indicated is - greatly under the usual mark, viz. as 79 to 91. - - It is clear, therefore, that the Perthi-Chwareu _tibiæ_ are more - compressed or flattened than the usual run of modern European - _tibiæ_; in other words, they belong to the platycnemic type. - - As this is, I believe, the first instance in which the occurrence - of _tibiæ_ of this peculiar conformation has been observed in - this country, the circumstance is of some interest, especially - with relation to the occurrence of priscan bones of the same type - elsewhere. - - This peculiar conformation of the _tibia_, to which we gave the - name of “platycnemic,” was, I believe, first noticed by Dr. - Falconer and myself, in 1863, in the human remains procured by - Captain Brome from the Genista Cave, on Windmill Hill, Gibraltar, - of which an account will be found in the Transactions of the - International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology for the year 1868 - (p. 161); and about the same time, or in May 1864, M. Broca[109] - independently observed the same condition in _tibiæ_ procured from - the dolmen of Chamant (Oise), and afterwards in bones from the - dolmen of Maintenon (Eure-et-Loire). Similar bones have since been - noticed in other localities on the Continent, as, for instance, - in the diluvium of Montmartre, by M. Eugène Bertrand. But that - the peculiarity in question is not common in all the varieties of - priscan man belonging to the reindeer period is shown by the fact - that it has not been observed in any of the _tibiæ_ exhumed by M. - Dupont in the Belgian caves. - - M. Broca’s almost exhaustive remarks upon the anatomical, - physiological, and pathological relations of this form of _tibia_ - leave but little to be said under those heads. I would, however, - venture to add a few words as to its ethnological significance. But - before doing so I would remark that there appear to be two forms - of platycnemism, apparently indicative of some difference in the - cause or nature of this aberration from the more usual shape of the - bone. To save many words, I subjoin outlines of several well-marked - instances of platycnemic bones, all drawn of the natural size and - in the same position, the letter (_a_) in each corresponding to the - interosseous ridge, and (_b_) to the _crista_ or shin. - - The line _b c_, drawn through the _crista_ and the middle of the - posterior surface of the bone, is bisected by another (_a d_), - drawn at right angles to it, at the level of the interosseous - ridge. - - In Fig. 47, which represents what may be regarded as a normal - _tibia_, the length of that portion of the antero-posterior line - which is behind the transverse line is to that of the anterior as - 274 to 1,000, whilst in Fig. 48, taken from M. Broca’s outline of - the Cro-magnon _tibia_, which would seem to represent the extremest - degree of platycnemism as yet observed, the proportion in question - is as 623 to 1,000. - - [Illustration: FIGS. 47, 48.] - - [Illustration: FIGS. 49, 50, 51.] - - Figs. 49, 50, 51, are taken from as many of the Gibraltar - _tibiæ_,[110] in which the proportion varies from 600 to 523, - whilst it will be observed that in Figs. 52, 53, 54, taken from - the most platycnemic of the Perthi-Chwareu _tibiæ_, the proportion - in one only differs in any considerable degree from the extreme - normal proportion shown in Fig. 47; and in this it is as 512 - to 1,000, whilst in Fig. 53, which is nevertheless undoubtedly - platycnemic, the proportion is exactly the same as in the most - triangular form of bone. - - It would seem, therefore, that platycnemism may arise from an - unusual antero-posterior expansion of the bone, either in front or - behind the level of the interosseous ridge. What this difference - may indicate, or of what importance it may be in the consideration - of questions relating to platycnemism, I am not prepared to - discuss; but as in all probability it is connected with a - difference in the cause of the deformation (if it be deformation), - I have thought that the observation should be recorded, and would - merely, in addition, remark that, so far as I have noticed, - the occasional and not infrequent platycnemism observed in the - shin-bones of negroes is what may be termed anterior. - - [Illustration: FIGS. 52, 53, 54.] - - With respect to the ethnological value of the platycnemic _tibia_, - I conceive we are as yet very much in the dark. That it is a - race-character would seem to me in the highest degree improbable, - seeing that it would be difficult to find any other points of - resemblance between the Cro-magnon platycnemic men and those - whose remains were met with in the Gibraltar caves, although the - platycnemism is of the same kind in each; and still less could - the former gigantic race be identified with the occupants of - the Perthi-Chwareu sepulchre, from whom they differ not only in - stature, but even more remarkably in cranial conformation. - - If, then, platycnemism cannot be regarded as of any value as a - race-character, it can _a fortiori_ be still less looked upon as - indicative of simian tendencies, a notion that M. Broca seems - somewhat inclined to favour. It is quite true that the _tibiæ_ - of the gorilla and of the chimpanzee are, to a certain extent, - platycnemic; but it is by no means so much so as the human - platycnemic bone. The _tibia_ of a male gorilla in the College of - Surgeons has a latitudinal index of ·681, and that of a female of - ·650, whilst that of the chimpanzee is ·611, or exactly the mean of - the Perthi-Chwareu bones. It is needless to insist upon the other - marked distinctions between the simian and the human _tibia_; but - as regards platycnemism it will be obvious, if we are disposed to - trace it to any genetic descent, that the descendant has, in this - respect, at one time far out-simianized the Simiæ. - - But this comparison with the anthropoid apes may, perhaps, afford - ground for a suggestion respecting some possible connection - between this peculiar form of the _tibia_ and the habits of the - people amongst whom it has been observed. One great distinction - between the human and the simian foot consists in their respective - adaptations to totally distinct functions. In the one case it - is simply an organ of support and progression; in the other, - for the most part, of prehension. This necessarily involves a - considerable difference in the proportions, &c., of the muscles by - which the greater mobility and adaptability of the foot, and more - particularly of the digits, are ensured. Would it not, then, be - admissible to inquire how far, at any rate, posterior platycnemism - may be connected with the greater freedom of motion and general - adaptability of the toes enjoyed by those peoples whose feet have - not been subjected to the confinement of shoes or other coverings, - and who at the same time have been compelled to lead an active - existence in a rude and rugged or mountainous and wooded country, - where the exigencies of the chase would demand the utmost agility - in climbing and otherwise? - - Some common cause of this kind would seem to be not improbable; and - it would not, perhaps, be difficult to ascertain whether it is a - _vera causa_ or not. But, with respect to this, observations are at - present wanting. - - From the foregoing data we may conclude:-- - - (1) That the Perthi-Chwareu bones belonged to a race characterized - by the proportionally rather large dimensions of the cranium, - whose form presents nothing very remarkable, and is pretty nearly - conformable to several of those found by Mr. Laing in the ancient - shell-mounds in Shetland.[111] - - (2) That this form is distinctly different from that of the - Mewslade skull, in which the vertical region is somewhat - flattened, as is the case also with several Anglesey crania, - which, however, appear to pass, by gradual transition, into the - Keiss and Perthi-Chwareu shape, through such a form as that of the - Towyn-y-capel skull figured by Professor Huxley;[112] and the whole - of them consequently may be regarded as belonging to the so-called - “River-bed skulls” of that author, excepting the Borris cranium, - which appears to belong to a different type altogether. - - (3) That the people whose remains were found in this locality were - of low stature (the mean height, deduced from the lengths of the - long bones, being little more than 5 feet), the tallest being 5 - ft. 6 in., and the shortest adult not more than 4 ft. 10 in., the - intermediate ones being 5 ft. 1 in. and 5 ft. 2 in. - - (4) That the proportions of the long bones are rather thick, and - the muscular impressions in all are very strongly marked. - - (5) That the _tibiæ_ are, for the most part, of a much more - compressed form than those of the modern English, but that this - platycnemism does not appear to be exactly of the same kind as - that which is exhibited in the Gibraltar bones and in those from - Cro-magnon (as figured by M. Broca), the difference consisting in - the fact that in the two latter instances the bone is expanded - backwards behind the transverse plane at the interosseous ridge as - much as it is in front of that plane, whilst in the Welsh _tibiæ_ - it is the anterior portion of the shaft only which is expanded; - or, in other words, the platycnemism in them is due simply to an - absolute compression of the shaft. - - - § 3. HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE CEFN TUMULUS. - - These remains, as submitted to my inspection, consist of:-- - - (1) Portions of three frontal bones, two of which are nearly - complete, and one constituted of little more than the superciliary - region. - - (2) Two parietals and a left temporal, probably belonging to the - same skull as the more mutilated frontal. - - (3) Portions of four thigh-bones, two left and two right, one of - the latter wanting the proximal, the other both extremities. - - We have thus the remains of three individuals from this interment. - - I. _The Frontal Bones._--No. 1. The least transverse diameter, - immediately behind the external angular processes, is 3″·6, and - its greatest (at the coronal suture) about 4″·3. Longitudinal arc, - 4″·1. The profile outline of the forehead is slightly receding; - the frontal sinuses moderately developed; and the supraorbital - border thin and acute, whilst the glabellar eminence is large - and prominent. The bone is a good deal compressed on the sides, - so as to have almost the appearance of having formed part of a - cymbecephalic skull. The bone itself is thin, and probably without - any _diploë_. - - No. 2 presents exactly the same characters, except that the - longitudinal arc is greater, being 5″·3. The postorbital or least - transverse diameter is 3″·4, and the coronal or greatest 4″·4. - The frontal sinuses are well developed; the supraorbital ridge - rather prominent, but thin and sharp; the external angular process - prominent and thick. Glabellar eminence large and prominent. - The nasals remain _in situ_, and project almost, if not quite, - horizontally forwards, with a rapid curve at first, and then - straight out. The general contour of the bone is exactly like that - of No. 1, in which also, although the nasals are wanting, the - position of the surface by which they were attached shows that they - must in all probability have resembled those of No. 2. The _crista - galli_ of the ethmoid, which is left _in situ_, is remarkably thick - and high. - - No. 3 is a portion of a larger and wider bone, the postorbital - diameter being at least 4″·0. The frontal sinuses are very large, - but distinctly defined, as the remainder of the supraorbital border - is not thickened. Owing perhaps to the greater prominence of the - sinuses, the glabella does not appear so protuberant as in the - other instances. The nasal bones remain and project forwards in - the same curious fashion as in No. 2. The frontal crest on the - inner surface is remarkably developed, being at least half an inch - high, though it is separated by a wide notch from the equally - strongly developed _crista galli_ of the ethmoid. - - No. 4, when the three bones of which it is composed are put - together, consists of the greater part of the parietal region of - the skull, to which, as before said, the last-described frontal - may have belonged. The left parietal is quite perfect; and a - considerable portion of the right also remains, together with the - entire left temporal; so that a very sufficient estimate of the - proportions of the parietal region of the skull can be obtained. - - As well as can be estimated, the parietal longitudinal arc, or - length of the sagittal suture, is 5″·2. The vertical transverse - arc, or that drawn from one auditory foramen to the other, over - the point of junction of the coronal and sagittal sutures, is - 12″·2, the parietal 13″, and the occipital 12″·2. In the temporal - bone, the external auditory foramen is large, the mastoid process - of moderate size, but the digastric fossa is wide and deep. The - channels for the middle meningeal artery and its branches are large - and deep; and very deep depressions on the sides of the sagittal - suture show that the _glandulæ Pacchioni_ must have been greatly - developed. The bone is very thin, and with scarcely a trace of - _diploë_ where its structure is visible. None of the sutures, - however, which are strongly serrated, are in the slightest degree - closed, although, as I should imagine, the skull must have been - that of a man beyond the middle period of life. - - II. _The Thigh-bones._--Two of these bones, which, though much - alike, differ sufficiently to show that they did not belong to the - same individual, are decidedly carinate. - - No. 1 wants the upper and lower ends. The least circumference - of the shaft, which is at a point about 3½ inches below the - _trochanter minor_, is 3″·2. That process, as well as all the - other muscular impressions, is strongly developed; and that for - the insertion of the _gluteus maximus_ is peculiar in presenting - the form of a deep elongated pit instead of a roughened elevation - as usual. The antero-posterior and transverse diameters of the - shaft, about 1½ inches below the _trochanter minor_, are ·85 × 1·4; - and the shaft at this part, like that of the above-described from - Perthi-Chwareu, presents a rather acute or narrow external and - internal border instead of the usual more rounded form. Lower down, - the shaft becomes strongly carinate; and, owing to the flattened - form of the anterior surface, its transverse section affords a - subtriangular figure (fig. 55). The walls, or cortical substance, - are rather thicker than usual, and the substance of the bone is - dense and hard. - - [Illustration: FIG. 55.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 56.] - - No. 2 is very similar in character to the foregoing, but is not - quite so much compressed in the upper part, measuring ·8 × 1·2. - Nevertheless the inner border is very acute, and the outer more so - than in the common form of _femur_. The shaft lower down is not so - strongly carinate as it is in the former instance, but is still so - in some degree (Fig. 56); and the walls (or cortical substance) are - still thicker in proportion. - - [Illustration: FIG. 57.] - - [Illustration: FIG. 58.] - - No. 3. A third specimen consists of the lower half, or rather - more, of the right _femur_. The least circumference is 3″·2. - The bone exhibits no special external characters, and is in no - degree carinated. The shaft, at about the middle of its length, - is somewhat angular in front; and the pit for the origin of the - _popliteus_ muscle is deeper and perhaps larger than in most - bones of the same size. The texture of the cortical substance is - quite eburneous; and it is extremely thick, so that the medullary - canal is reduced to a calibre of little more than 0″·25 in its - longest diameter. The shaft, however, is straight, and exhibits - no other sign whatever of having been affected with _rachitis_. - It is, however, a curious circumstance that many of the Gibraltar - thigh-bones, most of which are carinate, present the same - thickening of the cortical substance (Fig. 57). - - No. 4. A fourth specimen is constituted of merely a portion of the - shaft, about 12 inches long, and without either extremity. Its - least diameter is 3″·3, and its antero-posterior and transverse - diameters, at the same point as in the other bones, 1 × 1·25, or - pretty nearly in the usual proportions. Nevertheless the bone, - throughout its whole remaining extent, is less rounded on the - inner side of the shaft than is usual. The _trochanter minor_ is - of gigantic size; and the shaft of the bone, about and below the - middle, exhibits a subtriangular aspect (Fig. 58), though scarcely - to be called carinate. The cortical substance is of the normal - thickness. - - III. _Tibiæ._--No. 1 consists of the greater portion of the left - tibia, wanting only the lower extremity. The proximal end measures - 2·9 × 1·9; and the diameters of the shaft, about the middle, - are 1·2 × ·75, giving a latitudinal index of ·620. The shin is - remarkably sharp and prominent, and rather curved over to the outer - side; and the apparent compression or tendency to platycnemism may - in some measure be referred more to the production in front of the - anterior part of the bone than to actual narrowing of the posterior - side of the triangle, which is nevertheless rather more rounded - than in most cases. The axis of the shaft is quite straight; and - the bone has not the least rickety appearance. - - No. 2 is also a portion of the left tibia. Both extremities are - wanting, and the bone offers nothing worthy of remark. Its least - circumference is 2″·65; and the shaft, at the middle, measures - 1″·1 × ·65; so that the latitudinal index is about ·640, showing a - slight degree of compression. The entire length of the bone may be - estimated as rather more than 13 inches, corresponding to a height - of about 5 ft. 4 in. or 5 ft. 5 in., so that the subject may be - supposed to have been a female. - - These remains represent at least four individuals--one probably - somewhat aged, another of strong and robust make, and one, in all - probability, a woman--in fact, a family group. No correct idea can - be formed of the cranial conformation of these persons. In general - shape it would seem to correspond with that of the Perthi-Chwareu - skulls; but two of them at any rate are of smaller size, if we - may judge from the least frontal diameter. The forehead also is - perhaps a little more reclined. The most striking feature in two - of the specimens, and which appears also to have existed in a - third, is the extraordinary projection forwards of the nasal bones. - In the present case this may probably be regarded as a family - peculiarity; but with reference to it, it should be remembered - that M. Broca[113] has described a very similar condition in the - skull of the “Old man” of Cro-magnon, in whom, he says, “the ridge - of the nose, slightly depressed at its base, rises again almost - immediately, and advances boldly forward, making a rapid curve, - with the concavity directed rather forward and especially upward, - so that the lower ends of the _ossa nasi_ are placed 18 mm. (·7 - inch) in front of a line dropped vertically from the fronto-nasal - suture.” - - The condition of the bones from the Cefn tumulus differs very - considerably from that of the remains from Perthi-Chwareu. They all - have an appearance of much greater antiquity. With the exception of - the very dense _femur_, they adhere to the tongue; and they are all - deeply stained with manganous oxide, by which the substance even of - the hardest portions is stained to a depth of more than one-eighth - of an inch. That this discoloration, which for the most part does - not assume the dendritic appearance, is due to manganese and not to - any vegetable stain, is quite certain. - - The form of the skull, so far as it can be ascertained from - such imperfect remains, and the rather platycnemic shape of the - _tibiæ_, may perhaps justify our supposing that the Cefn bones - belong to a cognate race to those whose remains were deposited at - Perthi-Chwareu, or to one which had lived under similar conditions. - But the cranial data are hardly sufficient to allow of any - satisfactory inference being drawn from them: and as regards the - _tibiæ_, it has already been pointed out that platycnemism cannot, - in the present state of our knowledge, be regarded as an important - ethnological character amongst priscan peoples, though it may - undoubtedly be considered a character betokening remote antiquity. - - - § 4. SKULL FROM THE CEFN CAVE, NEAR ST. ASAPH. - - The only specimen of human remains from this locality is a nearly - entire _calvaria_, wanting the whole of the face below the - superciliary border. - - In the middle of the left parietal bone is a small irregular - opening, with short radiating lines of fracture proceeding from it; - but this appears to have been recently caused, and from the inside. - - The bone generally is of a brown colour, and, as regards firmness, - in a natural condition; and it does not adhere to the tongue. - Judging from its aspect alone, it would not appear to be of any - very great antiquity; but as it has lain in a dry soil, and - sheltered from rain or moisture, this appearance may be deceptive. - - Its dimensions are given in Table I. (_supra_), from which it - will be seen that the cephalic or latitudinal index is ·770, and - the altitudinal ·702. It belongs, therefore, to the category of - subbrachy-cephalic skulls of Thurnam and Professor Huxley. - - [Illustration: FIGS. 59, 60, 61.--Skull from Cave at Cefn, St. - Asaph.] - - In the side view (_norma lateralis_--Plate 7, Fig. 59), it so - closely resembles, except in one respect, that described and - figured by Professor Huxley (_loc. cit._ p. 125, Figs. 60, 61) from - the bed of the Nore, at Borris, in Ireland, that we can scarcely - refuse to recognize a common character between them, which, since - in the present case it cannot be looked upon as denoting a mere - family relationship, may reasonably be regarded as indicative of - some affinity of race. The chief difference observable in this view - of the two skulls is the greater development of the frontal sinuses - in the Borris _calvaria_. The occipital view (_norma occipitalis_, - Fig. 8) is also very similar, except that in the Borris skull the - greatest width appears to be in the temporal, and in the other the - parietal region. In the Borris skull, also, there is a shallow - groove in the course of the sagittal suture, which does not exist - in that from St. Asaph. - - The Borris skull is said to be of the extraordinary length of 8 - inches; and this may account for the much lower cephalic index - of the skull, whose absolute width in reality somewhat exceeds - the Cefn specimen (5″·9 and 5″·7), whilst the altitudinal as - compared with the latitudinal is but very little greater than it - would be were the skulls reduced to the same breadth. They may - both, therefore, be regarded as “low,” or, as this class of skull - might be termed, in the euphonious language of craniologists, - “tapinocephalic.” One great peculiarity of the Cefn _cranium_ - (which exists also, but apparently not to quite so great a - degree, in the other) is the absolute horizontality of the plane - of the subinial portion of the occipital bone. And it is to this - flattening that the comparative lowness may perhaps be chiefly - attributed. - - The sutures, where visible, appear to be open. The mastoid - processes and all other muscular impressions are strongly marked. - - A third skull of very similar character, except that it is not so - much depressed, has come under my observation. It was discovered in - a submarine or, rather, subterranean peat-bed or ancient forest, - 30 feet below the sea-level, at Sennen, near the Land’s End, in - Cornwall; and a brief notice and outline figure of it will be found - in the “Natural History Review” for 1861.[114] The Sennen skull has - the same elongated form; but it is higher than either the Cefn, St. - Asaph, or Borris crania, having an altitudinal index of ·730. - - On the whole, these three skulls (_i.e._ those from Borris, Sennen, - and St. Asaph) would appear to have a common character, and to be - of a different type from either the Perthi-Chwareu or the Mewslade - form. - - As a rule it may, I think, be stated that in all brachy-cephalic - skulls the breadth exceeds the height, whilst the reverse is the - case in the dolicho-cephalic. Individual exceptions are of course - not unfrequently met with, more especially among very mixed races, - such as the modern English; but I am myself acquainted with only - two dolicho-cephalic _races_, properly so termed, in which the rule - does not hold good. These are the Tasmanian (not Australian) and - the Bushman. - - Any exceptions, therefore, to either rule among ancient and, - consequently, less mixed races are worthy of being noted. - - As regards modern brachy-cephalic skulls the law holds almost - universally, the only marked exception, except in an individual - here and there, being in two Karén skulls, in which, although both - decidedly brachy-cephalic, the respective indices stand as ·848 to - ·924, and as ·790 to ·842. - - Among priscan brachy-cephalic skulls the most remarkable and - important exceptions I have met with occur among the neolithic - crania in the Copenhagen Museum, more than half of which are - brachy-cephalic, and most of the others nearly so, the mean - cephalic index of 21 skulls being ·790, whilst the mean altitudinal - is as high as ·810. In fact, out of 12 skulls whose indices vary - from ·795 to ·838, no fewer than 10 have the latitudinal index less - than the altitudinal. - - The exceptions to the rule as applied to dolicho-cephalic skulls - also appear to be far more common among the ancient than among the - modern, excepting the two races I have above referred to. - - In a long list of ancient and priscan skulls, I find the following - having the tapino-cephalic character:-- - - +-------------------------------------------+----------+------------+ - | | L. Ind. | Alt. Ind. | - +-------------------------------------------+----------+------------+ - | 1. From the Thames alluvium at Old Ford | ·792 | ·753 | - | 2. From the same deposit at East Ham | ·774 | ·690 | - | 3. From the same deposit at Battersea | ·763 | ·745 | - | 4. From the same deposit at London Bridge | ·762 | ·611 | - | 5. From tumulus at Stanshope | ·763 | ·684 | - | 6. A Guanche skull | ·775 | ·737 | - | 7. A Guanche skull | ·763 | ·684 | - | 8. Cefn, St. Asaph’s | ·770 | ·702 | - +-------------------------------------------+----------+------------+ - - The number is but small, it must be confessed, and perhaps hardly - sufficient to do more than prove the rule; but still I think it - will be found worth inquiry whether a departure from the rule - in question was more frequent among the unmixed or little-mixed - races of ancient times than it is amongst similarly unmixed races - of the present day; and whether consequently its infraction in a - considerable number of instances may or may not be indicative of a - lower type, as which we are accustomed to regard the Tasmanian and - Bushman races. - - -_General Conclusions as to Human Remains._ - -The human remains in the caves of Perthi-Chwareu and Cefn, and in the -cairn near the latter place, imply that the men to which they belonged -were a short race, the tallest being about 5 feet 6 inches, and the -shortest 4 feet 10 inches.[115] Their skulls are orthognathic,[116] or -not presenting a lower jaw advancing beyond the vertical line dropped -from the forehead; in shape ortho-cephalic, or subbrachy-cephalous, -and of fair average capacity. The face was oval and the cheek-bones -were not prominent. Some of the individuals were characterised by the -peculiar flattening of shin (platycnemism), which probably stood in -relation to the free action of the foot that was not impeded by the use -of a rigid sole or sandal. This character, however, is neither peculiar -to race, nor to be viewed as a tendency towards the simian type of -leg. These conclusions, which Professor Busk has arrived at from the -examination of the remains which were submitted to him, have been -fully borne out by the numerous skeletons which have been subsequently -discovered, both in the sepulchral caves at Rhosdigre and in a second -chamber in the cairn of Tyddyn Bleiddyn near Cefn. - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE RANGE OF NEOLITHIC DOLICHO-CEPHALI AND BRACHY-CEPHALI. - - Relation of Human Remains to those found in Tumuli in Britain. - --The Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali.--Their Range in - Britain and Ireland--in France.--The Caverne de l’Homme Mort. - --The Sepulchral Cave of Orrouy.--The Tumuli.--In Belgium. - --The Sepulchral Caves of Chauvaux and Sclaigneaux.--The - Dolicho-cephali of the Iberian Peninsula--Gibraltar--Spain. - --Cueva de los Murcièlagos.--The Woman’s Cave near Alhama - in Granada.--The Guanches of the Canary Isles.--Iberic - Dolicho-cephali of the same race as those of Britain, France, and - Belgium--Cognate or Identical with the Basque Race.--Evidence - of History as to the Peoples of Gaul and Spain.--The Basque - Populations the Oldest.--The Population of Britain.--Basque - characters in Present Population of Britain and France.--Whence - came the Basques?--The Celtic and Belgic Brachy-cephali.--The - Ancient German Race.--General Conclusions. - - -_The Relation of the Human Remains to those found in British Tumuli._ - -Before we examine the relation of this ancient neolithic race of men to -those who have left their remains in tumuli and caves in other regions, -it is necessary to define the cranial terminology, as adopted by -Professors Busk, Huxley, Dr. Thurnam, and other high authorities. The -term “cephalic index” indicates “the ratio of the extreme transverse to -the extreme longitudinal diameter of the skull, the latter measurement -being taken as unity” (Huxley). - -The most convenient classification of crania is that adopted by Dr. -Thurnam and Professor Huxley,[117] and based on the cephalic index. - - I. Dolicho-cephali, or long skulls with cephalic index at or below ·73 - Subdolicho-cephali ” ” from ·70 to ·73 - II. Ortho-cephali, or oval skulls ” ·74 to ·79 - Subbrachy-cephali ” ·77 to ·79 - III. Brachy-cephali or broad skulls at or above ·80 - -It has been objected that skull form is of no value in determining -race, because it varies so much at the present time among the same -peoples, presenting the extremes of dolicho- and brachy-cephalism as -well as every kind of asymmetry. This, however, is due to our very -abnormal conditions of life, and to the mixture of different races -brought about by the needs of commerce, as in Manchester and Vienna, as -is pointed out by Mr. Bradley.[118] - -In prehistoric times, neither of these causes of variation made -themselves seriously felt. There was little, if any, peaceful movement -of races, but war was the normal condition, and society was not -sufficiently advanced to remove man from the influence of his natural -environment. The objection may therefore be dismissed as not applicable -to the skulls in question. - -The extent to which abnormal conditions of life are capable of -modifying the shape of skulls may be gathered from the comparison of -the skull of an Irish hog with that of its ancestor the wild-boar, or -even that of a hyæna kept in confinement with that of a wild animal of -the same species. (See Osteol. Series, Brit. Mus.) - - -_The British Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali._ - -The materials for working out the craniology of Europe, in prehistoric -times, do not justify any sweeping conclusion as to the distribution -of the various races, but those which Dr. Thurnam (_op. cit._) has -collected in Britain offer a firm basis for such an inquiry. In the -numerous long barrows and chambered “gallery graves” of our island, -which from the invariable absence of bronze, and the frequent presence -of polished stone implements, may be referred to the neolithic age, the -crania belong, with scarcely an exception, to the first two of these -divisions. In the round barrows, on the other hand, in which bronze -articles are found, they belong mainly to the third division, although -some are ortho-cephalous. Sometimes, as in the case of Tilshead, the -crania in the primary interment, over which the long barrow was raised, -are long, while those in the secondary, which have been made after the -heaping up of the barrow, are broad. - -On evidence of this kind Dr. Thurnam concludes, that Britain was -inhabited in the neolithic age by a long-headed people, and that -towards its close it was invaded by a bronze-using race, who were -dominant during the bronze age. This important conclusion has been -verified by nearly every discovery which has been made in this country -since its publication. The long skulls graduate into the broad, the -oval skulls being the intermediate forms; and this would naturally -result from the intermingling of the blood of the two races. There -may, however, have been a tendency towards ortho-cephalism in the -dolicho-cephali, without any admixture of foreign blood, since absolute -unity of form could not be expected. - -The skull of the primary interment in the barrow of Winterbourne Stoke -is taken by Dr. Thurnam as typical of the dolicho-cephalic class. -“The greatest length is 7·3 inches (the glabello-inial diameter 7·1 -inches); the greatest breadth is 5·5 inches, being in the proportion -of 75 to the length taken as 100. The forehead is narrow and receding, -and moderately high in the coronal region, behind which is a trace of -transverse depression. The parietal tubers are somewhat full, and add -materially to the breadth of this otherwise narrow skull. The posterior -borders of the parietals are prolonged backwards, to join a complex -chain of Wormian bones in the line of the lambdoid suture. The superior -scale of the occiput is full, rounded, and prominent; the inion more -pronounced than usual in this class of dolicho-cephalic skulls. The -superciliaries are well marked, the orbits rather small and long; the -nasals prominent, the facial bones short and small; the molars flat -and almost vertical; the alveolars short, but rather projecting. The -mandible is comparatively small, but angular; the chin square, narrow, -and prominent.”[119] - -Dolicho-cephalic skulls in general (and in part ortho-cephalic) are -possessed, according to Dr. Thurnam, of the following characters (Vol. -iii. p. 69):--“The supraciliary ridges are less strongly marked than -in the brachy-cephalic. There is none of the prognathism, exaggerated -malar breadth or great width of the nasal openings, which give such -an air of savageness and ferocity to the New Caledonians and Caroline -Islanders; but the very reverse of all these. They are indeed more -orthognathic even than many Europeans, and the facial characters -generally are mild, and without exaggerated development in any one -direction.” Their faces are oval. The upper jaw is small, and the -sockets of the incisors and canine almost vertical. The supra-occipital -region is full and rounded, and there is a post-coronal annular -depression on the skull, termed by Dr. Gosse “tête annulaire.” The -length is mainly due to the development of the occiput, a condition -that is termed by M. Broca “dolicho-cephalie occipitale,” as -distinguished from the “dolicho-cephalie frontale” of other races. -The teeth are worn flat. The bones associated with the skulls of this -character show that the stature of the race was short, 5 feet 5 inches -being the average height. - -In the brachy-cephalic, or broad skulls, on the other hand, the -supraciliary ridges are more strongly marked than in the preceding -group; the cheek-bones are high and broad, the sockets for the front -teeth are oblique, and the mouth projects beyond the vertical dropped -from the forehead, presenting the character of prognathism. The face, -instead of being oval, is angular or lozenge-shaped. On the back of -the head the occipital tuberosity, or probole, is the most prominent -feature, and there is also generally an occipital flattening, which may -have been caused by the use of an unyielding cradle-board in infancy. -The entire maxillary apparatus is so largely developed, that the -term “macrognathic,” introduced by Professor Huxley, is particularly -applicable to them. The “type mongoloide” of Dr. Pruner-Bey is closely -allied to, if not identical with, this form of skull. - -The stature of the British brachy-cephali is much greater than that of -the dolicho-cephali, the average for the adult male being 5 feet 8·4 -inches, according to Dr. Thurnam. - -The human remains from the caves and chambered-tombs of Denbighshire -belong to the first of these divisions, in the possession of every one -of the characters assigned to it by Dr. Thurnam, although the crania -belong to the ortho-cephalous portion of the series, that is, tending -towards broad-headedness. It may therefore be inferred that they belong -to the same race as the neolithic raisers of the long-barrows, a race -which we shall presently see to be identical with the ancient Iberians -and modern Basques. - - -_The Range of the Dolicho-cephali in Britain and Ireland._ - -The same class of human remains has been obtained from caves in other -districts in Great Britain. In the Oxford Museum a human skull, from -the cave of Llandebie, possesses cephalic index of ·72; while a second, -from the cave of Uphill in Somersetshire, explored by Mr. James Parker -in 1863, measures ·723. (See p. 197.) The latter was associated with -rude pottery, charcoal, and the remains of the following animals: the -wild-cat, dog, fox, badger, pig, stag, _Bos longifrons_, goat, and -water-rat. Most of the remains belong to young individuals, and some -have been gnawed by dogs, wolves, or foxes. - -In Yorkshire a human femur presenting an enormous development of -the linea aspera, which implies the possession of the platycnemic -character, has been met with in a cave in King’s Scar, near Settle (see -p. 113), and fragments of a long skull are preserved in the Museum at -Leeds from that of Dowkerbottom. - -Professor Turner has described[120] the remains found in a cave in -the Old Red sandstone on the shore of the bay of Oban in 1869 by Mr. -Mackay. There were two human skeletons, along with the broken and burnt -bones of the roe and stag, limpet-shells, flint nodules, and flint -flakes. One of the leg-bones is platycnemic, and the fragments of skull -may probably be referred to the dolicho-cephalic type. - -The same type of skull has also been obtained by the Rev. Canon -Greenwell, from the neolithic tumuli of Yorkshire, along with the -same group of animals as in the caves at Perthi-Chwareu, the _Bos -longifrons_, goat, horse, dog, and stag; and Professor Rolleston, -F.R.S., informs me that some of the associated human leg-bones are -platycnemic. It is also recognized by Professor Huxley as identical -with his river-bed type of skulls from alluvial deposits near Muskham -in the valley of the Trent, Ledbury Hall in the valley of the Dove, and -in Ireland from the bed of the Nore in Queen’s County, and from that -of the river Blackwater. To it also Professor Huxley refers[121] five -or six out of the seven skulls obtained by Mr. Laing from the stone -cists in the burial mound at Keiss in Caithness, and associated with -rude weapons and implements of bone and stone. They probably belonged -to the inhabitants of the neighbouring burgh, or circular stone -dwelling, in and around which were the broken bones of the following -animal remains: the _Bos longifrons_, goat, stag, hog, horse, dog, fox, -grampus or small whale, dolphin or some other small cetacean, great auk -(_Alca impennis_, now extinct in Europe), lesser auk, cormorant, shag, -solan goose, cod, lobster, and shell-fish. A lower jaw also of a child, -broken after the same manner as other refuse bones, is considered by -Professor Owen and Mr. Laing to prove that human flesh was sometimes -used for food. The reindeer was living in the district at this time, -since its remains have been identified by Dr. Campbell from the Harbour -mound, one of the many refuse-heaps in the neighbourhood. - -The same kind of skull is also described by Professor Wilson under -the name of “boat-shaped” or “kumbe-cephalic,” from the ancient stone -chambers and tumuli of Scotland.[122] - -In the Table on the next page, showing the relative size and shape of -the more important long skulls of Britain and Ireland, it will be seen -that the extreme long-headedness of those from the long barrows is not -possessed by those either of the caves and tombs of Denbighshire or of -the river-bed type of Huxley, represented by the skulls from Muskham, -Ledbury, Blackwater (Ireland), and Keiss. - -The greater breadth of the skulls from the caves and tombs of -Denbighshire, as compared with those of the typical long skulls -from the long barrows, may possibly be due to a mixture with the -broad-headed race. In that case, however, none of the tallness, or -prognathism, of the latter has been handed down. It is most probably a -mere variation within the limits of one race, and is unaccompanied by -the fusion of dolicho-cephalic with brachy-cephalic characters, such -as M. Broca and Dr. Thurnam have observed in the skulls from tombs and -caves in France. - - +--------------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+------+ - | | | | | |Latitud.| | - | SKULLS. |Length.|Breadth.|Height.|Circum- |or Ceph.| Alt. | - | | | | |ference.| Index. |Index.| - +--------------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+------+ - |Mean of 48 males, Brit., Thurnam, | 7·7 | 5·5 | 5·62 | 21·3 | ·715 | ·730 | - | long barrows | | | | | | | - |Mean of 19 females, Brit., Thurnam | 7·45 | 5·3 | 5·3 | 20·6 | ·710 | ·730 | - | long barrows | | | | | | | - |Mean of 10 skulls, Perthi-Chwareu Cave| 7·07 | 5·5 | 5·6 | 20·0 | ·765 | -- | - |Skull from Llandebie Cave | 7·3 | 5·3 | -- | -- | ·720 | -- | - | ” Uphill | 7·36 | 5·43 | -- | -- | ·723 | -- | - |Mean of 6 skulls from Keiss. (Huxley) | 7·22 | 5·45 | 5·19 | -- | ·755 | ·716 | - |Skull from Muskham ” | 7·0 | 5·4 | -- | -- | ·770 | -- | - | ” Ledbury Hall ” | 7·15 | 5·5 | -- | -- | ·770 | -- | - | ” Blackwater, Ireland ” | 7·2 | 5·65 | -- | -- | ·780 | -- | - +--------------------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+------+ - -From the examples given in the preceding pages it is evident that, in -ancient times, long-headed men of small stature inhabited the whole of -Britain and Ireland, burying their dead in caves, but more generally in -chambered tombs. They were farmers and shepherds, and in this country -in the neolithic stage of culture. In the solitary case offered by the -Harbour mound at Keiss they were cannibals.[123] - - -_The Range of the Brachy-cephali._ - -No human remains of the brachy-cephalic, or broad type, as defined -by Dr. Thurnam have been obtained from the caves in Britain. The -evidence, however, is decisive that, in the Bronze age, a tall, -round-headed, rugged-featured race occupied all those parts of Britain -and Ireland that were worth conquering, and drove away to the west or -absorbed the smaller neolithic inhabitants. And the identity of their -skull-form, in the series of interments in the round and bowl-shaped -barrows, extending from the Bronze age down to the date of the Roman -occupation of Britain, shows that, both in the North and the South, -this large-sized coarse-featured people was in possession at the time -of the Roman conquest. - -The size and shape of the typical broad crania may be gathered from the -first two columns of the following Table, which is an abstract of those -published by Dr. Thurnam in “Crania Britannica,” and the “Memoirs of -the Anthropological Society.” - - -_Measurements of British Brachy-cephali, and Gaulish and Belgic -Brachy-cephali and Dolicho-cephali._ - - Column-heading Key: - A Date.[B] - B Length. - C Breadth. - D Height. - E Circumference. - F Latitudinal or Cephalic index. - G Altitudinal index. - - +-------------------------------------+-------+----+-----+----+----+------+-----+ - | SKULL. | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | - +-------------------------------------+-------+----+-----+----+----+------+-----+ - | | | | | | | | | - |TYPICAL BROAD SKULLS.--BRITAIN. | | | | | | | | - | Mean of 56 males, Brit. Round | {N.} |7·28|5·9 |5·6 |21·1| ·81 | ·77| - | Barrows | {B.} | | | | | | | - | Mean of 14 females, Brit. Round | {I.} |6·9 |5·6 |5·3 |20· | ·81 | ·77| - | Barrows | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | - | LONG AND SHORT SKULLS.--FRANCE. +-------+----+-----+----+----+------+-----+ - | Tumulus, Noyelles-sur-mer-Somme | N. |6·9 |5·6p |5·5 |20·3| ·81 | ·79| - | “Grotto,” Nogent les Vièrges, Oise | N. |7·2 |5·8p |5·5 |21· | ·80 | ·76| - | ” ” ” ” | |7·3 |5·2p |5·2 |20·1| ·71 | ·71| - | ” ” ” ” | |7·1 |5·7p |5·2 |20·8| ·80 | ·73| - | ” ” ” ” | |6·9 |5·9p |5·5 |20·9| ·85 | ·79| - | ” ” ” ” | |7·3 |5·4p |5·5 |20·6| ·74 | ·75| - | ” ” ” ” | |7·4 |5·2p |5·6 |20·8| ·70 | ·75| - | Dolmen Du Val, Senlis, Oise | N. |6·6 |5·6p |5·4 |19·7| ·84 | ·81| - | ” ” ” ” | |7·1 |5·5p |5·6 |20·2| ·77 | ·78| - | ” ” ” ” | |7·2 |5·5 |5·8 |20·8| ·76 | ·80| - | ” ” ” ” | |7·2 |5·8 | -- | -- | ·80 | -- | - | ” Chamant ” ” | N. |7·4 |5·3 | -- | -- | ·71 | -- | - | ” ” ” ” | |7·1 |5·5 | -- | -- | ·78 | -- | - | ” ” ” ” | |7·4 |5·5 |5·4 | -- | ·74 | ·72| - | Cave, Orrouy, Oise |N.B.(?)|7·4 |5·8 |5·3 |21·2| ·78 | ·72| - | ” ” ” | |7·1 |5·8p |5·3 | -- | ·77 | ·74| - | ” ” ” | |7·2 |5·4p |5·7 |20·1| ·75 | ·81| - | ” ” ” | |7·1 |5·9p |5·6 |20·7| ·83 | ·78| - | ” ” ” | |6·7 |5·5p |5·4 |19·2| ·82 | ·80| - | ” ” ” | |6·6 |5·6p |5·5 |19·9| ·85 | ·83| - | ” ” ” | |7·2 |5·9 |5·4 |20·9| ·81 | ·75| - | ” ” ” | |6·8 |5·75 |5·1 |20·4| ·84 | ·75| - | ” ” ” | N. |7·4 |5·8 |5·7 | -- | ·78 | ·77| - | ” ” ” | |7·2 |5·9 | -- |20·8| ·81 | -- | - | Lombrive, Ariège | N. |6·7 |5·5 |5·5 |19·2| ·82 | ·82| - | Dolmen, Meudon, Seine et Oise | |7· |5·95p|5·9 |20·7| ·85 | ·84| - | ” ” ” ” | |7·2 |5·7 |5·5 |20·8| ·79 | ·76| - | Lozerres | |7·3 |5·8p |5·7 |21· | ·79 | ·78| - | Tomb, Maintenon; Eure et Loire | |7·25|5·5 | -- |20·3| ·75 | -- | - | ” ” ” ” | |7·7 |5·5 | -- |20·8| ·71 | -- | - | Tumulus, Bougon, Deux Sèvres | |6·7 |5·4p | -- |20· | ·80 | -- | - | Dolmen, Meloisy, Côte d’Or | N. |7·3 |5·5 | -- |20·9| ·75 | -- | - | Avignon(?), Vaucleuse | |6·9 |5·8 | -- |20·7| ·84 | -- | - | ” ” | |7·8 |5·5p | -- |21·8| ·70 | -- | - | Genthod, Geneva | I. |7·4 |5·6p |5·5 |21·1| ·75 | ·74| - | ” ” | |6·9 |5·6p |5·4 |20·5| ·81 | ·78| - +-------------------------------------+-------+----+-----+----+----+------+-----+ - | Mean | |7·1 |5·6 |5·5 |20·5| ·78 | ·77| - | Judge’s Cave, Gibraltar (Busk) | (?) |6·9 |5·4 |5·4 |19·5| ·792| -- | - | Chauvaux Cave (Virchow) | N |7·35|5·3 |5·3 | -- |71·8 | 1·8 | - | Sclaigneaux Cave. Skull 1. (Arnould)| N |7·35|6·5 |5·4 | -- |81·1 |73·7 | - | ” ” ” 2. | |7·25|6·25 |5·25| -- |81·6 |70·6 | - | ” ” ” 3. | |6·9 |5·75 | -- | -- | -- | -- | - | ” ” ” 4. | |6·95| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | - +-------------------------------------+-------+----------+----+----+------+-----+ - - [124] N, Neolithic; B, Bronze; I, Iron. - - -_The Range of the Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali in France in -the Neolithic Age.--The Caverne de l’Homme Mort._ - -The researches of M. Broca and Dr. Thurnam into the caves and tombs of -France prove that the small dolicho-cephali and the tall brachy-cephali -lived in that country in the neolithic age. We are indebted to the -former for a most important account of the Caverne de l’Homme Mort, -which reproduces all the essential points which we have observed in the -sepulchral caves of Denbighshire. - -The Caverne de l’Homme Mort[124] is situated in a lonely ravine that -penetrates the wild limestone plateau, in the south-west of the -department of Lozère, near the hamlet of Vialle, in the commune of St. -Pierre des Tripiés. It was discovered by the peasants, and its contents -were partially disturbed by their search after hidden treasure before -it was explored by Dr. Prunières. In front of the cave was a platform, -composed of earth mingled with fragments of charcoal, forming a layer -about forty centimetres thick, in which were the stones of seven -hearths, flint-flakes and scrapers, lance-heads, broken bones of the -hare, fallow-deer, roe, pig (or wild-boar). All the flints were worked, -and one lance-head had been chipped out of the stump of a celt and -presented portions of the polished surface, thus fixing the neolithic -age of the accumulation. Coarse pottery was also met with. - -The bones of the hare were very abundant, and proved that there was no -prejudice against the use of its flesh. In the caves of Perthi-Chwareu -we have also seen that this was the case. - -The refuse-heaps ceased abruptly at the entrance of the cave, at -a point where the traces of a wall, composed of large stones, was -visible. Immediately behind this were human bones, in a thick layer -of dry sand, scattered about in the wildest confusion, which was -probably the result of successive interments, as well as of subsequent -disturbance by burrowing animals and treasure-seekers. Two bone-points -and a flint arrow-head were the only implements discovered within the -sepulchral chamber. - -Two small human bones, bearing undoubted marks of having been burnt, -were discovered in the refuse-heap; but they do not, as M. Broca justly -observes, imply the practice of cannibalism, since they may have fallen -out of the burial-place, and subsequently have come into contact with -the fire on one of the hearths. - -It is impossible to estimate the number of interments in this cave. -Exclusive of the many skulls which have been destroyed or lost, M. -Prunières obtained nineteen very nearly perfect, which are described by -M. Broca as seven male, six female, three of uncertain sex, and three -children. They are remarkable for the softness of their contours, the -delicacy of their features, and the orthognathism of their faces. The -forehead is wide and high, and the vertex and the occipital region of -the skull well rounded. The cephalic index varies between ·680 and ·78, -the mean of the whole series being ·732. - -M. Broca remarks, that these crania contrast strongly with those of -the present broad-headed inhabitants of the district, and that they -differ from those found in the dolmens by M. Prunières in their greater -length, in the smallness of their features, and the weakness of their -muscular impressions. The study of the bones of the skeleton confirms -these differences. The men who buried their dead in the Caverne de -l’Homme Mort were smaller than the dolmen builders, their bones were -more slender, and they were altogether a less muscular race. They are -considered by M. Broca to represent the neolithic aborigines; and -if his description and measurements be compared with those of the -dolicho-cephali of Britain, given by Dr. Thurnam (p. 191 _et seq._), -it will be seen that they are identical with the latter, which is the -oldest race yet known to have occupied Great Britain since the close of -the pleistocene period. - -At a little distance from the sepulchral cave, and in the same ravine, -M. Broca explored a large cavern, which had been occupied, probably by -the same people, since the same kind of instruments were discovered as -in the refuse-heap. So that we have here, side by side, the abode and -the sepulchre of the same ancient tribe. - - -_The Sepulchral Cave of Orrouy._ - -The sepulchral cave of Orrouy (Oise) described by M. Broca, in which -the remains of about fifty individuals were interred, furnished both -types of skull, united, according to Dr. Thurnam and M. Broca,[125] by -a series of intermediate forms, that prove a fusion of blood between -the broad- and the long-headed peoples. On referring to the preceding -Table (p. 199) it will be seen that the cephalic index varies from -·75 to ·88. Eight out of the series of twenty-one skulls united the -characteristic dolicho-cephalous fore-head with the brachy-cephalous -middle and hind-head. “We have here,” writes Dr. Thurnam, “a veritable -hybrid form of cranium, resulting from the mixture or crossing, under -certain circumstances unknown to us, of a dolicho-cephalous with a -brachy-cephalous race.” - -“... In the Orrouy skulls of hybrid form, two encephalic -growth-tendencies appear to me distinguishable; one, the longitudinal -or fronto-occipital; the other a transverse, or bi-parietal and -temporal one. Now the remarkable supramastoid depressions, visible -in the hindhead of these skulls, seem to be well explained by the -idea of an intersection or crossing of these two tendencies in the -brain-growth; corresponding, as they must have done, to the angles -formed by the posterior surfaces of the middle, the lower surfaces -of the posterior and temporal lobes of the cerebrum, and the upper -surface of the cerebellum.”[126] - -In eight out of thirty-four humeri the fossa of the olecranon is -perforated. - -The human remains occurred in the same confusion as at Perthi-Chwareu, -and were associated with fragments of coarse pottery, flint flakes, and -bones of ruminants. The occurrence of polished stone celts indicates -the neolithic age of the interment. - - -_Skulls from French Tumuli._ - -Both long and broad skulls also occur in the chambered tombs of France, -although the latter by far predominate. Those from the Long Barrow at -Chamant are dolicho-cephalic and ortho-cephalic, with cephalic index -ranging from ·71 to ·78 (Broca), and other similar cases are quoted by -Dr. Thurnam from Noyelles-sur-Mer, Fontenay, and other tumuli. In the -large sepulchral chamber at Meudon, that contained 200 skeletons, the -majority of the skulls were brachy-cephalic, although twenty of them -were of the ortho-cephalic type. This mixture may be accounted for, -most probably, by the two races, which are clearly defined from each -other in Britain, being intermingled in France. - -Dr. Thurnam, summing up the whole evidence as regards the distribution -of races in the tombs of Gaul, concludes that the two races came -into contact in Gaul at an earlier period in the neolithic age than -in Britain. And this must necessarily have been the case from the -geographical position of our island, which could only be invaded, in -those times, by the races in possession of the contiguous mainland of -France and Belgium. Both these regions must have been conquered before -an invasion could have taken place. - - -_The Dolicho-cephali of the Iberian Peninsula, Gibraltar._ - -The researches carried on from 1863 to 1868, by Captain Brome, aided by -Dr. Falconer and Professor Busk,[127] into the caves of Gibraltar, have -resulted in the proof that, in the neolithic age, that barren rock was -inhabited by a race of men identical with that which is found in the -long barrows and caves of Great Britain. - -The enlargement of the military prison on the top of Windmill Hill -revealed the existence of a deep fissure, containing dark earth, -mingled with charcoal and broken bones, which led into a series of -chambers. The upper of these is described by Captain Brome as being -completely choked up to the roof with earth, charcoal, and decomposed -bones of mammals, birds, and fishes, flint flakes, and pottery. Below -were two floors of stalagmite, filled with loose stones and earth, -through which a shaft penetrated into a fissure at a lower level, -leading into a lower chamber that had a free communication with the -surface, since the current of air was so strong as to extinguish the -lamps. In this also human remains and works of art were met with. The -passages were very complicated, and in some of them a red breccia -contained the remains of the pleistocene mammals, the spotted hyæna, -the _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_, and others. This series of passages and -chambers is described by Captain Brome and Professor Busk as “Genista -Cave No. 1.” - -A second, or “Genista, No. 2,” was discovered by Captain Brome opening -on the surface near the West Cliff, with its floor covered with -stalagmite, under which was the same class of remains as that above -mentioned. Subsequently a third and fourth, “Genista, 3 and 4,” were -explored with the same results, of which the latter, opening on the -face of a vertical cliff 40 feet below the summit, from its difficulty -of access must have been used as a place of refuge rather than of -habitation or burial. With this exception, the whole group of Genista -Caves contained human bones, resting in the greatest confusion, and -proving that since the bodies had been interred the contents had been -disturbed, either by the burrowing of animals or by the action of -water, pools of which were present in some of the chambers. Evidence of -the former presence of water was to be seen in the sheets of stalagmite -on most of the floors. The same confusion would result, as is suggested -by Professor Busk, by interments at successive times. The intimate -association of the fractured bones of the animals, and the charcoal, -broken pottery, and other traces of occupation, with the human bones, -may be accounted for in the same manner as the similar mixture of -remains in the caves of Denbighshire. If the caves had been inhabited -at one time, and subsequently set apart for burials, the human bones -would become intermingled with the accumulation of refuse on the floors -by the causes above mentioned. - -The bones of the animals associated with the human remains belong, -according to Professor Busk, to the domestic ox of various sizes, -goat, ibex, hog, arvicola, hare, rabbit, badger, dog, and a species -of phocæna, fish, birds, and marine and land molluscs. The pottery is -for the most part hand-made, coarse and imperfectly burnt; and the -vessels in some cases had singular perforated spouts, similar to those -still in use by the Kabyles of Algeria, and some of the Berber tribes. -Some of it, however, is of a fine red ware turned in the lathe, and -probably introduced at a later period, even, as remarked by Mr. Franks, -after the Roman occupation of Spain, to which he refers a bronze -fish-hook, the only metallic article found in the group of caves. The -implements of bone consist of a needle, and rounded pins and spikes. -One cannon-bone of a small ox bears marks of sharp cuts with an edge of -metal, inflicted probably, as Professor Busk suggests, “in an attempt -to hamstring the animal, as is sometimes done at the present day in -the Spanish bull-ring.” It may possibly be more modern than the stone -implements found in the same cave. - -The associated stone articles are celts of polished greenstone, -similar to that found in the neolithic cave at Perthi-Chwareu (Fig. -38), flakes, a greenstone chisel, querns and rubbing-stones, a -whetstone perforated for suspension, and a fragment of an armlet made -of alabaster. A small lump of coarse plumbago may have been used for -personal ornament. - -The human remains examined by Professor Busk belonged to a large number -of individuals of all ages, and are for the most part in a fragmentary -condition. Some of the thigh-bones are carinate, and remarkable for the -enormous development of the _linea aspera_ and the thickness of their -walls (Fig. 57), the medullary cavity being reduced to a small size, -as in those figured from the tumulus at Cefn. Some of the tibiæ are -platycnemic, presenting the peculiar lateral flattening which first -attracted the attention of Dr. Falconer and Professor Busk (Figs. 49, -50, and 51), but which M. Broca has since determined in the tumuli -and caves of France, and I have discovered in those of Denbighshire -(p. 177). - -[Illustration: FIGS. 62, 63, 64.--Cranium from Genista Cave (Busk).] - -The only two crania sufficiently perfect to allow of a comparison being -made, from Genista Cave No. 3, are perfectly symmetrical, and belong to -a high type (Figs. 62, 63, and 64). “They are dolicho-cephalic, quite -orthognathous, and wholly aphanozygous. In one the frontal sinuses are -considerably more developed than they are in the other, but in neither -is there any thickening of the supra-orbital border” (Busk). The -teeth are worn flat. They both belonged to men in the prime of life. -A third skull, from Genista Cave No. 1, belongs to the same type. The -measurements of the two most perfect skulls are given in the same table -as those from North Wales (p. 171). - -Gibraltar has also been occupied in ancient times by broad-headed -men, similar, in M. Broca’s opinion, to those interred in the cave of -Orrouy. In 1864 human bones, together with a skull (for measurements -see p. 199), were dug out of the Judge’s Cave by Sir James Cochrane. -The tibiæ are platycnemic, and the skull is described by Professor Busk -as being “perfectly symmetrical, brachy-cephalic, slightly prognathous, -but with vertical teeth, aphanozygous. The forehead is well arched, and -the supra-orbital border slightly elevated, the orbits being square, -and the nasal opening elongated and pyriform.” The cephalic index is -·792. The age of these skeletons is uncertain. - - -_Spain.--Cueva de los Murcièlagos._ - -Professor Busk[128] calls attention to the fact, that a long skull -similar to that from Gibraltar has been found in Spain, in an ancient -copper-mine of the Asturias, together with hammers made of antler, -and that it bears “the closest possible resemblance” to the Basque -skulls, described by M. Broca, from Guipuscoa on the Spanish and St. -Jean de Luz on the French side of the Pyrenees. He points out, also, -the resemblance which exists between the crania figured by Don Gongora -y Martinez, from the caverns and dolmens of Andalusia and those under -consideration; finally arriving at the conclusion that “a pretty -uniform priscan race at one time pervaded the peninsula from one end to -the other, and that this race is at the present day represented by, at -any rate, a part of the population now inhabiting the Basque provinces.” - -In the work of Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez[129] referred to, there is -a most interesting account of the prehistoric antiquities of Andalusia. -Several interments are described in the Cueva de los Murcièlagos, a -cave running into the limestone rock, out of which the grand scenery -of the southern part of the Sierra Nevada has been, to a great extent, -carved. In one spot, a group of three skeletons was met with, one of -which was adorned with a plain coronet of gold, and clad in a tunic -made of esparto-grass, finely plaited, so as to form a pattern which -resembles some of the designs on gold ornaments from Etruscan tombs. -At a spot further within, a second group of twelve skeletons lay in -a semicircle, around one considered by Don Manuel to have belonged -to a woman, covered with a tunic of skin, and wearing a necklace of -esparto-grass, a marine shell pierced for suspension, the carved tusk -of a wild boar, and earrings of black stone. There were other articles -of plaited esparto-grass, such as baskets and sandals; flint flakes, -pieces of a white marble armlet, polished axes of the type of fig. 38, -bone awls, and a wooden spoon, together with pottery of the same type -as that from Gibraltar, fragments of charcoal, and bones of animals. - -Although, in this cave, there were no traces of metal, except gold, in -a second, in the same neighbourhood, similar interments were met with -in association with copper (bronze) implements, and with pottery of the -same kind. - -These interments in caves are of the same order as those from -Gibraltar; and since the skulls agree with those from the latter, there -can be little doubt but that, in the neolithic age, the long-headed -small race under discussion had possession of the southern provinces. - - -_The Woman’s Cave, near Alhama._ - -This conclusion derives additional support from the discoveries -subsequently made by Mr. McPherson[130] in the Woman’s Cave, near -Alhama, in Grenada, of implements of bone, flint, and greenstone of the -neolithic age, mingled with charcoal, pottery, and human skeletons of -the same type as those from Gibraltar. The human skull, figured by Mr. -McPherson, is dolicho-cephalic, and the thigh-bone is remarkable for -the extreme development of the _linea aspera_, which assumes the form -of a stout ridge sweeping from one extremity of the shaft to the other. - -This long-headed race, burying their dead in caves, also erected -dolmens in Andalusia. In the dolmen of De los Eriales[131] human -remains were discovered along with bronze (copper?) lance-heads, and -pottery of the same sort as that of the caves. It is, therefore, -evident that the practice of burial in caves, and of erecting dolmens, -was carried on by the same people in Britain, in France, and in Spain. - - -_The Guanches of the Canary Isles._ - -The Guanches,[132] the ancient inhabitants of the Canary Isles, are -considered by Berthollet, Glas, and other high authorities, to be -allied to the Berbers of North Africa in language. At the time of -their discovery and conquest by the Spaniards, they are described by -Miss Haigh as being unacquainted with the use of any metal, and as -fashioning their weapons out of a black, hard stone. The Guanches of -Teneriffe lived principally in caves, preferring for their winter -residence those near the coast, and “in the summer those in the -higher parts in the interior of the island, whence they could enjoy -the fresh air of the hills.” Some of these caves have been excavated -by the hand of man, and are divided into square chambers, containing -rock-hewn benches, “and deep niches made to contain vessels of milk -or water.” They had also stone houses, thatched with straw or fern. -They also buried their dead in sepulchral caves, belonging each to a -family or clan, entrances to which are carefully concealed, and are -now discovered only by accident. In them the dead were placed either -upright, or lying side by side on wooden scaffolds, after having been -prepared with salt and butter and thoroughly dried and wrapped in the -tanned skins of sheep or goat. In some cases the prepared body was -placed in the sitting posture. - -They were possessed of a settled government by “Menceys,” or chiefs -subordinate to one head, and were divided into “nobles and common -people, and had a code of punishment for the robber, murderer, and -adulterer.” - -Their food consisted of sheep and goats, roasted barley ground between -two stones, and the fruit of the arbutus, date-palm and fig, as well -as fish and rabbits. Their fences were made of reed, their ropes and -nets of rushes, and their baskets, mats, and bags, of palm-leaves. They -manufactured vessels out of clay or hard wood, needles of fishbones, -beads of clay, and they especially excelled in the art of tanning. The -civilization of this very interesting people may fairly be taken to -be a fragment of that of North Africa and of Europe in the neolithic -age, protected by insulation from the influences by which it was swept -away from the countries bordering on the shores of the Mediterranean, -just as the old Norse customs and legends are preserved by the present -inhabitants of Iceland in greater purity than in Norway. - -The Berbers are viewed by Professor Busk as of the same non-Aryan stock -as the Basque, and the civilization of the Guanches may therefore be -taken to represent that of the Iberic peoples of Spain, among whom -caves were used in like manner for habitation and burial. - - -_Iberic Dolicho-cephali of the same Race as those of Britain._ - -If this group of Iberic skulls be compared with those from the caves -and tumuli of Great Britain (see Table, p. 197 and that below) it will -be seen, that what Professor Busk observes of the ancient population of -Spain is equally true of that of our country in the neolithic age. And -the identity of form is especially remarkable in the crania from the -sepulchral caves at Perthi-Chwareu, the difference between them being -so small as to be of little account:-- - - +-------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+------+ - | | | | |Circum- |Ceph. | - | |Length.| Brdth. |Height.|ference.|index.| - +-------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+------+ - | | | | | | | - |Mean of 10 skulls from | | | | | | - | Perthi-Chwareu | 7·07 | 5·5 | 5·6 | 20·0 | ·765 | - |Mean of 2 skulls from | | | | | | - | Genista Cave, No. 3 | | | | | | - | (Busk) | 7·35 | 5·55 | 5·9 | 20·7 | ·755 | - |Mean of 40 male Basque | | | | | | - | skulls from Guipuscoa | | | | | | - | (Thurnam) | 7·2 | 5·5 | 5·4 | -- | ·760 | - |Mean of 20 female, ditto | 6·9 | 5·3 | 5·0 | -- | ·760 | - |Mean of 19 skulls, | | | | | | - | chiefly male | 7·4 | 5·6 | 5·4 | -- | ·760 | - |Mean of 57 female ditto, | | | | | | - | St. Jean de Luz | 7·02 | 5·6 | -- | -- | ·799 | - +-------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+------+ - - -_The Dolicho-cephali cognate with the Basque._ - -Nor can the truth of Professor Busk’s conclusion, that the group of -skulls in question belong to a people akin in blood to the modern -Basques, be disputed. We are indebted to M. Broca[133] for the -elaborate description of seventy-eight Basque crania from a village -cemetery in Guipuscoa, and of fifty-eight from an ossuary at St. Jean -de Luz, in which they had been collected in the reign of Francis I., -1532. In both these groups the long and oval types predominated, the -broad type being represented by 6·4 (Thurnam) per cent. in the one, and -37·36 per cent. (Broca) in the other; a difference that is doubtless -caused by the greater mixture of blood in the south-west of France -than in the north-west of Spain, shut off from the broad-headed Gallic -tribes by the Pyrenees.[134] Six skulls, obtained by Professor Virchow -from Bilbao, agree in all particulars with those from Guipuscoa. M. -Broca has further shown, that this group of Spanish skulls offers -all the characters of the black-haired, swarthy, oval-faced, Basque -population of the surrounding region, and it therefore follows, that -they may be taken as standards of comparison, as typical of the ancient -Basque crania, modified, it may be, to some extent, by the infusion of -other blood. Their agreement, therefore, with the skulls from Gibraltar -implies that the latter are also Basque. And since they agree also with -those from the cave of Perthi-Chwareu, as may be seen in the preceding -Table, the men who buried their dead in the caves of North Wales in the -neolithic age, are proved to belong to the same stock. - -The same long-headed, small race also inhabited France, side by side -with the broad-headed Gallic tribes; and since to it belong the -skeletons in the Cave de l’Homme Mort, which M. Broca refers to the -neolithic aborigines, it may reasonably be concluded that in Gaul, as -in Britain, it was the older of the two races. The two have also been -met with in the caves of Belgium. If we allow that an aboriginal Basque -population spread over the whole of Britain, France, and Belgium, and -that it was subsequently dispossessed by broad-headed invaders, the two -extremes of skull-form and of stature, and of the gradations between -them, may be satisfactorily explained. And this view coincides with the -well-ascertained facts of history. - -Dr. Thurnam was the first to recognize that the long skulls, out of -the long barrows of Britain and Ireland, were of the Basque or Iberian -type, and Professor Huxley holds that the river-bed skulls belong to -the same race.[135] (Compare Table p. 197 with the preceding.) We have -therefore proof, that an Iberian or Basque population spread over the -whole of Britain and Ireland in the neolithic age, inhabiting caves, -and burying their dead in caves and chambered tombs, just as in the -Iberian Peninsula also in the neolithic age. - - -_Dolicho-cephali and Brachy-cephali in Neolithic Caves of -Belgium.--Chauvaux._ - -Both these forms of skull have been met with in Belgium, the one in the -famous cave of Chauvaux, the other in that of Sclaigneaux. - -The first of these is a rock-shelter passing into a small cave, at the -base of the limestone cliff on the Meuse, opposite the little village -of Rivière, between Dinant and Namur. It was known to contain human -remains in 1837-8, and was partially explored in 1842 by Dr. Spring, -who published his account of the discoveries in 1853, and subsequently -in 1864 and 1866. Below a thin layer of loam was a floor of stalagmite, -concealing a vast number of broken human bones mixed pêle-mêle with -those of wild and domestic animals, and associated with charcoal and -coarse pottery. Two polished stone celts indicated the neolithic age -of the accumulation; one of them resting close to a skull which had -been fractured by a blow from a blunt instrument, such as it may have -inflicted. The human bones belonged to infants and young adults. - -From the fractured and burnt bones of the animals it is clear that -they had been accumulated in the cave daring the time that it was -inhabited by man. Dr. Spring[136] inferred that the broken human bones -proved that human beings, as well as the animals, formed the food of -the cave-dwellers, and further, since all the human remains belong to -young individuals, that the cannibalism was not accidental, or caused -by famine, but the result of a deliberate selection. - -The facts which induced Dr. Spring to come to this conclusion are -interpreted by M. Dupont[137] in a different manner. He holds, that the -proportion of young individuals is not greater in Chauvaux than that -which he has observed in other sepulchral caves in Belgium, and that -there is nothing which forbids the supposition that this also was used -as a place of interment. The human bones may have been broken by the -foxes and badgers, which are so abundant in the district, and have been -mixed, by their continual burrowing, with the remains of the animals in -the old refuse-heap accumulated on the floor during the habitation of -man. Such a mixture of remains we have already observed in the caves -of North Wales and Gibraltar. The recent researches of M. Soreil[138] -leave no room for doubting the truth of M. Dupont’s interpretation. -Two perfect human skeletons were discovered along with flint flakes, -pottery, a barbed arrow-head, and many scattered human bones not -broken by design, while the long bones of the associated animals bore -unmistakeable traces of having been split for the sake of the marrow. -On one long bone, for example, of the ox, there were cuts made by a -flint implement, as well as the mark of the blow by which it had been -split longitudinally; and another ox-bone, and the canine of a boar, -bore marks of burning. The bones of the animals were very abundant, -and belonged to the following species: beaver, hamster, and other -small rodents, hare, badger, fox, boar, stag, roe, ox, and goat. In -this case, as in the caves of Perthi-Chwareu, and of l’Homme Mort, the -inhabitants had used the hare for food, as well as the other animals, -and did not share the prejudice against the use of its flesh for food, -which Cæsar remarks of the inhabitants of Britain (Comm. 1, xii.). - -The cave must, therefore, be viewed as a place of sepulture for a -neolithic people, whose implements abound in the neighbourhood, and not -as having been inhabited by a race of cannibals. - -The bodies had been interred in the crouching posture, with their -thighs bent, their heads resting on their arms, and their faces turned -towards the valley. They rested side by side in two small holes, which -had been dug in the deposit containing the bones of the animals, and -the skeletons were cemented to the rock by stalagmite, and surrounded -by large stones. They belonged to individuals far past the prime of -life. - -Both skulls were dolicho-cephalic, and the most perfect of them is -described by Professor Virchow as presenting a parietal flattening, -which is probably analogous to the “tête annulaire,” so commonly -present in the long skulls of the neolithic age. It possesses a -cephalic index of ·72 (·718 Virchow). The sutures in both the skulls -were very nearly obliterated. The measurements are given in the Table -in page 199. - -The crania, in all these characters, are to be classified with the -long skulls from the caves and chambered tombs of France, Britain, -and Spain. They belong to people in the same stage of culture, and -practising the same mode of burial in a crouching posture. Chauvaux -is the furthest cave to the east on the continent of Europe, in which -traces of this long-headed race have been observed. - - -_The Cave of Sclaigneaux._ - -The cave of Sclaigneaux,[139] explored by M. Arnould, near the hamlet -of that name, fourteen miles from Namur, has been proved to contain -human bones, lying mixed with those of the animals in the refuse-heap -on the floor, as in the cave of Chauvaux. The animals belonged to -existing species:-- - - Hedgehog. - Badger. - Beech-marten. - Weazel. - Fox. - Dog. - Wild Cat. - Hare. - Rabbit. - Ox. - Goat. - Stag. - Boar. - Horse. - Rodents. - -Bones of birds, frogs, and fishes were also met with. Intermingled -with these were human skeletons, disposed in a rude sort of order, -and belonging to bodies which had been interred at different times. -From the lower jaws M. Arnould calculates that the number of bodies -interred was not less than sixty-two, of which twelve belonged to aged -individuals, twenty-one to those in the prime of life, sixteen to young -adults, and thirteen to children. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 65, 66.--Skull from Cave of Sclaigneaux. -(Arnould.)] - -The crania (Figs. 65, 66) are brachy-cephalic (see Table, p. 199), and -are possessed, according to M. Arnould, of the following characters. -The apex of the cranial vault is flattened, probably artificially, and -the parietal bosses are largely developed, to which is due the great -width of the skull. The surciliary ridges are strongly marked, and the -malar bones are prominent. In all these particulars they agree with the -broad skulls, as defined by Dr. Thurnam, discovered in the round tumuli -of Britain and the sepulchral caves of France. - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Platycnemic tibia, from Sclaigneaux.] - -Some of the leg-bones presented the antero-posterior flattening, or -platycnemism, observed in the skeletons from the caves of Gibraltar, -and in France and Great Britain (Fig. 67). It is due, as in those from -North Wales, to the anterior expansion of the bone, and not to the -posterior, as is the case with those from the cave of Cro-Magnon. - -A beautifully chipped arrow-head, with barbs and central tongue for -insertion into the shaft, of the same type as one from Chauvaux, -implies that these remains belong to the neolithic age. Implements of -bone, and a shell perforated for suspension, were also found. - - -_The Evidence of History as to the Peoples of Gaul and Spain._ - -The extension of this non-Aryan race through France, Spain, and -Britain, in ancient times, based solely on the evidence of the human -remains, is confirmed by an appeal to the ethnology of Europe within -the historic period. In the Iberian peninsula the Basque populations -of the west are defined from the Celtic of the east by the Celtiberi -inhabiting the modern Castille (see Map, Fig. 68). In Gaul the province -of Aquitania extended as far north, in Cæsar’s time,[140] as the river -Garonne, constituting the modern Gascony, to which was added, in the -days of Augustus, the district between that river and the Loire; -a change of frontier that was probably due to the predominance of -Basque blood in a mixed race in that area similar to the Celtiberi -of Castille. The Aquitani were surrounded on every side, except the -south, by the Celtæ, extending as far north as the Seine, as far to -the east as Switzerland and the plains of Lombardy, and southwards, -through the valley of the Rhone and the region of the Volcæ, over the -Eastern Pyrenees into Spain. The district round the Phocæan colony -of Marseilles was inhabited by Ligurian tribes, who held the region -between the river Po and the Gulf of Genoa, as far as the western -boundary of Etruria, and who probably extended to the west along -the coast of Southern Gaul as far as the Pyrenees.[141] They were -distinguished from the Celtæ, not merely by their manners and customs, -but by their small stature and dark hair and eyes, and are stated by -Pliny and Strabo to have inhabited Spain. They have also left marks of -their presence in Central Gaul in the name of the Loire (Ligur), and -possibly in Britain in the obscure name of the Lloegrians. They invaded -Sicily[142] as the Sikelians, and _if_ the latter be identified with -the Sikanians considered by Thucydides[143] and other writers to be -of Iberian stock, it will follow that they are a cognate race. Their -stature and swarthy complexion, as well as the ancient geographical -position conterminous with the Iberic population of Gaul and Spain, -confirm this conclusion. The non-Aryan and probably Basque population -of Gaul was therefore cut into two portions by a broad band of Celts, -which crosses the Eastern Pyrenees, and marks the route by which the -Iberian peninsula was invaded. - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Distribution of Basque, Celtic, and Belgic -Peoples, at dawn of History.] - -The ancient population of Sardinia is stated by Pausanias to be of -Libyan extraction, and to bear a strong resemblance to the Iberians in -physique and in habits of life, while that of Corsica is described by -Seneca as Ligurian and Iberian. The ancient Libyans are represented -at the present day by the Berber and Kabyle tribes which are, if -not identical with, at all events cognate with the Basques. We may -therefore infer that these two islands were formerly occupied by this -non-Aryan race, as well as the adjacent continents of Northern Africa -and Southern Europe. - - -_The Basque Population the Oldest._ - -The relative antiquity of these two races in Europe may be arrived at -by this distribution. The Basques, Sikani or Ligurian, are the oldest -inhabitants, in their respective districts, known to the historian; -while the Celts appear as invaders, pressing southwards and westwards -on the populations already in possession, flooding over the Alps and -under Brennus sacking Rome, and by their union with the vanquished -in Spain constituting the Celtiberi. We may therefore be tolerably -certain that the Basques held France and Spain before the invasion of -the Celts, and that the non-Aryan peoples were cut asunder, and certain -parts of them left--Ligurians, Sikani, and in part Sardinians and -Corsicans--as ethnological islands, marking, so to speak, an ancient -Basque non-Aryan continent which had been submerged by the Celtic -populations advancing steadily westwards. - -At the time of the Roman conquest of Gaul, the Belgæ were pressing on -the Celts, just as the latter pressed the Basques, the Seine and the -Marne forming their southern boundary, and in their turn being pushed -to the west by the advance of the Germans in the Rhine provinces. Thus -we have the oldest population, or Basque, invaded by the Celts, the -Celts by the Belgæ, and these again by the Germans; their relative -positions stamping their relative antiquity in Europe. - - -_The Population of Britain._ - -The Celtic and Belgic invasion of Gaul repeated itself, as might -be expected, in Britain. Just as the Celts pushed back the Iberian -population of Gaul as far south as Aquitania, and swept round it into -Spain, so they crossed over the Channel and overran the greater portion -of Britain, until the Silures, identified by Tacitus[144] with the -Iberians, were left only in those fastnesses that formed subsequently -a bulwark for the Brit-Welsh against the English invaders. And just -as the Belgæ pressed on the rear of the Celts as far as the Seine, -so they followed them into Britain, and took possession of the “Pars -Maritima,”[145] or southern counties. The unsettled condition of the -country at the time of Cæsar’s invasion was, probably, due to the -struggle then going on between Celts and Belgæ. - -The evidence offered by history as to the distribution of these races -confirms that which has been arrived at by the examination of the caves -and tumuli. In the one case the Basque peoples are merely known in a -fragmentary condition in Britain, Gaul, and Sicily, while in the other -those fragments are joined together in such a way as to show that, in -the neolithic age, they extended uninterrupedly through Western Europe, -from the Pillars of Hercules in the south to Scotland in the north, -before they were dispossessed by their broad-headed enemies. It is -impossible to define with precision their ethnological relation to the -non-Aryan inhabitants of Italy and the coasts of the Mediterranean, -such as the Etruscans and Tyrrhenians. I am, however, inclined to hold -that they are all branches of the same race of “Melanochroi,” differing -far less from each other than the Celtic from the Scandinavian branch -of the Aryan family.[146] - - -_Basque Element in present British and French Populations._ - -This non-Aryan blood is still to be traced in the dark-haired, -black-eyed, small, oval-featured peoples in our own country in the -region of the Silures, where the hills have afforded shelter to the -Basque populations from the invaders.[147] The small swarthy Welshman -of Denbighshire is in every respect, except dress and language, -identical with the Basque inhabitant of the Western Pyrenees, at -Bagnères de Bigorre. - -The small dark-haired people of Ireland,[148] and especially those -to the west of the Shannon, according to Dr. Thurnam and Professor -Huxley, are also of Iberian derivation, and singularly enough there is -a legendary connection between that island and Spain. The human remains -from the chambered tombs as well as the riverbeds prove that the -non-Aryan population spread over the whole of Ireland as well as the -whole of Britain. The main mass of the Irish population is undoubtedly -Celtic, crossed with Danish, Norse, and English blood. - -The Basque element in the population of France is at the present time -centered in the old province of Aquitaine, in which the jet-black hair -and eyes, and swarthy complexion, strike the eye of the traveller, now -as in the days of Strabo,[149] and form a vivid contrast with the brown -hair and grey eyes of the inhabitants of Celtica and Belgica (see Map, -Fig. 68). If Fig. 68 be compared with the map published by Dr. Broca -(“Mémoires d’Anthropologie,” t. i. p. 330), which shows at a glance -the average complexion prevailing in each department, and the relative -number of exemptions per 1,000 conscripts, on account of their not -coming up to the standard of height (1·56 metre = 5 feet 1½ inches), -it will be seen that the only swarthy people outside the boundary of -Aquitaine constitute five ethnological islands. Of these Brittany is by -far the largest, probably because its fastnesses afforded a shelter to -the Basques, who were being driven to the south-west. The department -of the Meuse, in the north, and those of Tarn and Arriège, in the -south, are also sundered from the main body, while those of the Upper -and Lower Alps present us with the descendants of the ancient Ligurian -tribes. - -The people with dark-brown hair, considered by Dr. Broca to be the -result of the intermingling of a dark with a fair race, are scattered -about through Aquitaine, and occur only in two departments in northern -Celtica. The fair people, on the other hand, are massed in northern -Celtica and Belgica. The relation of complexion to stature may be -gathered from the following table of exemptions per 1,000 for each -department:-- - - Départements noirs 98·5 to 189 - ” gris-foncés 64· ” 97 - ” gris-clairs 48·8 ” 63·8 - ” blancs-clairs 23· ” 48·5 - -From this table it is evident that the swarthy people are the smallest -and the fair the tallest, the intermediate shades being the result of -fusion between the two extremes. - -The distribution therefore of the small swarthy Basque, and tall fair -Celtic and Belgic races in France at the present time, corresponds -essentially with that which we might have expected from the evidence -both of history and of the neolithic caves and tombs.[150] - -When we consider the many invasions of France, and the oscillations -to and fro of peoples, the persistence of the Basque population is -very remarkable. It is not a little strange that the type should be so -slightly altered by intermarriage with the conquering races. - - -_Whence came the Basques?_ - -From what region did the Basques invade Europe? M. Broca, from their -identity with the Kabyles and Berbers, holds that they entered Europe -from northern Africa, spreading over Spain, and passing over the -Pyrenees into southern France. It seems, however, to me, from their -range as far north as Scotland, and at least as far to the east as -Belgium, that they travelled by the same route that the Celtic, Belgic, -and Germanic tribes travelled long ages afterwards, coming from the -east and pushing their way to the west: and that while one section -chose this route, another mastered northern Africa, following the same -westward direction as the Saracens. On this hypothesis this great -pre-Aryan migration would start from the central plateau of Asia, from -which all the successive invaders of Europe have swarmed off. - -This view of the eastern derivation of the Basque peoples is confirmed -by the examination of the breeds of domestic animals which they -possessed. The _Bos longifrons_, the sheep, and the goat are derived -from wild stocks that are now to be found only in central Asia; and the -dog and breed of swine with small canines were also probably imported -after they had become the servants of man in the east.[151] - - -_The Celtic and Belgic Brachy-cephali._ - -The occurrence of broad-skulls in the tumuli in this country, and -in caves and tumuli in France, proves that the Basque peoples were -invaded during the neolithic age. And since Dr. Thurnam has shown -that they are identical in form with Celtic and Belgic skulls,[152] -it follows that one or the other of these, probably the Celtic or the -older, was in possession of portions of Britain, Ireland, and Gaul at -that remote time. It is of course conceivable that non-Celtic races, -physically allied to the Celts or Belgæ, are represented by the human -remains in question; but in that case they have left no mark behind -by which they can be identified. And the supposition is rendered -improbable to the last degree by the fact, that the older or conquered -race--the Basque--still survives, in the area under consideration, -the invasions and vicissitudes which it has undergone. _A fortiori_, -would their conquerors have had a still greater chance of survival, in -the fastnesses which are offered by these countries. It is therefore -reasonable to presume that the broad-headed peoples in the neolithic -caves and tombs are represented by the Celts, and possibly, though not -probably, in part by the Belgæ, rather than by the equally broad-headed -Wends, Sclavonians, and Fins, which are not known by the historian to -have settled in Gaul or in Britain. The successive invasions of Europe -have been invariably from the east to the west, so far as we have any -certain knowledge; and it is most improbable that Wends, Fins, or -Sclaves should have occupied these countries and subsequently have -retreated eastwards against the current of the Celtic, Belgic, and -Germanic invasions. - -The Celtæ may, therefore, be inferred to have occupied Gaul and Britain -in the ages of polished stone, bronze, and of iron, their encroachment -on the non-Aryan peoples being regulated by their strength, and the -amount of pressure on their rear. The Belgæ probably were not known -in Gaul until the later portion of the iron age, and were of small -importance as compared with the Celts, whose arms were felt alike in -Greece, Italy, Spain, and Asia Minor. - -The Celts were a tall, fair-haired, blue-eyed race (Xanthochroi), -contrasting strongly with the Basque “Melanochroi”, and in those -particulars agreeing with the Germans.[153] - - -_The Ancient German Race._ - -The Germans, in the days of Cæsar, were advancing on the Belgæ in the -Rhine provinces, and on the Helvetii in Switzerland, and are recognized -by Tacitus,[154] in Britain as the red-haired, tall inhabitants of -Caledonia. Subsequently they spread over the west and south of Europe, -as Goths, Franks, Scandinavians, English and Normans; in this country -sweeping the Brit-Welsh into the hilly fastnesses of Wales, making -settlements on many points of the coasts of Ireland, and leaving -behind them, to this day, a considerable infusion of German blood -in the Celtic and Basque populations. They were, unlike the present -inhabitants of North Prussia and southern and middle Germany, a -dolicho-cephalic people, their length of head being due, according to -Gratiolet, to a frontal instead of an occipital development, which -causes the long-headedness of the Basques. The Anglo-Saxon skull is -defined by Dr. Thurnam as prognathous, with large facial bones, and -with a cephalic index averaging ·75. And these characters are equally -to be found in the Gothic, Frankish, and Scandinavian crania. - - -_General Conclusions._ - -In this outline of the ethnology of Gaul and Britain, it will be seen -that two out of the three ethnical elements (if the Belgic be classed -with the Celtic), of which the present population is composed, can be -recognized in the neolithic users of caves and builders of chambered -tombs. A non-Aryan race either identical or cognate with the Basque -is the earliest traceable in these areas in the neolithic age, and -it probably arrived in Europe by the same route as the Celtic and -Germanic, passing westwards from the plains of central Asia. - -There is no evidence of Spain having been peopled from northern Africa, -the identity of the Berber and Kabyle with the Basque being due to -their being descended from the same non-Aryan stock in possession of -southern and western Europe, and northern Africa. They are to be looked -upon as cousins rather than as connected by descent in a right line. - -The Basque race was probably in possession of Europe for a long series -of ages, before hordes either identical or cognate with the Celts -gradually crept westward over Germany into Gaul, Spain, and Britain, -driving away, or absorbing, the inhabitants of the regions which they -conquered. - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -CAVES CONTAINING HUMAN REMAINS OF DOUBTFUL AGE. - - The Caves of Paviland.--Engis.--Trou du Frontal.--Gendron. - --Neanderthal.--Gailenreuth.--Aurignac.--Bruniquel.-- - Cro-Magnon.-- Lombrive.--Cavillon, near Mentone.--Grotta dei - Colombi in Island of Palmaria, inhabited by Cannibals.--General - Conclusions. - - -There are many prehistoric caves in Britain and on the Continent which -do not contain remains sufficiently characteristic to fix the date of -their use, either for occupation or burial, unless the term neolithic -be understood to cover the wide interval between the palæolithic stage -of the pleistocene on the one hand, and the bronze age on the other. - - -_The Paviland Cave._ - -The Cave of Goat’s Hole[155] at Paviland, in Glamorganshire, explored -by Dr. Buckland in 1823, offers an instance of an interment having been -made in a pre-existent deposit of the pleistocene age. It consists of -a chamber facing to the sea, in a cliff of limestone 100 feet high, at -a level of from 30 to 40 feet above the high-water mark. Its floor was -composed of red loam, containing the remains of the woolly-rhinoceros, -hyæna, cave-bear, and mammoth. Close to a skull with tusks of the -last animal a human skeleton (equalling in size the largest male -skeleton in the Oxford Museum) was discovered; and in the soil, “which -had apparently been disturbed by ancient diggings,” were fragments of -charcoal, a small chipped flint, and the sea-shells of the neighbouring -shore. Certain small ivory ornaments, found close to the skeleton, are -considered by Dr. Buckland to have been carved out of the tusks of the -mammoth near which they rested; and he justly remarks that, “as they -must have been cut to their present shape at a time when the ivory was -hard, and not crumbling to pieces, as it is at present at the slightest -touch, we may from this circumstance assume for them a high antiquity.” - -May we not also infer, from the fact of the manufactured ivory and -the tusks from which it was cut being in precisely the same state of -decomposition, that the tusks were preserved from decay, during the -pleistocene times, by precisely the same agency as those now found -perfect in the polar regions--namely, the intense cold; that after -the skull of the mammoth had been buried in the cave, the tusks, thus -preserved, were used for the manufacture of ornaments; and that, at -some time subsequent to the interment of the ornaments with the corpse, -a climatal change has taken place, by which the temperature in England, -France, and Germany has been raised, and the ivory became decomposed -that up to that time had preserved its gelatine? On this point it is -worthy of remark that fossil tusks have been discovered in Scotland -sufficiently perfect to be used as ivory. The ornaments may, however, -not have been made from the fossil tusks. - -The presence of the bones of sheep underneath the remains of mammoth, -bear, and other animals, coupled with the state of the cave earth, -which had been disturbed before Dr. Buckland’s examination of the cave, -would prove that the interment is not of pleistocene date. No traces of -sheep or goat have as yet been afforded by any pleistocene deposit in -Britain, France, or Germany. - -Dr. Buckland’s conclusion, that the interment is relatively more -modern than the accumulation with remains of the extinct mammalia, -must be accepted as the true interpretation of the facts. The intimate -association of the two sets of remains, of widely diverse ages, in this -cave show that extreme care is necessary in cave exploration. - - -_The Cave of Engis._ - -Human remains have been obtained from some of the caves of Belgium -under circumstances which are generally considered to indicate that -they are of the same antiquity as the skeletons of the animals with -which they are associated. The possibility, however, of the contents -of caves of different ages being mixed by the action of water, or by -the burrowing of animals, or by subsequent interments, renders such an -association of little value, unless the evidence be very decided. The -famous human skull discovered by Dr. Schmerling[156] in the cave of -Engis, near Liége, in 1833, is a case in point. It was obtained from -a mass of breccia, along with bones and teeth of mammoth, rhinoceros, -horse, hyæna, and bear; and subsequently M. Dupont[157] found in -the same spot a human ulna, other human bones, worked flints, and a -small fragment of coarse earthenware. The discovery of this last is -an argument in favour of the human remains being of a later date than -the extinct mammalia, since pottery has not yet been proved to have -been known to the palæolithic races who co-existed with them, while -it is very abundant in neolithic burial-places and tombs. The fact of -all the objects being cemented together by calcareous infiltration is -no test of relative age, which cannot be ascertained without distinct -stratification, such as that in the caves of Wookey and Kent’s Hole. - -It seems therefore to me, that the conditions of the discovery are too -doubtful to admit of the conclusion of Sir Charles Lyell and other -eminent writers, that the human remains are of palæolithic age. - -The skull is described by Professor Huxley[158] as being of average -size, its contour agreeing equally well with some Australian and -European skulls; it presents no marks of degradation, “and is in fact a -fair average human skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher, -or might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage.” Its -measurements fall within the limits of the long-skulls described in the -preceding chapter, and it certainly belongs to the same class. - -The following Table will show the variation in size and form of the -skulls mentioned in this chapter: - - -_Measurements of Skulls of doubtful antiquity._ - - +-------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------+ - | | | | |Circum- |Cephalic|Altitu-| - | |Length.|Breadth.|Height.|ference.| index. | dinal | - | | | | | | | index.| - +-------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------+ - |Engis (Huxley) | 7·7 | 5·4 | -- | 20·5 | ·700 | -- | - |Trou du Frontal | | | | | | | - | (Pruner-Bey) | 6·9 | 5·6 | -- | 21·55 | ·811 | ·704 | - |Gailenreuth (Dawkins) | 6·82 | 5·5 | -- | 21·55 | ·813 | ·813 | - |Neanderthal | | | | | | | - | (Schaaffhausen) | 12·0 | 5·75 | -- | 23· | ·720 | -- | - |Cro-Magnon, No. 1 (Broca)| 7·95 | 5·86 | -- | 22·36 | ·730 | -- | - | ” ” 2 ” | 7·52 | 5·39 | -- | 21·26 | ·71 | -- | - | ” ” 3 ” | 7·94 | 5·94 | -- | 22·24 | ·74 | -- | - +-------------------------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+-------+ - - -_Trou du Frontal._ - -The human skeletons in the Trou du Frontal, situated in a picturesque -limestone cliff on the banks of the Lesse, near Furfooz, are considered -by M. Dupont to be of the same age as the contents of the caves close -by the Trou des Nutons and Trou Rosette, which have been inhabited by -palæolithic savages. The following is the section (Fig. 69) which he -gives of the deposits. Close to the river Lesse is the alluvium (No. -1), below which is a clay (No. 2), with angular blocks passing upwards -under the rock shelter, and filling the cave. Under this is a stratum -of loam (No. 3), resting on gravel (No. 4). Sixteen human skeletons -were discovered in the sepulchral cavity (S), at the mouth of which -was a large slab of rock (D), by which it was originally blocked up. -A singular urn, with a round bottom and with the handles perforated -for suspension, was found at the entrance, together with flint flakes, -ornaments in fluorine, and eocene shells perforated for suspension. -Outside, at the points H H, was an accumulation of broken bones, -belonging to the lemming, tailless hare (Lagomys), beaver, wild cat, -boar, horse, stag, urus, chamois, goat, and other animals, birds and -fishes. From the occurrence of fragments belonging to two reindeer, -it is considered by M. Dupont to belong to the reindeer age. The old -hearth was close by, at F (Fig. 69). - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Section of the Trou du Frontal. (Dupont.)] - -From this section we may infer, that the rock-shelter was used by man -at the points H H and F before the formation of the stratum No. 2, -which is probably merely subaerial rain-wash, due to the disintegration -of the adjacent rocks, and that the sepulchral cavity was a place of -burial either before, or while No. 2 was accumulated. Can we further -conclude that there is any necessary connection between the refuse-heap -and the sepulchre in point of time? M. Dupont holds that the contents -of all the caves in the cliff are palæolithic, and that the sepulchral -cavity is therefore of that age.[159] It seems to me, however, that the -evidence in favour of this view is not conclusive. The burial place may -have belonged to one people, and the refuse-heaps in the neighbouring -caves and _outside_ the slab in the rock-shelter of the Trou du Frontal -to another. The form of the urn is remarkably like some of those which -have been obtained from the neolithic pile-dwellings of Switzerland, -and therefore may possibly imply that the interment is of that age. - -The human remains were mixed _pêle mêle_ with stones and yellow -clay within the chamber. Two skulls, sufficiently perfect to allow -of measurement, show that their possessors were broad-headed -(brachy-cephalic), and of the same type as those of Sclaigneaux. -They are considered by the late Dr. Pruner-Bey to belong to the -“type Mongoloide,” and are believed by M. Dupont to prove that the -palæolithic inhabitants of Belgium were a Mongoloid race. They seem, -however, to be of the same general order as the broad-skulls from the -neolithic caves and tombs of France, and from the round barrows of -Great Britain, as well as those from the neolithic tombs of Borreby and -Moën in Scandinavia. And they are looked upon by MM. de Quatrefages, -Virchow, and Lagneaux,[160] as presenting the same type as that which -is to be recognized in the present population of Belgium, in the -neighbourhood, for example, of Antwerp. - -These affinities may be explained by the view advanced by Dr. Thurnam, -that the broad-heads of the British, French, and Scandinavian tombs -are cognate with the modern Fin; or by the higher generalisation of -Prof. Huxley, that the Swiss “Dissentis” skull, the South German, the -Sclavonian, and the Finnish, belong to one great race of fair-haired, -broad-headed, Xanthochroi “who have extended across Europe from -Britain to Sarmatia, and we know not how much further to the east and -south.”[161] - -Besides these broad crania, M. Lagneaux[162] calls attention to a -fragment, sufficiently perfect to indicate a skull of the long type -(très dolicho-céphale), and that differed from them in many other -particulars. In the Trou du Frontal, therefore, there is proof that -a long and a short-headed race lived in Belgium side by side, just -as a similar association in the cave of Orrouy establishes the same -conclusion as to the neolithic dwellers in France. And since skulls -of both these types have been discovered in the neolithic caves of -Sclaigneaux and Chauvaux, the interment in the Trou du Frontal may -probably be referred to that date. - - -_The Cave of Gendron._ - -The sepulchral cave of Gendron[163] on the Lesse, in which fourteen -skeletons were discovered lying at full length, and in regular order, -along with one flake and some fragments of pottery, is of uncertain -age, since those articles were found at the entrance, and have no -necessary connection with the interments. And if they were deposited -at the same time, M. Dupont’s view that they stamp the neolithic age -is rendered untenable by the fact that flakes and rude pottery were -in use as late as the date of the Roman conquest of Britain, and are -frequently met with in association with articles of bronze and of iron. -And for the same reasons the neolithic age of the human bones in the -Trou de Sureau and of the Trou de Pont-à-Lesse is open to considerable -doubt. The contents, however, prove these caves to be post-pleistocene. - - -_Cave of Gailenreuth._ - -The same uncertainty overhangs the age of the interments in the cave -of Gailenreuth, in Franconia, from which Dr. Buckland[164] obtained -a human skull of the same broad type as that from Sclaigneaux, along -with fragments of black coarse pottery, one of which is ornamented with -a line of finger-impressions. The skull is remarkable for the great -width of the parietal protuberances, and the flattening of the upper -and posterior region of the parietal bone. Its measurements are given -in the Table, p. 236, from which it will be seen that it belongs to the -same class of skulls as those from the neolithic caves and tumuli of -France. - - -_Cave of Neanderthal._ - -The extraordinary skull found in 1857 in the cave of Neanderthal,[165] -by Dr. Fuhlrott, with some of the other bones of the skeleton, was -not associated with any other animals from which its age could be -inferred. “Under whatever aspect,” writes Professor Huxley, “we view -this cranium, whether we regard its vertical depression, the enormous -thickness of its supraciliary ridges, its sloping occiput, or its -long and straight squamosal suture, we meet with ape-like characters, -stamping it as the most pithecoid of human crania yet discovered. But -Prof. Schaaffhausen states that the cranium, in its present condition, -holds 1033·24 cubic centimetres of water, or about 63 cubic inches, and -as the entire skull could hardly have held less than an additional 12 -cubic inches, its capacity may be estimated at about 75 cubic inches, -which is the average capacity given by Morton for Polynesian and -Hottentot skulls. - -So large a mass of brain as this would alone suggest that the pithecoid -tendencies, indicated by this skull, did not extend deep into the -organization, and this conclusion is borne out by the dimensions of -the other bones of the skeleton, given by Prof. Schaaffhausen, which -show that the absolute height and relative proportions of the limbs -were quite those of a European of middle stature. The bones are indeed -stouter, but this, and the great development of the muscular ridges -noted by Dr. Schaaffhausen, are characters to be expected in savages. -The Patagonians, exposed without shelter or protection to a climate -possibly not very dissimilar from that of Europe at the time during -which the Neanderthal man lived, are remarkable for the stoutness of -their limb-bones. - -In no sense, then, can the Neanderthal bones be regarded as the remains -of a human being intermediate between men and apes; at most they -demonstrate the existence of a man whose skull may be said to revert -somewhat towards the pithecoid type--just as a carrier, or a poulter, -or a tumbler may sometimes put on the plumage of its primitive stock, -the _Columba livia_.” - -This skull, like the preceding, belongs to the dolicho-cephalic -division, reaching the enormous length of twelve inches, with a -parietal breadth of 5·75. - -A long-skull found near Ledbury Hill in Derbyshire, and belonging -to the river-bed type of Prof. Huxley, comes so close to this one -of Neanderthal, that were it flattened a little and elongated, and -possessed of larger supraciliary ridges, it would be converted into the -nearest likeness which has yet been discovered.[166] - - -_The Caves of France.--Aurignac._ - -In the cave of Neanderthal, the question of the antiquity of the human -remains is not complicated by the juxtaposition of extinct pleistocene -animals or of palæolithic implements. Those caves, however, in France -which claim especial attention, Aurignac, Bruniquel, and Cro-Magnon, -are equally famous for their interments, and the palæolithic implements -which they have furnished, along with the remains of the mammoth, -woolly rhinoceros, and other extinct animals. - -They have both been inhabited by palæolithic man, and been used some -time for burial. Does the period of habitation coincide with that -of the burial? This important question has been answered almost -universally in the affirmative, and the interments are viewed as -evidence of a belief in the supra-natural among the most ancient -inhabitants of Europe, as well as offering examples of their physique. - -The famous cave of Aurignac, near the town of that name, in the -department of the Haute Garonne, was explored and described by the late -M. Ed. Lartet, and his conclusions were adopted by Sir Charles Lyell -in the first three editions of the “Antiquity of Man.” In the fourth -edition,[167] however, the latter author, after a reconsideration of -all the circumstances, qualifies his acceptance of the palæolithic age -of the interments, and shares the doubts which have been expressed by -Sir John Lubbock and Mr. John Evans. The evidence is as follows:-- - -M. Lartet’s account falls naturally into two parts: first, the -story which he was told by the original discoverer of the cave; -and, secondly, that in which the results of his own discoveries are -described. We will begin with the first. In the year 1852, a labourer, -named Bonnemaison, employed in mending the roads, put his hand into a -rabbit-hole (Fig. 70, _f_), and drew out a human bone, and having his -curiosity excited, he dug down until, as his story goes, he came to a -great slab of rock. Having removed this, he discovered on the other -side a cavity seven or eight feet in height, ten in width, and seven -in depth, almost full of human bones, which Dr. Amiel, the Mayor of -Aurignac, who was a surgeon, believed to represent at least seventeen -individuals. All these human remains were collected, and finally -committed to the parish cemetery, where they rest to the present day, -undisturbed by sacrilegious hands. Fortunately, however, Bonnemaison in -digging his way into the grotto, had met with the remains of extinct -animals, and works of art; and these were preserved until, in 1860, -M. Lartet accidentally heard of the discovery, and investigated the -circumstances on the spot. He found that Bonnemaison, and the sexton -who had buried the human remains, had taken so little note of the place -where they were interred, that it could not be identified, and on -examining the cave he found that the interior had been ransacked, and -the original stratification to a great extent disturbed. M. Lartet’s -exploration showed that a stratum containing the remains of the -cave-bear, lion, rhinoceros, hyæna, mammoth, bison, horse, and other -animals, and palæolithic implements, like those of Périgord, extended -from the plateau (_d_) outside into (_b_) the cave. On the outside he -met with ashes, and burnt and split bones, which proved that it had -been used as a feasting-place by the palæolithic hunters; within he -detected no traces of charcoal, and no traces of the hyænas, which -were abundant outside. Inside he met with a few human bones in the -earth which Bonnemaison had disturbed, which were in the same mineral -condition as those of the extinct animals, and he, therefore, inferred -that they were of the same age. Such is the summary of the facts which -M. Lartet discovered. He has, of his own personal knowledge, only -proved that Aurignac was occupied by a tribe of hunters during the -palæolithic age, and that it had been used as a burial-place. - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Diagram of the Cave of Aurignac.] - -Is he further justified in concluding that the period of palæolithic -occupation coincides with that in which the burial took place? -Bonnemaison’s recollections may be estimated at their proper value -by the significant fact, that, in the short space of eight years -intervening between the discovery and the exploration, he had forgotten -where the skeletons had been buried. And even if his account be true -in the minutest detail, it does not afford a shadow of evidence in -favour of the cave having been a place of sepulchre in palæolithic -times, but merely that it had been so used at some time or another. If -we turn to the diagram constructed by M. Lartet to illustrate his views -(“Ann. des Sc. Nat. Zool.,” 4^e sér., t. xv., pl. 10), and made for the -most part from Bonnemaison’s recollections; or to the amended diagram -(Fig. 70) given by Sir Charles Lyell (“Antiquity of Man,” 1st ed., Fig. -25), we shall see that the skeletons are depicted _above_ the stratum -(_b_) containing the palæolithic implements and pleistocene mammalia; -and therefore, according to the laws of geological evidence, they must -have been buried after the subjacent deposit was accumulated. The -previous disturbance of the cave-earth does away with the conclusion, -that the few human bones found by M. Lartet are of the same age as the -extinct mammalia in the deposit. The absence of charcoal inside was -quite as likely to be due to the fact that a fire kindled inside would -fill the grotto with smoke, while outside the palæolithic savage could -feast in comfort, as to the view that the ashes are those of funereal -feasts in honour of the dead within, held after the slab had been -placed at the entrance. The absence of the remains of hyænas from the -interior is also negative evidence, disproved by subsequent examination. - -The researches of the Rev. S. W. King, in 1865, complete the case -against the current view of the palæolithic character of the -interments, since they show that M. Lartet did not fully explore the -cave, and that he consequently wrote without being in possession of all -the facts. The entrance was blocked up, according to Bonnemaison, by a -slab of stone, which, if the measurements of the entrance be correct, -must have been at least nine feet long and seven feet high, placed, -according to M. Lartet, to keep the hyænas from the corpses of the -dead. It need hardly be remarked, that the access of these bone-eating -animals to the cave would be altogether incompatible with the -preservation of the human skeletons, had they been buried at the same -time. The enormous slab was never seen by M. Lartet, and it did not -keep out the hyænas. In the collection made by the Rev. S. W. King from -the interior there are two hyænas’ teeth, and nearly all the antlers -and bones bear the traces of the gnawing of these animals. The cave, -moreover, has _two_ entrances instead of one, as M. Lartet supposed -when his paper in the “Annales” was published. The bones of the sheep, -or goat, also obtained from the inside, and preserved in the Christy -Museum, afford strong evidence that the interment is not palæolithic; -and a fragment of pottery, agreeing exactly with that used in the -neolithic age, probably indicates its relative antiquity. This -conclusion has also been arrived at by the two most recent explorers, -MM. Cartaillac and Gautier. - -The skeletons, therefore, in the Aurignac cave cannot be taken to be of -the same age as the stratum on which they rested; but, so far as there -is any evidence, may probably be referred to the neolithic age, in -which the custom of burial in caves prevailed throughout Europe. - - -_Cavern of Bruniquel._ - -The famous cavern of Bruniquel, explored by the Vicomte de Lastic in -1863-4,[168] and described by Professor Owen, is also one of the class -which has furnished human bones, along with the remains of the extinct -mammalia. It penetrates a cliff in the Jurassic limestone, opposite -the little village of Bruniquel (Tarn and Garonne), about forty feet -above the level of the river Aveyron. The bottom was covered with a -sheet of stalagmite, resting on earth and blocks of stone, for the most -part finely cemented into a breccia, that is black with the particles -of carbon constituting the “limon noir” of the workmen, four or five -feet thick, beneath which is the “limon rouge,” or red earth without -charcoal, from three to four feet thick. Every part of the breccia -is charged with the broken remains of the wolf, rhinoceros, horse, -reindeer, stag, Irish elk and bison, and palæolithic implements of -flint and bone; some of the latter having well-executed designs of the -heads of horses and reindeer, which prove that the cave had been used -as a place of habitation by the hunters of those animals. Imbedded in -the breccia at a depth of from three to five feet human bones were -met with, and in two recesses several individuals, including a child, -were found, one of which Professor Owen and the Vicomte de Lastic -disinterred with sufficient care to prove that the body had been buried -in the crouching posture. The only calvarium sufficiently perfect to -allow of a comparison belonged to the dolicho-cephalic type, and was -very fairly developed. - -Professor Owen infers, from the intimate association of the human -bones with the palæolithic implements and mammalia, that the cave -of Bruniquel was used as a burial-place by the same people who had -used it for habitation, and advances, in support of this, that the -bones of man and of the animals are exactly in the same state of -preservation, having lost the same amount of gelatine. The evidence, -however, does not seem to be altogether conclusive. If the interment -had been made after the palæolithic inhabitants had forsaken the cave, -the association of the human bones with the refuse bones in their -old refuse-heap must inevitably have taken place. And if, further, -water charged with carbonate of lime percolated the mass, it would be -converted into a hard breccia, and ultimately covered with a sheet of -stalagmite. This calcification may have taken place in modern times. -A modern bone, as Mr. Evans has observed in the case of Aurignac, may -lose its gelatine in a comparatively short time, and become chemically -identical with those which have been imbedded in the same matrix for -long ages. The mineral condition, therefore, is an uncertain test of -relative antiquity. - -For these reasons it seems to be doubtful whether the interment is of -the same age as the occupation. The skull-shape, and the burial in the -crouching posture, point rather in the direction of the long-headed -race, that buried their dead in caves, in the neolithic age, in France, -Spain, Belgium, and Great Britain. - - -_The Cave of Cro-Magnon._ - -The human skeletons in the cave of Cro-Magnon, at Les Eyzies, a little -village on the banks of the Vezère in Périgord, fall into the same -doubtful category as those of Aurignac. The cave (Fig. 71, _f_), -situated at the base of a low cliff, was completely concealed by a -talus of loose débris, four metres thick, which had fallen from above. -(Fig. 71, _b_.) - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Section across the Valley of the Vezère, and -through the rock of Cro-Magnon. - -Level of the Vezère at low water, 58·25 metres above the sea. - -Height of cave above the Vezère, 15 metres; above the sea-level, 73·25 -metres. - -Distance from the cave to the river, 177 metres. - - _a_ Railroad. - _b_ Talus. - _c_ Great block of stone. - _d_ Ledge of rock. - P Limestone. - M Detritus of the slopes and alluvium of the Valley. - _e_ Rock of Cro-Magnon. - _f_ Cave. - _g_ Château and Village of Les Eyzies, in the Valley of the Beaune. - _h_ Gatekeeper’s house. - _i_ Railway bridge over the Vezère. - _j_ Caves of Le Cingle. -] - -It forms one of a group of caves at various heights above the Vezère, -which are very well represented in the preceding figure, which I am -kindly allowed to borrow from the “Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ” (Fig. 39). - -At the time of its discovery in 1868, in the course of making an -embankment for the railway close by, and of obtaining material for -mending the roads, it was completely blocked up. On the removal of this -(_b_), by the contractors MM. Bertoú-Meyroú and Delmarés, the entrance -was exposed, and human remains and worked flints revealed, which were -carefully exhumed in the presence of MM. Laganne, Galy, and Simon. -At this stage of the exploration M. Louis Lartet was deputed, by the -Minister of Public Instruction, to superintend the work, and from his -report the following account is taken (Lartet and Christy, “Rel. Aq.,” -p. 66) by the courtesy of the editors. - -“The cave of Cro-Magnon is formed by a projecting ledge of cretaceous -limestone (rich with fossil corals and polyzoans), having a thickness -of 8 metres and a length of 17 metres (Fig. 72, P). The bed which it -overlies, and the destruction of which has given rise to the cave, -abounds with _Rhynchonella vespertilio_, which is a type fossil, -fixing the geological horizon. The débris of this marly and micaceous -limestone had accumulated on the original floor of the cavern to a -great thickness, at least for 0·70 metres (see Fig. 72, A), when the -hunters of the reindeer stopped here for the first time, leaving as a -trace of their short stay a blackish layer (Fig. 72, B), from 0·05 to -0·15 metre thick, containing worked flints, bits of charcoal, broken -or calcined bones, and in its upper portion the elephant tusk before -alluded to (Fig. 72, _a_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Detailed Section of the Cave of Cro-Magnon, -near Les Eyzies. Scale = 1/100 (1 centimetre to 1 metre). - - A Débris of soft limestone. - B First layer of ashes, &c. - C Calcareous débris. - D Second layer of ashes, &c. - E Calcareous débris, reddened by fire under the next layer of - ashes, &c. - F Third layer of ashes, &c. - G Red earth, with bones, &c. - H Thickest layer of ashes, bones, &c. - I Yellowish earth, with bones, flints, &c. - J Thin bed of hearth-stuff. - K Calcareous débris. - L Rubbish of the Talus. - N Crack in the projecting ledge of rock. - P Projecting shelf of hard limestone. - Y Place of the pillar made to support the roof. - _a_ Tusk of an elephant. - _b_ Bones of an old man. - _c_ Block of gneiss. - _d_ Human bones. - _e_ Slabs of stone fallen from the roof at different times. -] - -“This first hearth is covered by a layer (C), 0·25 metre thick, of -calcareous débris, detached bit by bit from the roof, during the -temporary disuse of the shelter. Then follows another thin layer of -hearth-stuff (D), 0·10 metre thick, also containing pieces of charcoal, -bones, and worked flints. This bed is in its turn overlain by a layer -of fallen limestone rubbish (E), 0·50 metre thick. Lastly, there is -over these a series of more important layers, all of them containing, -in different proportions, charcoal, bones (broken, burnt, and worked), -worked flints (of different types, but chiefly scrapers), flint cores, -and pebbles of quartz, granites, &c. from the bed of the Vezère, and -bearing numerous marks of hammering. Altogether these layers seem to -have reference to a period during which the cave was inhabited, if -not continuously, at least at intervals so short as not to admit of -intercalations of débris falling from the roof between the different -hearth-layers which correspond with the successive phases of this (the -third) period of habitation. The first (lowest) of these layers (F) is -full of charcoal, and has a thickness of 0·20 metre; it does not touch -the back of the cave, but extends a little further than the earlier -layers. At its line of contact with the calcareous débris beneath, the -latter is strongly reddened with the action of fire. - -“On the last-mentioned hearth-layer is a bed of unctuous reddish earth -(G), 0·30 metre thick, containing similar objects, though in less -quantities. Last in succession is a carbonaceous bed (H), the widest -and thickest of all, having an average thickness of 0·30 metre; at the -edges it is only 0·10 metre thick; but in the centre, where it cuts -into the subjacent deposits, which were excavated by the inhabitants -in making the principal hearth, it attains a depth of 1·60 metre. This -bed, being by far the richest in pieces of charcoal, in bones, pebbles -of quartz, worked flints, flint cores, and bone implements, such as -points or dart-heads, arrowheads, &c., may be regarded as indicative of -a far more prolonged habitation than the previous. - -“Above this thick hearth-layer is a bed of yellowish earth (I), rather -argillaceous, also containing bones, flints, and implements of bone, -as well as amulets or pendants. This appears to be limited upwards by -a carbonaceous bed (J), very thin, and of little extent, 0·05 metre -thick, which M. Laganne observed before my arrival, but of which only -slight traces remained afterwards. - -“It was on the upper part of this yellow band (I), and at the back of -the cave, that the human skeletons and the accessories of the sepulture -were met with; and all of them were found in the calcareous débris -(K), except in a small space in the furthest hollow at the back of the -cave. This last deposit also contains some worked flints, mixed up with -broken bones, and with some uninjured bones referable to small rodents -and to a peculiar kind of fox. - -“Lastly, above these different layers, and all over the shelter itself, -lay the rubbish of the talus (four to six metres thick), sufficient -in itself, according to what we have said above about its mode of -formation, to carry back the date of the sepulture to a very distant -period in the prehistoric age. - -“As for the human remains, and the position they occupied in bed I, the -following are the results of my careful inquiries in the matter. At -the back of the cave was found an old man’s skull (_b_), which alone -was on a level with the surface, in the cavity not filled up in the -back of the cave, and was therefore exposed to the calcareous drip -from the roof, as is shown by its having a stalagmitic coating on some -parts. The other human bones, referable to four other skeletons, were -found around the first, within a radius of about 1·50 metre. Among -these bones were found, on the left of the old man, the skeleton of a -woman, whose skull presents in front a deep wound, made by a cutting -instrument, but which did not kill her at once, as the bone has been -partly repaired within; indeed our physicians think that she survived -several weeks. By the side of the woman’s skeleton was that of an -infant which had not arrived at its full time of fœtal development. The -other skeletons (Fig. 70, _d_) seem to have been those of men. - -“Amidst the human remains lay a multitude of marine shells (about 300), -each pierced with a hole, and nearly all belonging to the species -_Littorina littorea_ so common on our Atlantic coasts. Some other -species, such as _Purpura lapillus_, _Turritella communis_, &c., occur, -but in small numbers. These are also perforated, and, like the others, -have been used for necklaces, bracelets, or other ornamental attire. -Not far from the skeletons, I found a pendant or amulet of ivory, oval, -flat, and pierced with two holes. M. Laganne had already discovered a -smaller specimen; and M. Ch. Grenier, schoolmaster at Les Eyzies, has -kindly given me another, quite similar, which he had received from -one of his pupils. There were also found near the skeletons several -perforated teeth, a large block of gneiss, split and presenting a large -smoothed surface; also worked antlers of reindeer, and chipped flints, -of the same types as those found in the hearth-layers underneath. - -“... The presence, at all levels, of the same kind of flint scrapers, -as finely chipped as those of the Gorge d’Enfer, and of the same -animals as in that classic station, evidently shows them to be -relics of the successive habitation of the Cro-Magnon shelter by the -same race of nomadic hunters, who at first could use it merely as a -rendezvous, where they came to share the spoils of the chase taken -in the neighbourhood; but coming again, they made a more permanent -occupation, until their accumulated refuse and the débris gradually -raised the floor of the cave, leaving the inconvenient height of -only 1·20 metre between it and the roof; and then they abandoned it -by degrees, returning once more at last to conceal their dead there. -No longer accessible, except perhaps to the foxes above noticed, -this shelter, and its strange sepulture, were slowly and completely -hidden from sight by atmospheric degradation bringing down the earthy -covering, which, by its thickness, alone proves the great antiquity of -the burial in the cave.” - -These conclusions as to the age of the burial do not seem to me to be -supported by the facts of the case. That the cave was inhabited by a -tribe of palæolithic hunters there can be no doubt, but no evidence -has been brought forward that it was used by them for the burial of -their dead. They “abandoned it by degrees,” but what proof is there -that _they_ “returned once more to conceal their dead”? The interments -are at a higher horizon than the strata of occupation, and therefore -later, and although palæolithic implements have been found “near” them, -the value of the latter, in indicating the date, is destroyed by their -occurrence throughout the old floors below. If we suppose that long -after the cave had been inhabited by the hunters of the reindeer, it -was chosen by a family as a burial-place, all the conditions of the -discovery will be satisfied. The pre-existent strata would be disturbed -in the process of burial, and the burrowing of foxes, and possibly of -rabbits, might bring the palæolithic implements into close association -with the human bones. Taking the whole evidence into account, I should -feel inclined to assign the interment to the neolithic age, in which -cave-burial was so common; but whatever view be held, the facts do not -warrant the human skeletons being taken as proving the physique of the -palæolithic hunters of the Dordogne, or as a basis for an inquiry into -the ethnology of the palæolithic races. - -The largest cranium (see Table, p. 236), belonging to an old man, had -the frontal region well developed, is orthognathic, with upturned -nasals, and dolicho-cephalic. The occipital protuberance, or probole, -is small. The bones of the extremity imply a stature of not less than -five foot eleven inches for the man; the femur is carinate, and the -tibiæ platycnemic (see Fig. 48). - - -_The Cave of Lombrive._ - -The human bones, obtained by MM. Garrigou, Filhol, and Rames, from the -cave of Lombrive[169] in the Department of Ariège, are, equally with -those cited above, of doubtful antiquity. They were discovered on the -superficial sandy loam, passing in places into a calcareous breccia, -which rests at various levels in the chambers, passages, and fissures, -along with bones of the brown-bear, urus, small ox, reindeer, stag, -horse, and dog. From the occurrence of the reindeer the deposit is -assigned to the palæolithic age. But since this animal has been proved -to have been eaten in Scotland by the neolithic men of Caithness, and -to have inhabited Britain in the prehistoric age, it is by no means -improbable that it may also have lived in the region of the Pyrenees in -post-pleistocene times. The presence of the dog and the small domestic -ox (_Bos longifrons?_) fixes the date of the accumulation as not being -earlier than prehistoric; for both those animals were introduced into -Europe by neolithic peoples. - -The two human skulls, described by Professor Vogt, from this deposit -confirm this conclusion, since they are of the broad type, and differ -in no important character (Thurnam) from those of the neolithic -brachy-cephali of France and Belgium. - - -_The Cave of Cavillon, near Mentone._ - -The cave of Cavillon, explored by M. Rivière, in 1872, in the -neighbourhood of Mentone, a few hundred yards on the Italian side of -the frontier of France, is another case of the occurrence of human -remains in association with those of the extinct animals. The floor -is composed of dark earth, full of charcoal and fragments of bones, -mingled with blocks of stone which have dropped from the roof. Below -it, at a depth of six and a half metres, a skeleton was met with, as -well as flint-flakes, rude instruments of bone, and a number of shells -perforated for suspension. The skull was covered with a head-dress -of more than 200 perforated sea-shells. It rested in an attitude -of repose, with the legs and arms bent,[170] as may be seen in the -admirable photo-lithograph given by M. Rivière in the volume of the -“International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology,” published at -Brussels, pl. 6. The teeth and bones of hyæna, lion, woolly rhinoceros, -mammoth, and other pleistocene animals occurred both in the soil above -and below, and for that reason both the discoverer and Sir Charles -Lyell believe that the interment dates back to the time when those -animals were living. If, however, neolithic savages, or those of a -later age, had buried the skeleton in the earth containing the extinct -animals, all the circumstances which have been noticed, either by Mr. -Pengelly or Mr. Moggridge,[171] may be satisfactorily explained. There -are no stalagmites to divide one stratum from another, and were an -interment made in the cave at the present time, the discoverer two or -three centuries hence might assert, with equal justice, that it took -place in the pleistocene age, because of the association with the -animals characteristic of that remote period. - -The superficial portions of the cave-earth had certainly been -disturbed, and there is no evidence that the disturbance did not extend -down to the horizon where the skeleton rested. Nevertheless, Mr. -Pengelly concludes that the interment is of palæolithic age from its -analogy with that of Cro-Magnon and Paviland, which we have seen to be -of equally doubtful antiquity. It seems to me that this conclusion, -which is almost universally accepted, is not warranted by the facts, -and that it cannot be used in support of any speculation as to the -condition of man in the pleistocene age. - -The skull is described by M. Rivière as long, the thigh-bones are -strongly carinate, and the tibiæ are platycnemic as in the case of -those from Cro-Magnon, Gibraltar, Sclaigneaux, and North Wales. - - -_Grotta dei Colombi in Island of Palmaria, inhabited by Cannibals._ - -We are indebted to Professor Capellini for an account of the -exploration of the Grotta dei Colombi, a cave in a vertical cliff -in the island of Palmaria,[172] overlooking to the south the Gulf of -Spezzia. In the red loam, composing the floor, were numerous flakes and -scrapers, a rounded “striker” of Saussurite, quartz, pebbles, fragments -of pottery, a bone needle, a whistle made of the first phalange of a -goat’s foot, shells perforated for suspension, _Natica mille-punctata_, -_Pectunculus glycimeris_, and _Patella cærulea_, together with bones of -goat, hog, ox, wolf, wild cat, and broken and cut human bones belonging -to children and young adults. - -Among the remains Professor Capellini draws attention in particular to -the thigh-bones, scorched by fire, one of which bears incisions on its -posterior face made by a flint implement in cutting away the flesh (Pl. -73, _a_), and is also marked by scraping. He considers that they belong -to an ape, closely allied to the _Macacus innuus_ of Gibraltar and -North Africa, and concludes, therefore, that the animal was living in -Palmaria at the time that the cave was inhabited. This identification -is forbidden by the spongy texture, the rounded contour, and the -absence of epiphyses that imply that the bone was very young, and that -in the adult it would be far larger than any thigh-bone of the apes. On -comparing his figures with eight femora belonging to young children, -from the cairn at Cefn, and the caves at Perthi-Chwareu, I find that -they agree in every particular with two, the flattening of the inferior -extremity, considered by Prof. Calori to be a non-human character, -being equally met with in all, and being relatively greater in the -younger than the older. They offer, therefore, unmistakeable proof that -the inhabitants of the cave were cannibals (Fig. 73). I am informed by -my friend, Prof. Busk, that the bone figured belonged to a child about -eight years old. The outline _b_ in the figure represents the contour -of one of the femora from the cavern at Cefn, described in the fifth -chapter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--Thigh-bone of child from Grotta dei Colombi -(Capellini). _a_, Cuts; _b_, Outline of corresponding thigh-bone from -cavern at Cefn.] - -In this cave, as in those quoted above, there are no polished stone -implements, or works of art, that establish that these feasts -were carried on in the cave by neolithic cannibals, for the rude -flint-flakes and bone articles, taken by Professor Capellini to fix -its date, are common both to the palæolithic and the bronze ages. -Nevertheless, since the inhabitants have left behind no trace of -any metal, and since their food was wholly supplied by the existing -animals, they were probably in the neolithic stage of culture, if this -be taken to cover the wide interval extending from the pleistocene -to the age of bronze. They are proved, by the rudeness of their -implements, to have been savages of a very low order. - -We may gather from various allusions, and stories scattered through the -classical writers, such for example as that of the Cyclops, that the -caves on the shores of the Mediterranean were inhabited by cannibals -in ancient times. In the island of Palmaria we meet with unmistakeable -proof that it was no mere idle tale or poetical dream. But we have no -proof that cannibalism was universally practised at any stage in the -history of man. All the caves of Europe, explored up to the present -time, merely afford some three or four examples in the neolithic -and bronze ages. In the pleistocene there is no instance which is -devoid of doubt. This atrocious practice is therefore to be viewed as -abnormal, and it probably became ingrafted into the religious ideas of -the nations of antiquity from the horror by which it was surrounded, -ultimately surviving in the form of human sacrifices to the offended -gods. - - -_General Conclusions as to Prehistoric Caves._ - -We have seen in the fifth and sixth chapters that the prehistoric caves -which are so unimportant in the ages of bronze and iron, were used -in the neolithic age throughout western Europe both for habitation -and burial, and that they therefore offer us most valuable materials -for working out the ethnology of Europe at that remote time. The two -races of men, the remains of which they contain, are represented by -the modern Basque and Berber on the one hand, and on the other by the -Celt, and in Russia and Germany by the cognate Finn, Sclave, and Wend. -And since all the human remains described in the present chapter, those -of Cro-Magnon and possibly of the Grotta dei Colombi being exempted, -belong to one of other of these types, they may be referred to the -neolithic age with a high degree of probability. In the present stage -of the inquiry, it is much safer to put them into a distinct class, -apart from those to which we can assign a relative age with tolerable -certainty. - -In the long ages which elapsed between the close of the pleistocene -period and the dawn of history other races than these may have occupied -Europe, and have passed away without leaving any clue as to their -identity. But in the present state of our knowledge we are justified -only in concluding, that the oldest population in prehistoric times -was non-Aryan, the traces of which are left behind not merely in the -caves and tombs, but in language,[173] and in the small dark-haired -inhabitants of western and southern Europe. - -The prehistoric peoples lived under physical conditions very different -from those of central and western Europe at the present time; the -surface of the country being covered with rock, forest, and morass, -which afforded shelter to the elk, bison, urus, stag, megaceros, and -wild boar, as well as to innumerable wolves. They arrived from the -east with cereals and domestic animals, some of which, such as the -_Bos longifrons_ and _Sus palustris_, reverted to their original wild -state. From the very exigencies of their position they lived partly by -hunting, and they gradually pushed their way westward, carrying with -them the rudiments of that civilization which we ourselves possess. - -It is an open question whether they came into contact with the -palæolithic races which preceded them. - -The climate which they enjoyed was sufficiently severe to allow the -reindeer to inhabit the district on which now stands the city of -London, and its severity may also be inferred from the thickness of -the bark of the Scotch firs, observed by Mr. Godwin-Austen in the -submarine forests of the south of England, and by Mr. James Geikie -in those of Scotland. The area of Great Britain was greater then, -than now, since a plain extended seawards from the coast-line, nearly -everywhere, supporting a dense forest of Scotch fir, oak, birch, and -alder, the relics of which are to be seen in the beds of peat, and the -stumps of the trees, near low-water mark on most of our shores. And -it may be inferred that the forest extended a considerable distance -from the present sea margin, from the large size of the trunks of the -trees.[174] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE PLEISTOCENE CAVES OF GERMANY AND GREAT BRITAIN. - - Relation of Pleistocene to Prehistoric Period.--Magnitude of the - Interval.--Animals.--Physical changes.--Excavation and - filling up of Valleys: Fisherton; Freshford.--Comparison of - Deposits in Valleys with those of Caves.--Differences of Mineral - Condition.--The Pleistocene Caves of Germany: Gailenreuth; - Kühloch.--Of Great Britain.--The Caves of Yorkshire: - Kirkdale.--Of Derbyshire: The Dream Cave.--Of North Wales, - near St. Asaph.--Of South Wales, in counties of Glamorgan, - Caermarthen, Pembroke.--Of Monmouth.--Of Gloucestershire.-- - Of Somersetshire: Uphill, Banwell, Bleadon, Sandford Hill, Wookey - Hole.--The District of Mendip higher in Pleistocene age than - now.--The condition of bones gnawed by Hyænas.--The Caves of - Devonshire: Oreston; Brixham; Kent’s Hole.--The probable age of - the Machairodus of Kent’s Hole.--Those of Ireland, Shandon. - - -_Relation of Pleistocene to Prehistoric Period._ - -We have seen, in the fifth and sixth chapters, that the caves offer -valuable information as to the prehistoric ethnology of Europe, and -that they prove the ancient neolithic population to stand directly -related to the Basque and Celtic elements in the present inhabitants -of Britain, France, and Spain. We shall discover in the course of -this and the following chapters that no such continuity can be made -out between the palæolithic man of the pleistocene age and any of the -races now living in our quarter of the world; and we shall see that -he is separated from his neolithic successor by an interval of time, -the length of which cannot be measured in terms of years. Before the -pleistocene group of caves be examined, it will be necessary to define -the relation that exists between the prehistoric and the pleistocene -periods. - - -_The Animals--Magnitude of Interval._ - -The prehistoric mammalia consist, as we have seen (p. 136), with the -solitary exception of the Irish elk, of the wild animals at present -living in Europe, together with the domestic species and varieties -introduced by man, probably from central Asia. In the rest of this -work we shall have to deal, not merely with the wild animals at -present inhabiting Europe, but also with those which have either -become extinct, or have migrated to Asia, America, or Africa. Besides -this addition to the European fauna in the pleistocene age, the total -absence of the domestic animals is a most important feature. The dog, -goat, sheep, Celtic short-horn, and domestic swine are conspicuous -by their absence: the reputed association of their remains with -those of the pleistocene mammals being due, in all the cases which I -have examined in France and Britain, to a confusion between distinct -strata in the same cave or river-deposit, which are respectively of -pleistocene and prehistoric or historic ages. Thus in the excavations -in the gravel underneath London, the Celtic short-horn and goat of the -superficial strata are very generally mixed with the reindeer and -mammoth of the pleistocene gravels below, by the collectors, and the -names of the domestic animals have crept into the pleistocene lists. -None of the domestic animals have been recorded from any carefully -explored strata of that age in any part of Europe. - -The following late pleistocene species were unknown in Britain in the -prehistoric age:-- - - Glutton. - Spotted hyæna. - Panther. - Lion. - Lynx. - _Felis Caffer._ - Musk-sheep. - Bison. - Hippopotamus. - Lemming. - Pouched marmot. - Tailless hare. - _Lepus diluvianus._ - _Arvicola Gulielmi._ - Cave-bear. - _Rhinoceros hemitœchus._ - _R. tichorhinus._ - _Elephas antiquus._ - Mammoth. - -The glutton, lynx, bison, and lemming, still live in Europe, the -spotted hyæna, _Felis Caffer_, and hippopotamus are peculiar to Africa, -the lion to Africa and Asia, and the last seven species are extinct. -The _Machairodus cultridens_ and _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ probably -disappeared in an early stage of the pleistocene. It may reasonably be -inferred, from the migration and extinction of so many species between -the close of the pleistocene and beginning of the historic period, that -the interval was of considerable length; for it would be impossible for -such changes to have taken place in a short time. - -The same sharp line of demarcation exists between the two faunas on -the continent. The panther, _Felis Caffer_, lynx, spotted hyæna, -musk-sheep, hippopotamus, and the extinct group disappeared. The -African elephant forsook Spain and Sicily, the striped hyæna the -south of France, before the prehistoric period; while the _Elephas -meridionalis_ and pigmy hippopotamus of Sicily, and the pigmy elephant -and gigantic dormouse of Malta, became extinct. Speaking in general -terms, the wild fauna of Europe, as we have it now, dates from the -beginning of the prehistoric age, and consists merely of those animals -which were able to survive the changes by which their pleistocene -congeners were banished or destroyed. The arrival of the domestic -animals under the care of man in the neolithic age, and their extension -over the whole of Europe in a wild or semi-wild state, coupled with the -disappearance of the wild species mentioned above, constitutes a change -in the mammal life at least as important as any of those which define -the meiocene from the pleiocene, or the pleiocene from the pleistocene -periods. - - -_Physical changes--The excavation and filling up of Valleys._ - -The magnitude of the interval between the two periods may also be -gathered from the great changes which have taken place in physical -geography. In nearly every valley in Great Britain, certain areas to be -mentioned presently excepted, are strata of sand and gravel, proved to -be of pleistocene age by their fossil mammals, and by their fluviatile -shells to have been deposited by rivers. They occur at various heights, -forming sometimes terraces, and at others isolated patches, which -were accumulated when the river flowed at their level, and before the -valleys were cut down to their present depth. Those at Fisherton near -Salisbury, described by Sir Charles Lyell, Mr. Prestwich, Mr. John -Evans,[175] and others, may be taken as an example. - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Section of Valley-gravels at Fisherton. -(Evans.)] - -The valley through which the river Wily flows is excavated in the chalk -(Fig. 74), and on its northern side fluviatile deposits occur at two -levels, represented in the accompanying section. One patch of gravel, -about twelve feet thick, _a_, lies about eighty feet above the present -level of the Wily; while a second, _b_, consisting of clayey brickearth -or loam, with seams of gravel, and fluviatile shells, sweeps down -from a lower point to the bottom of the valley, and passes under the -river. From the deposit _a_, Dr. Blackmore obtained many rudely-chipped -implements, of the same palæolithic type as those found with the -extinct mammalia in the gravel beds at Amiens and Abbeville in the -valley of the Somme. In the deposit _b_, fossil mammalia were met with -belonging to the following animals:-- - - Spotted hyæna. - Lion. - Reindeer. - Stag. - Bison. - Urus. - Musk-sheep. - Wild boar. - Horse. - Woolly rhinoceros. - Mammoth. - Lemming. - Pouched marmot. - Hare. - -Dr. Blackmore subsequently discovered a flint implement along with -these animals, of the same type as those previously met with in the -deposit _a_. - -A horizontal stretch of alluvium, _c_, deposited by the floods, -occupies the present bottom of the valley. In this section it is plain -that the gravels and brickearth at _a_ and _b_ were deposited by a -river, which formerly flowed at those levels. In other words, the -valley of the Wily was excavated during the time that the pleistocene -strata _a_ and _b_ were being formed, while palæolithic man and the -extinct animals were living in the neighbourhood. The position also of -_b_ below the present bottom of the valley proves that the latter then -was deeper than it is now. The prehistoric alluvium, _c_, represents -the last stage in the history of the valley in which it is beginning to -be filled with the deposits of floods. While it was being accumulated -none of the animals of _a_ and _b_ were living in the district except -the hare, urus, stag, horse, and wild boar. - -A somewhat similar section is exposed in the valley of the Avon at -Freshford, near Bath, in a railway cutting, at a height of about -thirty-five feet above the river. A thick mass of gravel abuts directly -against a cleft of inferior oolite (Fig. 75), and gradually dies down -to the alluvium. In it Mr. Charles Moore discovered the remains of the -musk-sheep, and the Rev. H. H. Winwood those of the mammoth, bison, -horse, and reindeer. In this case the pleistocene strata occupied the -side of one of the valleys which had been deepened since the time of -their deposit. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Section of Valley-gravels at Freshford, Bath. -4, Red loam, 5ft. 6in.; 3, Oolitic wash, 1ft.; 2, Clay with flints, -4ft. 10in.; 1, Gravel with fossil mammals, 8ft.] - -The alluvium in the neighbourhood of Bath contains in its lower -portion a layer of peat, with bones of the Celtic short-horn (_Bos -longifrons_), stag, roe, horse, goat, and pig; and in its upper part -are old refuse heaps, proved to be Roman by the coins and ware, which -are also met with at various points underneath the surface soil, and -sometimes at considerable depths. It is, therefore, of prehistoric and -historic age, and since it is found only in the valley bottoms, we -may conclude that the present courses of the rivers along the sides -of which it is found date back from the prehistoric age; while their -ancient courses are marked by the fluviatile deposits with the extinct -mammalia standing at various levels, the higher being the older. In the -section at Fisherton we have evidence that the river flowed at a lower -level in the pleistocene age than in the prehistoric, and in that at -Freshford that the lower portion of the valley had been excavated after -the pleistocene strata had been formed. One or other of these physical -changes is to be traced in nearly all river valleys.[176] We may -conclude that both imply a considerable lapse of time, because similar -changes are now produced with extreme slowness. In the pleistocene -river deposits, which lie scattered about at various heights on the -valley sides, we seek in vain for neolithic implements, or domestic -animals. In the low-lying alluvia, and accumulations of peat, we seek -equally in vain for traces of palæolithic man, or of the extinct -mammalia, except the Irish elk. - -We may also gather, from the localization of the prehistoric alluvia -close to the present streams, that the time represented by its -accumulation is insignificant in comparison with the long lapse of ages -implied by the pleistocene gravels and brickearths, that were deposited -at various heights during the excavation of the valleys. The general -surface of the valleys has undergone but little change since history -began, and the excavation by the rivers has been so small as to have -escaped accurate measurement. The alluvia represent the principal work -done since the close of the pleistocene period. - -The most important testimony that the interval between the two periods -was very long, is offered by the climatal change, and the severance -of Britain from the continent. The arctic severity of the pleistocene -winter in these latitudes had passed away before the prehistoric age, -and the pleistocene valleys of the North Sea, St. George’s Channel, the -British, and Irish Channels had been depressed beneath the waves of the -sea before any prehistoric strata yet known had been deposited. The -evidence that these changes actually took place must be referred to the -two following chapters. - - -_Comparison of Deposits in Valleys with those in Caves._ - -If these valley deposits be compared with the contents of some of -the bone caves, such, for example, as those of the Victoria Cave -(compare Figs. 74 and 75 with Figs. 20, 21, 29), it will be seen -that they present the same section. The pleistocene gravels and -brick-earths of the one correspond with the lower strata of the other, -and contain the same extinct animals. The prehistoric alluvium of the -one is represented by the layer containing neolithic bronze or iron -implements, as well as the same animals; while the historic strata -are represented in both by the superficial accumulations. The only -difference indeed between the one and the other is, that in the former -the strata of the three periods are spread over a wide area, while in -the latter they are super-imposed in vertical order, the pleistocene -below, the prehistoric in the middle, and the historic on the surface. - - -_Difference in Mineral Condition of Deposits in Caves._ - -The prehistoric, and the historic strata in caves differ from the -pleistocene in their physical constitution. They are darker in colour, -and more loosely stratified, and contain bones in a more friable and -less mineralized condition, and are more free from stalagmite. - - -_The Caves of Germany: Gailenreuth._ - -The use of fossil bones for medicinal purposes led, as I have already -mentioned in the first chapter, to the exploration of caves, which -were first scientifically examined in Germany towards the close of -the eighteenth century. They abound in all the limestone plateaux, -especially in the region of Franconia, and in that of the Hartz. Among -them the most interesting, perhaps, is that of Gailenreuth, explored -by Esper, Rosenmüller, Goldfuss, Buckland, Lord Enniskillen, and Sir -Philip Egerton. It penetrates a lofty cliff, that forms a side of the -deep gorge which the river Weissent has cut in the rock, at a point -about three hundred feet above the water level. - -The entrance, Dr. Buckland[177] writes, is about seven feet high -and twelve feet broad, and within it a short passage leads into two -chambers (Fig. 76, A and B),[178] hung with stalactites, and with the -floors covered by a dense stalagmitic pavement, that has been more -or less broken up by repeated diggings. These floors are perfectly -horizontal, the level of that of B being considerably below that of A. -They rest on an accumulation of reddish grey loam, containing pebbles, -and angular limestone blocks, and vast quantities of the bones and -teeth of the animals formerly living in the district. The depth of this -ossiferous deposit has not been ascertained, but in the further end -of the chamber B, it has been proved to be more than twenty-five feet -thick. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--Section of Gailenreuth Cave. (Buckland.)] - -The remains of the animals lie scattered in the wildest confusion; -sometimes being completely matted together, but more generally each -bone is enveloped in earth. They belong to the lion, the cave variety -of the spotted hyæna, the cave-bear, grizzly bear, mammoth, Irish elk, -and reindeer, as well as to those species which are still to be found -in Germany, such as the glutton, brown bear, wolf, fox, and stag. - -It is very difficult to account for such an accumulation as this, but -it was probably introduced through the present entrance, and thence -into the chamber B, passing from the higher to the lower levels. The -teeth-marks on the bones show that some of the animals had formed -the prey of the hyænas, but had they introduced all the bones there -would have been distinct strata marking the floors of occupation, as -in Wookey Hole (Fig. 88). Moreover, no perfect skulls, such as those -of the bears, would have escaped their powerful teeth. The pebbles in -the loam bear testimony to the passage of a current of water. And if -we suppose that the cave was subject to floods, such as those in the -water-caves described in the second chapter, the scattering of the -bones through the loam may be explained. This, however, could not have -happened had the cave then opened on the face of a nearly vertical -cliff, and the only condition under which it would have been possible -is, that the present entrance should have been directly connected with -a stream flowing from the surface, that is to say, over the space now -occupied by the gorge of the Weissent. If this view, advanced by Dr. -Buckland, be accepted, the remoteness of the date of the filling up of -the cave may be measured by the fact, that since that time the gorge -has been cut down by the Weissent to a depth of more than 300 feet. - -The stream by which the contents of the cave were introduced had a -course probably analogous to that of Dalebeck (Fig. 6) and the remains -of the animals were caught up from the surface, and accumulated in -the subterranean chambers which it traversed. Their abundance offers -no obstacle to this view, since wild animals frequent their drinking -places in vast numbers, and fall a prey to the carnivora which lurk -near the streams, and very many tumble into the natural pitfalls, or -swallow-holes, so universal in limestone districts. - - -_The Cave of Kühloch._ - -Very many other caves occur in the neighbourhood, most of them, such as -those of Zahnloch, celebrated for the abundance of fossil teeth, Mokas, -Rabenstein, and others, of which the cave of Kühloch alone demands -notice. - -The cave of Kühloch is situated opposite to the castle of Rabenstein, -in the gorge of the Esbach, at about thirty feet from the bottom. Its -exterior presents a lofty arch in a nearly perpendicular cliff, about -thirty feet wide and twenty feet high, and the entrance gradually leads -into two large chambers “both of which terminate in a close round end, -or cul-de-sac, at the distance of about 100 feet from the entrance. -It is intersected by no fissures, and has no lateral communications -connecting it with any other caverns, except one small hole close to -its mouth, and which opens also to the valley.” The first thirty feet -present a steep slope towards the entrance. Dr. Buckland describes the -contents of the chambers in the following words:[179]-- - -“It is literally true that in this single cavern (the size and -proportions of which are nearly equal to those of the interior of a -large church) there are hundreds of cart-loads of black animal dust -entirely covering the whole floor, to a depth which must average at -least six feet, and which, if we multiply this depth by the length -and breadth of the cavern, will be found to exceed 5,000 cubic feet. -The whole of this mass has been again and again dug over in search -of teeth and bones, which it still contains abundantly, though in -broken fragments. The state of these is very different from that of -the bones we find in any of the other caverns, being of a black, or, -more properly speaking, dark umber colour throughout, like the bones -of mummies, and many of them readily crumbling under the finger into -a soft dark powder resembling mummy powder, and being of the same -nature with the black earth in which they are embedded. The quantity -of animal matter accumulated on this floor is the most surprising, and -the only thing of the kind I ever witnessed; and many hundred--I may -say thousand--individuals must have contributed their remains to make -up this appalling mass of the dust of death. It seems in great part to -be derived from comminuted and pulverized bone; for the fleshy parts -of animal bodies produce by their decomposition so small a quantity of -permanent earthy residuum, that we must seek for the origin of this -mass principally in decayed bones. The cave is so dry, that the black -earth lies in the state of loose powder, and rises in dust under the -feet; it also retains so large a proportion of its original animal -matter that it is occasionally used by the peasants as an enriching -manure for the adjacent meadows. I have stated that the total quantity -of animal matter that lies within this cavern cannot be computed at -less than 5,000 cubic feet; now allowing two cubic feet of dust and -bones for each individual animal, we shall have in this single vault -the remains of at least 2,500 bears, a number which may have been -supplied in the space of 1,000 years by a mortality at the rate of two -and a half per annum.” - -Dr. Buckland’s explanation, that the cave was inhabited by bears for -long generations, is probably true. The absence of pebbles and silt -show that water had no share in the introduction of the remains; their -preservation is due to the dryness of the cave, and to its proximity to -the outer atmosphere. - -The famous caves of Sundwig, Schartsfeld, and Bauman’s Hole, belong to -the same class as Gailenreuth, and offer no differences which need be -described. - -These explorations establish the fact that, in the antediluvian age -which we now term pleistocene, the lion, the cave-bear and grizzly -bear, and cave-hyæna abounded in Germany, and that they sought as -their prey not merely the wild animals now living in that region, -but the reindeer, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and Irish elk. All the -discoveries in the German caves from the date of the exploration of -Gailenreuth have merely verified this conclusion without adding any new -fact of importance. - - -_The Caves of Great Britain._ - -These discoveries in the German caves led to the exploration of those -in our country. Dr. Buckland visited Gailenreuth in 1816, and in -1821 applied the result of his knowledge gained in Germany to the -investigation of the famous cavern of Kirkdale.[180] - - -_The Hyæna-den at Kirkdale._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.--Plan of Kirkdale Cave. (Taylor.)] - -The cave of Kirkdale (Figs. 77, 78) was discovered in a quarry in -the vale of Pickering, about twenty-five miles to the NN.E. of -York, at a point where the dale of Holmbeck joins Kirkdale. The -entrance, eighty feet above the valley bottom and twenty feet from -the surface of the plateau above, was about three feet high and six -feet wide, and led into a passage from five to ten feet wide, which -ran nearly horizontally into the rock, and branched off into smaller -ramifications. Its general form and size may be gathered from the -examination of the accompanying woodcuts, which were published by Mr. -Taylor in “Macmillan’s Magazine,” in September 1862. The roof was for -the most part free from stalactite, and there was no continuous coating -of stalagmite on the floor, but merely here and there a few calcareous -bosses termed “cows’ paps” by the workmen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--Sections of Kirkdale Cave. (Taylor.)] - -A layer of fine red loam covered the bottom, in the lower portions -of which were large numbers of gnawed and broken bones, and teeth, -for the most part of the same species as those formed in the German -caves. In some places they were lying in little confused heaps, and in -others, where the loam was thin, were exposed to the calcareous drip -and cemented into a mass, their upper portions projecting through the -stalagmite “like the legs of pigeons through pie-crust,” and their -irregular distribution resembling that of the fragments scattered on -the floor of a dog-kennel. - -The remains of the animals were incredibly abundant, when the small -space in which they were packed was taken into consideration. Those of -the hyæna are estimated by Dr. Buckland as belonging to between two or -three hundred individuals of all ages. The lion and the cave-bear, the -wild boar, the hippopotamus (Fig. 79) an extinct kind of elephant (_E. -antiquus_), and the rhinoceros named by Dr. Falconer _R. hemitœchus_, -the reindeer, and Irish elk are also represented, but the species -of most common occurrence are the bison and the horse. With a few -exceptions all the bones with marrow were broken, and scarred by teeth, -while the solid and marrowless were more or less perfect. - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--Molar of Hippopotamus. (Buckland.)] - -Dr. Buckland’s method of solving the problem of the introduction of -remains of so many and different animals into so small a space, is -a model of scientific analysis. He argues from the abundance of the -remains of the hyæna, and from the correspondence of their teeth with -the marks on the bones, and from the quantity of their coprolites, -that the cave was inhabited by many generations of those animals, and -that the gnawed fragments were relics of their prey. The hyænas of the -present day inhabit caves strewn with the bones of their prey, which -are crushed by their powerful jaws into the same form as those of -Kirkdale. He further demonstrated the truth of his conclusion by the -crucial experiment of subjecting the leg-bone of an ox to a spotted -hyæna from the Cape of Good Hope, in Wombwell’s Menagerie. “I was -able,” he writes,[181] “to observe the animal’s mode of proceeding in -the destruction of bones: the shin-bone of an ox being presented to -this hyæna, he began to bite off with his molar teeth large fragments -from its upper extremity, and swallowed them whole as fast as they were -broken off. On his reaching the medullary cavity, the bone split into -angular fragments, many of which he caught up greedily and swallowed -entire: he went on cracking it till he had extracted all the marrow, -licking out the lowest portion of it with his tongue: this done, he -left untouched the lower condyle, which contains no marrow, and is -very hard. The state and form of this residuary fragment are precisely -like those of similar bones at Kirkdale; the marks of teeth on it -are very few, as the bone usually gave off a splinter before the -large conical teeth had forced a hole through it; these few, however, -entirely resemble the impressions we find on the bones at Kirkdale; -the small splinters also in form and size, and manner of fracture, are -not distinguishable from the fossil ones. I preserve all the fragments -and the gnawed portions of this bone, for the sake of comparison by -the side of those I have from the antediluvian den in Yorkshire: there -is absolutely no difference between them, except in point of age. The -animal left untouched the solid bones of the tarsus and carpus, and -such parts of the cylindrical bones as we find untouched at Kirkdale, -and devoured only the parts analogous to those which are there -deficient. The keeper, pursuing this experiment to its final result, -presented me the next morning with a large quantity of _album græcum_, -disposed in balls, that agree entirely in size, shape, and substance -with those that were found in the den at Kirkdale. The power of his -jaws far exceeded any animal force of the kind I ever saw exerted, and -reminded me of nothing so much as of a miner’s crushing mill, or the -scissors with which they cut off bars of iron and copper in the metal -foundries.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Leg-bones gnawed by Hyænas--1, of Ox in -Menagerie; 2, of Bison in Kirkdale. (Buckland.)] - -The exact correspondence of one of the fragments of the tibia of an ox, -gnawed by the Cape hyæna, with the corresponding bone of the bison from -Kirkdale, may be gathered from a comparison of the two figured in Fig. -80, in which the teeth-marks _a_, _b_, and _c_, are very distinct. The -same kind of identity runs through the whole series of bones gnawed by -the living and fossil hyænas. - -Dr. Buckland’s conclusion, that the Kirkdale cave was the den of the -spotted hyænas (_H. crouta_) that preyed upon the animals of Yorkshire -in ancient times, and that it was undisturbed down to the time of its -exploration, cannot be disputed. The tread of the hyænas in their -passage to and fro had polished some of the bones and jaws scattered on -the floor, and the polished surfaces were uppermost, the rest of the -fragments being rough. And Prof. Phillips informs me that the leg-bone -of a ruminant was discovered wedged into a small fissure in the floor, -with that portion which was within reach of the hyæna’s teeth gnawed -away, while the rest was uninjured. The hyæna had lost his bone in the -fissure, and was only able to nibble the end which projected. In these -incidents we have a vivid picture of an hyæna’s den in Yorkshire during -the pleistocene age, with the contents left in their natural order and -not rearranged by the passage of water. - -The Victoria cave near Settle, in Yorkshire, described in the third -chapter, has also been occupied by hyænas. - - -_Caves of Derbyshire: the Dream-cave near Wirksworth._ - -The Dream-cave, near Wirksworth,[182] in Derbyshire, contrasts with -that of Kirkdale in the perfect state of the bones which it contains. -It was discovered in 1822, in following a vein of lead (Fig. 81). -The miners suddenly broke into a hollow, _c_, filled with red earth -and stones, and as they continued their shaft downwards the sides -continually closed upon them until the roof of a cave was revealed. -A nearly perfect skeleton of the rhinoceros was discovered in the -earth, as well as bones of the horse, reindeer, and urus. After a large -quantity of the earth had been removed, the surface soil, _i_, at a -little distance began to sink, and ultimately a vertical shaft was -found to connect the cave with the surface. Into this the animals had -fallen, just as at the present time sheep and oxen frequently perish in -similar natural pitfalls in the limestone strata. - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.--The Dream-cave, Wirksworth. (Buckland.) - - A Shaft following lead-vein. - B Supposed continuation of lead-vein. - C Cave. - D Swallow-hole. - E Ossiferous loam. - F Antler of deer. - G Rhinoceros. - H Limestone. - I Natural entrance. -] - -Other caves and fissures in Derbyshire have yielded remains of the -extinct animals: those of Balleye, near Wirksworth, and of Doveholes, -near Chaple-en-le-Frith, the mammoth, and a small cave in Hartle Dale, -near Castleton, explored by Mr. Pennington and myself in 1872, the -mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros. - - -_The Caves of North Wales, near St. Asaph._ - -The ossiferous caves and fissures at Cefn, near St. Asaph, in the -mountain limestone that forms the south side of the Vale of Clwyd, were -first described in 1833,[183] by the Rev. Edward Stanley, afterwards -Bishop of Norwich, who explored that which Mr. E. Lloyd had discovered -about half-way down the vertical cliff, in the grounds of Cefn Hall. -It consists of a narrow passage, turning on itself, and communicating -with the surface of the cliff by two entrances, which were completely -blocked up with red silt, containing a vast quantity of bones in very -bad preservation. The bottom has not yet been reached. In one portion I -found, in 1872, a deposit of comminuted bone with scarcely any mixture -of loam, that rose in clouds of dust as it was disturbed. The animals -belonged to the same class as those of Germany, the cave-bear, spotted -hyæna, and reindeer, as well as the hippopotamus, _Elephas antiquus_ -and _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_ of the Kirkdale cave. Pebbles derived from -the boulder clay, and rounded waterworn fragments of bone, showed that -the contents had been introduced into this cave by a stream. Some of -the remains, which were marked with teeth, may have been introduced by -the hyænas. The flint-flakes found with the human skull and cut antlers -of stag, already referred to in the fifth chapter, were discovered in -the lower entrance. - -The same group of animals has been obtained by Mrs. Williams Wynn, the -Rev. D. R. Thomas, and myself out of a horizontal cave at the head -of the defile leading down from Cefn to Pont Newydd, in which the -remains are embedded in a stiff clay, consisting of rearranged boulder -clay, and are in the condition of waterworn pebbles. From it I have -identified the brown, grizzly, and cave-bear. A further examination by -the Rev. D. R. Thomas, and Prof. Hughes, has recently resulted in the -discovery of rude implements of felstone, and a tooth which has been -identified by Prof. Busk as a human molar of unusual size.[184] - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Left Lower Jaw of Glutton, Plas Heaton Cave.] - -A third cave in the neighbourhood at Plas Heaton, explored in 1870 by -Mr. Heaton and Prof. Hughes, furnished the remains of the cave-bear, -spotted hyæna, bison, and reindeer, and a remarkably fine specimen -of the lower jaw of a glutton (Fig. 82), which I have described in -the “Geological Journal” (vol. xxvii. p. 406). In a fourth cave, at -Gallfaenan, the bear and reindeer were discovered. It is evident from -the presence of numerous bones gnawed by hyænas in these caves, that -the valleys of the Clwyd and the Elwy were the favourite haunts of that -animal in the pleistocene age. - - -_Caves of South Wales in the counties of Glamorgan and Caermarthen._ - -The earliest cavern explored in South Wales is that of Crawley -Rocks,[185] Oxwich Bay, about twelve miles from Swansea. It was -discovered in quarrying the mountain limestone in 1792, and contained -the remains of the elephant, rhinoceros, ox, stag, and hyæna. It was -completely destroyed before Dr. Buckland identified these animals in -the collection of Miss Talbot of Penrice Castle.[186] - -The line of cliffs, bounding the rocky peninsula of Gower, contains -the cave of Paviland, described in the seventh chapter (p. 232), as -well as the group explored by Colonel Wood of Start Hall, from the -year 1848[187] to the present time, Bacon Hole, Minchin Hole, Bosco’s -Den, Devil’s Hole, Crow Hole, Raven’s Cliff, Spritsail Tor, and Long -Hole, which are described by the late Dr. Falconer. The _Rhinoceros -hemitœchus_ was met with in comparative abundance, and in association -with the woolly rhinoceros, mammoth, and _E. antiquus_. In Bosco’s -Den there were no less than 750 shed antlers of reindeer; and in -Long Hole, many flint-flakes were discovered in 1860 underneath the -stalagmite, and in association with the extinct mammalia, which prove, -as Dr. Falconer points out, that man inhabited that district in the -pleistocene age. - -These caves and fissures were at all levels in the cliff, and in some -the bottoms were covered with a stratum of marine sand with sea shells, -which showed that they had been washed by the sea before they had been -filled by the ossiferous débris. Most of them had probably been filled -by streams in the same manner as Gailenreuth and Wirksworth. They -abound on the coast merely because a clear section has been worn by the -waves. A straight cut through the rocks in any part of the district -would probably show them to occur in equal abundance inland. - - -_Caves in Pembrokeshire._ - -The patches of limestone on the opposite side of Caermarthen Bay, in -the neighbourhood of Tenby, also contain ossiferous caverns. The Rev. -G. N. Smith,[188] of Gumfriston, has made a fine collection of bones -and teeth of mammoth and hyæna, from a fissure in the Blackrock Quarry, -close to Tenby, from a fissure in the cliff on Caldy Island, and from -the Coygan cave in an outlier of limestone, near Pendine, and has -discovered flakes of flint and of a peculiar hornstone in the “tunnel -cave” termed the Hoyle, underneath stalagmite, in a stratum containing -bones of the bear and reindeer. With the exception of the fissure in -the Blackrock Quarry none of these have been fully explored. On a visit -to Tenby, in 1872, I obtained many flint flakes, and bones broken by -man, from the breccia in the Hoyle; and from a fissure on Caldy Island, -numerous bones and teeth of young wolves, which represented a whole -litter, and two metatarsals of bison, cemented together into a compact -mass. - -The discovery of mammoth, rhinoceros, horse, Irish elk, bison, wolf, -lion, and bear, on so small an island as Caldy, indicates that a -considerable change has taken place in the relation of the land to -the sea in that district since those animals were alive. It would have -been impossible for so many and so large animals to have obtained -food on so small an island. It may therefore be reasonably concluded -that, when they perished in the fissures, Caldy was not an island, but -a precipitous hill, overlooking the broad valley now covered by the -waters of the Bristol Channel, but then affording abundant pasture. The -same inference may also be drawn from the vast numbers of animals found -in the Gower caves, which could not have been supported by the scant -herbage of the limestone hills of that district. We must, therefore, -picture to ourselves a fertile plain occupying the whole of the Bristol -Channel, and supporting herds of reindeer, horses, and bisons, many -elephants and rhinoceroses, and now and then being traversed by a stray -hippopotamus, which would afford abundant prey to the lions, bears, and -hyænas inhabiting all the accessible caves, as well as to their great -enemy and destroyer man. We shall see in the ninth chapter that the -elevation of the whole district above its present level is part of the -general elevation of north-western Europe, and no mere small or local -phenomenon. - - -_Cave in Monmouthshire._ - -King Arthur’s cave,[189] on the side of a beautifully wooded knoll, -overlooking the valley of the Wye, near Whitchurch, in Monmouthshire, -explored by the Rev. W. S. Symonds in 1871, is a hyæna den, like that -of Kirkdale, containing the gnawed remains of the lion, Irish elk, -mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, and reindeer. Flint flakes, however, -occurred in the undisturbed strata, which prove that it was also the -resort of man. Mr. Symonds believes that the sand and gravel inside -were deposited by the Wye, at a time when it flowed 300 feet above its -present course, or before the valley was cut down to that depth. If -this conclusion be true, the date of the occupation must be separated -from the present day by a vast interval, which is only to be measured -by the subsequent erosion of the valley by the slow operation of the -subaerial agents, running water, ice, snow, and carbonic acid. - -The only remains of the mammoth which I have examined belong to young -individuals, and consist of the second and third milk-molars, a fact -which I have very generally observed in hyænas’ dens. The older -mammoths would not fall an easy prey to so cowardly an animal. The cave -had also been inhabited by man after the pleistocene age, for coarse -pottery of the neolithic kind, and flint flakes, were dug out of an -upper stratum, while I was watching the excavation, in company with the -Rev. W. S. Symonds, and the “Wanderers” field club. - - -_Caves of Gloucestershire and Somersetshire._ - -The outliers of mountain limestone, on the southern side of the -Bristol Channel, have long been known for their ossiferous caverns and -fissures. From a fissure in Durdham Down,[190] near Bristol, Mr. J. S. -Miller obtained fragments of bones, about the year 1820, and among them -Dr. Buckland notices the fossil joint of the hind-leg of a horse, the -astragalus being held in natural position, between the tibia and the -calcaneum, by stalagmite. Subsequently a large series of animals of the -same species as those of Gower were discovered in it by Mr. Stutchbury, -and are preserved in the Bristol Museum. - - -_Caves of the Mendip Hills._ - -The caves of the Mendip Hills were known to contain bones as early as -the middle of the eighteenth century, when that of Hutton,[191] near -Weston-super-Mare, was discovered in working the ochre and calamine -which fills some of the fissures. The miners having opened an ochre -pit, south of the little village of Hutton, discovered a fissure in -the limestone full of good ochre, which they followed to a depth -of eight yards, until it led into a cavern, the floor of which was -formed of ochre, with large quantities of white bones on the surface, -and scattered through its mass. Dr. Calcott describes the bones as -projecting from the sides, roof, and floor of the excavation in such -quantities as to resemble the contents of a charnel-house. Subsequently -it was fully explored by the Rev. D. Williams, and Mr. Beard, of -Banwell. - -We owe the exploration of the neighbouring caves of Banwell, Sandford -Hill, Bleadon, Goat’s Hole, in Burrington Combe, and Uphill,[192] to -the joint labours of the two above-mentioned gentlemen, extending over -the period which elapsed between 1821 and 1860. The vast quantity of -remains which they obtained can only be realized by a visit to the -Museum of the Somerset Archæological and Natural History Society, -at Taunton.[193] They belong to the same species as those already -mentioned from the caves of South Wales. The fauna of the Mendip is, -however, characterized by the great number of lions, and by a few -fragments of the glutton. Of the former animal, Mr. Ayshford Sanford -and myself have met with sufficient remains to figure nearly every -portion of the skeleton, and the skulls prove that it was not a tiger, -as it is considered to be by some naturalists, but a true lion, -differing in no respect, except in its large size, from those now -living in Asia and Africa. - -All these caverns consist of chambers at various levels more or less -connected with fissures, and, from the perfect condition of the bones -they must have been inaccessible to the bone-destroying hyæna. Their -contents were introduced, as is suggested by Dr. Buckland, from the -surface by streams falling into swallow-holes (see Fig. 81), which have -now, under the changed physical conditions, ceased to flow. - -The extraordinary quantity of remains preserved in one cave may be, to -some extent, verified by a visit to that at Banwell. It consists of two -large chambers, the upper one filled with thousands of bones of bison, -horse, and reindeer, taken out of the red silt which originally filled -it to the roof; the lower one full of the undisturbed contents, from -which the bones project in the wildest confusion. This accumulation -has been introduced by water, through a vertical fissure which opened -on the surface. It is evident, from the very nearly perfect skulls of -wolf and bear which were discovered, that the cave was not used as a -den by the hyænas. They are, however, proved to have been living close -by at the time, since their skulls, and the gnawed antlers of reindeer, -have been discovered inside. They were probably swept in by the stream -along with the other bones. - - -_The Uphill Cave._ - -The Cave of Uphill,[194] discovered in 1826, by some workmen, and -explored by the Rev. D. Williams, merits especial notice, from the -peculiar conditions under which the remains of the extinct animals -occurred. Like the other caves of the Mendips, it consists of fissures -opening into chambers. In the upper part of one of these fissures were -the remains of rhinoceros, hyæna, bear, horse, bison, and wild boar, -imbedded in loam which rested on two large masses of limestone that had -fallen so as to block up the fissure. Below this were no remains of the -extinct animals, and the fissure ultimately led into a cave opening -upon the line of cliffs. This latter had been inhabited within historic -times, since many bones of sheep, or goat, and pieces of pottery, were -met with, as well as a coin of the Emperor Julian. In this case, owing -to the extraordinary accident of the fissure being blocked up by a -fall of stone, the pleistocene accumulation is vertically above the -historic; and had the barrier given way, Mr. Williams would undoubtedly -have discovered the remains of the extinct mammalia, lying in a heap -above the comparatively modern historic stratum. It seems to me very -probable that some such accident may have caused the occurrence of -the pleiocene machairodus in the Kent’s Hole cavern, in association -with the pleistocene mammalia. In the long lapse of ages between the -pleistocene and the present day, such accidents would be likely to -occur in some few caverns, and we might expect to find remains of -widely different ages, in certain exceptional cases, lying side by -side, or even the older resting vertically over the newer. At all -events we must conclude, that superposition, or association, cannot be -rigidly enforced as tests of relative age in all ossiferous caverns. - - -_The Hyæna-den of Wookey Hole._ - -The Hyæna-den of Wookey Hole,[195] near Wells, on the south side of -the Mendips, which I explored with the Rev. J. Williamson in 1859, -and in the following years with Messrs. Willett, Parker, and Ayshford -Sanford, is worthy of a more detailed notice, because it was among -the first caverns in this country in which works of art were found -under conditions that proved the co-existence of man with the extinct -mammalia. - -The ravine in which it was discovered, in 1852, is one of the many -which pierce the dolomitic conglomerate, or petrified sea-beach, of -the Triassic age, resting at the foot of the cliffs from which it -was torn by the waves, and overlying the lower slopes of the Mendips -(see Fig. 1). Open to the south, it runs almost horizontally into the -mountain-side, until closed abruptly northwards by a perpendicular -wall of rock, 200 feet or more in height, ivy-covered, and affording -a dwelling-place to innumerable jackdaws. Out of a cave at its base, -in which Dr. Buckland discovered pottery and human teeth, flows the -river Axe, in a canal cut in the rock. In cutting this passage, that -the water might be conveyed to a large paper-mill close by, the mouth -of the hyæna-den was intersected in 1852, and from that time up to -December 1859 it was undisturbed save by rabbits and badgers, and even -they did not penetrate far into the interior, or make deep burrows. -Close to the mouth of the cave the workmen (employed in making this -canal) found more than 300 Roman coins, among which were those of -Allectus and of Commodus. When the Rev. J. Williamson and myself began -our exploration, about twelve feet of the entrance of the cave had been -cut away, and large quantities of the earth, stones, and animal remains -had been used in the formation of an embankment for the stream which -runs past the present entrance of the cave. - -According to the testimony of the workmen, the bones and teeth formed -a layer about twelve inches in thickness, which rested immediately -upon the conglomerate-floor, while they were comparatively scarce in -the overlying mass of stones and red earth. The workmen state also -that at the time of the discovery of the cave the hillside presented -no concavity to mark its presence. So completely was the cave filled -with débris up to the very roof, that we were compelled to cut our way -into it. Of the stones scattered irregularly through the matrix of -red earth, some were angular, others water-worn; all are derived from -the decomposition of the dolomitic conglomerate in which the cave is -hollowed. Near the entrance, and at a depth of five feet from the roof, -were three layers of peroxide of manganese, full of bony splinters, -and, passing obliquely up towards the southern side of the cave and -over a ledge of rock that rises abruptly from the floor: further -inwards they became interblended one with another, and at a distance -of fifteen feet from the entrance were barely visible. In and between -these the animal remains were found in the greatest abundance. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.--Plan of Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole. - -Right lines = sections; dotted areas = bone-beds; shaded areas = ashes -and implements.] - -While cutting our way inwards (Figs. 83 and 88), we found an angular -piece of flint, which had evidently been chipped by human agency, and -a water-worn fragment of a belemnite, which probably had been derived -from the neighbouring marlstone rocks. Bones and teeth of the woolly -rhinoceros, reindeer, stag, Irish elk, mammoth, hyæna, cave-bear, -lion, wolf, fox, and horse rewarded our labours; and frogs’ remains, -cemented together by stalagmite, were abundant at the mouth. The teeth -preponderated greatly over the bones, and the great bulk were those of -the horse. The hyæna-teeth also were very numerous, and in all stages -of growth, from the young unworn to the old tooth worn down to the -very gums. Those of the mammoth had belonged to a young animal, and -one had not been used at all. The hollow bones were completely smashed -and splintered, and scored with tooth-marks, while the solid carpal, -tarsal, and sesamoid bones were uninjured, as in the Kirkdale Cave. The -organic remains were in all stages of decay, some crumbling to dust -at the touch, while others were perfectly preserved and had lost very -little of their gelatine. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 84, 85, 86, 87.--Four Views of Flint Implements -found in the Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole, near Wells.] - -In 1860 we resumed our excavations; and, in addition to the above -remains, found satisfactory evidence of the former presence of man in -the cave. Our search was rewarded by one oval implement of white flint, -of rude workmanship (Figs. 84, 85, 86, 87), one chert arrow-head, -a roughly-chipped and a round flattened piece of chert, together -with various splinters of flint, which had apparently been knocked -off in the manufacture of some implement. Two rudely-fashioned bone -arrow-heads were also found, which unfortunately were subsequently lost -by the photographer to whom they were sent; they resembled in shape an -equilateral triangle with the angles at the base bevelled off. All were -found in and around the same spot, in contact with some hyæna-teeth, -between the dark bands of manganese, at a depth of four feet from the -roof, and at a distance of twelve feet from the present entrance (Fig. -83, _a_). - -That there might be no mistake about the accuracy of the observations, -I examined every shovelful of débris as it was thrown out by the -workman; while the exact spot where they were excavating was watched by -my colleague. The figured implement was picked out of the undisturbed -matrix by him; the rest were found by me in the earth thrown out from -the same place. - -The lines of peroxide of manganese must have been accumulated on the -old floors of the cave, because they were associated with numerous -splinters and gnawed animal remains; and there can be no doubt that the -latter were introduced by the hyænas. Those animals have a peculiar -habit, as Dr. Buckland proved by experiment, of gnawing similar bones -in precisely the same way; and a comparison of the relics of the -meals of the hyænas in the Zoological Gardens with those in the cave, -shows that the latter have passed between the jaws of a like animal -that once inhabited Somersetshire. Coprolites of the same animal were -very abundant, and in some places formed a greyish-white layer of -phosphate of lime. There were also other equally unmistakeable traces -of the animal in fragments of bone, polished by their tread, as in the -Kirkdale cave. It is, therefore, only reasonable to suppose that these -remains of animals were brought into the cave from time to time by -hyænas, and left on the floors. That they were not introduced by water -is proved by the preservation of the delicate processes and points of -bone, which would certainly have been broken _in transitu_. Since, -then, the implements, which, beyond doubt, had been fashioned by man, -were underneath one of these old floors, it was certain that man was -contemporary in the district with the hyæna and the animals on which it -preyed, and the fact that they were found only on one spot implies that -they were deposited by the hand of man. To suppose that a savage would -take the trouble to excavate a trench twenty-four feet long--for twelve -feet of the former mouth of the cave had been cut away--with miserable -implements, and consequently with great labour, and having excavated -it again to fill it up to the very roof, is little less than absurd. -Nor could such an operation take place in such a deposit, without the -stratification of the layers being destroyed. The absence of pottery -and human bones precludes the idea of the cave ever having been a place -of sepulture, such as Aurignac or Bruniquel. This discovery, therefore, -of itself stamps the contemporaneity of man with the extinct mammalia, -and following close on the similar discoveries in Brixham cave, to be -mentioned presently, puts the question beyond all doubt. - -In April 1861 we resumed our excavations; and, as we made our way -inwards, found that the cave began to narrow, and ultimately to -bifurcate, one branch extending vertically upwards, while the other -appeared to extend almost horizontally to the right hand. As we reached -the middle constricted passage, the teeth became fewer, while the -stones were of larger size than any that we had hitherto discovered. -The great majority of the gnawed antlers of deer were found at this -part, also the posterior half of a cervine skull, the right upper jaw -of wolf, and, what is more remarkable, a stone with one of its surfaces -coated with a deposit apparently of stalagmite: this, however, was much -lighter than stalagmite, and not so good a conductor of heat; and, -on analysis, I found that it consisted of phosphate of lime, with a -little carbonate, and a very small portion of peroxide of manganese. -Doubtless the surface of the stone, covered with phosphate of lime, -formed part of the ancient floor of the cave, and hence was coated with -_album græcum_; while the lower part, being imbedded in the earth on -the floor, was not so coated. This deposit may, perhaps, explain the -absence of round balls of coprolite, which, assuming that the cave at -the time was more damp than that at Kirkdale, would be trodden down -on the floor by the hyænas, instead of presenting a rounded form. The -stone also itself exhibits tooth-marks underneath the coating of _album -græcum_, and probably was gnawed by the hyænas, like the antlers, for -amusement. This discovery proves that violent watery action had but -small share, if any, in filling the cave; for in that case the soft -covering would have been removed from the stone. Similar evidence is -offered by the wonderful preservation of some of the more delicate -fragments of bone, such as the palatine process of the maxilla of the -wolf. - -The section made in cutting this passage presented irregular layers of -peroxide of manganese, full of bony splinters, and each more or less -covered by a layer of bones in various stages of decay. These layers -were absent from the upper portion of the passage. There were masses -of prisms of calc-spar scattered confusedly through the matrix. After -excavating the vertical branch as far as we dared (for the large stones -in it made the task dangerous), we were compelled to leave off, having -penetrated altogether only thirty-four feet from the entrance. No flint -implements rewarded our search this year. Teeth were far more numerous -than bones, probably because they are more durable as well as because -of their rejection by the hyænas. One jaw was bitten in two, and the -fragments found about a foot apart in the undisturbed matrix, just as -they had been dropped from the mouth of the hyæna. - -In the spring of 1862 Mr. Parker, Mr. Willett, and myself resolved -to verify the association of articles of man’s handiwork along with -the extinct mammalia, by cleaning out the cave, which was courteously -placed at our disposal by the owner, Mr. Hodgekinson. - -Our first task was to clear the contents out of the portion of the cave -nearest the mouth, or the antrum (Fig. 83, A), and as we excavated -onwards many traces of the presence of man were met with. A wide area -on the left-hand side (_b_), where the roof and floor of the cave -gradually met together, furnished innumerable fragments of charcoal, -and many flint implements associated with the remains of the horse, -rhinoceros, and hyæna. One fragment of bone in particular, belonging to -the rhinoceros, had been calcined, and its carbonized condition bore -unmistakeable testimony that it had been burnt while the animal juices -were present. There were many other bones also burnt, which indicated -the place where fires had been kindled, and food cooked. As we dug our -way forward we met with a third area (_c_), that furnished flint and -chert implements under the same conditions of deposit as that which -tempted us to carry on our excavations. Its relation to the old floors -of hyæna-occupation is shown by the dark lines over the area _c_ in -Fig. 88. At last the large open chamber (A) was cleared; it measured -about thirty feet wide by six feet high, and it extended forty feet -inwards. On the left there was a small upward-turning passage, very -nearly blocked up with a mass of stalagmite; at the farther end a -vertical fissure extended upwards (F), to the surface. This fissure -has subsequently been proved to extend downwards to the right, and -will doubtless furnish large quantities of animal remains to future -explorers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Section through A of Fig. 83, showing contents -of Hyæna-den. _c_ = flint implements; thick lines above = old floors.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Transverse Section through B of Fig. 83. 1 = -red earth; 2 = bone-bed; 3 = dark earth.] - -The large chamber now turned abruptly to the left, and we gradually -worked our way into a small horizontal passage about four feet high. -Here there was an interval of from three to four inches between the -roof and contents, traversed by stalactites, which in some places -formed a smooth undulating drapery with stony tassels, and in others -tiny pillars extending down to the débris, and, as it were, propping -up the roof. These pedestals (see Fig. 15) gradually expanded into -round plates of stalagmite, which sometimes met and formed a continuous -crust. In some places an infiltration of carbonate of lime had -cemented organic remains, stones, and earth into a hard mass, which had -to be broken up with gunpowder before it could be removed out of the -cave. The excitement of extracting from these blocks their treasures -was of the very keenest, for we could not tell what a stroke of the -hammer would reveal. Sometimes an elephant’s tooth suddenly came to -light, at others a hyæna’s jaw, or a rhinoceros’ tooth, or the antler -of a reindeer, or the canine of a bear. The bones were so numerous that -they scarcely attracted attention. In one fragment of this breccia, now -in the Brighton Museum, are a tusk and carpal of mammoth, the right -ulna of the woolly rhinoceros, and an antler of reindeer. In a second, -two shoulder-blades and two haunch bones of the woolly rhinoceros, with -a coprolite and lower jaw of cave hyæna. As the men removed the large -blocks they were brought to the mouth of the cave to be broken up by -our smaller instruments. Presently the passage narrowed to about six -feet, and presented the following section (Fig. 89). On the floor of -the cave there was a layer of red earth two feet in thickness, and, as -usual, containing a few organic remains and many stones (Fig. 89, 1). -Upon this rested a most remarkable accumulation of bones, and teeth, -matted and compacted together, from three to four inches thick, and -extending horizontally from one side of the passage to the other (Fig. -89, 2). Next came a layer of dark red earth (Fig. 89, 3), loose and -friable, three to four inches thick, supporting in its surface a few -rounded stalagmites, and a few stalactitic pillars, that spanned the -interval of from three to four inches between it and the roof. This -bone-bed was about seven feet wide and fourteen feet long, affording, -therefore, a square area of ninety-eight feet (see dotted area B Fig. -83, and in Fig. 90). The enormous quantity of the remains of animals -present cannot fairly be estimated even by the large number preserved, -because most of the bones were as soft as wet mortar. The five hundred -and fifty specimens obtained must be looked upon merely as a small -fraction of the whole. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Longitudinal Section through B and C of Fig. -83, showing bone-beds. Dotted area = bone-bed.] - -We presently passed beyond the bone-bed, and found that the passage -bifurcated (Fig. 83, C and D), the smaller branch going straight -forwards and gently upwards (Fig. 90), while the larger stretched -at right angles from it and passed gently downwards. In the former -there was a second bone-bed similar in every respect to that already -described, which continued undiminished in thickness until it rested -directly on the floor. It afforded a square area of about fifteen -feet. The passage was about sixteen inches high and three feet wide, -and gradually narrowed until at a distance of twelve feet from the -bifurcation a stalactite six inches long reached the floor and formed -a vertical bar, as if to forbid another ingress. When this had been -explored as far as we could crawl, the larger branch (Fig. 83, D, -and Fig. 91) engaged our attention, and we soon discovered a third -layer of bones of the same character as the others, and in the same -position, excepting that in some places it was in immediate contact -with the roof. In width it was six, in length fourteen, and in square -area eighty-four feet. From its further end to the termination of the -passage there was not the slightest vestige of bones or teeth, and a -stiff grey clay rested on a horizontal layer of sand on the floor. Here -the passage suddenly turned upwards until it became so small and barren -that it was not worth our while to pursue it farther. It doubtless -rises to the surface, like the large fissure opposite the entrance of -the cave shown in Fig. 88.[196] - -The exploration was resumed the following year by Mr. Ayshford Sanford -and myself, and yielded vast quantities of fossil remains. We cleared -out the space marked 1863 in the plan, and discovered a flint implement -at the point marked _d_, in Fig. 83. My friend the late Mr. Wickham -Flower has also worked the cave, more particularly at the right-hand -side of the entrance chamber. - -The ashes and implements were found in positions, near the mouth of -the cave, where man himself may have placed them (see Figs. 83, 88), -with the exception of the flint implement at _d_, and an ash of bone -imbedded in the earthy matrix between the canine tooth and a coprolite -of the hyæna, and cemented to a fragment of dolomitic conglomerate. -This was found far in the cave, either at the entrance of the passage -B, or in the middle of the passage D. The latter passage yielded the -only rolled flint without traces of man’s handiwork. The materials -out of which the implements were made were used pretty equally. All -those, like Fig. 84, were of flint; all those chipped into a rounded -form and flat-oval in section of chert from the Upper Greensand; while -the flakes consisted of both used indifferently. Besides these three -typical forms, which were most abundant, is a fourth, in form roughly -pyramidal, with a smooth and flat base, and a cutting edge all round. -Of these we found but two examples, both consisting of chert. In form -they are exactly similar to several hundreds found in a British village -at Stanlake, in Berkshire, and to those I discovered in a cemetery of -the same age at Yarnton, near Oxford. They strongly resemble a cast I -have of one found by M. Lartet in the cave of Aurignac. Were it not for -this similarity, I should look upon them as cores from which flakes -had been struck. The rest are mere splinters, irregular in form, -and probably made in the manufacture of the various flint and chert -implements. All the flint implements have been altered in colour and -structure, either by heat or, as is more probable, by some chemical -action. Without exception, the old surfaces present a waxy lustre (by -the absence of which forgeries are easily detected), the colour is of -a uniform milk-white, and the ordinary conchoidal fracture is replaced -by that of porcelain. Some are not harder than chalk. I have met with -weathered and calcined flints in Sussex in which similar changes are -observable, and in which the difference in the results of chemical -action and heat can hardly be detected. The chert implements, on the -other hand, show no traces of any such changes, but are similar in -colour and structure to the rocks from which they came--the Upper -Greensand of the Blackdown Hills. - -All the fragments of calcined bone, with the exception of one already -mentioned, were found near the entrance (see Fig. 83, _b_), and in -a place more suitable for a fire than any other in the cave. I can -identify none of them as human. The coarse texture, the structure, -and the thickness of one indicate a fragment of a long bone of -the rhinoceros.[197] All resemble many splinters strewn about in -other parts of the cave, which are not calcined, but were evidently -introduced by the hyænas. The calcination may therefore be due to the -accident of their lying upon the surface at the time the fire was -kindled. - -The remains obtained in 1862-3 from three to four thousand in number, -afford a vivid picture of the animal life of the time in Somerset. They -belong to the following animals, the numbers representing the jaws and -teeth only, and the implements:-- - - Man 35 - Cave-Hyæna 467 - Cave-Lion 15 - Cave-Bear 27 - Grizzly Bear 11 - Brown Bear 11 - Wolf 7 - Fox 8 - Mammoth 30 - Woolly Rhinoceros 233 - _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_ 2 - Horse 401 - The Great Urus 16 - Bison 30 - The Irish Elk 35 - Reindeer 30 - Red Deer 2 - Lemming 1 - -The remains of these animals were so intermingled that they must have -been living together at the same time. They lie large with small, the -more with the less dense, and are not in the least degree sorted by -water. There is no evidence of the hyæna succeeding to the cave-bear, -or the reindeer to the urus, or that the bears came here to die, as in -some of the German caves, or that the herbivores fell, or were swept -into open fissures, and left their remains, as in the caves of Hutton -and Plymouth. On the contrary, the numerous jaws and teeth of hyæna, -and the marks of those teeth upon nearly every one of the specimens, -show that they alone introduced the remains that were found in such -abundance. And they preyed not merely upon horses, uri, and other -herbivores, but upon one another (Figs. 92, 93), and they even overcame -the cave-bear and lion in their full prime. Some of the bones of the -larger animals, and in particular a leg-bone of a gigantic urus, have -been broken short across and not bitten through--a circumstance which -points towards one of the causes of the vast accumulation of bones -in so small a cave. It is well known that wolves and hyænas at the -present day are in the habit of hunting in packs, and of forcing their -prey over precipices. The Wookey ravine is admirably situated for this -mode of hunting, and would not fail to destroy any animal forced into -it from the hill-side. It is therefore very probable that the hyænas -sometimes caught their prey in this manner. They would not have dared -to attack the bears and lions unless these had been disabled. - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Longitudinal Section through D of Fig. 83. -Dotted area = bone-bed.] - -But if all the remains of the animals were introduced by the hyænas, -they certainly in some cases do not occupy the exact position in which -they were left by those animals. One of the bone layers (Fig. 91) for -instance, actually touched the roof. This, indeed, has been used as -an argument in favour of their having been introduced by water, from -some unknown repository. But if this hypothesis be admitted, we are -landed in the following dilemma: either the introducing current of -water must have passed down the vertical passages, or upwards through -the horizontal mouth of the cave. In the former case the three bone -layers would not have been found in the narrow passages, but would -have been swept out into the wide chamber, where the force of the -hypothetical current must have abated. In the latter case the great -bulk of the remains would have been found in the chamber, and not in -the smaller passages. Moreover, the absence of marks of transport by -water, and especially of that sorting action which water as a conveying -agent always manifests, renders the view of their being so introduced -untenable. On the other hand, the horizontality of the layers of bone, -and the presence of sand and of red earth, imply that water was an -agent in re-arranging the bones and in introducing some of the contents -of the cave. The only solution of the difficulty that I can hazard is -the occurrence of floods from time to time, during the occupation of -the hyænas, similar to those which now take place in the caverns of the -neighbourhood. A few years ago, the outlet of the Axe in the great cave -was partially blocked up, and the water rose to a height of upwards of -sixteen feet, leaving a horizontal deposit of red earth of the same -nature as that in the hyæna-den. Now if we suppose that similar floods -were caused by an obstruction in the ravine below the hyæna-den, it -may have been flooded, just as the upper galleries of the great cave, -and the water laden with sediment might have elevated the layers of -matted bone, and some of the scattered remains on the surface, while -the current was insufficient to disturb the stones, or to affect to -any extent the deposits of former floods. The buoyancy of the organic -remains is not required to be greater, on this hypothesis, than in -that of their having been introduced by a current through the vertical -passages. Some of the wet bones taken straight from the cave were -sufficiently light to be carried down by the current of the Axe. - -All these facts taken together enable us to form a clear idea of -the condition of things at the time the hyæna-den was inhabited. -The hyænas were the normal occupants of the cave, and thither they -brought their prey. We can realize those animals pursuing elephants and -rhinoceroses along the slopes of the Mendip, till they scared them into -the precipitous ravine, or watching until the strength of a disabled -bear or lion ebbed away sufficiently to allow of its being overcome by -their cowardly strength. Man appeared from time to time on the scene, -a miserable savage armed with bow and spear, unacquainted with metals, -but defended from the cold by coats of skin.[198] Sometimes he took -possession of the den and drove out the hyænas; for it is impossible -for both to have lived in the same cave at the same time. He kindled -his fires at the entrance, to cook his food, and to keep away the wild -animals; then he went away, and the hyænas came to their old abode. -While all this was taking place there were floods from time to time -until eventually the cave was completely blocked up with their deposits. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Gnawed jaw of Hyæna, from Hyæna-den at Wookey -(1/2). Dotted outline = portion eaten.] - -The winter cold at the time must have been very severe to admit of the -presence of the reindeer and lemming. - - -_The district of the Mendip Hills at a higher level than now._ - -When we reflect on the vast quantities of the remains of the animals -buried in the caves of so limited an area as the Mendip Hills, it is -evident that there must have been abundance of food to have enabled -them to live in the district. The great marsh now extending from Wells -to the sea, and cutting off the Mendips from the fertile region to the -south, was probably a rich valley at a higher level than at present, -joining the westward plains now submerged under the Bristol Channel. An -elevation of from 100 to 300 feet would produce the physical conditions -necessary for the sustenance of the herbivora found in the caves both -in South Wales and Somersetshire. - - -_The characters of a Hyæna-den._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.--A and B, upper and lower jaws of Hyæna-whelp, -Wookey.] - -The remains of the animals which have been eaten by the cave-hyæna, -may be recognized by the following characters. All are more or less -scored by teeth, and the only perfect bones are those which are solid, -or of very dense texture. The skulls are represented merely by the -harder portions. That of the woolly rhinoceros, for example, by the -hard pedestal which supports the anterior horn (see Fig. 30). Several -of these pedestals occurred in the Wookey hyæna-den. The lower jaws -also have lost their angle and coronoid process, and are gnawed to -the pattern of the shaded portion of Fig. 92, the less succulent part -bearing the teeth being rejected. This holds good of the jaws of all -the animals so persistently, that out of more than two hundred from -Wookey there was only one exception. The jaw of the glutton (Fig. 82), -from Plas Heaton, is also gnawed to the same shape, and one of those -of the cave-bear from the cavern of Lherm, considered by M. Garrigou -to have been fashioned by the hand of man into an implement, seems to -me, after a careful comparison in company with Dr. Falconer, referable -solely to the gnawing of the hyæna. In Fig. 92, the lower jaw of an -adult hyæna is represented, and in Fig. 93 (1) the upper and lower -jaws of a hyæna-whelp. In the latter the teeth marks _a_ and _b_ are -remarkably distinct.[199] - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Left Thigh-bone of Woolly Rhinoceros gnawed by -Hyænas; Shaded parts left. (Wookey Hole.)] - -The marrow-containing bones are also universally splintered away, -until either the articular ends alone are left, as in Fig. 80, or in -some cases, as in that of the femur of woolly rhinoceros (Fig. 94), -the dense central portion bearing the third trochanter is preserved. -This fragment is extremely abundant in nearly all the hyæna-caves in -this country. From the invariable habit of the hyæna leaving the bones -of its prey in fragments of this kind, their dens are characterized -by the absence of perfect long-bones and skulls, and consequently, -when these occur in a cave it is certain proof that it was not -occupied by these animals. In a great many caves, however, the gnawed -fragments are associated with the perfect bones, as, for example, at -Banwell, a circumstance that may be accounted for by the untouched -carcases and the gnawed fragments being swept in from the surface by a -stream falling into a swallow-hole. In all hyæna-dens also are large -quantities of _album græcum_, as well as fragments of bone more or less -polished by the friction of the hyæna’s feet. - - -_The Caves of Devonshire._ - -The ossiferous caves on the south coast of Devonshire, explored during -the last fifty years, are by far the most important in this country, -since they were the first which were scientifically examined, and -the first which established the co-existence of man with the extinct -mammalia. - -We owe the full details of their history to the labours of the -distinguished cave-hunter Mr. Pengelly, F.R.S.,[200] whose writings are -freely used in the following account. - - -_The Oreston Caves._ - -The first intimation of the presence of fossil bones in the district -was furnished by Mr. Whidbey, the engineer in charge of the -construction of the Plymouth breakwater, who discovered numerous -bones and teeth, imbedded in clayey loam, in some cavernous fissures -at Oreston, which were brought before the Royal Society by Sir -Everard Home in 1817. Thus Dr. Buckland’s researches in Kirkdale were -anticipated by four years. From time to time, since that date, several -other fissures and caves close by have furnished remains of rhinoceros, -mammoth, hyæna, lion, and other animals. Among the bones and teeth -originally sent up by Mr. Whidbey are several which were identified by -Prof. Busk,[201] as belonging to the _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, a species -that is vastly abundant in the pleiocene strata of northern Italy and -is also represented in the early pleistocene forest-bed of Norfolk and -Suffolk, and in the lower brickearths of the valley of the Thames at -Grays and Crayford. This is the only case on record of the discovery of -the animal in a cavern deposit. - -The cavernous fissures in the neighbourhood of Yealmpton,[202] about -seven miles east-south-east from Plymouth, explored by Mr. Bellamy and -Colonel Mudge, R.A., F.R.S. in 1835-6, contained the remains of the -hyæna and rhinoceros, and the other animals more usually associated -with them. They were probably filled, as in the case of Oreston, mainly -by the streams which introduced the pebbles. They may, however, from -time to time have been inhabited by the hyænas, although the presence -of three skulls of that animal forbids the supposition that they -dragged in all the fossil bones. - - -_The Caves at Brixham._ - -The series of fissures accidentally discovered in 1858, in quarrying -the rock which overlooks the little fishing town of Brixham, known as -the Windmill cave, was selected by the late Dr. Falconer,[203] as a -spot in which thorough investigation would be likely to decide the then -doubtful question of the co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia. -Kent’s Hole had been disturbed by repeated diggings, and the results -might be viewed with suspicion. He, therefore, urged the importance of -a systematic examination of this virgin cave with such effect, that it -was undertaken by the Royal and Geological Societies, and a committee -was appointed, comprising, amongst others, Dr. Falconer, Prof. Ramsay, -Mr. Prestwich, Sir Charles Lyell, Prof. Owen, Mr. Godwin-Austen, and -Mr. Pengelly. To the superintendence of the last is mainly due the -minute care with which the exploration was conducted. The remains have -been identified by Dr. Falconer and Prof. Busk. The work was commenced -in July 1858, and completed in the summer of 1859.[204] - -The cave consists of three principal galleries, with diverging -passages, running in the direction of the joints from north to south, -and from east to west, communicating with the surface at four points. -The following is the general section (Fig. 95) of the deposits in -descending order. - -(A.) On the floor was a layer of stalagmite, varying from a few inches -to upwards of a foot in thickness, and containing only twenty-five -bones, among which were the humerus of a bear, and the antler of a -reindeer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Diagram of Deposits in Brixham Cave. -(Pengelly.)] - -(B.) Reddish cave-earth with fragments and blocks of limestone, and -of stalagmite, generally averaging from two to four feet. In it 1,102 -bones were discovered irregularly scattered through its mass, and -belonging to mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, lion, cave, grizzly, and brown -bears, reindeer, and others. They varied in state of preservation, and -some were scored and marked by teeth. Associated with these, thirty-six -rude flint implements were met with, of indisputable human workmanship, -and of the same general order as those figured by the Rev. J. MacEnery -from Kent’s Hole. Among them was one lanceolate implement with rounded -point and unworked butt end, considered by Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., -of the type of those usually found in the valley gravels.[205] There -was, therefore, the most conclusive evidence that man inhabited the -neighbourhood, either before or during the time of the accumulation of -B, and before those physical changes took place by which the red silt -ceased to be deposited, or the stalagmite above began to be formed. - -(C.) At the bottom of the cave-earth was a deposit of gravel, -principally of rounded pebbles and devoid of fossils. - -The early history of the cave, as shown by these deposits, is given -by Mr. Prestwich, in the report presented to the Royal Society, as -follows:-- - -“Looking at all the phenomena of Brixham cave, the conclusion your -reporter has arrived at is, that the formation of the cave commenced -and was carried on simultaneously with the excavation of the valley; -that the small streams flowing down the upper tributary branches of -the valley entered the western openings of the cave and, traversing -the fissures in the limestone, escaped by lower openings in the chief -valley, just as the Grotto d’Arcy was formed by an overflow from the -cave taking a short cut through the limestone hills, round which the -river winds. These tributary streams brought in the shingle bed (Fig. -95, C), which fills the bottom of the fissure. It was only during -occasional droughts, when the streams were dry, that the cave seems -to have been frequented by animals, their remains being very scarce -in that bed, while indications of man are comparatively numerous. As -the excavation of the valley proceeded, the level of the stream was -lowered and became more restricted to the valley-channel. The cave -consequently became drier, and was more resorted to by predatory -animals, who carried in their prey to devour, and was less frequented -by man. At the same time with the periodical floods, which there is -every reason to believe, from other investigations, were so great -during the quaternary period, the cave would long continue to be -subject to inundations, the muddy waters of which deposited the silt -forming the cave-earth, burying progressively the bones left from -season to season by succeeding generations of beasts of prey. By the -repetition at distant intervals of these inundations, and by the -accumulation during the intervening periods of fresh crops of bones, -the bone-bearing cave-earth, B, was gradually formed. During this time -the occasional visits of man are indicated by the rare occurrence of -a flint implement, lost, probably, as he groped his way through the -dark passages of the cave. As the valley became deeper, and as with the -change of climate at the close of the (pleistocene) quaternary period -the floods became less, so did the cave become drier and more resorted -to by animals. At last it seems to have become a place for permanent -resort for bears; their remains in all stages of growth, including -even sucking cubs, were met with in the upper part of the cave-earth, -in greater numbers than were the bones of any other animals. These -animals resorted especially to the darker and more secluded flint-knife -gallery, where 221 out of 366 of their determinable bones were found, -whereas only twenty-six were met with in the reindeer gallery. - -“Finally, as the cave became out of the reach of the flood waters, the -drippings from the roof, which up to this period had, with the single -exception before mentioned, been lost in the accumulating cave-earth, -or deposited in thin calcareous incrustations on the exposed bones, -now commenced that deposit of stalagmite which sealed up and preserved -undisturbed the shingle and cave-earth deposited under former and -different conditions. The cave, however, still continued to be -the occasional resort of beasts of prey; for sparse remains of the -reindeer, together with those of the bear and rhinoceros, were found in -the stalagmite floor. After a time the falling in of the roof at places -(and any earthquake movement may have detached blocks from it), and the -external surface weathering, stopped up some parts of the cave, and -closed its entrances with an accumulation of débris. From that time it -ceased to be accessible, except to the smaller rodents and burrowing -animals, and so remained unused and untrodden until its recent -discovery and exploration.”[206] - -Mr. Pengelly points out[207] an episode in the history of the cave, -between the formation and the filling up with its present contents, -which is of considerable importance, viewed in relation to the deposits -in Kent’s Hole. Over the empty space in D, of Fig. 95, is an ancient -stalagmite floor, E, constituting the present ceiling, and shutting off -D from the true roof above, E. At the time this was formed, the cave -must have been filled up to that level with débris, fragments of which -are set in the inferior portion of the calcareous sheet. Subsequently, -and before the present contents, A and B, were introduced, the whole -of this material has been swept away, probably by an unusual flood -similar to that alluded to in the second chapter in the Clapham cave. -The pieces of stalagmite in the cave-earth are, probably, some of -the relics of the older floor. This filling up, re-excavating, and -re-filling with its present contents, are phenomena which considerably -complicate the problems offered not merely by Brixham cave, but also -by those of Kent’s Hole. - -Two other caverns in the neighbourhood of Brixham, the “Ash Hole” and -“Bench,” have also yielded the remains of the reindeer, hyæna, and -several other pleistocene species, and are fully described by Mr. -Pengelly, in his essays contributed to the Devonshire Association.[208] - - -_Kent’s Hole._ - -The celebrated cave of Kent’s Hole,[209] known from time immemorial, -was first found to contain fossil bones by Mr. Northmore, and Sir -W. C. Trevelyan in 1824, and was subsequently explored by the Rev. J. -MacEnery in the five following years, during which he met with flint -implements in association with the extinct animals in the undisturbed -strata, and obtained the teeth of the sabre-toothed feline, named by -Prof. Owen _Machairodus latidens_, which has never before or since -been discovered in any other cavern in Britain. His manuscripts -unfortunately were not used until they passed into the hands of Mr. -Vivian, of Torquay, who published an abstract in 1859. Subsequently -they were published in full by Mr. Pengelly, in 1869. The discovery of -the flint implements, verified by Mr. Godwin Austen in 1840, and six -years later also by a committee of the Torquay Natural History Society, -was received with incredulity by the scientific world, until the result -of the exploration of the Brixham cave had placed the fact of the -co-existence of man with the extinct mammalia beyond all doubt. In -1864 a committee[210] was appointed by the British Association for the -carrying on the investigation, which from that time to the present has -been conducted under the careful supervision of Mr. Pengelly. - -The cave consists of two parallel series of chambers and galleries, -an eastern and a western, which penetrate the low cliff of Devonian -limestone in the direction of the joints, with a northern and southern -entrance, very nearly at the same level, “about fifty feet apart, from -180 to 190 feet above the level of mean tide, and about seventy feet -above the bottom of the valley immediately adjacent.” The largest -chamber of the eastern series is sixty-two feet from east to west, and -fifty-three from north to south. The extent of the cave has not yet -been ascertained. - -The contents, examined with the minutest care (on Mr. Pengelly’s -method, see Appendix I.), were found to be arranged in the following -order. - -(A.) The surface was composed of dark earth varying in thickness from -a few inches to a foot, on which rested large blocks of limestone, -fallen from the roof. It contained mediæval remains, Roman pottery, -and combs fashioned out of bone, similar to those discovered in the -Victoria and Dowkerbottom caves in Yorkshire, which prove that the cave -was frequented during the historic period. A barbed iron spear-head, -a bronze spear-head, other bronze articles, and polished stone celts, -establish the fact that it was also used during the iron, bronze, -and neolithic ages. This stratum contained the broken bones of the -short-horn (_Bos longifrons_), goat, and horse, large quantities of -charcoal, and was to a great extent a refuse-heap like that in the -Victoria cave. - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Lanceolate Implement from Kent’s Hole (1/1). -(Evans.)[211]] - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Oval Implement from Kent’s Hole (1/1) (Evans.)] - -(B.) Below this was a stalagmite floor, varying in thickness from one -to three feet, covering - -(C.) The red earth, with stones, bones of the extinct animals, and -flint implements, associated together in the greatest confusion, as -well as large lumps of stalagmite and of breccia, which had been torn -out of a pre-existent floor. In the “vestibule,” near one of the -entrances, a black layer beneath the stalagmite, composed, to a great -extent, of charcoal, indicated the position of the fire-places, and -contained a vast number of rude unpolished palæolithic implements. -There were also local stalagmitic bands. The flint implements were -met with at various depths, and consist of three distinct types: the -lanceolate, Fig. 96, the oval, with edge carefully chipped for cutting, -Fig. 97, and the flake (see Fig. 106). Besides these a few implements -have been discovered of the same shape as those found in the gravel -beds; in outline and section roughly triangular, and tapering to a -point from a blunt base, which was probably intended to be held in the -hand.[212] Several articles of bone and antler were also met with, -comprising an awl, or piercer, a needle with the eye large enough to -admit small packthread, and three harpoon-heads, one of which is barbed -on both sides (Fig. 98), the others being merely barbed on one side -(Fig. 99). A rounded pebble of coarse red sandstone, battered into a -cheese-like form, by being used as a hammer (Fig. 100), was also found. -All these articles bring the palæolithic inhabitants of Kent’s Hole -into relation with those of the caves and rock-shelters of the south -of France, to be described in the next chapter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Harpoon from Kent’s Hole (1/1). (Evans.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.--Harpoon-head from Kent’s Hole (1/1). (Evans.)] - -(D.) The cave-earth rested on a compact, dark red breccia composed of -angular fragments of limestone and pebbles of sandstone embedded in a -sandy calcareous paste, identical in constitution with the fragments -of the older breccia discovered in the cave-earth. It has furnished -bones of bears, and four flint implements. The cave-earth, C, and the -breccia, E, seem to stand to one another in an inverse ratio as regards -thickness: where the former was thin, the latter was sometimes as much -as twelve feet thick. From this relation, as well as from the imbedded -fragments of the latter, it may be concluded that the former is the -more modern, and that in the interval between their accumulation the -latter had been, to a considerable extent, broken up. - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Hammer-stone (1/2). (Evans.)] - -There is very good reason for the belief, that before any of the -present cave-earth was introduced, Kent’s Hole had been filled nearly -to the roof by an older cave accumulation, now represented by the -undisturbed breccia and the included fragments. In a portion of the -cave termed the “gallery,” there is a sheet of stalagmite, extending -overhead from wall to wall, and constituting a ceiling that reaches -from wall to wall, without further support than that offered by its -own cohesion. Above it, in the limestone rock, there is a considerable -alcove. This branch of the cavern, therefore, is divided into three -stories or flats, that below the floor occupied with cave-earth, that -between the floor and the ceiling entirely unoccupied, and that above -the ceiling also without a deposit of any kind. For such a sheet of -stalagmite to have been formed it is absolutely necessary for the cave -to have been filled up to its level with materials of some kind, just -as it is necessary for the formation of a film of ice that it should be -crystallized from the surface of water. We may, therefore, infer that -Kent’s Hole, like Brixham, was originally filled up to the level of the -ceiling (see Fig. 95, E), then that the contents were swept out, with -the exception of the breccia, and lastly, that the present cave-earth -was introduced. The occurrence of the remains of bear, and of flint -implements, in this breccia also proves that man and bears were living -in the district, while it was being accumulated, probably by the action -of the floods to which, from time to time, the cave was subjected. All -the flint implements in the breccia are of the ruder and larger form -which is presented by those from the pleistocene deposits of the Somme, -Seine, and the rivers of the south and east of England. - -While engaged in the identification of the mammals in 1869, with -Mr. W. A. Sanford, I detected splinters of bears’ canines, from the -cave-earth, remarkable for their density, crystalline structure, and -semi-conchoidal fracture, which were in the same mineral state as those -from the older breccia. One of these had been fashioned into a flake -after its mineralization, and presented an edge chipped by use. The -tooth from which it was struck was, probably, imbedded and mineralized -in the older breccia, then washed out of it, and afterwards chosen for -the manufacture of an implement. It was already fossil and altered in -structure in the palæolithic age. - - -_The probable Age of the Machairodus of Kent’s Hole._ - -The most remarkable animal discovered in the cave, by the Rev. J. -MacEnery, is the _Machairodus latidens_,[213] or large lion-like -animal, armed with double-edged canines, in shape like the blade of a -sabre, and with two serrated edges. Five canines and two incisors were -dug out of the cave-earth, C, in the Wolf’s Passage, along with vast -quantities of bones and teeth of the mammoth, rhinoceros, Irish elk, -horse, and hyæna. One of the canines is represented in Figs. 101, 102, -which are taken from one of the original plates drawn for Dr. Buckland, -and now in the Museum of the Torquay Natural History Society. The two -incisors, Figs. 103, 104, 105, are also characterised by their serrated -edges. A third was discovered by the exploration committee in the same -spot, in 1872, scarcely to be distinguished from that in Figs. 103, -104, which finally dispelled the scepticism of some eminent naturalists -as to whether any of these teeth had been obtained in the cave by the -Rev. J. MacEnery. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 101, 102.--Upper Canine of Machairodus, Kent’s -Hole (1/1). (MacEnery.)] - -The _Machairodus latidens_ has been found in pleistocene strata in two -localities in France: in a deposit of diluvium, near Puy, by M. Aymard, -and in the cavern of Baume in the Jura, considered by M. Lartet to -be of preglacial age.[214] In the latter it was associated with the -horse, ox, wild-boar, elephant, a non-tichorine species of rhinoceros, -the cave-bear, and the spotted hyæna. In the autumn of 1873, I met -with proof that the animal also lived in France in the pleiocene -period. M. Lortet, the Director of the Museum of Natural History, at -Lyons, called my attention to a canine, in the Palais des Beaux Arts, -which coincides exactly in all its dimensions with one of those from -Kent’s Hole. It was found at Chagny (Saône et Loire) near Dijon, along -with _Mastodon arvernensis_, the Etruscan or megarhine species of -rhinoceros, horse, beaver and hyæna, somewhat resembling that from -the Crag (_Hyæna antiqua_) of Suffolk described by Mr. Lankester. The -species, therefore, is pleiocene, and it belongs to a genus which is -widely distributed in the meiocene strata of Europe and North America, -as well as in the pleiocene of Europe. - -To what era in the complicated history of Kent’s Hole is this animal -to be assigned? The more ancient, or the more modern? The evidence on -this point is, to a certain extent, contradictory. On the one hand it -is a pleiocene species, belonging to a group of animals that inhabited -Europe before the lowering of the temperature caused the invasion -of the arctic mammalia from the north and the east: it is moreover -of a distinctly southern type. In the teeth marks on the incisors, -Figs. 103, 104, 105, as well as on the canines, we have unmistakeable -traces of the presence of the hyæna; and since the spotted hyæna -abounds in the cave, to its teeth the marks in question may probably -be referred. It seems, therefore, probable that the animal inhabited -Devonshire during an early stage of the pleistocene period, before -the arctic invaders had taken full possession of the valley of the -English Channel, and of the low grounds which now lie within the -100-fathom line off the Atlantic shore of Western France. There must -necessarily have been a swinging to and fro of animal life over the -great, fertile low-lying region, which is now submerged (see Map, -Fig. 126); and before the temperature of France had been sufficiently -lowered to exterminate or drive out the southern forms, it is most -natural to suppose that in warm seasons some of the southern mammalia -would find their way northwards, and especially a formidable carnivore -such as the machairodus. The extreme rarity of its remains forbids -the hypothesis that it was a regular inhabitant of Britain during the -pleistocene age. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 103, 104, 105.--Incisors of Machairodus, Kent’s -Hole (1/1). (MacEnery.)[215]] - -On the other hand, the recent discovery of a second incisor in the -uppermost portion of the cave-earth, in July 1872, in the same -condition as the remains usually found, and associated with the bones -and teeth of hyæna, horse, and bear, is considered by Sir Charles Lyell -and Mr. Pengelly proof of the animal having lived during the deposition -of the later cave-earth, or in the later stage of the pleistocene. -The condition of a bone, however, is a very fallacious guide to its -antiquity, and although the fragments of the older contents of the cave -are in a different mineral state, it is improbable that the ossiferous -contents of so large a cave should have been mineralized exactly in -the same way. Nor is an appeal to its perfect state conclusive, since -several teeth of bear, which I have examined from the breccia, are -equally perfect. - -The view of the high antiquity of machairodus in Kent’s Hole derives -support from the discovery of _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ at Oreston, a -species which is very abundant in the Italian pleiocene strata, and -not uncommon in those of France,--a species with its headquarters in -the south, but ranging as far north as Norfolk in the early stage of -the pleistocene age, represented by the forest bed of Cromer, and that -lived in the valley of the Thames, while the gravel-beds of Crayford -and Grays Thurrock were being deposited by the ancient river. The -occurrence of either of these animals in a cave is exceptional, and -the presence of both in caves on the edge of the great plain extending -southwards from the present coastline of Devon, seems to me to imply -that both were open during the early stage of the pleistocene, while -the pleiocene mammalia were retreating before the southward advance -of the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, spotted hyæna, reindeer, and their -congeners, at a time anterior to the lowering of the temperature that -culminated in the glacial period. For these reasons it seems to me -probable that the machairodus belongs to an early rather than a late -stage in the history of Kent’s Hole. - -There is an important point of resemblance between the mode of the -occurrence of the machairodus in Kent’s Hole, and of the megarhine -rhinoceros at Oreston. The remains of both were met with only _in -one spot_, and were not scattered through the chambers and passages. -It may have happened that in the physical changes which those caves -have undergone, both were preserved in a fissure like that described -in the Uphill cave (p. 294), and that subsequently they dropped -down and became imbedded in a newer deposit. In fixing the age of -strata in caves it seems to me that the zoological evidence is of far -greater weight than that of mere position, which may be the result of -accidental circumstances. - - -_The Caves of Ireland._ - -The caves of Ireland would probably afford as rich a fauna as those -of Britain, had they been explored with equal care. In one at -Shandon, near Dungarvan, Waterford, remains of the brown bear (_U. -arctos_) reindeer, horse, and mammoth were discovered in 1859, by Mr. -Brenan.[216] The first of these animals became extinct in Ireland -before the historic period, while it survived in Britain at least as -late as the Roman occupation. - -The cave-bear is also recorded by Dr. Carte,[217] from the same place, -but the thigh bone assigned to it seems to me to belong to the brown, -or common species. The mammoth, so abundant in Britain, has only been -discovered in two other localities in Ireland, at Whitechurch near -Dungarvan, and at Magherry near Belturbet.[218] - -The range of these animals over Great Britain and Ireland in the -pleistocene age enables us to realize the ancient physical geography, -which will be treated in the next and following chapters as part of the -general question of the physical condition of north-western Europe at -that time. - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - - THE INHABITANTS OF THE CAVES OF NORTH-WESTERN EUROPE, AND THE - EVIDENCE OF THE FAUNA AS TO THE ATLANTIC COASTLINE. - - The Caves of France, Baume, of Périgord.--Caves and Rock-shelters - of Belgium, Trou de Naulette.--Caves of Switzerland.-- - Cave-dwellers and Palæolithic Men of River-deposits.-- - Classification of Palæolithic Caves.--Relation of Cave-dwellers - to Eskimos.--Pleistocene animals living north of Alps and - Pyrenees.--Relation of Cave to River-bed Fauna.--The Atlantic - Coastline.--Distribution of Palæolithic Implements. - - -_The Caves of France._ - -The caves of France have been proved, by the explorations carried on -during the course of the present century, to contain the same animals, -introduced under the same conditions as those which we have already -described. Some species, however, have been met with which have not -been discovered in this country. In the cave of Lunel-viel, for -example, the common striped hyæna of Africa (_Hyæna striata_) has been -found by Marcel de Serres, to whom belongs the credit of being the -first systematic explorer of caverns in France. In that of Bruniquel, -the ibex, now found only in the higher mountains in Europe, the chamois -and the _Antelope saiga_, an animal inhabiting the plains of the -region of the Volga and of southern Siberia, have been identified by -Prof. Owen; while in the collection obtained by Mr. Moggridge from the -caves of Mentone, Prof. Busk has recognized the marmot. With these -exceptions there is no distinction between the faunas of the bone-caves -of this country and of France.[219] - - -_The Cave of Baume._ - -The _Machairodus latidens_,[220] or great sabre-toothed feline of -Kent’s Hole, has been discovered in the cave of Baume in the Jura, -according to M. Gervais,[221] along with the horse, ox, wild-boar, -elephant, a non-tichorhine species of rhinoceros, the spotted hyæna, -and the cave-bear, or the same group of animals as that with which it -is found in Kent’s Hole. The cave is considered by M. Lartet[222] to be -of preglacial age. - - -_The Caves of Périgord._ - -The caves and rock-shelters of Périgord, explored by the late M. -Lartet and our countryman, Mr. Christy,[223] 1863-4, have not only -afforded cumulative proof of the co-existence of man with the extinct -mammalia, but have given us a clue as to the race to which he belonged. -They penetrate the sides of the valleys of the Dordogne and Vezère at -various levels, as may be seen in Fig. 71, and are full of the remains -left behind by their ancient inhabitants, which give as vivid a picture -of the human life of the period, as that revealed of Italian manners -in the first century by the buried cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. -The old floors of human occupation consist of broken bones of animals -killed in the chase, mingled with rude implements, weapons of bone, and -unpolished stone, and charcoal and burnt stones which point out the -position of the hearths. - -Flakes (Fig. 106) without number, rude stone-cutters, awls, -lance-heads, hammers, saws made of flint or of chert, rest pêle-mêle -with bone needles, sculptured reindeer antlers, engraved stones, -arrow-heads, harpoons, and pointed bones, and with the broken remains -of the animals which had been used as food, the reindeer, bison, horse, -the ibex, the saiga antelope, and the musk sheep. In some cases the -whole is compacted by a calcareous cement into a hard mass, fragments -of which are to be seen in the principal museums of Europe. This -strange accumulation of débris marks, beyond all doubt, the place where -ancient hunters had feasted, and the broken bones and implements are -merely the refuse cast aside. The reindeer formed by far the larger -portion of the food, and must have lived in enormous herds at that time -in the centre of France. The severity of the climate at the time may be -inferred by the presence of this animal, as well as by the accumulation -of bones on the spots on which man had fixed his habitation. Indeed, -had not this been the case, the decomposition of so much animal matter -would have rendered the place uninhabitable even by the lowest savage. - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Flint-flake, Les Eyzies (1/1). (Lartet and -Christy.) - -FIG. 107.--Flint Scraper, Les Eyzies (1/1). (Lartet and Christy.) - -FIG. 108.--Flint Javelin-head, Laugerie Haute (1/1). (Lartet and -Christy.)] - -Besides the animals mentioned above, the cave-bear and lion have been -met with in one, and the mammoth in five localities, and their remains -bear marks of cutting or scraping, which show that they fell a prey to -hunters. The Irish elk, also, and the hyæna occur respectively in the -cave of Laugerie Basse, and of Moustier, but the latter certainly did -not gain access to the refuse-heaps, because the vertebræ are intact -which it is in the habit of eating. For the same reason also, M. -Lartet infers that the hunters were not aided in the chase by the dog. -There is no evidence that they were possessed of any domestic animal. -There were no spindle wheels to indicate a knowledge of spinning, nor -potsherds to show an acquaintance with the potter’s art. In both these -respects they resemble the Fuegians, Eskimos, and Australians, and -contrast strongly with the neolithic races. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.--Flint Arrow-head, Laugerie Haute (1/1). -(Lartet and Christy.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Bone needle, La Madelaine (1/1). (Lartet and -Christy.)] - -The broken bones show that the reindeer furnished the more usual food, -and next to that the horse, and then the bison. And from the absence -of the vertebræ and pelvic bones of the two latter animals, M. Lartet -concludes that they were cut up where they were killed, and the meat -stripped from the backbone and the pelvis. Their food was probably -cooked by boiling, the number of round stones used for heating water -and bearing marks of fire, like the “pot boilers” of some of the -American Indians, being very considerable. - -Among the stone implements flint flakes were incredibly numerous, and -the number of chips scattered about as well as the blocks of flint -from which they had been struck, proved that they had been made on the -spot; most of these flakes were notched by use (Fig. 106). Instruments -with the ends carefully rounded off (Fig. 107) were also abundant, and -from their analogy with similar instruments used by the Eskimos, there -can be but little doubt that they were intended for the preparation -of skins (compare Fig. 107 with Fig. 124). The ends of some were -chipped to a point for insertion into a handle, while others rounded -at both ends were probably used freely in the hand. In the cave of -Moustier oval implements were met with, resembling those figured from -the caverns of Kent’s Hole and Wookey (Figs. 84 and 97). The spear, -javelin, and arrow-heads of flint presented two modes of attachment to -the shaft, the base of some being squared off with a notch above for -the ligature (as in Fig. 108), while in others (Fig. 109) it tapered -off into a point intended for insertion. This latter form has been -obtained also in Kent’s Hole. - -The bone needles are carefully smoothed, and were pierced with a -neatly-made eye (Fig. 110) by means of pointed flakes which were -found along with them, and the use of which M. Lartet demonstrated -by experiment. They had been sawn out of the compact metacarpals and -tarsals of the reindeer[224] and the horse, and subsequently rounded -on fragments of sandstone, the grooves of which fitted them. In this, -therefore, we have not merely the evidence that the hunters were -in the habit of sewing, but also we have vividly brought before us -the very method by which their needles were manufactured. They were -probably used for sewing skins together, the tendon of a reindeer -forming the thread, as among the modern Eskimos. - -[Illustration: FIGS. 111, 112.--Harpoons of Antler, La Madelaine. -(Lartet and Christy.) - -FIGS. 113, 114.--Arrow-heads, Gorge d’Enfer. (Broca.) - -FIG. 115.--Bone Awl, Gorge d’Enfer (1/1). (Broca.)] - -The heads of arrows and lances are made principally out of reindeer -antler, and are barbed, the barbs generally being grooved, and carved -on both sides of the axis (Figs. 111, 112, 113); but in some cases, -as in Fig. 114, the barbs are only on one side. Many bones and antlers -are variously carved into shapes for which it is impossible to assign a -definite use. Fig. 115 is a bone awl. - -[Illustration: FIG. 116.--Carved Handle of Reindeer Antler (1/2). -(Lartet and Christy.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 117.--Two sides of Reindeer Antler, La Madelaine -(1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 118.--Horses engraved on Antler, La Madelaine -(1/1). (Lartet and Christy.)] - -The most remarkable remains left behind by man in these refuse-heaps -are the sculptured reindeer antlers, and the figures engraved on -fragments of schist and on ivory. A well-defined outline of an ox -stands out boldly from one piece of antler. A second presents us with -a most elegant design: a reindeer is kneeling down in an easy attitude -with its head thrown up in the air, so that the antlers rest on the -shoulders, and the back of the animal forms an even surface for a -handle, which is too small to be grasped in an ordinary European hand -(Fig. 116). In a third a man stands close to a horse’s head, and hard -by is a fish like an eel; and on the other side of the same cylinder -are two heads of bison, drawn with sufficient clearness to ensure -recognition by anyone who had ever seen that animal (Fig. 117). On -a fourth the natural curvature of one of the tines has been taken -advantage of by the artist to engrave the head, and the characteristic -recurved horns of the ibex; and on a fifth are figures of horses (Fig. -118), in which the upright disheveled mane and shaggy ungroomed tail -are represented with admirable spirit. At first sight it would appear -that the artist had drawn the heads out of all proportion to the -bodies. A horse’s skeleton, however, from the palæolithic “station” -at Solutré, lately set up in the Museum at Lyons, proves that this is -not the case, since, as M. Lortet pointed out to me, it is remarkable -for its massive head, and small body. In Fig. 119 a group of reindeer -are seen, two on their backs, and two in the act of walking. The -Irish elk, red-deer, and probably rhinoceros, are also depicted, the -figures upon the hard schist being feebly and uncertainly drawn, as -might be expected from the character of the tools. The most clever -sculptor of modern times would, probably, not succeed very much better -if his graver was a splinter of flint, and stone and bone were the -materials to be engraved. One peculiarity runs through the figures of -animals. With but two exceptions none of the feet are represented, a -circumstance which is probably due, as Mr. Franks has suggested to me, -to the fact that the hunters merely represented what they saw of the -animal, of which the feet would be concealed by the herbage. - -[Illustration: FIG. 119.--Group of Reindeer, Dordogne. (Broca.)] - -The most striking figure that has been discovered is that of the -mammoth,[225] Fig. 120, engraved on a fragment of its own tusk, the -peculiar spiral curvature of the tusk and the long mane, which are not -now to be found in any living elephant, proving that the original was -familiar to the eye of the artist. The discovery of whole carcases of -the animal in northern Siberia, preserved from decay in the frozen -cliffs and morasses, has made us acquainted with the existence of -the long hairy mane. Had not it thus been handed down to our eyes, -we should probably have treated this most accurate drawing as a mere -artist’s freak. Its peculiarities are so faithfully depicted that it is -quite impossible for the animal to be confounded with either of the -two living species. These drawings probably employed the idle hours of -the hunter, and perpetuate the scenes which he witnessed in the chase. -They are full of artistic feeling, and are evidently drawn from life. -The mammoth is engraved on its own ivory, the reindeer generally on -reindeer antler, and the stag on stag antler. - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Mammoth engraved on Ivory, La Madelaine -(1/2). (Lartet and Christy.)] - -From all these facts we must picture to our minds, that these ancient -dwellers in the caves of Aquitaine lived by hunting and fishing, that -they were acquainted with fire, and that they were clad with skins -sewn together with sinews or strips of intestines. That they did not -possess the dog is shown, not merely by the negative evidence of its -not having been discovered, but also by the fact that the bones which -it invariably eats, such as the vertebræ, are preserved. They did not -possess any domestic animals, and there is no evidence that they were -acquainted with the potter’s art. M. de Mortillet’s view, that the -art of making pottery was unknown in the palæolithic age, seems to me -to be probably true, the reputed cases of the discovery of potsherds -being always connected with suspicious circumstances, which render it -probable that they were subsequently introduced. - -Besides the remains of the animals in the refuse-heaps were fragmentary -portions of human skeletons, which, however, were not scraped or broken -so as to imply the practice of cannibalism. - - -_Caves of Belgium._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.--Carved Implement of Reindeer Antler, Goyet -(1/2). (Dupont.)] - -The researches of Dr. Schmerling[226] into the caves of Belgium, in -1829-30, revealed the fact that the animals so abundant in the caves -of Germany, were equally numerous in those in the neighbourhood of -Liége, and the flint flakes, and the fragments of human bones, which -he found may possibly be of palæolithic age. He also discovered -the remains of the porcupine, a species no longer living north of -the Alps and Pyrenees. The systematic exploration, however, of the -palæolithic caves in that district was not carried out until, in the -year 1864, M. Dupont[227] began the investigation of those in the -neighbourhood of Dinant-sur-Meuse, on behalf of the Belgian Government. -His results, based upon the examination of upwards of twenty caves -and rock-shelters, are published in a series of papers read before -the Royal Academy of Belgium and subsequently in a separate work. -Besides the remains of the animals living in Belgium within the -historic period, he met with the ibex, chamois, and marmot, which -are now to be found only in the mountainous districts of Europe, the -tailless hare, lemming, and arctic fox, of the northern regions, the -_Antelope saiga_, grizzly bear, lion, hyæna, and others. Most of these -species occurred in refuse accumulations, their remains being in the -fragmentary condition of those of the French caves. The associated -implements are of the same type as those of Périgord, and some of -them are ornamented in the same manner as, for example, that from -the cavern of Goyet, Fig. 121, termed a “bâton de commandement,” but -which, from its analogy with similar articles in the British Museum, -is most probably an arrow-straightener. Those of flint are also of the -same kind, and in several of the caves there was the same association -of fragmentary human remains with the relics of the feasts as in the -French refuse-heaps. - - -_Trou de Naulette._ - -The human remains consisting of a lower jaw, ulna and metatarsal, -discovered in the large cavern of Naulette,[228] on the left bank of -the Lesse, in association with the broken remains of the rhinoceros, -mammoth, reindeer, chamois, and marmot, are undoubtedly of palæolithic -age, since they rested in an undisturbed stratum. M. Dupont gives the -following section in descending order. - - METRES. - 1. Sandy grey and yellow clay 2·90 - 2. Yellow grey clay with stones and bones of ruminants 0·45 - 3. Stalagmite. - 4. Tufa. - 5. Three bands of clay alternating with stalagmite. - 6. Sandy clay with human bones at the depth of four metres. - 7. Stalagmite. - 8. Cave-earth with bones gnawed by hyænas. - -The human jaw is remarkable for its prognathism, which, according to -Dr. Hamy, is greater than that which has been observed in any living -races. The cave had afforded shelter to the hyænas before it had been -used by man. - - -_The Caves of Switzerland._ - -The caves of Switzerland also contain the same class of rude -implements and carvings. Prof. Rupert Jones has called my attention -to a recent discovery of carved reindeer antlers, and harpoon-heads, -similar to those figured from the Dordogne, in a cave in the Canton -of Schaaffhausen,[229] along with the bones of hyæna, reindeer, and -mammoth. In that of Veyrier,[230] carved implements were found along -with the remains of the ox, horse, chamois, and ibex, some of which, -shown to me by Dr. Gosse, at the meeting of the French Association for -the Advancement of Science, at Lyons in 1873, are of the same form and -size as the arrow-straightener from the cave of Goyet (Fig. 121). - -We may, therefore, infer that the same palæolithic race of men once -ranged over the whole region from the Pyrenees and Switzerland, as far -to the north as Belgium. And since Prof. Fraas has obtained similar -implements from a refuse-heap at Schussenreid in Würtemberg, they -wandered as far to the east as that district, while the discoveries in -Kent’s Hole and Wookey Hole prove that they extended as far to the west -as Somersetshire and Devonshire. - - -_Cave-dwellers and Palæolithic Men of the River-gravels._ - -These palæolithic cave-dwellers are considered by Mr. Evans[231] -to belong to the same race as those who have left their rude flint -implements in the river-gravels in the valleys of the Thames, the -Somme, the Seine, and in the eastern counties, as far to the north as -Peterborough. We must, however, allow that a marked difference is to be -observed between a series of flint implements found in the caves, as -compared with a series found in the river-strata, although some forms -are common to the two; as for instance some of those found in Brixham -and Kent’s Hole. This difference can scarcely be explained on the -supposition that the small things would be less likely to be preserved -in the fluviatile deposits, because it leaves the rarity in the caves -of the larger fluviatile forms unaccounted for. It is perhaps safer, -in the present state of our knowledge, to consider the two sets to be -distinct from each other. The direct superposition in Kent’s Hole of -the stratum with the ordinary cave-type of implement, over that with -the ordinary fluviatile type, may perhaps prove that the latter is the -older. - - -_Classification of Palæolithic Caves._ - -The palæolithic caves are divided by M. Lartet[232] into four groups, -according to the species of animals which they contain; into those -of the age of the cave-bear, of the age of the mammoth and woolly -rhinoceros, of the age of the reindeer, and of the age of bison. Dr. -Hamy follows Sir John Lubbock,[233] in considering the age of the -cave-bear to be co-extensive with that of the mammoth, and in the -classification of caves he adopts a series of transitions. M. Dupont -divides the caves of Belgium into those belonging to the age of the -mammoth, and to that of the reindeer. - -It is easy to refer a given cave to the age of the reindeer or of the -mammoth because it contains the remains of those animals, but the -division has been rendered worthless for chronological purposes, by the -fact that both these animals inhabited the region north of the Alps -and Pyrenees at the same time, and are to be found together in nearly -every bone-cave explored in that area. The difference between the -contents of one palæolithic cave and another, is probably largely due -to the fact that man could more easily catch some animals than others, -as well as to the preference for one kind of food before another. And -the abundance of the reindeer, which is supposed to characterise the -reindeer period, may reasonably be accounted for by the fact, that it -would be more easily captured by a savage hunter, than the mammoth, -woolly rhinoceros, cave-bear, lion, or hyæna. The classification will -apply, as I have shown in my essay on the pleistocene mammalia,[234] -neither to the caves of this country, of Belgium, nor of France, and -my views are shared by M. de Mortillet,[235] after a careful and -independent examination of the whole evidence. - -The division of the caves also into ages, according to the various -types of implements found in them, proposed by M. de Mortillet, seems -to be equally unsatisfactory; for there is no greater difference in the -implements of any two of the palæolithic caves, than is to be observed -between those of two different tribes of Eskimos, while the general -resemblance is most striking. The principle of classification by the -relative rudeness, assumes that the progress of man has been gradual, -and that the ruder implements are therefore the older. The difference, -however, may have been due to different tribes, or families, having -co-existed without intercourse with each other, as is now generally the -case with savage communities; or to the supply of flint, chert, and -other materials for cutting instruments, being greater in one region -than in another. - - -_Relation of Cave-dwellers to Eskimos._ - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.--Eskimos Spear-head, bone (1/2).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Eskimos Arrow-straightener of Walrus Tooth -(1/1). (Brit. Mus.)] - -Can these cave-dwellers be identified with any people now living on the -face of the earth? or are they as completely without representatives as -their extinct contemporaries, the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros? -Absolute certainty we cannot hope to obtain on the point, but the -cumulative evidence enables an answer to be given which is probably -true. Along the American shore of the great Arctic Ocean, in the -region of everlasting snow, dwell the Eskimos, living by hunting and -fishing, speaking the same language, and using the same implements from -the Straits of Behring on the west, to Greenland on the east. Their -implements and weapons, brought home by the arctic explorers, enable us -to institute a comparison with those found in the palæolithic caves. -The harpoons in the Ashmolean collection at Oxford, brought over by -Captain Beechey and Lieut. Harding from West Georgia, as well as those -in the British Museum, are almost identical in shape and design with -those from the caves of Aquitaine and Kent’s Hole; the only difference -being that some of the latter have grooved barbs. The heads of the -fowling and fishing spears, darts, and arrows, as well as the form of -their bases for insertion into the shafts, are also identical (Fig. -122), as may be seen from a comparison of Fig. 122 with Figs. 99 and -114. The curiously carved instrument, Fig. 123, which the Eskimos use -for straightening their arrows is variously ornamented with designs of -animals, analogous to those cut on the reindeer antlers in Aquitaine; -and if it be compared with the so-called “bâton de commandement,” -Fig. 121, it will be seen, that the latter also was probably intended -for the same purpose; the difference in the shape of the hole in the -two figured specimens being also observable in the series of Eskimos -arrow-straighteners in the British Museum, and being largely due to -friction by use. Many of the implements are the same in form. An -Eskimos stone scraper for preparing skins, or plane for smoothing wood, -is represented in Fig. 124, which is inserted in a handle of fossil -mammoth ivory, obtained from the frozen ice-cliffs on the shores of the -Arctic sea. If it be compared with Fig. 107 from the caves, it will be -seen to be of the same pattern. It is indeed not a little singular, -that the handle in which it is imbedded should have been formed out of -the tusks of the same species of elephant as that which was depicted by -the palæolithic hunter (see Fig. 120), in the south of France. - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Eskimos Plane or Scraper (1/1). (Lartet and -Christy.)] - -Some of the Eskimos lance-heads of stone in the British Museum are of -the same type as that figured from the caves of the Dordogne (Fig. -108). - -The most remarkable objects brought home from the northern regions -are the implements of bone and antler which are ornamented with the -figures of animals hunted by the Eskimos on sea or land. On the side -of one bow in the Ashmolean Museum, used for drilling holes, you see -them harpooning the whale from their skin boats, and catching birds. -On a second they are harpooning walrus and catching seals; on a third -the seals are being dragged home. The huts in which they live, the -tethered dogs, the boat supported on its platform, and their daily -occupations are faithfully represented. One bow is ornamented with a -large number of porpoises, while on another is a reindeer hunt in which -the animals are being attacked while they are crossing a ford. On a -bone implement in the British Museum from Fort Clarence, the reindeer -are being shot down by archers (Fig. 125). The arrow straightener, Fig. -123, is adorned with a reindeer hunting scene, in which the animals are -seen browsing and unsuspicious of the approach of the hunters, who are -advancing, clad in reindeer skins and wearing antlers on their heads. - -A comparison of these various designs with those from the caves of -France and Belgium shows an identity of plan and workmanship, with this -difference only, that the hunting scenes familiar to the palæolithic -cave-dweller were not the same as those familiar to the Eskimos on -the shores of the Arctic Ocean. Each sculptured the animals he knew, -and the whale, walrus, and seal were unknown to the inland dwellers -in Aquitaine, just as the mammoth, bison, and wild horse are unknown -to the Eskimos. The reindeer, which they both knew, is represented in -the same way by both. The West Georgians made their dirks of walrus -tooth, and ornamented them with carvings of the backbones of fishes; -the people of Aquitaine used for the same purpose reindeer antlers, -and ornamented them with figures of that animal (see Fig. 116). And it -is worthy of remark that the latter had sufficient artistic feeling to -depict the mammoth on mammoth ivory, the reindeer generally on reindeer -antler, and the stag on its own antler. - -[Illustration: FIG. 125.--Eskimos Hunting-scene (1/1). (Fort Clarence.)] - -An appeal to the habits of these two peoples, now separated by so -wide an interval of space and time, tends also to show that they -are descended from the same stock. The method of accumulating large -quantities of the bones of animals around their dwelling-places, and -the habit of splitting the bones for the sake of the marrow, is the -same in both. Their hides were prepared by the same sort of instruments -and in the same manner, and the needles with which they were sewn -together are of the same pattern. The few remains of man among the -relics of feasts in the caves of Belgium and France, show the same -disregard of sepulture as that implied by the human skulls lying about -along with numerous bones of walrus, seal, dog, bear, and fox, in an -Eskimos camp in Igloolik, which were carried away by Captain Lyon, -without the slightest objection on the part of the relatives of the -dead. - -All these facts can hardly be mere coincidences, caused by both peoples -leading a savage life under similar circumstances: they afford reasons -for the belief that the Eskimos of North America are connected by -blood with the palæolithic cave-dwellers of Europe. To the objection -that savage tribes living under similar conditions use similar -instruments, and that, therefore, the correspondence of those of the -Eskimos with those of the reindeer folk does not prove that they belong -to the same race, the answer may be made, that there are no two savage -tribes now living which use the same set of implements, without being -connected by blood. The agreement of one or two of the more common and -ruder instruments may be perhaps of no value in classification, but if -a whole set agree, fitted for various uses, and some of them rising -above the most common wants of savage life, we must admit that the -argument as to race is of very great value. The implements found in -Belgium, France, or Britain differ scarcely more from those now used in -West Georgia, than the latter do from those now in use in Greenland or -Melville Peninsula. The conclusion, therefore, seems inevitable, that -so far as we have any evidence of the race to which the dwellers in -the Dordogne belong, that evidence points only in the direction of the -Eskimos. - -This conclusion is to a great extent confirmed by a consideration of -the animals found in the caves. The reindeer and the musk sheep afford -food to the Eskimos now, just as they afforded it to the palæolithic -hunters in Europe. No naturalist would deny that the pleistocene musk -sheep is of the same species as that of North America, and although the -animal is extinct in Europe and Asia, its remains, scattered through -Germany, Russia in Europe, and Siberia, show that it formerly ranged in -the whole of that area. The enormous distance, therefore, of southern -France from the northern shores of America, cannot be considered as -an obstacle to this view, for, to say the least, palæolithic man would -have had the same chance of retreating to the north-east as the musk -sheep. The mammoth and bison have also been tracked by their remains in -the frozen river gravels and morasses through Siberia, as far to the -north-east as the American side of the Straits of Behring. Palæolithic -man appeared in Europe with the arctic mammalia, lived in Europe -along with them, and disappeared with them. And since his implements -are of the same kind as those of the Eskimos, it may reasonably be -concluded that he is represented at the present time by the Eskimos, -for it is most improbable that the convergence of the ethnological, -and zoological evidence should be an accident. These views,[236] which -I advanced in 1866, have been to a great extent accepted by Sir John -Lubbock in his last edition of Prehistoric Man. - - -_Pleistocene Animals living to the North of the Alps and Pyrenees._ - -The principal mammalia inhabiting Britain, France, and Germany during -the pleistocene age, and contemporary with man in Europe, are given in -the following table, which shows that the fauna of the region to the -north of the Alps and Pyrenees was remarkably uniform. The cave-fauna -of Provence, Italy, and Spain, will be treated of in the next chapter. - - +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | King Arthur’s Cave| - +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ | - | Hoyle Cave| | - +---------------------------------------------------------------+ | | - | Coygan Cave| | | - +-------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | - | Caldy Fissure| | | | - +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | - | Blackrock Fissure| | | | | - +---------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | - | Long Hole| | | | | | - +-------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | - | Spritsail Tor| | | | | | | - +-----------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | - | Ravenscliff| | | | | | | | - +---------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | - | Crow Hole| | | | | | | | | - +-------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | - | Bosco’s Den| | | | | | | | | | - +-----------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | - | Minchin Hole| | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | - | Bacon’s Hole| | | | | | | | | | | | - +-------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Paviland| | | | | | | | | | | | | - +-----------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Gallfaenan| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Plas Heaton| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +-------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Plas-newydd| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +-----------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Cefn| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Victoria| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +-------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Kirkdale| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +-----------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Gailenreuth Cave| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Species. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ - |_Homo palæolithicus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Palæolithic Man |x| |x| |x| | | | | | | | | |x| | | |x|x| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Spermophilus citillus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Pouched Marmot | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Arctomys marmotta_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Common Marmot | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Castor fiber_--Beaver | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Lepus timidus_--Hare | |x| | | | | | | | | | | |x|x| | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Lepus variabilis_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Alpine Hare | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Lepus cuniculus_--Rabbit |x|x| | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Lepus diluvianus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Extinct Hare | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Lagomys pusillus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Tailless Hare | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Mus lemmus_--Lemming | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Hystrix dorsata_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Porcupine |x| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Felis leo_ (_var. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | spelæa_)--Lion | |x| |x| | | | | | | | |x|x|x| | | | |x| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Felis pardus_--Leopard | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Felis Lynx_--Lynx | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Felis caffer_--Caffir Cat | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Felis catus_--Wild Cat |x| | | | | | | | | | | |x| |x| | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Machairodus latidens_ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Gulo borealis_--Glutton |x| | | | |x| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Hyæna crocuta_ (_var. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | spelæa_)--Spotted Hyæna |x|x|x|x| |x|x|x|x|x| |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Hyæna striata_--Striped | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Hyæna | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Mustela martes_--Marten | | | | | | | | | | | | |x|x|x| | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Mustela putorius_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Polecat | | | | | | | | |x| | | | |x|x| | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Mustela erminea_--Weasel | |x| | | | | | |x| | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Lutra vulgaris_--Otter | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Ursus arctos_--Brown Bear |x|x|x| | | | |?| | | | | |x| | | | |x| | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Ursus ferox_--Grizzly Bear|x|x|x|x|x| | | |x|x| | | |x| | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Ursus spelæus_--Cave-Bear |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| | | |x| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Canis lupus_--Wolf |x|x|x|x|x|x| |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Canis vulpes_--Fox |x|x|x|x|x|x| |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Canis lagopus_--Arctic Fox| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Elephas primigenius_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Mammoth |x| |x| | | | |x| | | | |x|x|x|x|x|x| |x| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Elephas antiquus_ | |x| |x|x| | | |x|x| |x|x|x|x| | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Elephas Africanus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | African Elephant | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Equus caballus_--Horse |x|x|x|x| |x| |x| | | | |x|x|x| |x|x| |x| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Rhinoceros tichorhinus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Woolly Rhinoceros |x| |x|x| | | | | | | | | |x|x|x|x|x| | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Rhinoceros hemitœchus_ | |x| |x|x| | | |x|x| |x|x| |x| | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Rhinoceros megarhinus_ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Bos urus_--Urus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Bos bison_--Bison |x|x|x|x|x|x| |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| |x|x| |x| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Ovibos moschatus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Musk Sheep | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Capra ibex_--Ibex | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Capella rupicapra_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Chamois | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Antilope saiga_--Saiga | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Sus scrofa_--Wild Boar |x|x| |x| | | |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Cervus elaphus_--Stag |x|x|x|x|x| | | |x| | | | |x|x| | | | |x| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Cervus capreolus_--Roe |x| | | | | | | |x| |x| | |x| | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Cervus megaceros_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Irish Elk |x|x|x|x|x| | | | | | | | |x|x| | | | |x| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Cervus tarandus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Reindeer |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| | |x|x|x|x|x| |x| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Hippopotamus amphibius_ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | (_var. major_)-- | |x| |x|x| | | | | | | |x| | | | | | | | - | Hippopotamus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ - - +-------------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | River Deposits, France | - +---------------------------------------------------------------------+ | - | River Deposits, Britain| | - +-------------------------------------------------------------------+ | | - | Belgian Caves| | | - +-----------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | - | Lunel Viel| | | | - +---------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | - | Les Eyzies| | | | | - +-------------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | - | Cro Magnon| | | | | | - +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | - | Gorge d’Enfer| | | | | | | - +---------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | - | Laugerie Basse | | | | | | | | - +------------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | - | Laugerie Haute | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | - | La Madelaine| | | | | | | | | | - +-------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | - | Moustier| | | | | | | | | | | - +-----------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | - | Kent’s Hole| | | | | | | | | | | | - +-------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Brixham| | | | | | | | | | | | | - +-----------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Wookey Hole| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Sandford Hill| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +-------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Uphill| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +-----------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Bleadon| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Banwell| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +-------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Hutton| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +-----------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Durdham| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Species. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+---+-+-+--+--+-+-+-+-+-+-+---+ - |_Homo palæolithicus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Palæolithic Man | | | | | | |x|x| x |x|x|x |x |x|x|x| |x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Spermophilus citillus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Pouched Marmot | | | | | |x|x| | | | | | | |x|x| |x|x| | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Arctomys marmotta_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Common Marmot | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Castor fiber_--Beaver | | | | | | | | | x | | | | | | | |x|x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Lepus timidus_--Hare | | | | | | |x|x| x |x|x|x?|x?| |x|x| |x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Lepus variabilis_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Alpine Hare | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Lepus cuniculus_--Rabbit | | | | | | | |x| x | |x| | | |x| | | | | x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Lepus diluvianus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Extinct Hare | | | | | | |x| | | | | | | | | |x|x| | x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Lagomys pusillus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Tailless Hare | | | |x| | | |x| x | | | | | | | | |x| | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Mus lemmus_--Lemming | | | |x| | |x| | | | | | | | |x| |x|x| | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Hystrix dorsata_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Porcupine | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Felis leo_ (_var. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | spelæa_)--Lion |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| x | | | | |x|x|x|x|x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Felis pardus_--Leopard | |x|x|x| | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | | x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Felis Lynx_--Lynx | | |x| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Felis caffer_--Caffir Cat | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |x|x| | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Felis catus_--Wild Cat | | | |x|?| | | | x | | | | | | | |x|x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Machairodus latidens_ | | | | | | | | | x | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Gulo borealis_--Glutton | | |x|x| | | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Hyæna crocuta_ (_var. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | spelæa_)--Spotted Hyæna |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| x |x| | | | | | |x|x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Hyæna striata_--Striped | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Hyæna | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Mustela martes_--Marten | | | |x| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Mustela putorius_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Polecat | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Mustela erminea_--Weasel | | | | | | | | | x | | | | | | | | |x|x| | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Lutra vulgaris_--Otter |x| | |x| | | | | x | | | | | | | | |x|x| | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Ursus arctos_--Brown Bear |x| | |x| |x|x|x| x | | | | | | | | |x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Ursus ferox_--Grizzly Bear| | |x| | | |x|x| x | | | | | | | | |x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Ursus spelæus_--Cave-Bear | |x|x|x| |x|x|x| x | | | |x |x|x| |x|x| |(?)| - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Canis lupus_--Wolf | |x| |x|x|x|x|x| x | |x|x |x |x|x|x|x|x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Canis vulpes_--Fox | |x| |x|x|x|x|x| x | |x|x |x |x|x|x|x|x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Canis lagopus_--Arctic Fox| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |x| | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Elephas primigenius_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Mammoth |x|x|x|x| |x|x|x| x |x|x|x |x | |x|x| |x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Elephas antiquus_ |x| | |x| | | | | | | | | | | | | |x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Elephas Africanus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | African Elephant | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Equus caballus_--Horse |x|x|x|x|x|x|x|x| x |x|x|x |x | |x|x|x|x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Rhinoceros tichorhinus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Woolly Rhinoceros | | |x| | |x|x|x| x | | | | | | | | |x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Rhinoceros hemitœchus_ |x| | | | | |x| | | | | | | | | |x| |x| | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Rhinoceros megarhinus_ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Bos urus_--Urus | | |x|x| |x|x|x| x | | | | | | | |x|x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Bos bison_--Bison | |x|x|x|x|x|x| | ? |x|x|x |x |x|x|x| |x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Ovibos moschatus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Musk Sheep | | | | | | | | | | |x| | |x| | | | |x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Capra ibex_--Ibex | | | | | | | | | | |x|x |x |x|x|x| |x| | x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Capella rupicapra_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Chamois | | | | | | | | | | |x| |x | | |x| |x| | x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Antilope saiga_--Saiga | | | | | | | | | | | | |x | | |x| |x| | | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Sus scrofa_--Wild Boar | |x| |x|x| |x| | x | |x| | | |x| |x|x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Cervus elaphus_--Stag | | |x|x| | |x|x| x |x|x|x |x | |x|x|x|x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Cervus capreolus_--Roe | | | |x| | | |x| | | | | | | | | |x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Cervus megaceros_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Irish Elk | |x|x|x| | |x| | x | | |x | | | | | |x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Cervus tarandus_-- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | Reindeer |x|x|x|x|x| |x|x| x |x|x|+ |x |+|x|x| |x|x| x | - | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - |_Hippopotamus amphibius_ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - | (_var. major_)-- |x| | | | | | | |(?)| | | | | | | | | |x| x | - | Hippopotamus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - +---------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+---+-+-+--+--+-+-+-+-+-+-+---+ - - -_Cave Fauna the same as River-bed Fauna._ - -If this list[237] of animals from the caves be compared with that of -the river-deposits of Britain and the continent, it will be seen that -the same fauna is present in both, and that they are therefore of the -same geological age.[238] This was the conclusion to which Dr. Falconer -was led by the examination of the caves of Gower, and it has been -confirmed by every subsequent discovery. - - -_The Pleistocene Coast-line of North-Western Europe._ - -The identity of the British pleistocene fauna with that of the -continent, leads to the conclusion that in the pleistocene age Britain -was connected with the adjacent countries by a bridge of land, over -which the wild animals had free means of migration. And this might -be brought about by a comparatively small elevation of the area. The -soundings show that Britain and Ireland constitute merely the uplands -of a plateau now submerged to the extent of about 100 fathoms, on the -side of the Atlantic. On the east it extends at a depth of from twenty -to fifty fathoms, in the direction of Belgium; and on the south it is -only sunk from twenty to forty fathoms below the sea-level. Immediately -to the westward of this line the sea deepens so suddenly, that there is -scarcely any difference between the lines of 100 and of 200 fathoms, -and the depth rapidly increases to 2,000. Were this plateau elevated -above the sea to an extent of 100 fathoms, the tract shaded in the -map (Fig. 126) would unite the British Isles to the continent, and the -Thames and other rivers on the eastern coast would unite with the Elbe -and the Rhine to form a river debouching on the North Sea, somewhat -after the manner which I have represented by taking the deepest line -of soundings. The Straits of Dover would then be the watershed between -this valley of the German Ocean, as it may be termed, and that of the -English Channel, in which the Seine and the Somme and other French -rivers joined those of the south coast, and ultimately reached the -Atlantic. Evidence that the latter river flowed in the course assigned -to it in the map is afforded by the discovery of the fresh-water mussel -(_Unio pictorum_), recorded by Mr. Godwin Austen[239] to have been -dredged up by Captain White from a depth of from 50 to 100 fathoms, not -very far from what I have taken to be its mouth. We are also indebted -to Mr. Godwin Austen for the discovery near this spot of banks of -shingle and littoral shells, which indicate the position of the ancient -coast-line. - -[Illustration: FIG. 126.--Physiography of Great Britain in Late -Pleistocene Age. - -Shaded area = land now submerged; dotted area = region occupied by -animals; plain area = region occupied by glaciers.] - -The view that the 100-fathom line marks the limit of the pleistocene -land surface to the west, is held by Sir H. de la Bêche, Mr. Godwin -Austen, Sir Charles Lyell, and other eminent geologists, and it is -supported by many facts that can be explained in no other manner. To -pass over the discovery of a fresh-water shell at the bottom of the -English Channel, quoted above, the distribution of fossil mammalia at -the bottom of the German Ocean (represented in Fig. 126 by the dotted -area) is analogous to that which we find in the river gravels and -brick-earths on the land. The quantity of teeth and bones belonging to -the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, horse, reindeer, and spotted hyæna, -and other animals, dredged up by the fishermen in the German Ocean is -almost incredible. Mr. Owles, of Yarmouth, informed me in 1868 that -off that place there is a bank on which the fishing nets are rarely -cast without bringing up fossil remains. It seems most probable, that -these accumulations have been formed under subaerial conditions near -the drinking places, or below the fords, which were used for ages by -the pleistocene animals. I might quote as an example of a similar -deposit of fossils on the land, that discovered in 1866 by Captain -Luard, R.E., in digging the foundations of the new cavalry barracks at -Windsor, which consisted mainly of bones and antlers of reindeer, with -a few carnivores, such as the brown bear and wolf, that usually follow -reindeer in their migrations in Siberia.[240] Were this submerged it -would be a case precisely similar to that off Yarmouth. - -The ancient forest, exposed at low water under the cliffs on the -Norfolk and Suffolk shores, flourished when the land stood higher than -it does now. Traces of a similar forest, also at, and below, low-water -mark, have been met with on the shore at Selsea, near Chichester, in -Sussex; and remains of the mammoth have been dredged up in several -places off the coast, as for example in Torbay and in Holyhead harbour, -or found in gravel beds near low-water mark, as in the Isle of Wight, -and on the north coast of Somerset at St. Audries, near Watchet, -where a skull with gigantic tusks rested in the gravel. In all these -facts we have ample proof that Britain stood at a higher level in the -pleistocene age than at the present day. - -The vast abundance also of the mammalia in the caves of South Wales -and Somerset, and their presence in the Island of Caldy, and it may -be added in Ireland, can only be accounted for by the elevation of -the present sea-bottom, so as to allow of their migration over plains -covered with abundant pasture. It seems, therefore, to me that the -accompanying map, Fig. 126, represents with tolerable accuracy the -ancient coast-line of Britain, and of the adjacent parts of the -continent in the pleistocene age. The fertile valleys of the English -Channel, Bristol Channel, and the German Ocean, would afford sustenance -to a large and varied fauna, and numerous herbivores, such as the -reindeer, bison, and horse, would supply food to the palæolithic -hunters, who followed them in their annual migrations. And it must -be remarked on this hypothesis, that the valley of the Garonne would -offer a free passage both to the animals and to the hunters of Auvergne -down to the prairie, extending as far as the 100-fathom line off the -French coast, and that the hunting grounds would reach to Devonshire -and Somerset without any barrier except that offered by the rivers. It -is therefore no wonder that the implements in the caves of Kent’s Hole, -Wookey Hole, and the South of France, should be of the same type. - - -_Distribution of Palæolithic Implements in this Area._ - -This geographical configuration in pleistocene times may perhaps -account for the distribution of the palæolithic implements in the -river gravels. The Seine and the Somme debouch into the same valley -as the rivers of the south of England, and the Straits of Dover mark -the position of a low watershed leading into the valley of the German -Ocean, on the sides of which, in the eastern counties, river-bed -implements are so numerous. These are of the same type in northern -France, Sussex, Hampshire, Kent, and as far north as the Wash; and were -therefore used by the same race of men. The difference between them and -those of the cave-dwellers in the south and west, may be due to their -possessors occupying different hunting grounds. Each tribe of American -Indians at the present time has its own territory for hunting, which -is jealously guarded against encroachment, and in which the articles -peculiar to the tribe are being accumulated in the refuse-heaps, while -other sets are being accumulated in other districts. If we suppose -that the palæolithic savages divided up their hunting grounds in this -manner, the difference which exists between the implements of the -river-beds and caves may be readily explained, as well as their being -found for the most part in different areas. - -The pleistocene climate in the area north of the Alps and Pyrenees -will be treated in the eleventh chapter, after the examination of the -cave-fauna of southern Europe. - - - - -CHAPTER X. - - THE FAUNA OF THE CAVES OF SOUTHERN EUROPE AND THE EVIDENCE AS TO - THE MEDITERRANEAN COAST-LINE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE. - - Changes of Level in the Mediterranean area in Meiocene and Pleiocene - Ages.--Bone-caves of Southern Europe.--Of Gibraltar.--Of - Provence and Mentone.--Of Sicily.--Of Malta.--Range of Pigmy - Hippopotamus.--Fossil Mammalia in Algeria.--Living Species - common to Europe and Africa.--Evidence of Soundings.--The - Glaciers of Lebanon.--Of Anatolia.--Of Atlas.--Glaciers - probably produced by elevation above the Sea.--Mediterranean - Coast-line comparatively modern. - - -In the preceding chapter we have seen that north-western Europe was -elevated, during the pleistocene age, to an extent of at least 600 feet -above its present level; so that Ireland was united to Britain, and -Britain was joined to the mainland of Europe, proof of this elevation -being dependent upon the soundings on one hand, and the distribution -of the fossil mammalia on the other. Such a change must necessarily -have affected the whole physical conditions of the area, since the -substitution of a mass of land for a stretch of sea, and the higher -altitude of the land, would tend to produce climatal extremes of -considerable severity. It is indeed no wonder that during this time -of continental elevation, the hills of Wales, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, -Cumbria, and Scotland should be crowned with glaciers, or that there -should have been a migration to and fro of animals, comparable to -that which is now going on in Siberia and the northern portions of -North America. The condition of southern Europe at that time has a -most important bearing on any conclusion which may be drawn as to the -pleistocene climate in France, Germany, or Britain. For if it be proved -that the Mediterranean Sea was then smaller than it is now, the greater -land-surface would increase both the heat of the summer and the cold of -the winter in central and north-western Europe. - - -_Changes of Level in Mediterranean area in Meiocene and Pleiocene Ages._ - -The geological evidence that the Mediterranean region has been -subjected to oscillations of level during the tertiary period, is -clear and decisive. Prof. Gaudry[241] has proved, in his work on -the fossil remains found at Pikermi, that the plains of Marathon, -now so restricted, must have extended in the meiocene age far south -into the Mediterranean, so as to afford pasture to the enormous -troops of hipparions and herds of antelopes, the mastodons and large -edentata, revealed by his enterprise. The rocky area of Attica, as now -constituted, could not have supported such a large and varied group -of animals, nor could the broken hills and limestone plateaux have -been inhabited by hipparions and antelopes, if their habits at all -resembled those of their descendants living at the present time. It -may, therefore, reasonably be concluded that Greece, in those times, -was prolonged southwards, and united to the islands of the Archipelago -by a stretch of land. If Africa were then as now the head-quarters of -the antelopes, it is very probable that one of the lines by which they -passed over into Europe, and spread over France and Germany, was in -this direction. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that the changes of -level, which have taken place since the meiocene age in those regions, -are so complicated as to render it almost impossible to restore the -meiocene geography. - -In the succeeding, or the pleiocene age, the presence of the African -hippopotamus in Italy, France, and Germany, can only be accounted for -by a more direct connection with the African mainland than is offered -by a route through Asia Minor. It would seem, therefore, that the -Mediterranean Sea could not then have formed the same barrier to the -northern migration of the animals which it does now. In many regions, -however, the present land was then sunk beneath the sea, and marine -strata, of pleiocene age, were accumulated in the Val d’Arno, Sicily, -and southern France. - -The physical geography[242] of the Mediterranean in the pleistocene age -may be ascertained with considerable accuracy by the distribution of -the animals, coupled with the evidence of the soundings. - - -_Bone-caves of Southern Europe._ - -The mammalia in the bone-caves of southern Europe differ from those -of the region north of the Alps and Pyrenees in the absence of the -arctic species, and the presence of some which are of a more strictly -southern type. Nevertheless, the influence of the mountains in lowering -the temperature in their neighbourhood is to be traced in the presence -of the remains of certain animals. Thus, in the caves of Gibraltar we -find an ibex, which cannot be distinguished from those of the Spanish -sierras, and in Mentone and Provence, a marmot, specifically identical -with that of the Alps. - -The bone-caves in the neighbourhood of the Mediterranean afford most -important testimony as to the geographical changes which have taken -place, since the animals found in them lived in that region. We will -take those of the Iberian peninsula first. - - -_Caves of Gibraltar._ - -Ossiferous caverns have long been known to occur in the fortified rock -of Gibraltar,[243] but were not examined scientifically until the -year 1863, when the researches of Captain Brome, Prof. Busk, and Dr. -Falconer, proved that pleistocene species were buried in considerable -numbers in its cavities and fissures. Of these the most important is -the great perpendicular fissure in Windmill Hill, called the Genista -cave, which has been traced down to more than a depth of 200 feet. From -the upper portion were obtained the polished stone implements, human -skulls, and other neolithic remains described in the sixth chapter, p. -204, which prove that Gibraltar was inhabited by the Basques in the -neolithic age, while the remains from the lower revealed the presence -of a singularly mixed group of animals. - -The fossil bones have been referred by Prof. Busk and Dr. Falconer to -the following species:-- - - _Lepus cuniculus_, rabbit. - _Felis leo_, lion. - _F. pardus_, panther. - _F. caffer._ - _F. pardina_, lynx. - _F. serval_, serval. - _Ursus ferox_, grizzly bear. - _Canis lupus_, wolf. - _Equus caballus_, horse. - _Rhinoceros hemitœchus._ - _Capra ibex_, ibex. - _Sus scrofa_, wild-boar. - _Cervus elaphus_, red deer. - _C. capreolus_, roe. - _C. dama_, fallow deer. - -The spotted hyæna, the serval, and _Felis caffer_, are species now -peculiar to Africa, and it is obvious that they could not have found -their way into Gibraltar under the present physical conditions of the -Mediterranean. Elephants and rhinoceroses could not have lived on so -barren and treeless a rock, unless it had overlooked a fertile plain, -nor would the carnivora have chosen it for their dens, had it then been -cut off from the feeding-grounds of the herbivores. Their presence, -therefore, as Dr. Falconer justly remarks, implies the existence of -land now sunk beneath the waves, but then extending southwards to join -Africa. - -To the African animals, mentioned above as inhabiting the Iberian -peninsula in the pleistocene age, M. Lartet has added the African -elephant (_E. Africanus_) and the striped hyæna (_II. striata_), which -have been found in a stratum of gravel near Madrid along with flint -implements.[244] None of the purely arctic mammalia, such as the -reindeer, musk sheep, or woolly rhinoceros, so abundant in France, -Germany, and Britain, have been met with south of the Pyrenees. - - -_Bone-caves of Provence and Mentone._ - -The arctic animals are also absent from the numerous bone-caves and -bone breccias of Provence and Mentone. The pleistocene fauna of -Provence consists, according to M. Marion,[245] of the spotted hyæna, -and lion, _Elephas antiquus_ or straight-tusked elephant, _Rhinoceros -hemitœchus_, wild-boar, urus, stag, horse, and rabbit. The breccias in -the island of Ratonneau have also furnished the porcupine, brown bear, -and tailless hare. Man is proved to have been living in the district at -the time by the discovery of perforated and cut bones, in the cave of -Rians. - -The fissures and caves of Mentone, explored by Mr. Moggridge[246] in -1871, and subsequently by M. Rivière, contained a fauna composed, -according to Prof. Busk, of the following species:-- - - Marmot. - Field-vole. - Lion. - Panther. - Lynx. - Wild-cat. - Spotted hyæna. - Wolf. - Fox. - Brown bear. - Cave-bear. - Roe. - Stag. - Ibex. - Urus. - Horse. - Wild-boar. - _Rhinoceros hemitœchus._ - -Along with these were large quantities of charcoal and flint flakes, -which proved that man had inhabited the district while the deposits -were being formed. - -Mr. Moggridge gives the following account of the results of his -exploration:--[247] - -“The caves of the red rocks, half a mile out of Mentone, are in lofty -rocks of jurassic limestone on the shore of the Mediterranean, and at -an average height of 100 feet above that sea, the rocks themselves -attaining an elevation of 260 feet. They have now been repeatedly -rifled by the learned or the curious; but when the principal cave -(Cavillon) was nearly intact, the author made a section of it from the -modern or highest floor, down to the solid rock. There were five floors -formed in the earth by long-continued trampling; on each, and near the -centre, were marks of fire, around which broken bones and flints were -abundant, except upon the lowest, where but few bones occurred, and no -flints. The bones were those of animals still existing. Few implements -were found, but many chips of flint, some cores and stones used as -hammers. Perhaps this cave was used as a place for manufacturing -flints, which must have been carried from their native bed, distant -about one mile. - -“There is nothing to evince the action of water; on the contrary, the -numerous stones that occur are all angular.... Below these caves a -slope of about 180 feet descends to the edge of the sea. Through the -upper part of this slope, at distances from the cave of from 0 to ten -feet, is a railway cutting 600 feet long, fifty-four feet deep, and -sixty feet above the sea. The mass removed in making this cutting was -composed of angular stones not waterworn. Loose at the surface, it soon -became a more or less mature breccia, for the most part so hard that it -was blasted with gunpowder.” In this breccia, and at various depths, -some of more than thirty feet, the author has taken out teeth of the -bear (_Ursus spelæus_) and of the hyæna (_Hyæna spelæa_) while with and -below those teeth he found flints worked by man. - -The subsequent exploration by M. Rivière[248] has resulted in no -important addition to the fauna: the famous human skeleton having been, -as I have already remarked in the seventh chapter, interred in the -pleistocene strata, and probably not palæolithic. It may possibly be of -the era of the upper floors described by Mr. Moggridge, in which all -the remains belong to living species.[249] - -This cave-fauna is more closely related to that of southern Europe than -to that north of the Alps and Pyrenees. The striped hyæna found in -the cave of Lunel-viel, Hérault, by Marcel de Serres, along with the -reindeer and other animals, probably belongs to the same southern group. - - -_Bone-caves of Sicily._ - -Certain members of the African fauna are also proved to have ranged -northwards over Europe in the direction of Sicily, by the discoveries -in the caves of that island. The Sicilian bone-caves have been worked -for the sake of the bones since the year 1829; and of these many -shiploads were sent to Marseilles from San Ciro, belonging, according -to M. de Christol, principally to the hippopotamus. In 1859,[250] Dr. -Falconer examined the collections made from this cave, as well as those -which remained _in situ_, and carried on further researches into a -second in the neighbourhood, known as the Grotto di Maccagnone, and in -the following year two others were discovered and explored in northern -Sicily by Baron Anca. The species were as follows:-- - - _Homo_, man. - _Felis leo_, lion. - _Hyæna crocuta_, spotted hyæna. - _Ursus ferox_,[251] grizzly bear. - _Canis._ - _Cervus_, deer. - _Bos_, ox. - _Equus_, horse. - _Sus scrofa_, boar. - _Elephas antiquus._ - _Elephas Africanus_, African elephant. - _Hippopotamus major_, hippopotamus. - _Hippopotamus Pentlandi._ - _Lepus._ - -The presence of man was indicated by charcoal and flint flakes. - -The African elephant was obtained from three caves: from that of San -Teodoro, by Baron Anca; from Grotta Santa, near Syracuse, by the Canon -Alessi; and from a cave near Palermo, by M. Charles Gaudin. It is -obvious that the presence of this animal, as well as of the spotted -hyæna, in Sicily can only be accounted for on the hypothesis that a -bridge of land formerly existed, by which they could pass from their -head-quarters, that is to say Africa. On the other hand the presence -of the grizzly bear, and of the _Elephas antiquus_ implies that they -passed over into Sicily, from their European headquarters, before the -existence of the Straits of Messina, since both animals are abundant on -the mainland of Europe. The larger species of hippopotamus, doubtfully -referred by Dr. Falconer to the _H. major_ (= _H. amphibius_), may have -crossed over either from Italy, where its remains are very abundant in -the pleiocene and pleistocene strata, or from Africa. - -[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Molar of _Hippopotamus Pentlandi_ (1/1). -(Sicily.)] - -A small species of hippopotamus, _H. Pentlandi_, Fig. 127, occurs in -incredible abundance in the Sicilian caves. It bears the same relation, -in point of size, to the fossil variety of the African hippopotamus, as -the living _H. liberiensis_ does to the latter. - - -_Bone-caves of Malta._ - -The bone-caves of Malta were first scientifically explored by Admiral -Spratt, in 1858, and subsequently by Dr. Leith Adams, and others. The -Maghlak Cave near the town of Crendi, contained large quantities of the -_Hippopotamus Pentlandi_, together with the gigantic dormouse, named -_Myoxus Melitensis_. A short distance off a second cavern, explored by -Dr. Leith Adams, contained numerous remains of at least two species -of pigmy elephant about the height of a small horse. Its small size -may be gathered from the accompanying woodcut (Fig. 128) of the last -lower true molar, taken from the lithograph published in Dr. Falconer’s -“Palæontographical Memoirs,” vol. ii. pl. xii. - -[Illustration: FIG. 128.--Molar of _Elephas Melitensis_, Malta (2/3). -(Falconer.)] - - -_Range of Pigmy Hippopotamus._ - -The pigmy hippopotamus has lived also in other districts in the -Mediterranean region. One of its teeth, now preserved in the British -Museum, was discovered by Dr. Leith Adams, in Candia. In 1872 I -identified in the Oxford Museum a last lower true molar, which extends -the range of this species to the mainland of Europe. It was obtained -by Dr. Rolleston from a Greek tomb at Megalopolis, in the Peloponese, -and was probably derived from one of the many caves in the limestone of -that district. For this extinct animal to have spread from Sicily to -Malta, from Malta to Candia, and from Candia to the Peloponese, or vice -versâ, these three islands must have been united to the Peloponese and -have been the higher grounds of land, now submerged beneath the waves -of the Mediterranean. - -The view therefore, advanced by Dr. Falconer and Admiral Spratt, that -Europe was connected with Africa by a bridge of land, extending -northwards from Sicily, is fully borne out by an examination of the -fossil remains both of that island and of Malta (see Fig. 129).[252] - - -_Fossil Mammalia in Algeria._ - -If the African mainland extended to Europe in the direction of the -Straits of Gibraltar, and of Malta and Sicily, so as to afford passage -for the African mammalia into Europe, it would equally afford passage -for the southern advance into Africa of some of the European mammalia. -Evidence of this we meet with in a stratum of clay at Mansourah, -near Constantine, in Algeria, described by M. Bayle in 1854.[253] -The animals which he obtained, consisting of the ox, antelope, -hippopotamus, and elephant, have been described by Prof. Gervais. An -examination of his figure of a fragment of a molar tooth leaves no room -for doubt, that the _Elephas meridionalis_ was living in north Africa -during the pleistocene age; that is to say an extinct animal, the -head-quarters of which are to be found in Italy, ranged as far south as -northern Africa. - - -_Living Species common to Europe and Africa._ - -The former continuity of Africa by way of the Iberian peninsula and -Sicily, may also be inferred by the distribution of the mammalia at the -present time. Prof. Gervais[254] observes that most of the insectivora -are the same in Europe and north Africa. The genette and ferret -(_Fœtorius furo_), the _Mangousta Widdringtoni_ (Gray), and the fallow -deer, are common to Spain and Africa. The porcupine of Algeria belongs -to the same species as that of Italy and Sicily, and the wild boar does -not present any characters of importance by which it can be separated -from that of Europe. From the present range, therefore, of the mammalia -the same conclusion may be drawn as to the continuity of Africa with -Europe as is afforded by their distribution in the pleistocene age. - - -_Evidence of Soundings._ - -These conclusions derived from the study of the mammalia, are -corroborated and supplemented by the evidence of the soundings. As we -enter the Straits of Gibraltar (Fig. 129) the Atlantic Ocean shallows, -until between Tangiers and Tarifa it is not more than from 270 to 300 -fathoms. Between Tarifa and Ceuta the sea measures from 300 to 400 -fathoms, and thence, in passing eastwards, suddenly deepens to the -extent of over 1,500 fathoms. An elevation of 400 fathoms would be -quite sufficient to raise a barrier of land between Morocco and Spain, -and to insulate the deep Mediterranean basin from the Atlantic. The -soundings between Sicily and Tunis are 260 fathoms; between the former -place and Malta, 55 fathoms; between Malta and the African mainland, -34·4 fathoms. An elevation of 400 fathoms would suffice therefore -to connect Africa with Sicily, and to insulate the eastern from the -western Mediterranean depths. To the east of Sicily the soundings -reveal a depth of over 2,000 fathoms, and this deep basin extends -as far to the east as Cyprus and Asia Minor. Between Candia and the -Peloponese, the sea is 460 fathoms deep. An elevation therefore -from 400 to 500 fathoms would allow of the passage of _Hippopotamus -Pentlandi_ from Candia to the Peloponese, and thence by southern -Italy into Sicily and Malta. I have therefore represented in the map -what would be the necessary result of the elevation of the bottom of -the Mediterranean to that extent. Two great barriers of land would -unite Africa with Spain and Italy, and enable the African mammalia to -find their way into the regions north of the Mediterranean Sea. The -shallowness of the sea at those two points indicates the existence of -the sunken barriers. The African elephant however did not pass far -northwards, since it has only been met with in Spain and Sicily. - -[Illustration: FIG. 129.--Physiography of Mediterranean in Pleistocene -Age.] - -Such a change in level as this would convert the Adriatic into dry -land, and cause the islands of the Grecian Archipelago to rise high -above the surrounding plains. The 500-fathom line is therefore taken to -represent the probable sea margin of the pleistocene age, although in -centres of volcanic activity, such as Sicily and the Archipelago, local -changes of level, even of greater magnitude, may have taken place. - -This view of the former elevation of the Mediterranean area to a height -of from two to three thousand feet above the present level will go -far to explain the remarkable traces of glaciers discovered in Syria, -Anatolia, and Morocco. - - -_The Glaciers of Lebanon._ - -Dr. Hooker, in his journey to Syria in 1860, discovered that the -cedars of Lebanon grew principally on one spot, on old moraines which -traverse the head of the Kedisha valley. This valley terminates in -broad, shallow, open basins at a height of about 6,000 feet above -the sea, resembling the corries of the Highlands; and one of these, -in which the cedars grew, was divided into two distinct flats by a -transverse range of ancient moraines from 80 to 100 feet high and with -perfectly defined boundaries. “The rills from the surrounding heights -collect in the upper flat, and form one stream, which winds among the -moraines on its way down to the lower flat, whence it is precipitated -into the gorge of the Kedisha. The cedars grow on that portion of the -moraine which immediately borders this stream, and nowhere else; they -form one group about 400 yards in diameter, with an outstanding tree -or two not far from the rest, and appear as a black speck in the great -area of the corry and its moraines, which contain no other arborious -vegetation, nor any shrubs, but a few berberry and rose bushes that -form no feature in the landscape.”[255] - -In ancient times, therefore, the glaciers descended to a height -of about 6,000 feet above the sea, and were fed by the perennial -snow-fields of the crest of Lebanon. - - -_The Glaciers of Anatolia._ - -The former presence of glaciers at nearly the same altitude has also -been proved by the travels of Mr. Gifford Palgrave in Anatolia,[256] -especially in the valley through which the Chorok flows, and in the -mountainous country to the north-east, between Georgia and the -Black Sea. The river Chorok runs about 120 miles in a north-easterly -direction, and is separated from the Euxine by a mountain chain -reaching a height of 11,000 feet, thus forming a long strip of land, -which is called Lazistan after its inhabitants, a tribe of Lazes. It -then turns suddenly to the north, where it falls into the sea. The -southern side is determined by mountains of Cretaceous, Jurassic, and -Plutonic rocks, which form the watershed between the tributaries of -the Black Sea and Persian Gulf. Three large moraines are to be found -on the southern side of the valley, their lower extremity about 5,000, -their upper origin nearly 8,000 feet above the sea. No moraines are -seen where the chain does not reach an altitude of 7,000 feet, though -angular boulders are not uncommon. The upper mountain contours are -invariably rounded, and smoothed off, and the sides are scooped too -widely for the depressions to have been caused by water. Low down in -the valley the slopes terminate in rifted precipices. - -That these moraines were posterior to the volcanic eruptions in the -district, is evident from the examination of a broad stone ridge, near -the highest point to the east of Erzeroum, where at a height of 7,000 -feet the Jurassic limestone was interrupted by a volcanic outbreak of -several miles in extent. Traces of a crater were visible. Above, the -granite peaks rose to a height of 9,000 feet; below, a wide moraine -crossed the road, composed of volcanic fragments mixed with granite. -Consequently, it must have been formed after the volcano had become -extinct. Similar traces are to be found at Keskeem Boughaz. Mr. -Palgrave concludes “that the ice-cap of the north-eastern Anatolian -watershed, in post-pleiocene (pleistocene) times, must have reached -downwards, on the northern side of the range, to 7,000 feet above the -present sea-level, while some of the glaciers issuing from it descended -to about 4,500 of the same measurement.” Striated and ice-worn -boulders, especially of granite, were very abundant. This region, -it must be observed, is within sight of the lofty granite range of -Tortoom, which is “streaked with perpetual snow.” - -After leaving the Chorok valley and getting on to the watershed, at -a distance of fifty miles to the north-east, Mr. Palgrave reached -the main ridge or backbone of the land. Here, among the limestone -ledges, about 6,400 feet above the sea, is a colossal moraine, formed -of worn granite blocks, partly overgrown with forest, and descending -from a height of over 8,000 feet. It is divided, by a valley, from a -lofty undulating granite plateau that is scooped out here and there -into deep oval lakes, always full of blue water. The sides of the -plateau are strewn with boulders of granite, brought from the higher -peaks about five miles off. These boulders occur in greater or less -abundance down to the basin of the Ardahan, near the sources of the -Kur or Cyras, which joins the Araxes before flowing into the Caspian. -The height of this Ardahan basin is about 6,500 feet; it is, but for -a slight easterly slope, a water level. The bottom consists of deep -alluvial soil mixed with detritus and boulders; the sides are rounded -and smoothed, and bear every mark of long ice-covering. These plateaux, -studded with lakes, stretch east to Russo-Georgia, till their greatest -height is gained at Kel Dagh, a mountain about 11,000 feet high: thence -they descend to the plains of Georgia and the Black Sea. - -No glacial marks have been observed on the seaward side of the range, -except at Hamshun in the Lazistan mountains, between the River Riom -and Trebizond. Here, at 6,900 feet, is a granite-strewn plateau, -thinly green with grass, sheltered from the sea by lofty peaks on the -north-west, and backed to the south-east by tremendous jagged granite -cliffs, the highest 12,500 feet above the sea. The plateau itself is -about forty miles in length, irregular in breadth, its surface rounded -and jotted over with boulders. But just as my track led near under the -base of Verehembek, at an altitude of 8,300 feet, it crossed a large -broad moraine, descending from the higher slopes, and having its base -in a broad bare valley not far below, which showed that here, at the -highest and widest part of the Lazistan chain, perpetual ice had once -existed in sufficient quantity to furnish at least one glacier. From -this case it seems that the limited ice-cap of the Hamshun highlands -extended no further down than 8,500 or 9,000 feet, thus differing by -a line of from 1,000 to 2,000 feet from the glacial covering of the -inland range. - - -_The Glaciers of the Atlas Mountains._ - -Similar traces of glaciers have been observed in the Atlas mountains -by Mr. George Maw,[257] in his travels in Morocco with Dr. Hooker and -Mr. Ball in 1871. “After four hours’ continued ascent,” he writes -(p. 19), “the termination of the glen comes into full view, and we -observe with great interest that it is closed by a group of moraines, -proving the former existence of glaciers in the Atlas, and confirming -my opinion that the great boulder beds flanking the chain are also of -glacial origin. Two villages, probably the highest in the Atlas, are -built on the principal moraine; Eitmasan, at its base, at a height of -6,000 feet, and Arroond, near its summit, at a height of 6,800 feet; -the terminal angle of the larger moraine having a vertical height of -800 feet. It is composed of immense blocks of porphyry, lying at a -steep angle of repose, up which it takes us nearly an hour to climb. -The existence of these moraines in latitude 30½° N. (the latitude of -Alexandria) is perhaps the most interesting fact we noticed during our -journey, for this is the most southerly point at which the evidence of -extinct glaciers has been observed, and tends to confirm the opinion -entertained by many geologists, that the refrigeration during the -glacial period was almost Universal.” - - -_Glaciers probably the result of elevation above the Sea._ - -The elevation of the African moraines above the sea, of about 6,000 -feet and upwards, is nearly the same as those of Asia Minor. If the -mountains of the Atlas, Lazistan, and Lebanon shared in the upward -movement of the Mediterranean area, the addition of 3,000 feet to the -height could not fail to leave marks behind of the low temperature -thereby caused. It is very probable, that during the time the -Mediterranean was reduced to two land-locked seas, these mountains were -covered with snow-fields, and constituted the ice-sheds of glaciers. - -From the range of the mammalia we have inferred the existence of land -barriers, extending across from Africa to Spain and Italy, and from -Candia to Greece, and their actual existence beneath the sea has been -proved by soundings, which necessitate an elevation of from 400 to -500 fathoms to bring them above the sea-level. We have also seen -that the higher mountains, which most probably participated in this -upward movement, bear traces of a lower temperature in the moraines -of the Atlas and Lazistan. The hypothesis of such an elevation during -the pleistocene age may therefore be taken to be proved so far as it -explains two widely different classes of facts, the distribution of the -mammals and the existence of glaciers where they are now unknown. - -The physical condition of the Mediterranean area, in the pleistocene -age, may be summed up as follows. The mainland of Africa extended -northwards to join Europe, in the direction of Gibraltar and Italy. -The islands of Malta and Sicily were hilly plateaux, overlooking an -undulatory plain. Corsica and Sardinia were joined to Italy, Majorca -and Minorca to Spain, Candia to Peloponese, and Cyprus to Asia Minor. -The area now occupied by the Adriatic Sea constituted the lower valley -of the Po, and the Archipelago was a plain studded with volcanic cones; -and at the same time glaciers crowned the higher mountains of northern -Africa and of Asia Minor. - -The substitution of land for a stretch of sea, in the Mediterranean, -could not fail to cause the summer heat to be more intense in the -region to the north than at the present time, while the increased -elevation would produce a greater severity of winter cold, as Mr. -Godwin Austen has pointed out in the case of the hills of Devonshire. -When, indeed, we consider that the pleistocene land surface extended -from the snowy heights of Atlas, as far north as the 100-fathom line -off the coast of Ireland, we might expect to find African animals, -such as the spotted hyæna and _Felis caffer_, ranging as far north -as Yorkshire, for the only barrier to their migration would be that -offered by the severity of a pleistocene winter. - - -_Mediterranean Coast-line comparatively modern._ - -The submergence of the barriers, and the constitution of the -Mediterranean as we find it now, have probably taken place but a short -time ago, from the geological point of view, though we know that for -the last 3,000 years the coast-line has been on the whole unchanged, -except from the silting out of the sea by the sediment of rivers, such -as the Po, and the elevation and depression of small areas by volcanic -energy, as at Santorin. The physical character of the shores testifies -to the truth of this view. - -“On entering the Straits of Gibraltar,” Mr. Maw writes, “from the -Atlantic, a notable change takes place in the aspect of the coast. Cape -St. Vincent, on the Atlantic coast, presents a bold line of cliffs to -the sea, and bluff cliffs extend many miles towards the Straits; but -as soon as these are passed, a change of coast-form takes place, which -must be noticeable to every observer. Cliffs on the sea-board become -the exception, and the general line of the coast is merely a shelving -under the sea of the general hill-and-valley system of the land, the -sea running up all the depressions, and the land elevations spreading -out into the sea with scarcely any abrupt cliff-line of demarcation. -The uneven sea-bottom of the Straits seems to be a continuation of the -contour of the adjacent land, consisting of rolling alternations of -hill and valley, which must have received its conformation by subaerial -agencies.” - -“Corsica, and the adjacent islands of Elba, Capraja, and Monte Christo, -are also remarkable for the absence of cliffs, and are wanting in those -abrupt escarpements separating land and water which are so abundant on -our own coasts. Their aspect is that of mountain-tops rising out of the -sea, suggesting to the eye the seaward prolongation of their subaerial -contour of sloping hillsides and river-cut valleys, as though the sea -had not stood sufficiently long at its present level to excavate an -escarpement. The deep intersecting bays that occur along the coast from -Marseilles to the Riviera suggest the same conclusion, the undulating -land surface spreading down to the water’s edge, and the deep bays -running up the intervening valleys, which must have had an origin -common with that of their landward prolongations.” - -It is impossible to shut our eyes to the full force of this reasoning. -The present aspect of the Mediterranean is, geologically speaking, a -thing of yesterday. - - -_Changes of Level in the Sahara coincident with those in the -Mediterranean._ - -But if the Mediterranean area has been depressed to an amount of from -2,000 to 3,000 feet since the pleistocene age, we have proof that the -region to the south has been elevated to that extent in comparatively -modern times. Mr. Maw,[258] in his journey in 1873 to the Northern -Sahara, observed raised beaches at a height of 2,000 feet, and loam and -shingle-beds as high as 2,700 feet. He therefore concludes that the -part of the Sahara which he explored had been raised at least 3,000 -feet above the sea. These changes of level, the same in amount, but -in opposite directions, were probably compensatory and simultaneous. -Northern Africa may have been cut off from the central and southern -portions of the continent by the sea extending over the Sahara, during -the time that the Mediterranean was represented by the two inland -salt lakes figured in the accompanying map (Fig. 129). And while the -region of the Sahara was being elevated, that of the Mediterranean was -probably being depressed. - -These changes in the relation of sea to land, and the greater elevation -of the mountains in the neighbouring countries, must have affected -not merely the climate of southern, but also of north-western Europe, -and ought not to be left out of account in any theory relating to -pleistocene climate. - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -THE EUROPEAN CLIMATE IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE. - - The evidence of the Mammalia as to Climate.--The Southern Group.-- - The Northern Group.--Probable cause of Association of Northern - and Southern Groups.--The Temperate Group.--Species common to - Cold and Tropical Climates.--Extinct Species.--Two Periods of - Glaciation in Britain.--Three Climatal Changes represented on - the Continent.--Europe invaded by Pleistocene Mammals before - the Glacial Period.--Mammals lived in Britain during the Second - Ice or Glacial Stage.--The Glacial Period does not separate one - Life-era from another.--Relation of Palæolithic Man to Glacial - Period.--Age of Contents of Caves in Glaciated Districts. - - -_The Evidence of the Mammalia as to Climate._ - -In the last three chapters we have seen that the cave-mammalia throw -great light on the pleistocene geography of Europe, and that there is -reason for the belief that the land surface then extended northwards -and westwards, so as to include Ireland; and southwards to join Africa, -in the direction of Sicily, Malta, and Gibraltar. We must now pass on -to the consideration of the climate on this great continental area, -which would allow of so large and varied a fauna existing in our -quarter of the world. - - -_The Southern Group of Animals._ - -The pleistocene fauna is remarkable for the mixture of species. It -consists of forms now banished to South Africa, Northern Asia, and -America, or to the severe climate of high mountains, mingled with those -which lived in Europe in the historic age, and those which have wholly -disappeared from the face of the earth. We will take the living species -first. - -The southern group consists of the following animals:-- - - Lion. - Caffir Cat. - Spotted Hyæna. - Striped Hyæna. - Serval. - Hippopotamus. - African Elephant. - Porcupine. - -At the present day the lion ranges over the whole of Africa, with the -exception of Egypt and the Cape Colony, whence it has been driven out -by the hand of man. In Asia, the maneless variety inhabits the valley -of the Tigris and Euphrates, and the districts bordering on the Persian -Gulf; and in India, according to Mr. Blyth, the province of Kattywar -in Guzerat. Although now only found in these hot regions, it is -proved, by the concurrent testimony of Herodotus, Aristotle, Xenophon, -Ælian, and Pausanias, to have inhabited the mountains of Thrace, and -of Asia Minor, and it probably became extinct in Europe before the -end of the first century after Christ.[259] We may therefore infer -that it possessed a sufficient elasticity of constitution to endure -a considerable degree of cold, although its present distribution -implies that it is better fitted to thrive in a tropical than in a cold -climate. The Caffir cat (_Felis caffer_ of Desmarest) is an African -species, which has been discovered by Mr. Ayshford Sanford and myself, -in Somersetshire; it also occurs in the caves of Germany, France, and -Gibraltar. The spotted hyæna now lives only in South Africa, while -the striped species ranges through Africa and the warmer regions of -Asia. It was extremely rare in Europe in the pleistocene age, and -has not been identified in any deposit further north than Lunelviel, -in southern France. The hippopotamus, now found only in middle and -southern Africa, is proved by its fossil remains to have formerly dwelt -in the region of the Lower Nile, as well as in Algeria. The serval and -African elephant have been found in the Iberian peninsula, and the -latter in Sicily. - -The evidence afforded by the animals, as to the pleistocene climate of -those portions of Europe which they inhabited, differs considerably in -point of value, but on the whole indicates that it was temperate, or -comparatively hot; for although the elasticity of constitution which -we know to have been possessed by the lion, was probably shared by -the spotted hyæna, it is very unlikely that so aquatic an animal as -the hippopotamus could have ranged from southern Europe, as far north -as Yorkshire, under any other than temperate conditions. It could not -have endured a winter sufficiently severe to cover the rivers with a -thick coating of ice, without having its present habits profoundly -modified; and such an alteration of habits would certainly leave its -mark, in other modifications in the fossil skeleton than those minute -differences which have been observed, when it is compared with that of -the living _Hippopotamus amphibius_. The porcupine of southern Europe -has been found as far north as the caves of Belgium (Schmerling). - - -_The Northern Group._ - -The northern group consists of those animals which are now only to be -met with in the colder regions of the northern hemisphere, either in -low latitudes or at great altitudes. - - Marmot. - Pouched Marmot. - Lemming. - Alpine Hare. - Tailless Hare. - Glutton. - Arctic Fox. - Musk-sheep. - Reindeer. - Ibex. - Chamois. - -To this list the palæolithic man of the caves must be added, since he -is probably related by blood to the Eskimos, and appeared in Europe -simultaneously with the arctic group of animals. - -The testimony of these animals as to climate is directly opposed to -that of the preceding group, since they now only flourish in the arctic -regions, or in mountainous districts in which the climate is severe. -The marmot, in the pleistocene age, lived in Belgium, and descended -from the Alpine heights as far as the shores of the Mediterranean, -where it has been met with in the caverns near Nice. The pouched -marmot, _Spermophilus citillus_ of the Don and Volga, penetrated as -far to the west as Somersetshire. The Alpine hare, now found only in -the colder climates of northern Europe, Asia, and America (with the -solitary exception of Ireland), ranged as far down the valley of the -Rhine as Schussenreid, in Suabia. The two carnivores now dwelling in -the colder regions of the north, the glutton or wolverine, and the -arctic fox, have been discovered, the one as far south as France, the -other as far as Schussenreid, and both probably occupied the whole of -Germany, and of northern Russia, in the pleistocene age. - -The musk-sheep,[260] the most arctic in its habit of all the -herbivores, is, at the present time, restricted to the high latitudes -of North America, where it thrives in the desolate, treeless, barren -grounds, not even being driven from its haunts by the extreme severity -of the winter. It has been traced, by its fossil remains, from its -present abode, across Behring’s Straits, and through the vast Siberian -steppes, into Russia in Europe, Germany, Britain, and as far south and -west as the barrier offered by the Pyrenees. Throughout this large area -its remains occur in association with the reindeer, and both these -animals, as I have remarked above, were hunted by the palæolithic -dwellers in the caves of Aquitaine, just as they are now hunted by the -Eskimos on the shores of the Arctic Ocean. - -If the present habits of these animals be any index to their mode -of life in the pleistocene age, their presence in the area north of -the Alps and Pyrenees implies that the climate in France, Germany, -and Britain was severe, or analogous to that which they now enjoy -on the tops of lofty mountains, or in the northern Asiatic steppes, -or the high northern latitudes of America. But this conclusion is -diametrically opposed to that which is based on the evidence of the -southern group of animals.[261] And the remains of the two groups of -animals are so associated together in the caves, and river-deposits of -Europe, north of the Pyrenees, that it is impossible to deny the fact -that it was the common feeding-ground of both during the same era.[262] - - -_Probable Cause of Association of Northern and Southern Groups._ - -Must we then infer that in the pleistocene age the present habits of -the musk-sheep, the reindeer, chamois, or ibex, were so changed as to -allow them to flourish side by side with the hippopotamus, or _vice -versâ_? Was the climate colder than it is now in Europe, or was it -hotter? How was this singular association of northern and southern -species brought about? The problem may be solved if we refer to the -present distribution of animals in northern Asia and North America. As -the winter comes on the arctic species gradually retreat southwards, -and occupy the summer feeding-grounds of the elk, red-deer, and other -creatures which are unable to endure the extreme severity of an arctic -winter. In the spring the latter pass northwards, to enjoy the summer -herbage of that area, which had been the winter-quarters of the -arctic group of animals. Thus there is a continued swinging to and -fro, over the same region, of the arctic and the temperate animals, -and their remains must necessarily become more or less associated in -the river-deposits, as well as in caves, where these last happen to -occur. In northern Asia, and in America, the only boundary between the -northern and temperate zoological provinces is that constituted by the -fluctuating annual temperature, and there are no great hilly barriers -running east and west, to prevent free migration to the north or south. -If reference be made to the map, Fig. 126, it will be seen that these -conditions were amply satisfied in the pleistocene age. There were no -physical barriers to migration, from the shores of the Mediterranean, -as far north as Ireland. If the winter cold were severe, the reindeer -and musk-sheep might advance as far south as the Pyrenees, and if -the summer heat were intense there would be nothing to forbid the -hippopotamus and the African carnivores advancing northwards. It seems -to me that this is the only hypothesis which will satisfy all the facts -of the case. The traces of glaciers and snow-fields where they are no -longer found prove that the winter was severe; while the warmth of the -summer seems to be sufficiently demonstrated by the presence of African -species. Such extremes of temperature are presented, more or less, by -all continents extending from high to low latitudes. They are modified -in Europe at the present time by the warm current of the Gulf Stream, -by the large area now occupied by the Mediterranean Sea, and by the -submergence of the pleistocene lowlands on the Atlantic border. - - -_The Temperate Group._ - -The third group of pleistocene mammalia consists of those still living -in the temperate zones of Europe, Asia, and America: - - Beaver. - Hare. - Rabbit. - Wild Cat. - Martin. - Stoat. - Weasel. - Otter. - Brown Bear. - Grizzly Bear. - Wolf. - Fox. - Horse. - Urus. - Bison. - _Antelope saiga._ - Wild Boar. - Stag. - Roe. - -The range of many of these animals has been profoundly modified since -the pleistocene age. The _Antelope saiga_ of the Don and Volga lived -as far to the west as Aquitaine. The grizzly bear, instead of being -restricted to its American habitat in the Rocky Mountains, ranged -over the whole of Siberia into Europe, as far to the south as the -Mediterranean, and westwards as far as Gibraltar. - -The urus[263] still lives in the larger domestic cattle, and the bison -is represented in Europe by those which are protected by the forest -laws of Lithuania, and in North America by the vast herds which are -rapidly being exterminated, like the red Indian, by the rifles of the -settlers. The horse was as abundant, and as widely spread over Europe, -as the urus and the bison; according to Prof. Brandt it now no longer -lives in Siberia in a wild state. - - -_Species common to Cold and Tropical Climates._ - -The panther or leopard, which has been found alike in Britain, France, -and Germany, has at the present day a most extended range through -Africa, from Barbary to the Cape of Good Hope, and throughout Persia -into Siberia. In this latter country Dr. Gothelf Fischer describes -it as living in the same districts in the Altai Mountains, and in -Soongaria, as the tiger. The fox and wolf are like instances of -carnivores being able to endure great variations in temperature without -being specifically modified. These three animals, therefore, tell us -nothing as to the pleistocene climate. - - -_Extinct Species._ - -The extinct pleistocene species may also be divided into the same -classes as the living, by an appeal to their geographical distribution. -Two out of the three species of rhinoceros found in the caves (_R. -megarhinus_ and _R. hemitœchus_), and an elephant with slightly curved -tusks (_E. antiquus_), had their head-quarters south of the Alps and -Pyrenees, whence they wandered northward as far as the latitude of -Yorkshire. The pigmy elephant and the dwarf hippopotamus are peculiar -to the south, and the _Machairodus latidens_, or large sabre-toothed -felis, is a survival, from the pleiocene age, of a peculiarly southern -type. - -The woolly rhinoceros, on the other hand, may be viewed as a northern -form, since it is met with in vast abundance in the arctic regions -of Siberia, as well as in Europe, and has not been found south of -the Alps and Pyrenees. The cave-bear has not been discovered either -in the extreme north or in the south of Europe, and may therefore be -considered of temperate range; and the Irish elk, identified by Prof. -Brandt, from the caves of the Altai Mountains, had a similar range in -middle Europe. The mammoth, endowed with an elastic constitution, was -able to endure the severity of an arctic climate in Siberia and North -America, and the temperature of the latitude of Rome and the Gulf of -Mexico,[264] and consequently tells us as little of the pleistocene -climate as the panther, fox, or wolf. - -The evidence, therefore, as to climate, offered by the extinct animals -in the caves is of the same nature as that of the living. There is -the same mixture of northern and southern forms, which can only be -accounted for satisfactorily by seasonal migrations, according to the -summer heat and winter cold, such as those which are now observed to -take place in Siberia and North America. - -Before we consider the relation of the pleistocene animals buried in -the caves and river deposits to the glacial period, it is necessary to -define what is meant by the term glacial. - - -_Two Periods of Glaciation in Britain._ - -At the close of the pleistocene period the climate gradually became -colder, until ultimately it was arctic in severity in northern Europe. -The researches of many eminent observers prove that an enormous sheet -of ice, like that under which Greenland now lies buried, extended -over North Britain, Wales, and Ireland, leaving its mark in the -far-travelled blocks of stone, the moraines, and the grooves which pass -over the surface irrespective of the minor contours. The land then, -most probably, as Prof. Ramsay and Sir Charles Lyell believe, stood -higher than it does now. To this succeeded a period of depression, -during which the mountains of Wales were submerged to a height of -at least 1,300 feet; and the waves of the sea washed out of the -pre-existing glacial detritus the shingle and sand, termed the “middle -drift,” which occurs also in Scotland and Ireland.[265] Then the land -was re-elevated above the waves, and a second period of glaciers set -in, traces of which occur abundantly in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, -in the white areas in Fig. 126. They were, however, of far less extent -than those which preceded them, occupying isolated areas instead -of forming one continuous icy covering to the country. The glacial -phenomena may be briefly summed up as follows: 1. As the pleiocene -temperature was lowered, the glaciers crept down from the tops of the -mountains, until at last they united to form one continuous ice sheet, -moving resistlessly over the smaller hills and valleys to the lower -grounds, and the first ice or glacial period set in. 2. Then followed -the era of depression beneath the sea. 3. And, lastly, on the land -re-emerging from the sea the second ice or glacial period began. The -climate during the marine depression must obviously have been milder -than that of either of the glacial periods, because of the moderating -effect of the wide extent of sea. - -The exact relation of the boulder clays with marine shells, in the -centre and south of Britain, to the detritus left behind by the -ice-sheet in the north, has not as yet been satisfactorily ascertained. -It is very probable that the elevation of land in the north was -simultaneous with a southern depression, which allowed of icebergs -depositing their burdens in the eastern counties, in the valley of the -Thames, and as far south as Selsea, on the coast of Sussex. - - -_Three Climatal Changes represented on the Continent._ - -These changes of climate have also been observed on the continent -of Europe. The Swiss geologists have shown that the Alpine glaciers -extended farther than they do at the present time, and that they -present two stages of extension, the first of which is of greater -magnitude than the second. The Alpine blocks and moraines have been -traced far down into the plains of Lombardy, northwards into the -valley of the Rhine, and in France as far south in the valley of the -Rhone as Valence. The admirable essay and map brought by MM. Falsan -and Chantre, before the meeting of the French Association for the -Advancement of Science at Lyons, in 1873, show that there were two -periods of glaciation in the valley of the Rhone, the one being due to -the movement of an ice-sheet irrespective of the lower hills, the other -being merely the work of the glaciers localized in the valleys. These -in all probability correspond in point of time with the like stages of -the complicated glacial phenomena in Britain. At this time the glaciers -of the Pyrenees, now so small, extended at least from thirty to forty -miles from their present position down into the plains, leaving behind -most astounding evidences of their presence in the valley of the -Garonne and elsewhere. On the Spanish frontier, for example, one of the -precipitous sides of the valley, near the Pont du Roy, is so smoothed -and polished that it is bare of vegetation except in the deep grooves, -which offer a precarious support to the roots of ferns and of dwarf -beeches. The hills of Dauphiny also and Auvergne were crowned with -glaciers, and those of the latter have been shown by MM. Falsan and -Chantre to have been conterminous with those of the Alps. - -The interglacial period of marine depression in Britain is represented -in Switzerland by the lignite beds of Dürnten, Utznach, and Pfaffikon, -the last of which rests upon and is covered by the boulder drift. The -fossil remains from Dürnten, identified by Dr. Falconer and Prof. -Rütimeyer, prove that two southern animals, _Elephas antiquus_ and -_Rhinoceros megarhinus_, inhabited the district in the interval between -the retreat of one set of glaciers and the advance of another. They -probably migrated from the plains of Lombardy, where they abounded in -the pleistocene age. - - -_Europe invaded by Pleistocene Mammals before the Glacial Period._ - -What is the precise relation of the pleistocene mammals to these two -periods of cold? Did they invade northern and central Europe during -the first or the second, before or after, the marine submergence -indicated by the “middle drift?” We might expect, _à priori_, that as -the temperature became lowered, the northern mammalia would gradually -invade the region occupied before by the pleiocene forms, and that the -reindeer, the mammoth, and woolly rhinoceros would gradually supplant -the southern _Rhinoceros Etruscus_ and _Elephas meridionalis_. Traces -of such an occupation would necessarily be very rare, since they would -be exposed to the grinding action both of the advancing glacial sheet, -and subsequently to that of the waves on the littoral zone during the -depression and re-elevation of the land. At the time also that the -greater part of Great Britain was buried under an ice-sheet, it could -not have been occupied by animals, although they may have been, and -most probably were, living in the districts farther to the south, -which were not covered by ice. The labours, however, of Dr. Bryce, -Prof. Archibald Geikie, and others prove that one at least of the -characteristic pleistocene mammalia--the mammoth--lived in Scotland -along with the reindeer before the deposit of the lower boulder-clay; -while Mr. Jamieson has pointed out that it could not have occupied -that area at the same time as the ice, and therefore must be referred -to a still earlier date.[266] The teeth and bones discovered in the -ancient land surface at Selsea, under the boulder drift, also very -probably indicate that the mammoth lived in Sussex before the glacial -submergence, although they were never admitted by Dr. Falconer to be -of the same age as the remains of _Elephas antiquus_ from the same -preglacial horizon. The animal also occurs in the preglacial forest-bed -of Norfolk and Suffolk. On a careful examination of the whole evidence, -I am compelled to believe, with Mr. Godwin-Austen and Prof. Phillips, -that the _à priori_ belief that the pleistocene mammalia occupied -Great Britain before the period of the ice-sheet and submergence is -fully borne out by the few incontestable proofs that have been brought -forward of the remains being found in preglacial deposits. And the -scanty evidence on the point is just what might be expected from the -rare accidents under which the bones in superficial deposits could have -withstood the grinding of the ice-sheet, and the subsequent erosive -action of the waves on the coast-line. It may therefore be concluded, -that the pleistocene mammalia arrived in Europe before the temperature -had reached its minimum in the glacial period. On the other hand, the -occurrence of mammaliferous river strata, either in hollows of the -boulder-clay as at Hoxne, or in valleys excavated after its deposition -as at Bedford, prove that the characteristic animals occupied Britain -after the retreat of the ice-sheet, and after the re-emergence of the -land from beneath the glacial sea. - - -_Mammalia lived in Britain during the Second Ice or Glacial Period._ - -The distribution of the animals in the river deposits gives us a clue -to the physical geography during the second ice period. In an essay -read before the Geological Society in 1869, and in a second printed -in the “Popular Science Review” in 1872, I showed that there was a -singular irregularity in the contents of the river strata, and that -while the fossil mammalia were abundant throughout the area (marked -with dots in the map, Fig. 126), there were certain districts in which -they had not been met with. One of these barren areas comprises (plain -in the map, Fig. 126), nearly the whole of Wales. A second includes a -large portion of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and -the whole of Scotland (if the preglacial mammals in the low district -between the Frith of Forth and Frith of Clyde in the map be omitted), -and a third is represented by nearly the whole of Ireland. These areas -are remarkable for the absence of the mammalia from the river deposits. -They are also characterised by the freshness of the ice marks which -they present. Nearly every valley has its own system of grooves and its -own set of moraines; and the mounds of clay and marl left behind by the -local glacier, as it slowly retreated to higher levels till it finally -disappeared, are to be observed in great abundance. If we bring these -facts into relation, the barrenness of the areas may be reasonably -explained by the presence of glaciers, _while_ the pleistocene mammals -were living in the south and east (see map, Fig. 126). A barrier of -some kind may reasonably be inferred to have prevented their range over -those districts, and its nature is indicated by the ice marks. It is -very probable that these glaciers had not passed away before the close -of the pleistocene age: for in that case the characteristic animals -would be discovered in the river gravels, which are later than the -deposits of local glaciers in those districts. - - -_The Glacial Period does not separate one Life-era from another._ - -The lowering of the temperature which culminated in the glacial period -has left palpable traces behind in the changes which it caused in the -European fauna. As the pleiocene climate became colder, the animals -unfitted to endure the cold, such as the deer of the Indian types of -Axis and Rusa, either migrated to the south or became extinct, while -their feeding-grounds were invaded by the dwellers in the temperate -zone, the stag, roe, bison, and other animals. These in their turn were -pushed forward by the arctic group of animals, the musk-sheep, lemming, -reindeer, and others, the progress being in the main steadily to the -south while the cold was increasing, and the retreat being steadily to -the north while it was decreasing. It will follow from this, that the -same district in central or north-western Europe would be traversed by -these migratory bodies of animals, both in their southern advance in -preglacial and glacial times and their northern retreat in postglacial -times, and that, therefore, their fossil remains cannot afford a -means of fixing the preglacial, glacial, or postglacial, age of the -deposit in which they are found, where it is not marked by traces of -glaciation. Sir Charles Lyell’s view, that the glacial period cannot be -taken as a landmark in the classification of the European pleistocene -deposits, is fully borne out by the facts, and still less can it be -taken as a hard and fast line between one fauna and another. It cannot -be considered a life-era like the eocene, meiocene, pleiocene, or -prehistoric divisions of the tertiary period. - - -_Bone-caves inhabited before and after Ice Period._ - -If we allow that the lowering of the temperature was the principal -cause of the presence of temperate and arctic animals, in a region -before inhabited by species fitted to live in a comparatively warm -climate, it will follow that bone-caves cannot be said to be either -pre- or postglacial, by an appeal to their fossil mammalia. If they -were open before the minimum of temperature was reached, they would -afford shelter to the animals then in the neighbourhood, and they would -continue to be occupied in the south during the vast period of time -represented by the enormous physical changes in the region north of -the line of the Thames, during the development of the ice-sheet, the -submergence and the re-elevation of nearly the whole of Britain and -Ireland. As, however, the cold increased, the percentage of arctic -animals would also increase, and the more temperate species be weeded -out. For these reasons it has seemed to me, that the machairodus of -Kent’s Hole, and the _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ of Oreston, represent -an early stage of the pleistocene period, before the arctic mammalia -were present in full force in the caves. It is very probable that vast -herds of reindeer lived in the south of France, while northern Britain -lay buried under the ice-sheet, as well as during the two succeeding -physical changes. - - -_Relation of Palæolithic Man to Glacial Period._ - -What then is the relation of the palæolithic hunter of reindeer in -France and Britain to the glacial period? Is he pre- or postglacial? -The only evidence on the point is that offered by the associated -mammalia which occupied France, Germany, and Britain before and after -the point of minimum temperature was reached in these latitudes. Man -may have inhabited the caves not merely of France, but of Devonshire -and Somerset, at any time during that long period. The position of the -palæolithic refuse-heap discovered by Prof. Fraas at Schussenreid, -resting on a moraine of the extinct glacier of the Rhine, proves that -the palæolithic Eskimos lived in Suabia after the retreat of the -glacier when the temperature became warmer, towards the close of the -pleistocene age or in the later glacial stage. The same conclusion -has been arrived at by Mr. Prestwich as to the sojourn of palæolithic -man (of the river-bed type) in Bedfordshire and Suffolk, the gravels -in which the implements are found being of a later age than the -boulder-clay of those districts. We have therefore proof that man -lived in Germany and Britain after the maximum glacial cold had passed -away, and we may also infer with a high degree of probability that -he migrated into Europe along with the pleistocene mammalia in the -preglacial age. - - -_Test of age of contents of caves in Glaciated Districts._ - -The probable date of the introduction of the contents into ossiferous -caves in glaciated areas may be ascertained by an examination of -the river deposits. If the animals found in the caves inhabited the -surrounding country after the melting of the ice, their remains will -occur in the postglacial gravels. If they are not found, it may be -inferred that they had retreated from the district, before the latter -were deposited. It is obvious that they could not have lived in any -district while it was covered with ice or by the sea. It may therefore -be concluded that their remains in the caves were most probably -introduced before the glacial conditions had set in. Preglacial -deposits in a cavern would be protected from the grinding of the -ice-sheet, the action of the waves in the depression, and re-elevation -of the land, and the subsequent glacial erosion which would inevitably -destroy nearly all the fluviatile ossiferous strata. By this test the -pleistocene strata in the Victoria Cave, near Settle, may be considered -preglacial, as well as the hyæna-den at Kirkdale, which has always been -referred by Prof. Phillips to that age. If this be allowed, the small -fragment of human bone found by the Settle Cave Exploration Committee -in the former cave in 1872 establishes the fact that man lived in -Yorkshire before the glacial period. The man to whom it belonged was -probably devoured by the hyænas which dragged into their den the woolly -rhinoceros, reindeer, and other creatures whose gnawed bones were -strewn on the floors. - - - - -CHAPTER XII. - -CONCLUSION. - - Classification of Pleistocene Strata by means of the Mammalia.--The - late, middle, and early Pleistocene Divisions.--The Pleiocene - Mammalia.--Summary of characteristic Pleiocene and Pleistocene - Species.--Antiquity of Man in Europe.--Man lived in India - in Pleistocene Age.--Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India - related to those of Europe?--Palæolithic Man lived in Palestine.-- - Conclusion. - - -The animals inhabiting the caves have been enumerated in the last -three chapters, and we have discussed the inferences drawn from their -distribution as to the pleistocene climate and geography of Europe. It -remains for us now, in conclusion, to define the pleistocene, and to -see in what relation it stands to the pleiocene period. - - -_Classification of Pleistocene Strata by means of the Mammalia._ - -The pleistocene period was one of very long duration, and embraced -changes of great magnitude in the geography of Europe, as we have seen -in the ninth and tenth chapters. The climate, which in the preceding -pleiocene age had been temperate in northern and middle Europe, at the -beginning of the pleistocene gradually passed into the extreme arctic -severity of the glacial period. This change caused a corresponding -change of the forms of animal life; the pleiocene species, whose -constitutions were adjusted to temperate or hot climates, yielding -place to those which were better adapted to the new conditions. And -since there is reason for the belief that it was not continuous in -one direction, but that there were pauses or even reversions towards -the old temperate state, it follows that the two groups of animals -would at times overlap, and their remains be intermingled with each -other. The frontiers also of each of the geographical provinces must -naturally have varied with the season; and the competition for the -same feeding-grounds between the invading and retreating forms must -have been long, fluctuating, and severe. The passage, therefore, from -the pleiocene to the pleistocene fauna might be expected to have been -extremely gradual in each area. The lines of definition between the -two are to a great extent arbitrary, instead of being marked with -sufficient strength to constitute a barrier between the tertiary and -post-tertiary groups of life of Lyell, or between the tertiary and -quaternary of French geologists. The principle of classification which -I have proposed[267] is that offered by the gradual lowering of the -temperature, which has left its mark in the advent of animals before -unknown in Europe; and according to it I have divided the pleistocene -deposits into three groups. - -1. Those in which the pleistocene immigrants had begun to disturb -the pleiocene mammalia, but had not yet supplanted the more southern -animals. No arctic mammalia had as yet arrived. To this group belongs -the forest-bed of Norfolk and Suffolk, and the deposit at St. Prest, -near Chartres. - -2. That in which the characteristic pleiocene deer had disappeared. The -even-toed ruminants are principally represented by the stag, the Irish -elk, the roe, bison, and urus. _Elephas meridionalis_ and _Rhinoceros -etruscus_ had retreated to the south. To this group belong the -brick-earths of the lower valley of the Thames, the river-deposit at -Clacton, the cave of Baume in the Jura, and a river-deposit in Auvergne. - -3. The third division is that in which the true arctic mammalia were -among the chief inhabitants of the region; and to it belong most of the -ossiferous caves and river-deposits in middle and northern Europe. - -These three do not correspond with the preglacial, glacial, and -postglacial divisions of the pleistocene strata, in central and north -Britain; since there is reason to believe that all the animals which -occupied Britain after the maximum cold had passed away, had arrived -here in their southern advance before that maximum cold had been -reached; or, in other words, were both pre- and postglacial. - -This classification does not apply to pleistocene river-strata south of -the Alps and Pyrenees, into which the arctic mammalia never penetrated. - - -_The Late Pleistocene Division._ - -The late pleistocene division corresponds in part with the reindeer -period of M. Lartet; but it comprehends also his other three periods; -for the spotted hyæna, the lion, the cave-bear, the mammoth, the woolly -rhinoceros, the bison, the reindeer, and the urus are so associated -together in the caves and river deposits of Great Britain and the -continent that they do not afford a means of classification. The -arctic division of the mammalia, defined in the preceding chapter, was -then in full possession of the area north of the Alps and Pyrenees, and -the _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ and _Elephas meridionalis_ had disappeared. -With three exceptions, to be noticed presently, all the ossiferous -caverns of France, Germany, and Britain, belong to this division of the -pleistocene. - - -_The Middle Pleistocene Division._ - -The middle division of the pleistocene mammalia may now be examined, -or that from which the characteristic pleiocene deer had vanished, -and were replaced by the invading forms from the temperate zones of -northern Asia. It is represented in Britain by the mammalia obtained -from the lower brick-earths of the Thames valley, at Crayford, Erith, -Ilford, and Gray’s Thurrock, by those from the deposit at Clacton, and -most probably by those of the older deposit in Kent’s Hole, and by the -_Rhinoceros megarhinus_ of Oreston.[268] They consist of-- - - Man, _Homo_. - Lion, _Felis leo spelæa_. - Wild Cat, _F. catus_. - Spotted Hyæna, _Hyæna crocuta var. spelæa_. - Grizzly Bear, _Ursus ferox_. - Brown Bear, _U. arctos_. - Wolf, _Canis lupus_. - Fox, _C. vulpes_. - Otter, _Lutra vulgaris_. - Urus, _Bos primigenius_. - Bison, _Bison priscus_. - Irish Elk, _Cervus megaceros_. - Stag, _C. elaphus_. - Brown’s Fallow Deer, _C. Browni_. - Roedeer, _C. capreolus_. - Musk Sheep, _Ovibos moschatus_. - _Elephas antiquus._ - Mammoth, _E. primigenius_. - Horse, _Equus caballus_. - Woolly Rhinoceros, _Rhinoceros tichorhinus_. - _R. hemitœchus._ - _R. megarhinus._ - Wild-boar, _Sus scrofa_. - Hippopotamus, _Hippopotamus amphibius_. - Beaver, _Castor fiber_. - Water-Rat, _Arvicola amphibia_. - -The discovery of a flint-flake in the undisturbed lower brick-earths -of Crayford, by the Rev. O. Fisher, in the presence of the writer, in -April 1872, proves that man was living while these fluviatile strata -were being deposited. - -If these mammalia be compared with those of the forest-bed or the -pleiocene age on the one hand, and with the late pleistocene on -the other, it will be seen that they are linked to the former by -_Rhinoceros megarhinus_, and to the latter by the musk sheep. The -presence of the latter, the most arctic of the herbivores, in such -strange company is most abnormal, and suggests the idea that the -remains belong to two distinct eras. The skull, however, which I found -at Crayford in 1867, and presented to the Museum of the Geological -Survey, rested in intimate association with the bones of other species, -is in the same mineral state, and bears no marks of being a “derived -fossil.” It is the only trace of the animal as yet obtained from the -lower brick-earths. - -The absence of the reindeer, so numerous in the valley of the Thames, -while the late pleistocene strata were being accumulated by the -river, and the abundance of remains of the stag, seem to me to point -backwards rather than forwards in time, and to imply that the lower -brick-earths are not of late pleistocene age; just as the absence -of the characteristic early pleistocene species shows that they are -not of that age. The evidence seems to be sufficient to establish a -stage intermediate between the two. Nevertheless, it is sufficiently -conflicting to cause Dr. Falconer to come to the conclusion that these -strata are of pleiocene date, and Mr. Prestwich to believe that they -belong to a late stage in the pleistocene. - -During the middle pleistocene, in the Thames valley, and at Clacton, -the woolly rhinoceros, elephant, and mammoth competed for the same -feeding-grounds with _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_, _R. megarhinus_, -hippopotamus, and _Elephas antiquus_. Although all the characteristic -pleiocene deer had retreated, the reindeer had not yet invaded that -area: it was occupied by the stag, roe, the Irish elk, and Brown’s -fallow deer. The whole assemblage of animals, the musk sheep being -excepted, implies that the climate was less severe at this time, than -when the reindeer spread over the same area in the late pleistocene -age, and was far more numerous than the stag. It may, indeed, be -objected that the classificatory value of the musk sheep is quite as -great as that of _Rhinoceros megarhinus_; but in the case of the lower -brick-earths, the evidence of the latter as to climate agrees with -that of the whole assemblage of animals, while that of the former is -altogether discordant. - -There are no caves either in Britain or on the continent which can -be referred with certainty to this middle division. The machairodus, -however, of Kent’s Hole, and of the cavern of Baume in the Jura (see -p. 337), and the megarhine species of rhinoceros from the fissures of -Oreston, probably inhabited those regions, while the temperate group of -animals held possession of the valley of the Thames, and of that now -sunk beneath the North Sea. - - -_The Early Pleistocene Mammalia._ - -The fossil mammalia must now be examined, which inhabited Great Britain -during the early pleistocene period, and before the maximum severity -of glacial cold had as yet been reached. The fossil bones from the -forest-bed, which underlies the boulder-clay on the shores of Norfolk -and Suffolk, have for many years attracted the attention of naturalists -and geologists. The magnificent collections of the Rev. John Gunn, and -the late Rev. S. W. King, gave Dr. Falconer the means of proving that -the fauna of the ancient submerged forest differed from that of any -geological period which we have hitherto discussed: and the careful -diagnosis of all the fossils from this horizon which I have been able -to meet with, shows that it was of a very peculiar character, being -closely allied to the pleiocene of the south of France and of Italy, -and yet possessing species which are undoubtedly pleistocene. The -following list is necessarily very imperfect, since the fragmentary -nature of the fossils renders a specific identification very hazardous; -and it only includes those which I have been able to identify with any -degree of certainty. - - _Sorex moschatus._ - _S. vulgaris._ - _Talpa Europæa._ - _Trogontherium Cuvieri._ - _Castor fiber._ - _Ursus spelæus._ - _U. arvernensis._ - _Canis lupus._ - _C. vulpes._ - _Machairodus._ - _Cervus megaceros._ - _C. capreolus._ - _C. elaphus._ - _Cervus Polignacus._ - _C. carnutorum._ - _C. verticornis._ - _C. Sedgwickii._ - _Bos primigenius._ - _Hippopotamus major._ - _Sus scrofa._ - _Equus caballus._ - _Rhinoceros etruscus._ - _R. megarhinus._ - _Elephas meridionalis._ - _E. antiquus._ - _E. primigenius._ - -From the examination of this list, the peculiar mixture of pleiocene -and pleistocene species is evident. The _Ursus arvernensis_, _Cervus -Polignacus_, _Hippopotamus major_, _Rhinoceros etruscus_, and _R. -megarhinus_, the horse, _Elephas meridionalis_, and _E. antiquus_ -were living in the pleiocene age in France and Italy, and probably in -Norfolk. The cave-bear, the wolf, fox, mole, beaver, Irish elk, roe, -stag, urus, wild-boar, and the mammoth have not as yet been discovered -in the continental pleiocenes, as judged by the standards offered by -the Val d’Arno and Southern France. They are more or less abundant in -the late pleistocene age. This singular association seems to me to -imply that the fauna of the forest-bed is intermediate between the two, -and, from the fact that only three out of the whole series, viz. _Ursus -arvernensis_, _Rhinoceros etruscus_, and _Cervus Polignacus_, are -peculiar to the continental pleiocene, that it is more closely allied -to the pleistocene than to the pleiocene. - -It is also very probable that this early pleistocene age was of -considerable duration; for in it we find at least two forms (and the -number will probably be very largely increased) which are unknown in -continental Europe, although pleiocene and pleistocene strata have -been diligently examined in France and Germany. The very presence of -the _Cervus Sedgwickii_ and _C. verticornis_ implies that the lapse -of time was sufficiently great to allow of the evolution of forms of -animal life hitherto unknown, and which disappeared before the middle -and late pleistocene stages. The _Trogontherium_ also, as well as the -_Cervus carnutorum_, both of which occur in the forest-bed and in the -gravel-beds of St. Prest, near Chartres, and which are peculiar to this -horizon, point to the same conclusion. - -The deer of the forest-bed, in this list, do not represent -approximately the number of species: there are at least five, and -perhaps six, represented by a series of antlers, which I do not venture -to quote, because I have not been able to compare them with those of -the pleiocenes of the Val d’Arno, of Marseilles, or of Auvergne. - -Dr. Falconer pointed out that one of the peculiar characters of the -fauna of the forest-bed is the presence of the mammoth; and the -evidence on which he considered the animal to be of preglacial age -in Europe has been fully verified by the molars from Bacton, which -are now in the Manchester Museum. They are associated with _Elephas -meridionalis_ and _E. antiquus_, and are incrusted with precisely the -same matrix as the teeth and bones of those species. - -No caves have been discovered containing this peculiar assemblage of -fossil animals. - - -_The Pleiocene Mammalia._ - -The relation of the pleistocene to the pleiocene fauna is a question -of very great difficulty, because the latter has not yet been -satisfactorily defined, although Prof. Gervais and Dr. Falconer have -given the more important species from Auvergne, Montpellier, and -the Val d’Arno. The following list is taken from Prof. Gervais’s -great work “Zoologie et Paléontologie Françaises,” p. 349, the term -pseudo-pleiocene merely implying that the fauna differs from that of -the marine deposit of Montpellier, which he takes as his standard. - - -_Pseudo-pleiocene of Issoire._ - - _Hystrix refossa._ - _Castor issiodorensis._ - _Arctomys antiqua._ - _Arvicola robustus._ - _Cervus pardinensis._ - _C. arvernensis._ - _C. causanus._ - _Sus arvernensis. - Lepus Lacosti._ - _Mastodon arvernensis._ - _Tapirus arvernensis._ - _Rhinoceros elatus?_ - _Bos elatus._ - _Cervus polycladus._ - _C. ardens._ - _C. cladocerus._ - _C. issiodorensis._ - _C. Perrieri._ - _C. etueriarum._ - _Ursus arvernensis._ - _Canis borbonidus._ - _Felis pardinensis._ - _F. arvernensis._ - _F. brevirostris._ - _F. issiodorensis._ - _Machairodus cultridens._ - _Hyæna arvernensis._ - _H. Perrieri._ - _Lutra Bravardi._ - -To these animals Dr. Falconer[269] adds _Hippopotamus major_, _Elephas -antiquus_, and _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, and he identifies _Rhinoceros -elatus_ with his new species _Rhinoceros etruscus_. Prof. Gaudry agrees -with me in the belief that _Hyæna Perrieri_ is identical with _H. -striata_ or the striped species. - -Prof. Gervais also identifies the _Equus robustus_ of M. Pomel, from -the same locality, with the common Horse, _Equus fossilis_. - -The fauna of Montpellier is certainly very different from that of -Issoire; but since it is neither meiocene nor pleistocene, it must -belong to one of the intermediate stages of the pleiocene. It includes - - _Semnopithecus monspessulanus._ - _Macacus priscus._ - _Chalicomys sigmodus._ - _Lagomys loxodus._ - _Mastodon brevirostris._ - _Rhinoceros megarhinus._ - _Tapirus minor._ - _Antilope Cordieri._ - _A. hastata._ - _Cervus Cuvieri._ - _C. australis._ - _Sus provincialis._ - _Hyænodon insignis._ - _Hyæna ----?_ - _Machairodus._ - _Felis Christolii._ - _Lutra affinis._ - -The _Mastodon brevirostris_ of this list is considered by Dr. Falconer -to be identical with _M. arvernensis_ of MM. Croiset and Jobert. - -The fauna of the Val d’Arno differs from that of Montpellier and of -Auvergne, and yet is considered by Dr. Falconer to be eminently typical -of the European pleiocene.[270] The animals identified by him in the -museums of Italy are as follow:-- - - _Felis._ - _Hyæna._ - _Machairodus cultridens._ - _Mastodon arvernensis._ - _M. Borsoni._ - _Elephas antiquus._ - _Elephas meridionalis._ - _Rhinoceros etruscus._ - _R. megarhinus._ - _R. hemitœchus._ - _Hippopotamus major._ - -All these animals, with the exception of _Rhinoceros hemitœchus_, have -been discovered in the pseudo-pleiocene of Issoire, while the megarhine -rhinoceros and _Mastodon arvernensis_ are the only two which have been -obtained from the marine sands of Montpellier. The pleiocene animals, -therefore, inhabiting Northern Italy are more closely allied to those -of Auvergne than to those of Montpellier. - -If these three localities be taken as typical of the pleiocene strata, -we shall find that several of the species range as far north as -Britain, and occur in deposits which from the evidence of the mollusca, -have been assigned to that age. _Mastodon arvernensis_, _Elephas -meridionalis_, and _Ursus arvernensis_, have been obtained from the old -land-surface which underlies the sand and shingle of the Norfolk Crag, -in company with many forms of deer and antelopes which have not yet -been identified, while the _Hipparion_ is found in the marine crags of -Suffolk. - -The animals which especially characterize the pleiocene strata of -Europe are _Machairodus cultridens_, _Mastodon arvernensis_ and _M. -Borsoni_, besides the genus _Tapir_. - -If this fauna be compared with that of the preglacial forest-bed, -it will be seen that the difference between them is very great. The -pleiocene mastodon, tapir, the majority of the deer, and the antelopes -are replaced by forms such as the roe and the red-deer, unknown up to -that time. Nevertheless many of the pleiocene animals were able to hold -their ground against the pleistocene invaders, although, subsequently, -as I have already shown, they disappeared one by one, being ultimately -beaten in the struggle for life by the new comers. The progress of -this struggle has been used in the preceding pages as a means of -classification. This fauna has not been discovered in any cave. - - -_Summary of Characteristic Pleistocene and Pleiocene Species._ - -The following are the salient points of the pleistocene age offered -by the study of the land mammalia in the area north of the Alps and -Pyrenees. - - -THE PLEISTOCENE PERIOD. - -A.--_The latest stage._ - - Palæolithic Man. - Woolly Rhinoceros, abundant. - Mammoth, abundant. - Reindeer, abundant. - Stag, comparatively rare. - Northern forms of life in full possession of area north of Alps - and Pyrenees. - -B.--_The middle stage._ - - Palæolithic Man. - _Machairodus latidens._ - Stag, abundant. - Northern forms of life present, but not in force. - _Rhinoceros megarhinus_, still living. - Woolly Rhinoceros, present. - -C.--_The early stage._ - -The following are animals peculiar to this stage:-- - - _Trogontherium Cuvieri._ - _Cerus verticornis._ - _Cervus Sedgwickii._ - _C. carnutorum._ - -The following make their appearance:--The beaver, musk-shrew, -cave-bear, roe, stag, Irish elk, urus, and bison, wild-boar, horse, -(2), mammoth, wolf, and fox. - -The pleiocene _Ursus arvernensis_, _Cervus Polignacus_, _Rhinoceros -etruscus_, and _Elephas meridionalis_ still living. - - -THE PLEIOCENE. - - _Mastodon arvernensis._ - _M. Borsoni._ - _Hipparion gracile._ - No living species of European Deer. - -The three subdivisions of the pleistocene do not apply to the region -south of the Alps and Pyrenees, because the northern group of animals -did not pass into Spain and Italy. In these two countries we find -southern and pleiocene animals living throughout the pleistocene age, -which in France and Britain lived only in the two earlier stages. - - -_Antiquity of Man in Europe._ - -No remains have been discovered up to the present time in any part of -Europe which can be referred with certainty to a higher antiquity than -the pleistocene age. The palæolithic people or peoples arrived in -Europe along with the peculiar fauna of that age, and after dwelling -here for a length of time, which is to be measured by the vast physical -and climatal changes, described in the last three chapters, finally -disappeared, leaving behind as their representatives the Eskimos -tribes of arctic America. There is no evidence that they were inferior -in intellectual capacity to many of the lower races of the present -time, or more closely linked to the lower animals. The traces which -they have left behind tell us nothing as to the truth or falsehood of -the doctrine of evolution, for if it be maintained on the one hand, -that the first appearance of man as a man, and not as a man-like -brute, is inconsistent with that doctrine, it may be answered that -the lapse of time between his appearance in the pleistocene age and -the present day, is too small to have produced appreciable physical -or intellectual change. Also, it must not be forgotten, that we have -merely investigated the antiquity of the sojourn of man in Europe, and -not the general question of his first appearance on the earth, with -which it is very generally confounded. Dr. Falconer well remarked that -the _origines_ of mankind are to be sought, not in Europe, but in the -tropical regions, probably of Asia. To these we have no clue in the -present stage of the inquiry. The higher apes are represented in the -European meiocene and pleiocene strata, by extinct forms uniting in -some cases the characters of different living species, but they do -not show any tendency to assume human characters. It must indeed be -allowed, that the study of fossil remains throws as little light as the -documents of history on the relation of man to the lower animals. The -historian commences his labours with the high civilization of Assyria -and Egypt, and can merely guess at the steps by which it was achieved; -the palæontologist meets with the traces of man in the pleistocene -strata, and he too can merely guess at the antecedent steps by which -man arrived even at that culture which is implied by the implements. -The latter has proved that the antiquity of man is greater than the -former had supposed. Neither has contributed anything towards the -solution of the problem of his origin. - - -_Man lived in India in Pleistocene Age._ - -The researches of the Geological Surveyors has shown that in ancient -times man, in the same stage of civilization as the palæolithic man of -Europe, lived in Southern India and in the valley of the Narbadá. In -1868[271] Mr. Bruce Foote described the flint implements which were -discovered over a large area in the districts of Madras, either in the -red clayey deposit known as Laterite, or in such positions as implied -that they had been washed out of it. They all belong to the same rude -types as those of the pleistocene strata of North-western Europe. A -small fragment of bone was the only fossil which had up to that time -been discovered in the Laterite, and this I was able to identify -in 1869 as a portion of a human tibia of the abnormal platycnemic -variety, which has been described in the fifth chapter of this work, -from the European caves and tombs. The Lateritic deposits themselves -are strictly analogous to our river-strata and brick-earths in their -constitution, and in their resting at various levels above the sea, -and were, as Mr. Foote remarks, formed under conditions different to -those which are now going on in that district. They prove that the -period of the sojourn of palæolithic man in Southern India is divided -from the present day by considerable geographical changes, such as the -elevation of land, and the erosion and breaking up of accumulations -which were once continuous. We have seen that somewhat similar -changes have happened in Europe, in the interval which separates the -palæolithic period from our own time. - -The discovery of a rudely chipped implement of quartzite, of the -pointed oval shape common in the gravels of Britain and France, -published by Mr. Medlicott in 1873, in the “Records of the Geological -Survey of India,” proves further that man was a member of the -remarkable fauna which inhabited the valley of the Narbadá in ancient -times. It was dug out of reddish unstratified clay by Mr. Hacket at a -depth of three feet from the upper surface, which was covered by twenty -feet of ossiferous gravel, on the left bank of the Narbadá near the -valley of Bhutra. The clay belongs to the same fluviatile series as -that from which the mammalia were obtained and named by Dr. Falconer in -1828. Both clay and gravel are shown to be of fluviatile origin, by the -presence of fresh-water mussels of the varieties still living in the -adjacent river. - -The fossil bones belong to extinct and living animals. Among the -former are two kinds of elephant (_E. namadicus_) and (_E. stegodon -insignis_), one of which is closely allied to the European _E. -antiquus_, two species of hippopotamus, one (_H. palæindicus_) with -four incisors in front of the jaws like the African, and a second with -six incisors belonging to the extinct division of hexaprotodon, a -large ox (_Bos namadicus_), a deer and a bear. The living forms are -represented by the buffalo (_Bubalus namadicus_), which is identical -with the wild arnee from which the Indian domestic buffaloes have -descended, and the gavial, or long-snouted Gangetic crocodile. This -imperfect list, borrowed from Dr. Falconer,[272] shows that there is -the same mixture of extinct with living forms in the valley of the -Ganges, while the clays and gravels were being accumulated, as we -have observed in the pleistocene deposits of Europe, and the fauna -may therefore be referred to the pleistocene age, and probably, as -Mr. Medlicott proposes, to the late division of that age. The exact -correspondence of the quartzite implements with those which are so -abundant in the European river-strata of the same age, adds additional -weight to this conclusion. - - -_Are the Palæolithic Aborigines of India related to those of Europe?_ - -It is not a little remarkable that Dr. Falconer, writing in 1865 of the -peculiar fauna of the Narbadá, should have held the view that man was -living in India at that time, and that the memory of the hippopotamus -was handed down in Aryan traditions, under the striking name of the -water elephant. “After reflecting,” he writes, “on the question during -many years in its palæontological and ethnological bearings, my leaning -is to the view that _Hippopotamus namadicus_ was extinct in India long -before the Aryan invasion, but that it was familiar to the earlier -indigenous races.” (ii. p. 644.) This inference is proved to be -literally true by the discovery of the palæolithic implements in the -ossiferous strata of the Narbadá, which must have required long ages -for their accumulation and subsequent erosion. - -We may, therefore, conclude that palæolithic man inhabited both Europe -and India in the pleistocene age. And possibly the identity of the -implements, in these two remote regions, may be accounted for in the -same manner as the identity of Aryan root-words, by the view that their -fabricators may have come from the same centre of dispersal, by the -same routes as those which were subsequently used by the pre-Aryan, and -Aryan, invaders of Europe and India. But whether this be accepted or -not, it cannot be denied that the man who inhabited both these regions -was in the same rude stage of human progress, and played his part in -the same life-era. - - -_Palæolithic Man lived in Palestine._ - -The discovery, by the Abbé Richard,[273] of a palæolithic flint -implement, of the ordinary river-bed type, on the surface of a stratum -of gravel between Mount Tabor and the lake of Tiberias, lends great -weight to the view that the Aborigines of India and Europe, whose -implements are found in the deposits of rivers, migrated from the same -centre, since it bridges over the great interval of space by which -they were isolated. It is very probable, that future discoveries may -reveal the presence of a tolerably uniform priscan population, in the -pleistocene age, throughout this vast area: which as yet has only been -explored by archæologists in a few isolated points, with the important -results recorded in the preceding pages. - - -_Conclusion._ - -It now remains for us to sum up the results of the exploration of -European caves, of which an imperfect outline has been given in this -work. Their formation, and filling up, have an important bearing on the -physical geography of the districts in which they occur, and reveal -the great changes which are going on, in the calcareous rocks, at the -present time. The study of the remains which they contain has led to -the recognition of the fact, that the climate and geography of Europe, -in ancient times, were altogether different from those of the present -day. - -It has also made large additions to the history of the sojourn of man -in Europe. We find a hunting and fishing race of cave-dwellers, in the -remote pleistocene age, in possession of France, Belgium, Germany, and -Britain, probably of the same stock as the Eskimos, living and forming -part of a fauna, in which northern and southern, living and extinct, -species are strangely mingled with those now living in Europe. In the -neolithic age caves were inhabited, and used for tombs, by men of -the Iberian or Basque race, which is still represented by the small, -dark-haired, peoples of western Europe. They were rarely used in the -bronze age. When we arrive within the borders of history in Britain, -we find them offering shelter to the Brit-Welsh flying from their -enemies after the ruin of the Roman empire, and throwing great light -on the fragmentary records of those obscure times. In treating of these -questions, it has been necessary to discuss problems of deep and varied -interest to the ethnologist, physicist, and historian, some of which -have been partially solved, while others await the light of the higher -knowledge which will be the fruit of a wider experience. - - - - -APPENDICES. - - - - -APPENDIX I.--P. 30. - -ON THE INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS OF CAVE-HUNTING. - - Instruments used in Cave-hunting.--The Search after Bone-caves.-- - The three modes of Cave-digging.--Stalagmitic Floors to be broken - up.--Preservation of Fossil Bones. - - -_Instruments used in Cave-hunting._ - -The instruments which Mr. James Parker, Mr. Ayshford Sanford and myself -have found most valuable in cave-hunting, apart from the tools of the -workman, are as follow:-- - -1. A hammer with an ash handle about twenty inches long, inserted into -a square head of best steel, ending in a chisel edge in the same plane -as the handle, weighing almost eight ounces, and seven inches in length. - -2. A steel chisel ten inches long. - -3. A prismatic compass. - -4. A thermometer for taking the temperatures of the air and water. - -5. An aneroid. - -6. A steel measuring tape. - -7. Abney’s patent level which is used for laying down datum-line for -plan, as well as for taking the dips and angles. - -In making a plan we have found it useful to mark the datum-line by -a stout string or wire and to measure from it as the work proceeds, -indicating on the sides and floor of the cave the points of -measurement, with paint or wooden pegs. - -8. A stout rope not less than twenty feet long with a horse’s girth at -the end is necessary for the exploration of vertical fissures, so that -the explorer may be let down without any great danger. No large unknown -caves should be explored without a rope, or by a party less than three -in number. In exploring the caves of Burrington Combe we used a rope -sixty feet long. The descent into Helln Pot, described in the second -chapter, p. 41, was effected in the following manner. A strong platform -of timber was made over the open fissure, and from it a square “cage” -or “basket” of the ordinary kind used in mining was let down for the -first drop of 198 feet. It was prevented from twisting round by two -guide ropes. For the rest of the falls we had two ladders eight feet -long, and a rope, without which we should have been unable to reach the -bottom. - -[Illustration: - - | | a | | - --+-----+--------------+-----+-- - g | ... | | ... | g - | | | | - b | e | c d c | e | b - | | | | - g | ... | | ... | g - --+-----+--------------+-----+-- - | | a | | -] - -9. In the exploration of water-caves, in which there are sometimes -sheets of water of considerable size and depth, a raft may be used, -such as that devised by Mr. James Parker for the navigation of the -great cave of Wookey Hole. It consisted of a platform supported on -barrels and built as follows: A frame of stout poles was made; two, -_a a_, being eight feet long, with four others, _b_, _c_, lashed -firmly across, each four feet in length. The space _d_ was converted -into a platform by nailing boards across, and this was buoyed up by -a beer-barrel at each end in the interspace _e_. The barrels were -attached to the raft by two loops of rope _g_, passing over from _b_ -to _c_, and thus kept in place, although they freely twisted and -turned in actual use. The ropes had an advantage over iron hoops for -the attachment of the barrels, because when they were tightened the -platform was raised above the water, when they were loosened it was -lowered, and thus the raft could be adjusted to the weight to be -carried, to the depth of the water, and the distance of the water-line -from the roof. A raft of this kind will bear three persons, and is -sufficiently light to be carried over the shallows. With it Mr. Parker -made his way for a considerable distance in the Wookey Hole cavern, -and subsequently I penetrated as far as the water-line would allow me -to get. A long pole is also necessary for punting. Mr. Parker found -by experience that a raft made of boards nailed on the top of two -beer-barrels was too unstable to be of any use. In making his way -across subterranean pools the cave-hunter ought to be prepared for -accidents, for the depth is very uncertain, and the water sufficiently -cold to cause cramp. For the exploration of ordinary water-caves a -raft is unnecessary, but no attempt should be made without a rope. In -Yorkshire and Derbyshire there is an unlimited field for adventure in -the subterranean water-courses. - -10. The most convenient lights for use in caves are the common -composite candles. Paraffin candles are open to the objection that they -gutter, lanthorns do not give a sufficiently diffused light, and the -smoke of paraffin torches, or flambeaux dipped in turpentine or tar is -intolerable. Magnesium wire reveals the beauties of the higher roofs. - - -_The Search after Ossiferous Caves._ - -Many of the ossiferous caves, and especially those of the neolithic -and pleistocene ages, have their entrances masked by débris which has -been accumulated from the surface above during the long lapse of ages. -In their discovery I have found rabbits, foxes, and badgers of the -greatest service, since these animals generally make their burrows -in such places. And where their earths are met with at the base of a -vertical wall of rock, I have very generally found a cave. They were -my sole guides to the discovery of the five sepulchral caves at Perthi -Chwareu, described in the fifth chapter, in a district in which up to -that time caves were not known to exist. - -The dwellers in caves very generally chose for their habitations the -sunny side of the ravines and valleys, and the spots which commanded a -wide view, and, therefore, their remains are to be looked for in those -places, rather than on the cold and sunless sides, or where an enemy -might approach without observation. - - -_The Scientific Methods of Cave-digging._ - -The exploration of an ossiferous cavern with sufficient accuracy to be -of scientific value, may be carried out in all tunnel caves, or those -extending horizontally into the rock, by one of the three following -methods which may be adapted to the local conditions:-- - -The first step to take in all cases is to make a plan of the entrance, -and to cut a passage down to the rock at the entrance, so as to -obtain a clear idea of the sequence of the strata. In the hyæna-den -at Wookey Hole, we first of all cut a passage through the cave-earth -which extended from the roof to the floor, and then removed the earth -on either side in blocks, until ultimately the chamber and passages -described in the eighth chapter were cleared of their contents. Our -work was measured every evening, and each bone and object found was -labelled with the date which was recorded on the ground plan. Vertical -sections were also taken from time to time. This mode, supplemented -by constant supervision of the workmen, was sufficiently accurate to -satisfy the demands of scientific research. - -The Victoria Cave, where the demarcation between the strata was very -distinct, was explored, while the work was under my direction up -to September 1873, in a somewhat similar fashion. It was, however, -impossible on account of the great depth of the deposits to cut a -passage down to the rock at the entrance. We therefore examined the -superficial strata throughout the cave, merely gauging the thickness of -those below by sinking three shafts. Where a cave is sufficiently high -to allow of the work being carried on, it is better to clear out one -stratum before another is disturbed. - -The most elaborate and perfect method of cave exploration is that -which has been used by the committee in Kent’s Hole, under the -superintendence of Mr. Pengelly, who writes as follows:[274]-- - -“The following is the method of exploration which has been observed -from the commencement, and which it is believed affords a simple and -correct method of determining the exact position of every object which -has been found. - -“1. The black soil accessible between the masses of limestone on the -surface was carefully examined and removed. - -“2. The limestone blocks occupying the surface of the deposits were -blasted and otherwise broken up, and taken out of the cavern. - -“3. A line termed the ‘datum-line,’ is stretched horizontally from a -fixed point at the entrance to another at the back of the chamber. - -“4. Lines, one foot apart, are drawn at right angles to the datum-line, -and therefore parallel to one another, across the chamber so as to -divide the surface of the deposit into belts termed ‘parallels.’ - -“5. In each parallel the black mould which the limestone masses had -covered is first examined and removed, and then the stalagmite breccia, -so as to lay bare the surface of the cave-earth. - -“6. Horizontal lines, a foot apart, are then drawn from side to side -across the vertical face of the section so as to divide the parallel -into four layers or ‘levels,’ each a foot deep. - -“Finally each level is divided into lengths called ‘yards,’ each three -feet long, and measured right and left from the datum-line as an axis -of abscissæ. - -“In fine, the cave-earth is excavated in vertical slices or parallels -four feet high, one foot thick, and as long as the chamber is broad, -where this breadth does not exceed thirty feet. Each parallel is taken -out in levels one foot high, and in each level in horizontal prisms -three feet long and a foot square in the section, so that each contains -three cubic feet of material. - -“This material, after being carefully examined _in situ_ by -candlelight, is taken to the door and re-examined by daylight, after -which it is at once removed without the cavern. A box is appropriated -to each yard exclusively, and in it are placed all the objects of -interest which the prism yields. The boxes, each having a label -containing the data necessary for defining the situation of its -contents, are daily sent to the honorary secretary of the committee, -by whom the specimens are at once cleaned and packed in fresh boxes. -The labels are numbered and packed with the specimens to which they -respectively belong, and a record of the day’s work is entered in a -diary. - -“The same method is followed in the examination of the black mould, -and also of the stalagmitic breccia, with the single exception that in -these cases the parallels are not divided into levels and yards.” - -A careful record of the work, and minute sections should be taken daily -on the spot. - - -_The Stalagmitic Floor to be broken up._ - -In all cases the crystalline flooring of stalagmite and stalagmitic -breccias which often occur, should be broken up, or, if necessary, -blasted with gunpowder. The former very frequently conceals the -pleistocene remains, and the latter, which is in Kent’s Hole many feet -thick, often contains the traces of man and wild animals. Sometimes it -is very difficult to distinguish the breccia from the rocky floor. - -Where the ossiferous deposit fills a vertical fissure it must be worked -on the same plan as in ochre-mining, by sinking a shaft. To dig into it -from below (where this is possible) is very dangerous, because of the -large imbedded stones which fall sometimes without any warning. - - -_The Preservation of Fossil Remains._ - -The fossil bones and teeth, which have very generally lost their -gelatine and have a tendency to crumble and split to pieces in drying, -should be gradually dried, and from time to time saturated with a weak -hot solution of gelatine or glue. Silicate of soda, sometimes called -“liquid glass,” or melted paraffin (not the oil), may also be used for -the same purpose. If the bones are extremely soft, they may be rescued -from destruction by letting them dry in the matrix, saturating them -and the matrix with a solution of gelatine, and then clearing off the -latter. In this manner I preserved the skull of the musk sheep which is -now in the Museum of the Geological Survey in Jermyn Street, London. - - - - -APPENDIX II.--P. 40. - - _Observations on the Rate at which Stalagmite is being accumulated in - the Ingleborough Cave._ Proceed. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manch. April - 1873. - - -The only attempt to measure with accuracy the rate of the accumulation -of stalagmite in caverns, in this country, is that made by Mr. James -Farrer in the Ingleborough Cave, in the years 1839 and 1845, and -published by Prof. Phillips in the “Rivers, Mountains, and Sea Coast of -Yorkshire” (second edition, 1855, pp. 34-35). The stalagmite of which -the measurements were taken is that termed, from its shape, the Jockey -Cap. It rises from a crystalline pavement to a height of about two -and a half feet, and is the result of a deposit of carbonate of lime, -brought down by a line of drops that fall into a basin at its top, and -flow over the general surface. On March 13th, 1873, in company with -Mr. John Birkbeck and Mr. Walker, I was enabled by the kindness of Mr. -Farrer to take a set of measurements, to be recorded for use in after -years. - -For the sake of insuring accuracy in future observations, three holes -were bored at the base of the stalagmite, and three gauges of brass -wire, gilt, inserted; gauge No. 1 in the following table being that on -the S.S.E., No. 2 on N.N.E., No. 3 on the West side. The curvilinear -dimensions were taken with fine iron wire, or with a steel measure; -and the circumferential around the base along a line marked by the -three gauges. The measurements 2, 3, and 4 of the table were taken on -the 15th of March, by Mr. Walker, and their accuracy may be tested by -the fact that they coincide exactly with No. 1, which I took two days -before. - -The lengths of wire, properly labelled, are deposited in the Manchester -Museum, the Owens College, for future observers. - -In the following table I have given my own measurements and compared -them with those taken by Mr. Farrer. - - -TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS. - - +--------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----------+--------+ - | | 13th | | | |Rate of | - | | Mar. | |30 Oct.| Increase |Increase| - | | 1873. | 1839. | 1845. | since | per | - | |Inches.|Inches.|Inches.|1839.|1845.| annum. | - | | | | | | | Inches | - +--------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-----+--------+ - | 1 Basal circumference at | | | | | |·2941- | - | Gauges |128 |118 |120 | 10 | 8 | ·2857 | - | 2 Gauge No. 1 to Gauge No. 2 | 52·625| | | | | | - | 3 ” 2 ” 3 | 35·0 | | | | | | - | 4 ” 3 ” 1 | 40·375| | | | | | - | 5 Gauge No. 1 to hole in centre| | | | | | | - | of basin at apex| 30 | | | | | | - | 6 ” 2 ” ” | 29·5 | | | | | | - | 7 ” 3 ” ” | 31·4 | | | | | | - | 8 Height from Gauge No. 1 | 20·9 | | | | | | - | 9 ” ” 2 min | 20·4 | | | | | | - |10 Maximum | 29·7 | | | | | | - |11 Tape measurement on slope | | | | | | | - | Gauge No. 1 to edge of apex| 26·7 | | | | | | - |12 ” No. 2 ” ” | 26·6 |21·0 | | 5·6 | | | - |13 ” ” maximum ” | 36·0 |32·0 | 35·0 | 4·0 | 1·0 | | - |14 Roof to apex of Jockey Cap | 87 | | 95·25 | | 8·25|·2946 | - |15 Roof to tip of stalactite | | | 10 | | | | - |16 Stalactite to apex of Jockey | | | | | | | - | Cap | | | 85·25 | | | | - +--------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-----+-----+--------+ - -Unfortunately I have been unable to identify the exact spots where the -stalagmite was measured by Mr. Farrer, so that the only measurement -which affords any trustworthy data for estimating the rate of increase -is number 14. With regard to this, the only possible ground of error -is the erosion of the general surface of the solid limestone, of which -the roof is composed, by carbonic acid, since the year 1845, and this -is so small as to be practically inappreciable. We have, therefore, -evidence that the Jockey’s Cap is growing at the rate of ·2946 of an -inch per annum, and that if the present rate of growth be continued -it will finally arrive at the roof in about 295 years. But even this -comparatively short lapse of time will probably be diminished by the -growth of a pendent stalactite above, that is now being formed in -place of that which measured ten inches in 1845, and has since been -accidentally destroyed. It is very possible that the Jockey Cap may -be the result not of the continuous but of the intermittent drip of -water containing a variable quantity of carbonate of lime, and that, -therefore, the present rate of growth is not a measure of its past -or future condition. Its possible age in 1845 was estimated by Prof. -Phillips at 259 years, on the supposition that the grain of carbonate -of lime in each pint was deposited. If, however, it grew at its present -rate it may be not more than 100 years old. All the stalagmites and -stalactites in the Ingleborough Cave may not date further back than the -time of Edward III. if the Jockey Cap be taken as a measure of the rate -of deposition. - - - - -INDEX. - - - A. - - Abbeville, flint implements of, 16. - - Aborigines (palæolithic) of India, 428, 429. - - Acid-worn joint, Doveholes, Derbyshire, 52. - - Adams, Dr. Leith, explores bone-caves of Malta, 377; - finds tooth of pigmy hippopotamus in Candia, 378. - - Adriatic Sea, the, 388. - - Africa, mainland of, 379; - moraines in, 387; - physical geography of, in pleistocene age, 370; - species of European mammalia found in, 380. - - African animals in the Iberian peninsula, 372; - elephant, the, 372, 376. - - Age of cavern deposits, test of, 410. - - Albert Cave, the, Settle, 101. - - Alessi, Canon, cited, 376. - - Algeria, fossil mammalia in, 379. - - Alps, the, animals living to the North of, 359, 360; - glaciers of, 403. - - Altai mountains, the, Irish elk in, 401; - panther in, 403. - - America, animals in, 396-399. - - Amiens, flint implements in the gravels of, 16. - - Anatolia, the glaciers of, 383-385. - - Anca, Baron, on caves of northern Sicily, 376. - - Andalusia, prehistoric antiquities in, 209. - - Animals in Brit-Welsh caves, 130, 131; - classificatory value of, 78; - domestic, derived from Asia, 137; - evidence of, as to climate, 392; - extinct species of, 400; - historic, 75, 76; - living under the care of man, 77; - migration of, 366; - northern group of, 395; - pleistocene, living to the north of the Alps, 359-361; - unknown in Britain in the prehistoric age, 266; - prehistoric, 265; - probable cause of association of species, 397; - southern group of, 393; - temperate group of, 399. - - _Antelope saiga_, the, 336, 348, 399. - - Antelopes, spread of, into Europe, 370. - - Antiquity of Man in Europe, 424. - - Aquitaine, implements in the caves of, 354, 355; - palæolithic hunters in, 347; - the people of, 356, 357. - - Ardennes, rock denuded from the, 61. - - Arenaceous rocks, caves in, 24. - - Arnould, M., on the cave of Sclaigneaux, 218. - - Arrows used by palæolithic hunters, 342. - - Art of the Eskimos, 356. - - Arthur’s cave, King, 290. - - Ashmolean Museum, harpoons in the, 354, 356. - - Asia, domestic animals of Europe derived from, 137; - the lion in, 393. - - Ass, the, 77. - - Atlantic Ocean, the, 380; - shore, the, at one hundred fathom line, 365. - - Atlas mountains, glaciers of the, 386. - - Aurignac, the cave of, 19; - bones found in, 246; - discovery of, 243; - interment in, 242; - skeletons of man above palæolithic stratum of, 245. - - Austen, Mr. Godwin- (_see_ Godwin-Austen). - - Auvergne, palæolithic men in, 21. - - Avison, cave of, 18. - - Axe, the river, 29. - - Aymard, M., cited, 330. - - - B. - - Badger, the (_see_ _Meles taxus_). - - Banwell, cave at, 293. - - Basques, the, eastern derivation of, 227, 228; - elements of, in British and French populations, 225; - in Britain and Ireland in the neolithic age, 215; - the Dolicho-cephali cognate with, 213; - the oldest neolithic population, 223. - - Baumann’s Hole, 12. - - Baume, the cave of, animals found in, 337. - - Bayle, M., on animals from Mansourah, 379. - - Bear, the, 75, 79, 131, 146; - in Germany, 278; - in the care of Kühloch, 27; - the cave, 138, 278, 401; - the grizzly, 278, 348, 376, 399. - - Beard, Mr., of Banwell, cited, 15, 33; - explorations of, 292. - - Beaumont, Mr. John, describes Wookey Hole, 29; - on fungoid structures, 69. - - Beaver, the, 76, 79, 132. - - Behrens, Dr., cited, 12. - - Belgium, brachy-cephalic skulls found in, 228; - caves in, 20, 347; - dolicho-cephalic skulls in, 215. - - Bell, Professor, on the ass, 77. - - Bertrand, M. Eugène, cited, 175. - - Billaudel, M., cited, 18. - - Birkbeck, Mr., cited, 35; - descends into Helln Pot, 43. - - Bishofferode, cave at, 4. - - Bison, the, 80, 266, 359. - - Blackmore, Dr., cited, 268, 269. - - Black-Rock Cave, the, near Tenby, 68. - - Blake, Mr. Carter, cited, 144. - - Blyth, Mr., cited, 393. - - Boar, the wild, 76, 79. - - Bone-beds, the, in Wookey Hole Hyæna-den, 305-307. - - Bone-caves, before and after the ice-period, 408; - exploration of, in Great Britain, 13; - in Southern Europe, 21, 370, 373, 375, 377; - the three classes of, 10. - - Bone harpoon, found in Victoria Cave, 111. - - Bones gnawed by hyænas, 282. - - Bonney, Rev. T. G., cited, 28. - - _Bos longifrons_, 78, 88, 125, 131, 133, 136, 144, 150, 166, 194, - 256, 262, 269. - - _Bos namadicus_, 428. - - Bosco’s Den, 288. - - Boulder clays, 403. - - Brachy-cephali, the Belgian, 199, 219; - British, 193, 199; - French, 199, 202, 203; - represented by Celts, 229. - - Bradley, Mr., cited, 190. - - Brandt, Professor, cited, 399; - on the Irish Elk, 401. - - Brenan, Mr., discoveries of, in Ireland, 335. - - Bristol Channel, the, 290. - - Britain, cave exploration in, 13; - during the second ice age, 406; - historic caves in, 81; - historic period in, 75; - inhabitants of, in the neolithic age, 191; - in the pleistocene age, 366; - mammalia in, during the second ice age, 406; - population of in time of Cæsar, 224; - raids of Picts and Scots in, 105; - range of dolicho-cephali in, and Ireland, 194; - Roman dominion in, 103; - two periods of glaciation in, 401; - wild animals in, 75. - - British brachy-cephali, 198, 199. - - Brit-Welsh caves, 129, 130. - - Brixham, caves at, 16, 319; - implements and animals in, 320; - history of deposits in, 321. - - Broca, M., cited, 156; - on Basque crania, 213; - on the Caverne de l’Homme Mort, 198, 200, 201; - derivation of the Basques from Africa, 227, 228; - on platycnemic _tibiæ_, 175; - sepulchral cave of Orrouy, 202. - - Brome, Captain, researches of, 21, 204. - - Bronze age in Britain, caves of the, 141; - armlet from Thor’s cave, 128; - articles from Heathery Burn, 142. - - Brooches found in the Victoria cave, 98. - - Brown, Mr. Edwin, on Thor’s cave, 128. - - Browne, the Rev. G. F., explorations of, 26; - on the temperature of caves, 72. - - Bruniquel, cave of, 40; - description of, 247; - interments of doubtful age in, 248. - - Bryce, Dr., cited, 405. - - Brysgill, cave of, 160. - - _Bubalus namadicus_, 428. - - Buckland, Dr., cited, 13, 18, 30, 120, 240, 293, 295, 300; - on Gailenreuth cave, 273, 274; - Kirkdale, 14, 280, 281, 283; - Kühloch, 276; - Paviland, 234. - - Buffalo in Italy, 81. - - Busk, Professor, cited, 13, 120, 155, 162, 189, 259; - on fossil bones in the Iberian peninsula, 372; - human bones from Perthi-Chwareu caves, 166-179; - human remains from Cefn tumulus, 180-186; - human skull from caves of Césaroda, 146, 147; - skulls found in Spain, 208, 209; - the Berbers, 212; - the fauna of Mentone, 373; - researches of, in caves of Gibraltar, 204-208, 371. - - - C. - - Calcareous rocks, caves in, 25. - - Caldy, cave of, 62, 63; - cave-pearls in, 66; - fungoid stalagmites in, 67; - island of, 289. - - Campbell, Dr., cited, 196. - - _Canis familiaris_, 131, 144, 150, 157, 166, 256; - _lupus_, 166; - _vulpes_, 131, 150, 166. - - Capellini, Professor, cited, 258; - on the Grotta dei Colombi, 259. - - _Capra hircus_, 131, 150, 166. - - Carbonate of lime, circulation of, 71; - in Thames water, 70; - removed by streams, 69. - - Cartaillac, M., cited, 247. - - Carte, Dr., cited, 335. - - Cat, Caffir, 394; domestic, 77, 81. - - Cat-Hole cave, in Gower, 145. - - Cave-pearls, 66. - - Caves, biological division of, 6-9; - classification of palæolithic, 351; - conclusions as to prehistoric, 261; - containing remains of doubtful age, 232; - contents of historic, 131; - deposits in valleys and in, 272, 273; - exploration of European, 11; - filling up of, 61; - formation of, 50; - historic, in Britain, 81; - in the region of Craven, 106; - legends and superstitions of, 2; - not generally found in line of faults, 57; - of bronze age in Britain, 141; - of neolithic age, 149; - physical division of, 5; - physical history of, 23, 65; - relation of, to Pot-holes, “Cirques,” and Ravines, 27, 54; - results of the exploration of European, 430; - temperature of, 71; - test of age of deposits in, 410; - used as places of refuge, 102; - various ages of, 58; - Albert, 101; - of Andalusia, 208, 209; - Aquitaine, 347, 354; - Aurignac, 243; - Avison, 18; - Banwell, 293; - Baumann’s Hole, 12; - Baume, 337; - Belgium, 347; - Bishofferode, 4; - Black Rock, 68; - Bosco’s Den, 288; - Britain, 278; - Brit-Welsh, 130; - Brixham, 319; - Bruniquel, 247; - Brysgill, 160; - Caldy, 62; - Canary Isles, 211; - Cat-Hole, 145; - Cavillon, 257; - Cefn, 164, 166, 286; - Césareda, 145; - Chauvaux, 215; - Colombi, 258; - Crawley Rocks, 288; - Cro-Magnon, 249; - Denbighshire, 18; - Derbyshire, 284; - Devonshire, 317; - Dowkerbottom, 101; - Dream, the, 284; - Engis, 234; - Fingal, 24; - France, 336; - Franconia, 12; - Gailenreuth, 273; - Gatekirk, 50; - Gendron, 239; - Genista, 205, 371; - Gibraltar, 204, 371; - Goatchurch, 31-34; - Gower, 288; - Heathery Burn, 141; - Hutton, 292; - Ingleborough, 36; - Ireland, 365; - Kelko, 101; - Kent’s-Hole, 324; - King Arthur, 290; - King’s Scar, 112; - Kirkdale, 280; - Kirkhead, 125; - Kühloch, 276; - Laugerie Basse, 339; - L’Homme Mort, 198, 200; - Llandebie, 194; - Llanamynech, 34; - Lombrive, 256; - Longberry Bank, 133; - Long Churn, 41; - Lunel-viel, 336, 375; - Maccagnone, 376; - Maghlak, 377; - Malta, 377; - Moustier, 341; - Naulette, 349; - Neanderthal, 240; - North Wales, 286; - Oban, 195; - Orrouy, 202; - Paviland, 232; - Peak, 34; - Pembrokeshire, 289; - Périgord, 337; - Perthi-Chwareu, 152, 157, 167; - Plas Heaton, 160, 287; - Poole, 34, 126; - Provence and Mentone, 373; - Reggio, 148; - Rians, 373; - Rhosdigre, 156, 166, 188; - San Ciro, 376; - Sclaigneaux, 218; - Sicily, 375; - South Wales, 288; - Thor’s, 127; - Uphill, 294; - Victoria, 81, 110, 118, 121, 284, 411; - Weathercote, 47; - Whitcombe, 140; - Woman’s, 210; - Wookey, 17, 29; - Yorkshire, 101, 278. - - Caverne de l’Homme Mort, 198, 200. - - Cavillon, cave of, 257; - palæolithic skeletons in, 257; - strata in, 374. - - Cedars of Lebanon, the, Dr. Hooker on, 382. - - Cefn, caves at, 286; - chambered tomb near, 161; - discovery of bones at, 15, 159; - Professor Busk on human remains from tumulus at, 180-184; - on skull from, 184-167. - - Celts, brachy-cephali represented by, 229. - - _Cervus alcis_, 137; - _capreolus_, 131, 150, 166; - _carnutorum_, 419, 424; - _elaphus_, 131, 150, 166; - _Polignacus_, 418, 419, 424; - _Sedgwickii_, 419, 424; - _verticornis_, 419, 424. - - Césareda, caves of, 145; - evidence of cannibalism in, 147. - - Chautre, M., cited, 403. - - Chapel-en-le-Dale, valley of, 49, 56. - - Chauvaux, cave of, 20, 215. - - Chester, sack of, 110. - - Chierici, l’Abbé, on remains from the cave of Reggio, 148. - - Chillingham ox, the, 77, 90. - - Christol, M. de, cited, 376. - - Christy, Mr., cited, 19; - on the caves of Périgord, 337. - - “Cirques” in calcareous rocks, 56. - - Classification of pleistocene strata, 412-414. - - Classificatory value of historic animals, 78. - - Close, Rev. H. M., cited, 402. - - Climate, evidence of animals as to, 392, 401; - pleistocene, 398. - - Coast line of North-Western Europe in pleistocene age, 362. - - Cochrane, Sir James, cited, 208. - - Coins in the Victoria cave, Settle, 93. - - Corsica, absence of cliffs in, 390. - - Crania from Genista cave, 207. - - Cranial terms, definition of, 190. - - Craven, caves near, 106. - - Crawley Rocks, the cavern of, 288. - - Crayford, discovery of a flint-flake at, 416. - - Cro-Magnon, cave of, 249; - ornaments found in, 254; - position of human skeletons in, 253; - section of deposits in, 250; - the human _tibiæ_ of, 176; - traces of occupation in, 251. - - Cuvier, Baron, cited, 12, 13, 18. - - - D. - - Dalebeck, the, course of, 49. - - Dana, Professor, on caverns, 58. - - Darbishire, Mr. R. D., reference to, 93. - - Dauphiny, the hills of, 404. - - Delgado, Senhor J. L., on researches in the caves of Césareda, 145, - 146. - - De Luc, M., cited, 12. - - Denbighshire, sepulchral caves in, 18. - - Denny, Mr., cited, 120. - - Derbyshire, caves of, 284. - - Desnoyers, M., cited, 25, 26, 28; - on the analogy between caverns and mineral veins, 57; - relation of caves to ravines, 55. - - Devonshire, caves of, 317. - - Dio Chrysostom Rhetor on the lion, 80. - - Dog, the (_see_ _Canis familiaris_). - - Dolicho-cephali, British, 191, 192; - their range in Britain and Ireland, 194-197; - cognate with the Basque, 218; - of Gibraltar, 204-207. - - Dormouse of Malta, the, 267. - - Dowkerbottom cave, 101, 102. - - Dream-cave, near Wirksworth, 284. - - Dubrueil, M., cited, 18. - - Dupont, M., cited, 216, 237, 239; - discoveries of, 21, 235; - investigations of, in Dinant-sur-Meuse, 348; - on the Trou de Naulette, 349. - - Durdham Down, fissures of, 291. - - Dürnten, the lignite bed of, 404. - - - E. - - Eagle, the, 150. - - “Ebur fossile,” 11. - - Egerton, Sir Philip, cited, 273. - - Elephant, the African, 21; - found near Madrid, 372; - in Sicily, 376, 394. - - _Elephas antiquus_, 266, 281, 373, 376, 400, 404, 417; - _melitensis_, 378, 400; - _meridionalis_, 266, 379, 419, 422, 424; - _namadicus_, 427; - _primigenius_ (_see_ _Mammoth_); - (_stegodon_) _insignis_, 427. - - Elk, the, 79, 137. - - Elmet, conquest of, 109. - - Enamels in the north of England, 100; - mentioned by Philostratus, 101. - - Engis, cave of, 234. - - English invasion, the, 107. - - Enniskillen, Lord, cited, 273. - - _Equus fossilis_ of pleiocene age, 421. - - Eskimos, art of the, 356; - implements of the, 354; - in Europe, 425; - probably the representatives of cave-dwellers, 358; - relation of cave-dwellers to, 353. - - Esper, cited, 273. - - Europe, Antiquity of man in, 424; - climatal changes on the continent of, 403; - pleistocene mammalia pre-glacial in, 404; - species of mammalia in Africa, and, 380; - Southern, bone-caves of, 370; - fauna in caves of, 368. - - Evans, Mr. John, cited, 17, 147, 158, 243, 248, 267; - on coins, 94; - on the iron, bronze, and stone ages, 139; - on the palæolithic cave-dwellers, 351. - - Evidence of soundings in Southern Europe, 380. - - - F. - - Fairy Chamber, the, Caldy, 63, 64. - - Falconer, Dr., cited, 17, 21, 156, 175, 281, 288, 316, 362, 404, - 416, 418, 421, 425, 427; - on bones from San Ciro, 376; - on mammals in the Iberian peninsula, 372; - on the fauna of the forest bed, 420; - on the hippopotamus, 377; - on the _Hippopotamus namadicus_, 428, 429; - researches of, in caves of Gibraltar, 204-207. - - Fallow deer, the, 77; - in Britain, 131; - in France, 80; - in Spain and Africa, 380. - - Falsan, M., cited, 403. - - Farrer, Mr., explorations of, 36; - on coins, 102; - on remains from Dowkerbottom cave, 113; - stalagmite, 39. - - Fauna, cave, identical with river-bed, 362; - changes in the, of Great Britain, 78; - of Montpellier, 421; - of Southern Europe, 368, 373; - the pleiocene, 420; - the pleistocene, 393, 417; - the prehistoric, 136, 137. - - _Felis caffer_, the, 138, 266, 388; - in Iberian peninsula, 372; - in Somerset, 394. - - Fellowes, Sir Charles, cited, 164. - - Fibulæ, enamelled, 99. - - Fingal’s cave, 24. - - Fischer, Dr. Gothelf, on the panther, 400. - - Fisher, Rev. O., discovers a flint-flake at Crayford, 416. - - Fisherton, valley-gravels at, 268. - - Fissures, 37, 58; - of Durdham Down, 291; - of Mentone, 373; - of Windmill Hill, 371. - - Flint flakes and scrapers in caves of Périgord, 339; - in caves of Mentone, 373; - in Perthi-Chwareu, 166; - Wookey Hole, 298. - - Florus on the Aquitani, 7. - - Foote, Mr. Bruce, cited, 156; - on flint implements from Madras, 426. - - Fossil mammalia from the German Ocean, 364, 365. - - Foville, M., cited, 170. - - Fowl, the domestic, 77, 80. - - Fox, the Arctic, 348, 396, 400. - - Fraas, Professor, cited, 350, 409. - - France, Basque peoples in, 226; - caves in, 18, 242, 336; - skulls from tumuli in, 203; - the dolicho-cephali and brachy-cephali in, 198. - - Franconia, caves of, 12. - - Franks, Mr., cited, 206; - on drawings of palæolithic hunters, 345; - on enamelling, 100; - on “late Celtic” art, 96, 99. - - Freeman, Mr. E. A., on the dominion of West Wales in the days of - Ecgberht, 130; - on the Norman Conquest, 108. - - Freshford, pleistocene deposits at, 269. - - Fuhlrott, Dr., skull found by, 240. - - - G. - - Gailenreuth, cave of, 12, 240, 273; - filled by a stream, 275. - - Garonne, valley of the, 366. - - Garrigou, M., cited, 316. - - Gatekirk cavern, 50. - - Gaudin, M. Charles, cited, 376. - - Gaudry, Professor, cited, 421; - on fossil remains at Pickermi, 369. - - Gaul and Spain, the peoples of, 220. - - Gautier, M., cited, 247. - - Geikie, Mr. James, cited, 263. - - Geikie, Professor A., cited, 405. - - Gendron, cave of, 239. - - Genista, caves, the, 205; - articles in, 206; - human remains in, 207, 371. - - Geography, pleistocene, 398. - - German Ocean, fossil mammalia in, 364. - - German race, the ancient, 230. - - Germany, bears in, 278; - cave-exploration in, 11, 12. - - Gervais, M., cited, 19; - list of pleiocene mammalia by, 420; - on _Equus robustus_, 421; - on mammalia from Algeria, 379. - - Gesner, Dr., cited, 11. - - Gibraltar, the neolithic caves of, 204, 371; - the Straits of, 389. - - Gildas on the character of the English conquest, 104, 108. - - Glacial period, the, 407; - the relation of palæolithic man to, 409. - - Glaciation in Britain, two periods of, 401. - - Glaciers of Alps, 403; - of Anatolia, 383; - of Lebanon, 382; - in Mediterranean area caused partly by elevation, 387; - of Pyrenees, 404. - - Glutton, the, 206, 275, 396; - jaw of, from Plas Heaton cave, 287. - - Goat, the (_see_ _Capra hircus_). - - Goatchurch cave, 31, 32; - legend of the dog at, 34. - - Goldfuss cited, 18, 273. - - Godwin-Austen, Mr., cited, 263, 388, 405; - on the fresh-water mussel, 364; - researches of, 15. - - Gosse, M., cited, 170, 193, 350. - - Gower, caves of, 288. - - Great Britain, cave-exploration in, 13; - historic period in, 75. - - Green, Rev. J. R., on the conquest of Britain, 96. - - Greenwell, Rev. Canon, discoveries of, in tumuli, 195. - - Grey clays in Victoria cave, 116. - - Grotto di Maccagnone, 376; - dei Colombi inhabited by cannibals, 258; - thigh-bone of child from, 260. - - Guanches of the Canary Isles, the, 211. - - Gunn, Rev. John, cited, 418. - - - H. - - Harkness, Professor, cited, 402. - - Hamy, Dr., cited, 349, 352; - on the cave-bear, 352. - - Hare, the, at Perthi-Chwareu, 150, 166; - in Suabia, 395; - mentioned, 266, 348; - used for food in neolithic times, 165, 217, 373. - - Harpoons used by palæolithic hunters, 342. - - Heathery Burn, cave of, 141; - bronze articles in, 144. - - Heaton, Mr., cited, 287. - - Heer, Professor, on vegetables used in Swiss lake dwellings, 137. - - Helln Pot, descent into, 41; - description of, 45; - exploration of, 43. - - Hipparion found in Suffolk, 422; - _gracile_, 424. - - Hippopotamus, 266; - _amphibius_, 138, 370, 394, 395, 417; - _liberiensis_, 377; - _major_, 377, 418; - _namadicus_, 428; - _palæindicus_, 427; - _Pentlandi_ (pigmy), 267, 377, 378, 400. - - Historic animals, 75, 78; - period, definition of, 75; - period, difference between, and prehistoric, 134. - - History, the evidence of, as to the peoples of Gaul and Spain, 220. - - Hooker, Dr., cited, 386; - on the cedars of Lebanon, 382, 383. - - Horse, the, 136, 150, 166, 399, 418. - - Horseflesh, the use of, 132. - - Howel Dha, the laws of, 77. - - Hughes, Professor, cited, 287. - - Hull, Professor, cited, 402. - - Hunting grounds of palæolithic tribes, 367. - - Hutton, cave of, 292. - - Huxley, Professor, cited, 144, 155, 179; - on brachy-cephalic skulls, 193; - on dolicho-cephalic skulls, 195; - on the classification of crania, 190; - on the skull from Engis cave, 235; - on the skull from Neanderthal cave, 241. - - Hyæna, the, animals at Wookey Hole introduced by, 310; - bones gnawed by, 282, 316; - gnawed jaw of, from Wookey, 313; - man coeval with, in Somerset, 300; - _Perrieri_, 421; - the, pleistocene occupation of, in Victoria cave, 118; - _spelæa_ (spotted), 138, 266, 372, 375, 394; - striped, 266, 336, 394. - - Hyæna-den, characters of a, 314; - Kirkdale, 279. - - - I. - - Iberian peoples, 225; - peninsula, the mammals in, 372. - - Iberic dolicho-cephali, the, 212. - - Ice period in Britain, 402, 406, 408. - - Implements used by palæolithic hunters, 340, 366. - - India, man in, in pleistocene age, 426. - - Ingleborough cave, 36, 37. - - Ireland, caves in, 335; - dolicho-cephalic skulls in, 194-197. - - Irish-Celtic art, 97. - - Irish Elk, the, 79, 137, 278, 401. - - Iron age, the, cave of, 140, 141. - - Issoire, pseudo-pleiocene mammalia of, 420. - - Italy, animals in the museums of, 422. - - - J. - - Jackson, Mr. Joseph, discovers the Victoria cave, 81, 84. - - Jamieson, Mr., cited, 405. - - Jeanjean, M., cited, 18. - - Jewellery in Victoria cave, 95. - - Jones, Professor Rupert, cited, 350. - - - K. - - Kelko cave, 101. - - Kent’s Hole cavern, 14, 17, 324, 325; - age of _machairodus_ of, 330; - deposits in, 326, 327; - the breccia in, 328, 329. - - King, Rev. S. W., researches of, 246. - - King’s Scar, cave in, carinate human femur in, 112, 195. - - Kirkdale cave, 14, 279. - - Kirkhead cave, 125. - - Kühloch cave, 276, 277. - - - L. - - Laing, Mr., cited, 178; - skulls obtained by, 195, 196. - - Lagneaux, M., cited, 238, 239. - - Lances used by palæolithic hunters, 342. - - Laugerie Basse, cave at, 339. - - Lartet, Professor E., cited, 19, 340, 414; - explorations of, 244; - on fossil remains found near Madrid, 372; - on the cave of Aurignac, 243; - on the cave of Périgord, 337; - on palæolithic caves, 351. - - Lartet, Professor Louis, on the cave of Cro-Magnon, 250-252. - - Lastic, Vicomte de, cited, 247. - - Lebanon, the glaciers of, 382, 383. - - Ledbury Hill, skull found near, 242. - - Leibnitz, cited, 12. - - Lemming, the, 138, 237, 266, 348. - - _Lepus cuniculus_, 146, 150, 166, 373; - _timidus_ (_see_ Hare). - - Ligurian tribes, the, 220, 222. - - Limestone, caverns in, 26; - composition of, 51; - erosion of, 52. - - Lion, the, 266, 348, 373; - extinct in Europe, 80; - range of, 393. - - _Littorina littorea_ found in Cro-Magnon cave, 254. - - Llanamynech, caves at, 34. - - Llandebie, cave of, 194. - - Lloyd, Mr., cited, 15, 286. - - Lombrive, cave of, 256. - - Longberry Bank, cave of, 133. - - Long Churn cavern, the, 41. - - Lortet, M., cited, 344. - - Luard, Captain, discovers fossil mammals at Windsor, 365. - - Lubbock, Sir John, cited, 243, 359; - on the stone age, 139. - - Lunel-viel, cave of, 336, 375. - - Lunier, Dr., cited, 170. - - Lyell, Sir Charles, cited, 19, 235, 257, 267, 333, 402; - on the cave of Aurignac, 243, 245; - on the glacial period, 408. - - Lynx, the, 146, 266. - - - M. - - Maccagnone, Grotto di, 376. - - _Machairodus cultridens_, 266; - _latidens_, 400, 417; - a pleiocene species, 332; - at Kent’s Hole, 324, 334; - in the cave at Baume, 337; - probable age of, 330. - - Mackay, Mr., cited, 195. - - Madras, flint implements found near, 426. - - Madrid, fossil animals near, 372. - - Maghlak cave, 377. - - Malham Cove, 55. - - Malta, bone-caves of, 377. - - Mammalia, classification of pleistocene strata by means of, 412-415; - early pleistocene, 417; - evidence of, as to climate, 392; - in Algeria, 379; - in Britain during the second ice-age, 406; - in the Iberian peninsula, 372; - the pleiocene, 420. - - Mammoth, the, 266, 278, 359, 401; - figure of, 346. - - Man, antiquity of, in Europe, 424; - coeval with hyænas in Somerset, 300; - in India in pleistocene age, 426; - in Palestine, 429. - - Manchester Museum, mammoth from Bacton in the, 420. - - _Mangousta Widdringtoni_, the, in Spain and Africa, 380. - - Marcel de Serres, cited, 18, 336, 375. - - Marmot, the, 337, 395; - the pouched, 395. - - Marion, M., cited, 373. - - Martinez, Don Manuel Gongaray, on the prehistoric antiquities of - Andalusia, 209. - - _Mastodon arvernensis_, 331, 332, 422-424; - _Borsoni_, 423, 424; - _brevirostris_, 422. - - Maw, Mr. George, on coast of Mediterranean, 389; - on glaciers of the Atlas, 386; - on level in the Sahara, 390. - - McEnery, Rev. J., discovers the _Machairodus latidens_ in Kent’s - Hole cavern, 330; - manuscripts of, 15. - - McPherson, Mr., cited, 210. - - Mediterranean area in meiocene age, changes of level in, 369, 390. - - Mediterranean, the, physical condition of, in pleistocene age, 381, - 388; - the shores of, 382. - - Medlicott, Mr., cited, 427. - - _Meles taxus_, 131, 144, 150, 166. - - Mendip Hills, the, 59; - the caves of, 292; - the district of, 314. - - Mentone, bone-caves of, 373. - - Metcalfe, Mr., cited, 35; - descends into Helln Pot, 43. - - Mineral condition of deposits in caves, 273. - - Moggridge, Mr., cited, 373; - on the exploration of Mentone, 374. - - Montpellier, the fauna of, 421. - - Moraines in Anatolia, 384. - - Morris, Mr. J. P., explores Kirkhead cave, 125. - - Mortillet, M. de, on palæolithic caves, 353; - on pottery in the palæolithic age, 347. - - Moustier, cave of, 341. - - Murcièlagos, Cueva de los, description of, 209. - - Musk sheep, the, 138, 266; - at Crayford, 416; - range of, 396. - - _Myoxus Melitensis_, 377. - - - N. - - Naulette, Trou de, remains found in the, 349. - - Neanderthal cave, the, 21; - human skull found in, 240. - - Neolithic age, interments of, 158. - - Neolithic caves of France, 198; - of Gibraltar, 204; - of Spain, 208; - of Wales, 159, 166. - - Neolithic races, range of, 189. - - Nilsson, Professor, cited, 163; - on dwarfs, 2; - on origin of chambered tombs, 164, 165. - - North Wales, the caves of, 286. - - - O. - - Oban, remains in a cave at, 195. - - Oreston cave, 13, 317; - _Rhinoceros megarhinus_ of, 415. - - Orrouy, the sepulchral cave of, 202. - - Owen, Professor, cited, 196, 324; - on the cave of Bruniquel, 247, 248. - - Oxford Museum, the, human skull from cave of Llandebie in, 194; - molar of pigmy hippopotamus in, 378. - - - P. - - Palæolithic art, 257; - caves, classification of, 351, 352; - hunters, instruments used by, 340; - hunters, not cannibals, 347; - implements, 354, 366; - man in Europe, 395, 429; - man, relation of, to glacial period, 409; - man in India, 426; - man in Palestine, 429; - man of the river-gravels, 351; - tribes, hunting grounds of, 367. - - Palestine, palæolithic man in, 429. - - Palgrave, Mr. Gifford, on glaciers of Anatolia, 383-385. - - Panther, the, 266, 400. - - Parker, Mr. James, cited, 30, 141, 194. - - Paviland cave, 232. - - Peak, cavern of the, 34. - - Pembrokeshire, caves in, 289. - - Pengelly, Mr., cited, 333; - on Brixham cave, 16, 323; - on Cavillon cave, 258; - on Devonshire caves, 317. - - Pennington, Mr., cited, 126, 285. - - Périgord, caves of, 19; - articles found in the, 337-339. - - Perthes, M. Boucher de, on flint implements, 16, 17. - - Perthi-Chwareu, pottery and implements from, 157; - Professor Busk on human bones from, 167-179; - refuse heap at, 149; - remains of animals at, 151, 153-155, 187; - remains of man at, 153-155; - sepulchral caves at, 152. - - Phahlbauten, the Swiss, 165. - - Phillips, Professor, cited, 284, 405, 411; - on formation of caves, 53; - on stalagmite, 39, 40; - on the Ingleborough cave, 36; - on the origin of caves, 26. - - Physiography of Great Britain in late pleistocene age, 363; - of Mediterranean in pleistocene age, 381. - - Picts and Scots, raids of, in Britain, 105. - - Pickermi, fossil remains at, 369. - - Plas Heaton, the tunnel-cave of, 160, 287. - - Platycnemic leg-bones, 173-176. - - Platycnemism, Professor Busk on, 177-179. - - Pleiocene and pleistocene characteristic animals, 423; - species in Europe, mixture of, 418. - - Pleiocene mammalia, the, 420; - period, the, 424; - species, _machairodus_ a, 332, 333. - - Pleistocene age, the, 10; - animals living in, 359-361; - physiography of Mediterranean in, 381, 388; - remains of animals before the, 60; - climate and geography, 395; - coast-line of North-Western Europe, 362; - divisions, early, 417; - divisions, late, 414; - divisions, middle, 415; - relation of, to prehistoric period, 264, 265; - strata, classification of, 412. - - Po, the river, 389. - - Poole’s cavern, 34, 126. - - Pot-holes and “cirques” in calcareous rocks, 56. - - Porcupine, in Spain and Africa, 380; - found in Belgium, 395. - - Prehistoric period, the, archæological classification of, 138; - conditions of life in, 262; - difference between the historic and, 134; - relation of pleistocene to, 264. - - Prestwich, Mr., cited, 267, 271, 416; - on Brixham cave, 321, 322; - on carbonate of lime in Thames water, 69; - on the discoveries in the valley of the Somme, 17; - on the denudation of the Mendips and Ardennes, 61; - on palæolithic man, 410. - - Provence, bone-caves of, 373. - - Pruner-Bey, Dr., cited, 193. - - Prunières, Dr., cited, 200. - - _Purpura lapillus_ in cave of Cro-Magnon, 254. - - Pyrenees, the, animals living to the North of the Alps and, 359-361; - glaciers of, 403. - - - Q. - - Quatrefages, M. de, cited, 238. - - - R. - - Rabbit, the (_see_ _lepus cuniculus_). - - Ramsay, Professor, cited, 402. - - Rat, the common, migrations of, 76. - - Rattonneau, island of, 373. - - Ravines, 54. - - Reggio, cave of, in Modena, 148. - - Reindeer, the, 76, 79, 278; - absence of, in middle pleistocene division, 416; - engraving of, 345, 356; - in the cave of Lombrive, 256; - in the caves of Périgord, 338; - in the Trou du Frontal, 237; - --period of M. Lartet, 414; - range of, 396. - - Rhætic age, fossils of, 59. - - _Rhinoceros etruscus_, 418, 419, 424; - _hemitœchus_, 281, 288, 372, 400, 417; - _megarhinus_, 266, 334, 400, 404, 415, 416-418; - _tichorhinus_ (woolly), 119, 138, 278, 400. - - Rhosdigre cave, 188; - contents of, 166; - greenstone celt from, 156. - - Rians, cave of, 373. - - Richard, the Abbé, cited, 429. - - Rivière, M., explorations of, 257, 373, 375. - - Roedeer, the, 76. - - Rolleston, Dr., cited, 195; - discovery of pigmy hippopotamus by, 378. - - Roman dominion in Britain, 103, 104. - - Rosenmüller, cited, 12, 13, 273. - - Rütimeyer, Professor, cited, 136, 404. - - - S. - - Sahara, the, changes of level in, 309. - - Samian ware in the Victoria cave, 92; - in the Dowkerbottom cave, 102. - - San Ciro, cave of, 376. - - Schaaffhausen, M., cited, 147; - on the skull from Neanderthal, 241. - - Schmerling, Dr., cited, 395; - researches of, 20, 234, 347. - - Sclaigneaux, cave of, 218; - platycnemic tibia from, 219. - - Sanford, Mr., Ayshford, cited, 31, 63, 140, 293, 307, 394. - - Second ice or glacial period, 406. - - Selsea, remains found at, 405. - - Serres, M. de, cited, 19. - - Serval, the, 21, 372, 394. - - Sicily, bone-caves of, 21; - the Iberians in, 222; - species from, 376. - - Skulls, measurements of brachy-cephalic and dolicho-cephalic, 199; - from Perthi-Chwareu, 171; - of doubtful antiquity, 236; - table of dolicho-cephalic, found in Britain and Ireland, 197. - - Smith, Mr. Roach, on Roman coins, 83. - - Smith, Rev. G. N., on Tenby bone-caves, 289. - - Solutré, horse’s skeleton from, 344. - - Somerset, hyænas in, 301; - mammalia in the caves of, 366. - - Soreil, M., on the cave of Chauvaux, 216. - - Soundings, evidence of, in Southern Europe, 380. - - South Wales, caves of, 288; - mammalia in, 366. - - Southern Europe, bone-caves of, 21. - - Spain, articles found in a copper-mine in, 208; - historical evidence as to the peoples of Gaul and, 220-222. - - Spratt, Admiral, explorations of, 21, 377. - - Spring, Dr., discoveries of, 20; - on the cave of Chauvaux, 215, 216. - - Stag, the, 76, 138. - - Stalagmite, rate of the accumulation of, 39. - - Stanley, Rev. E., cited, 286. - - _Sus Indica_, the, 137. - - _Sus palustris_, 262. - - _Sus scrofa_, 131, 150, 166. - - Switzerland, caves of, 350. - - Symonds, Rev. W. S., explores King Arthur’s cave, 290, 291. - - - T. - - Tapir, the 423. - - Temperature of caves, 71. - - Tenby, cave of Caldy near, 62; - the Black Rock near, 68. - - Thames water, carbonate of lime in, 69, 70. - - Thomas, Rev. D. R., on chambered tomb at Cefn, 163. - - Thor’s cave, near Ashbourne, 127; - occupied by Brit-Welsh, 129. - - Thurnam, Dr., cited, 144; - on classification of crania, 190; - on craniology of Britain in neolithic age, 191; - on dolicho-cephalic skulls, 192; - on skulls from cave of Orrouy, 202. - - Tiddeman, Mr., on the Victoria cave, 85, 122. - - Troglodytes, name of, 6. - - _Trogontherium cuvieri_, 419, 424. - - Tropical and cold climates, animals common to, 400. - - Trou du Frontal, 236; - crania in, 238. - - Tunbridge Wells, rocks at, 25. - - Turner, Professor, on remains in a cave at Oban, 195. - - _Turritella communis_ in cave of Cro-Magnon, 254. - - Tuto, islands of, caves in, 59. - - Tyddyn Bleiddyn, cairn of, 188. - - - U. - - Ultz, burial-places of, in Westphalia, 147. - - _Unio pictorum_ dredged from bottom of English Channel, 364. - - Uphill, cave of, 294; skull from, 194. - - Urus, the, 77, 80, 136, 373, 399. - - _Ursus arctos_, 166, 335. - - _Ursus arvernensis_, 418, 419, 422, 424. - - _Ursus spelæus_, 375. - - - V. - - Val d’Arno, fauna of the, 422. - - Valleys, change in physical conditions of, 271; - deposits in caves and, 272; - in limestone districts, 54; - strata of sand and gravel in, 267, 268. - - Victoria cave, the, bones of animals in, 88; - Brit-Welsh stratum in, 87; - bronze articles in, 90; - coins in, 93; - date of neolithic occupation in, 115; - discovery of, 81; - exploration of, 85; - grey clays in, 116; - human bone from oldest ossiferous stratum in, 411; - implements and ornaments in, 83, 95; - miscellaneous articles in, 90; - period of Brit-Welsh occupation in, 110; - pleistocene occupation by hyænas in, 118, 284; - pre-glacial age of pleistocene stratum in, 121-123, 411. - - Vivian, Mr., cited, 15. - - Virchow, Professor, cited, 238; - on dolicho-cephalic skulls, 217. - - Vogt, Professor, cited, 257. - - - W. - - Water, action of, in caves, 62. - - Water caves of Derbyshire, 34; - of Somersetshire, 29; - of Yorkshire, 35, 50. - - Weathercote, caves at, 47. - - Whidbey, Mr., cited, 13. - - Whitcombe’s Hole, a cave of the Iron Age, 140, 141. - - Willett, Mr., cited, 295, 303. - - Williams, Rev. D., explorations of, 292. - - Williams, Rev John, on caverns in island of Tuto, 59. - - Williamson, Rev. J., cited, 295, 296. - - Wilson, Professor, cited, 196. - - Winterbourne Stoke, the barrow of, 192. - - Winwood, Rev. H. H., cited, 163; - discovers remains of animals at Freshford, 269; - explores the cave at Longberry Bank, 133. - - Wolf, the, 400; - in Britain, 131; - in Spain, 146; - last, in Scotland, 76. - - Woman’s cave, the, near Alhama, 210. - - Wood, Colonel, cited, 17. - - Wookey Hole, hyæna den of, 17, 295, 301, 302; - ashes and implements found at, 308; - bone-beds at, 305; - flint implements found at, 298; - hyæna den of, inhabited by man, 313; - legend of the dog at, 34; - the water cave of, 29. - - - X. - - Xenophon on the panther, 80. - - - Y. - - Yorkshire, caves in, 101, 278. - - -THE END. - - -LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS. - - - - -FOOTNOTES - - -[1] The Natural History of the Hartz Forest (Hercynia Curiosa), -translated from the German of H. Behrens, M.D., by John Andree, 1670, -p. 41. - -[2] Florus, lib. iii. c. x. Delphin. 4to. 1714, p. 112. - -[3] Since this was written, Sir C. Lyell has withdrawn his term -“Post-pleiocene” in favour of Pleistocene. (“Antiquity of Man,” 4th -edition, 1873.) - -[4] Hist. Anim. vol. i. Folio, 1603. Article “Monoceras.” - -[5] Described by Professor Owen, Quart. Geol. Journ. p. 417. See -Hanbury on “Chinese Materia Medica,” 1862, 8vo. p. 40. Some of the -dragons’ teeth were found in caves by Mr. Swinhoe. - -[6] Hercynia Curiosa. - -[7] See Cuvier, Oss. Foss. vol. iv. pp. 290 et seq. - -[8] The references are to be found in Cuvier, top. cit. and in -Buckland, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” 4to. 1822. Most of them I have verified. - -[9] Phil. Trans. 1817, p. 176. - -[10] Pengelly, “Literature of Kent’s Cavern,” Devonshire Association. -1868-9. “Kent’s Hole,” Lecture, delivered in Hulme Town Hall, 1872. - -[11] Comptes Rendus, 1847, pp. 649-50, et 1864, p. 230. - -[12] Prestwich, Phil. Trans. 1860. Proceed. Royal Soc. 1859. - -[13] Quart. Geol. Journ. Jan. 1861. - -[14] Falconer, Palæont. Mem. vol. ii. p. 498. - -[15] Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1865-72. - -[16] The authorities for this paragraph are Cuvier (Oss. Foss.), -Desnoyers (Article “Grottes,” Dictionnaire Univ. d’Histoire Naturelle), -Marcel de Serres (Cavernes à Oss. Foss. du Département de l’Aude, -1839), Gervais (Paléontologie Française, 1859, and Nouvelles Recherches -sur les Animaux Vertébrés, Vivants et Fossiles, 1868-9-70). - -[17] An. des Sc.: Nat. Zool. iv. sér. t. xv. - -[18] Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ. - -[19] Recherches sur les Oss. Foss. découverts dans les Cavernes de la -Province de Liège, 4to. atlas folio. - -[20] Bull. de l’Académie Royale de Belgique, 1 sér. t. xx. p. 427, -1853; 2 sér. t. xviii. p. 479, 1864; xxii. p. 187, 1866. - -[21] L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs de Dinant -sur Meuse. Bruxelles, 1871. 2nd edit., 1872. - -[22] Ice-caves, 8vo. 1865, Longmans. - -[23] D’Orbigny, Dictionnaire Universel d’Histoire Naturelle, Article -“Grottes.” - -[24] Quart. Geol. Journ. xxvii. 312. - -[25] When the English conquered Somerset from the Brit-Welsh, they -translated the Celtic Ogo into Hole, whence the cave and village of -Wookey Hole were named, just as they translated a neighbouring hill, -called Pen, into Knowle, the generic Celtic term in each case being -used to specify a particular object. There are many other instances of -the like use of a Celtic name by the English conquerors of the Celts. -In the Limestone plateau of Llanamynech, near Oswestry, there is a cave -called “The Ogo.” - -[26] Phil. Trans. 1680, p. 1. - -[27] The cave is accessible, and can be examined without any climbing. - -[28] Both of these caves are kept in excellent order, and the latter is -lighted with gas. - -[29] The cave is admirably preserved by the care of the owner, J. -Farrer, Esq., and may be visited without any difficulty. - -[30] Rivers, Mountains, and Sea-coast of Yorkshire, 8vo. 1854, p. 34. - -[31] On the Ordnance Maps it is wrongly printed Alum Pot. - -[32] Op. cit. Article Grottes. - -[33] L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs de Dinant -sur Meuse, Bruxelles, 1871. - -[34] The bare pavements above Malham Cove are worthy of a careful -examination. - -[35] I have used the term incretionary as implying an accumulation of -mineral matter from the circumference of a cavity towards its centre, -as in the case of an agate. Concretionary action, with which it is -generally confused, ought to be defined as the deposition of successive -layers of matter round a nucleus or centre. The one action operates -from the circumference to the centre, the other from the centre to the -circumference. - -[36] Corals and Coral Islands, 1872, p. 361. - -[37] Prestwich, Ann. Address Geol. Soc. 1872, p. 84. - -[38] Phil. Trans. April 7th, 1680, p. 731. - -[39] “Ice-Caves in France and Switzerland.” Longmans, 1865, p. 296. - -[40] Leges Walliæ. - -[41] Bell, “British Quadrupeds,” 8vo. p. 386. - -[42] The authorities for the preceding paragraphs will be found -in Chapter II. of my Preliminary Treatise on the “Relation of the -Pleistocene Mammalia to those now living in Europe” (Palæont. Soc. -1874). - -[43] Benedict. ad Mensas Ekkehardi Monachi Sangallensis, l. 129. - -[44] Buffon, Quadrupeds, l. v. p. 52; l. x. p. 67. Sir G. C. Lewis, -“Notes and Queries,” 2nd series, l. ix. pp. 4, 5. - -[45] See Rolleston, Journ. Anat. and Phys., 1868, pp. 51-2. Lenz, -“Zoologie der Alten.” - -[46] Fig. 19, A. - -[47] Roach Smith, “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, p. 72, 1844. It -is noticed by Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Historic Society of Lancashire and -Cheshire, May 11, 1865; and by Mr. Denny, Trans. Geol. and Polytechnic -Soc. of West Riding, 1859. - -[48] “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, pp. 69, 70. - -[49] The Victoria Cave has engaged the attention of the following -writers:--Farrer, Proceed. Soc. Antiquaries, vol. iv.;--Roach Smith -and Jackson, “Collectanea Antiqua,” vol. i. No. 5, 1844;--Denny, -Proceed. Geol. and Polytechnic Society of the West Riding of Yorkshire, -1859;--Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Historic Society of Cheshire, May 11, -1865;--Boyd Dawkins, “Nature,” April 21, 1870; British Assoc. Reports, -1870; Macmillan’s Magazine, Sept. 1871; Journ. Anthrop. Institute, -1871;--Tiddeman, “Nature,” 1872;--Boyd Dawkins and Tiddeman, British -Assoc. Reports, 1872;--Tiddeman, Geol. Mag., Jan. 1873;--Boyd Dawkins, -Proceed. Manch. Philosophical Soc., Feb. 1873;--Brockbank, Proceed. -Manch. Philosophical Soc., March 1873. - -[50] See Palæont. Society, 1874--Boyd Dawkins’ Preliminary Treatise, -Chapter II. - -[51] R. D. Darbishire, Proceed. Manchester Numismatic Society, Part II. -1865: “On some Autonomous Coins of Ancient Spain.” - -[52] Vetusta Monumenta, vol. vi. - -[53] I have to thank the Rev. J. R. Green for allowing me to quote this -passage from his work, which is now in the press. - -[54] Antiquités Suisses, Second Supplement; Lausanne, 1867, p. 15, Pl. -xii. figs. 3, 4. - -[55] La Seine Inférieure, 4to., 1867, p. 203. - -[56] See Kemble, “Horæ Ferales,” 4to.; Description of Plates by A. W. -Franks, p. 64. - -[57] ταῦτα φασι τὰ χρώματα τοὺς ἐν Ὠκεανῷ βαρβάρους ἐγχεῖν τῷ χάλκῳ -διαπύρῳ, τὰ δὲ συνίστασθαι καὶ λιθοῦσθαι, καὶ σώζειν ἃ ἐγράφη (Icon. -lib. i. c. 28). The art was evidently unknown in Rome at this time. - -[58] Notice des Émaux du Musée du Louvre, 1857, pp. 25, 26. - -[59] Eckroyd Smith, Trans. Hist. Soc. Lancashire and Cheshire, 1866. -Limestone Caves of Craven. - -[60] Proc. Geol. and Polytechnic Soc. of West Riding of Yorkshire, -1859, p. 45 _et seq._ - -[61] Denny and Farrer, op. cit. 1864-5, 414 _et seq._; Farrer, Proc. -Soc. Antiq. vol. iv. - -[62] The authorities for this paragraph are Gildas, Nennius, and -others, printed in “Monumenta Historica Britannica,” folio, Rolls -Publication. - -[63] “Repellunt nos Barbari ad mare, repellit nos mare ad Barbaros; -inter hæc oriuntur duo genera funerum; aut jugulamur aut mergimur.” -GILDAS, xvii. - -[64] “Britones de ipsis montibus, speluncis ac saltibus dumis consertis -continue rebellabant.” GILDAS, xvii. Bæda, _Hist. Eccles._ lib. i. cxiv. - -[65] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, _passim_. - -[66] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, A.D. 449. “From Anglia, which has ever -since remained waste between the Jutes and Saxons, came the men of East -Anglia, Middle Anglia, Mercia, and all North-humbria.” The MS. A, from -which this was taken, ends in A.D. 975. The passage was taken from Bæda -who lived in the 8th century. - -[67] See E. A. Freeman, “Norman Conquest,” vol. i. - -[68] “Confovebatur ... de mari usque ad mare ignis orientalis -sacrilegorum manu exaggeratus, et finitimas quasque civitates populans, -qui non quievit accensus donec cunctam pene exurens insulæ superficiem, -rubra occidentalem trucique oceanum linguâ delamberet.”--xxiv. - -[69] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. - -[70] On the date of the conquest of Lancashire see “Manchester Phil. -and Lit. Soc. Proc.” 1873, p. 25. In working out this somewhat -difficult question, I am indebted to the Rev. J. R. Green for most -valuable aid. - -[71] Gildas, Nennius, the Annales Cambriæ, Bæda, and the Anglo-Saxon -Chronicle are the authorities for these statements. - -[72] The section of the Victoria Cave published by Mr. Tiddeman in the -Geological Magazine expresses the relation of the clay with boulders -to the cave-earth with greater clearness than I could observe on the -ground. The laminated clay is not yet proved to occupy such a large -area in the cave, or to be so regularly deposited, or so clearly -defined. It occurs at _various_ levels in the mass of the grey clay -in the section (to be seen on May 21, 1873), above and below the -cave-earth.--“The Older Deposits in the Victoria Cave,” Geol. Mag. x. -p. 11. - -[73] See Essays by the writer in “Pop. Sci. Rev.” Oct. 1871: “On the -relation of the Pleistocene Mammalia to the Glacial period.” “On the -Classification of the Pleistocene Strata of Europe by means of the -Mammalia;” Quart. Geol. Journ. June 1872. - -[74] Mém. de l’Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, 6^e Sér. -tome v. 1849, Pl. xiii. Fig. 1. - -[75] See my “Pleistocene Mammals of Yorkshire,” Geol. and Polytechnic -Soc. of West Riding of Yorks. Leeds, Aug. 6th, 1866. - -[76] See Brit. Ass. Reports, Bradford, 1873. - -[77] Mem. Anthrop. Soc. vol. ii. p. 358. - -[78] Sussex Archæol. Coll., 1863. - -[79] Trans. Midland Sci. Ass., Sess. 1864-5, pp. 1-6, 19, 29, Plates -1-15, “Report on the Exploration of Thor’s Cave,” by E. Brown, Esq. - -[80] See E. A. Freeman, “Norman Conquest,” vol. i. p. 43. - -[81] Preliminary Treatise on the Relation of the Pleistocene Mammalia -to those now living in Europe. Palæont. Soc. 1874, chap. ii. - -[82] “Equos etiam plerique in vobis comedunt, quod nullus Christianorum -in orientalibus facit.” Haddan and Stubbs, “Councils and Ecclesiastical -Documents relating to Great Britain and Ireland,” vol. ii. p. 459. - -[83] Laing, “Norway,” p. 316. Mr. Laing justly argues that the habit -of eating horseflesh in Norway, where pasturage is scant, must have -been acquired in the luxuriant grassy steppes of Central Asia by the -ancestors of the Scandinavians. - -[84] Benedict. ad Mensas Ekkehardi Monachi Sangallensis, Pertz. Mon. -Germ., vol. vi. p. 117. - -[85] “Pleistocene Mammalia.” Palæont. Soc. 1866. Introd. Internat. -Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, Paris, and Norwich volumes. - -[86] These questions are treated in detail in my Preliminary Treatise, -“Brit. Pleist. Mammalia.” Palæont. Soc. 1874. - -[87] “Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,” p. 2. - -[88] Somerset Archæol. and Nat. Hist. Soc. 1864. “On the Caverns of -Burrington Combe.” - -[89] Elliott, “Geologist,” 1862, p. 34, ditto p. 167. Huxley, ditto, p. -205. Carter Blake, ditto, p. 312. Mackie, “Proceed. Soc. Antiq.” 2nd -Series, vol. ii. p. 177. - -[90] This woodcut, as well as Figs. 33 and 35, have been kindly lent by -the Council of the Society of Antiquaries. - -[91] Commissao Geologica de Portugal. Estudos Geoligicos. Da Existencia -do homen no nosso solo em Tempos mui remotos provada pelo estudos des -cavernas. Primeiro opusculo. Noticea ácerca das Grutas da Césareda. Por -J. F. N. Delgado com a versao em Francez por M. Dalhunty. - -[92] Ethnol. Journ. N.S. 7, p. 43. - -[93] For definition of these terms, see p. 190. - -[94] International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, Norwich Volume, -p. 84. - -[95] International Congress, Paris Volume, p. 159. - -[96] Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 363. - -[97] Burial in the contracted posture, which is so characteristic of -the neolithic age, was probably due, as is suggested by my friend Mr. -John Evans, F.R.S., to the habit of sleeping in that posture and not -at full length on a bed. The body was not laid out after death, but -may have been folded together, as in the case of the ancient Peruvian -mummies. No regularity, however, in the contracted posture could be -observed in the many tumuli and caves which I have explored, although -very generally the corpse had been interred on its side. - -[98] Edinburgh New Phil. Soc. (1833), No. 27, p. 40. - -[99] For the definition of the term, see p. 190. - -[100] Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, vol. ii. New -Series, No. 1, April 1870, p. 45, pl. vii. fig. 3. - -[101] Nilsson’s “Stone Age,” translated by Sir J. Lubbock. - -[102] These are merely samples of the large number of human skulls and -bones which were discovered. - -[103] Amongst the Keiss crania described by Prof. Huxley, this most -closely resembles his No. 5; but it is of the same type as No. 3 and -No. 7, and not very far from that of the Towyn-y-capel cranium, through -which the transition to the Mewslade form (“Nat. Hist. Rev.” vol. i. p. -174, pl. v.) is very easy. - -[104] The forms most closely resembling this skull amongst those from -Keiss are Nos. 3 and 7. - -[105] Déformation du crâne resultant de la méthode la plus générale de -couvrir la tête des enfans. Paris, 1834. - -[106] Essai sur les déformations artificielles du crâne, par L. A. -Gosse, de Genève. Paris, 1855. - -[107] Recherches sur quelques déformations du crâne observées dans le -Département des Deux-Sêvres (“Ann. Médico-psychologique”). Paris, 1852. - -[108] This index is obtained by dividing the least circumference by the -length of the bone. - -[109] “Mémoires sur les ossemens des Eyzies.” Paris, 1868. “On the -Human Skulls and Bones found in the Cave of Cro-magnon,” Reliquiæ -Aquitanicæ, p. 97. - -[110] But these are by no means extreme instances of the Gibraltar -_tibiæ_. - -[111] As regards the absolute dimensions of the skulls, it would seem -that the Welsh crania stand high in the scale--quite as high as any of -the existing races of mankind. I have made the comparison in a rough -way in the following manner:-- - -If the numbers representing the _length_, _breadth_, and _height_ -of the skull are added together, a number is obtained which will, -of course, in some measure, indicate the gross dimensions of the -skull. From the rather numerous data furnished by my own Tables of -Measurements I obtained the results stated in the subjoined list, -in which the gross mean dimensions of various sets of crania are -contrasted. - - 1. Scandinavian priscan skulls of the neolithic epoch 18·88 - 2. Esquimaux and Greenlanders 18·81 - 3. Perthi-Chwareu skulls 18·65 - 4. Modern European 18·58 - 5. Various ancient and priscan skulls 18·55 - 6. Burmese 18·55 - 7. Caffres and Zooloos (extratropical negroes) 18·45 - 8. Derbyshire tumuli 18·42 - 9. Tasmanian 17·95 - 10. Hottentot 17·80 - 11. Negroes (intertropical) 17·67 - 12. Australian 17·58 - 13. Bushmen 17·48 - 14. Veddahs 17·09 - 15. Andamanese 17·00 - -[112] “Notes on the Human Remains from Keiss,” p. 85. - -[113] _Loc. cit._ p. 114. - -[114] Vol. i. p. 174, pl. v. - -[115] The stature is obtained, according to Prof. Humphry’s method, -from the length of the femur, which is 27·5 of stature taken as 100. - -[116] Ορθος straight, γναθος jaw, with profile vertical, as opposed to -προγναθος, with projecting jaws, or “snouty.” - -[117] “Anthropological Memoirs,” vols. i. and iii.; Huxley and Laing, -“Prehistoric Remains in Caithness.” - -[118] “Mem. Lit. and Phil. Soc. Manchester,” vol. v. p. 213. - -[119] “Anthrop. Mem.” vol. i. p. 144. - -[120] Brit. Assoc. Report, 1871, p. 160, “On Human and Animal Bones and -Flints, from a Cave at Oban, Argyleshire,” by Prof. Turner. - -[121] Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness,” p. 119 _et -seq._ - -[122] “Prehistoric Annals of Scotland.” - -[123] The evidence of cannibalism in the contents of the tumuli seems -to me to be doubtful. - -[124] Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 182. - -[125] Bull. Soc. Anthrop. iv. - -[126] Anthrop. Mem. i. 490. - -[127] Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, 1869. - -[128] Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, 1869. - -[129] Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez, “Antiguedades Prehistoricas de -Andalucia.” Madrid, 1868. 8vo. - -[130] “The Woman’s Cave,” 4to. Parts I. and II. 1870-1. Cadiz, Federico -Joly y Velasco. - -[131] Don Manuel Gongora y Martinez, _op. cit._ - -[132] Ethnological Journ. N.S. vii. p. 107. - -[133] Broca, “Bull. Soc. Anthrop.” s.s. t. i. p. 470; t. ii. p. 10-30; -s.s. t. iii. p. 43-101. The cephalic index in the preceding Table -differs slightly from that given by M. Broca. Thurnam, “Anthrop. Mem.” -iii. p. 64 _et seq._ - -[134] These skulls are preserved in the Museum of the Anthropological -Society at Paris, where by the kindness of Dr. Broca I was allowed -to study them in the autumn of 1873. Some were marked with the “tête -annulaire.” - -[135] Laing and Huxley, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness.” - -[136] Spring, “Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belgique,” 1 sér. l. xx. p. 427; 2 -sér. l. xviii. p. 479; l. xxii. p. 187. - -[137] Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les Âges de la Pierre dans les environs -de Dinant sur Meuse,” 2d edit. p. 222. - -[138] Soreil, “Sur Nouvelle Exploration de la Caverne de Chauvau,” -Congrès Intern. Anthropologie et d’Archéologie Prehistoriques, p. 381 -_et seq._ Bruxelles, 1872. - -[139] International Congress, Bruxelles, 1872, p. 370. - -[140] Cæsar, i. 50. - -[141] “Bull. Soc. Anthrop de Paris,” 2 sér. t. 111., p. 118. - -[142] “Diodorus Siculus,” iv. 6; v. 39. Steur, “Ethnographie des -Peuples de l’Europe,” p. 31 _et seq._; Donaldson, “Varronianw.” p. -70 _et seq._ Dion. Hal. i 22. See also Niebuhr and Mommsen. The -documentary evidence is so uncertain as to the affinities of the -Ligurians that scarcely any two writers agree. “Quot homines tot -sententiæ.” - -[143] Thucydides, vi. 2. - -[144] Tacitus, “Agricola,” xi. - -[145] Cæsar, i. 12. - -[146] Prof. Huxley brings them into relation with the ancient -Egyptians, the “Melanochroi” of India, and the Australians, “Critiques -and Addresses,” p. 134; Prehistoric Congress, Norwich Volume, p. 92 _et -seq._ - -[147] See Prof. Huxley’s “Critiques and Addresses,” p. 167. - -[148] For a masterly account of the varying stature in Britain and -Ireland, see Dr. Beddoe’s Essay, “Anthrop. Soc. Mem.” iii. p. 384-573. - -[149] “τοὺς μὲν Ἀκυϊτανοὺς τελέως ἐξηλλαγμένους οὐ τῇ γλώττῃ μόνον ἀλλὰ -καὶ τοῖς σώμασιν, ἐμφερεῖς Ἰβήρεσι μᾶλλον ἢ Γαλάταις· τοὺς δὲ λοιποὺς -Γαλατικοὺς μὲν τὴν ὄψιν, ὁμογλώττους δ’ οὐ πάντας, ἀλλ’ ἐνίους μικρὸν -παραλλαττόντας ταῖς γλώτταις.”--Lib. iv. c. 1, §1. - -[150] The correspondence of my map, Fig. 68, with that of M. Broca, is -one of those undesigned coincidences which are so valuable in arriving -at truth, for his most admirable essay on the Ethnology of France did -not come into my hands until my own map was engraved. M. Broca takes a -different point of view to that advanced in these pages, holding that -the Celts were dark and the Belgic were blue-eyed tall Kymri or Cimbri. -The Celts known to history were undoubtedly a tall fair race. - -[151] In treating this difficult subject, I have purposely omitted to -use the uncertain light of philology. We may expect to derive as much -knowledge as to the relations between Tyrrhenian, Ligurian, Basque, and -other obscure non-Aryan peoples from the study of languages, as we have -already obtained of the Aryans by the same means. It is very probable -that, like the Sanscrit, the Basque roots will be found widely spread -both in Asia, Asia Minor, Europe, and N. Africa. - -[152] “Anthrop. Mem.” Vols. i. and iii. (Crania Britannica.) - -[153] See Huxley’s “Critiques and Addresses,” p. 167 _et seq._ - -[154] “Rutilæ Caledoniam habitantium comæ, magni artus Germanicam -originem asseverant.” Agricola, c. xi. - -[155] “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” p. 82 _et seq._ - -[156] Schmerling, “Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles découverts -dans les Cavernes de la province de Liége.” 4to. 1833-4, p. 29 _et seq._ - -[157] Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les âges de la Pierre, dans les environs -de Dinant-sur-Meuse,” p. ix. The implements are palæolithic (see p. -22), but there is no evidence that they are of the same antiquity as -the human remains. They may be, and probably are, much older. - -[158] “Man’s Place in Nature,” chap. iii. Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man,” -1st edition, p. 63. - -[159] Dupont, _op. cit._ p. 56. - -[160] Prehistoric Congress, Brussels, 1872, p. 549 _et seq._ - -[161] Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness.” - -[162] Intern. Congress, Brussels Volume, p. 549. - -[163] Dupont, _op. cit._ p. 140. - -[164] Buckland, “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ,” p. 135. These specimens are in -the Oxford Museum, and are identified by Lord Enniskillen as having -been derived from Gailenreuth. - -[165] Schaaffhausen, translated by Busk, “Nat. Hist. Review,” April -1861. Huxley, “Man’s Place in Nature,” iii. p. 156-171. Lyell’s -“Antiquity of Man,” 1st edition, p. 75. - -[166] Huxley and Laing, “Prehistoric Remains of Caithness,” p. 115. - -[167] Compare Lyell, 1st edition, p. 182 _et seq._, with 4th edition, -p. 122 _et seq._ - -[168] Phil. Trans. 159, p. 517. - -[169] Vogt, “Lectures on Man,” pp. 329-380. Thurnam, “Anthrop. Mem.” i. -501. - -[170] It has been dug out in its natural position, and is now to be -seen in the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, where I studied it in the -summer of 1873. - -[171] Pengelly, “The Cave Man of Mentone,” Trans. Devon Ass. 1873. -Moggridge, Brit. Ass. Edinburgh, 1873. - -[172] Prehistoric Congress, Bologna Volume, p. 391, 1873. - -[173] See on this point a valuable essay by Mr. Hyde Clark, “Palestine -Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement,” N.S. April 1871, p. 97 _et seq._ - -[174] The authorities for these facts will be found in my “Preliminary -Treatise,” Palæont. Soc. 1874. The prehistoric age of the forest is -to be fixed by the presence of the goat and _Bos longifrons_, both of -which were unknown in Europe in the pleistocene age. - -[175] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xx. p. 188 _et seq._ - -[176] See Prestwich, “Phil. Trans.” 1860, p. 277, and 1864, p. 247, and -“Quart. Geol. Journ.” _passim_ 1859-70. - -[177] “Reliquiæ Diluvianæ.” 4to. 1824, p. 133. - -[178] I am indebted to Lord Enniskillen, who explored Gailenreuth along -with Sir Philip Egerton, for several corrections in Buckland’s section. - -[179] Op. cit. p. 137. - -[180] Op. cit. p. 1. _et seq._ - -[181] Op. cit. p. 38. - -[182] Buckland, op. cit. p. 61. - -[183] “Edinburgh New Phil. Soc.” No. 27, p. 40. Falconer, “Palæont. -Mem.” ii. p. 541. I have examined nearly all the contents of these -caves. - -[184] Anthrop. Institute Meeting, 9 Dec. 1873. - -[185] Buckland, op. cit. 80. - -[186] Op. cit. p. 80. - -[187] Falconer “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 498. - -[188] “On the Tenby Bone Caves,” by a Pembrokeshire Rector. London: -Kent and Co. - -[189] See “Brit. Assoc. Rep.” 1871. “Geol. Mag.” viii. 433. - -[190] Buckland, _op. cit._ p. 60. - -[191] Buckland, _op. cit._ Rutter, “Delineations of Somerset,” p. 100. - -[192] See Buckland, _op. cit._ Rutter, _op. cit._ - -[193] See “Catalogue of Mammalia, in Taunton Museum,” by W. A. Sanford, -Esq. Som. Archæol. Soc. - -[194] Rutter gives a very good section of this cave (_op. cit._ p. 78). - -[195] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1862: On a Hyæna-den at Wookey Hole. Also -“Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1863. - -[196] An incident connected with our work illustrates remarkably the -attachment which a dog will suddenly show towards a stranger. In our -lodging at Wells there was a beautiful Scotch deerhound, named “Luna,” -whose master was away at the time. Luna persisted in being with us -day and night. In the morning she walked with us to the cave, and -lay watching at the entrance till we came out, for she was afraid to -venture into the darkness. In the evening she returned home with us. -She continued to do this the whole time of that year’s excavations. It -was only natural to suppose that when we left she would, like other -dogs, pick up new friends. But she did nothing of the kind. When we -inquired the next year upon our return, we were told that poor Luna -refused food the day we left, and gradually pined away and died. - -[197] Possibly it may have belonged to _Elephas_, but its more compact -texture seems to me to indicate rhinoceros. - -[198] Bone needles were found in Kent’s Hole and in many foreign caves -of this age. - -[199] These woodblocks were used in my essay on Hyænas in the “Natural -History Review,” and have been lent by the kindness of Messrs. Williams -and Norgate. - -[200] Pengelly, “Literature of the Oreston Caverns,” Trans. Dev. Ass. -1872. Buckland, _op. cit._ - -[201] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxvi. 457, _et seq._ - -[202] “The Literature of the Caverns near Yealmpton, South Devon,” by -W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.S.A. Trans. Devon Ass., 1870. - -[203] Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 486, 591. - -[204] Proceed. Royal Soc. xx. p. 514. “Report on the Exploration of -Brixham Cave,” by W. Pengelly, F.R.S., G. Bush, F.R.S., John Evans, -F.R.S., and Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S. This report was delayed by the -death of Dr. Falconer. - -[205] “Ancient Stone Implements,” p. 46-8. - -[206] “Proceed. Royal Soc.” 1872, vol. xxii. p. 523-4. - -[207] “Trans. Devon Ass.” On the Introduction of Cavern Accumulations. - -[208] “Trans. Devon Ass.” 1870. - -[209] Pengelly, “Literature of Kent’s Hole:” Trans. Ass. Devon. 1868 -9-70. Godwin Austen, “Proceed. Geol. Soc.” iii. 286-7. “Trans. Geol. -Soc.” vi. p. 433, _et seq._ Vivian, “Brit. Ass. Rep.” 1847, p. 73. - -[210] The committee consisted of Sir C. Lyell, Prof. Phillips, Sir John -Lubbock, Mr. John Evans, Mr. Edward Vivian, Mr. William Pengelly, to -which subsequently Mr. George Busk, Mr. Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. Ayshford -Sanford were added. - -[211] For Figs. 96 to 100 I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. Evans. - -[212] See Evans’ “Ancient Stone Implements,” Fig. 388. It is -unnecessary to describe the implements. - -[213] For an account of Machairodus, see “Brit. Pleistocene Mammalia,” -Palæont. Soc., _Felidæ_, cxxii. p. 184. - -[214] Gervais, “Zool. et Paléont. Françaises,” 1859, p. 251. “Animaux -Vertébrés, Vivants et Fossiles,” 1867-9, p. 78, pl. xviii. Lartet, -Prehistoric Congress, Paris Volume, 1868, p. 269. - -[215] These figures have been kindly lent by the Palæontographical -Society. - -[216] “Journ. Royal Dublin Soc.” ii. p. 344. - -[217] “Journ. Geol. Soc. Dublin,” x. p. 147. “Journ. Royal Dublin Soc.” -ii. p. 352. - -[218] Scott, “Geol. Soc. Dublin,” Feb. 10, 1864. - -[219] An account of the numerous caves of France will be found in the -works of M. de Serres, “Revue Archéologique” and in the “Matériaux pour -l’Histoire de l’Homme.” - -[220] Boyd Dawkins, “Brit. Pleist. Mam. Palæont. Soc.” 1872, p. 189. - -[221] Gervais, “Animaux Vertébrés,” p. 78, pl. xviii. - -[222] Lartet, International Congress, Paris Volume, p. 269. - -[223] “Cavernes du Périgord,” “Revue Archéologique,” 8vo. 1864. -“Reliquiæ Aquitanicæ,” 4to. 1865-74. This magnificent history of the -researches, in the prosecution of which Mr. Christy lost his life, was -published at his expense under the editorship of Prof. Rupert Jones, -F.R.S., to whom I am indebted for the liberty to use the letterpress -and engravings quoted in this book. - -[224] The same bones of the ox and horse are now imported into Britain -from South America for the manufacture of buttons. - -[225] Boyd Dawkins, “Range of the Mammoth,” Pop. Sc. Rev. July, 1868. - -[226] “Recherches sur les oss. foss. découverts dans les Cavernes de -Liége.” 4to. - -[227] Dupont, “L’Homme pendant les Ages de la Pierre dans les Environs -de Dinant-sur-Meuse.” 2nd edit. p. 187. - -[228] Dupont, _op. cit._ “Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belgique,” xxii. p. 20. -Hamy, “Paléontologie Humaine,” p. 231. - -[229] The discovery will shortly be published by Prof. Heine, of Zurich. - -[230] “Matériaux pour l’Histoire de l’Homme,” May 1869, p. 272. - -[231] “Ancient Stone Implements.” - -[232] “Ann. des Sc. Nat.” 4th sér. t. 15, p. 231. - -[233] Hamy, _op. cit._ Lubbock, “Prehistoric Man.” - -[234] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” June 5, 1872. - -[235] Prehistoric Congress, Brussels Volume, 1872, p. 432. “Mém. -Anthrop. Soc. de Paris,” 2nd sér. t. 6, p. 170. - -[236] “Eskimos in the South of Gaul.” Saturday Review, December 8th, -1866. Edinburgh Review, “Prehistoric Times.” October 1870. - -[237] The authorities for the foreign lists of animals will be found in -the “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1872, p. 424. The British animals have been -determined principally by myself and Dr. Falconer. - -[238] “Classification of the Pleistocene Strata,” Quart. Geol. Journ. -Nov. 1872, p. 410. - -[239] Godwin Austen, “Quart. Geol. Journ.” vol. i. p. 69. De la Bêche, -“Theoretical Researches,” p. 190. Lyell, “Antiquity of Man,” 4th edit. -p. 328. - -[240] The accumulation of the remains of reindeer in the limited area -of the excavation was enormous. - -[241] “Les Oss. Foss. de Pikermi,” 4to. - -[242] Some parts of the rest of this chapter have been published in the -“Popular Science Review,” March 1873. - -[243] “Palæontographical Memoirs,” vol. ii. p. 554. Busk, Prehistoric -Congress, Norwich volume, 1869. - -[244] “Comptes Rendus,” xlvi. 1858. - -[245] Prehistoric Congress, Paris volume, p. 96. - -[246] “Brit. Ass. Reports,” Edinburgh, 1871. - -[247] “Brit. Assoc. Rep.” 1871. - -[248] _Découverte d’une Squelette Humaine de l’époque Paléolithique -dans les Cavernes de Baoussé-Roussé, dites Grottes de Menton_, 1873; -also Prehistoric Congress, Brussels volume. M. Rivière adds the Wapiti, -or large variety, and the _Cervus Corsicanus_, or small variety of the -stag, the chamois, and the woolly rhinoceros (the two last of which -may be perhaps identical with the ibex and _R. hemitœchus_, determined -by Prof. Busk, as neither is mentioned by M. Rivière), and the _Capra -primigenia_ of Gervais, a large goat commonly found in neolithic caves. - -[249] The depth at which the skeleton was found is a matter of dispute, -the estimates varying from seven feet (Pengelly) to (6·55 m.) 21·49 -feet (Rivière). Pengelly, _Cave man of Mentone_, “Trans. Devon Ass.” -1873, pp. 10 and 13. - -[250] “Palæont. Mem.” ii. p. 543. - -[251] It is of the same species as the bear from Grays Thurrock. - -[252] Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. p. 552. Spratt, “Quart. Geol. -Journ.” xxiii. p. 293. - -[253] “Bull. Soc. Géol. Fr.” 2^e sér. t. xi. p. 340. - -[254] Gervais, “Animaux Vertébrés Vivants et Fossiles,” 4to. p. 88. - -[255] Hooker, “Nat. Hist. Review,” II. p. 12, 1861. - -[256] _Nature_, vol. v. p. 444; vol. vi. 536. - -[257] “A Journey to Morocco, and the Ascent of the Great Atlas,” 8vo. -Slater, Troubridge, Salop. - -[258] “Geological Notes on a Journey from Algiers to Morocco.” Geol. -Soc. Feb. 25, 1874. - -[259] See “British Pleistocene Mammalia,” Palæont. Soc. _Felis spelæa_, -c. xviii. - -[260] “_Ovibos moschatus_,” Palæont. Soc. 1872, p. 27, _et seq._ - -[261] This is treated at greater length in my “Essay on -Classification,” Quart. Geol. Journ. Nov. 1872, and in the -“Introduction to British Pleistocene Mammalia,” Palæont. Soc. - -[262] Mr. James Geikie’s view (“The Great Ice-Age,” 8vo. 1874) that the -mixture of the northern and southern forms is due to the destruction of -ossiferous strata by streams, which subsequently deposited remains of -widely different ages together, is rendered untenable by the fact that -they are generally preserved in the same mineral state. It would have -been impossible for this to have taken place without leaving decided -traces behind in the rolled and water-worn condition of the older -series, such as may be seen in the case of the eocene and meiocene -fossils in the Red Crag of Suffolk. - -[263] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxii. 391. - -[264] See Falconer, “Palæont. Mem.” - -[265] I have to acknowledge the kind assistance of Professors Hull -and Harkness, Mr. Kinahan, and the Rev. H. M. Close, in correlating -the Irish with the English glacial deposits. The reader will find the -glacial period most ably treated in Lyell’s “Antiquity of Man.” - -[266] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxi. 161. - -[267] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” 1872, p. 410. - -[268] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xx. p. 457. - -[269] “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. p. 49. - -[270] “Palæont. Mem.” vol. ii. pp. 189, 190. - -[271] “Quart. Geol. Journ.” xxiv. p. 484. “International Congress,” -Norwich volume. See also “Evans’ Ancient Stone Implements,” p. 570. - -[272] “Palæont. Mem.” ii. 642, _et passim_. - -[273] This implement was exhibited before the Meeting of the British -Association at Edinburgh, in 1871. - -[274] Brit. Ass. Reports, 1865, p. 18. - - - - -Transcriber’s Notes - - -Punctuation, hyphenation, and spelling were made consistent when a -predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not -changed. - -Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional unbalanced -quotation marks retained. - -Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained. - -The corrections listed in “Additions and Corrections” at the beginning -of the book have been made to the main text of this eBook. The -additions have not been added. The errors listed for pages 196 and 201 -were not found in the text, and both the opening and closing inverted -commas (quotation marks) have been removed on page 386. - -Unlike the printed book, all illustrations in this eBook appear between -paragraphs, so the page references in the List of Illustrations do not -necessarily match their actual positions. However, links, in versions -of this eBook that support them, do lead directly to the corresponding -illustrations. - -The Index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page -references. - -Text has many references to “Lartet” and just a few to “Lortet”. They -seem to refer to the same person, but both are listed in the Index, so -both spellings have been retained. - -Text refers to “Rev. J. MacEnery”, “Rev. J. McEnery” and “McEnery”. -These all refer to the same person, but the correct spelling is -uncertain, so both variations have been retained. - -Some of the fractional numbers (e.g., 1/1, 1/2) in illustration -captions were unclear and may have been incorrectly transcribed. - -Most tables wider than 75 characters have been made narrower, either -by using Keys to their column headings or, in the table on page 172, -by segmenting it and repeating the first column in each segment. A -few tables remain wider than 75 characters as they otherwise became -unreadable. - -Page 2: “dwellings of evil spirits” was misprinted as “swellings”. - -Page 147: Footnote 95 (originally 2) was not referenced in the text. -Transcriber has arbitrarily placed a reference to it. - -Page 199: “Valcleuse” currently is spelled “Valcluse”. - -Page 310: The reference to “Figs. 92, 93” was misprinted as -“Figs. 92, 33” and has been corrected here. - -Page 339: Identifications of the three illustrations were added by -Transcriber. - -Page 381: The top of the map was close to the physical book’s binding -and was distorted during scanning. The Transcriber attempted to remedy -this distortion. - -Page 436: The letters in the diagram were printed in italics. For -readability, the Plain Text version of this eBook omits the underscores -that indicate italics. The HTML and mobile versions use an image of the -diagram. - -Page 449 (Index): “Caves, used as places of refuge” gave no page -reference. 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