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diff --git a/old/52085-0.txt b/old/52085-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 7ca911e..0000000 --- a/old/52085-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6004 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg EBook of Half Hours With the Lower Animals, by -Charles Frederick Holder - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most -other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of -the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have -to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. - - - -Title: Half Hours With the Lower Animals - Protozoans, Sponges, Corals, Shells, Insects, and Crustaceans - -Author: Charles Frederick Holder - -Release Date: May 16, 2016 [EBook #52085] - -Language: English - -Character set encoding: UTF-8 - -*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HALF HOURS WITH THE LOWER ANIMALS *** - - - - -Produced by deaurider, Christopher Wright and the Online -Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This -file was produced from images generously made available -by The Internet Archive) - - - - - - - - - - HALF HOURS WITH - THE LOWER ANIMALS - - PROTOZOANS, SPONGES, CORALS, SHELLS - INSECTS, AND CRUSTACEANS - - BY - - CHARLES FREDERICK HOLDER - - AUTHOR OF "ELEMENTS OF ZOÖLOGY," "STORIES OF ANIMAL LIFE," - "LIFE OF LOUIS AGASSIZ," ETC. - - [Illustration] - - NEW YORK ᠅ CINCINNATI ᠅ CHICAGO - AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY - - - - - COPYRIGHT, 1905, BY - CHARLES F. HOLDER. - - ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON. - - LOWER ANIMALS. - - W. P. 2 - - - - -PREFACE - - -At the present day education is not complete without definite courses -of nature study. We are living in an age of strenuous business life -and activity, where the best equipped students along the various -lines secure the best positions. Time was when zoölogy, botany, and -kindred nature studies were classed with music and the so-called dead -languages, and were taken up as incidentals or were employed in "mind -training"; but to-day there are a thousand branches of trade and -commerce which require knowledge that can be obtained only through -nature study. - -It is not necessary that the student, unless he intends to be a -teacher of science or a professional naturalist, should be able to -pass examinations in the abstruse classification of animals or delve -into difficult anatomical studies. What the average student needs is a -broad and general idea of animal life, its great divisions, and notably -the relationship of the lower animals to man in an economic sense, the -geographical distribution of animals, etc. It is vastly more important -for the coming lumber merchant to know the relationship which forests -bear to the water supply, and to have a general idea of forestry and -the trees which make forests, than to be able to recite a long formula -of classification or analysis, of value only to the advanced student or -specialist. The future merchant who is to deal in alpaca, leather, dye, -skins, hair, bone products, shell, pearl, lac, animal food products, -ivory, whalebone, guano, feathers, and countless other articles derived -from animals is but poorly equipped for the struggle for business -supremacy if he is not prepared by nature study, nature readings, and -other practical instruction along these lines. - -It is believed to-day by those who have given the subject the closest -attention that the initial move of the teacher should be to call the -attention of the child to the beauties of nature, the works of the -Infinite, and thus early inculcate a habit of observation. The toys of -the kindergarten should be fruits, flowers, shrubs, trees, pebbles, and -vistas of mountains, hills, lakes, and streams, and nature study in -some form should be continuous in school life. - -In the following readings the story of lower animal life has been -presented on broad lines, divested of technicality, and at almost -every step supplemented by forceful and explanatory illustrations as -ocular aids to the reader. The subject has been divested of dry detail, -and I have introduced notes and incidents, the results of personal -observation and investigation in various lands and seas, and have given -attention to the often neglected fauna of the Pacific coast as well as -that of other regions. - -While the volume is a supplementary reader, the matter is so arranged -that it can be used by the teacher as a text-book, and the pupil -who undertakes the various "half-hour readings" of this series -will have covered in the main the ground of the ordinary text-book -for intermediate grades in the form of readings. In a word, I -have endeavored to make this volume a popular combined review and -supplemental reader on the lower forms of animal life from the Amœba -to the insects inclusive, and the series to follow will present the -entire subject of animal life or zoölogy, voluminously illustrated, on -a similar plan. - - CHARLES F. HOLDER. - - PASADENA, CALIFORNIA. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. INHABITANTS OF A DROP OF WATER 7 - - II. THE SPONGES 18 - - III. THE JELLYFISHES 26 - - IV. THE SEA ANEMONES 38 - - V. THE CORALS 44 - - VI. THE STONE LILIES 56 - - VII. THE STARS OF THE SEA 60 - - VIII. OCEAN HEDGEHOGS 65 - - IX. THE SEA CUCUMBERS 70 - - X. THE WORMS 73 - - XI. THE TWO-VALVED SHELLS 89 - - XII. THE UNIVALVES 103 - - XIII. THE CUTTLEFISHES 117 - - XIV. THE CRUSTACEANS 128 - - XV. FROM BARNACLES TO LOBSTERS 134 - - XVI. THE CRABS 145 - - XVII. LUMINOUS CRABS 156 - - XVIII. THE INSECTS 159 - - XIX. LOWER FORMS OF INSECTS 164 - - XX. THE SPIDERS 168 - - XXI. SOME SIX-LEGGED INSECTS 178 - - XXII. SOME MIMICS 186 - - XXIII. THE GRASSHOPPERS AND LOCUSTS 190 - - XXIV. THE BEETLES 195 - - XXV. THE BUGS 199 - - XXVI. FLIES AND MOSQUITOES 204 - - XXVII. THE BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 212 - - XXVIII. THE ANTS 222 - - XXIX. THE BEES AND WASPS 228 - - INDEX 233 - - - - -HALF HOURS WITH - -THE LOWER ANIMALS - -PROTOZOANS, SPONGES, CORALS, SHELLS, INSECTS, AND CRUSTACEANS - - - - -I. INHABITANTS OF A DROP OF WATER - - -The most unobserving stroller through the forest or by the seashore can -not fail to be impressed by the abundance and variety of animal life; -yet the forms visible to the naked eye really constitute but a fraction -of the vast horde which makes up what we call life. - -In the year 1901 a strange phenomenon appeared off the coast of -southern California. The ocean assumed a reddish muddy hue which was -traced for four hundred miles up the coast and from one to twenty miles -offshore; hence, at a conservative estimate, the reddish color occupied -a space of ten thousand square miles. At night it assumed a greenish -light, and when the wind rose and formed whitecaps, each became a blaze -of light, and the ocean as far as the eye could reach was converted -into a mass of seeming flame. The sands of the beach gave out flashes -of light when touched; the footsteps of dog or man on the sands left -an imprint of vivid light, and figures made on the sands with a finger -or stick stood out in lines of light. Ten thousand square miles of -phosphorescent light; ten thousand square miles of living beings, each -so minute that it was almost if not quite invisible to the human eye. -Who could estimate the individuals in one square mile, one square foot, -or even a drop of this reddish water? This illustrates the fact that -the greater number of the earth's population are unseen, even though -not invisible to the unaided eye. - -These minute animals are as interesting as the larger forms. Equipped -with a microscope, we are prepared to explore the regions in which they -live and observe their habits. A favorite hunting ground for this small -game is some long-standing water in which plants have been growing. -Placing some of this, with the green scraping of the glass, on the -slide, we shall soon make out, moving mysteriously along, something -which resembles the white of an egg, an atom of slime or jelly. Now it -stops and throws out parts of itself which seem to fuse together again; -now it is long, now short and compact, again circular. You almost -believe it is a mere atom of slime, yet it is an animal which eats -and lives its life cycle in a drop of water, one of the lowest of all -animals. - -It is called Amœba (Fig. 1), and although it is hardly a hundredth of -an inch in diameter, yet if we devote some time to it we shall find -that it is a very remarkable animal. Thus if it wishes to move in -any given direction, a portion of the body becomes a seeming leg and -protrudes in that direction, the rest of the body following, drawn -along in some mysterious manner. If it wishes to eat, it is not obliged -to twist around to bring the food or victims opposite the mouth, as -a mouth forms there and then; the Amœba merely glides around it and -covers it up. - -We may even notice a difference in the parts. Thus the center calls to -mind ground glass; it is blurred or granular, while around the edges -is a little border which is transparent, like ordinary window glass. -So the Amœba is a minute mass of jelly inclosed in a layer a little -clearer. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_Amœba proteus_, with the pseudopodia (false -feet) protruded, enlarged 200 diameters (after Leidy): _n_, nucleus; -_c_, contractile vesicle; _v_, one of the larger food-vacuoles; _en_, -the granular endosarc; _ec_, the transparent ectosarc; _a_, cell of -an Alga taken in as food (other cells of the same Alga are obliquely -shaded).] - -Floating in the granular portion is seen a minute round body called the -nucleus, clearer than the fluid in which it rests, and not far away -another clear, circular body, which from time to time contracts or -sometimes disappears in a marvelous fashion, but always returns. This -is called the contracting vesicle, and here our discoveries end, so far -as organs and structure are concerned, as these are nearly all that -have been found; yet the Amœba eats, doubtless sleeps, and grows. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Amœba eating: _Pv_, contracting vesicle.] - -We may watch it at its dinner. When a victim is found, an animal -smaller than itself, out shoots a little cape or extension from the -clear rim, creeping slowly up the side of the animal; and if we watch -very closely, we shall see the thicker portion of the Amœba, that which -calls to mind ground glass, running or flowing into it. Then another -false foot, as it is called, slowly creeps out on the opposite side and -joins its companion, more of the ground-glass matter slides or pours -into this, filling it out, and, presto! the two arms merge one into the -other. The victim has been swallowed and is now being digested (Fig. 2, -_d_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Amœba separating.] - -That this minute atom has its likes and dislikes is evident, for if the -food is too large, or not to its taste, it retracts, or even draws away -from it after it has swallowed it. The shells of its victim, if it has -them, are rejected in a manner equally simple; the Amœba flows away -from them. Jar it with a needle point and it contracts, showing that it -can be irritated. At times the body is seen to divide and two Amœbæ are -formed (Fig. 3), each of which has a separate existence from then on. -Such is one of the lowest of all animals. It is made up of but a single -cell. All the members of the other great branches of the animal kingdom -and the higher plants are made up of many cells; hence we see that the -Amœba is the simplest and lowest of all animals. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4.--_Ciliated Infusoria_: _A_, Bursaria; _B_, -Nyctotherus; _C_, Amphileptus; _D_, Ceratium; _E_, Monosiga; _f_, -flagellum; _n_, nucleus; _c_, contractile vesicle.] - -In looking into our drop of water our attention has perhaps been -distracted by other animals. In point of fact, it is very difficult -to keep the eye on this mass of slime in its slow movements, for -about it, over it, and constantly bumping into it are countless other -forms whose motions convey the impression that life to them is very -active. The most numerous are little objects (Fig. 4) resembling hats -or bells, which go rushing along, bumping aimlessly into all others, -and always in a hurry. Around the edge of the bell or hat are numerous -hairs (cilia) which are really locomotive organs by which the little -animals whirl themselves along. Near them we see numbers of similar -objects, each one forming the cup of a seeming flower, each having a -long stem. These are Bell Animalcules (Fig. 5) or Vorticellæ, among the -most beautiful and graceful of all the minute animals, but much higher -in the scale of life, as they have a permanent mouth and form. Among -them, swimming rapidly, comes a giant by contrast, the Paramœcium (Fig. -6) or Slipper Animalcule, so called from its resemblance to a slipper. -It, too, is a higher form than Amœba, as it has a permanent shape; yet -in other ways it is as simple as Amœba. The Paramœcium has a marvelous -array of oars which cover its body. Under the glass they look like -eyelashes or whips, and by their rapid movements they drive the animal -along. On the side is the mouth opening, into which the animal fans -minute animals, and they can be seen swept along by the irresistible -current, caught by the mouth if desirable, or tossed off if not to the -taste of the wonderful living slipper. After glancing at the drop of -water for a few moments the observer is convinced that here is a world -in itself, with a population growing, increasing, developing, devouring -its prey, and in such multitudes that the mind can not grasp the -figures. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5.--_A_, Stentor; _B_, Vaginicola; _C_, group of -Vorticellæ; _D_, bud of Vorticella.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Paramœcium: _e_, mouth; _v_, contracting -vacuoles.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Nummulites.] - -If the reader visits Egypt and climbs the pyramids, he will be -impressed by these the greatest works of mankind. If a small portion of -the stone from which they are constructed is placed under the glass, it -will be found in many instances made up almost entirely of beautiful -shells (Fig. 7). These are the shells of an amœba-like animal known -as a Nummulite, which lived millions of years ago, and whose fossil -remains formed the stone from which the early Egyptians in turn built -the great piles or monuments of their kings. Man is powerful, but in -this instance one of the most insignificant of animals made his work -possible. These shells are of great beauty and variety (Fig. 8). Many -are perforated, and through the minute holes are seen the false feet -of the Amœba reaching out for food. They illustrate the boundless -resources of nature, and suggest that the very lowest of creatures -are not too insignificant to be dressed in most beautiful garbs, as -all these forms vie with one another in the delicacy of their designs -(Fig. 9) and the grace of their shapes. Some of these shelled forms are -giants two inches across. All these minute shells perform a marvelous -work in building up the crust of the earth, forming the bottom of deep -seas and the platforms of coral reefs. The chalk cliffs of England are -composed of shells of unestimated millions (Fig. 10), which were once -dropped upon the bottom of a deep sea and piled upward until some were -crushed into a shapeless mass of lime, others retained their shapes -(Fig. 11); and all, by some convulsion, were afterward lifted high into -the air. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Flint-shelled Radiolarian.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Flint-shelled Polycystina.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Foraminifera from Atlantic ooze.] - -The entire ocean is as thickly populated with these atoms as the drop -of fresh water. The shelled forms are as constantly dying, the shells -falling or sinking in a continual rain of shells upon the bottom, -piling up eternally. Who shall estimate their countless numbers? It -is believed that these minute shells are as abundant down to a depth -of six hundred feet as they are at the surface. There are more than -sixteen tons of limy shells floating in the uppermost one hundred -fathoms of every square mile of the ocean. These facts convey an idea -of one way in which the earth is growing--increasing in size but not -in weight, as these delicate creatures merely secrete the carbonate of -lime which forms their shells. They take it from the surrounding water -of which it has been a part. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11.--Section of English chalk cliff. Highly -magnified. Bottom of an ancient sea.] - -It would be of great interest to learn exactly how these humble -creatures take lime from the water and produce shells of such -marvelous beauty: to learn why one is of lime and others, like the -Radiolarians, are of silica; why some live at the surface and are free -swimmers, while others creep about in the ooze. When the deep-sea -explorers first began to dredge, they found over vast areas a peculiar -mud or ooze, and investigation showed that it was formed almost -entirely of the shells of a certain minute shell maker, from which it -was named the Globigerina ooze. Finding these vast banks or beds of mud -at this depth is suggestive that the deepest seas may yet be filled -by the dropping of this invisible rain; but as the average depth of -the ocean is nearly if not quite three miles, many centuries must pass -before this will be accomplished. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12.--Noctiluca. Highly magnified.] - -The marvelous phosphorescent light previously described came from a -minute armored form known as Peridinium, but even this is exceeded by -the glories of a little monad called Noctiluca (Fig. 12). It is a giant -of the tribe, and is visible to the naked eye, being almost as large as -the head of a pin, and resembling a currant in shape. It has a single -hairlike organ or lash, supposed to be a locomotive organ, by which it -whirls itself through the water. Of all the light givers of the sea -this is the most common, some of its species being found in every sea, -and where they are, it is necessary only to splash the water to cause -a blaze of light to follow. A French naturalist placed on record the -fact that so brilliant was the light occasioned by this minute organism -in African waters that he read by their light standing on a beach -where a heavy surf came pounding in upon the sand. The light of this -little creature is remarkable not only for its vividness but for its -many different tints. Now it is a fitful vivid green, again the water -is a blaze of yellow light, or orange. At such times, when a ship is -plowing along, the light is so brilliant that the sails and rigging are -brilliantly illumined, casting weird shadows. - -Some Noctilucæ emit a clear blue light, but when the same animal is -disturbed it appears white with green and blue flashes of great beauty -and intensity--a telling illustration of the boundless, and marvelous, -resources of nature. Many interesting experiments have been tried with -these dainty light givers. A tube fifteen millimeters in diameter was -filled with them, and by shaking this novel lamp a printed page was -read a foot distant; yet when a delicate thermometer was thrust into -the fiery mass, the mercury was not affected in the slightest, showing -that here was that wonder of wonders--vivid light without heat--a -secret which man has vainly endeavored to wrest from nature. The vast -number of these minute creatures can be realized when it is said that -the ship _Magenta_ sailed nearly five hundred miles among swarms of -Noctilucæ, which gave splendid displays of phosphorescent light at -night. Sometimes the light emitted was milky white; again it was green, -or blue, the different species possessing different colors. - - - - -II. THE SPONGES - - -[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Living sponges.] - -Almost every day, for several years, I devoted one or more hours to the -pastime of floating or drifting over a part of the great coral reef -which constitutes the most westward portion of Florida where it reaches -out in the direction of Yucatan. The islands composing the group are -the Tortugas Keys, and are just above water; indeed some disappeared -when a particularly heavy hurricane came, and in the center of the -island upon which I lived, the water at very high tide appeared above -the surface. - -Among the commonest objects seen on the reef were huge vases (Fig. -13). They were found in water from a foot to fifteen feet or more in -depth, and were attached so strongly to the bottom that it required -considerable strength to lift them up. Some were three feet high, and -I have often dived down to them and for a few seconds sat upon them -as a jest for the edification of my companions in the boat above. A -common name for them on the reef was "Neptune's Seats." The seats were -sponges, and their collection on the Florida reef has for many years -constituted an important industry, vessels being fitted out from Key -West and other places for this purpose. This industry is also followed -in the Mediterranean Sea, where the finest sponges known are found. To -take them, men go out in small boats, and in shallow water bring them -up with hooks. In the greater depths a water box is used, a box with a -glass bottom, which placed over the water makes everything visible, and -by this the sponger secures the sponge. Other collectors, especially -those of Syria, dive for them and wrench them from the bottom, then -ascend to the surface with the load. There are many different kinds -of sponges, those commonly used being divided into grades, from -the delicate face sponge to the coarse specimens used for washing -carriages. Then there are hundreds of kinds of sponges which have no -value but to form veritable mimic forest growths at the bottom of the -sea (Fig. 14). Some grow upon stones or sea mud and are brilliantly -colored; others again are like glass, and all represent one of the -lowest forms of animal life, yet one of the most beautiful, and one -that is very useful. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14.--A sponge (_Ascetta primordialis_): I. _o_, -exhalent opening; _p_, inhalent pores; _g_, ova. Starlike spicules are -seen on the outside. II. Section showing pores (_p_), with cilia of the -cells extending into them. III. Cell showing lash, or cilium. IV. Same, -with lash retracted. V. Embryo of _Ascetta mirabilis_. VI. Section of -embryo.] - -In handling a sponge the most indifferent person has not failed to -observe two peculiarities, one that the sponge is soft, another that -it is filled with holes, small and large, and has a marvelous faculty -of retaining water, in which property lies its value to man. Now if we -take a sponge and cut down through it, making a section, we shall find -that these holes are nothing more or less than doors or mouths which -lead into the interior of the sponge. If we are so fortunate as to -have a live sponge to study, we shall see that water is being forced -through all the small pores and out into the larger ones; and if we -could examine the water, we should see that the water which passed -in, is laden with living creatures which have been described in a -previous chapter, while the water which is discharged contains little -or no living matter. The reader will have suspected what this in-going -and out-coming is. It is the operation of eating on the part of the -sponge, which, while it looks very much like a plant and appears to be -growing from the ground, is an animal, or a community of many cells--a -many-celled animal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Flint spicules highly magnified.] - -In our section of a sponge we may follow the winding channels which -connect one part of the sponge with the other, and we see that the body -is a mass of fibers made up of curious and beautifully shaped objects -called spicules (Fig. 15). The spicules are the bones of sponges, the -hard portion, the framework. In the sponge we find here and there -little oval rooms, and in these are packed, side by side, minute -objects with tails (Fig. 16). Each little cell has its tail upon the -outside, which is really a whip or lash, used for capturing passing -food. In these rooms the cells congregate and are fed by the constant -onward flow of water laden with food. The food is in the shape of -minute animals and plants which these little whips catch as they pass -by. The whips have another purpose; their constant motion serves to -force the water along through the canals, carrying air as well as food. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Parts of a sponge (_Grantia_): _B_, cross -section showing pores leading into tubes _C´_; _C_, enlarged tube; _D_, -cells magnified.] - -Some of the sponges have very singular shapes. One is called the finger -sponge, and often takes the form of a hand. Others are very long and -slender (Fig. 17). Some are perfectly round; others creep over stones -and form a brilliant red matting, a charming object in the water. - -The great vase or seat sponges are often the habitations of animals of -various kinds--shrimps, crabs, and fishes. After a hurricane I have -found a windrow of them on the beaches. When the sponge is taken from -the water it is fleshy and seems covered with a reddish colored mass of -jelly, or it is black, brown, or yellow, as the case may be. The sponge -of commerce is the skeleton, the mass of living spicules after all the -animal matter has been removed and the framework, elastic and soft, -thoroughly bleached. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Sponges: _A_, Axinella; _B_, Sycandra.] - -The variety in shape, color, and size in sponges is remarkable and can -not be appreciated until a collection of these lowly animals is seen -with the individuals side by side. In such a collection one sponge, -shown in Figure 18, will attract the observer for its remarkable -beauty; indeed few would consider it anything but a beautiful glass -vase. Some years ago one was brought to England from the South Pacific -and sold for several hundred dollars. It was believed to be the work of -some skilled native artist in glass. But finally some one discovered -that the natives did not make them, but hooked them up from the -bottom of the ocean, when they had no resemblance to the glass vases -of commerce sold for enormous sums under the title of Venus's flower -basket. When first brought up the vase was dark and covered with mud; -then it was found that it was a sponge, and that the so-called glass -was merely the interior, the framework over which was drawn the ugly -exterior animal matter. It is needless to say that the enormous price -of the Venus's flower basket dropped, and it can now be bought for a -few cents. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Skeleton of a sponge.] - -No more beautiful object can be imagined than this sponge, known as -the Euplectella. It has great wisps of glasslike matter at the bottom, -which anchor it in the sand or mud, and the framework appears to rise -upward in whirls, the surface being made up of squares or basket work, -so artificial that it is difficult to believe that it is not of human -make. This vase has a top to it. It is perforated with squares, and -is often a prison for various small animals, as crabs, which have -passed into the interior when very small and which are now too large to -escape, only their claws or feelers being seen protruding through the -little portholes. - -The sponges in their habits show a variety of tastes. Many grow in the -mud, the majority upon rocks. On the New England shores there is one -of a yellowish hue which lives in the sand. It is very light, and the -pores are so fine that the sand does not enter them. After a storm on -Cape Cod thousands are found on the beaches, blown far inshore. Black -and pure white sponges are found in fresh water as well as in salt. -They increase by depositing eggs. In one stage of their development the -young (Fig. 14, V.) are free-swimming animals. - - - - -III. THE JELLYFISHES - - -[Illustration: FIG. 19.--A jellyfish (_Pelagia_).] - -Among the most beautiful and fragile of all animals are the singular -forms which we call jellyfishes (Fig. 19). They are so delicate that -we can not lift them, and in many instances they have ninety-five per -cent of water in their composition. They would almost seem to be purely -ornamental did we not know that they fill an important niche in the -hall of nature, constituting almost the sole food of many whales. - -The jellyfishes are found in all waters, salt and even fresh. They -may be seen floating near or at the surface, often in vast numbers. -Sometimes they are found deep in the heart of the upper part of the -ocean, often in such quantities that the water appears to be filled -with their graceful shapes. - -In the Santa Catalina Channel a beautiful lavender-hued form is common, -the water being alive with them at times, and I have seen specimens -with tentacles streaming behind them an estimated length of twenty -feet, the entire animal appearing like a huge comet in the blue sky of -the ocean. Mrs. Agassiz describes a jellyfish called Cyanea which was -six feet across its disk and which had tentacles over one hundred feet -in length. Specimens have been seen in East Indian waters which were -much larger, having an estimated weight of several tons. An English -naturalist describes one which stranded in India and gave out so vivid -a light at night that the natives were afraid to approach it; yet large -as was this monster, a few hours in the sun caused it to disappear or -literally evaporate, water forming so large a part of its make-up. - -In appearance the jellies resemble umbrellas, dinner plates, or -inverted bowls, from which depend streamers or tentacles of various -kinds and shapes, often richly colored, especially the very minute -forms. The mouth is in the center, the eyes are around the edge of -the disk, while the huge tentacles, which can be lifted or lowered as -fancy dictates, are so many fishing lines by which this jelly finds -its food. I have often watched them floating near the surface, the -delicate vermilion-tinted tentacles floating gracefully about, and -serving as so many tempting baits. Should a sardine or other small fish -venture to attack this tempting lure, we can almost imagine it struck -by an electric shock, as it rolls over dead. The secret is very easily -discovered. Lift the tentacles with the hand and a burning sensation -will be experienced, in some cases very painful. The tentacles of the -jellyfish are armed with stings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Lassos or weapons of a jellyfish.] - -The weapons are known as lassos (Fig. 20). Under the microscope the -tentacles appear to be filled with little cells or oblong objects, -which when examined are found to be capsules (_C_) resembling long -glasslike bodies in which is coiled a thread. This latter is a -miniature javelin, and when the tentacle of a jellyfish is seized by a -fish or an enemy, tens of thousands of these cells literally explode -(_D_) and the javelin springs out like a Jack-in-the-box (_A_) and -penetrates the intruder. With many jellyfishes the effect of this -bombardment is a stinging sensation. It paralyzes small fishes which, -when benumbed, are lifted up by the tentacles and eaten. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Jellyfish and young (_Aurelia_).] - -The jellies develop in various ways. In Figure 21 we see a common and -very beautiful form resting on the rocks. Near by are various little -plantlike creatures, the young jellies, which undergo a remarkable -series of changes in their growth from the egg to the adult form. -Minute eggs are deposited in the autumn, which drop into the crevices -of the rocks and soon change to pear-shaped objects which attach -themselves to the bottom. Each little jelly pear (Fig. 22) divides -after a while until it looks like a pile of platters one upon the -other. The upper one dies, and the rest break away, each becoming a -separate jellyfish, which ultimately grows to be a giant. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22.--The development of a jellyfish.] - -The story of the growth and development of these little jellies is one -of the most marvelous pages in the history of nature. In some forms -the father and son are entirely different, and it is only the father -and grandson that resemble each other. Not only this, the father is -a seeming plant, while the son is a free-swimming jellyfish of great -beauty. The seeming plant is in reality a hydroid community. The -buds are immature jellyfishes which finally break away and assume -the typical jellylike form, free swimmers bearing not the slightest -resemblance to the parent. This jelly deposits eggs which attach -themselves to the bottom and become not jellies but the shrublike -form. Hence it is the parent and its grandchildren that bear a close -resemblance to one another. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23.--A large jellyfish (_Cyanea_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Flowerlike jellyfish (_Lucernaria_).] - -No conception of the beauties of the jellyfish can be formed from -pictures, or from the stranded "sunfishes" found along the shore at -low tide. In the water they move along or swim by the slow pumping or -rising and falling of the umbrella or disk, and are of all the colors -of the rainbow. Some, like the dark, lavender-splashed specimens, can -be seen from a long distance, while others are almost invisible, in -fact, are like glass or crystal, and interpose no obstacle to other -forms beyond. The ocean is filled with them; their chaste shapes -presenting one of the most beautiful spectacles to be observed in the -ocean as they drift about. Some are merely great disks towing behind -them enormous masses of pink fluted jelly, as in Figure 23; others are -simple flowerlike forms (Fig. 24). - -If these graceful forms are beautiful during the day, what shall -we say of them at night, when they blaze and glow with marvelous -phosphorescent lights of yellow, green, and gold. Gazing into the -ocean these great jellies appear like comets moving through the clear -atmosphere of the sea. The Cyanea is pale blue. One jelly, called -Melicerta, emits a pale golden radiance, and Rhizostoma (Fig. 25) gives -out a fixed steely blue light. It would be difficult to find one out of -all this marvelous procession of living gems that does not emit a light -more or less peculiarly its own. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Jellyfish (_Rhizostoma_).] - -If this phosphorescence is fascinating as we are drifting over the -scene and the light givers are not alarmed, how much more dazzling is -the display when the sea is beaten into foam. In a certain cave on the -coast of Santa Catalina Island, California, the sea rushes in and, -striking the rocks, rises like a wave of fire and bathes the entire -interior with liquid light which slowly falls in gleaming rivulets to -the sea. - -But the most magnificent display is seen at Point Firmin Light during a -storm. Here stands a lofty rock pillar which has breasted the sea for -ages. At low tide, when a storm sea strikes the ledge, the spray rises -to an altitude of three hundred feet, and spreading as it rises, fairly -fills the air with a gigantic mass of silvery light, that on a dark -night presents an appalling spectacle as it drops, changing its shape -continually. On such nights the line of breakers changes into silvery -flame, while the roar resembles a cannonade, fairly shaking the earth. -In the breakers the jelly light givers are breaking up and adding -fuel to the seeming flame. Some, as Pelagia, are luminous over their -entire surface; in others, the light is confined to certain parts, -which are either fixed or flashing lights. How vivid this light is may -be imagined when it is said that a single jellyfish, Aurelia, when -squeezed into a glass of milk, has produced a light by which a letter -was read. - -This peculiar phosphorescence is not their only interesting feature. -Nearly all the jellies afford protection to fishes, crabs, and various -small animals. As I drifted over the waters of the Gulf of Mexico -almost every large jelly that I examined had one or more little fishes -of the mackerel family up among its lobes or tentacles. As they always -resembled the tentacles in tint or color, a delicate pink, they found -protection amid the death-dealing darts. The most remarkable example of -this strange companionship of dangerous jellies and delicate fishes is -found in the Physalia, or Portuguese man-of-war (Fig. 26), one of the -most beautiful of all the animals that make up the group to which the -jellyfishes belong. Physalia is a bubble tinted with purple hues, four -or five inches long--a fairy ship of pearly tints. On its upper portion -is a sail which can be raised and lowered, while from the lower part -depends a mass of beautiful blue or purple tentacles which sometimes -are nearly one hundred feet in length. During the summer of 1902 I -found them on the outer islands of the Texan coast in great numbers, -stranded on the sands, while scores of others sailed on through the -pass into the quiet waters of Aransas Bay. Among the islands of the -Tortugas group I often saw them dotting the calm waters, the sunlight -on their delicate tints presenting beautiful combinations of colors. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26.--The Physalia.] - -It may appear strange that one of the most resplendent of animals -should be the most dangerous, yet such is the case. The attractive -tentacles which drag behind the Physalia are deadly to almost every -fish. I have found a hawkbill turtle weighing twenty pounds caught -and benumbed by one; and fishes which touch the seeming worms roll -over dead, as though stunned by an electric shock. In swimming around -one of the keys of the reef I unwittingly passed over the train of -one, and if I had been alone, I doubt if I could have reached the -shore, so terrible was the burning pain. A year afterward my flesh -had the appearance of having been tattooed in fanciful designs. Yet -despite the deadly nature of this maze of traps and lures, a little -fish lives up among them, and what is more remarkable, is the exact -color of the tentacles, a rich blue. So exact is this resemblance that -it is very difficult to see the little attendants, but if you lift -the dainty man-of-war by its sail, they rush about greatly alarmed by -their exposed condition. I have been told that the Physalia eats these -attendant courtiers, but in hundreds of specimens which I examined -I never saw the little fish in the toils. They swam about among the -death-dealing tentacles with the greatest freedom. The secret of the -poison lies in the lasso cells of the tentacles, as in the case of the -jellyfish, but in this instance they are much more poisonous. Along -the southern beaches, where the Physalia is common, their stranded -hulks form after storms a windrow of mimic balloons which explode like -torpedoes beneath the feet, as one strolls along the sands. - -No branch of the animal kingdom contains more beautiful and radiant -forms than that which includes the Portuguese man-of-war. They are the -fairy crafts of the sea, graceful, seemingly formed of water in some -instances, and nearly all so delicate that they usually drop to pieces -when captured. I have kept all for a brief time in confinement, but few -survived more than a few hours. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Velella.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 28.--_A_, Praya; _n´n´_, mouths; _ss_, swimming -bells. _B_, single polypite (_p_), enlarged.] - -In a tank at Santa Catalina Island I had at one time, besides a -Portuguese man-of-war, the delicate Velella, a raft of sheeny silver -which floated on the surface, having a silvery sail (Fig. 27), beneath -which hung short tentacles of a brilliant hue. More beautiful than -these were the "swimming bells"--strings of beautiful pink and crystal -bells attached to a central cord (Fig. 28). One of these, Praya, -three or four feet long, was a veritable string of little pumps, each -of which pumped water very rapidly, urging the entire animal along. -Each little cup seemed carved in glass and colored by some artist, -so perfect were the tints, so delicate was the design. Many of these -forms could be seen in the ocean only by fitful glances, so delicate -were they. Most beautiful of all these prisoners in the tank was one -called Physophora, or by the Italian fishermen, Boguetti. It had a -central stem like the glass of a thermometer, the bulb being uppermost -and filled with a gas that was almost exact in its resemblance to -mercury. When the bulb was full the animal floated at the surface. I -have watched the animal force the gas down by repeated restrictions of -the tube until it could descend beneath the surface with ease. On the -sides of the central pillar were numbers of beautifully tinted pumps, -the locomotive organs. Underneath was a mass of lacelike tentacles, -richly tinted, purple and vermilion, so Physophora was one of the most -gorgeous objects to be imagined. A unique feature of this animal was -its rapid movements. When it so desired it dashed around the tank with -great velocity, in strange contrast to the labored movements of other -jellylike forms, or the utter and complete helplessness of Physalia, -Velella, or Porpita. These latter were ships at the mercy of every -breeze, the Physalia alone being able to anchor itself on a lea shore, -but always beaten in by the heavy surf. - - - - -IV. THE SEA ANEMONES - - -In the last century many of the animals of the ocean were considered -plants, and the sea anemones, which appear to open and shut like -flowers, were described and painted in verse and prose as the flowers -in the gardens of the sea. The sea anemone, common in almost every -rocky pool, and found everywhere from the rocks bare at low tide to -the greater depths, certainly has a very flowerlike appearance, some -of them resembling a flower without a stem. Petals branch out on every -side. Some are large, some small, and as though to carry out the idea -the anemones are of all possible shapes and colors. Some are vivid red, -others blue, some almost white, others spotted black and white, brown -and barred. Almost every color is seen. Some are tall and slender, five -or six inches high; others are flat. Some live in exposed places, as -the luminous form attached to the shell of a hermit crab in Figure 29. -Others bury themselves in the sand or hide beneath large jellyfishes, -displaying the most remarkable tastes and fancies. Little wonder that -the ancients believed that they were flowers. But touch one, and -presto! it appears to draw within itself, and becomes a mere mound -in place of the gorgeous creature which spread its splendors to the -current. - -The sea anemone is a highly organized animal several degrees above the -jellyfishes in the scale of life, yet a very humble creature after all. -They are tubular in shape, and are attached to the rocks by a sucking -disk which clings so tightly that it is only with great difficulty they -are forced off. Yet they have the power of moving, and slowly, very -slowly, drag themselves along. Some move perhaps three or four inches -a day; but this would be a long journey for many anemones, and the -greatest number are fixed for life and live in crevices in the rocks. -The only one I ever saw actually moving was traveling slowly across the -glass of a tank. As it moved small pieces of the disk appeared to be -torn off and left behind, each of which grew into a perfect sea anemone. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Sea anemones--one in the upper right hand -corner is a luminous form on a hermit crab.] - -On the upper portion around the rim are the tentacles, armed with the -same kind of ammunition (Fig. 30) found in the jellyfish, namely, -lassos. In the center is the mouth. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30.--Lasso or dart of a sea anemone.] - -We may imagine the anemone feeding, and we may easily see what occurs. -The anemone displays its beautiful flowerlike face; it is spread out, -waiting for prey. A shrimp comes swimming along, and innocently drops -upon the beautiful flower. The moment it touches the attractive arms it -is pierced by the lassos, and unless very vigorous is soon involved. -The arms are thrown over it, the body shrinks, grows perceptibly -smaller, the shrimp is pressed against the mouth, and finally ingulfed, -and the once gorgeous anemone resembles (Fig. 31) a mere mound, a form -which it may retain until the food is digested. - -[Illustration: FIG. 31.--A sea anemone closed.] - -The structure of this interesting animal may be observed by glancing -at Figure 32. The stomach is placed in the center of the animal, and -is held in position by a number of partitions that are attached to -the side of the anemone. These form little rooms in the body of the -anemone, arranged about the stomach, but not opening into it. Each -room has two windows leading into the room beyond, hence all are -connected, and at the bottom all are connected with the stomach. -Each room connects upward with a tentacle, which is hollow. When the -animal is swallowing, the food passes down and is floated in water -through the various rooms, the hard portions being rejected at the -mouth. The animal has a current of water circulating through it almost -continually, and it is water which, filling them, makes the tentacles -stand upright and firm. Between the bases of the tentacles are the -eyes. When the animal closes up, it forces the water out of its mouth -and is able to shrink to a small and inconspicuous object. - -[Illustration: FIG. 32.--Section of an anemone: _c_, tentacles; _g_, -little rooms; _d_, mouth; _g´_, opening between rooms; _a_, sucking -deck or foot; _e_, stomach.] - -Lowly as are the sea anemones, they often display an amount of -intelligence that few would give them credit for. On the Florida -Reef was a large lagoon, its bottom pure sand, and so light that the -slightest dark object was easily observed. In the sand, buried several -inches deep, lived a large anemone, whose normal hue was a dark brown, -but when expanded was almost the exact color of the sand; not only -this, its tentacles were covered with bits of sand. In a word, the -anemone had disguised itself so that large and threatening fishes would -not see it, as they swam along in search of food. The habit of placing -bits of shells and sand on the tentacles is a common one. I have -noticed it in a sand-living form on the California coast. As the tide -went out and left the anemones dry, they were invariably covered with -sand which adhered to the tentacles as though it had been gummed. To -accomplish this protection from the hot rays of the sun, the anemone -had picked up the atoms of sand with its tentacles and distributed them -over its surface. As there were thousands of pieces, the amount of work -may be imagined. - -Anemones are found in many strange places. One, as we have seen, rides -about upon the back of a hermit crab; another is so often found on the -top of an ordinary crab that it is evidently a habit of the anemone. -The anemone thus travels about with its host and shares its food. In -the Indian Ocean a German naturalist found on every crab of a certain -kind, which he caught, a sea anemone fastened upon the inside of the -large biting claw. Thinking it accidental, he caught a number of crabs, -but nearly all had the small anemone, which was so placed that when the -crab raised its claw to its mouth to eat and tear its food, the sea -anemone was in a position to obtain a full share of the food. Still -thinking that this must be an accident, the naturalist placed a large -number of the crabs bearing the sea anemones in a tank and removed the -anemones with a knife, placing them in the water. The following day -when they were examined every crab had its attendant again upon its -claw. Again the experiment was tried, and again the crabs collected -their curious attendants. The naturalist now cut one of the animals -into several pieces, and even then the crabs attempted to collect them. - -The anemones deposit eggs in vast numbers, which change into strange, -free-swimming animals that finally settle upon the bottom and soon grow -into the adult forms. They have another method of developing. Singular -little "buds" appear on the sides and base of the adult, which soon -resemble the parent. The anemone is very long-lived; specimens have -been kept for nearly a century. They also have a marvelous faculty -for renewing themselves if injured. If one is divided, sometimes two -anemones will be the result, recalling their distant cousin the little -hydra, which when turned inside out receives its food and eats as -though nothing had happened. No amount of mutilating appears to affect -its various portions, as each soon develops into a perfect hydra. - -The sea anemone is a common form of the aquarium. It is easily secured -by those living near the ocean, forming a most interesting pet, taking -food from the hand, and soon proving itself possessed of a remarkable -appetite. The anemones are among the great purifiers of the ocean, -devouring a vast amount of dead matter which might pollute the water, -and continually pumping the water through their systems, sifting out -the animal life, dead or alive. Aside from this, the anemones are -chiefly useful as beautifiers of the ocean. In the Mediterranean Sea -they are sometimes eaten by the Italians and French. Certain fishes and -crustaceans prey upon them. - - - - -V. THE CORALS - - -The real gardens of the sea, the "Gulfs enchanted where the siren -sings and coral reefs lie bare," are in the tropics, where the great -coral reefs extend for miles in countless shapes, forming branches, -heads, fans, and many forms which never fail to delight the eye of the -observer. For many years I lived upon a coral key or island in the -center of a coral reef. The key was half a mile in circuit, and was -made up of coral sand, or sand composed of ground coral and shells. It -was just above the surface, so near that almost anywhere salt water -could be found a few feet below; yet in this sandy soil cocoanuts, -bananas, and other tropical plants grew in profusion. A grove of bay -cedars and mangroves added to its attractiveness and gave it the name -of Garden Key. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33.--Branch coral (reef builder), showing polyps -expanded and withdrawn.] - -The history of this reef is easily told. Ages ago there was no reef. -There was no island, but perhaps a submarine plateau, a long distance -below the surface. It gradually grew by the dropping of the minute -shells described on page 15. After many ages it attained an altitude -which brought its summit within one hundred or two hundred feet of the -surface. Now its growth became more rapid as a new factor came upon the -scene. The reef-building corals do not, as a rule, thrive or grow in -water deeper than two hundred feet, and nearly all prefer water very -much shallower. So, as soon as the submarine hill entered this zone, -the eggs and young of the various reef-building corals (Figs. 33, 37) -obtained a foothold, and the growth was ever upward, countless forms -aiding in it. The lower portion was continually dying, the animals -occupying only the upper story, so that a cap of stone was being formed -on the top of the hill which after many years reached the surface. -The sea now broke up the tips of the branch coral. They became ground -up. A curious seaweed which secreted lime appeared, and this and the -ground coral and shells formed a muddy flat which, aided by various -objects that float upon the ocean, constituted a miniature island. Now -something which resembled a cigar, one end downward, came floating -along. If we could have examined it, curious little rootlets would have -been seen growing from the lower portion. This stranded on the island, -and the little cigar proved to be the seed of the mangrove tree; its -roots grew and caught in the mud, and soon a tree appeared growing on -the new-born island. Its roots presented a base, about which sand and -mud rapidly accumulated, and so the key or island grew until it became -the Garden Key of to-day. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34.--Mushroom coral; a single polyp (_Ctenactis_), -one fourth natural size.] - -Such is the history of an ordinary coral island, built up, not by -corals alone, but by countless animals. Even to-day some writers -describe this coral animal as an "insect," but it is an entirely -different animal, being a polyp, so closely related to the anemones -that very few can distinguish between them. For the purpose of -examination we may consider a coral animal as a sea anemone possessing -the faculty of taking lime from the sea water and secreting it in the -little rooms which we have found existing in the anemones (Fig. 32), -there forming a little platform, then partitions or cells, as the case -may be. In Figure 33 is shown a section of branch coral. The starlike -spots are the polyps with their tentacles outspread as in feeding. They -may be considered so many anemones, each resting in a little cell, -and all connected by a common brown or olive-hued tissue. This is a -many-celled coral, while that shown in Figure 34 is an example of a -single-celled coral, a huge anemone with a framework of lime. These -single-celled corals are often found in very deep water. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35.--A single polyp coral (_Caryophyllia_).] - -In the vicinity of Garden Key on the Florida Reef there are six or -seven keys, each almost surrounded by a deep-blue channel. On the -east a long fringing reef is forming which some day may form an atoll -(Fig. 36). In this lagoon are acres of beautiful branch coral, rising -two or three feet from the bottom in a mass of points almost bare at -low tide, and at the very lowest tides becoming exposed and dying. At -certain places on the edges of channels are vast heads of coral (Fig. -37), some being four feet high and six or seven feet across. Many of -these are hollowed out into great vases and filled with beautiful sea -fans, the Gorgonias, in yellow, lavender, and brown, while in and out -swim fishes of beautiful colors. The surface of these heads is often -dotted with objects which resemble flowers of gorgeous hues, red, blue, -white, and spotted. At the slightest alarm or jar these disappear, -showing themselves merely worms, which have bored into the coral, the -flowerlike petals being the breathing organs. Along the sides of the -channels the groves of branch coral (Fig. 33) dip down, and thirty feet -below the surface the growth is much more vigorous, the branches often -being three or even four feet in length, and resembling the antlers of -the elk. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36.--An atoll.] - -Wishing to see how deep the coral descended, I had a boat held on the -edge of the channel, and taking a heavy stone in my hands allowed -myself to sink. The stone carried me down rapidly for perhaps twenty -feet, until the water was perceptibly colder and the light very dim, -yet as far below me as I could see, the almost perpendicular wall of -coral extended, being in all probability sixty feet in height and -almost vertical. As I swam upward not four feet from the jagged points, -I could plainly see the beautiful coral with parrot fishes garbed in -brilliant tints, poising among the great branches. - -The coral on this reef grows or flourishes more or less in communities. -The great heads are found in groups, the branch coral in plantations, -if the word can be used, in the center of the lagoon and on the edge of -the deep channels. On a shallow point, growing among seaweeds, I found -small heads five or six inches long. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Coral head, with many polyps (_Astræa_).] - -In the surf, where it piled in upon the reef, grew a beautiful form -known as leaf coral, spreading out like the horns of the moose in great -leaflike shapes. This crept near the ground, and was surrounded by its -cousins, the Gorgonias, in lavender and yellow. The whole presented -a beautiful appearance when seen from above through a water glass or -glass-bottomed boat. - -In most of these corals the branches were covered with the small cells -of the coral animal, made up of thousands of individual polyps. Others -again had very minute cells, yet the entire head might weigh a thousand -pounds. Another large head is called brain coral, as the animals are -arranged in deep trenches or convolutions. In the star coral (Astræa, -Fig. 37) the polyps resemble stars and are much larger than those on -other corals. - -Occasionally I have found a branch of coral on which there was, -perhaps, a bunch of eight cells, each half an inch across, the group -resembling a bunch of flowers. These were generally in the deeper -parts of the lagoon, where the water was fifteen or more feet deep, -and therefore out of reach of the coral tongs. I would, therefore, -dive down for it, the coral being distinctly visible in these clear -and limpid waters. This rose coral, as we called it, was the work of -a few polyps. Another kind was very delicate, the polyps being almost -invisible. It was called pepper coral, as when tasted it burned the -tongue violently. Still another, which grew in heads a foot or two -across, had a peculiar habit of floating when free of animal matter. -Large heads, when tossed from the beach where they had drifted, went -sailing away like boats. - -Still another coral has cells at short intervals up the branch; another -is cup-shaped with a single polyp. One of the most remarkable corals -(Fig. 38) has the cells of the polyps arranged after the fashion of -a pipe organ, from which the coral takes its name, while the polyp -itself, when expanded, resembles a daisy. Formerly corals were -supposed to be confined to the warm waters of the tropics, but this is -true only of the reef builders, which require a temperature not lower -than 63°, and are rarely, if ever, found at a greater depth than about -180 feet. Single polyp corals, like Fungia, are found at great depths -in the ocean, and certain corals grow in the Santa Catalina Channel on -the Pacific coast. In the Atlantic, as far north as Long Island Sound, -where the water is often icy cold, is found the beautiful Astrangia, a -coral in which the polyps are pure white and about five one-hundredths -of an inch in length. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38.--Organ-pipe coral (_Tubipora_): _A_, cell -tubes; _B_, polyp expanded.] - -In a general way we have passed in review some of the typical corals, -and may now glance at their manner of growth. If we cut one of the -cells of a coral across, we shall have a figure similar to that shown -in Figure 39. The white radiating partitions are coral, the black -spaces are rooms, which correspond to the little apartments in the -anemone. The coral develops by eggs and by budding, just as in the case -of its cousin, the anemone. The eggs, after enjoying a free-swimming -life for a while, settle upon the bottom and begin to secrete lime. -They do not build up a house as the mythical "coral insect" is -described as doing, but secrete it much as any animal secretes its -bones or shell. As the water flows through the animal it is enabled to -secrete the lime dissolved in the water. If we could watch every step -of the growing process, we should first see a little platform of lime -attached to the stone or object upon which the young coral animal has -dropped, then a little edge or rim which increases in size daily. Out -from this rim shoot the partitions, as shown in Figure 39. It will -be observed that they do not meet and join, but leave a place in the -center for the stomach. Finally, the cell is completely formed, and -we have a perfect cup of lime, a coral cell in which is ensconced the -anemonelike coral polyp. Its color is an olive brown, and when the -polyp is expanded its little tentacles resemble the petals of a flower. -With these it catches food, which it eats in very much the same way as -do the anemones. If this cup is a branch coral, soon a bud appears -upon the side, and a new cup or cell takes shape. Then another is -added, and we see the coral enlarging, branching out either by budding -or simply dividing until a large branch is the result. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39.--Sections of a coral cell.] - -This growth is much more rapid than is generally supposed. The brain -coral has been known to grow an inch or double its size in a year, -and branch corals grow six or eight inches in this time. The corals -and reefs form the great girders of the globe. The one off Australia -is over a thousand miles in length, and all over the world are found -fossil reefs. Thus in the Helderberg Mountains of New York I have -followed and traced a coral reef, quite as wonderful in its way as -that now growing and reaching out in Florida. By some upheaving of the -earth's surface it has been pushed up into the air, a monument telling -of the wonderful changes in nature and of the time when the waters of -New York were as warm as those of Florida. - -[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Surface of sea fan, enlarged.] - -Side by side with the corals and among the most beautiful objects of -these submarine gardens, we find objects which resemble plumes and -fans (Fig. 41). These are called Gorgonias, and are cousins of the -corals. They resemble fans made up of a fine network or reticulated -surface (Fig. 40). They are richly colored yellow, brown, and lavender, -those of the latter color being particularly beautiful. When there -is a surf they can be seen waving and bending gracefully, like the -limbs of a tree in a gale. One of the best known of this group is the -red coral of commerce, found in the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian -Ocean. When alive, the coral base or branch is covered with a crust or -skin in which the animals live, connected one with another. The polyp -stands very high and is white. The crust itself, the solid lime base, -is formed of a number of minute parallel tubes. This coral is dredged -by collectors in the deep water and is scraped and polished until the -beautiful red color, so highly prized for jewelry, is brought out. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Sea fan (_Gorgonia_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Sea pen.] - -Closely allied to the corals are the sea pens (Fig. 42) which are -common in almost all waters, and among the most beautiful forms. They -are communities of polyps. In the sea pen the polyps are arranged along -the branches so that a fluffy fan or an ostrich plume is imitated. I -have taken these animals from deep water when they measured perhaps -five inches in length; but an hour later when placed in a tank the -insignificant animal had expanded until it was five times as large, and -beautiful beyond description in its garb of delicate pink. At night it -was a blaze of light which flashed from branch to branch, from polyp to -polyp. When irritated in a perfectly dark room this specimen created so -brilliant a phosphorescent light that I could almost read large print -by it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Veretillum, a wonderful light giver.] - -In the deep sea lives a giant form, the Umbellularia, four or five feet -high; and there are many more, all of which add to the lights of the -deep sea. Near allies of these attractive forms are the comb bearers, -free-swimming, jellylike forms of great beauty and grace. I have kept -the radiant Pleurobrachia in a tank where I observed its wonders and -beauties. The one known as Veretillum (Fig. 43) is very beautiful and a -marvelous light giver. - - - - -VI. THE STONE LILIES - - -A number of years ago I took a number of walking trips over that -section of New York state known as the Catskill Mountain region. The -start was made at the mouth of Catskill Creek, which was followed up -into the mountains until we came to a peculiar light, slate-colored -rock. This rock, where the stream had washed the earth away, was dotted -with little disks (Fig. 44), which being harder than the rock itself -had been weathering, and stood out in high relief. A mile or two from -the river the rocks were covered with these disks, in fact, seemed to -be made up of them. Some were large, some small, as if millions of -pipestems had been cut into sections and scattered about. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Sections of fossil crinoid stems, Catskill -Creek.] - -These disks told an interesting story. We read by them that ages ago -the region now covered by farms and summer resorts was the bottom of -a shallow, tropical sea. We could go further and describe even the -appearance of the bottom of that sea, and what grew and lived there. -Scattered about on the rock were myriads of shells, corals, teeth, fish -bones, and a variety of objects, all the remains of animals which once -lived in this ancient ocean. - -We find that the little disks fit together, and collecting them, pile -them up, forming a stem a foot or more long. Among them we find one -which is attached to a rootlike object, and this is placed at the -bottom. Near by we find a flowerlike or budlike form (Fig 45), which -may well serve as the flower of this stem, and so we add it and produce -a striking resemblance to the crinoid shown in Figure 46. This is an -interesting and beautiful animal which was one of the commonest forms -of the ancient seas. It grew in groves and masses, as we may see by the -vast numbers strewn in the old ocean bed; and when they died, they were -scattered here and there and hardened into the old bed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Fossil crinoid.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 46.--A living crinoid (_Pentacrinus_).] - -The crinoids resemble lilies so closely that they are called stone -lilies. They are animals, however, related to the starfishes. They -have a long stem, with rootlike branches to support it, and are capped -with what appears like an inverted starfish, and is literally a -starfish perched upon a stem. Fossil crinoids have long been known, -and beautiful specimens may be seen in all our museums, but the fact -that they still live upon the globe is a modern discovery. It is said -that Agassiz stated that he expected to find them alive off the coast -of Cuba, and when a deep locality was dredged, up came the living -crinoids, or forms almost identical with them. Since then they have -been dredged in great numbers by all the great deep-sea explorers. Some -have long stems, some short. On one, the Comatula, when it is full -grown, the crinoid leaves its stalk, and lives a free, roving life -after the fashion of many starfishes. - -The crinoid, with its long slender stem, its branching tendrils, its -flowerlike top, is one of the most graceful of all animals, as might -be imagined from the drawing. Examine the crinoid as closely as one -may, it still resembles a stone lily, and only its slow movements, -contracting and folding, suggest life. Nevertheless, it is a very -complicated animal. It consists of a central body, protected by -numerous plates, as seen in Figure 46. From the edges extend five, or -often more, branches or arms, and from them in turn branch other arms, -so that the top resembles a feather or brush, from which they are -called feather stars. In the center of the stars is a mouth, food being -caught by the many branching tentacles. The history of the development -of crinoids is very interesting. They pass through several curious -stages in the course of growth from infancy to old age, and some of -the shapes are so curious that no one, not familiar with them, would -suspect that here was a growing crinoid. - - - - -VII. THE STARS OF THE SEA - - -[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Basket starfish.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Lower surface of starfish (_Goniaster_), -showing suckerlike feet; a slow mover.] - -Beneath almost every rock along the New England coast, and under the -branch coral in the tropics, we may find a typical star-shaped animal, -and by dredging offshore, thousands are brought up, even from very -deep water, showing that the stars of the sea are almost as plentiful -as they appear in the sky above. These starfishes are of all shapes, -kinds, and colors. Some are a foot or more across, huge, domed -fellows with rough backs, showing little if any signs of life (Fig. -48); others have five long legs and a small body (Fig. 49). Others, -again, are perfectly round and have many rays, while some have few -rays which are round, like the body of a snake, and which they whip -and slash about, displaying great activity. Once in reaching beneath -a coral branch to find a certain shell which I knew lived there, my -hand grasped something which felt like a ball of snakes, each of -which closed about it, producing a most disagreeable sensation. I -drew it out and found it was one of the starfishes, common on many -shores as the basket starfish (Fig. 47). As I lifted it up it was a -veritable mass of coiling arms, a Medusa's head of the sea, coiling and -uncoiling. It was merely a starfish in which each arm branches in two -parts, each branching out into two again with the result pictured, a -confused mass of arms. As I lifted my capture above water and it felt -the air it began to shed its arms, so that it fairly rained pieces of -starfish, and before I reached the boat, but a few feet away, all that -remained was the body. My starfish had almost committed suicide. - -[Illustration: FIG. 49.--A deep-water starfish (_Ophiocoma_), a rapid -mover.] - -The starfishes are found everywhere in the tropics. Every bunch of -coral contains scores of them. Many resemble spiders, and are a vivid -red hue, others are bronze or brick red, while still others are barred -or spotted, as in Figure 50. They are all interesting creatures, -especially our common Eastern starfish, which is found in little caves -at low tide, clinging to the walls. It is not very attractive in -appearance, and apparently not disconcerted by being left by the tide. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50.--A brittle starfish.] - -If we take a common starfish and turn it upon its back, we observe that -the lower portion is covered with short tentacles, each having a little -sucker on the end. These are the feet of the starfish, by which it -walks or moves. In the center of the body is the mouth leading into the -stomach which reaches into each ray. The eyes are at the tip of each -ray. On the back of the star we find a little red disk with a rough -surface. This is really a sieve for straining the water which pours in -through a little canal encircling the mouth and leading off into each -arm, carrying water to each one of the myriads of feet. - -The feet move independently, and the starfish walks much faster than -would be imagined. This can be illustrated by the sudden appearance of -the starfish, in Long Island Sound. One night when the oyster men left -the beds no starfishes were seen. The following day they were there in -such vast quantities that it was estimated they covered the entire bed, -two or three deep, and tens of thousands of dollars were lost by the -destruction of the oysters. - -How an oyster can be opened by a soft, helpless starfish would seem a -mystery; but it is a very easy matter. The starfish drags itself over -the shell and places its mouth at the end, extending its long arms -downward, literally swallowing part of the shell. It is supposed to -eject some secretion into the shell that causes it to open. - - - - -VIII. OCEAN HEDGEHOGS - -(_The Echini_) - - -[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Sea urchins burrowing in the rocks.] - -On the Florida Reef and off the rocky shores of California one of -the most conspicuous among the rock-living animals is the black, -long-spined Echinus. In the water it looks like a huge pincushion -(Fig. 51) filled with black pins, points outward, and every crack -and crevice is filled with them. When found on the beach, despoiled -of their spines, they resemble bleached shells, and are then known in -Florida as sea eggs (Fig. 52). The long black spines are continually -moving up and down, and constitute the armament of the sea urchin, and -an effective one to all except very large fishes, as some rays, which -have pavementlike teeth fitted particularly for such not especially -dainty morsels. The spines emit a bluish secretion which is left in the -wounds made by them, and is more or less poisonous. This common sea -urchin is a type of hundreds found in almost all seas from very shallow -water to the abysmal regions of the ocean. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Sea urchin without its spines.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Short-spined sea urchin, showing the biting -teeth.] - -Some sea urchins have short spines (Fig. 53) and are almost pure white; -some are flat like the sand dollars, the spines feeling like sandpaper, -so short and fine are they. The latter are small, and appear to be -covered with waving filaments. Many have spines like needles; in others -the latter are blunt, clublike organs. Many other strange variations -are seen in an exhibition of the various kinds in some museums. None -are more remarkable than those having five holes through them like -Chinese money (Fig. 54). - -[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Flat sea urchin, "sand dollar."] - -The urchins are very closely allied to the starfishes, especially in -structure. They have the same kind of feet, and among the spines is -seen a singular handlike organ common to the starfishes. It has three -fingers (Fig. 55) and a short stem, and is constantly in motion, its -office appearing to be to clean the body. Foreign objects are taken up -by this peculiar hand and passed on from one to the other until they -are finally dropped off. Here is the same madreporic plate or sieve, -and the structure of the Echinus (Fig. 56) is very similar to that -of the starfish. The former has a long set of jaws, hence is a biter -and nipper, while the starfish is a sucker. The shell of the Echinus -is really a beautiful object when divested of the spines and bleached -in the sun, appearing as pure white as coral after bleaching. It is -made up of about six hundred hard, limy plates arranged in double -rows, which contain about thirty-seven hundred pores through which the -feet protrude. Despite this marvelous supply of feet, or organs of -locomotion, the Echinus is a very slow walker. The spines number four -thousand or more, and each one works on the ball-and-socket plan, is -hollow, and moves readily in all directions. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Handlike organ of sea urchins and starfishes.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Structure of the Echinus: _a_, mouth; _o_, -anus; _c_, stomach; _f_, madreporic plate; _d_, intestine; _p_, -ambulacra; _v_, heart; _z_, spines.] - -The sea urchin is produced from eggs. The young pass through some -remarkable changes before they assume the adult form. In one of these -changes they appear as free-swimming animals (Fig. 57), and resemble -anything but the perfectly developed Echinus. Some of the sea urchins -of deep water, as the Hermiaster and others, carry their young in -pouches, the spines being folded over them to hold them in place. They -rarely move from the crevice on the rock which they select. They can be -found in the same place for months together, and have a limited power -of wearing out the rock. How the Echinus grows inclosed in so hard a -shell might be a puzzle did we not know that the shell is covered with -a skin, each plate being literally surrounded by it. This skin secretes -lime, taking it from the water and depositing it on the edges of all -the plates, so that the animal grows rapidly and symmetrically. The -Echini are the scavengers of the ocean, and they aid in maintaining the -clearness and purity of the water. In some countries certain kinds are -eaten, and one species is valuable for its spines, which are used as -slate pencils. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Young sea urchin.] - - - - -IX. THE SEA CUCUMBERS - - -[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Sea cucumber, showing its breathing organs.] - -Once, when poling my boat over the great coral reef of the outer -Florida Keys I came upon a little plot of seaweed in shallow water -which was so covered with huge sea cucumbers (Fig. 58) that it would -have been an easy matter to fill the boat. They were from six to twelve -inches in length, two or three inches across, and bore a striking -resemblance to actual cucumbers. In color they were brown, and when -lifted from the water they slowly moved or twisted, sending out a -stream of water. They might have been made of leather, so far as any -evidence of life was concerned, and were so tough that a spear thrust -into one had to be cut away, so tenacious was the hide of this singular -sluglike animal. Taking a large one from the bottom, I placed it in a -glass jar standing on the deck of my boat, whereupon a very singular -occurrence took place. When the air began to be exhausted in the water -of the glass, out from the sea cucumber came a long, slender fish, so -ghostly and ethereal that when it died, as it did almost immediately, -I placed it upon a piece of newspaper and read print through its body. -The fish was known as Fierasfer, and it lived in the long intestine of -the sea cucumber. Since then the fish has been closely studied in the -Naples Aquarium, where it had the same habit, and where the attendant -naturalists saw the fish come out, and return tail first. - -The great sea cucumber of Florida may be taken as a type of all the -group which differ mainly in size, color, and shape. Some are very -short and have a decided flat lower surface; others are long, fragile, -and easily broken; and many are brilliant in color. Nearly all are -famous for their singular and often beautiful breathing organs which -protrude from the mouth and bear the most remarkable resemblance to -plants. In many specimens of the Atlantic Pentacta (Fig. 58), kept in -an aquarium, this resemblance was very marked, as the animals at once -buried themselves in the sand from which beautiful plants seemingly -grew, being merely the breathing organs of the wily mimic. These organs -vary much in size and beauty. In some species they are very elaborate, -in others they are simple, flowerlike objects. The greatest variation -is found in them. In one which I observed the tentacles resembled small -toadstools. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Anchorlike spicules of Synapta.] - -Many of the sea cucumbers, or holothurians, are very sensitive, and -when captured will often cast off their various organs. This does not -indicate the death of the animal, as they are soon replaced. A singular -trait of the long glasslike Synapta is that of cutting itself in two -when starved. At first an end of the animal is dropped, then another -piece, and this is continued until nothing but the mouth remains, -everything having seemingly been sacrificed to save this portion. If -food is now supplied, this animal will soon recover and assume its -normal condition. - -Synapta has no feet, their place seemingly being taken by peculiar -limy spicules, shaped like anchors (Fig. 59), which are deeply buried -in the skin. In its structure the sea cucumber resembles its cousins -the starfishes and sea urchins, and standing on end, may be compared -to an elongated sea urchin. Nothing can be more uninviting than these -animals, and when dried the flesh has the consistency of leather. Yet -the sea cucumber is highly regarded by the Chinese as a delicacy, and -the Malays have a large fleet engaged in the business of gathering -and preparing them. The animals are collected and dried, then smoked -and packed in bales and sent to China. They may be found in any of -the markets of these people, in San Francisco and New York. About the -Pacific island of Santa Catalina they are very commonly seen through -the bottom of the glass-bottomed boats, lying in the seaweed and -imitating it in color. - - - - -X. THE WORMS - - -Few groups of animals differ so much in general appearance as the -worms. Some resemble miniature snakes; others are flat, some are like -needles, one lives in a cell; another stays in the tissue of some -animal, while certain others infest the soil. Almost everywhere, on -land and in the sea, under nearly all conditions, we shall find these -remarkable creatures, which may be briefly described as animals having -a head, tail, and upper and lower surfaces, and made up of a great many -rings, or segments. In them we find an approach to the higher animals. -Thus they have a heart, with red or green blood, breathing organs, -though many breathe through the body walls, and a nervous system -consisting of a minute brain in the upper portion of the small head. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Development of a planarian worm.] - -All the worms deposit eggs, and nearly all are remarkable for the -wonderful changes through which they pass before they attain maturity. -This is well illustrated in a planarian worm (Fig. 60), which seems -to require the presence of another animal to enable it to complete -its development. The little creature which breaks from the egg (A) -is a free-swimming creature surrounded by cilia or hairlike swimming -organs. By these it moves through the water, and with strange instinct -searches for some animal, generally a snail, which it enters. There it -becomes surrounded by a sack and produces a little creature called the -nurse (_b_), which soon grows to resemble the tadpolelike creature (C), -which is filled with small egglike or germlike objects (_a_). It now -changes into a wormlike creature (D), in which the germs have assumed -the shape of worms (_a_), and soon breaks forth as a little form with a -tadpolelike tail (E)--a remarkable performance. But the end is not yet; -another animal is necessary to complete the change. Swimming about, -the little creature is swallowed by some animal in drinking, and finds -its way to the liver, where it lives, the tail being lost. The animal -now changes into a perfect flukeworm (F), which finally leaves the -animal or host and lays eggs in the water; these pass through the same -wonderful transformation. The flukeworms (Fig. 61) are disagreeable -flat creatures, not often seen, the marine forms attaining large size. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61.--A flukeworm.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 62.--Thorn-headed worm.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 63.--Supposed horsehair worm (_Gordius_): _A_, -adult; _B_, young (larva).] - -Many of the worms are parasites living upon other animals. The -thorn-headed worm (Fig. 62) is an example. Who has not heard the -story of the living horsehair? Almost every country newspaper has -told the story, that some farmer after washing his horses had found -several hairs taken from the horse's tail which "were alive," and to -prove the story the farmer produces the "living horsehair" which is a -remarkable imitation of the long hair of a horse's tail. But the hair -is a well-known worm (Fig. 63) called Gordius aquaticus. It is almost -exactly like a horse's hair, two or three feet in length, and found -coiled up in ponds or snugly tucked away in the interior of a beetle -or grasshopper which it has seized upon as a host. The deadly Trichina -spiralis belongs to this group (Fig. 64). If the vinegar bottle is -examined, in what is popularly called the "mother" at the bottom, still -another member of the family will be found. This is a minute round worm -almost invisible to the naked eye. It is very active and disagreeable -to contemplate, living in the sour, fiery liquid. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64.--_Trichina spiralis_: a deadly worm from pork.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 65.--The rotifer.] - -In this group are many dangerous worms, as the guinea worm of -remarkable length. While nearly all worms are disagreeable creatures, -a few are very beautiful. Such are the rotifers or wheel animalcules -(Fig. 65). These are the smallest and most active of the tribe of -worms. To be found they must be sought in a drop of standing water, and -as they are rarely ever over one thirty-sixth of an inch in length, a -microscope is necessary. Among the throng of wonderful creatures one -will be seen seemingly rolling over and over like a barrel, a minute -whirling Dervish of the water. The rotifers assume a variety of -shapes. One is a typical worm, another darts along by the aid of two -circlets of cilia which vibrate so rapidly that the illusion of rolling -is produced. No more wonderful creatures than these little worms are -known, and they well repay the study required to know them well. Some -of them are fixed and unable to swim, and many of the stories of -spontaneous generation are due to the faculty these minute rotifers -(often but three one hundredths of an inch in length) have of enduring -almost any amount of drying. Thus if a pond is dried up by the sun, -the rotifers seem to be able to lie dormant for a long time, and when -a rain falls in the locality for the first time in years, the pool -is at once peopled with rotifers which awaken from their long sleep. -When it is known that Ehrenberg, the German naturalist, found that a -certain species produced sixteen million young in less than two weeks, -it is easy to understand how quickly a new pond might become rapidly -equipped with a large population. - -[Illustration: FIG. 66.--Polyzoans: 1, colony in plant form; 2, 3, -cells of the worms magnified.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 67.--Polyzoan, magnified.] - -It is a singular fact that myriads of worms are seen daily, but are -not known as such. These are the minute and beautiful Polyzoans (Fig. -66). They are marine animals, grow in colonies, and look like delicate -seaweeds. They are often called moss animals. At the seashore we shall -find the rocks and particularly the broad fronds of kelp near shore -often encrusted with a delicate, beautiful tracery of pure white. In -California I have found the kelp leaves at the surface covered with -it, having the appearance of being coated with silver. Beneath the -glass it develops into a beautiful tracery filled with cells. When -magnified these cells are seen to resemble Figure 67, each one having -its worm, which seems to blossom like a flower. These worms are minute -imitators of corals, as they form a corallike structure, the worms -having the faculty of secreting lime, as do the corals, yet they are -much higher in the scale of life. One of the common seaweeds of the -seashore is the sea mat or Flustra. No one would suspect it of being -other than a beautiful marine plant with large leaves or branches, and -many a collection of "seaweed," preserved through many years, contains -the Flustra arranged among the real "plants" of the sea. But Flustra -is merely a colony of worms. The minute spots seen upon it when -enlarged beneath a microscope resemble so many cells of carbonate of -lime secreted by the worms of the community or colony. Another species -of Flustra is shown in Figure 68, and a part of the skeleton of the -colony or of each cell is the peculiar bird's head which has a beak. -This beak, even after the death of the worm, is seen to open and shut, -snapping continually, much quicker than the little pincerlike objects -we have seen in the sea urchins. The use of the so-called bird's head -is not well understood. - -[Illustration: FIG. 68.--Bird's-head Flustra: 1, Flustra mat, showing -cells; 2, diagram of a single worm (_Polypide_); 3, bird's-head -process.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 69.--Sea mat: 1, sea mat, natural size; 2, 3, -section of the animal much enlarged.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 70.--Lingula.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 71.--Lamp shells, showing gills.] - -This Flustra (Fig. 69) is very beautiful, forming a delicate little -plantlike form about an inch and a half in size. But the crowning -glory of these worms, as shown in the figure, is the circular crown -of tentacles by which food is grasped as it passes by. Any one who -has collected fossils in what is known as the Trenton limestone is -familiar with the little fossil shell called Lingula, of which two -thousand species are known. Curiously enough this little shell has -come down to us to-day, and in Figure 70 we see the living Lingula of -our waters with its long stem by which it fastens itself in the sand. -Lingula resembles a small clam shell, has two perfect shells, and -probably holds a place in many collections as a shell; yet Lingula is -a worm which secretes a two-valved, unhinged shell, that is an almost -perfect imitation of a bivalve mollusk. In the Santa Catalina Channel, -California, from water six hundred feet in depth, I have dredged shells -resembling those in Figure 71. They hung upon rocks in clusters, and -were very striking in their rich colors of yellow, red, etc. In shape -these Terebratulas, also common among the fossil shells, resemble -ancient Roman lamps, and hence are called lamp shells. They too are -worms, however, and many more shell makers called brachiopods. The -"wick," a muscular stalk or byssus, becomes firmly attached to some -object at the bottom. But in the instance of the little Lingula the -stalk or anchor rope merely passes between the curious shells. If the -latter are opened, we find a singular bridge or limy framework which is -intended to support the soft parts of the bridge, a very conspicuous -feature of which are what are called arms, long, ribbonlike, fringed -processes (_a_) which are coiled up in the shell and serve as breathing -organs and to obtain food as well. They can be extended some distance -from the shells. The curious frame upon which they rest is well shown -in Figure 72. It is on record that during the Sikh rebellion an entire -English regiment was put to flight by a force of worms. The troops -were marching through a forest when land leeches began to fall from -every branch and leaf, dropping in such vast numbers that the men were -almost crazed by the vicious bloodsuckers; hence they broke and ran for -clear ground, where they could rid themselves of the terrible pests. -Semper, the naturalist, states that he was driven from the forests of -Luzon by these leeches, which fell upon him like dew. The ordinary -leech of commerce (Fig. 73) belongs to this group. It has a sucking -mouth, which bears three teeth. It was once much used by physicians for -bleeding purposes, in fact, the animal derives its name from the fact -that medical men in England were formerly called leeches. The leech -had a high commercial value, over seven million being used in London -in a single year, valued at ten dollars a thousand. Leech raising is a -regular business in Russia, Bohemia, and Hungary. - -[Illustration: FIG. 72.--Brachiopod, showing supporting loop.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 73.--The leech of commerce: _a_, anterior sucker; -_b_, posterior sucker; _d_, stomach; _s_, glands of the skin.] - -The best known of all worms, perhaps, because all boys are fond of -fishing, is the angleworm or earthworm (Fig. 74), which can be found -where the earth is rich and moist. This worm is really a beautiful -object, being highly iridescent, flashing a thousand hues in the -sunlight to which it has a decided objection, as the heat soon dries -it up. The ringed or segmented arrangement is easily observed as it -moves along. By this marvelous arrangement a worm can either stretch -itself out to an inordinate length, or telescope itself until it can -hardly be recognized as a worm. There are several interesting features -about earthworms which ordinarily escape the notice of even the angler. -One is its feet, which differ from those of any other animal. They are -very minute, and are bristles, each segment or ring being supplied with -four. Another peculiarity of the earthworm is that instead of hunting -out food in the earth it swallows the earth as it meets it, allowing -the animal matter to be absorbed within. It then casts up the earth, -which are the little mounds of mold found in the grass or turf every -morning. This habit has made the worm a valuable aid to the farmer in -preparing the soil, filling it with tunnels and constantly bringing new -earth to the surface and turning it over. The amount of earth moved -in this way was made a special study by Charles Darwin. In the year -1842 he spread a field with broken chalk, and after twenty-nine years -examined it and found that the chalk in that time had been buried seven -inches by the worms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 74.--Earthworm: _c_, egg; _d_, young escaping from -egg.] - -This gives us some idea of how important a factor these humble -creatures are, working mainly at night, in burying the works of man. -It is evident that in two or three centuries portions of buildings -could be concealed. In England numbers of ancient Roman villas have -been discovered, beautiful floors and foundations of ancient buildings -which have been lost to sight by being covered by these night workers. -To give an adequate idea of the work they accomplish, Darwin says -that the amount of vegetable mold brought to the surface in a single -year amounts to ten tons to a single acre. They rarely descend below -six feet, and Darwin estimated that in favorable localities there are -100,000 in every acre. In New Zealand 348,480 have been found in a very -rich acre. The worms eat the earth, and drag leaves and soft twigs into -their holes at night. They plant seeds and bury stones. Some of the -casts of giant worms of India are a foot in length. They live entirely -beneath the ground, lining their burrows with very soft fine earth, -which appears to be powdered for the purpose. All their operations are -carried on at night, when they come to the surface and eject the casts. -They have a habit of lying near the surface at the entrance of their -burrows, a fact which the birds have discovered, robins and mocking -birds particularly being very clever in hunting them out. - -One of the most remarkable features of these worms is their -phosphorescence, which I have found is more brilliant than that emitted -by any other animal. Crossing an orange grove in southern California -one dark and rainy night in January, I stumbled over a clod of earth, -and if I had kicked a mass of live coals, the result could not have -been more marked, as flashes of vivid light darted in every direction -with the earth, caused by several earthworms which had exuded so -much phosphorescent matter that it had pervaded the entire mass of -surrounding soil. The phenomenon on a small scale can often be seen in -southern California, especially in winter, when the ground is moist and -wet. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.--Marine worm (_Cirratulus_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 76.--A marine worm (_Nereis_).] - -Probably the most beautiful of all worms are those of the sea, the -marine forms found everywhere from the mud banks to the long fronds -of kelp washed by the foaming sea. Perhaps the most gorgeous creature -taken from deep water is Aphrodite, several inches long, an inch -across, and about the size of a mouse. The worms are provided with an -array of iridescent bristles, so beautiful as to appear artificial, -blazing with golden lights. Some of these worms are covered with -strange and brilliantly colored streamers, as Cirratulus (Fig. 75). -Others are long and slender, as Nereis (Fig. 76), a very common form -alongshore. It is sought after by fishes with good appetites, and often -caught, despite the fact that it has four eyes, four hundred paddles, -and fierce jaws for seizing prey. Nereis lives in the sand in a tunnel. -It has a habit of coming out at night and swimming abroad, when, -creating a blaze of light, it becomes a very conspicuous object and is -quickly caught by some wandering fish. These worms are among the most -brilliant of all light givers; not alone for the intensity of light, -but for its variety in tint and color. The most remarkable light givers -are Polynoë, Syllis, Chætopterus, and Polycirrus. The first-mentioned -emits a green light at the attachment of each scale. In the second the -feet are light givers and emit a blue light. In the third the light -blazes on the back at the tenth joint alone. The last is a worm of -fire, the strange, little understood light blazing over its entire -surface, a vivid blue. - -[Illustration: FIG. 77.--A tube-secreting worm.] - -I was once sitting on the shore of Avalon Bay in southern California -when, in the darkest corner in the shadow of a high cliff, I saw, two -hundred feet away, what appeared like candle lights floating upon the -surface. Rowing a boat to the lights, I found that each one came from -a spot of phosphorescence floating on the surface. When it moved, as -it often did, phosphorescence streamed away in its wake. When taken -in my hand the latter became bathed with the light which ran from -the invisible animal. I succeeded in capturing one entire light, but -could not make out the animal. Soon I noticed lights upon the bottom -in water five feet deep. They appeared to be as large as saucers, but -grew rapidly in size until they were as large as dinner plates, then -the yellow light gradually diminished until it was not larger than -a hazelnut, and came wriggling upward in a zigzag of fire, finally -reaching the surface and resting, as one of the peculiar lights I had -seen so far away. I captured several, and in the morning found that -my light giver was a minute sea worm not half an inch in length. When -discovered, the little animal was leaving its burrow or cave in the -sand for a nightly swim at the surface. - -Many of the most beautiful of the marine worms are cell builders (Fig. -77). In some the worms secrete a tube of carbonate of lime. In others -the den is made of bits of sand. I found on the Florida Reef many -remarkable examples of the latter. The nest or tube was built among -the seaweed, several inches above the bottom, and would naturally be a -conspicuous object; but here the intelligence of the little creature -is seen, for it covers the outside of the column with the plates of a -lime-secreting seaweed, which look like shingles, and mounts upon the -upper portion of the column a green bit of seaweed. This is glued to -the tube and so arranged that it falls over the entrance and closes it, -thus serving the purpose of a door and making the tube mimic a bit of -sea grass. The worm lifts the grass door when it comes out. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78.--A group of tube-secreting worms (_Serpulæ_).] - -One of the most familiar forms is Serpula (Fig. 78), whose tubes wind -in and out in every direction. No garden of pansies gives a greater -variety of tints than did a mass of these radiant creatures that I -found on a floating spar in the Pacific at Avalon Bay. But touch these -"flowers" or jar them and they disappear like magic, leaving a hole -closed by a little door, which is formed by a part of the worm that -thus defies all intruders. - - - - -XI. THE TWO-VALVED SHELLS - - -[Illustration: FIG. 79.--The oyster: _A_, muscle; _B_, mantle; _C_, -gills; _D_, labial palpi; _E_, hinge; _F_, mouth; _G_, liver and -stomach; _H_, heart.] - -The beautiful objects which we know as shells, and which form ornaments -in many a home far distant from the sea, are the coverings of a group -of animals called mollusks. They are found in all seas, many upon -land, and in fresh-water streams, and are among the most attractive of -all natural objects, so much so that many persons devote their entire -lives to their collection, and many others much time to the study of -their habits. It is rare to find a new shell, so well have these shell -hunters searched the waters of the world. Such collections, especially -if complete, are very valuable, and many of the great museums have paid -thousands of dollars for them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 80.--Anatomy of snail: _a_, mouth; _b_, foot; _c_, -anus; _d_, lung; _e_, stomach; _f_, intestine; _g_, liver; _h_, heart; -_i_, aorta; _j_, gastric artery; _k_, foot artery; _o_, lung and heart -artery.] - -The mollusks or shells present a striking contrast to the worms. They -have no joints, are soft, seemingly without form, and are very helpless -creatures. The body is enveloped in a muscular coat or mantle, as -shown in the oyster (Fig. 79). They have a nervous system, and a heart -(_H_) which pumps colorless blood. Some have a foot for locomotion and -eyes more or less well developed. The oyster represents a large group -which have two shells, called bivalves. In Figure 80 we see the animal -portion of the common snail, which illustrates another group with but -one shell. These are called univalves. To the bivalves belong the -shells best known, the oysters, clams, scallops, pectens, pearl oyster, -razor shell, and many others, of which the oyster is the most familiar. -The mantle, the soft, delicate lining, is the shell maker, and not -only forms it, but repairs damages to it, piling up layer after layer -of pearly matter called nacre. As there is a mantle on each side, two -values are secreted. The sharp portion of the oyster is called the -beak. Here the growth of the shell begins, and here are the marvelous -valves which fit with such accuracy. These complicated parts are easily -seen in the clam (Fig. 81). The hinge is joined by teeth (_c_, _d_, -_d_,) which fit into cavities on the opposite valve, while the valves -are held together by a perfect hinge, a horny ligament (_h_) that tends -to open the shell or throw the valves apart. - -[Illustration: FIG. 81.--Bivalve shells: _a_, beak; _k_, base; _b_, -_b_, hinges; _c_, _d_, _d_, teeth; _n_, ligament; _e_, _e_, adductor -muscles; _l_, lines of growth; _f_, pallial line.] - -In the interior of all shells are seen certain scars; in others a -purple mark. These marks (_e_, _e_,) indicate the location of a strong -muscle by which the clam or oyster closes its shells and keeps them -closed with such rigidity. In opening oysters the man severs this -muscle and the shell opens, forced apart by its ligament. This explains -why most shells found on the beach are wide open. The curious columnar -objects in rows are the gills or breathing organs of the oyster, and -are covered with little oars (Fig. 82), or cilia, which move to and -fro, continually sweeping the currents of water along, bearing oxygen -and food. The former is taken up by the gills to purify the blood, and -the latter is swept into the mouth located near the lungs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 82.--Cilia or oars of a mollusk, highly magnified.] - -There is great variety in the hearts of shells. In the oyster (Fig. 79) -it is composed of one auricle and one ventricle; but in other shells -the heart may be three-chambered, or there may be two distinct hearts, -each having two chambers. The eyes of the shells are very minute and -are situated along the mantle. Those of the pecten are very beautiful -and are distinctly visible, resembling gems or emeralds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83.--A clam: _f_, foot; _m_, mantle; _s_, siphon.] - -The clams (Fig. 83) differ from the oysters in having a pronounced foot -(_f_) which protrudes from the large end of the shell; and with it the -animal digs its burrow. It also hears indirectly by its foot, as its -ears are in this organ, little transparent sacs containing a clear -fluid in which floats a glassy globule. The clam also has a siphon -(_s_), which in the common clam is very long. It has a black head or -tip and the clam may rest some distance down in its hole and take -in water through its siphon, which is double-barreled. One opening -(_in._) receives water containing food and oxygen; the other (_ex._) -expels the water. In strolling along the sands at low tide one often -sees a spurt of water shoot out of a hole, and may assume that a clam -has been alarmed and has retracted its siphon so suddenly that it has -shot a stream of water above the surface. The shells increase by eggs, -the oyster depositing a vast number, which at first are curious little -free-swimming objects (Fig. 84) paddling by the aid of cilia or whips, -but soon attaching themselves to the bottom and taking the oyster form. - -[Illustration: FIG. 84.--Free-swimming young of a bivalve.] - -The oyster is perhaps the most valuable bivalve to man, being a -favorite article of food, for which $1,500,000 is paid annually in New -York alone. Thousands of men find employment collecting them in various -parts of the world. In this country the most valuable oyster beds are -in the vicinity of New York, at the mouth of the Shrewsbury River, in -the Chesapeake Bay, and at various points alongshore to Florida, where -there are large banks at the mouths of the rivers. In watching the -excavation of a cellar at the town of Mayport at the mouth of the St. -John River I saw oyster shells thrown up as deep as the men went. The -town is built on an ancient oyster bed. Among the old shells numerous -pieces of pottery have been found, showing that the early natives -frequented the spot. The living oyster bed here to-day is some distance -out in the stream. When sailing up a small river in Maine some years -ago, I found, about ten miles from its mouth, a mound of oyster shells -thirty or forty feet high. The river appeared to have cut the bed in -two, and out of the top of the mound, which was of solid shells, grew -a tree which must have been a century old. I believe there are no -oysters on the Maine coast to-day, and the great pile was accumulated -ages ago when Maine had oyster beds and the Indians carried the oysters -ten miles up the river to this spot which must have been the site of -an ancient Indian town or city. The pearl oyster is another valuable -shell (Fig. 85). It is common in warmer waters. Near La Paz in the Gulf -of California is a famous fishery, which is owned by the government -and farmed out. In Ceylon it is estimated that 17,000,000 oysters are -destroyed to obtain $80,000 worth of pearls. The shells are also very -valuable, being made into buttons and various other objects. Liverpool -is the great receiving port for these, and many tons are used annually. -In diving for pearls the Ceylonese, who are able to remain beneath the -water several minutes, place as many shells as possible in a basket -and then ascend, leaving the crew to haul the basket up. In Lower -California many divers of to-day go down in armor. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85.--Pearl oysters.] - -Pearls are generally valued according to their symmetry and color. Some -are perfect, and when of large size bring vast sums. One of the shahs -of Persia owned a necklace in which the pearls were perfect and as -large as hazelnuts. The pearl is the result of the oyster's attempts to -protect itself from injury. If we should take one of these beautiful -pearl oysters and with a gimlet bore a hole through the shell from the -outside and replace it in the water, we should find, months after, if -the oyster was examined, that it had, by using its mantle, secreted a -large amount of pearly nacre over the wound, not only filling up the -hole, but heaping the pearly secretion over it until a projection a -quarter of an inch high was the result, resembling a pearl attached -to the shell. This is the way imperfect pearls are formed; they are -the attempts on the part of the oyster to prevent injury to itself. -Occasionally some foreign body, like a grain of sand, will enter -the shell. Its sharp edges will cut the soft flesh of the delicate -creature, which immediately covers it with pearly nacre. The larger it -grows the more the oyster notices it among its folds, and the more it -instinctively covers it with pearl. In this way the pearls grow. - -The seed pearls are those in which some impurity has been covered but -a few times, while the very large pearls are those which have been -bathed in nacre time and again. If a large pearl is cut in halves, the -various layers can be counted, the sections recalling the interior of -an onion. The skillful native fakirs of the East take advantage of -this industry of the pearl oyster to introduce metal beads and figures -of the Buddha into shells, which are then marked. The objects finally -become covered, when they are removed from the shells and sold to the -unsuspecting natives as "miracles." - -One of the interesting shells of the seashore is the Pinna. I have -found the shores of the outside islands of Texas scattered with them. -They are also called fan shells, and are attached to the bottom by a -peculiar cable, or byssus, formed of a silklike substance which has -been woven. Gloves and hose of pinna silk may be seen in the British -Museum. - -[Illustration: FIG. 86.--Pectens swimming.] - -The pectens are common forms famous for the beautiful gemlike eyes -seen along the edge of their mantles. I once kept a number of these -shells in an aquarium, and they were a source of much amusement, from -their habit of dancing (Fig. 86). Generally they lay in the sand in the -bottom of the tank with their valves open an inch or more, their bright -eyes gleaming. Without any warning, one would open and close its valves -with great rapidity, which would cause the shell to take convulsive -and bounding hops. Then another shell would follow, and soon all the -pectens were leaping up and down in a most extraordinary dance. The -pecten changes its position or travels, not by pushing itself along, -but by a sudden and spasmodic hop, clearing a foot or more. - -[Illustration: FIG. 87.--Mussel climbing: _B_, cables; _F_, foot.] - -The locomotion of shells itself is a fascinating subject. An -interesting instance is observed in the common mussel. This shell has a -remarkable foot, a pointed, fleshy organ which can be protruded. With -this organ the mussel bores holes in the sand, jerks itself along, or -clears the surface with a bound. But its most remarkable service is -in aiding the mussel to climb. In the foot, near its base, is a gland -which secretes a peculiar substance, which when exposed to the water -hardens and resembles silk. The resemblance is so perfect that the -"silk" has been woven into various articles, and an attempt was made in -France to raise mussels for this purpose. When the animal desires to -climb, it reaches out its foot as high as it can (Fig. 87), and presses -it upon the pile or rock, whereupon a delicate cord, one of the cables -of its byssus, is seen. Again the foot is extended, again a cable is -attached, the entire operation calling to mind the action of a spider. -Each step raises the mussel a little higher, and as it moves on, the -cables that would hold it back are broken off, and the mussel at length -reaches the position it desires. - -The fresh-water mussels found in the Ohio and other rivers and streams -are pearl producers. Very valuable gems have been taken from them in -various states, and the fresh-water pearl fishery of the United States -is of considerable importance. A fresh-water pearl found in New Jersey -was valued at $2000, and one taken from a stream in Scotland brought -$50,000. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88.--Giant clam.] - -The vast number of shells and the varieties of each kind can hardly be -realized by those who have not examined a well-equipped collection. -Over four thousand species of the mussel are known, and hundreds of -species of almost every shell exist in various streams and seas. The -shells range from minute specimens hardly visible to giants weighing -several hundred pounds, one of the latter being the huge clam, Tridacna -(Fig. 88), found in the equatorial Pacific. There are several species, -and in the largest each valve weighs about two hundred and fifty -pounds. The animal itself weighs thirty pounds, and affords a meal to -forty or fifty men. The shell, by means of its foot, buries itself -in the soft rock of the regions in which it lives. With its valves -partly open it resembles a huge sea anemone; but it closes them at the -slightest alarm. Large fishes, and even natives, it is said, have been -trapped by this giant, whose jawlike valves, with three huge teeth, -grip the fin of a fish or the foot of an unfortunate wader with a -vicelike grasp. The byssus or anchor of this huge shell is so thick and -tenacious that it is severed only with great difficulty and labor. The -shells are valuable as ornaments, large numbers being sent to various -countries for this purpose. The giant never moves, and in this respect -is a sharp contrast to the little donax, so common on our various -shores and in France, which leaps along the muddy flats by convulsive -movements of its fleshy foot. - -[Illustration: FIG. 89.--Razor clam.] - -The common razor clam, of which sixty or more species are known, by -means of its foot (Fig. 89) digs a deep burrow which is filled with -water even at low tide. The shell is often found at the entrance, but -at the slightest alarm it dashes deep down into its den, to be caught -only by persistent digging. - -The odd shapes assumed by many bivalves is well illustrated in the -hammer oyster (Fig. 90) and the pholas. The latter illustrates the -power of the most insignificant animals, as by means of its foot this -little shell burrows into the hardest granite. It is invariably found -there and imprisoned; for when it reaches the interior of a stone, it -grows and enlarges, leaving but a small opening for the siphons. It is -supposed by some that the pholas possesses some secretions by which -it dissolves the stone, and by others that it wears away the rock by -using its shell as a file. In any event the shell is known to contain -aragonite, a very hard substance. In the pillar of the temple of -Serapis, Italy, the holes made by this shell are seen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90.--Hammer oyster.] - -Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the pholas is its power as a -light giver. It emits a delicate blue light, dead or alive. One placed -in a glass of milk has been used as a lamp, illuminating the faces near -it. Another placed in honey retained its phosphorescence for over a -year. The little pholas is found all over the world, more than eighty -different species being known. - -[Illustration: FIG. 91.--Teredo, a boring shell.] - -The teredo or shipworm (Fig. 91) is called a worm because it secretes -a limy shell, but it is really a bivalve shell open at both ends, a -shell which with one exception causes more destruction than all other -marine animals combined. Instinctively it bores into wood, forming an -irregular tunnel and lining it with a delicate coating of carbonate of -lime. Some years ago I visited on the outer Florida Reef, an old wreck -which was newly buried in the sand and partly exposed at low tide. The -timbers of the vessel looked strong and able to stand many a storm, yet -with a blow of my hand I broke through the planking. The interior was -completely honeycombed by the teredo, so that it was a maze of tubes. -At this place the life of a pile of yellow pine was a year and a half; -in other words, after being exposed to the teredo for this length of -time, it was useless. On the Pacific, at Avalon Bay, the piles last -about two years, being rapidly destroyed, even though soaked in various -poisonous fluids and coated with tar. Many thousands of dollars have -been expended in experiments with devices to outwit the teredo, but -without avail, and they are the greatest menace to navigation and piers -to-day, making their way into hulls, despite the copper sheathing. In -the mud banks of the waters of Sumatra, teredos are found which attain -a length of six feet, with tubes four inches in diameter. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Mactra: _a_, foot; _b_, _c_, siphons.] - -The shells are famous for their beauty, the polished valves and their -marvelous tints presenting attractive combinations. The common mactra -(Fig. 92), the cockle (Fig. 93) with its deep radiations, the gorgeous -pectens of the South, the splendid pearl-bearing shells, all tell a -wonderful story of the resources of nature, and emphasize the fact that -the smallest and most inconspicuous animals vie with the larger forms -in beauty of shape and color. - -[Illustration: FIG. 93.--Cockle.] - - - - -XII. THE UNIVALVES - - -[Illustration: FIG. 94.--Group of shells: 1, Cymbium; 2, Cerithium; 3, -Voluta; 4, Cardium; 5, Phorus; 6, Murex; 7, Vermetus; 8, Trochus; 9, -Pholas; 10, Turritella.] - -The shells which have been noticed in the preceding chapter belonged -literally to the stay-at-homes of the family. They rarely wander far, -and many, as we have seen, never leave the place which the young shell -first selected as its home. What are known as the univalves, the -mollusks with one shell, or perhaps no shell at all, are the reverse -of this, being in many instances travelers, wandering here and there. -This suggests that they have more highly organized locomotive organs. -Those shown on the upper part of Figure 94 are univalves, and if we -make a section of a univalve (Fig. 95), we see that the shell is -much more complicated than in the previous forms. The univalve has a -shell-secreting mantle and organs resembling those of the bivalves, -only differently placed. This marvelous mantle performs some singular -feats, judging from the spines found on many shells. To make these, -the mantle must have been thrown outward and upward, forming a tube in -which the spine was secreted. - -[Illustration: FIG. 95.--Section of a univalve.] - -In the univalves a distinct head is seen (Fig. 98) with tentacles -and prominent eyes. The foot is now elaborated into a huge sucking, -clinging, disklike organ. In the whelk it is as long as the shell, -the latter being perched high above it, presenting a remarkable -spectacle as it moves along the sandy floor of the ocean. On the head -are two tentacles, feelers or sense organs, and sometimes the eyes -are mounted on tall stalks, that the shell may have a wide range of -vision. A siphon, such as we have seen in the clam, is present and -extended upward and forward. It protrudes from a canal formed in the -shell for the purpose, and is often very long. If the whelk (Fig. 99) -is disturbed, it suddenly withdraws its body, including the enormous -colored foot; and if the shell is picked up, the entrance is found -securely closed by a horny door called the operculum, which is attached -to the foot (Fig. 99). This door takes many shapes. In the beautiful -conch it is saber-shaped, and is used to dig into the sand, or, as a -lever, to force the conch along by a series of jerks. In other shells -it is apparently made of porcelain, hard and highly polished. It is -well known as the "eye stone" of popular fancy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 96.--Tongue and teeth of a univalve: _A_, portion -of tongue of Velutina; _B_, portion of tongue of whelk; _C_, head and -tongue of limpet; _D_, portion of same enlarged.] - -Many of the univalves are flesh eaters, preying upon others of their -kind. They have a remarkable tongue (Fig. 96) for the purpose, in fact, -the teeth are upon the tongue in sawlike rows. The tongue, which is -called the lingual ribbon, is ribbon shaped, long and slender, and -is really a soft, pliable saw with which the animal bores into the -hardest shells of the helpless clams. In strolling alongshore a large -majority of the "dead" clam shells found bleaching in the sun, where -they have been washed by the sea, will be seen to contain a circular -hole of perfect symmetry (Fig. 97). This has been made by the boring, -sawlike tongue of a univalve, which, after gaining an entrance into the -tightly locked shell, deliberately sucked it out. It is interesting to -note the location of this hole, which is invariably over the softest -and plumpest part of the victim, near the lungs, showing that the -cannibalistic univalve is very clever in its mode of attack. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97.--Clam shell bored by a univalve.] - -While the oyster deposits vast quantities of eggs, which float out -into the water to be destroyed by other animals, many of the univalves -protect their eggs in remarkable cases. I have often found on the -Florida Reef strings (Fig. 98) of singular objects which resembled -sections of a yellowish cylinder connected by a little cord. Each -section is an egg case, or capsule, and contains many shells, the -entire chain being two or three feet in length. This becomes tangled in -the coral or seaweed, and holds the young shells, all of which escape -through a little door in each section. - -[Illustration: FIG. 98.--Egg case of a conch.] - -Other shells, as the whelk (Fig. 99), deposit their egg cases in -heaps or mounds. They are soft and spongelike, and are often mistaken -for sponges when divested of their shells and cast ashore. Perhaps -the best-known egg case is that of the common Natica, which forms a -singular object called the "sand collar" (Fig. 100). The animal molds -this collar out of fine sand with its foot, and deposits its eggs in -the interior, all being cemented or glued together in a solid mass. -We shall find that certain birds deposit their eggs in the nests of -others, so saving the wearying process of hatching. A certain shell, -called Nassa, has a similar habit. At times it deposits its eggs on the -collar nest of the Natica. - -[Illustration: FIG. 99.--The whelk: _A_, living shell; _B_, empty -shell; _C_, egg case.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 100.--Egg case of the Natica.] - -Among the myriads of shells which we may select to illustrate the -various interesting types, shapes, and kinds, are the Chitons (Fig. -101). Their shells are made up of many plates resembling the plates -of a hawkbill turtle. Many live in holes in the rocks, and all have -a very large, sucking, disklike foot which clings to the rocks with -great tenacity. Resembling them somewhat are the limpets. These are -interesting and beautiful shells, especially when polished, forming -attractive domes marvelously tinted and colored. Some are called -keyhole limpets (Fig. 102), from the fact that they have a keyhole-like -opening in the top. They range in size from very minute forms to giants -a foot in length. - -[Illustration: FIG. 101.--The Chiton and its free-swimming young. I. -Adult, showing plates. II. Chiton dissected: _o_, mouth; _g_, nervous -ring; _ao_, great artery from the heart, aorta; _c_, ventricle; -_c´_, an auricle; _br_, left branchiæ; _od_, oviducts. III, IV, V. -Development of free-swimming young.] - -Among the most beautiful of all shells, and at the same time the most -common in tropic and semitropic seas, are the abalones. They are also -called ear shells. They have an enormous foot that covers the entire -lower surface, being a remarkably powerful organ. Instances have been -known where Chinese abalone hunters have tried to pry off the shell -from a rock with their hands, and have had their fingers caught and -held as though by a vice. - -[Illustration: FIG. 102.--Keyhole limpet.] - -The Haliotis is very common on the shores of the southern Californian -islands. In some localities every rock is covered with them, and in -places where the black abalone is common, I have found them piled one -upon the other. There are two hundred species living. Every tint, -color, or tone known in the scale of color, or its combinations, is -flashed from these marvelous shells, which, if rare, would be counted -among the most beautiful of all natural productions. On the Californian -coast they are collected in large numbers, and when polished are -converted into buttons and a thousand and one other objects. The meat, -which is of excellent quality, is sold in large quantities to the -Chinese. Thousands of the shells are bought by tourists, the outside -being richly polished. From the ancient graves or Indian mounds of the -Californian islands I have taken quantities, especially the large kind -known as the red abalone, showing that they were used by the ancient -inhabitants. In all of these islands heaps and piles of abalones are -found far from the water. By stopping up the holes in the shell with -asphaltum, which drifts ashore here, the natives had an excellent dish, -or bailer. They cut the shell into earrings and ornaments of many -kinds, and most of their fishhooks were evolved from this beautiful -shell, which also supplied a large proportion of their food. - -[Illustration: FIG. 103.--Great conch (_Strombus_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 104.--Queen conch (_Cassis_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 105.--Cypræa.] - -On the Florida Reef the great conchs (Fig. 103) are very common. They -live on the sandy floor of the lagoons, hitching themselves slowly -along by their long-pointed, saberlike operculums. This is the conch -of commerce, in which appears the most delicate of all pink colors, -and which is the source of the rare pink pearls. In the same locality, -but in deeper water, is found the Queen conch (Fig. 104), which is -cut into medallions and cameos. The beautiful Cypræa (Fig. 105), of -which many varieties are known, are called micramocks in Florida, and -cowries elsewhere. Their luster and natural polish often excite wonder, -for they commonly live concealed in the rough portions of dead coral -branches, where they would easily become scratched. The cowry, however, -is protected by a remarkable mantle which covers the entire shell, -thus keeping its pianolike surface as smooth as a mirror. Many cowries -are beautifully striped; some are spotted with dark spots on a white -background; some are yellow; others are red or old gold, every tint and -color seemingly being employed by nature in painting these gems of the -sea. Few other shells have been so universally esteemed by all nations. -Among certain African tribes they are used as money, and not many years -ago collections of cowries were made with all the ardor that actuated -the tulip collectors, thousands of dollars being paid for single -shells, as the orange cowry. - -[Illustration: FIG. 106.--Cone shell (_Conus_).] - -The cone shells (Fig. 106) represent a beautiful group, spotted like -leopards, striped like the tiger, black, red, yellow. Some shells -are very pointed, like the augur shell (Fig. 107). Some have an -extraordinarily long projection for the siphon, as the spindle shell -(Fig. 108). In some the opening is very small, as the cone shells, -while in others it is immense, and protected by a large, doorlike -operculum. The Bulimas is a famous nest builder. Bulla is interesting -from the lightness and delicacy of the shell and its rich neutral -browns. - -[Illustration: FIG. 107.--Augur shell (_Terebra_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 108.--Spindle shell (_Fusus_).] - -Among the very familiar shells are the land snails (Fig. 109), common -in every garden and raised and sold in France and Italy as table -delicacies. Closely allied to them are the slugs, which bear upon -their backs, beneath the skin, a delicate, scale-like shell. On the -island of San Clemente, fifty miles off the coast of California, I -found an extensive sandy plain which was so thickly strewn with the -white, bleached snail shells that I could hardly step without crushing -several. The verdure had died, and the snails were doubtless killed by -the direct rays of the sun. - -These interesting animals are called pulmonates because they breathe -air directly. - -The slugs (Fig. 110) have many peculiar characteristics. If the -long tentacles on the short eye stalk are destroyed, the snail will -reproduce them. In winter the snails descend into the ground, or hide -themselves away, literally sealing themselves in their shells by -closing the door firmly, and there hibernate until spring, neither -eating nor drinking, and hardly breathing during this time; if placed -in a cold storage box, they will remain several years in this state. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109.--A snail crawling.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 110.--Slugs and snails.] - -Some of the snails of Africa are six inches across, and the eggs are an -inch in length. Semper found a little snail in the Philippines, which -when caught by the foot or "tail" throws it off as a lizard jerks off -its tail. This is not a great hardship, as the tail is soon renewed. In -a collection of shells which came from France some years ago I found -several snails of different colors which were joined one to the other. -The collector had cut the top from an empty brown snail and placed a -living snail with a yellow shell upon it, tying the two together. The -snail, supposing that its shell had been broken, immediately began to -repair the wound, and closed up the breach with its shell-secreting -mantle, so that the two shells became one. - -[Illustration: FIG. 111.--A sea slug (_Dendronotus_).] - -In floating on the borders of the Sargasso Sea, the vast sea of weeds -in the South Atlantic, I found numbers of a beautiful sea slug (Fig. -111) which so resembled the weeds in shape and color, a rich olive -green, that it was almost impossible to distinguish it, except when -very close to the surface. They have attractive names, as Doris, -Tritonia, Æolis, and Aplysia, and are among the wonders of the great -belts of kelp which surround the continent. I once found a slug at -Santa Catalina which was a vivid, almost iridescent purple; another was -yellow; but the most interesting was Aplysia, a giant two feet long, -which I kept in an aquarium. It weighed nearly eight pounds, could -lengthen itself out to a distance of nearly three feet, or contract -into a dark, olive-hued ball, scarcely six inches across. It took sea -lettuce from my hand, eating with avidity, and when disturbed emitted a -purple ink which filled the water and hid the monster "sea hare" from -view. It laid its eggs on the sides of the tank in long chains, but if -not well fed, exhibited a decided cannibalistic tendency, devouring its -own progeny. This animal had an enormous foot by which it crept rapidly -along, and it invariably protected itself by imitating the color of the -bottom upon which it rested. - -[Illustration: FIG. 112.--_Onchidium_, a sea slug with eyes on its -back.] - -One of the most interesting slugs is the Onchidium (Fig. 112). -According to the naturalist Semper, it has upon its back numerous eyes, -which enable it to see from above. It is a mud-loving form, common in -our new provinces, the Philippines, where the heat is intense and the -water warm. One of the land slugs, Limax noctiluca, emits light; and -the eggs of another, Arion, have been noticed to be luminous for nearly -two weeks after being deposited. - -[Illustration: FIG. 113.--_A_, _B_, _C_, pteropods; _D_, young of -Cleodora, all highly magnified.] - -Nearly all these shells are slow-moving animals, but there are others, -the pteropods (Fig. 113), which are swimmers. The veritable fairy -craft of the sea, they are housed in shells of dainty structure and -moving by singular winglike fins, which give them the name of ocean -butterflies. They have the property of phosphorescence to a remarkable -degree. Cleodora (Fig. 113, _D_) emits a soft light which gleams -through the delicate shell like a light in a lantern. In swimming it -moves its fins up and down very much like a butterfly, so that they -touch at the top. As delicate and dainty as this little creature is, -it has a marvelous arrangement for seizing prey, each tentacle having -about three thousand transparent cylinders, each of which contains -twenty stalked suckers. As there are six tentacles on each sucker, -Cleodora can grasp its prey with three hundred thousand hands. Equally -dainty in its way is the sea snail, Ianthina, a violet shell of great -delicacy, whose foot develops a raft which resembles a mass of soap -bubbles, so the violet snail floats upon the surface of tropical and -semi-tropical seas. I have seen the shores of the keys of the Florida -Reef lined with an undulating ribbon of these shells after a storm. -When touched they emit a rich violet ink which lasts a long time as -a stain. A small species of Ianthina is found in the winter on the -southern Californian shores, and beneath the attractive float will be -found the eggs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 114.--1, _Dentalium entalis_, natural size; 2, -shell magnified, and broken to show animal within; 3, animal projecting -from the shell; 4, animal from below, magnified; 6, same from above; 5, -same, showing internal structure.] - - - - -XIII. THE CUTTLEFISHES - - -In the great libraries of the country will be found books dating back -to the last two centuries, many of which contain cuts and descriptions -of frightful animals resembling huge spiders, called krakens, or -devilfishes. They are represented climbing over ships, and hauling them -down. One is described as so huge that the crew of a vessel landed upon -it, not discovering that it was not an island until they had built a -fire, when the supposed island, really a kraken, sank beneath them. -These are tales of romancers, but it is interesting to know that they -are based upon a slight foundation of fact. Devilfishes have been -discovered in various seas, which weighed several hundred pounds, and -whose length ranged from fifty to seventy or more feet. Such an animal -is the giant squid (Fig. 115), which is a very timid animal, and though -it might overturn a small boat, it is not likely to make the attempt. - -[Illustration: FIG. 115.--A giant squid, fifty feet long.] - -These animals are called cephalopods because their feet are attached -to the head; in other words, they are head-footed. The typical squid -or cuttlefish has a barrel-shaped body, and a tail resembling an -arrowhead. Its head is separated from the body by a seeming neck, and -is provided with two immense eyes (Fig. 116). Projecting forward are -two long, slender arms, and eight shorter ones, which in the giant -squid are from six to ten feet in length. These are armed with peculiar -suckers (Fig. 117), each of which is extremely powerful. In a specimen -six feet long, which I kept for an hour alive in a large tank, some -idea of the strength of a squid could be obtained. It fastened its -eight arms to the tank, and with all the force I could bring to bear I -was unable to tear them off. Besides the eight short arms there are two -long ones. - -[Illustration: FIG. 116.--Squid (_Sepia_), one fifth natural size.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 117.--Suckers of a squid.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 118.--Beak or bill of a squid.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 119.--Showing parts of a squid: _T_, tentacles; -_O_, mouth; _F_, siphon; _In_, intestine; _I_, ink bag; _B_, gills; -_H_, heart; _K_, blood vessel; _C_, lobes of tail.] - -In a specimen of the giant squid which I handled and measured, the long -arms were about thirty feet in length. The ends were enlarged with -paddlelike organs, and bore a group of suckers. The object of the long -arms is to serve as graspers. They are kept near the body, coiled up, -and can be shot out with remarkable velocity, grasping a fish like two -hands with gigantic arms. They haul the prey to the short arms, when -hundreds of sucking disks hold the victim that is now pressed to the -remarkable mouth. This lies between the base of the arms, and in color -and appearance is almost exactly like the beak of a parrot, with the -exception that the under bill fits over the upper (Fig. 118). These -bills almost invariably nip the struggling fish over the vertebra or -back bone, severing it at once, and ending the struggle. The tongue -of the squid is a ribbon with teeth upon it. Such an armament alone -is sufficient to attract attention to the animal, but it has still -another feature which adds to its interest as a weird and disagreeable -creature. The squid has a siphon which terminates in a tube, opening -beneath the head. Into this an ink bag opens (Fig. 119). In swimming, -the squid rarely if ever rests upon the bottom, but takes in water -around the edge of the mantle and ejects it with more or less force -from the siphon, and thus the squid is driven along, tail foremost. -When alarmed its movements are very rapid. If in danger, the squid -pours an inky secretion, which is the sepia of commerce, into the -siphon, and the secretion is swept out into the water in a cloud which -spreads rapidly, to the confusion of any following enemy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 120.--Cuttlefish bone.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 121.--Eggs of the squid.] - -The squid has a shell, but it is very small, and internal. It is called -the pen, and that of some species is the cuttlefish bone of commerce -(Fig. 120). In specimens six or seven feet long, taken at Santa -Catalina, California, the pen was fifteen inches long and glasslike--a -perfect pen in shape. Such is this peculiar creature, and if we add -that it can change its color from very dark brown to almost white, -adapting it to the color of the bottom over which it rests, we can form -some idea of one of the strangest of all animals. They deposit eggs in -clusters. - -The squids range in size from gigantic specimens seventy or more feet -in length to the minute Cranchia, which is luminous at times. Some have -no tails, some only the suggestion of a tail, some have very pointed -ones, some very broad ones. In specimens of the little Cranchia which -I observed the head was very small and the body long in proportion. -One form appears to have side winglike fins. The large squids live in -the deep sea, and most of the specimens known have been taken from the -deep fjords of Newfoundland, which appears to be a favorite locality -for them. They doubtless live everywhere in the deep seas, as they are -almost invariably found in the stomach of the sperm whale, evidently -constituting a favorite food of this giant-toothed whale. - -The squids live mainly upon fishes, and are very skillful in taking -them, poising like a cat, near the bottom, creeping upon a school of -sardines,--all the time simulating the color of the bottom, and almost -invisible but for their large, dark eyes standing out,--then suddenly -darting tail first into the school, flinging the long arms at the -flying fishes, and almost always catching one, which is dragged up to -the parrotlike bill and dismembered. In the six and seven foot squids -taken at Santa Catalina the stomachs were filled with seaweed, showing -that at least some of these animals are vegetarians. - -On all tropical shores is found a beautiful coiled shell, the Spirula, -with little pearly septa dividing it. I have seen a windrow of these -shells a mile long, but never found the animal and shell together, so -easily are they disconnected. It is the smallest and the most beautiful -of all the cephalopods. - -[Illustration: FIG. 122.--Octopus or devilfish.] - -The familiar devilfish or octopus (Fig. 122) is another form, a bottom -lover, found among the rocks, rarely attempting to swim. It has a -round, baglike body, often covered with soft, fleshy spines; two -fiery green eyes, which always seem to emit a baneful light; eight -sucker-lined arms, which can be thrown in any direction, and the beak -and ink bag noticed in the squid, but no pen or shell. The octopus -lives in dens or crevices in the rocks, and ranges in size from -specimens a foot or two across to giants with arms having a radial -spread of nearly thirty feet (Fig. 123). These large individuals are -found along the Pacific coast from California to Alaska, and when -caught generally make a desperate struggle for liberty and display a -vast amount of strength. I once kept a number in a tank, which were -two or three feet across, and when they had grasped firmly it was -almost impossible to wrench them from the glass. They differed much in -temper. Some would apparently play with my hand, tapping it with their -tentacles, or gripping it gently. Others would crouch like miniature -tigers, quivering with rage, and with green eyes shining, would spring -upon it and attempt to smother it with their arms--a most disagreeable -sensation, especially when it was almost impossible to remove the -hand from the uncanny grasp without lacerating their flesh. One large -octopus in this family, when it obtained a grip, would hold my hand -firmly; hence I concluded that a specimen thirty feet across, similar -to those represented by casts in the Yale and National Museums, might -easily overcome a man. Yet the octopus is a very timid animal in the -open water. I rarely caught them either in Florida or California, -unless they were cornered, and they never attempted to bite. But I -seized one in the coral, and it wound about my arm so tightly that -I was obliged to wrench away twenty or more pounds of branch coral, -before I could release it without laceration. When attacked the -octopus changes color with great rapidity from black to gray, and when -enraged it often has the appearance of a leopard. Then it hurls a cloud -of ink into the water, and endeavors to slink away under this cover, -gliding through crevices that would seem entirely too small to admit so -large an animal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 123.--Giant octopus, radial spread twenty-two feet.] - -The octopus swims when forced to do so, using a weblike membrane -which is seen to connect the base of the eight arms or by forcing -water from its siphon. These arms, when extended, give the octopus a -faint resemblance to an umbrella without a handle, and with very long -supports. The octopus preys upon very small animals, particularly -crabs. I have lain among the bowlders on the shores of the Californian -islands and watched the octopus hunting. They selected the flood tide -and crept near the shore, moving along slowly, on the watch for a -species of Grapsus very common here, a land crab which occasionally -enters the water. The crabs crept down to the water's edge, and often -entered, and in this moment of incaution were pounced upon by the -disagreeable creature so well named the devilfish. Sometimes they were -caught at the very edge; a long, livid tentacle would come shooting out -of the water like a flame and seize the victim. Despite its struggles, -it was soon hauled in, the octopus immediately covering it with its -umbrellalike bag, doubtless bringing its nippers into play. I have seen -an octopus dash out of water two or three feet and scramble up the dry -rocks with remarkable speed after an escaping crab. At these times the -octopus can be caught by seizing it quickly, but some experience is -required before one can grasp a large octopus and retain the hold, so -disagreeable is the sensation of the snakelike tentacles winding about -hand and arm. The very appearance of the octopus is like a horrible -dream, and so intensely repulsive is the animal that in an actual test -not one person in fifty who passed a tank containing an octopus with -arms a foot long and a hideous striped body, could be induced to touch -the animal, though assured that it was absolutely harmless and would -merely squeeze the hand. - -While the devilfish is the type of all that is hideous and repulsive -in nature, it has a near relative, the paper nautilus, which is a very -dainty and beautiful creature. It appears to be an octopus which lives -in a shell. The argonaut, as it is called, has eight short arms, the -upper pair being largely developed at their tips, forming fanlike or -saillike organs. It was formerly believed that these were really sails, -held aloft to catch the breeze to blow the fairy argonaut along. So -fixed in the public mind was this erroneous belief that illustrations -in various works otherwise correct, display the argonaut in this -incorrect position. The animal is the female, which, to protect and -carry its eggs, is provided with a dainty shell which it secretes, but -is not attached to, and would lose were it not for the two large-ended -tentacles with which it grasps the beak of the shell (Fig. 124). These -arms also bear the shell-making and repairing glands. The argonaut can -crawl upon the rocks at the bottom, swim through the water, forced -along by its siphon stream, or float calmly at the surface. About nine -species are known; generally in some tropical waters. Every year a few -are found stranded upon Santa Catalina Island, California. - -[Illustration: FIG. 124.--Argonaut in natural position, arms holding -the shell.] - -[Illustration: FIGS. 125, 126.--Sections of an ammonite.] - -In many of the fossil deposits are found gigantic shells resembling the -wheels of a cart, and enormously heavy. These are ammonites (Figs. 125, -126), and ancestors of the nautilus (Fig. 127), another member of this -wonderful family of animals, with feet attached to their heads. It has -a shell of radiant pearl, divided, like the little Spirula, by pearly -septa or partitions, into rooms or chambers (_C_) all of which surround -a small tube (_s_) called the siphuncle. This contains a long, fleshy -pedicel, hence the nautilus is attached to its shell and can not leave -it. The shell chambers are filled with gas, and the animal has the -power to change its specific gravity, to float or rise. The nautilus -forces itself along by a current from its siphon, and in a general way -resembles others of the group. It has no ink bag, and its eye is not -the striking object seen in the other forms. It is merely an elevation -bearing a minute hole which leads into the globe of the eye, which -during the life of the nautilus is filled with water. According to -Doctor Hensen, in place of a refracting lens and a cornea, the animal -has an arrangement for forming an image on the principle of a pin-hole -camera. We might imagine the nautilus easy to capture; but it is very -timid and rarely caught. Instead of eight or ten arms the nautilus has -ninety-four. The shell is a beautiful object when cleaned and polished, -being a vase of pearl of a chaste and elegant design, often copied, -and in great demand by native artisans who carve and engrave it, and -mount it in gold and silver. The nautilus, aside from its beauty, is -a most interesting animal, being the last or almost the last of its -race of fifteen hundred species, which have lived in former periods of -the earth. Only two are still alive, and these in all probability are -doomed to extinction. - -[Illustration: FIG. 127.--Pearly nautilus: _T_, tentacles; _M_, mantle; -_E_, eye; _s_, siphuncle; _S_, siphon; _C_, chambers.] - - - - -XIV. THE CRUSTACEANS - - -Among all the animals few are more interesting and whimsical than the -crabs and lobsters. They have jointed legs, feelers and claws in pairs, -living in a shell which they cast like an overcoat when they outgrow -it, and have bodies which are made up of hard, tough, limy rings or -segments (Fig. 128). The crustaceans are found in all waters, fresh and -salt, and on land. They abound in the greatest variety, and range in -size from specimens almost invisible to the naked eye to forms with a -radial spread of over twenty feet. - -During a recent visit to the outlying islands of the Texan coast, I -found these extensive regions populated by vast hordes of white or -yellowish land crabs, which paraded the beaches and climbed over the -dunes in such numbers that the eyes could not be raised without seeing -a dozen or more. They were so familiar and tame that several large -individuals had burrows by the side of the walk which led from the -hotel, and readily took bread thrown to them. - -On the keys of the Florida Reef the "spirit crabs," as they are called, -are equally common. Pretending to be asleep, I have often watched them -cautiously approaching, led by their curiosity to see what strange -object this was that had washed ashore. If I remained perfectly quiet, -they would gather in dozens, and numbers of little hermits would -crawl over me, to drop off at the slightest alarm. In the water were -countless other forms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 128.--The Norway lobster, showing jointed -structure.] - -Wherever we go, from the ocean to the interior, we shall find some -members of this interesting family. On almost any seashore we shall -find a crab or crayfish, from which some idea of the structure of -these animals can be obtained (Fig. 129). We see that there are two -distinct regions, the head portion and the tail. The first mentioned -is hard and in one general piece; the latter is made up of joints or -rings. Everything about this curious animal is jointed. Turning it over -(Fig. 130), we see that it has five legs on each side, all jointed. -The first pair are large biting claws, and in some species others are -biters. Even the eyes are upon stalks and jointed, and about them -are two sets of feelers, whips, or antennæ--one large and one small -pair--which the animal holds out before it as a blind man does a cane. -The mouth is made up of many curious organs for separating and grinding -food. - -[Illustration: FIG. 129.--Crayfish seen from the side, with that -portion of the carapace removed which covers the branchiæ, or gills. -The appendages of the left side only shown, _s_, region of stomach; -_A_, abdominal appendages; _B_, bases of the four small legs; _C_, base -of large claw; _f_, "gill-bailer," or flabellum, attached to the second -maxilliped; _e_, eye. (After Morse.)] - -[Illustration: FIG. 130.--Under surface of the crayfish or fresh-water -lobster (_Astacus_): _a_, first pair of antennæ; _b_, second pair; _c_, -eyes; _e_, foot jaws; _f_, _g_, first and fifth pair of thoracic legs; -_h_, swimmerets; _i_, anus; _k_, caudal fins.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 131.--A shrimp, showing anatomy: _s_, stomach; _l_, -liver; _i_, intestine; _h_, heart; _g_, chain of ganglia; _hg_, head -ganglia.] - -Some idea of the various internal organs of the crustaceans may be -obtained in Figure 131. The breathing organs are conspicuous, curled -up like plumes on each side of the crayfish and attached to the base -of the legs. Water enters the shell under the edge, back of the great -claws, and is swept along over them by a little organ called the gill -bailer, the gills taking up oxygen from the water, which in turn is -absorbed by the colorless blood. The brain is very small, and nerves -can be seen passing from it to the various organs. The ears are -situated at the base of the small or first antennæ, and are little -sacks on the upper side containing a thick fluid in which are floating -minute grains of sand. The tail portion is made up of a number of rings -or segments, and is provided with small swimmerets. At the extreme end -are seen five paddlelike or fanlike organs (Fig. 132), which constitute -a most important swimming organ to the lobsters and crayfishes, by -the violently flapping of which they dash away backward. In color the -crayfish is yellowish brown or greenish. When alive it presents (Fig. -133) an attractive appearance. - -[Illustration: FIG. 132.--Paddles of lobster.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 133.--Fresh-water crayfish.] - -The crustaceans deposit eggs which they carry about with them attached -to the swimmerets, and resembling minute bunches of grapes. When first -hatched (Fig. 134) the young crustaceans are totally unlike the parent -in appearance, passing through several stages before they reach the -adult form. When the crustacean grows too large for its shell, what are -known as casting hairs appear on the inner side, which push the shell -upward. - -[Illustration: FIG. 134.--Stages of development in a crab.] - -I have watched this process in the California sea crayfish, and it is -generally accomplished at night. The flesh of the animal appears to -become very watery and soft at this time. Finally the animal bursts the -shell and by a slow and convulsive effort drags the flesh from claws, -eyes, swimmerets, and antennæ, and escapes through the upper portion -of the division between the head and tail, and presto! we have two -animals; one flabby and very nervous, the other the deserted shell, -yet seemingly alive. The crayfish is very helpless now, and secretes -itself for several days until the new skin hardens, when it appears in -a freshly colored coat of yellow and black. - - - - -XV. FROM BARNACLES TO LOBSTERS - - -[Illustration: FIG. 135.--Goose barnacles.] - -In strolling along the shore one may often find pieces of wood washed -in by the combing waves, which are covered with white and blue-tinted -objects, resembling dates (Fig. 135). They have long, fleshy stems, -and appear to have a number of plates or shells, and are by many -considered shells. Other floating matter will be found covered with -small white objects (Fig. 136), and many of the rocks alongshore are so -completely encrusted by them that the surface of the rock is concealed. -On the backs of whales are found similar objects, often three inches -across and two inches high. These are barnacles, cousins of the crabs, -which secrete multivalve shells and are anchored to various floating -or submerged objects. They are crustaceans which are attached to the -bottom by their antennæ. - -[Illustration: FIG. 136.--The barnacle: _A_, from above; _B_, section -from the side.] - -If the shell of a barnacle is carefully observed, fluffy, feathery -objects may be seen coming out with regular motion. These are the -feet of the crustacean, which in the barnacles are modified into food -catchers, grasping at the minute animals contained in the water. -What are called goose barnacles have long stems, and the old writers -considered them young geese which grew on trees and finally fell into -the water. I have found a goose barnacle in the mouth of a large -sunfish, so placed that the barnacle swung clear of the curious teeth -of the fish. They are also found on the feathers of penguins in the -South Pacific. Every floating timber or wreck at sea is covered with -the curious, long-stemmed creatures. The barnacles deposit eggs, and -the young are at first free swimming, but soon acquire a shell, seek -the bottom, or some floating object, and become fixtures for life. - -Many of the crustaceans are so small that but few persons ever see -them. Such is Cyclops (Fig. 137), a minute creature seen distinctly -only under a microscope, yet swimming in fresh water and readily -recognized by its egg pouches, one on either side of the tail. The eggs -hatch out into singular little objects, having very little resemblance -to the parent. The Cyclops and others are very tenacious of life. When -pools and streams dry up and remain so for months, they lie dormant, -coming to life again with the return of the water. Many of this group -are parasites upon fishes, as the Lernæidæ (Fig. 138), which appear -like streamers on the sides of carp and other fishes. These parasites, -deeply embedded, live upon the fish. - -[Illustration: FIG. 137.--Water fleas: 1, Cyclops, showing egg pouches; -2, Cypris; 3, Daphnia.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 138.--A parasite of a fresh-water fish (_Cyprinæ_): -1, larva, as it leaves the egg; 2, larva, more advanced; 3, adult -female, showing the egg sacs. (Nordmann.)] - -Some of these minute crustaceans are almost exact in their resemblance -to shells, as Estheria which has a bivalve shell. But perhaps the most -remarkable creature is Artemis, the brine shrimp (Fig. 139), which -lives in brine that would be deadly to almost any other animal. A -strange experiment has been made with this little creature; thus if -the brine is very strong its form resembles _a_, but if the brine is -diluted, it changes to _b_, a very different animal, so different that -it has been given another name. Many shrimps seem to prefer extreme -cold. The Apus (Fig. 140), withstands freezing, and hatches readily in -the icy water of the far north. This little creature has forty-seven -segments and one hundred and twenty legs. The fairy shrimp is a dainty -and beautiful crustacean with a marvelous array of leaflike feet which -also serve as breathing organs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 139.--Brine shrimps: _a_, Branchipus; _b_, Artemis.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 140.--Apus.] - -In the summer, while strolling alongshore, one may find that every -piece of seaweed or rock when turned over affords concealment to -myriads of "sand fleas" which belong to a group of crustaceans having -fourteen feet. The sand fleas, true to their name, are remarkable -jumpers, darting in all directions and looking very much like an -ordinary flea (Fig. 141). They are valuable scavengers, eating all -kinds of refuse matter. They have the most bizarre shapes, and many, as -Arcturus, resemble twigs or pieces of seaweed, extremely difficult to -see and doubtless owe their immunity from attack to this cause. This -Arcturus (Fig. 142) is not only a remarkable mimic, but carries its -young upon its back. Idotea is a common form about piers, while the -little Gammarus may be caught with almost every haul of a very fine -net. At times one known as Podocerus builds a singular nest for its -better security, and one of the giants of the tribe has eyes so huge -that they are made up of facets and entirely cover the head. - -[Illustration: FIG. 141.--Sand flea (_Talitrus_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 142.--_Arcturus longicornis_, enlarged.] - -One of these crustaceans, Limnoria, is among the most destructive of -all animals to the work of man. On the Pacific coast they vie with -the teredo, and on the coast of southern California are the chief -aggressors, the life of a prepared pile being less than two years. The -little creatures completely perforate it, so that the wood literally -falls in pieces, being so closely filled with circular borings that the -entire interior of the pile seems to have disappeared. - -One of the most beautiful of all the crustaceans, in my estimation, is -the mantis shrimp, or Squilla (Fig. 143), which I have kept alive. It -is found in deep and shallow water, and is a most remarkable creature -both in shape and color. Its head is ornamented with beautifully tinted -antennæ, vivid blues, greens, and yellows predominating. Its claws -are sharp pointed, and deadly weapons when used against its prey. The -finlets are richly tinted and in such rapid motion that they appear -to be a mass of revolving wheels, so that the Squilla resembles some -strange product of the imagination rather than a living animal. Its -young are even more remarkable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 143.--Mantis shrimp (_Squilla_).] - -One of the best-known groups of crustaceans is represented by those -with ten feet, of which the common lobster (Fig. 144) is a familiar -example. In this instance the first pair of legs are developed into -enormous biting claws; yet when the lobster sheds its skin all the -flesh in the large claws is drawn through the very small joint. The -lobster is a product of the colder waters of the North Atlantic, not -being known on the Pacific slope, although attempts have been made to -introduce it there. South of Long Island Sound it is very rare, and -despite the stringent laws for its preservation, is rapidly being -exterminated. Lobsters are caught in traps, called lobster pots, which -are lowered into the kelp and seaweed. Twenty years ago the annual -catch for the state of Maine was nearly fifteen million pounds, valued -at $250,000. It is far less to-day. The lobster sometimes attains a -weight of fifty pounds; but specimens weighing four or five pounds are -now rare, due to overcatching, and the destruction of the undersized -young. The color of the animal when alive is a dark green. The familiar -red hue is the result of cooking. The eggs of the lobster are laid in -March, and are masses of green spheres which are carried about by the -female attached to her swimmerets. - -[Illustration: FIG. 144.--Common lobster.] - -In southern waters and on the Pacific coast, the place of the lobster -is taken by the crayfish, or spiny lobster (Fig. 145). The resemblance -to the lobster is almost exact with this exception: instead of large -biting claws, the latter are but slightly larger than the ordinary -claws, ending with a sharp point, while the antennæ or feelers are -enlarged to an extraordinary degree, becoming highly serrated and -defensive organs in every sense. The Florida crayfish is a rich reddish -yellow, mottled color, while the California form is a greenish yellow. -On the Florida Reef almost every coral branch or coral head hides a -crayfish, the whips being seen waving to and fro. This is their day -retreat, but at night they wander forth to feed in the luxuriant -pastures of Algæ, or seaweeds, of various kinds found in the lagoons. -By going out early in the morning, before sunrise, I have often -surprised the crayfishes, the bottom being covered with them, massive -fellows weighing eight or ten pounds. They are not so delicate in -flavor as the lobster, but are very valuable as bait. The lobster and -the Pacific crayfish are both canned, the industry being an important -one. - -[Illustration: FIG. 145.--Crayfish or spiny lobster.] - -The prawns (Fig. 146) and shrimps are well known and valuable members -of this group, swarming in the same waters, and among the most graceful -of the tribe. Many are absolutely transparent, the large black eyes -alone being seen. The chameleon shrimp is noted for its rapid changes -of color, green, brown, and reddish hues following each other over its -crystallike body. In the deeper waters marvelous shrimps have been -found, nearly all a dazzling red. Some of the East Indian shrimps are -giants two feet in length. In England horses are employed to catch -shrimps. A large dragnet is set in shallow water to which the horse is -fastened, the fisherman, mounted, driving the animal over the shallow -flats, hauling the nets inshore. - -[Illustration: FIG. 146.--_A_, prawn; _B_, claw enlarged.] - -One of the most interesting of these ten-footed crustaceans is -the blind crayfish of Mammoth Cave. It is found also in various -subterranean streams of the country. The eyestalk of these little -creatures is all that remains to tell the story of what was once -an eye, and they live and thrive in perfect darkness. The ordinary -crayfish of Western streams has a peculiar habit of burrowing, which -at times has occasioned great damage in undermining dikes and dams. -I once came upon a remarkable crayfish community in Indiana. There -had been a flood the day previous, and every log in the neighborhood -and the piers of the bridge were covered with crayfish which, in this -locality at least, appeared to be endeavoring to escape from too much -water. On all sides, some yards from the creek and high above it, the -ground was raised into small heaps six or eight inches across, each, as -I discovered, being the home of a crayfish, and as far as the eye could -see on the prairie were these mounds and heaps, suggestive of the vast -numbers of these little animals in this vicinity. - - - - -XVI. THE CRABS - - -Of all the crustaceans, the crabs are the most singular and certainly -the most intelligent. Rapid in movement, good swimmers, alert, garbed -in extraordinary colors, often in stolen homes, they attract attention -at once and are the harlequins and clowns of the animal kingdom. The -crabs are distinguished from the rest of the group principally by their -very short tails. Their bodies are round, elongated, or oval. They are -found almost everywhere, from the deep sea, where they occupy shells -and sometimes drag about a luminous sea anemone, to every beach. It is -in or near the tropics that the most remarkable crabs are seen. - -During a visit to the islands off the coast of Texas, I once found a -remarkable crab community. The islands were flat sand banks just above -the surface, blown and washed up by the sea, with here and there sand -dunes and shrubs, and again vast stretches of sand inhabited only by -crabs. The latter were all of one kind, a pale gray, so mimicking the -sand in color that it was almost impossible to distinguish one from -the other. There were legions of them, the sand in places being fairly -riddled with their burrows, into which they darted with inconceivable -rapidity. As I walked along the sands they ran ahead in rapidly -increasing numbers, then divided and were so quick of foot that it was -impossible to run them down. This vast army of crabs was the sanitary -corps of the island, devouring every dead fish that came ashore and -other animal matter of all kinds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 147.--A land crab (_Gecarcinus_).] - -At Garden Key, Florida, these crabs were found in swarms, rarely -entering the water except when driven, and never venturing far from -the reach of the highest waves at high tide. They had long, stalked -eyes, which seem to follow every movement, and were very comical and -interesting creatures to watch and study. On the keys covered with -bay cedars were other land crabs (Fig. 147), colored rich red and -purple. These crabs lived among the cactuses and bay cedar bushes. -When climbing on the former their resemblance in shape and color to -the purple fruit was remarkable, and if the crab remained quiet, it -was almost impossible to distinguish it. In these bushes a tern, the -noddy, had built its rude brush nest, and the young bird and the food -brought it by the parents were the objects of marked attention on the -part of not only the purple-backed crab but a hungry, starving horde -of hermit crabs which climbed the tree and snatched the bits of fish -from the young birds, despite the presence of their mother. By crawling -beneath the thick brush in heat which was almost suffocating, I watched -numbers of these foraging expeditions on the part of the crabs, and I -think it possible that some of the larger crabs finally carried off the -young birds. This was not an impossible feat, as Professor Mosely, of -the _Challenger_ deep-sea dredging expedition, observed the same crab -or a very near relative, carry off young birds at St. Paul's Rocks. -At Ascension he saw the doughty land crabs stealing young rabbits, -dragging them from their holes by main force and devouring them. This -crab with gorgeous colors was not very fleet of foot, and when I rose -up suddenly in the cactus by a nest they would draw in their legs and -cling to a branch, mimicking ripe fruit. The hermits would do the same, -and fall to the ground in a shower. - -An interesting crab found here is known as Grapsus, also a predatory -creature with unequaled courage, preying upon every living thing that -it can attack with safety. It is richly colored red and white; its legs -are long; it is a racer along the sands, impossible to capture. On the -West African coast these crabs, or a near relative, are very large, and -so swift that they have been used in sport, horsemen following them at -full speed as game. - -The ordinary crab of the Eastern shore is highly valued, and vast -numbers are shipped from Fort Monroe in Virginia to the northern -cities. The trade in "soft shells" is even more important. The latter -are caught in various ways. An old colored man of my acquaintance -used to tread for them on the mud flats with his bare feet; but he -confessed that it was a disagreeable business, as sometimes he stepped -on "hard shells" by mistake and was badly bitten. - -The English edible crab is of large size and always in demand, -resembling the edible crab of the Pacific, which is also very large and -greatly esteemed. - -That these crabs have a strong homing sense, or an affection for -certain localities, was demonstrated some years ago. Two crab fishermen -were following their occupation from the same boat, and each as he -caught a crab cut upon its swimming claw a private mark so that they -could be claimed by the rightful owners at the end of the day. The boat -was overtaken by a storm and the crabs were tipped overboard five miles -from where they were caught and lost. The following week the two men -again began to fish in the original spot, and to their amazement began -to catch the marked crabs, which had returned five miles alongshore to -the locality of their choice. - -The so-called green crab (Fig. 148) is an attractive and active -creature, one that can easily be observed. Its quaint stalked eyes, -which turn this way and that, and which can be stowed away in little -depressions, and its singular method of walking, are very interesting -features. When a crab walks on land it is usually endwise, and when it -wishes to change its course it is not obliged to turn about but moves -its legs in the opposite direction. It can also move directly ahead. -These movements are all performed by six legs, which are pointed, the -trail of this crab on the sand resembling pin marks on the hard beach. -The two front claws are for tearing food and for general defense, while -the last pair, widened out at the end in some, are paddles by which -the crab swims when it ventures off the bottom. - -[Illustration: FIG. 148.--The green crab.] - -At times the crabs appear to migrate. I have seen the bottom of a -bay on the Virginian coast so covered that it was impossible to wade -without stepping upon a crab. In the island of Jamaica certain land -crabs march to the sea to deposit their eggs, at which time they appear -more or less indifferent to danger, and move on, despite the attacks of -birds and various animals, including man. - -The crabs known as fiddlers (Fig. 149) are common up and down the -Atlantic coast, especially in the warmer portions. A most interesting -colony lived north of Fernandina, Florida. Some years ago a plank walk -led across their domain, and one could stand and watch their ludicrous -maneuvers. The fiddler is not over an inch in length. It is of a dark -ivory hue, and its eyes are perched on long stalks, so that it can -bury itself in the mud and thrust its eyes upward, and thus in perfect -safety observe everything that is going on. The right claw of this crab -is half as long again as its entire body--a colossal weapon framed for -an animal five or ten times its size. Indeed, it is so large as to be -almost useless, for a large amount of strength is required to operate -so gigantic an implement. To emphasize the undue size of this claw, -the left one is a dwarf, being too small to act as a defensive weapon. -How so small a crab can use so strange a pair of weapons was a puzzle, -until by watching them, I discovered that the crab uses its large claw -as a bogy, brandishing it fiercely, which gives it a very ferocious -appearance. The movement of the claw back and forth is called fiddling, -hence the name of the crab, which appears to be constantly fiddling. -Where hundreds are seen, all fiddling and menacing one another at the -same time, the sight is laughable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 149.--Fiddler crab.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 150.--Spider crab.] - -Once while lifting branch coral into my boat on a coral reef, several -crabs fell from the olive-hued mass, and like spiders in shape and -form, made their way slowly along. Each one was covered with a growth -of seaweed. I took a brush and scoured them, producing veritable -spider crabs (Fig. 150). The body was pear-shaped; the claws were long -and covered with sharp points. These crabs were placed in a tank, -and almost immediately began to replace the seaweed which had been -rubbed off, evidently being much annoyed at the cleaning process. -In redecorating themselves they broke off small bits of seaweed from -a branch, placed the broken portion against the mouth, evidently to -attach some glutinous matter or animal mucilage, then raising it -with an overhand movement, they attached it to the back. This was -continually repeated until within a few hours the back of each crab was -changed from a smooth surface to a miniature garden. As many times as -the seaweed was removed, so many times was it replaced. - -The spider crabs range from the beautiful scarlet creatures found in -the coral to the giant Macrocheira of Japan, which in large specimens -has a spread of legs of twenty feet, some measuring twenty-two feet -between the two large biting claws, each of which is ten and a half -feet long. This huge crab is very slender, and is slow of movement, its -body resembling a rough rock. - -[Illustration: FIG. 151.--Crabs that form galls on corals: _a_, -_Cryptochirus_ (male); _b_, _Coralliodytes_ (female); _c_, -_Hapalocarcinus marsupialis_ (female), that carries its young in a sac -or marsupium.] - -Crabs select singular places for homes. One lives in the sea cucumber; -others live in corals, which appear to grow over them, forming a gall -(Fig. 151). The little oyster crab found in bivalves is a familiar -form. But perhaps the most remarkable home for a crab was the bowl of -an old tobacco pipe in which a crab I once owned ensconced itself. -This was a hermit crab (Fig. 152). The hermits differ from other -crabs in having a long, but soft and totally unprotected tail or -abdomen, to preserve which they enter empty shells and drag them about -wherever they go. The hermits occur in great variety, and there are -marine hermits and land hermits. On the Florida Reef they are found -in myriads; every shell alongshore conceals a baby hermit; and almost -every nook or cranny affords concealment for a score of them, their red -and blue claws forming an attractive contrast to the shell. - -[Illustration: FIG. 152.--Hermit crab.] - -The hermit referred to was first found in a pearly shell and placed in -the office, but finally it outgrew this and deserted it for the pipe -which some workmen had left on the floor. Every day this old pipe would -be clanked and dragged about the room, and once in a while the crab -would drag it up a table leg, so reaching the tablecloth and then the -table top, where it drank out of a saucer left for the purpose. Later a -marine hermit was found in a pipe bowl, proudly dragging the grotesque -house about. Anything of this kind would be used by the hermits. One -was found in the opening of a spool; and this would roll over and over, -carrying the hermit with it. Another took possession of a reed. Among -deep-sea sponges the hermits are seen occupying holes in the sponges. - -A community of hermits is a laughable sight. They are very pugilistic, -and are always fighting. When a hermit outgrows its shell and begins -to feel uncomfortable it endeavors to turn out some comrade that has a -larger shell, and in the battle arms and claws are often lost. This, -however, is not serious, as they grow again. When the hermit finds an -empty shell it thrusts in its claws and antennæ, probing it in every -direction to see that it is not occupied. When satisfied, it jerks -itself out of its own shell, and with the greatest rapidity whisks -its soft unprotected body into the new house, where, if it fits, it -remains. The shell, when large, is not carried, but dragged about, and -when the crab is alarmed or startled it darts backward into the shell, -where its large claw and the others constitute almost as good a door as -the real operculum of shells. The largest hermits are the marine forms, -which enter the large conch shells and drag them about. These hermits -are a brilliant red in color. Their claws are very rough. - -Closely related to the hermit crabs is the famous cocoanut crab or -Birgos of the Spice Islands. This crab is so strong and powerful that, -as Professor Van Beneden states, one clinging to a tree, seized a small -goat and lifted it from the ground by the ears. The Birgos resembles a -huge hermit crab, but has no artificial shell, the soft abdomen being -protected by a shell of its own. This large land crab lives mainly -on cocoanuts, which it secures by climbing the trees and biting off -the stems. Descending, the crab will take the nut and with remarkable -discrimination hold it with one claw and with the other tear off the -husk, always at the end containing the "eyes." This stripping process, -impossible to man without some implement, is remarkable in itself, and -tells the story of the muscular strength of the crab. When the "eyes" -of the nut are exposed, the crab seizes it by inserting its claws in -the holes, and hammers the shell until it is broken. The crabs live at -the base of the trees and line their dens with the husk. - -[Illustration: FIG. 153.--Horseshoe crab: _A_, upper side; _B_, lower -side.] - -In ancient times crablike creatures existed, eight or nine feet in -length. These are represented to-day by the quaint horseshoe or king -crabs (Fig. 153). They are found in shallow water in Northern waters, -and resemble a horseshoe with a long, sharp spike or spine--the tail of -this strange animal. - - - - -XVII. LUMINOUS CRABS - - -One of the interesting experiences of Nordenskiöld in the Arctic Ocean -was wading through the sludge, as the soft snow water along the beach -is called, and seeing each footprint turn into a mass of light, caused -by the phosphorescence of a small crustacean called Metridia. The light -was bluish white, of great intensity, and although at times the cold -was so severe that mercury would freeze, yet everywhere this marvelous -light blazed. Even drops and splashes of the water seemed to be molten -metal, but were merely alive with this minute light giver resembling -Cyclops. In the Pacific, especially in summer, the exhibition of what -might be called "crab light" is marvelous, and this is often true in -the Atlantic. The light following the splash of an oar, the spray -hurled aside by the cut water, the foaming water around a propeller, -and the strange shifting specter which follows the rudder, are caused -more or less by minute crustaceans which have the faculty of emitting -light without heat. - -Along the beach beneath seaweed, we shall find Gammarus, a long, very -small, but mighty jumper, that at night emits a red light. Many of -the near relatives of this little creature are phosphorescent, and -perhaps the most beautiful of all is one named Idotea phosphorea. It -is a yellowish spotted little creature found in pools alongshore. It -darts about among the weed, and would rarely, if ever, be noticed -during the day; but at night the entire animal seems permeated with -a golden light which marks it in vivid lines against the dark bottom, -and flashes and miniature meteors indicate it as it dashes across the -little pool, its ocean world. - -The most beautiful of all crustaceans is the one known as Sapphirina. I -have seen the ocean filled with them; some red, others blue or yellow, -purple or green, all known gems being imitated by these matchless -gems of the sea, which in daylight vie with the most brilliant -iridescence in producing wonderful displays. No more beautiful scene -can be imagined than that embracing these living gems, standing out in -brilliant tints against the deep blue of the ocean. These gems also -have the gift of phosphorescence and at night appear in a new guise. - -One of the singular long-legged spider crabs of the deep sea, -Colossendeis, is said to be phosphorescent. Giglioli, the Italian -naturalist, describes a crab which gives a golden purple light, the -latter appearing from the thorax. The little shrimp, Mysis, which -carries its young in a pouch, from which it is called the opossum -shrimp, is not phosphorescent, but its young in what is called the -zoëa stage are luminous. The odd-shaped little creature, which is the -mantis shrimp in one of its stages, is brilliantly luminous, not over -its entire body, but in the eyestalks. Some of the deep-sea crabs have -luminous eyes, strange monsters wandering in the abysmal regions of the -deep sea. - -While most of these crabs have the light in only one place, one -discovered by Sir Joseph Banks was luminous over its entire surface. -Exactly what the luminous matter is, is not known, but in some -instances it can be scraped off and will render the hands luminous -when rubbed upon them. According to A. M. Norman, naturalist of the -_Porcupine_ expedition, the crustacean Ethusa, found at a depth of -eighteen hundred feet, is blind, its eyestalk being spiny, and the -eye replaced by a smooth, round termination which is supposed to be a -light-emitting organ. Aristeus has phosphorescent eyes, which blaze -with the yellow fire of a cat's eye, and this is true of many other -crustaceans. Some have luminous backs; others have fiery bands upon the -legs, while almost every portion of the body of some species is the -seat of this wonderful light. That the lights are of some use there can -be little doubt. In one little creature Dr. Gunther found a brilliant -light stationed between its eyes, which certainly was a light to -illumine its way in the deep, dark bed of the ocean. - - - - -XVIII. THE INSECTS - - -Among the best-known and attractive members of the lower animal -kingdom are the insects, represented by the gorgeous butterflies, -the iridescent beetles, the fierce spiders, and many others. The -crustaceans may almost be called the insects of the ocean, as in -general appearance they closely resemble these animals; but the real -insects are higher forms. - -[Illustration: FIG. 154.--Parts of a typical insect.] - -The skeleton (Fig. 154) of an insect is divided into three distinct -parts instead of two. The head is distinct from the body, as in the -crabs, and the skeleton, like that of the crabs, is external, and -formed of a horny substance called chitin. As in the crabs, the body -is made up of rings, or segments: four in the head generally, three -in the thorax, and ten or eleven in the abdomen. It is interesting to -glance at the various parts of insects, and later on, in reading about -the many species, to note the many different purposes to which each is -adapted. - -The mouth is a very complicated organ in the crabs, and equally so -in the insects. It is generally separated into four distinct parts: -the upper lip, labrum, the jaws, or mandibles, a second pair of jaws -smaller than the above, and the lower lip or jaws, labium. These are -formed into sucking organs in the mosquito, biting organs in the ant, -and tremendous graspers in the centipede, all displaying the most -remarkable variety. - -[Illustration: FIG. 155.--Head of the grasshopper.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 156.--Eyes of a fly.] - -The eyes of insects are wonderful organs, being both simple and -compound. In the grasshopper (Fig. 155) the two are easily seen, the -compound eye being the larger. The fly has a remarkable compound eye -(Fig. 156), and in the center of the two eyes are three simple ones. -The compound eye in the fly is made up of vast numbers of six-sided -eyes crowded together, appearing under a glass like a honeycomb; yet -each of these facets is a complete eye. In a sectional view of the eye -of a beetle (Fig. 157) we can see the nerve that reaches every one. -In using the eyes hundreds of images of the same object must reach the -brain of the insect, yet the image of but one is seen. - -Attached to the head of insects are various sense organs, feelers, or -antennæ, which are very ornamental, as in the beetles. The central -portion of the skeleton bears the wings. In the beetle the wing covers -are formed of hard chitin. When its wings are not in use this insect -stores them away in covers provided for the purpose. - -[Illustration: FIG. 157.--Sectional view of the eye of a beetle.] - -The third or last part of the skeleton, the abdomen, often bears a -weapon of defense, as a sting or a drill for boring holes in trees, -or machines for making silk, as in the spiders. Here also we find a -remarkable variety of tails, ranging from that of the dragon fly to the -long tail of the scorpion with its dangerous sting or dagger. - -The feet of insects would make an interesting chapter alone, ranging -from the curious, sucking, padded foot of the fly (Fig. 158) to the -claws of others. The anatomy of insects is more or less complicated. -The method of breathing is particularly interesting. It is very natural -to imagine all animals breathing by the mouth or nostrils, but insects -breathe by a singular system of air tubes (Fig 159), or tracheæ, some -having lungs as well. The air tubes are wound with threads upon the -inside. This preserves their shape and keeps them open. If we examine -a grasshopper (Fig. 160), we shall see along the sides openings, which -under a powerful microscope resemble eyelike organs (Fig. 161). These -are air holes, windows, or spiracles, which lead to the air tubes, and -by minute thread-lined tubes reach all over the body. To obtain air, or -to breathe, the bee keeps its abdomen continually in motion, forcing -air through the body, carrying oxygen to the blood tissues. - -[Illustration: FIG. 158.--Foot of a fly.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 159.--Breathing tubes of an insect.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 160.--Grasshopper, showing spiracles, _s_.] - -The insects, with some exceptions, deposit eggs, and the young pass -through many strange changes, or metamorphoses, before the full-grown -form is attained. The eggs of beetles hatch into larvæ (Fig. 162), -which may live weeks or months or even years in the ground. The eggs of -other insects, as moths, may become caterpillars, which finally spin a -cocoon, as in the case of the silkworm, and from this cell-like room -appears the perfect moth. These changes, so infinite in their variety, -are among the most interesting features of insect life, and are never -failing sources of wonder and amazement on the part of those who devote -time to the study. - -[Illustration: FIG. 161.--Breathing hole or spiracle, highly magnified.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 162.--Larvæ of insects.] - - - - -XIX. LOWER FORMS OF INSECTS - - -In the previous chapter we have by the aid of illustrations glanced -at the structure of insects, and noted some of the features which -distinguished them from the crabs. Now we may take up some of the more -important and interesting groups and observe how Nature has adapted -them to their peculiar surroundings, and for the various offices they -fill in the world. - -[Illustration: FIG. 163.--The Peripatus.] - -In examining the various families of insects it is interesting to -note that many produce certain results or accomplish certain ends in -totally different ways. The highly organized spider by drawing silk -from the spinning machines at the tip of its abdomen builds a web so -strong that it sometimes captures birds. I recently found a living -humming bird hard and fast in a web at the corner of my house, and -released it just in time to save it from the spider. In the very -lowest groups of insects we find the Peripatus (Fig. 163), which spins -a weblike structure from glands in its mouth, ejecting the secretion -at the insect it wishes to catch. This appears to crystallize in the -air and hold the victim despite its struggles. The Peripatus, found -in Africa and Central America, resembles a large caterpillar, having -a long, soft, cylindrical body with many pairs of feet, sometimes -sixty-six; the latter are soft and armed with claws. It is remarkable -for the possession of many legs, but is outdone in this respect by -the millipeds, as some (Fig. 164) have as many as two hundred. These -insects, when placed upon their backs, present an extraordinary -appearance, clawing the air; yet they are among the slowest of walkers. -They live in the ground, are harmless, feed on vegetable matter, and -deposit their eggs in the earth, which hatch out little creatures at -first resembling crickets. - -[Illustration: FIG. 164.--A milliped.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 165.--A centiped.] - -The centipeds, on the other hand (Fig. 165), are animal feeders, and -those found in the tropics are formidable creatures from six to ten -inches in length, supplied with many claws and terrible fangs. They -live a life of rapine and destruction, and the appearance of a large -specimen almost a foot in length, dashing along with great rapidity -by the aid of its fifteen or twenty pairs of feet, is sufficient -to demoralize the stroller through the dark glades of the tropical -forests. They have two pairs of foot jaws (Fig. 166) which grasp an -enemy with wonderful tenacity. The second pair is perforated, and from -it pours a poison dangerous to man in some tropical species and fatal -to small animals. Several of these hideous creatures are luminous at -times. Many centipeds have long antennæ. The eyes are very small, and -in groups. The ordinary centiped of the North is harmless, despite the -tales related of its ferocity. - -Among the very small, though destructive insects, are the mites, found -in cheese and sugar; they are parasitic in cattle and various other -animals. In California certain forms (Fig. 167) cling to the bushes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 166.--Under surface of head of centiped, showing -poison fangs.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 167.--A mite.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 168.--The scorpion.] - -In remarkable contrast to the round-bodied mites are the scorpions -(Fig. 168), in which the tail is sometimes two inches in length -and armed with a sharp, daggerlike sting, provided with a poison -apparatus. The scorpions of the largest size are often found in the -tropics in the same locality with centipeds, under board piles and in -dark places, coming out at night to prey upon small insects, which -they seize with their crablike claws and tear apart. If the insect -struggles violently, the scorpion raises its tail over its back and -pierces it with its dagger, paralyzing it. In striking at other enemies -the scorpion whirls about, keeping its tail toward them, repeatedly -striking down and using its jointed tail with marvelous ingenuity. -A few years ago these scorpions were common on the Florida Reef and -were frequently killed in my own house at night. The pain resulting -from the sting was about as disagreeable as that occasioned by a wasp. -These scorpions were about three inches in length, but in Ceylon -very much larger ones have been seen, and known to catch birds. The -young scorpions are born alive and cling to the mother. The little -book scorpion, the large whip scorpion, and the daddy longlegs, or -harvestman, a harmless and sociable insect, are related to the true -scorpions. - - - - -XX. THE SPIDERS - - -A little insect half as large as a grain of corn, finds itself -on a limb high above ground and is desirous of reaching another, -five feet away. It is not a jumper, at least it could not hope to -cover this distance; neither has it wings. But it has a marvelous -silk-manufacturing apparatus, known as spinnerets (Fig. 169), and -elevating its abdomen it reels off a thread which the wind carries -across the chasm where it lodges. Across the single cord the spider -runs, the act being suggestive of the intelligence of these insects. - -[Illustration: FIG. 169.--Spinnerets of a spider.] - -The common garden spider (Fig. 170), which may illustrate the group, is -seen to differ very materially from the scorpion. The abdomen is not -ringed or made up of segments, but is large and plump, and connected -with the thorax by a delicate cord or pedicel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 170.--Garden spider, upper and lower surface.] - -The spiders, as we have seen, have a spinning arrangement by which -they form beautiful webs or nets to capture prey. By this silken cord -they can lower themselves from great heights. The single thread which -supports them is made up of a number of minute threads (Fig. 171). The -webs are formed in endless variety and with all the skill of a bridge -maker, being guyed, supported, and braced in a manner which, if the -work of man, would be said to be the result of endless study. They are -perfect in their arrangement, and each web is a study in geometry, yet -the spider builds it with the greatest rapidity, never hesitating in -the making or repairing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 171.--Structure of a spider's web.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 172.--Spider and its web or trap.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 173.--Highly magnified poison fang of spider.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 174.--Biting mandibles of a spider.] - -By my door is a huge spider similar to the one shown in Figure 172. -It has a beautiful web which covers a space two feet square, but the -spider rarely occupies it. Near by it has a covering formed of a leaf -of a fern which it has pulled down each side and fastened, forming a -little room just the size of its body. Wondering how the spider would -discover a victim caught in the web, I examined it carefully, and -then placed a grasshopper in the web. Instantly the spider noted the -disturbance, having what to all intents and purposes was a private -telephone line. This was a single guy line leading from the center -of the web to its retreat, where one of the spider's claws rested -upon it, holding it, so that the slightest swaying of the web lifted -its foot. When an insect became entangled, the spider darted at it, -and by skillful manipulation of its hind pair of legs reeled off its -silken cord and attached it to the victim at every point, in a short -time literally binding it in a roll. If it was likely to escape, the -spider would bite it, using its poison fang (Fig. 173), which paralyzed -it. The biting mandibles (Fig. 174) are terrible weapons, from which -there is no escape. The inner jaws (Fig. 175) are equally sharp and -effective. The eyes of the spider are very brilliant, and in a bright -light can be seen to gleam and glisten like points of steel or fire. -They are minute dots, seen just above the mandibles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 175.--Jaws of a spider.] - -The male and female spiders often present a very different appearance, -the male being smaller. The spiders deposit eggs which are inclosed in -silken balls or nests of various kinds, in which they remain until the -young are hatched. Some are concealed in the web; others are placed -underground; and some are perched upon a stalk resembling a plant. - -There appears to be no limit to the uses to which the marvelous silk of -spiders is put. Some spiders form balloons with which they sail away -through the air. I have seen scores of these aëronauts in the air at -one time. Another form constructs a raft of leaves bound together with -silk. Some build nets for small game, as gnats. The silken cord made by -others is so tough that it can be used as thread. - -By partly destroying a web and suspending a black cloth behind the -locality, the operations of the spider in building and repairing can be -plainly seen. It is well to place the spinnerets beneath a microscope, -under which they appear to be made up of many points. Touch one of -these and a glutinous secretion adheres, which when stretched is seen -to be silk, and each point provides a separate thread which joins with -the others, producing one cable. The spinnerets are to some extent -movable. They can be turned to the right or left, and wherever they -touch, the silk remains glued fast. This explains why the spider moves -and works so quickly and accomplishes so much. The amount of silk -secreted is astonishing, and some idea of it can be obtained by walking -over the country in spring, early in the morning. On the slopes of the -Sierra Madre, in the San Gabriel Valley, I have seen the surface of the -ground for a great distance covered with webs which caught the rays of -the sun as it rose, presenting a most beautiful appearance. This fabric -covered hundreds of acres in a fairy maze of web, so many traps for -unwary small fry of the insect world. With a small stick I have wound a -large amount of silk from the spinnerets of a spider, there apparently -being no diminution of the supply. Professor Burt Wilder wound from -the large spider known as Nephila plumipes several miles of silk. Some -spiders have long, slender legs and are rapid runners. Others, as -Salticus, are very deliberate, but powerful leapers, jumping upon their -prey like a cat. Perhaps the most remarkable leaping spider is one from -Australia, called the flying Attus, having singular flaps or winglike -extensions upon its sides. One of the spiders not only runs over the -surface of the water readily, but spends a part of its time under the -surface, carrying down a bubble of air for its supply of oxygen, the -bubble acting as a diving bell. - -The spiders are very solicitous of their young, placing every safeguard -about them, and resenting any attack by a fierce rush. Several large -spiders (Fig. 176) carry their young upon their backs. The little -spiders are rubbed or scraped off when they become too great a burden. -The spiders are natural hunters and trappers, and a volume could be -written on their methods and adventures in running down prey. Once as -I was crawling through the almost stifling brush of one of the Florida -Keys I came to a little opening about five feet wide, across which was -a large, conspicuous, and powerful web. In the center of this web clung -a huge and most remarkable spider, colored a vivid yellow and black. I -watched it for a few moments while resting, and then touched the web, -whereupon the spider began to swing, by raising and depressing its -body, increasing its speed rapidly, until I could with difficulty see -it. A moment later it disappeared almost entirely before my eyes. For -half a minute the spider kept up this motion, then it slowly came to a -standstill, having demonstrated that it could easily disappear from any -bird enemy without running away. I have seen the daddy longlegs perform -the same feat in California. - -[Illustration: FIG. 176.--Spider with young upon its back.] - -The spiders which build webs, from plain geometrical traps to conelike -affairs, are interesting; but the trapdoor spiders and those which -dig burrows are among the wonderful artisans and engineers of the -insect world. One of the most perfect doors, in hinge, fit, beauty -of interior, finish, and quality of its outward defense is built by a -spider (Fig. 177). In the illustration, the den and its trapdoor is -shown, and in Figure 178 a sectional view of the same is seen; but the -door is never found open, the spring or hinge being so devised as to -remain closed. I have found many of these dens in southern California -sometimes a foot or more in length. The spider is not the large one -shown in the cut, which is a tarantula, but is very much smaller, -though a large spider. The genera, Cteniza and Nemesia, are best known -for their cunning and skill as builders. The California spider begins -its den when very small, and I have found many the size of goose -quills, with door complete, in the vicinity of a large den. - -[Illustration: FIG. 177.--Tarantulas (_Mygale_) and the opening of a -trapdoor den of another spider (_Cteniza_).] - -[Illustration: FIG. 178.--Section of a den of trapdoor spider.] - -In forming the burrow the spider carries out the clay bit by bit, and -when it reaches a point below the surface it begins to line the sides -with a silken tapestry. The door is an upper extension of this lining. -It is round, about the size of a silver quarter, or a little larger, -and is formed of silk so woven and interwoven that it becomes a pad -of seeming satin, which by continued manipulation is made to fit with -marvelous perfection. The spring or hinge is so adjusted that the door -always closes, and with a snap. The exterior of the door is covered -with clay, and is made to simulate the surroundings so exactly that -only the sharpest eye, and one skilled in the work, can distinguish -it. In some of the European spiders of this kind the door is carefully -covered with moss and plants. The work of building is done at night. -The spiders feed at night, and in returning to the burrow they can lift -the lid instantly, dart in, and turn about to seize the cushion or pad -of the door with their fangs, and hold it so tightly by bracing back -that some little strength is needed to force it. I have often lifted -the door with the blade of my knife and seen the spider rush up and -seize it. In all the doors little round holes can be seen where the -mandibles or fangs hold. The spider can be caught by pouring water -into the burrow and forcing it out. In the island of Timos there is a -trapdoor spider which does not hunt, but combines the methods of other -spiders. It comes out at night, fastens back its door by a thread, -then builds a web near by and waits for its victims to become entangled. - -[Illustration: FIG. 179.--A chimney-building spider.] - -The largest spiders are called tarantulas, though the term is applied -to some forms not so large. They are hideous creatures, and are very -common in southern California. They are five or six inches across the -legs, and the body in some forms is as large as a small mouse, and is -covered with reddish hair. They form deep burrows, but not trapdoors, -the entrance being open or covered by a web. They are supposed to be -very poisonous. Mygale Hentzii is the name of the common American -species found in the southwest (Fig. 177). They hunt at night for -grasshoppers, crickets, and other small game, and can often be seen -lumbering along over the roads at sunrise, returning from a hunt. -Sometimes these huge spiders migrate in a body, such a movement having -been observed in southern California. - -A South American species has been known to attack and capture small -birds, though this may be considered rather the exception than the -rule, their food consisting of large insects and small lizards. Of all -the spiders, the Tarantula turricula (Fig. 179) is the most remarkable, -as it not only makes a deep burrow, but erects above it a chimneylike -structure with all the skill of a human workman. Indeed, the structure, -in neatness and perfection of design, is far superior to many of the -chimneys seen among the poorer classes of some countries. The spider -lays the miniature timbers across with the precision and exactness of a -skilled carpenter and after the manner of human log-cabin builders. The -female carries her young upon her back, as shown in the illustration. - - - - -XXI. SOME SIX-LEGGED INSECTS - - -One of the great divisions into which the insects are divided relates -to their possession of six legs (Fig. 180). This includes a marvelous -array of creatures. Among them we find the singular little glacier flea -(Fig. 181) and the springtail, a prodigious jumper (Fig. 182). The -latter is found in damp places, and when touched will release a forked -spring which is held in place by a hook, and this sends the insect -flying into the air like an acrobat. These humble little creatures -present a strange contrast to the lace-winged insects which are among -the most beautiful of the tribe. - -[Illustration: FIG. 180.--A six-legged insect.] - -The May flies (Fig. 183) are well known for the wonderful exhibitions -they sometimes make, the air being filled with them, a joyous, -beautiful throng, destined to live but a few hours. In South America -they occur in such vast numbers that they are collected and used -as guano. The young pass through a strange change, having little -resemblance to the parent, and live in the water, where they breathe by -means of several plumelike gills. - -[Illustration: FIG. 181.--Glacier flea.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 182.--Springtail.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 183.--May fly.] - -Among all the insects of the field and swamp none are more familiar -than the dragon fly (Fig. 184), which children were once led to believe -had a vicious habit of sewing up the eyes and mouth of any one; hence -the name "darning needle." These insects are often beautiful, with -their rich wings of glistening lace, four in number, their bodies -gleaming in tints of bronze, blue, and black. The abdomen is long and -slender, like a needle; the head is prominent and armed with powerful -jaws; the eyes are large and compound, with several single eyes as -well. Some dragon flies are very small. Others are large, as those of -the Malay Archipelago, where the natives trap them and use them for -food. The dragon flies are hunters, preying upon other insects which -they capture on the wing, and large forms have been seen taking very -young fishes from the water, swooping down upon them like hawks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 184.--Dragon fly.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 185.--Larvæ of a dragon fly.] - -The development of the dragon fly is interesting from the fact that the -young lives a long period in the water. The eggs are deposited in the -water, hatching out into curiously shaped creatures (Fig. 185), which -are among the most ferocious of all the water insects. They pass two -years in this form, preying upon other animals and even small fishes. -The larva has a proboscis which ordinarily folds over the face and is -called the mask (_B_), but when an insect approaches, this strange -appliance with powerful jaws or hooks is shot out (_A_) with dire -results. After the two years have passed the pupa, as it is called, -climbs up a stem, leaves the water and casts its skin, appearing as a -full-grown dragon fly ready for a life of rapine on land. - -[Illustration: FIG. 186.--Ant lion, adult and larva.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 187.--Section of trap of an ant lion.] - -In many insects the habits of the young are much more interesting -than those of the adults. Not far from my home, in the Arroyo Seco, -which leads down from the Sierra Madre, are great deposits or beds of -fine sand which I find often covered with little pits (Fig. 186). If -a section is made (Fig. 187), it is found to be a perfect bowl almost -half an inch in depth, as though a top had been pressed into the sand -and taken out. If sand is rolled into the pit, something appears -quickly at the bottom and mysteriously tosses it out; and if an ant -topples over the edge and rolls down the sides, out comes a fierce -pair of jaws and seizes it. If the ant escapes, the unknown creature, -still concealed, hurls sand at it, endeavoring to bring it down, often -with success. This singular creature is the larva or immature young of -the ant lion--itself an attractive, large, lace-winged creature (Fig. -188), resembling a dragon fly. It lays its eggs in dry places. The -young are wingless, big-jawed creatures, which for two years live the -life of a trapper, each forming a pit and concealing itself beneath the -sand at the bottom, the huge jaws being in the center. Ants are the -game of this lion, and as they run along they often topple over the -sides which, like those of a toboggan, are very slippery. Down the ant -goes, its descent being accelerated by the lion which places sand upon -its back, and bombards the unfortunate, so adding to its confusion that -it rolls down and is seized by the jaws of the lion. At the end of the -two years the lion surrounds itself with a ball of sand and silk, and -in three weeks appears as the perfect insect. - -[Illustration: FIG. 188.--Perfect form of ant lion.] - -Unless one is familiar with the eggs of the aphis lion (Fig. 189) he -will never find them. They resemble minute plants growing on long -stems, fastened to a leaf. These hatch out and become little creatures -resembling the ant lion, with huge jaws. - -But the most extraordinary changes and series of different individuals -are found among the so-called white ants, which are really not ants at -all, but among the most destructive of all known insects. The first -white travelers in Africa reported the discovery of gigantic ant -hills, some of which were twelve feet in height (Fig. 190) and one -hundred feet in circumference. Equally large mounds have been found -in Australia, large areas of country being dotted with these striking -landmarks, among the most remarkable of all animal structures. These -mounds are often as hard as rock, and hunters have sometimes escaped -from the charges of wild animals by climbing upon them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 189.--Aphis lion, larva and eggs.] - -They are the work of the so-called white ants. A section made through -one of them, as seen in the illustration, shows the singular home of a -remarkable community. There are really four kinds of "ants" here, all -representing a different phase in the growth of the insect, and all -performing a certain work. They are the female, the male, the worker, -and the soldier; and there is a winged king. In their lives these -insects have many features which resemble those of man. They have a -king and queen, which at first have wings; later they lose their wings -and the queen grows until she is thousands of times larger than the -workers, and is kept in a special chamber in the center of the pile. -Here she is attended by the workers, small ants, who carry out the eggs -which are laid by millions and placed in nurseries or small cemented -cells, designed for the purpose. Sometimes the queen lays as many as -eight thousand eggs a day. An army of workers carries them off, builds -new nurseries, and adds to the heap. If an enemy appears, the soldiers -rush out. These have large heads and enormous jaws, and are well fitted -by nature for the work they have to perform. - -[Illustration: FIG. 190.--Hills of the white ant.] - -The cunning and intelligence of white ants are well displayed in their -attacks upon houses. Having decided to enter a house, they begin to -tunnel some distance away, and finally reach the corner post or some -timber that enters the ground. With remarkable speed the workers enter -this, hollowing it out, until it is nothing but a shell. They eat to -the very surface, leaving only a faint ghost of a partition, and what -appears to be a solid block is really so thin that a finger can be -thrust through it. So clever are these little ant miners that they have -been known to come up through the floor directly beneath the leg of a -chair, and burrow and eat up through it, so completely devastating it -that when the owner moved it the small hole in the floor appeared and -the chair fell in pieces. - -In the Isle of France a new building was ruined by these insects in -a few months; and at Colombo a large house suddenly fell in over the -heads of the occupants, the beams being crushed like egg shells. The -work they accomplished in this way would hardly be credited were it not -for the substantiated statements collected by the authorities in the -countries where they are mostly found. - -The so-called caddis worms (Fig. 191) are merely the larvæ of the -caddis fly which incloses itself in a case that is often decorated in -a singular way. The cases of a number of the worms placed together -display a striking variety of designs. Some roll up leaves; others spin -a silken thread from the mouth and bind pieces of leaves together, -attaching other pieces to it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 191.--Caddis worm and case.] - - - - -XXII. SOME MIMICS - - -All insects have a continual struggle for life. They constitute the -food of many birds, and very few of the young escape these watchful -creatures and attain mature life. - -To enable the insects to escape, nature has given many a strange -protective garb, which is called mimicry or a protective resemblance. -Sometimes it is color, an insect mimicking a leaf in color; or again, -the insect imitates a twig or leaf in shape, and so escapes attention. -We find examples of this in many families, but particularly among -the insects now under consideration. The mantis (Fig. 192) belongs -to a group in which the insects resemble twigs in shape and color, -and nothing could be more striking than these strange, slow-moving -creatures. They have an uncanny, weird appearance, and look as though -they might have been originally of wood. I have seen them in the -tropics passing slowly along a limb, lifting one leg at a time, moving -it with all the halting deliberation of an automaton; but when the -mantis perceived me, it stopped just as it was, the foot that was in -the air remaining as though it had been frozen in the act. Some are a -vivid green, and in them the resemblance to twigs is very striking. -I once encouraged a number to live in my preserves, where I watched -and studied and often fed them. They would take a fly from my hand by -a very rapid movement of the cruel, fore hands or claws, which were -toothed. When food was scarce the insects would devour one another -in the most deliberate fashion, then assume the quaint, supplicating -position with claws up, from which the insect is called the praying -mantis. My specimens deposited their eggs in a curious case about an -inch long, resembling a trilobite, which they attached to the fence and -colored the exact hue of the latter. The fence was not painted, and -varied in color, yet the nests always agreed more or less exactly with -the shade or tint of the plank or base to which it was attached. - -[Illustration: FIG. 192.--The mantis.] - -In South America is found a huge mantis so powerful that it captures -birds by grasping them in its terrible claws. The insect is described -by Burmeister as crouching on the limb, imitating it so closely that -the bird approaches it without fear. In Java a beautiful pink mantis -is so perfect in its mimicry of a pink orchid that insects alight upon -it and are caught. A Philippine Island mantis is remarkable for its -resemblance to a dried and withered leaf. - -The chief characteristic of this insect is its cool, deliberate -ferocity--devouring its mate with indifference, lunching calmly upon -its young, while they are dining among themselves. When fighting they -have the characteristics of the bulldog, with many times its endurance. -A mantis will continue a combat even when part of its body is cut away. -I have seen one deprived of all its legs cling to a limb with one claw -and continue to reach for its foe with the other. - -[Illustration: FIG. 193.--Walking stick.] - -Closely allied to the mantis, and even more remarkable as mimics, -are the walking sticks (Phasma) (Fig. 193). I have kept them alive, -and often have been unable to see them when I knew they were -directly beneath my eyes, so remarkable is the mimicry. They have -no biting claws, merely long antennæ, a long, sticklike body, and -straight-jointed, sticklike legs. Some are green. The most remarkable -are those which seem to imitate dead wood. I have seen a walking stick -that was a perfect imitation of a moss or lichen-covered twig, the body -and legs of the insect being covered with peculiar growths. The largest -walking stick I have seen was twelve inches in length, and one of the -most perfect imitations of a green twig that could be imagined. This -was from the Malay country, where they grow to a length of fourteen -inches. They stretch out upon long tendrils, extending the limbs or -holding them up, the _poseurs_ of the insect world. - -The walking leaves (Phyllium) (Fig. 194) are clever mimics, resembling -leaves. Even the veins and midrib of the leaf are imitated, and -the insect, when crouching on a limb, is a virtual leaf, so far as -appearance goes, the disguise being absolutely perfect. Some resemble -green leaves; others dried and withered specimens. Even the legs of -these insects are supplied with a singular growth. Most of these -strange mimics are found clinging to trees; but one common in Brazil -spends most of the time during the day under water in streams, where -it clings to the pebbles. In Nicaragua there are several species that -resemble leaves in all stages of decay. The movements of some of these -insects resemble those of leaves. I saw one in the Sierra Madre range -come down from a tall sycamore, and supposed it a leaf, as it dropped -slowly, zigzagging down. I should not have discovered the mistake had -not my dog recognized it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 194.--Walking leaf.] - - - - -XXIII. THE GRASSHOPPERS AND LOCUSTS - - -These forms may be considered the musicians of the insect world. None -of the insects can produce vocal sounds, that is, they have no voice, -but they have certain appliances which enable them to produce sounds -which can be heard a long distance. On hot days in summer is heard the -constant and shrill zee-zeeing of the locust, while countless varieties -lend their aid in producing a volume of sound. - -[Illustration: FIG. 195.--A grasshopper.] - -The "instruments" in the locust are (Fig. 196) minute teeth, arranged -along the thighs; these are rubbed against the fore wings, producing -the remarkable sounds. The locusts are commonly called grasshoppers. -They have two pairs of net-veined wings, and hind legs adapted for -leaping, by which they send themselves sprawling through the air, -almost invariably using this method of escape instead of unfolding -their delicate wings. All are mimics. The common ground locust -resembles the dusty road and the dried foliage which it affects. -Others, which live on plants, are a vivid green. Some which I find in -my garden resemble closely the tender shoots of the passion vine, upon -which they feed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 196.--Musical instruments of the locust: _a_, leg; -_b_, _c_, teeth, enlarged.] - -The locusts (Acridiidæ) have short antennæ, large glassy eyes, and ears -at the base of the abdomen. The female is provided with an appliance -called the ovipositor, four sharp points with which the grasshopper -digs holes in the ground; later these are used as a guide or funnel for -introducing the eggs into the burrow. The mouth is supplied with parts -adapted to biting. When a grasshopper (Fig. 195) is caught it exudes a -peculiar fluid resembling molasses, a secretion of the salivary glands. -The eggs are deposited in masses from sixty to one hundred. The young -resemble the parent, but at first have no wings. The grasshopper in -making its metamorphosis, or change from one stage to another, casts -its skin in a manner calling to mind the crabs; in a word, it molts -several times (Fig. 197). In accomplishing this, it often climbs a -spear of grass and there shuffles out of its old skin and jumps away, -leaving the hollow skin clinging to the grass. - -[Illustration: FIG. 197.--A grasshopper and young at different stages: -_A_, larva; _B_, pupa; _C_, adult.] - -At times they appear in vast numbers, and in clouds rise into the air, -so that from a distance they might be taken for smoke or a tornado. -This cloud is made up of starving locusts which devastate the countries -they infest. They alight upon a wheat field, and an hour later hundreds -of acres appear as though a fire had swept over the ground. Every -spear of grass, every leaf, has been devoured by this insatiate throng, -which can not be destroyed or even checked. In Africa swarms have been -swept by the wind out over the ocean, to be washed in in such vast -numbers that they formed a line fifty miles long and three or four feet -high alongshore, creating an odor which drove people from that region. -Jægar, the naturalist, rode through a swarm in Russia for four hundred -miles where they were two feet deep. The entire country was devastated -by this band of locusts, and tens of thousands of human beings were -threatened with starvation. The government troops were ordered to the -place and warfare declared against the locusts, the soldiers being -armed with shovels instead of guns. A line of thirty thousand men moved -slowly forward, covering the insects with earth or digging them under, -while in various localities huge fires were built to burn the ground -and destroy the eggs. Despite this, thirty thousand people starved to -death, the direct result of their raids. Almost every portion of the -world away from the poles has been threatened by these raiders. There -are many references in the Bible to these insects, and their ravages -have been carried on from the earliest times known to man. In America -the Rocky Mountain locust is the most destructive, and many of the -Western states have been ravaged by them. - - "Onward they came, a dark, continuous cloud of congregated myriads, - numberless. - The rushing of whose wings was as the sound of a broad river, - headlong in its course. - Plunged from a mountain summit, or the roar of a wild ocean, as the - autumn storm, - Shattering its billows on a shore of rocks." - --SOUTHEY. - -Some years ago a flock settled in Colorado Springs, the streets and -roofs being covered with them, so that they were swept and shoveled -about like snow. Some American swarms have been traced for several -hundred miles, and settling on railroads, have stopped the trains by -making the tracks slippery. Alighting in a cornfield the rustling sound -of their depredation can be heard for some distance; and when they -rise, a fire might have swept over the fields, so far as appearances -go. The swarm, a black, portentous cloud, sweeps on, flying at a rate -of thirty miles an hour to reach some new field, where they dig burrows -with their curious ovipositors, and deposit their eggs by millions. -Then they move on, leaving an unborn swarm to develop and later -constitute another army to spread devastation abroad in the land. - -[Illustration: FIG. 198.--Crickets.] - -The crickets (Fig. 198) are familiar forms with cylindrical bodies and -large heads placed vertically, the ovipositor often being as large -as the entire body. The female often deposits three hundred eggs in -the ground. The note of the cricket is produced by the male, and is -a decidedly musical chirp, varying in the different kinds. The close -observer may easily find the cave house of the little singer that is -often seen sitting at the entrance, singing, not at the top of its -voice, but with the full force of its wings, the sound being produced -by using the fore wings, as bows and the hind wings as fiddles, and -sawing with great rapidity. - -The crickets are found in the greatest variety. Some live in the -ground, others affect houses, and in the tropics beautiful tree -crickets are found. The snowy tree cricket has a peculiar note, -_te-reat, te-reat, te-reat_. The broad-winged tree cricket has a call -which resembles a dog whistle. Another has a piping note resembling the -thrilling musical sound made by rubbing the edge of a glass with one's -finger. The singular cave cricket is wingless, and has antennæ several -times the length of its body. The Western cricket does great damage -to the crops of the farmer, and when bands are seen marching over the -country, ditches are often dug into which the crickets plunge, where, -in default of food, they begin to devour one another. The cry of this -cricket is harsh and disagreeable, the "musical instrument" being on -the dorsum or back of the shield which seems to cover the fore part of -its back. The curious mole cricket, which burrows underground and is -provided with enormous jaws, is a menace to the gardener. In the outer -Florida Keys I found that it was almost impossible to rear plants, so -plentiful and ravenous were these fierce root eaters. - - - - -XXIV. THE BEETLES - - -The beetles (Fig. 199) are insects having their fore wings thickened -to constitute sheaths or covers for the lower pair, used in flight. -Their mouths are adapted for biting, and they pass through a complete -metamorphosis. There are about ninety thousand species, ranging from -minute creatures to huge, lumbering goliaths. When walking the beetle -presents a trim appearance, enveloped in a gleaming armor of the -highest polish, and often ablaze with metallic tints, but when it flies -the elytra, or wing covers, are thrown up, and a pair of soft, silken -wings flutter out, stiffen, and bear the beetle away. - -[Illustration: FIG. 199.--A typical beetle (_Cotalpa_): _A_, imago; -_B_, larva.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 200.--Head of a beetle.] - -The head of the beetle is small and adapted for biting (Fig. 200); the -digestive apparatus is simple. The most noticeable feature of many -are the antennæ (Fig. 201), which often are very long and ornamental. -The eyes are compound. The legs are strong and powerful. The beetles -spend little time in flying, many being flesh eaters and continually -searching for game under refuse and in dark places. They lay eggs which -are deposited in the ground, or in special cavities made in wood, which -hatch into larvæ (Fig. 202). In the tiger beetle the larvæ resemble -white worms. In the rose beetle they look like grubs. These in time -change to helpless pupæ. - -[Illustration: FIG. 201.--Antennæ of beetles.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 202.--Beetle and young: _A_, tiger beetle; _B_, -larva of same, enlarged; _C_, water beetle.] - -The June bug, the beetle which dashes into rooms, blindly charging -lights of all kinds, is a familiar example. Its larva is white and -very destructive. On my lawn in California the Bermuda grass often -turns white, and sections a foot square can be lifted, having been cut -off from the roots by this destructive larva of the June bug, which -during this stage of its existence lives underground, eating roots and -plants of various kinds. For two years this beetle (Fig. 203) lives a -subterranean, marauding life, growing and shedding its skin. It is -often considered a complete animal, but at the end of this period it -changes into what is called the pupa stage, which does not move; the -pupæ are white, soft, helpless creatures which are found around the -roots of rose bushes in great number, and which are so appreciated by -mocking birds that they and the blackbirds invariably follow me about -the garden when I am overturning the soil with the trowel. Finally the -pupa changes into the perfect insect. - -[Illustration: FIG. 203.--June bug, showing wings and wing covers.] - -The larvæ of some of the spring beetles remain in the "grub" stage five -years, and are known as wire worms, doing a vast amount of damage. - -[Illustration: FIG. 204.--Bark-boring beetle.] - -The girdler beetle bores holes in tender limbs of the hickory, then -systematically girdles the limb below the eggs, so that by the time -the young hatch they have soft, dead wood to feed upon. The bark borer -(Fig. 204) penetrates the bark of trees, and cuts winding tunnels here -and there, in which are placed its eggs. Among the most attractive of -the beetles are the carnivorous sexton beetles. They find dead bodies -with all the skill of a vulture, burrow beneath them and deposit their -eggs within the body, where the young feed. The work these beetles -accomplish in destroying animals and even burying them renders them -valuable scavengers. Among the destructive beetles are the buffalo bugs -(Fig. 205), which have been introduced from Europe; the larva of these -is a strange, fuzzy little creature (_a_). - -[Illustration: FIG. 205.--Buffalo bug and various stages of young.] - -The weevils (Fig. 206) are the bane of the dweller in the tropics. -They infest bread, cake, and flour and meal of every kind. Perhaps -the most dreaded by the Northern farmer is the potato bug (Fig. 207), -which plays havoc with potatoes, often ruining the entire crop, the -vines being covered by the soft and disagreeable larva, more like a -worm than anything else. The diving beetle is an interesting insect, -being a flier and a swimmer. Its hind legs are fringed and adapted for -swimming. On the fore limb is a sucker, or several, by which the beetle -can attach itself to any object. The larva is a ferocious creature, -armed with a pair of fierce jaws, with which it attacks small fishes, -frogs, tadpoles, and game very much larger than itself. - -[Illustration: FIG. 206.--The weevil.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 207.--Potato bug, eggs and young.] - - - - -XXV. THE BUGS - - -[Illustration: FIG. 208.--Chinch bug, egg and various stages of the -young.] - -The bugs are easily recognized. They have the mouth parts arranged as -a sucking beak or proboscis. The chinch bug (Fig. 208), the squash bug -(Fig. 209), the seventeen-year cicada, or locust (Fig. 210), and the -bean aphis (Fig. 211) are well-known examples. They represent a group -dreaded for many reasons; many are parasites on man and beast, while -many others destroy crops of various kinds. - -[Illustration: FIG. 209.--Squash bug.] - -In nearly all fresh-water ponds and pools curious flat, long-legged -creatures (Fig. 212) are seen darting over the surface, being perfectly -at home. They are water boatmen, and one species (Fig. 213) is found -far out at sea. - -[Illustration: FIG. 210.--Cicada.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 211.--Bean aphis.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 212.--Water boatmen.] - -In passing in review the various insects the peculiar transformations -through which they pass are noticed; some long, some short, some -partial, and many complete. In the cicada, or seventeen-year locust, or -harvest fly, we have an instance of one of the strangest examples of -slow development known. The cicada is a wedge-shaped insect having some -resemblance to a huge fly. At the base of the abdomen is a drumlike -organ by which it makes a shrill "zeeing" sound which, when thousands -are joined in concert, produces a remarkable sound audible for a long -distance. I have heard it half a mile with the wind, and by following -it up found a grove filled with insects producing a roar of sounds, -while, clinging to the trees and branches, were thousands of empty -skins from which the cicadas had escaped. The cicada deposits three or -four hundred eggs in holes on the twigs or bark of the oak. They hatch -very promptly in six weeks or so, and we might conclude that the young -cicadas would soon appear. But seventeen long years of life underground -are now required before the pupa crawls upward, molts, and appears as -an adult cicada. It has spent all these years as an almost helpless -creature, resembling the mole cricket, subsisting by sucking the juices -from the roots of plants, waiting for the ending of its imprisonment. - -[Illustration: FIG. 213.--Halobates, a bug that goes to sea.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 214.--Young leaf hopper and its bubbles.] - -On many plants the stroller through the garden will observe bits of -white froth, like soap suds, and few persons, were they not in the -secret, would believe that the froth is an especially devised medium -for the little leaf hopper (Fig. 214). The adult insect is a curious -little creature found among the grasses in spring. The young require -moisture to enable them to attain their full development, and when -hatched they climb up stalks of grass and pierce them with their -beaklike proboscis and gorge themselves with the juices. The insect now -exudes a foamy secretion which bubbles up about it, in time entirely -surrounding itself in a mass of moisture. The insect converts this -into air globules by pushing its tail above the mass (_a_) and seizing -air in its claspers, which it passes beneath it to the spiracle or -breathing pore. In this way it breathes and also fills the section -about it with air. There the animal passes the time until it is -ready to change, when it escapes and becomes a perfect leaf hopper. -The famous cochineal insects (Fig. 215) belong to this group. They -are minute creatures which live upon certain cacti in the tropics. -When collected they form the celebrated dye. Another form produces a -valuable wax. - -[Illustration: FIG. 215.--Cochineal insect.] - -Who has not found his rose bushes swarming with minute green bodies, -the Aphidæ? Brush them off at night and in a few hours as many more -are seen, due to the marvelous rapidity of their increase. The eggs -are laid in the autumn, and hatch in the early spring, the young -then appearing as wingless little creatures which in turn produce not -eggs but winged or wingless Aphidæ (Fig. 216). These appear in such -numbers and so quickly that in a single summer a pair of plant lice -will produce one quintillion of young ones. Can we wonder that it is -difficult to keep the rose bushes free from such a swarm? The story -of the development of these insects is but merely touched upon, but -it is among the most remarkable of all the strange and unexplainable -transformations we find in animal life. - -[Illustration: FIG. 216.--Aphis.] - -Here we may glance at the countless scaly insects which infest fruit -of various kinds. The black, red, and cottony scale are common in -California, and have to be fought with all the cunning and intelligence -that man can invoke. In 1886 the orange groves of southern California -were almost ruined by the cottony scale. I have seen trees that looked -as though the limbs were covered with snow. But an enemy of the scale, -a little spotted lady bug, was imported from Australia, and in a few -months the scale had disappeared. The black and red scale and several -others are pests which devastate the groves, stopping the growth of the -trees and operating against the fruit grower, who is obliged to spray -the trees with poisonous washes to destroy them. - - - - -XXVI. FLIES AND MOSQUITOES - - -[Illustration: FIG. 217.--A fly, natural size and magnified.] - -The flies and mosquitoes are among the greatest pests and dangers -to man. Both are conveyers of disease, and the former, as an agent -of destruction, deposits its eggs in meat of all kinds, making it -impossible to keep meat in some countries. On the other hand, it should -be remembered that the flies are valuable scavengers, hastening the -destruction of dead matter which might contaminate the air. - -[Illustration: FIG. 218.--Tongue of a fly.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 219.--Eyes of a fly.] - -The flies (Fig. 217) are two-winged insects with mouth parts adapted -for lapping (Fig. 218) or sucking. Under the microscope these organs -often appear to be composed of needlelike bristles, forming a proboscis -protected by a scabbard or sheath. In some flies this weapon is many -times as long as the body. The head is well separated from the body, -and movable. The eyes are compound and simple, made up of many facets -(Fig 219). The wings are gauze-like, often beautiful, and when the fly -is in motion, they move in a figure eight, making, it is estimated, -19,800 revolutions a minute. The feet (Fig. 220) enable it to cling -to the smoothest surfaces with ease. The little pads are extremely -irritating at times when the fly walks over the flesh, tapping here -and there with its soft tongue, in which all parts except the labium -are rudimentary. The latter has a broad tip for licking or lapping. -The flies breathe by spiracles, and are among the most active of all -insects, and the bravest, attacking man and beast, and refusing to be -driven off, despite the most active and spirited defense. - -[Illustration: FIG. 220.--Foot of a fly.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 221.--Flesh fly, eggs and young in various stages -of development.] - -The development of the house fly is a familiar process. The eggs of the -flesh fly, as an example (Fig. 221), are small, white objects which -hatch into maggots. These change gradually, finally becoming pupæ, then -assuming the adult form. The bluebottle fly (Fig. 222) is one of the -best known. The house fly is found in greatest numbers near stables, -as there, in the piles of refuse, the eggs are deposited, hatching in -twenty-four hours. The young appear as fleshy, soft, footless worms or -maggots, which are ravenous, and live upon the most fœtid matter for -two weeks, when they change into a pupa, a barrel-shaped, cocoonlike -form. For two weeks this remains motionless, when out of it breaks the -perfect house fly, soon to deposit its eggs and help to produce the -tens of millions of flies which swarm wherever human beings are found. - -[Illustration: FIG. 222.--Bluebottle fly and young.] - -Among the many species of flies some are bloodsuckers, as the horse -flies. The robber flies are the hawks of the race, carrying off other -insects, even large dragon flies. The many species of horse flies -attack horses and cattle, and the animals are often driven to a frenzy -by their approach. An entire herd will recognize the approach of these -insects and stampede. Many of the flies deposit their eggs upon the -hairs or nostrils of horses. Flies exist in countless varieties, from -harmless creatures to some in Africa which are deadly to cattle and -horses; from the ordinary fly whose larva lives in cheese to others -which thrive in alcohol and wine. In California the larva of one -species is found in Lake Mono, where no other animal can live. Hundreds -of bushels of them are sometimes washed upon the beaches, constituting -a favorite food for the Indians. - -The warfare declared against mosquitoes in America, suggested by Dr. -Howard, has attracted widespread attention to these insects, which have -rendered many localities absolutely uninhabitable. A Florida physician -informed me that in a certain locality horses had been killed by these -insatiate bloodsuckers, which are now known to be the carriers of -the germs of yellow fever. Over almost every pond or pool in summer -they may be seen in countless numbers, filling the air with their -disagreeable music. - -[Illustration: FIG. 223.--Proboscis of a mosquito.] - -The proboscis, or sucking weapon, of the mosquito (Fig. 223) is an -innocent-appearing object when closed; but when the sheath is open it -displays a series of scimeter and sawtooth daggers (Fig. 224), which -fully explains the torture of the mosquito bite or that of the gnat -which crawls up one's sleeve (Fig. 225). In all these extraordinary -weapons we find the same organs, the labium, labrum, and others, but -with greater or less development, according to the nature of the insect. - -[Illustration: FIG. 224.--Proboscis of a mosquito open.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 225.--Biting organs of a gnat.] - -It is the female mosquito which occasions all the trouble and renders -mankind miserable in some of the otherwise most delightful resorts. On -the Florida Keys I always had a mosquito bar overhead, not merely over -the bed but suspended from the ceiling in midday. Even then these pests -would force their way through the meshes. - -[Illustration: FIG. 226.--Development of the mosquito.] - -The development of the mosquito is interesting (Fig. 226). The eggs are -deposited as a boat-shaped mass on the surface of the water, where they -drift about for several days. The larvæ appear as wigglers floating -in the water, tail upward, and breathing through a tube at the tip -of the abdomen which is projected above the water for the purpose. -After a while the head grows larger, and several changes ensue. Then -the pupa finally appears. This rises to the surface, and out bursts a -full-fledged mosquito which, like a man in a canoe, balances itself -while its wings dry. A few hours before it was entirely dependent -upon the water and swimming in it, but now it appears to be fearful -of overturning the frail craft and falling in where it would surely -drown. If all goes well, it soon tries its wings and goes buzzing away. -The devastation caused by the armed and bewhiskered mosquito is not -generally known. Doubtless thousands have lost their lives from this -unsuspected cause. - -[Illustration: FIG. 227.--The gnat (_Culex_) and its development from -the egg: _A_, egg; _B_, larva; _C_, pupa; _D_, adult.] - -The common gnat (Fig. 227) has habits similar to those of the mosquito. -They are often seen floating in the air in great swarms or bands, -rising and forming as though in some mystic dance. - -[Illustration: FIG. 228.--The flea and its development.] - -Closely allied to these forms are the fleas (Fig. 228), which are at -once interesting and irritating. They are wingless, and have two simple -eyes. The larva resembles a small caterpillar. It attains its growth -in twelve days, then enters a small cocoon, which it weaves. There -it remains for sixteen days, when it breaks forth a full-grown flea. -Of all insects the fleas are the most amenable to instruction. Some -years ago a flea circus was one of the attractions of New York, where, -by looking through a magnifying glass, one could see fleas dragging -chariots with other fleas dressed as cavaliers sitting on the seats. -Many other seemingly impossible feats were exhibited. - - - - -XXVII. THE BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS - - -Of all the insects the butterflies (Fig. 229) are the most beautiful. -Nature has arrayed them in coats of many colors. Every tint and every -possible shade of color, including metallic, is found among them. In -some of the South American forests they are of gigantic size, a blaze -of iridescent blue, as though formed of the most delicate flakes of -that beautiful mineral labradorite. - -[Illustration: FIG. 229.--A butterfly.] - -The butterflies add to the beauty of nature. Among the trees they -congregate, forming dashes of color, red, blue, green, and golden -yellow. They vie with the flowers in their splendors; besides being -ornamental they accomplish a great work in carrying pollen from flower -to flower and from plant to plant. They have small heads (Fig. 230), -short antennæ, and four beautiful wings which are covered with minute -scales. Each of the latter when examined under a microscope becomes a -resplendent object, glistening like the plate of some gorgeous armor. -The mouth parts are adapted for sucking, and are coiled up when not in -use (Fig. 231). They consist of two tubular or hollow threads. - -[Illustration: FIG. 230.--Head of a moth.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 231.--Mouth parts of a butterfly.] - -The ordinary caterpillar is the larva of the butterfly. The eggs -are deposited on leaves and various places, and soon hatch into -caterpillars (Fig. 232). These lead a predatory life for some time, -doing a vast amount of damage, almost every plant having its peculiar -pest. Some affect one tree, some another. The famous elm trees of many -of the New England cities have more than once been threatened by these -larvæ. They shed their coats several times. The caterpillar finally -merges into the chrysalis, from which it escapes as the perfect insect. -All of these changes can easily be observed by keeping a caterpillar -under continuous observation. The butterflies have well-developed legs, -but they rarely use them for locomotion, preferring to fly from flower -to flower. The tortoise-shell butterfly is a familiar form (Fig. 233), -its marvelous colors resembling this shell. Some have an under covering -of pure silver. Another conspicuous form is the white butterfly (Fig. -234), which, as its name suggests, is pure white, with several black -spots. - -[Illustration: FIG. 232.--Butterfly and young.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 233.--Tortoise-shell butterfly.] - -When the butterfly is at rest its wings are held aloft, and many are so -colored that in this position the wing resembles a leaf and the animal -escapes observation. A marvelous example of this protective mimicry is -observed in the East Indian butterfly, Kallima (Fig. 235). The wings -have a little projection which resembles a stem from which a dark mark -resembling a midrib extends. When the butterfly alights, this seeming -stem, as shown in the illustration, appears to join to the branch, -and the resemblance to a leaf is so perfect that the most careful -observer is often deceived. Other butterflies observed by Wallace -mimicked dry oak leaves and dead leaves of various kinds. All the spots -and colors of decay were imitated in their wings. Other Indian forms -resemble fungus, and utterly disappear as they alight upon it. No -more attractive butterfly is seen than the finely marked Vanessa, the -peacock butterfly (Fig. 236), which has beautiful peacock marks upon -its wings in vivid blue. - -[Illustration: FIG. 234.--White butterfly and young.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 235.--A butterfly which resembles a leaf.] - -In southern California, almost every spring, there is a migration of -butterflies from the south northward along the Sierra Madre. I have -watched them for hours, numbers being seen over a given spot every -moment. By writing to postmasters and other persons in different -sections, I found that the migrating band was two hundred miles long -and from ten to twenty miles wide. Doubtless this was but a fraction -of its actual extent, it being made up, in reality, of millions of -yellow butterflies. Darwin saw such a migration in South America. Their -pathway was several miles in width, they filled the air like a yellow -cloud, and were several hours passing a given point. Vessels out at sea -have met with similar flocks blown away from the shore. - -[Illustration: FIG. 236.--Peacock butterfly.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 237.--Silkworm moth.] - -The butterflies are included in the Lepidoptera, and are the day-flying -forms. There are many other insects equally beautiful, in more subdued -tints, which are night flyers. These are the moths (Fig. 237), which -are slow of flight, ponderous, and have extraordinary tongues for -sucking the juices from the flowers. They can be distinguished from -the butterflies by their feathered antennæ. One of the best known for -its ravages is the dwarf moth, the worm of which plays such havoc among -woolens. The cankerworm moth is equally a pest among valuable shade -trees. Another familiar form is the hawk moth (Fig. 238), which so -resembles a humming bird in appearance and motion that it is almost -impossible to distinguish between the two, the moth being one of the -most active, poising over flowers and inserting its enormous tongue to -secure the sweets there concealed. A showy moth is the huge Attacus, -its larva being especially large and voracious. - -[Illustration: FIG. 238.--Hawk moth, a rapid flyer.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 239.--Death's-head moth.] - -The moths display as great a variety in their shapes, colors, and sizes -as the butterflies. The death's-head moth (Fig. 239) is perhaps as -startling as any, bearing on its back a well-defined figure of a skull. -The most valuable moth to man is the silkworm moth, the wings of which -have a spread of six inches and are a brilliant ochre yellow, fawn, -or mouse color, marked with striking peacock-like eyes. They deposit -eggs, but the development of the caterpillar is somewhat different from -that of the butterfly larva. The latter passes its pupa stage as an -unprotected chrysalis attached to some object by the tail (Fig. 240), -but the caterpillar of the moth secretes silk from a gland in its head, -and with this forms about itself a cocoon. This is unwound by machinery -and woven into the valuable silk of commerce. The silk industry brings -to the weavers of the United States alone an annual sum amounting to -about $30,000,000. The silkworm can easily be kept and all its changes -watched, and many persons are interested in rearing the worms. The time -required by the worm to form its silk cocoon varies with the locality. -Thus in France it will complete it in four days, while in England forty -or more days are necessary. About two hundred cocoons weigh a pound. - -[Illustration: FIG. 240.--Pupa of butterfly.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 241.--Basketlike cocoon of a South American moth.] - -Silkworm moths are ravenous eaters, living principally on mulberry -leaves. They show much intelligence in forming their cocoons. Thus a -South American moth (Fig. 241) forms a basketlike structure which it -suspends from some limb. The cradle swings in the wind like a seed pod, -more than anything else, and would never be suspected as inclosing -a living creature. Many of the moths, by some remarkable instinct, -deposit their eggs where the young will find an immediate supply of -food. This care for their young is the cause of a vast amount of -damage among fruit trees. The fruit moth, as an example, deposits its -eggs in fruit; the caterpillar penetrates it and devours the interior, -thousands of bushels of apples being destroyed yearly in this way, not -to speak of other fruits. - -[Illustration: FIG. 242.--Tent moth, caterpillar and cocoon.] - -One of the best known of the moths is the tent moth (Fig. 242), the -larva of which forms a tentlike web for its protection in the trees it -affects. A richly tinted flyer is known as the goat moth (Fig. 243), -the caterpillar being a large and beautiful creature. - -[Illustration: FIG. 243.--Goat moth.] - - - - -XXVIII. THE ANTS - - -If the question should be propounded which next to man is the most -intelligent of animals, the reply might be, the ants; for after a -careful study of all the ways and habits of these small insects, it -will be very evident that the lives of many are conducted with more -method than the lowest human lives. - -The ants belong to the great group called Hymenoptera--insects with -membranelike wings, including the gall flies, bees, and wasps. - -Ants are found everywhere. Long lines are seen marching along, some -coming, some going, in countless multitudes. Yet drop a strange ant -into this highway and it is at once discovered and in danger. If water -is poured into a nest of ants, the inhabitants come rushing out. Some -come to fight, and others bear in their mouths the young (Fig. 244), -countless thousands, to a place of safety. - -The ant is a trim, vigorous individual, fleet of foot, tireless, never -weary, brave, industrious, a type of the worker. The head is large. -The eyes are compound, with three single eyes. The antennæ are long, -slender organs by which ants appear to recognize friends or foes, and -possibly talk with them in some way. Certainly when two ants meet, a -very strange interchange of courtesies with the antennæ is performed. -The males and females are winged, and there is a third kind without -wings, called workers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 244.--Ants removing their young to a place of -safety.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 245.--Tunnels of ants.] - -Ants live in vast communities of from one hundred thousand to five -hundred thousand or more. They excavate the soil and gravel, descend -into the ground, and tunnel it in every direction (Fig. 245). In -certain places they store food, in others eggs. The affairs of their -vast underground city are carried on with a marvelous method. Although -the ants have wings, these are soon cast away. At certain times the -winged males and females swarm out of the nest and fly away, forming -other communities. The males soon die; the females rid themselves of -their wings, and thereafter remain in their new nests. The entire work -of the community falls upon the so-called workers. They make the nest, -repair it, do the fighting when necessary, move the immature young or -eggs, shut up the nest at night, and open it in the morning. The eggs -are minute, and as soon as laid are taken by the workers, or nurses, -as they are also called, and carried to favorable places, where they -are carefully watched. They are shifted about and occasionally for some -reason brought above ground. The larvæ, when they hatch (Fig. 246), -appear as little worms, or grubs, which would starve if they were not -constantly fed by the nurses. If it is too cold, these babies are taken -up into the sunshine, or placed in some hall near the surface where -the sun's rays can reach them. Finally they change to the pupa stage -and are covered by a web. They are still cared for with the greatest -solicitude by the nurses, which stand by when they finally hatch out -and aid them in their entrance into the world. Nurses in every sense -of the word, their care at this time is one of the most remarkable -exhibitions of human traits in a lower animal known. Many other human -traits find their prototype among these minute animals. They care for -the young, the sick, and the wounded; they go to war, capture their -foes, make slaves of them, and force them to work. They keep certain -insects for the pleasant odor they afford and others for the secretions -they emit, the latter action resembling keeping and milking cows. -Ants build remarkable houses arranged in rooms for various purposes; -they plant gardens to raise certain crops; they introduce plants that -will provide certain food; they retard the growth of seeds in their -granaries; build vast underground or covered roads to escape the heat; -they make bridges to cross streams; and in numerous other ways they -demonstrate their remarkable intelligence. - -[Illustration: FIG. 246.--Egg and larvæ of the ant.] - -The extent of the homes of ants is astonishing when we bear in mind -the size of the insect. Some often extend many feet underground, and -their tunnels have been traced beneath the broad Paraiba River of South -America. - -Many different species of ants are known, all interesting for their -singular ways of living. The foraging or slave-making ants of Africa -go to war against other ants. Such foraging trips are carried on with -remarkable discipline, and the warriors may be seen returning, a -triumphant army, bearing the eggs and larvæ of the enemy, which they -nurse and bring up as slaves. These slave makers are large and powerful -Ecitons, the dominant race of the ants. - -[Illustration: FIG. 247.--Honey ants.] - -Among the slave-making ants the owners often become so dependent upon -the slaves that they are almost helpless, and would starve were it -not for these dependents. The so-called honey ants of Texas exhibit -some remarkable traits in the manner of their lives (Fig. 247). These -ants, which I have observed in the Garden of the Gods, Colorado, select -certain individuals as storehouses and supply them with honey until the -abdomen is expanded to many times its size, resembling a bottle. The -ants when filled are placed in a compartment made for the purpose, and -there hung to the wall, animated honey jars, which are taken down and -made to give up their sweets as occasion demands. These honey balls are -considered a delicacy in Mexico, and are served as dessert. - -Among the ants, those of Texas known as the agricultural ants are -remarkable for their intelligence. They are farmers, laying out places -which they cultivate with a certain plant, which is especially to their -taste, just as farmers plant corn. - - - - -XXIX. THE BEES AND WASPS - - -In almost every flower bed in the garden we shall find the bees, -examples of tireless energy, storing up honey for their young in such -vast quantities that the surplus forms a valuable food supply for man -as well. The nests of bees are systematically robbed of their stores, -and for this purpose the insects are supplied with artificial nests or -hives, in which they deposit their honey, entirely for the benefit of -mankind. Here we see a singular limitation placed upon intelligence. -The intelligence of bees is wonderful and amazing. Many of their acts -and works suggest those of human beings, yet when the time comes for -thinking after the fashion of men, the bees are lacking. They go on -storing honey in artificial hives without being able to bridge the -mental chasm and perceive that they are being robbed and made to work -as virtual slaves. Hence we assume that the intelligence of bees is not -on the same plane as that of human beings. They appear to be acting -upon a strong instinct which impels them to perform acts which seem -intelligent. - -[Illustration: FIG. 248.--The head of a bee.] - -The head of the bee bears two remarkable compound eyes, with three -simple ones between them. The antennæ are short. The mouth parts -(Fig. 248) are complicated, and adapted for sucking up the honey or -sweets of flowers or the juices of fruits. In California, the bees eat -fruit as well as honey, and even flesh or meat, in very dry seasons, -when flowers are scarce. The abdomen of the bee (Fig. 249) is supplied -with a sawlike stinger or dart (Fig. 250) which inflicts a painful and -poisonous wound. In general appearance the ordinary honeybee resembles -an ant with wings; but the bee is hairy, it has a sting, and the legs -of the worker are provided with "honey baskets," which carry pollen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 249.--Bees: _a_, queen; _b_, drone; _c_, worker.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 250.--Sting of a bee.] - -Bees are of several kinds, queens, workers, and drones, there being a -division of labor. The queen is the largest, the drone is the smallest, -and it has no sting. The history of the bee and its development is -one of the most wonderful chapters in the whole story of animal -life. Glancing at the interior of a hive we see that the bees have -constructed a series of hexagonal cells. To learn how they have -accomplished this, we may follow a bee in its flight. This may be one -or two miles from the hive, yet so perfect is the knowledge of the bee -of direction, that it is rarely lost. Reaching a flower it sucks out -the honey, which it swallows. It then takes pollen, the dust from the -stamen of the flowers, and stows it away in little baskets attached -to the legs. It also takes a waxlike substance called propolis from -buds of various trees, which it packs with the pollen in the baskets. -Arriving at the nest, the bee, with countless others, engages in the -construction of the cells, which are of various sizes. The material for -building up the cells is wax, which is secreted by the bees, appearing -in little flakes under the abdomen, from which it is taken by the legs -of the bee. This is the material from which the comb is made, while -the propolis is employed as a cement to attach the cells together, and -for various minor purposes. Think of thousands of workers bringing in -this material, working in the dark, yet never making a mistake. The bee -finally ejects the honey which it has swallowed, placing it in certain -cells, where it is sealed up and remains until it is needed as food. -The pollen is also placed in cells. - -A single community of bees may consist of two hundred thousand -individuals. In the hive there is a single queen, which often lays from -fifteen hundred to two thousand eggs a day, and if we could follow her, -we should find that she lays the eggs in different cells, and in cells -of different sizes. In the first are eggs which develop into workers, -and in the second are larger eggs which will produce males, called -drones. The little eggs soon hatch into white grubs which are carefully -fed by the workers with digested honey and pollen. Finally the young -larvæ almost fill the cells and then stop eating. The workers cover -them in, and each spins for itself a silken cocoon, in which it remains -until it breaks out in the form of a perfect bee. - -The workers build certain large cells on the side of the comb, which -are called queen cells, and the larvæ which appear in them are fed with -some peculiar food which produces queens. The workers watch each of -these cells with great care, gnawing the wax away on top so that they -can observe the progress of development. Finally a small hole is made, -through which the proboscis of the young queen protrudes, and in this -way it is fed for several days, during which it utters a low, piping -noise. The queens attack each other on sight, and previous to the -appearance of a young queen the old one, with thousands of followers, -makes her escape, or swarms. Then the workers liberate a young queen, -and if there are others, there are repeated swarms, each queen leaving -with a multitude of followers, till the hive has but one queen. There -are in the community now a number of drones, and as they appear to -be an expensive and worthless burden to carry during the winter, the -workers attack and kill them, throwing them out of the hive. - -[Illustration: FIG. 251.--Carpenter bee.] - -Among the many kinds of bees the carpenters (Fig. 251) are famous, -boring tunnels into solid wood for the reception of their young; half -an inch a day being accomplished by these little carpenters. The -bumblebee, one of the largest, forms its nest in the ground (Fig. 252). - -[Illustration: FIG. 252.--Bumblebee and nest.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 253.--Wasp and young.] - -The wasps (Fig. 253) live in societies of males, females, and workers. -The paperlike nests are familiar objects in the woods, resembling great -bags of paper which when opened are seen to be filled with cells. Many -nests are of beautiful shapes, resembling candelabra, while the cells -of the common mud dauber (Fig. 254) call to mind the adobe houses of -the Mexicans and Indians of the Southwest. The mud cells of a South -American wasp resemble bottles (Fig. 255). Many of the large wasps -are fierce and vindictive, and nearly all resent an attack upon their -homes. - - - - -INDEX - - - A - - Abalone, 109. - - Æolis, 114. - - Aeronaut, 179. - - Agassiz, Louis, 27. - - Amœba, 8, 10. - - Anemone, 38, 43. - - Angle worm, 82. - - Animalcules, 76. - - Ant, 223. - - Antennæ, 96. - - Ant lion, 181. - - Aphis, 202. - - Aphrodite, 85. - - Aplysia, 114. - - Apus, 137. - - Aragonite, 29. - - Arcturus, 178. - - Argonaut, 125. - - Arion, 115. - - Aristeus, 158. - - Ascension Is., 147. - - Astræa, 49. - - Atlantic, 51. - - Atoll, 48. - - Attacus, 218. - - Attus, 172. - - Aurelia, 29. - - Auricle, 92. - - Avalon, 86. - - Avalon, Phosphorescence at, 86, 101. - - - B - - Banks, Sir J., 157. - - Barnacle, 104. - - Barnacle, Goose, 134. - - Bean aphis, 200. - - Bee, 228. - - Beetles, 195. - - Beetles, Boring, 197. - - Bell Animalcule, 12. - - Bivalve, 91. - - Blind crustacean, 143. - - Bluebottle fly, 206. - - Book scorpion, 166. - - Brachiopoda, 81. - - Branchipus, 137. - - Brine shrimp, 137. - - Buffalo bug, 198. - - Bugs, 199. - - Bulimus, 112. - - Bumble bee, 223. - - Burgos crab, 154. - - Butterflies, 212. - - Byssus, 99. - - - C - - Caddis worm, 185. - - Cardium, 103. - - Carpenter bee, 231. - - Caryophyllia, 47. - - Cassis, 110. - - Caterpillar, 164. - - Caves, Santa Catalina, 32. - - Centipede, 165. - - Cerithium, 103. - - Chætopterus, 86. - - Challenger, 147. - - Chamæleon, 143. - - Chinch bug, 198. - - Chiton, 101. - - Cicada, 200. - - Cilia, 11. - - Clam, Giant, 98. - - Cleodora, 116. - - Cochineal, 202. - - Cockle, 102. - - Cocoanut crab, 155. - - Colossendeis, 157. - - Conch, 106, 110. - - Cone, 110. - - Conus, 110. - - Coral, 44, 51, 53. - - Coral insect, 52. - - Cottony scale, 203. - - Cowry, 110. - - Crab, 42, 124, 156. - - Cranchia, 127. - - Crayfish, 130, 144. - - Crickets, 165, 191. - - Crinoid, 56. - - Crustacean, 128. - - Ctenactis, 46. - - Cteniza, 174. - - Cuttlefish, 117. - - Cyanea, 27. - - Cyclops, 135. - - Cypræa, 110. - - Cyprinæ, 136. - - - D - - Daddy longlegs, 167. - - Darwin, 83. - - Decorative crab, 151. - - Dendronotus, 114. - - Dentalium, 116. - - Devilfish, 117. - - Doris, 114. - - Dragon fly, 180. - - - E - - Echinus, 65. - - Eciton, 226. - - Edible crab, 148. - - Eolis, see Æolis. - - Erenberg, 77. - - - F - - Fiddler crab, 149. - - Fierasfer, 71. - - Firmin, Point, 32. - - Firmin, Point, Phosphorescence at, 32. - - Firmin, Point, Waves at, 32. - - Flea, 211. - - Florida, 71. - - Flustra, 78. - - Fly, 204. - - Flying spider, 172. - - Foraminifera, 15. - - Fresh-water pearl, 98. - - Fungia, 51. - - Fusus, 111. - - - G - - Gall crab, 152. - - Gammarus, 138. - - Garden Key, 44. - - Garden of the Gods, 227. - - Gecarcinus, 146. - - Giant clam, 98. - - Giant octopus, 123. - - Giant squid, 114, 118. - - Glacier flea, 178. - - Glass-bottom boat, 50. - - Glass sponge, 23. - - Gnat, 210. - - Goat moth, 221. - - Goniaster, 61. - - Gordius, 75. - - Gorgonia, 49, 53. - - Grapsus, 124, 147. - - Grasshopper, 190. - - Green crab, 149. - - Gulf of Mexico, 33. - - Gunther, 158. - - - H - - Haliotis, 109. - - Halobates, 201. - - Helderberg, 53. - - Hermit crab, 152. - - Hibernation, 112. - - Holothurian, 72. - - Honey ant, 227. - - Horseshoe crab, 155. - - Howard, Dr., 207. - - Hymenoptera, 222. - - - I - - Ianthina, 116. - - Insects, 159, 190. - Anatomy of, 159. - Larvæ of, 159. - Music of, 190. - Parts of, 159. - Spiracles of, 159. - - - J - - Jægar, 192. - On locusts, 192. - - Japanese crab, 152. - - Jellyfishes, 26-35. - Beauties of, 27. - Development of, 29. - Young of, 29. - - June bugs, 197. - - - K - - Kallima, 215. - - - L - - Labium, 206. - - Labrum, 208. - - Lake Mono, 207. - - Lamp shell, 80. - - Land crab, 149, 150. - - Larva, 163. - - Lasso, 28. - - Leaf hopper, 201. - - Leech, 82. - - Lepidoptera, 217. - - Lernæans, 136. - - Limax, 115. - - Lime, 50. - - Limnoria, 138. - - Limpet, 105, 108. - - Lingula, 80. - - Lobster, 132, 140. - - Locust, 190. - - Lucernaria, 30. - - Luminous crab, 157. - - - M - - Macrocheira, 152. - - Mactra, 101. - - Malay, 72. - - Mammoth Cave, 143. - - Mantis, 186. - - May fly, 178. - - Melicerta, 32. - - Metridia, 156. - - Mimicry, 186. - - Mimicry of insects, 187. - - Mite, 166. - - Mole cricket, 201. - - Moseley, Dr., 147. - - Mosquito, 208. - Development of, 209. - - Moth, 221. - - Mushroom coral, 46. - - Mussel, 97. - - Mygale, 176. - - - N - - Nassa, 107. - - Natica, 106. - - National Museum, 122. - - Nemesia, 174. - - Nereis, 86. - - Noctiluca, 16. - - Noctiluca, phosphorescence, 16. - - Norway lobster, 129. - - Nummulites, 13. - - - O - - Ocean, 15. - Lime in, 15. - - Octopus, 122. - - Onchidium, 155. - Eyes of, 155. - - Ophiocoma, 62. - - Oyster crab, 152. - - - P - - Paper nautilus, 125. - - Paramœcium, 12. - - Pearl, 94. - - Pelagia, 35. - - Pentacrinus, 56. - - Pentacta, 71. - - Peripatus, 164. - - Philippines, 113. - - Phorus, 103. - - Phosphorescence, 7, 84, 156. - - Phyllium, 189. - - Physalia, 33. - - Physophora, 36. - - Planarian, 73. - - Pleurobranchia, 53. - - Polycirrus, 86. - - Polyp, 46. - - Polyzoan, 77. - - Pompilius, 223. - - Porpita, 37. - - Potato bug, 198. - - Prawns, 142. - - Praya, 36. - - Pteropod, 115. - - - R - - Radiolarian, 14. - - Razor clam, 99. - - Reef, 53. - - Rhizostoma, 32. - - Rotifer, 76. - - - S - - San Clemente, 112. - - Sand collar, 106. - - Sand dollar, 67. - - Sand flea, 138. - - Santa Catalina, 32, 50, 109. - - Sapphirina, 167. - - Scale insects, 203. - - Scorpion, 160. - - Sea anemone, 38, 43. - - Sea cucumber, 70, 71. - - Sea pen, 54. - - Sea slug, 114. - - Semper, Dr., 82. - - Sepia, 118. - - Serpulæ, 88. - - Shrimps, 131. - - Sierra Madre, 172. - - Silk worm, 219. - - Siphon, 92. - - Snail, 90. - - Soft-shelled crab, 147. - - Southern California, 7. - - Spicules, 21, 72. - - Spider, 168. - - Spider crab, 151. - - Spirit crab, 128. - - Sponges, 18. - - Squash bug, 199. - - Squid, 114, 120, 121. - - Squilla, 139. - - Starfish, 60, 64. - - Stings, 229, 233. - - Stone lilies, 56. - - St. Paul's Rocks, 147. - - Sucker, 122. - - Syllis, 86. - - Synapta, 72. - - - T - - Taltritus, 138. - - Tarantula, 174. - - Terebratula, 80. - - Teredo, 100. - - Tiger beetle, 196. - - Timos, 175. - - Trichina, 75, 76. - - Tritonia, 114. - - Trochus, 103. - - Turritella, 103. - - - U - - Univalve, 104. - - Urchin, 65, 69. - - - V - - Velella, 35. - - - W - - Walking stick, 188. - - Wasp, 167. - - Water boatman, 200. - - Water flea, 136. - - Web, 169. - - White ant, 184. - - - - -ELEMENTARY NATURE STUDY - - - Abbott's A Boy on a Farm 45 cents - -Two stories by Jacob Abbott, revised, and in new and attractive form. -They are admirably suited for young readers. 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